Development.

In the late 1960s, the Hammond Organ Company hired American musician and engineer Don Lewis to demonstrate its products, including an electronic organ with a built-in drum machine designed by the Japanese company Ace Tone. At the time, drum machines were most often used to accompany home organs. They did not allow users to program rhythms, but had preset patterns such as bossa nova. Lewis was known for performances using electronic instruments he had modified himself, decades before the popularization of instrument "hacking" via circuit bending. He made extensive modifications to the Ace Tone drum machine, creating his own rhythms and wiring the device through his organ's expression pedal to accent the percussion.  Lewis was approached by Ace Tone president and founder Ikutaro Kakehashi, who wanted to know how he had achieved the sounds using the machine Kakehashi had designed. In 1972, Kakehashi formed the Roland Corporation, and hired Lewis to help design drum machines. By the late 1970s, microprocessors were appearing in instruments such as the Roland MC-8 Microcomposer, and Kakehashi realized they could be used to program drum machines. In 1978, Roland released the CompuRhythm CR-78, the first drum machine with which users could write, save, and replay their own patterns.  With its next machine, the TR-808, Roland aimed to develop a drum machine for the professional market, expecting that it would mainly be used to create demos. The concept was to build a "drum synthesizer" with which users could edit parameters such as tuning, decay, and level and build the sounds into sequences. Though the engineers aimed to emulate real percussion, the prohibitive cost of memory drove them to design sound-generating hardware instead of using samples (prerecorded sounds). Kakehashi deliberately purchased faulty transistors that created the machine's distinctive "sizzling" sound. Chief engineer Makoto Muroi credited the design of the analog voice circuits to "Mr. Nakamura" and the software to "Mr. Matsuoka".

Sounds and features.

The 808 produces sounds in imitation of acoustic percussion: the bass drum, snare, toms, conga, rimshot, claves, handclap, maraca, cowbell, cymbal, and hi-hat (open and closed). Rather than playing samples, the machine generates sounds using analog synthesis; the TR in TR-808 stands for "Transistor Rhythm". Users can program up to 32 patterns using the step sequencer, chain up to 768 measures, and place accents on individual beats, a feature introduced with the CR-78. Users can also set the tempo and time signature, including unusual signatures such as and.  The 808 was the first drum machine with which users could program a percussion track from beginning to end, complete with breaks and rolls. It includes volume knobs for each voice, numerous audio outputs, and a DIN sync port (a precursor to MIDI) to synchronize with other devices through the Digital Control Bus interface, which was considered groundbreaking. Its three trigger outputs can synchronize with synthesizers and other equipment.  The 808's sounds do not resemble real percussion, and have been described as "clicky and hypnotic", "robotic", "spacey", "toy-like" and "futuristic". "Fact" described them as a combination of "synth tones and white noise... more akin to bursts coming from the BBC Radiophonic Workshop [than] a proper rhythm section". The machine is noted for its powerful bass drum sound, built from a sine oscillator, low-pass filter, and voltage-controlled amplifier. The bass drum decay control allows users to lengthen the sound, creating uniquely low frequencies that flatten slightly over time, possibly not by design. According to the "New Yorker", "Less a product of engineering than a force of nature, this bass-rolling subsonic boom has come to be what people mean when they refer to 'an 808'."

Release.

The 808 launched in 1980 with a list price of. Roland marketed it as an affordable alternative to the Linn LM-1, manufactured by Linn Electronics, which used samples of real drum kits. The 808 sounded simplistic and synthetic by comparison; electronic music had yet to become mainstream and many musicians and producers wanted realistic-sounding drum machines. Many reports state that one review dismissed the machine as sounding like "marching anteaters", though this was likely referring to machines that predated it. "Contemporary Keyboard" wrote a positive review, predicting that it would become "the standard for rhythm machines of the future".  Despite some early adopters, the 808 was a commercial failure and fewer than 12,000 units were sold. Roland ended production in 1983 after semiconductor improvements made it impossible to restock the faulty transistors essential to its design.

Legacy.

Though the 808 was commercially unsuccessful, it has had a lasting influence on popular music and was eventually used on more hit records than any other drum machine. Roland credits the first use in a live performance to the Japanese electronic group Yellow Magic Orchestra with "1000 Knives" in 1980. The first records to feature the 808 were released in 1981: Yellow Magic Orchestra's "BGM" and the Monitors' "Nobody Told Me". In 1982, the American R&B artist Marvin Gaye released the first hit single that featured the 808, "Sexual Healing". Gaye was drawn to the instrument because he could use it to create music without other musicians or producers.  By the time Roland discontinued the 808 in 1983, it had become common on the used market, often selling for under $100. Its ease of use, affordability, and idiosyncratic sound earned it a cult following among underground musicians and producers, and it became a cornerstone of the developing electronic and hip hop genres. In 1982, Afrika Bambaataa and the Soulsonic Force released their single "Planet Rock", which made extensive use of the 808 to create "strange, futuristic percussion that became hugely popular on dancefloors". The track influenced the development of electronic and hip hop and subgenres including Miami bass and Detroit techno, and popularized the 808 as a "fundamental element of futuristic sound". According to "Slate," "Planet Rock" "didn't so much put the 808 on the map so much as reorient an entire world of