History.

In 1696, Governor Benjamin Fletcher approved the purchase of land in Lower Manhattan by the Church of England community for construction of a new church. The parish received its charter from King William III on May 6, 1697. Its land grant specified an annual rent of 60 bushels of wheat. The first rector was William Vesey (for whom nearby Vesey Street is named), a protege of Increase Mather, who served for 49 years until his death in 1746.

First Trinity Church.

The first Trinity Church building, a modest rectangular structure with a gambrel roof and small porch, was constructed in 1698, on Wall Street, facing the Hudson River. The land on which it was built was formerly a formal garden and then a burial ground. It was built because in 1696, members of the Church of England (Anglicans) protested to obtain a "charter granting the church legal status" in New York City. According to historical records, Captain William Kidd lent the runner and tackle from his ship for hoisting the stones.  Anne, Queen of Great Britain, increased the parish's land holdings to in 1705. Later, in 1709, William Huddleston founded Trinity School as the Charity School of the church, and classes were originally held in the steeple of the church. In 1754, King's College (now Columbia University) was chartered by King George II of Great Britain, and instruction began with eight students in a school building near the church.  During the American Revolutionary War the city became the British military and political base of operations in North America, following the departure of General George Washington and the Continental Army shortly after Battle of Long Island and subsequent local defeats. Under British occupation clergy were required to be Loyalists, while the parishioners included some members of the revolutionary New York Provincial Congress, as well as the First and Second Continental Congresses.  The church was destroyed in the Great New York City Fire of 1776, which started in the Fighting Cocks Tavern, destroying between 400 and 500 buildings and houses, and leaving thousands of New Yorkers homeless. Six days later, most of the city's volunteer firemen followed General Washington north. Rev. Charles Inglis served throughout the war and then to Nova Scotia on evacuation with the whole congregation of Trinity Church.  The Rev. Samuel Provoost was appointed Rector of Trinity (1784–1800) in 1784, and the New York State Legislature ratified the charter of Trinity Church, deleting the provision that asserted its loyalty to the King of England. Whig patriots were appointed as vestrymen. In 1787, Provoost was consecrated as the first Bishop of the newly formed Diocese of New York. Following his 1789 inauguration at Federal Hall, George Washington attended Thanksgiving service, presided over by Bishop Provoost, at St. Paul's Chapel, a chapel of the Parish of Trinity Church. He continued to attend services there until the second Trinity Church was finished in 1790. St. Paul's Chapel is currently part of the Parish of Trinity Church and is the oldest public building in continuous use in New York City.

Second Trinity Church.

Construction on the second Trinity Church building began in 1788; it was consecrated in 1790. St. Paul's Chapel was used while the second Trinity Church was being built.  The second Trinity Church was built facing Wall Street; it was 200 feet tall, and longer and wider than its predecessor. Building a bigger church was beneficial because the population of New York City was expanding. The church was torn down after being weakened by severe snows during the winter of 1838–39.  The second Trinity Church was politically significant because President Washington and members of his government often worshiped there. Additional notable parishioners included John Jay and Alexander Hamilton.

Third Trinity Church.

The third and current Trinity Church began construction in 1839 and was finished in 1846. When the Episcopal Bishop of New York consecrated Trinity Church on Ascension Day (May 1) 1846, its soaring Gothic Revival spire, surmounted by a gilded cross, dominated the skyline of lower Manhattan. Trinity was a welcoming beacon for ships sailing into New York Harbor.  In 1843, Trinity Church's expanding parish was divided due to the burgeoning cityscape and to better serve the needs of its parishioners. The newly formed parish would build Grace Church, to the north on Broadway at 10th street, while the original parish would re-build Trinity Church, the structure that stands today. Both Grace and Trinity Churches were completed and consecrated in 1846.  Trinity Church held the title of tallest building in the United States until 1869, when it was surpassed by St. Michael's Church, Old Town, Chicago. Trinity continued to be the tallest in New York City, with its spire and cross, until it was surpassed in 1890 by the New York World Building.  In 1876–1877 a reredos and altar were erected in memory of William Backhouse Astor, Sr., to the designs of architect Frederick Clarke Withers.

Late 20th and early 21st centuries.

On July 9, 1976, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited Trinity Church. Vestrymen presented the Queen with a symbolic "back rent" of 279 peppercorns.  Since 1993, Trinity Church has hosted the graduation ceremonies of the High School of Economics and Finance. The school is located on Trinity Place, a few blocks away from the church. Guided tours of the church are offered daily at 2 p.m.  In 2015 Mark Francisco Bozzuti-Jones, a priest at Trinity Church, commissioned Mark Dukes to create the icon Our Lady of Ferguson.

September 11, 2001.

During the September 11 attacks, people took refuge inside the church from the massive debris cloud produced by the first World Trade Center tower collapse. Some of the chapel pew's paint was rubbed off from the people taking refuge. The pews were later replaced, but one still exists at the back of the chapel for remembrance of the events on 9/11. Falling wreckage knocked over a giant sycamore tree that had stood for nearly a century in the churchyard of St. Paul's Chapel, part of Trinity Church's parish, located several blocks north of Trinity Church. Sculptor Steve Tobin used its roots as the base for a bronze sculpture titled "Trinity Root", which stood in front of the church at the corner of Wall Street and Broadway until December 2015, when it was moved by the church to its conference center in Connecticut. The move was controversial as it damaged the sculpture, which was later repaired, and the artist objected to its relocation.

Occupy Wall Street.

Trinity is located near Zuccotti Park, the location of the Occupy Wall Street protests. It offered both moral and practical support to the demonstrators but balked when protesters demanded an encampment on church-owned land called LentSpace, adjoining Juan Pablo Duarte Square in the neighborhood of Hudson Square. The church hierarchy were criticized by others within the Anglican movement, most notably Archbishop Desmond Tutu. On December 17, 2011, occupiers and a few clergy attempted to occupy LentSpace, which is surrounded by a chain-link fence. After demonstrating in Duarte Park and marching on the streets surrounding the park, occupiers climbed over and under the fence. Police responded by arresting about 50 demonstrators, including at least three Episcopal clergymen and a Roman Catholic nun.

Burial grounds.

There are three burial grounds closely associated with Trinity Church:

Architecture.

Architectural historians consider the third and present Trinity Church building, built in 1846 and designed by architect Richard Upjohn, the first and finest example of Gothic Revival architecture. In 1976, the United States Department of the Interior designated Trinity Church a National Historic Landmark because of its architectural significance and its place within the history of New York City.

Bells.

The tower of Trinity Church currently contains 23 bells, the heaviest of which weighs 27 U.S. hundredweight ().  Eight of these bells were cast for the tower of the second church building and were hung for ringing in the English change ringing style. Three more bells were added later. In 1946 these bells were adapted for swing chiming and sounded by electric motors.  A project to install a new ring of 12 additional change ringing bells was initially proposed in 2001 but put on hold in the aftermath of the September attacks, which took place three blocks north of the church. This project came to fruition in 2006, thanks to funding from the Dill Faulkes Educational Trust. These new bells form the first ring of 12 change-ringing bells ever installed in a church in the United States. The installation work was carried out by Taylors, Eayre and Smith of Loughborough, England, in September 2006. In late 2006, the ringing of the bells for bell practice and tuning caused much concern to local residents, some of whose windows and residences are less than at eye level from the bell tower. The church then built a plywood deck right over the bells and placed shutters on the inside of the bell chamber's lancet windows. With the shutters and the plywood deck closed, the sound of the bells outside the tower is minimal. The shutters, and hatches in the plywood deck, are opened for public ringing.  Public ringing takes place before and after 11:15 a.m. Sunday service and on special occasions, such as 9/11 commemorations, weddings, and ticker-tape parades. Details of the individual bells can be found at Dove's Guide for Church Bellringers.

Doors.

Trinity Church has three sets of impressive bronze doors, donated by William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor in memory of his father, John Jacob Astor III. Conceived by Richard Morris Hunt, they date from 1893 and were produced by Karl Bitter (east door), J. Massey Rhind (south door), and Charles Henry Niehaus (north door). The north and east doors each consists of six panels from Church history or the Bible, and the south door depicts the history of New York in its six panels.

Services.

Trinity Church, as an Episcopal parish in the Anglican Communion, offers a full schedule of Daily Prayer and Eucharist services throughout the week, and based on the Book of Common Prayer; it is also available for special occasions, such as weddings and baptisms. In addition to daily worship, Trinity Church provides Christian fellowship and outreach to the community.  Sunday  Monday–Friday  Thursday

Music and arts.

Trinity Church has a rich music program with an annual budget of $2.5 million as of 2011. "Concerts at One" has been providing live professional classical and contemporary music for the Wall Street community since 1969, and the church has several organized choirs, featured Sunday mornings on WQXR 105.9 FM in New York City. Trinity presents world-class music programs both in New York City and around the world via high definition video streaming.  The mainstay of Trinity's music program is The Choir of Trinity Wall Street, a professional ensemble that leads liturgical music at Trinity Church and St. Paul's Chapel, presents new-music concerts in New York City, produces recordings, and performs in international tours. The Choir is often joined by the Trinity Baroque Orchestra, Trinity's ensemble of period instrumentalists, and NOVUS NY, Trinity's contemporary music orchestra.  Trinity is also home to a Youth Chorus, Youth Orchestra, Family Choir, Downtown Voices, change bell ringers, and a wide variety of arts programming through Congregational Arts. Visiting choirs from around the world perform at Trinity weekly. The entire music program is under the leadership of Julian Wachner, Director of Music and the Arts, a renowned conductor, composer, and keyboard artist.

Property holdings.

Beginning in the 1780s, the church's claim on 62 acres of Queen Anne's 1705 grant was contested in the courts by descendants of a 17th-century Dutchwoman, Anneke Jans Bogardus, who, it was claimed, held original title to that property. The basis of the lawsuits was that only five of Bogardus' six heirs had conveyed the land to the English crown in 1671. Numerous times over the course of six decades, the claimants asserted themselves in court, losing each time. The attempt was even revived in the 20th century. In 1959, the Internal Revenue Service sued over the compensation of the church's property manager, but the church prevailed in "Stanton v. United States".  Disclosure resulting from a lawsuit filed by a parishioner revealed total assets of about $2 billion as of 2011. Although Trinity Church has sold off much of the land that was part of the royal grant from Queen Anne, it is still one of the largest landowners in New York City with 14 acres of Manhattan real estate including of commercial space in Hudson Square. The parish's annual revenue from its real estate holdings was $158 million in 2011 with net income of $38 million, making it perhaps one of the richest individual parishes in the world.  The institution also owns the Trinity Court Building property, where it formerly housed its offices and preschool. That building was demolished in 2015, and a replacement is under construction. The church was connected to the previous building by a footbridge, which was preserved during demolition, and will be connected to the new building upon its completion.

Trinity Church is a historic parish church in the Episcopal Diocese of New York located at the intersection of Wall Street and Broadway in the Financial District of New York City. Known for its history, location, architecture and endowment, Trinity is a traditional high church, with an active parish centered around the Episcopal Church and the worldwide Anglican Communion in missionary, outreach, and fellowship.

Trinity Church (česky "kostel Nejsvětější Trojice") se nachází na Manhattanu v New Yorku. Současný chrám byl postaven v letech 1839–1846. U kostela se nachází také hřbitov a skulptura připomínající oběti útoku z 11. září. Je nejstarším episkopálním (anglikánským) kostelem ve městě.


Plot.

The series, set in the confines of Major League Baseball, sets its focus on a young pitcher noted for her screwball pitch who becomes the first woman to play in the Major Leagues, when she is chosen to play for the San Diego Padres.

Production.

Development.

A pilot was sold on September 8, 2015, by series creators Dan Fogelman and Rick Singer. On January 14, 2016, Fox ordered the pilot to be shot. The creators opened up a casting call on February 24, 2016. The pilot episode was picked up to series on May 10, 2016. Major League Baseball cooperated in the production of the series.

Filming.

The series was filmed in San Diego, California, and features the Padres, the club the protagonist plays for. Producers also planned to use Petco Park in downtown San Diego to shoot scenes when the Padres are away or during the off season.

Casting.

On January 14, 2016, Kylie Bunbury was cast as Ginny. On February 11, 2016, Mark-Paul Gosselaar was cast as Mike Lawson. On February 23, 2016, Mo McRae, Meagan Holder, and Tim Jo were cast as Blip, Evelyne, and Eliot respectively. On February 29, 2016, Dan Lauria was cast as Al Luongo. On March 10, 2016, Ali Larter replaced Elisabeth Shue as Amelia Slater. On May 10, 2016, Mark Consuelos was cast as Oscar Arguella, the team's general manager and president.

Reception.

"Pitch" received positive reviews from television critics, with Bunbury's performance receiving praise. The editors of "TV Guide" placed "Pitch" fourth among the top ten picks for the most anticipated new shows of the 2016–2017 season. Its review, from writer Liz Rafferty, stated, "Not since "Friday Night Lights" have we seen a'sports' show that managed to deliver week after week, making viewers feel as invested in the characters' personal dramas as we were in the final scores of the games" and added that ""Pitch" has the potential to pick up that torch." She also had high praise for Bunbury, whom she cited as a "breakout star, not to mention her (fictional) character Ginny Baker, the first woman to pitch in the MLB, to be a role model for young female athletes everywhere". Based on 27 reviews, the show holds a 93% on Rotten Tomatoes, with Critics Consensus being "A terrific lead performance and well-constructed setup and timely themes make "Pitch" a home run."

Pitch is an American drama television series created by Dan Fogelman and Rick Singer, that aired on Fox from September 22 to December 8, 2016. The series was commissioned on May 10, 2016.

Vysněná meta (v anglickém originále Pitch) je americký dramatický televizní seriál od tvůrců Dana Fogelmana a Ricka Singera, který vysílala televizní stanice Fox od 22. září 2016 do 8. prosince 2016. 1. května 2017 byl seriál zrušen.


Overview.

The term individualist anarchism is often used as a classificatory term, but in very different ways. Some sources such as "An Anarchist FAQ" use the classification social anarchism/individualist anarchism. Some see individualist anarchism as distinctly non-socialist and use the classification socialist anarchism/individualist anarchism accordingly. Other classifications include mutualist/communal anarchism. Michael Freeden identifies four broad types of individualist anarchism. He says the first is the type associated with William Godwin that advocates self-government with a "progressive rationalism that included benevolence to others". The second type is the amoral self-serving rationality of egoism as most associated with Max Stirner. The third type is "found in Herbert Spencer's early predictions, and in that of some of his disciples such as Wordsworth Donisthorpe, foreseeing the redundancy of the state in the source of social evolution". The fourth type retains a moderated form of egoism and accounts for social cooperation through the advocacy of market relationships. Individualist anarchism of different kinds have a few things in common. These are the following:  The egoist form of individualist anarchism, derived from the philosophy of Max Stirner, supports the individual doing exactly what he pleases—taking no notice of God, state, or moral rules. To Stirner, rights were "spooks" in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality"—he supported property by force of might rather than moral right. Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw "associations of egoists" drawn together by respect for each other's ruthlessness. For historian Eunice Minette Schuster, American individualist anarchism "stresses the isolation of the individual – his right to his own tools, his mind, his body, and to the products of his labor. To the artist who embraces this philosophy it is "aesthetic" anarchism, to the reformer, ethical anarchism, to the independent mechanic, economic anarchism. The former is concerned with philosophy, the latter with practical demonstration. The economic anarchist is concerned with constructing a society on the basis of anarchism. Economically he sees no harm whatever in the private possession of what the individual produces by his own labor, but only so much and no more. The aesthetic and ethical type found expression in the transcendentalism, humanitarianism, and romanticism of the first part of the nineteenth century, the economic type in the pioneer life of the West during the same period, but more favorably after the Civil War". It is for this reason that it has been suggested that in order to understand individualist anarchism one must take into account "the social context of their ideas, namely the transformation of America from a pre-capitalist to a capitalist society [...] the non-capitalist nature of the early U.S. can be seen from the early dominance of self-employment (artisan and peasant production). At the beginning

Early influences.

William Godwin.

William Godwin can be considered an individualist anarchist and philosophical anarchist who was influenced by the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, and developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought. According to Peter Kropotkin, Godwin was "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work". Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to Edmund Burke's "A Vindication of Natural Society". Godwin advocated extreme individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated. Godwin was a utilitarian who believed that all individuals are not of equal value, with some of us "of more worth

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) was the first philosopher to label himself an "anarchist". Some consider Proudhon to be an individualist anarchist while others regard him to be a social anarchist. Some commentators do not identify Proudhon as an individualist anarchist due to his preference for association in large industries, rather than individual control. Nevertheless, he was influential among some of the American individualists—in the 1840s and 1850s, Charles A. Dana and William B. Greene introduced Proudhon's works to the United States. Greene adapted Proudhon's mutualism to American conditions and introduced it to Benjamin Tucker.  Proudhon opposed government privilege that protects capitalist, banking and land interests and the accumulation or acquisition of property (and any form of coercion that led to it) which he believed hampers competition and keeps wealth in the hands of the few. Proudhon favoured a right of individuals to retain the product of their labour as their own property, but believed that any property beyond that which an individual produced and could possess was illegitimate. Thus he saw private property as both essential to liberty and a road to tyranny, the former when it resulted from

Max Stirner.

Johann Kaspar Schmidt (October 25, 1806 – June 26, 1856), better known as Max Stirner (the "nom de plume" he adopted from a schoolyard nickname he had acquired as a child because of his high brow, in German 'Stirn'), was a German philosopher, who ranks as one of the literary fathers of nihilism, existentialism, post-modernism and anarchism, especially of individualist anarchism. Stirner's main work is "The Ego and Its Own", also known as "The Ego and His Own" ("Der Einzige und sein Eigentum" in German, which translates literally as "The Only One [individual] and his Property"). This work was first published in 1844 in Leipzig and has since appeared in numerous editions and translations.

Egoism.

Max Stirner's philosophy, sometimes called egoism, is a form of individualist anarchism. Stirner was a Hegelian philosopher whose "name appears with familiar regularity in historically oriented surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism". In 1844, his "The Ego and Its Own" ("Der Einzige and sein Eigentum" which may literally be translated as "The Unique Individual and His Property") was published, which is considered to be "a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism". Stirner does not recommend that the individual try to eliminate the state, but simply that they disregard the state when it conflicts with one's autonomous choices and go along with it when doing so is conducive to one's interests. He says that the egoist rejects pursuit of devotion to "a great idea, a good cause, a doctrine, a system, a lofty calling," saying that the egoist has no political calling, but rather "lives themselves out" without regard to "how well or ill humanity may fare thereby". Stirner held that the only limitation on the rights of the individual is that individual's power to obtain what he desires. He proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions—including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, and the very notion of society—were mere spooks in the mind. Stirner wants to "abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members". Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw Union of egoists, non-systematic associations, which Stirner proposed in as a form of organization in place of the state. A Union is understood as a relation between egoists which is continually renewed by all parties' support through an act

Early individualist anarchism in the United States.

Josiah Warren.

Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, "The Peaceful Revolutionist", was the first anarchist periodical published, an enterprise for which he built his own printing press, cast his own type and made his own printing plates. Warren was a follower of Robert Owen and joined Owen's community at New Harmony, Indiana. Warren termed the phrase "Cost the limit of price", with "cost" here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item. Therefore, "[h]e proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating

Henry David Thoreau.

Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book "Walden", a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings; and his essay, "Civil Disobedience", an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. His thought is an early influence on green anarchism, but with an emphasis on the individual experience of the natural world influencing later naturist currents, simple living as a rejection of a materialist lifestyle and self-sufficiency were Thoreau's goals and the whole project was inspired by transcendentalist philosophy. Many have seen in Thoreau one

Developments and expansion.

Anarcha-feminism, free love, freethought and LGBT issues.

An important current within individualist anarchism is free love. Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to Josiah Warren and to experimental communities, and viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws, such as those governing marriage and use of birth control, discriminated against women. The most important American free love journal was "Lucifer the Lightbearer" (1883–1907) edited by Moses Harman and Lois Waisbrooker but also there existed Ezra Heywood and Angela Heywood's "The Word" (1872–1890, 1892–1893). M. E. Lazarus was also an important

Anarcho-naturism.

Another important current, especially within French and Spanish individualist anarchist groups was naturism. Naturism promoted an ecological worldview, small ecovillages and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the industrial mass society of modernity. Naturist individualist anarchists saw the individual in his biological, physical and psychological aspects and avoided and tried to eliminate social determinations. An early influence in this vein was Henry David Thoreau and his famous book "Walden". Important promoters of this were Henri Zisly and Émile Gravelle who collaborated in "La Nouvelle Humanité" followed by "Le Naturien", "Le Sauvage", "L'Ordre Naturel" and "La Vie Naturelle".  This relationship between anarchism and naturism was quite important at the end of the 1920s in Spain, when "[t]he linking role played by the 'Sol y Vida' group was very important. The goal of this group was to take trips and enjoy the open air. The Naturist athenaeum, 'Ecléctico', in Barcelona, was the base from which the activities of the group were launched. First "Etica" and then "Iniciales",

Individualist anarchism and Friedrich Nietzsche.

The thought of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been influential in individualist anarchism, specifically in thinkers such as France's Émile Armand, the Italian Renzo Novatore

Individualist anarchism in the United States.

Mutualism and utopianism.

For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent [...] that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews [...] William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form". William Batchelder Greene (1819–1878) is best known for the works "Mutual Banking"(1850), which proposed an interest-free banking system; and "Transcendentalism", a critique of the New England philosophical school. He saw mutualism as the synthesis of "liberty and order". His "associationism... is checked by individualism... "Mind your own business," "Judge not that ye be not judged." Over matters which are purely personal, as for example, moral conduct, the individual

Boston anarchists.

Another form of individualist anarchism was found in the United States as advocated by the so-called Boston anarchists. By default, American individualists had no difficulty accepting the concepts that "one man employ another" or that "he direct him", in his labor but rather demanded that "all natural opportunities requisite to the production of wealth be accessible to all on equal terms and that monopolies arising from special privileges created by law be abolished".  They believed state monopoly capitalism (defined as a state-sponsored monopoly) prevented labor from being fully rewarded. Voltairine de Cleyre summed up the philosophy by saying that the anarchist individualists "are firm in the idea that the system of employer and employed, buying and selling, banking, and all the other essential institutions of Commercialism, centred upon private property, are in themselves good, and

Individualist anarchism and the labor movement.

George Woodcock reports that the American individualist anarchists Lysander Spooner and William B. Greene had been members of the socialist First International.  Two individualist anarchists who wrote in Benjamin Tucker's "Liberty" were also important labor organizers of the time. Joseph Labadie (April 18, 1850 – October 7, 1933) was an American labor organizer, individualist anarchist, social activist, printer, publisher, essayist and poet. In 1883, Labadie embraced a non-violent version of individualist anarchism. Without the oppression of the state, Labadie believed, humans would choose to harmonize with "the great natural laws [...] without robbing [their] fellows through interest, profit, rent and taxes". However, he supported community cooperation as he supported community control of water utilities, streets and railroads. Although he did not support the militant anarchism of the Haymarket anarchists, he fought for the clemency of the accused because he did not believe they were the perpetrators. In 1888, Labadie organized the Michigan Federation of Labor, became its

Egoist anarchism.

Some of the American individualist anarchists later in this era, such as Benjamin Tucker, abandoned natural rights positions and converted to Max Stirner's egoist anarchism. Rejecting the idea of moral rights, Tucker said that there were only two rights, "the right of might" and "the right of contract". He also said after converting to Egoist individualism that "[i]n times past [...] it was my habit to talk glibly of the right of man to land. It was a bad habit, and I long ago sloughed it off [...] Man's only right to land is his might over it". In adopting Stirnerite egoism in 1886, Tucker rejected natural rights which had long been considered the foundation of libertarianism. This rejection galvanized

Post-left anarchy and insurrectionary anarchism.

Murray Bookchin has identified post-left anarchy as a form of individualist anarchism in "" where he identifies "a shift among Euro-American anarchists away from social anarchism and toward individualist or lifestyle anarchism. Indeed, lifestyle anarchism today is finding its principal expression in spray-can graffiti, post-modernist nihilism, antirationalism, neo-primitivism, anti-technologism, neo-Situationist 'cultural terrorism', mysticism, and a 'practice' of staging Foucauldian 'personal insurrections'". Post-left anarchist Bob Black in his long critique of Bookchin's philosophy called "Anarchy After Leftism" said about post-left anarchy that "[i]t is, unlike Bookchinism, "individualistic" in the sense that if the freedom and happiness of the individual – i.e., each and every really existing person, every Tom, Dick and Murray – is not the measure of the good society, what is?".  A strong relationship does exist between post-left anarchism and the work of individualist anarchist Max Stirner. Jason McQuinn says that "when I (and other anti-ideological anarchists) criticize ideology, it is always from a specifically critical, anarchist perspective rooted in both the skeptical, individualist-anarchist philosophy of Max Stirner. Bob Black and Feral Faun/Wolfi Landstreicher also strongly adhere to stirnerist egoist anarchism. Bob Black has humorously suggested the idea of "marxist stirnerism".  Hakim Bey has said: "From Stirner's "Union of Self-Owning Ones"

Individualist anarchism in Europe.

European individualist anarchism proceeded from the roots laid by William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Max Stirner. Proudhon was an early pioneer of anarchism as well as of the important individualist anarchist current of mutualism. Stirner became a central figure of individualist anarchism through the publication of his seminal work "The Ego and Its Own" which is considered to be "a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism". Another early figure was Anselme Bellegarrigue. Individualist anarchism expanded and diversified through Europe, incorporating influences from North American individualist anarchism.  European individualist anarchists include Albert Libertad, Bellegarrigue, Oscar Wilde, Émile Armand, Lev Chernyi, John Henry Mackay, Han Ryner, Adolf Brand, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Renzo Novatore and currently Michel Onfray. Important currents within it include free love, anarcho-naturism and illegalism.

France.

From the legacy of Proudhon and Stirner there emerged a strong tradition of French individualist anarchism. An early important individualist anarchist was Anselme Bellegarrigue. He participated in the French Revolution of 1848, was author and editor of "Anarchie, Journal de l'Ordre and Au fait! Au fait! Interprétation de l'idée démocratique" and wrote the important early Anarchist Manifesto in 1850. Catalan historian of individualist anarchism Xavier Diez reports that during his travels in the United States "he at least contacted (Henry David) Thoreau and, probably (Josiah) Warren". "Autonomie Individuelle" was an individualist anarchist publication that ran from 1887 to 1888. It was edited by Jean-Baptiste Louiche, Charles Schæffer and Georges Deherme.  Later, this tradition continued with such intellectuals as Albert Libertad, André Lorulot, Émile Armand, Victor Serge, Zo d'Axa and Rirette Maitrejean, who in 1905 developed theory in the main individualist anarchist journal in France, "L'Anarchie". Outside this journal, Han Ryner wrote "Petit Manuel individualiste" (1903). In 1891, Zo d'Axa created the journal L'En-Dehors. Anarcho-naturism was promoted by Henri Zisly, Emile Gravelle and Georges Butaud. Butaud was an individualist "partisan of the "milieux libres", publisher of "Flambeau" ("an enemy of authority") in 1901 in Vienna" and most of his energies were devoted to creating anarchist colonies (communautés expérimentales) in which he participated in several.  In this sense, "the theoretical positions and the vital experiences of [F]rench individualism are deeply iconoclastic and scandalous, even within libertarian circles. The call of nudist naturism, the strong defence of birth control methods, the idea of "unions of egoists" with the sole justification of sexual practices, that will try to put in practice, not without

Germany.

In Germany, the Scottish-German John Henry McKay became the most important propagandist for individualist anarchist ideas. He fused Stirnerist egoism with the positions of Benjamin Tucker and actually translated Tucker into German. Two semi-fictional writings of his own, "Die Anarchisten" and "Der Freiheitsucher", contributed to individualist theory through an updating of egoist themes within a consideration of the anarchist movement. English translations of these works arrived in the United Kingdom and in individualist American circles led by Tucker. McKay is also known as an important European early activist for gay rights.  Using the pseudonym Sagitta, Mackay wrote a series of works for pederastic emancipation, titled "Die Buecher der namenlosen Liebe" ("Books of the Nameless Love"). This series was conceived in 1905 and completed in 1913 and included the "Fenny Skaller", a story of a pederast. Under the same pseudonym, he also published fiction, such as "Holland" (1924) and a pederastic novel

Italy.

In Italy, individualist anarchism had a strong tendency towards illegalism and violent propaganda by the deed similar to French individualist anarchism, but perhaps more extreme and which emphazised criticism of organization be it anarchist or of other type. In this respect, we can consider notorious magnicides carried out or attempted by individualists Giovanni Passannante, Sante Caserio, Michele Angiolillo, Luigi Luccheni and Gaetano Bresci who murdered King Umberto I. Caserio lived in France and coexisted within French illegalism and later assassinated French President Sadi Carnot. The theoretical seeds of current

Russia.

Individualist anarchism was one of the three categories of anarchism in Russia, along with the more prominent anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism. The ranks of the Russian individualist anarchists were predominantly drawn from the intelligentsia and the working class. For anarchist historian Paul Avrich, "[t]he two leading exponents of individualist anarchism, both based in Moscow, were Aleksei Alekseevich Borovoi and Lev Chernyi (Pavel Dmitrievich Turchaninov). From Nietzsche, they inherited the desire for a complete overturn of all values accepted by bourgeois society political, moral,

Spain.

While Spain was influenced by American individualist anarchism, it was more closely related to the French currents. Around the start of the 20th century, individualism in Spain gathered force through the efforts of people such as Dorado Montero, Ricardo Mella, Federico Urales, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Mariano Gallardo and J. Elizalde who translated French and American individualists. Important in this respect were also magazines such as "La Idea Libre", "La revista blanca", "Etica", "Iniciales", "Al margen", "Estudios" and "Nosotros". The most influential thinkers there were Max Stirner, Émile Armand and Han Ryner. Just as in France, the spread of Esperanto and anationalism had importance

United Kingdom.

The English Enlightenment political theorist William Godwin was an important influence as mentioned before. The Irish anarchist writer of the Decadent Movement Oscar Wilde influenced individualist anarchists such as Renzo Novatore and gained the admiration of Benjamin Tucker. In his important essay "The Soul of Man under Socialism" from 1891, Wilde defended socialism as the way to guarantee individualism and so he saw that "[w]ith the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things. One will live. To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all". For anarchist historian George Woodcock, "Wilde's aim in "The Soul of Man under Socialism" is to seek the society most favorable to the artist [...] for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated [...] Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete". Woodcock finds that "[t]he most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde "The Soul of Man under Socialism"" and finds that it is influenced mainly by the thought of William Godwin.  In the late 19th century in the United Kingdom, there existed individualist anarchists such as Wordsworth Donisthorpe, Joseph Hiam Levy, Joseph Greevz Fisher, John Badcock Jr., Albert Tarn and Henry Albert Seymour who were close to the United States group around Benjamin Tucker's magazine "Liberty". In the mid-1880s, Seymour published a journal called "The Anarchist" and also later took a special interest in free love as he participated in the

Individualist anarchism in Latin America.

Argentine anarchist historian Angel Cappelletti reports that in Argentina "[a]mong the workers that came from Europe in the 2 first decades of the century, there was curiously some stirnerian individualists influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche, that saw syndicalism as a potential enemy of anarchist ideology. They established [...] affinity groups that in 1912 came to, according to Max Nettlau, to the number of 20. In 1911 there appeared, in Colón, the periodical "El Único", that defined itself as 'Publicación individualista'".  Vicente Rojas Lizcano, whose pseudonym was Biófilo Panclasta, was a Colombian individualist anarchist writer and activist. In 1904, he began using the name Biofilo Panclasta. "Biofilo" in Spanish stands for "lover of life" and "Panclasta" for "enemy of all". He visited more than fifty countries propagandizing for anarchism which in his case was highly influenced by the thought of Stirner and Nietszche. Among his written works there are "Siete años enterrado vivo en una de las mazmorras de Gomezuela: Horripilante relato de un resucitado"(1932) and "Mis prisiones, mis destierros y mi vida" (1929) which talk about

Criticism.

Philosopher Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchism for its opposition to democracy and its embrace of "lifestylism" at the expense of class struggle. Bookchin claimed that individualist anarchism supports only negative liberty and rejects the idea of positive liberty. Philosopher Albert Meltzer proposed that individualist anarchism differs radically from revolutionary anarchism and that it "is sometimes too readily conceded 'that this is, after all, anarchism'". He claimed that Benjamin Tucker's acceptance of the use of a private police force (including to break up violent strikes to protect the "employer's 'freedom'") is contradictory to the definition of anarchism as "no government". Meltzer opposed anarcho-capitalism for similar reasons, arguing that it actually supports a "limited State" and that "it is only possible to conceive of Anarchism which is free, communistic and offering no economic necessity for repression of countering it".  Philosopher George Bernard Shaw initially had flirtations with individualist anarchism before coming to the conclusion that it was "the negation of socialism, and is, in fact, unsocialism carried as near to its logical conclusion as any sane man dare carry it". Shaw's argument was that even if wealth was initially distributed equally, the degree of "laissez-faire" advocated by Tucker would result in the distribution of wealth becoming unequal because it would permit private appropriation and accumulation. According to academic Carlotta Anderson, American individualist anarchists accept that free competition results in unequal wealth distribution, but they "do not see that as an injustice". Tucker explained: "If I go through life free and rich, I shall not cry because my neighbor, equally free, is richer. Liberty will ultimately make all men rich; it will not make all men equally rich. Authority may (and may not) make all men equally rich in purse; it certainly will make them equally poor in all that makes life best worth living".  Without the labor theory of value, some argue that 19th-century individualist anarchists approximate the modern movement of anarcho-capitalism, although this has been contested or rejected. As economic theory changed, the popularity of the labor theory of classical economics was superseded by the subjective theory of value of neoclassical economics and Murray Rothbard, a student of Ludwig von Mises, combined Mises' Austrian School of economics with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Tucker and Lysander Spooner. In the mid-1950s, Rothbard argued that "we are not anarchists [...] but not archists either [...]. Perhaps, then, we could call ourselves by a new name: nonarchist", concerned with differentiating himself from communist and socialistic economic views of other anarchists, including the individualist anarchists of the 19th century. American mutualist Joe Peacott has criticized anarcho-capitalists for trying to hegemonize the individualist anarchism label and make appear as if all individualist anarchists are in favor of capitalism. Peacott has stated that "individualists, both past and present, agree with the communist anarchists that present-day capitalism is based on economic coercion, not on voluntary contract. Rent and interest are mainstays of modern capitalism, and are protected and enforced by the state. Without these two unjust institutions, capitalism could not exist".  There is a strong current within anarchism which does not consider that anarcho-capitalism can be considered a part of the anarchist movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and because anarchists see it as incompatible with capitalist forms. Although anarcho-capitalism has been regarded by some as a form of individualist anarchism, others disagree or contest such divide because individualist anarchism is largely libertarian socialist. Rothbard argued that individualist anarchism is different from anarcho-capitalism and other capitalist theories due to the individualist anarchists retaining the labor theory of value and socialist doctrines; and many writers deny that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism at all or that capitalism itself is compatible with anarchism.

Individualist anarchism is the branch of anarchism that emphasize the individual and their will over external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems. Although usually contrasted to social anarchism, both individualist and social anarchism have influenced each other. Mutualism, an economic theory particularly influential within individualist anarchism whose pursued liberty has been called the synthesis of communism and property, has been considered sometimes part of individualist anarchism and other times part of social anarchism. Many anarcho-communists regard themselves as radical individualists, seeing anarcho-communism as the best social system for the realization of individual freedom.

Anarchoindividualismus nebo individualistický anarchismus je směr anarchismu, který vznikl v 19. století v Severní Americe, nicméně vychází i z myšlenek Pierra-Josepha Proudhona. Zdůrazňuje autonomii jedince a stojí tak v opozici k anarchokolektivismu a k sociálnímu anarchismu obecně. Představiteli raného anarchoindividualismu jsou např. Josiah Warren a Benjamin Tucker.


Biography.

Early years.

Temperton was born in Cleethorpes, Lincolnshire, on 9 October 1949. Interviewed for the BBC Radio 2 documentary "The Invisible Man: the Rod Temperton Story", Temperton said that he was a musician from an early age: "My father wasn't the kind of person who'd read you a story before you went off to sleep – he used to put a transistor radio in the crib, right on the pillow, and I'd go to sleep listening to Radio Luxembourg and I think that had an influence." Temperton attended De Aston Grammar School, Market Rasen and he formed a group for the school's music competitions. He was a drummer at this time. "I'd get in the living room with my snare drum and my cymbal and play along to the BBC test card, which was all kinds of music they'd be playing continuously." On leaving school he started working for Ross Frozen Foods in Grimsby, Lincolnshire.

Heatwave.

He soon became a full-time musician as a keyboard player, and played in several dance bands. This took him to Worms in Germany. In 1974 he answered an advert in "Melody Maker" placed by Johnnie Wilder Jr. and as a result became a member of the funk and disco band Heatwave, which Wilder was putting together at the time. "He was the first British guy that I had ever met personally. He spoke kind of funny but he had a good sense of humour and he was a very friendly guy. After meeting him and then seeing him play I kind of determined he was a good enough player and entertainer and I just knew he would fit in the group", said Wilder. Temperton played Wilder tunes he had been composing: "I was very interested because we were doing a lot of cover tunes – we weren't doing a lot of original material – I was really interested." The songs provided material for 1976's "Too Hot to Handle" including "Boogie Nights", which broke the band in Britain and the United States, and the ballad "Always and Forever" – both tracks were million-sellers in the US.  Despite the slick American sound, Temperton's working surroundings were still far from glamorous. Alan Kirk, a Yorkshire musician with Jimmy James and the Vagabonds who toured with Heatwave in the mid 1970s remembered: "The "Always and Forever" track was written on a Wurlitzer piano at the side of a pile of pungent washing – sorry to disappoint all the romantics." And producer Barry Blue recalled: "He had a very small flat, so everything had to be done within one room and he had piles of washing, and had the T.V. on top of the organ. It was a nightmare <nowiki>[...]</nowiki> he had trams running outside <nowiki>[...]</nowiki> but he made it, he just absorbed himself in the music and Rod seemed to come up with these amazing songs". In 1977 Heatwave followed up the success of its first album with its second, "Central Heating", with Barry Blue again producing and Temperton behind the majority of the songs. It included "The Groove Line", another international hit single. In 1978 Temperton decided to concentrate on writing and left Heatwave, though he continued to write for the band.

Songs written for Michael Jackson.

Temperton's work attracted the attention of Quincy Jones, and he asked his engineer Bruce Swedien to check out the Heatwave album. "Holy cow! I simply loved Rod's musical feeling – everything about it – Rod's arrangements, his tunes, his songs – was exceedingly hip," recalled Swedien, also calling Temperton: "the most disciplined pop music composer I've ever met. When he comes to the studio, every musical detail is written down or accounted for in Rod's mind. He never stops until he feels confident that the music we're working on is able to stand on its own". In 1979, Temperton was recruited by Quincy Jones to write for what became Michael Jackson's first solo album in four years, and his first full-fledged solo release for Epic Records, titled "Off the Wall". Temperton wrote three songs for the album, including "Rock with You" which became the second US No. 1 single from the album.  In the early 1980s Temperton left Germany and moved to Beverly Hills, California. In 1982, Temperton wrote three songs, including the title track, for Jackson's next LP, "Thriller", which became the biggest-selling album of all time. Temperton also wrote the spoken word section of the song for the actor Vincent Price. On coming up with the title "Thriller", Temperton once said:

Other songwriting successes.

Temperton wrote successfully for other musicians, his hits including "Stomp!" for The Brothers Johnson, George Benson's "Give Me the Night", "Baby, Come to Me" for Patti Austin and James Ingram, "Love Is in Control (Finger on the Trigger)" for Donna Summer, and "Yah Mo B There" for Ingram and Michael McDonald. He also wrote for Herbie Hancock, The Manhattan Transfer, Mica Paris, and many others.

Film work.

In 1982 Temperton wrote the music to " 'Somewhere in the Dark", recorded by Michael Jackson and produced by Quincy Jones for the movie "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial", with lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman.  In 1986 Temperton was nominated for the Best Original Song Oscar for "Miss Celie's Blues (Sister)," which he wrote with Quincy Jones and Lionel Richie for "The Color Purple" (1985). (Richie won the award for "Say You, Say Me", from "White Nights".) He was also nominated for Best Original Score along with the 11 other composers, including Jones, who worked on "The Color Purple"'s score.  Later in 1986 the buddy-cop action-comedy "Running Scared" was released, featuring five new songs written by Temperton, including "Sweet Freedom", performed by Michael McDonald, and "Man Size Love", performed by Klymaxx. Temperton also composed the film's score.

Personal life and death.

On 5 October 2016, Temperton's death was announced after what was described by his music publisher as "a brief aggressive battle with cancer." Temperton had died at the age of 66 in London the previous week and his funeral had already taken place. The exact date of his death was not announced.  Temperton is survived by his wife Kathy. They had homes in Los Angeles, the south of France, Fiji, Switzerland, and Kent in southeast England.

Rodney Lynn Temperton (9 October 1949 – 25 September 2016) was an English songwriter, record producer, and musician. He initially made his mark as the keyboardist and main songwriter for the 1970s R&B, funk, and disco band Heatwave, whose hit songs included "Boogie Nights, " "Always and Forever," and "The Groove Line."

Rodney Lynn "Rod" Temperton (9. října 1949, Cleethorpes, North East Lincolnshire – září / říjen 2016) byl anglický hudební skladatel.


Overview.

Nearby points of interest include Mount Yerer, Green Crater Lake and Lake Hora Kiloli. It is a resort town, known for five crater lakes: Lake Bishoftu, Lake Hora (a base for watersports, many water birds and an annual festival), Lake Bishoftu Guda, Lake Koriftu and the seasonal Lake Cheleklaka. Bishoftu is also home to the Ethiopian Air Force and the Harar Meda Airport (ICAO HAHM, IATA QHR), as well as a station on the Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway. It has had telephone service since 1954. The city is home for the National Veterinary Institute of Ethiopia, established in 1963, the leading veterinary vaccine research and production center currently producing more than 20 livestock vaccines. Next door to the national veterinary institute is the scholl of veterinary medicine of Addis Ababa University. The Gafat Armament Engineering Complex is located here. According to the Nordic Africa Institute website, other major businesses in Bishoftu include the Ada Flour and Pasta Factory, the Pasqua Giuseppe PLC, the Salmida Leather Products Manufacturing, Ratson (Women Youth Children Development Programme), and Winrock International Ethiopia. The Debre Zeyt Research Center, founded in 1953, is run by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, specializing in agricultural research, which includes acting as the national center for research to improve the yield of teff, lentils, chickpeas, and poultry. In 2007 Bishoftu became the new home of Meserete Kristos College, a Christian college owned by the Meserete Kristos Church.

History.

Bishoftu, as a definite entity, did not come into existence until after the Second World War. Accounts of earlier travelers call the region "Adda", although one Swedish memoir from 1935 mentions a village named "Bishoftu"; the future minister Makonnen Habte-Wold was born in this village. At about from Adda, on land that had been owned partly by Emperor Haile Selassie I, the Italians started "Azienda Agraria di Biscioftu dell'Opera Nazionale per i Combattenti" on 15,000 hectares, intending to create a center of colonization as well as an experimental agricultural station. The first foundation stone for the houses was laid 9 December 1937, but only 21 dwellings were ready by May 1938. Various administrative and service buildings were also built.  The history of the Ethiopian Air Force is tightly woven with the history of Bishoftu. In 1946, the beginnings of what would become the Ethiopian Air Force was moved from Lideta airport in Addis Ababa, which was needed by Ethiopian Airlines, to Bishoftu. The initial group of 19 Swedes under Count Carl Gustaf von Rosen, who were to train the pilots and support personal, arrived there after leaving Sweden between 9 January and 16 July 1946. Both Ethiopian cadets and the Swedish instructors took part in constructing the first buildings on the base. Six Saab 91 Safir training airplanes were bought in Sweden and flown to the new airbase 24 December 1946, and on 10 November 1947 a fleet of 16 Saab-built B-17s were landed at Bishoftu by Swedish pilots.  Bishoftu Technical High School was established in 1958 with a 5-year course for boys 12–15 years of age. An Evangelical College had been founded two years before, which was a joint undertaking of Swedish, Norwegian, and German Evangelical missions. The Evangelical College's first headmaster was Sven Rubenson. The Animal Health Assistants Training School was established in Bishoftu in 1963, with financial support by the United Nations Special Fund.  The artist Lemma Tesefa Kesime was born (1956) in Bishoftu. He studied at the Art School 1972-1974 and received his M.A. from the Soviet Union in 1983. Returning to Ethiopia, Lemma Tesefa became a teacher at the art school in Addis Ababa. Bishoftu was also the favored weekend retreat of Emperor Haile Selassie, who built a palace in the town, named "Fairfield" after his wartime home in exile in the town of Bath, England.  Armed forces of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front bypassed the capital and occupied Bishoftu in May, 1991, bringing order to the area after the collapse of the Mengistu government, taking control of what remained of the Soviet-supplied Air Force. The airbase was also used to detain several dozen senior military officers after the capture of the capital. On 2 October 2016 at Irreechaa celebration security forces fired tear gas at protesters forcing them to panic and as a result 52 people lost their lives after falling into ditches around Lake Hora. On 10 March 2019, Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 crashed near the town of Bishoftu.

Demographics.

The 2007 national census reported a total population for Bishoftu of 99,928, of whom 47,860 were men and 52,068 were women. The majority of the inhabitants said they practised Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 79.75% of the population reporting they observed this belief, while 13.82% of the population were Protestant, and 4.98% of the population were Muslim.  The 1994 census reported Bishoftu had a total population of 73,372 of whom 35,058 were men and 38,314 were women. The three largest ethnic groups reported for this town were the Amhara (42.86%), the Oromo (39.4%), and the Gurage (8.3%); all other ethnic groups made up 9.44% of the population. Amharic is spoken as a first language by 71.95%, and 20.12% spoke Oromiffa; the remaining 7.93% spoke all other primary languages reported. Concerning religious beliefs, 87.87% of the population said they practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, 6.93% were Protestants, and 4.02% observed Roman Catholicism.

Bishoftu (Oromo: Bishooftu, Amharic: ቢሾፍቱ) is a town located in the East Shewa Zone of the Oromia Region, and has an elevation of 1,920 metres (6,300 ft). It was formerly known as Debre Zeyit (Amharic: ደብረ ዘይት) however since the late 1990s it has been officially known by the Oromo name, Bishoftu, which was its name until 1955.

Bishoftu je město ve státě Oromie v Etiopii. Město leží v nadmořské výšce 1920 m a v roce 2012 mělo asi 170 tisíc obyvatel. Podle sčítání lidu z roku 1994 se většina obyvatel hlásí k Etiopské pravoslavné církvi.


Publication history.

Original incarnation.

Robin (Dick Grayson), Kid Flash (Wally West) and Aqualad (Garth) team up to defeat a weather-controlling villain known as Mister Twister in "The Brave and the Bold" #54 (July 1964) by writer Bob Haney and artist Bruno Premiani. They appeared under the name "Teen Titans" in "The Brave and the Bold" #60 (July 1965), joined by Wonder Woman's younger sister Wonder Girl (Donna Troy). After being featured in "Showcase" #59 (December 1965), the Teen Titans were spun off into their own series with "Teen Titans" #1 by Haney and artist Nick Cardy.  The series' original premise had the Teen Titans helping teenagers and answering calls. Comics historian Les Daniels noted that Haney "took some ribbing for the writing style that described the Teen Titans as 'the Cool Quartet' or 'the Fab Foursome'. The attempt to reach the youth culture then embracing performers like the Beatles and Bob Dylan impressed some observers." Green Arrow's sidekick Speedy makes guest appearances before officially joining the team in "Teen Titans" #19. Aqualad takes a

1970s revival.

The series resumed with issue #44 (November 1976). The stories included the introduction of the African-American superheroine Bumblebee, the introduction of the "Titans West" team, consisting of a number of other teen heroes, including Bat-Girl (Betty Kane) and the Golden Eagle, and the introduction of the Harlequin in #48. The revival

"The New Teen Titans" (1980–1996).

"DC Comics Presents" #26 (October 1980) introduced a new team of Titans, anchored by Robin, Wonder Girl, and Kid Flash and soon followed by "The New Teen Titans" #1 (November 1980). The series, created by writer Marv Wolfman and artist George Pérez, re-introduced Beast Boy as Changeling and introduced the machine man Cyborg, the alien Starfire, and the dark empath Raven. Raven, an expert manipulator, forms the group to fight her demonic father Trigon the Terrible and the team remains together.  Wolfman and Pérez's working relationship quickly evolved to the point where they were plotting the series jointly. Wolfman recalled that "once George moved to the same town I lived in, only five blocks or so away, we usually got together for lunch and would work out a story over the next few hours. In many cases I would then go home and write up a plot based on it, or sometimes George would take the verbal plotting we did and take it from there."  The team's adversaries included Deathstroke the Terminator, a mercenary who takes a

"Teen Titans Spotlight On".

Due to fan backlash over the hardcover/softcover move to the direct market with the main title, a new newsstand Titan book was launched in August 1986 called "Teen Titan Spotlight On". The series was an anthology series and featured individual members of the Titans in solo stories, often spanning multiple issues. The series also focused on

"Team Titans".

The Team Titans were one of 100 groups sent back through time to prevent the birth of Lord Chaos, the son

"Teen Titans" (vol. 2, 1996–1998).

"Teen Titans" was written and penciled by Dan Jurgens. It began in 1996 with a new #1 (October 1996), with Pérez as inker for the first 15 issues. Atom, who had become a teenager following the events of "Zero Hour", leads the brand-new team (of Prysm,

"Titans" (1999–2003).

The team returned in a three-issue limited series, "JLA/Titans: The Technis Imperative", featuring nearly every Titan and showcased the return of Cyborg. This led into "Titans", written by Devin K. Grayson, starting with "Titans Secret Files #1" (March 1999).  This team consisted of Nightwing, Troia, Arsenal, Tempest, Flash, Starfire, Cyborg, Changeling, Damage and

"Teen Titans" (vol. 3, 2003–2011) and Outsiders v3 (2003–2007).

Writer Geoff Johns' "Teen Titans" series began in 2003, after a three issue mini-series entitled "Titans/Young Justice Graduation Day", which saw Lilith's death and Donna Troy sent to another world after seemingly dying, along with the disbanding of the 1998–2002 Titans roster and the Young Justice team. The relaunch came on the heels of the debut of the "Teen Titans" cartoon on Cartoon Network and reflected DC Comics chief executive Dan DiDio's desire to rehabilitate the Titans as one of DC's top franchise. Launched at the same time was a companion series, a revived version of "The Outsiders" which featured Nightwing and Arsenal, along with several other Titans members (Captain Marvel Jr. and Starfire).  The series featured several of the main teenage heroes from the Young Justice roster (Robin, Superboy, Wonder Girl, Impulse) and Starfire, Cyborg and Changeling (now rebranded Beast Boy to reflect the cartoon). Raven

"One Year Later" and the post-Geoff Johns Titans.

Following the events of Infinite Crisis, the Teen Titans fell into a state of chaos. Wonder Girl quit the group to join a cult she believed could resurrect Superboy, while Robin took a leave of absence to travel the globe with Batman and Nightwing. Changeling and Raven attempted to keep the Titans going, resulting in a massive open call membership drive that saw a large number of heroes come and join the roster, which was anchored by Beast Boy and Raven. New members includes Miss Martian, Kid Devil, Zachary Zatara, Ravager, Bombshell (who like Terra I, was a traitor working for Deathstroke), Young Frankenstein, and Osiris.  During this period, Osiris was driven from the team due to a smear campaign launched by Amanda Waller after she manipulated him into killing a super-villain. The smear campaign against Osiris, along with the war between Black Adam and Intergang, led to Black Adam declaring war on the world. In the ensuing series of battles against the super-hero community, the Titans fought and lost a bloody battle with the villain, culminating in the deaths of Terra II and Young Frankenstein. The deaths led to Beast Boy resigning from the team to join the Doom Patrol along with Herald and Bumblebee, while Raven took a leave of absence in order to purge Jericho of the dark forces that were corrupting him.  Robin and Wonder Girl eventually rejoined the Titans (now located in San Francisco, California) and helped foil Bombshell's plan to frame Miss Martian as Deathstroke's latest mole in the team and allowed Raven to cleanse Jericho of the Azarathian corruption that had turned him evil. Geoff John's final arc on the series would introduce a new villainous "Titans East" team, led by Deathstroke and Batgirl Cassandra Caine.  Soon after, events related to the "Countdown" story arc impact the Titans. Duela Dent and Bart Allen are killed; Cyborg leaves; and Supergirl joins and Blue Beetle is invited to train, but the two eventually leave, with the members joining the Justice League of America and Justice League International respectively. The Titans fight the future, evil adult versions of the group (Titans Tomorrow) and Clock King and the

"Titans" (vol. 2, 2008–2011).

A second ongoing Teen Titans series, titled "Titans", launched in April 2008 with a cover date of June 2008, written by Judd Winick. The first issue was drawn by Ian Churchill and Norm Rapmund and the second was by Joe Benitez and Victor Llamas. The opening storyline follows the events of the "Teen Titans East Special" one-shot released in November 2007, revealing that Cyborg's team survived the attack, except Power Boy, dead after being impaled. The team's new line up consists of former "New Teen Titans" Nightwing, The Flash (Wally West), Donna Troy, Beast Boy, Raven, Cyborg, Red Arrow and Starfire.  In the series' first story, Trigon makes a series of attacks on every member, former or current, of the Teen Titans and Trigon has "another child" that, unlike Raven, will assist him in his attack. After reclaiming Titans Island and establishing a headquarters on the East River, Cyborg sets out to create an East Coast Titans team. During a training session, the team was massacred by an unseen force. Though Cyborg survives, Titans' members past and present are attacked by demonic entities across the globe. Raven, sensing Trigon's presence once again, calls upon her former Titans allies

The New 52 ("Teen Titans" vol. 4, 2011–2014; "Ravagers", 2012–2013; "Teen Titans" vol. 5, 2014–2016; "Titans Hunt", 2015–2016).

DC Comics relaunched "Teen Titans" with issue #1 (cover dated November 2011) as part of DC's New 52 event, written by Scott Lobdell with former "Justice League" artist Brett Booth providing interiors. The relaunch was controversial, because it was originally designed as a direct continuation of the previous Teen Titans series before Dan DiDio declared that all previous incarnations of the Titans never existed; this in spite of the fact that early issues of the 2011 series (as well as "Red Hood

DC Rebirth.

The June 2016 DC Rebirth relaunch established two Titans teams: The Titans, with Nightwing, The Flash (Wally West), Lilith, Arsenal, Donna Troy, Bumblebee and Tempest; and the Teen Titans, consisting of Damian Wayne as Robin, Wally West II as Kid Flash, Jackson Hyde as Aqualad, Beast Boy, Starfire and Raven. "Titans" writer Dan Abnett confirmed in an interview with "Newsarama" that "Titans" characters Hawk and Dove, Herald, Gnarrk and others would be appearing in the new

Collected editions.

"Teen Titans" (2003–2011).

Note: Issues #27–28, penciled by artist Rob Lifeld and written by Gail Simone, are not collected in any of the trade paperbacks and were reprinted in "DC Comics

In other media.

Television.

Live action.

A live action series entitled "Titans" premiered in 2018 for DC Universe, developed and executive produced by Akiva Goldsman, Geoff Johns, Greg Berlanti, and Sarah Schechter. The series was created after plans for a live action "Titans" series on TNT were cancelled. It stars Brenton Thwaites as Dick Grayson, Anna Diop as Kory Anders, Teagan Croft as Rachel Roth, and Ryan Potter as Gar Logan, Curran Walters as Jason Todd, Conor Leslie as Donna Troy, Minka Kelly as Dawn Granger, Alan Ritchson as Hank Hall, Esai Morales as Deathstroke, Chelsea Zang as Rose Wilson, and Joshua Orpin as Conner. Don Hall, Garth, Jericho, and Blackfire also appear in the series, portrayed by Elliot Knight, Drew Van Acker, Chella Man, and Damaris Lewis, respectively.

Film.

Live-action.

In May 2007, it was revealed that Warner Bros. was in development on a "Teen Titans" film in which Robin was the only confirmed member. Akiva Goldsman and Mark Verheiden were writing it. The current status of the film remains unknown because on September 11, 2014, it was announced that Akiva Goldsman is now developing a "Teen Titans" TV series called "Titans". Heroic Hollywood's El Mayimbe was a guest on the October 13, 2015 episode of "Collider Heroes" and he mentioned that Warner Bros. is developing both a "Teen Titans" movie with Cyborg among others and an all female group of heroes.

The Teen Titans are a fictional superhero team appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, often in an eponymous monthly series. As the group's name suggests, the members are teenage superheroes, many of whom have acted as sidekicks to DC's premier superheroes in the Justice League. The original team later becomes known as the Titans when the members age out of their teenage years, while the Teen Titans name is continued by subsequent generations of young heroes. First appearing in 1964 in "The Brave and the Bold" #54, the team was formed by Kid Flash (Wally West), Robin (Dick Grayson), and Aqualad (Garth) before adopting the name Teen Titans in issue 60 with the addition of Wonder Girl (Donna Troy) to their ranks.

Teen Titans (též New Teen Titans a Titans) je fiktivní tým dospívajících superhrdinů, vystupující v komiksech amerického vydavatelství DC Comics.


Career.

Maze won the European Junior Championships in both singles and doubles in 1999. He reached the quarterfinals in the European Championships for seniors in both series in 2003 playing doubles with Finn Tugwell. Tugwell and Maze participated as partners at the 2000 Summer Olympics where they reached the round of 16. Before the 2004 Summer Olympics, Maze won the Europe Top-12 tournament in Frankfurt am Main in February 2004. He participated both in men's singles and men's doubles in the 2004 Olympics. Maze lost his first match in singles but won bronze with his partner Finn Tugwell.  Another of Maze's achievements was reaching the semifinals of the 2005 World Championships that took place in Shanghai, China, in which he was defeated by the home favorite, Ma Lin, in a swift 4-0 match. Nevertheless, he had managed to put up a memorable performance in the quarterfinals of the competition, coming back from a 3-0 deficit to win 4-3 against another Chinese player, Hao Shuai, saving 3 match points, as well as a win in the previous match against 2004 Olympics Men's singles silver medallist Wang Hao, again from the host nation. Michael Maze won the prize "BT Gold" as the biggest Danish sportsperson in 2005.  Michael Maze won European bronze in singles in 2007. In 2009, Maze had reached the quarterfinals of 2009 World Table Tennis Championships, held in Yokohama, Japan. He was the only European player to achieve the quarters, beating Greek player Panagiotis Gionis at last 16 Round. On 20 September 2009 he defeated Werner Schlager in the final of the European Championships held in Stuttgart, Germany after defeating the German favorite Timo Boll in the semis.  Maze (representing Denmark) was defeated during the 2012 Olympics by Dimitrij Ovtcharov (representing Germany) in the Men's Singles Quarter Final. His coach is the former Chinese National Team Coach Hu Wei Xin.  On 14 March 2016, Michael Maze announced the end of his Table Tennis career. He was hoping to compete at the 2016 Rio Summer Olympics.  Maze announced his retirement in 2016, saying "after several operations I can no longer train one hundred per cent without pain and therefore not compete at the level I’m used to."  In February 2018, Maze announced his return to competitive sport.

Michael Maze (born 1 September 1981) is a professional table tennis player from Faxe, Denmark, in men's singles and doubles. In 2005 he was one of the top five left-handed players in the world. His strength was in his strong forehand loop and lobbing. He was one of the best defensive lobbers in the world. His strong forehand loop, his forehand pendulum serve, and his confident defensive play away from the table made him a solid all-around player.

Kahau mentavejský ("Simias concolor"), nazývaný též opice pagehská či simakobu, je úzkonosá opice z čeledi kočkodanovitých. Žije pouze na Mentavejských ostrovech západně od Sumatry. Kvůli nekontrolovanému lovu a rychlému ubývání přirozeného prostředí stavy divokých populací prudce klesají. Mezinárodní svaz ochrany přírody proto druh klasifikuje jako kriticky ohrožený.


Sanctuary and First Theatre.

The cult of Dionysus was introduced to Attica in the archaic period with the earliest representation of the God dating to c. 580 BC. The City Dionysia (or Great Dionysia) began sometime in the Peisistratid era. and was reorganised during the Kleisthenic reforms of the 520s BC. The first dramatic performances likely took place in the Agora where it is recorded that the wooden bleachers set up for the plays ("ikria") collapsed. This disaster perhaps prompted the removal of dramatic production to the Sanctuary of Dionysus on the Akropolis, which took place by the time of the 70th Olympiad in 499/496 BC. At the "temenos" the earliest structures were the Older Temple, which housed the "xoanon" of Dionysos, a retaining wall to the north and slightly further up the hill a circular terrace that would have been the first "orchestra" of the theatre. The excavations by Wilhelm Dörpfeld identified the foundations of this terrace as a section of polygonal masonry, indicating an archaic date. It is probable there was an altar, or "thymele", in the centre of the "orchestra". No formally constructed stone seating existed at this point, only "ikria" and the natural amphitheatre of the hill served as "theatron".  Besides the archaeological evidence, there is the literary testimonia of the contemporary plays from which there are clues as to the theatre’s construction and scenography. For this earliest phase of the theatre there is the work of Aeschylus, who flourished in the 480-460s. The dramatic action of the plays does point to the presence of a "skene" or background scenery of some description, the strongest evidence of which is from the "Oresteia" that requires a number of entrances and exits from a palace door. Whether this was a temporary or permanent wooden structure or simply a tent remains unclear since there is no physical evidence for a "skene" building until the Periclean phase. However, the hypothesis of a "skene" is not contradicted by the known archaeology of the site. The "Oresteia" also refers to a roof from which a watchman looks out, a step to the palace and an altar. It is sometimes argued that an "ekkyklema", a wheeled trolly, was used for the revelation of the bodies by Clytemnestra at line 1372 in "Agamemnon" amongst other passages. If so it was an innovation of Aeschylus' stagecraft. However, Oliver Taplin questions the seemingly inconsistent use of the device for the dramatic passages claimed for it, and doubts whether the mechanism existed in Aeschylus' lifetime.

Periclean Theatre.

The substantial changes to the theatre in the late fifth century are conventionally called Periclean since they coincide with the completion of the Odeon of Pericles immediately adjacent and the wider Periclean building programme. However, there is no strong evidence to say the theatre’s reconstruction was of the same group as the other works or from Pericles’ lifetime. The new plan of the theatre consisted of a slight displacement of the performance area northward, a banking up of the auditorium, the addition of retaining walls to the west, east and north, a long hall south of the "skene" and abutting the Older Temple and a New Temple which was said to have contained a chryselephantine sculpture of Dionysus by Alkamenes. The seating during this phase was probably still in the form of "ikria" but it may be the case that some stone seating had been installed. Inscribed blocks, displaced but preserved in the retaining walls, with fifth century epigraphy on them might indicate dedicated or numbered stone seats. The use of breccia in the foundations of the west wall and the long hall gives a terminus ante quem of the early fifth century, and a likely date of the last half of that century when its use was becoming common. Also the last recorded statue of Alkamenes was 404 BC, again placing the works in the late 400s. Pickard-Cambridge argues that the reconstruction was piecemeal over the last half of the century into the period of Kleophon.  From the evidence of the plays there is a larger corpus to draw upon during this most vital period of Greek drama. Sophocles, Aristophanes and Euripides were all performed at the Theatre of Dionysus. From these we can deduce that stock sets may have been in use to meet the requirements of the plays such that the Periclean reconstruction included post-holes built into the terrace wall to provide sockets for movable scenery. The "skene" itself was likely unchanged from the theatre’s earlier phase, with a wooden structure of at most two floors and a roof. It is also possible that the stage building would have had three doors, with two in the projecting side-wings or "paraskenia". "Mechane" or "geranos" were used for the introduction of divine beings or flights through the air as in "Medea" or Aristophanes' "Birds".  One point of contention has been the existence or otherwise of the "prothyron" or columned portico on a "skene" that represents the interior spaces of temples or palaces. It is a supposition partly supported by the texts, but also from vase painting believed to be depictions of plays. Aeschylus "Choēphóroi" 966 and Aristophanes' "Wasps" 800-4 both refer directly to a "prothyron", while the parodos-chant in Euripides’ "Ion" makes indirect reference to one. The mourning Niobe loutrophoros in Naples and the Boston volute krater, for example, both depict a "prothyron". Pickard-Cambridge questions if this was permanent structure since interior scenes were rare in tragedy. The evidence from the plays for the use of an "ekkyklema" in this period is ambiguous; passages such as "Acharnians" 407 ff or "Hippolytus" 170-1 suggest but don't require the device. The argument for its use depends largely on reference to the "ekkyklema" in later lexographers and scholiasts.

Lycurgan Theatre.

Lycurgus was a leading figure in Athenian politics in the mid- to late-fourth century prior to the Macedonian supremacy, and controller of the state’s finances. In his role as "epistate" of the Theatre of Dionysus he was also instrumental in transforming the theatre into the stone-built structure seen today. There is a question of how far up the hill the stone "theatron" of this phase went; either all the way up to the rock of the Akropolis (the "kataome") or only as far as the peripatos. Since the Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos of 320/319 BC required the rock face to be cut back such that it is likely that the "epitheatron" beyond the peripatos would have reached that point by then. However, a coin of the Hadrianic period crudely suggests a division of the theatre into two sections, but only one "diazoma", or horizontal aisle, and not two if the "epitheatron" went past the peripatos. The auditorium was divided by twelve narrow stairways into thirteen wedge-shaped blocks, "kerkides", two additional staircases ran inside the two southern supporting walls. There is a slight slope to each step, the front edge is almost 10cms lower than the back. The seats were 33cms in depth and 33cms in height with a forward projecting lip, with seventy-eight rows in total. The two fronts rows, still partially preserved today, consist of pentalic stone chairs or thrones; these were the "prohedria" or seats of honour. Originally sixty-seven in number, the surviving ones each bear the name of the priest or official who occupied it, the inscriptions are all later than the fourth century, albeit with signs of erasure, and from the Hellenistic or Roman periods. The central throne belonged to the priest of Dionysus, which is tentatively dated to the first century BC. Towards the orchestra there is a barrier from the Roman era, then a drainage channel contemporary with the Lycurgan theatre.  The "skene" of this phase was built back-to-back with the earlier long hall or stoa the breccia foundations of which remain. It is evident that the new "skene" building consisted of a long chamber from which projected at either end northward two rectangular "paraskenia". Whether there was also a distinct "proskenion" in the Lycurgan theatre is a subject of controversy, despite literary testimonia from the period there is no firm agreement where or of what form this took. This era is that of the new comedy of Menander and late tragedy of which it is sometimes supposed that the chorus disappeared from productions. It is further hypothesised that the decline in the use of the orchestra would imply, or permit, a raised stage where all the action would take place.

Hellenistic Theatre.

Amongst the innovations of the Hellenistic period was the creation of a permanent stone "proskenion" and the addition of two flanking "paraskenia" in front. The date of this construction is not secure, it belongs to some point between the third and first centuries BC. The "proskenion" was fronted with fourteen columns. Immediately above was the "logeion", a roof to the "proskenion", which perhaps functioned as a high stage. On this second storey and set back from the "logeion" is conjectured to be the "episkenion" whose facade was punctured with several "thyromata" or apertures where the "pinakes" or painted scenery would have been displayed. The date of this change devolves onto the question of the date at which the action of the drama transferred from the "orchestra" to the raised stage, and by analogy with other Greek theatres of the period and the direction of influence between Athens and the other cities. Wilamowitz argues that Dithyrambic contest ended with the choregia in 315, however, Pickard-Cambridge notes that the last recorded victory was in 100 AD. Clearly, the chorus was in decline during this period, so would have been the use of the orchestra. The theatres of Epidaurus, Oropos and Sikyon all have ramps up the "logeion", their dates range from late fourth century to c. 250 BC. It remains an open question whether the existence of a "logeion" on these theatres implies a change in dramatic form at Athens.  Another feature of the Hellenistic stage that might have been used in Athens was the "periaktoi", described by Vitruvius and Pollux, these were revolving devices for rapidly changing scenery. Vitruvius places three doors on the "scaenae frons" with a "periaktos" are the extreme ends which could be deployed to indicate that the actor coming stage-left or -right was at a given location in the dramatic context.

Roman Period to Present Day.

With the conquest of Greece by Sulla and the partial destruction of Athens in 86 BC The Theatre of Dionysus entered into a long decline. King Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia is attributed with the reconstruction of the Odeion and the presence of an honorary inscription to him found embedded in a late wall of the "skene" suggest he may have had a hand in the reconstruction of the theatre, There appears to have been a general refurbishment during the time of Nero whose name was erased from the entablature of an aedicule of the "scaenae frons" in antiquity. The "skene" foundation was underpinned with limestone blocks in this period, the orchestra was reduced in size and refloored in varicoloured marble with a rhombus pattern in the centre. A marble barrier was erected in 61 AD or later, enclosing the "orchestra" up to the "parodoi". The object of this might have been to protect the audience during gladiatorial combats. The last phase of restoration was in the Hadrianic or Antonine era with the construction of the Bema of Phaidros, an addition to the Neronian high pulpitum stage.  After the late 5th century AD the theatre was abandoned: its orchestra became an enclosed courtyard for a Christian basilica ("aithrion") which was built into the eastern parados, while its cavea served as a stone quarry. The basilica was subsequently destroyed and by the mid-eleventh century the Rizokastro wall crossed the bema and the parodos walls. Archaeological examination of the site began in earnest in the nineteenth century with the excavation of Rousopoulos in 1861. Subsequent major archaeological campaigns were Dörpfeld-Reisch, Broneer and Travlos.

Audience.

Evidence points to the enormous popularity of theatre in ancient Greek society. From competition for scarce seating, the expanding number of festivals and performances to theatre lovers touring the Rural Dionysia. It is also clear from fragments of audience reaction that have come down to us that the public were active participants in the dramatic performance, and that there was reciprocal communication between performers and spectators. It is possible, for example, that laws were enacted in the late fifth century to curtail comic outspokenness such was the offence taken by some of the views expressed on the stage. One anecdote that illustrates the fraught nature of this highly partisan audience reaction is that recorded by Plutarch who writes that in 468 BC when Sophocles was competing against Aeschylus there was so much clamour Kimon had to march his generals into the theatre to replace the judges and secure Sophocles’ victory. While ancient drama undoubtedly excited passion in contemporary spectators there remains the question of to what degree did they value or appreciate the work before them? Aristotle's "Poetics" remarks “[h]ence there is no need to adhere at all costs to the traditional stories, around which tragedies are constructed. For to try to do this would be ridiculous, since even the well-known materials well-known only to a few, but nevertheless delights all.” This raises the question of how uniform the response to Greek drama was, and whether communicative comprehension and audience competence can be taken for granted.  While the plays of the time are addressed to the adult male citizen class of the city it is apparent that metics, foreigners and slaves were also in attendance, the cost of tickets was underwritten by the Theoric Fund. Much more controversial is whether women were also present. All arguments on the subject are "ex silentio" since there is no direct evidence that women attended the Theatre of Dionysus. Jeffrey Henderson argues that since women participated in other rites and festivals they could certainly have attended the theatre. In contrast, Simon Goldhill maintains that the City Dionysia was a socio-political event similar to the courts or the assembly which women were excluded from. No definite answer to the problem has been put forward.

Acoustics.

Due to the poor state of its preservation the acoustics of the Theatre of Dionysus cannot be reconstructed. However, by analogy with other, similar Greek amphitheatres some idea of the sound quality of the ancient theatre can be gleaned. Long renowned for their excellent acoustics, it is only recently that scientific analysis of this has taken place. The ERATO project in 2003-2006, Gade and Angelakis in 2006, Psarras et al. in 2013 used omnidirectional source-receivers to make measured maps of strength, reverberation and clarity. The most recent study, Hak et al 2016, used a large number of S-R to take the most detailed mapping yet. Their findings were that the speech clarity was best in the Odeon of Herodes Atticus and that there is a greater degree of reverberation at Epidaurus due to reflection from the opposing seats.

The Theatre of Dionysus (or Theatre of Dionysos, gr: Θέατρο του Διονύσου) is an ancient theatre in Athens on the south slope of the Akropolis hill, built as part of the sanctuary of Dionysos Eleuthereus (Dionysus the Liberator). The first "orchestra" terrace was constructed on the site around the mid- to late-sixth century BC, where it hosted the City Dionysia. The theatre reached its fullest extent in the fourth century BC under the "epistates" of Lycurgus when it would have had a capacity of up to 17,000, and was in continuous use down to the Roman period. The theatre then fell into decay in the Byzantine era and was not identified, excavated and restored to its current condition until the nineteenth century.

Dionýsovo divadlo je hlavní divadlo v Athénách, postavené na úpatí athénské Akropole. Bylo zasvěceno Dionýsovi Eleutheriovi (eleutherios = osvoboditel), bohu her a vína. Divadlo, které bylo vytesáno do jižního svahu akropole, mohlo pojmout více než 17 000 lidí, mělo vynikající akustiku a odehrávala se v něm největší divadelní oslava Dionýsie. Pravděpodobně jde o první kamenné divadlo na světě a zároveň se zde zrodila první dramatická forma – řecká tragédie. Vykopávky odkryly podobu divadla po římských úpravách a dnes jsou přístupné veřejnosti. Divadlo se někdy mylně zaměňuje za nedaleký Odeon, postavený za Héróda Attica.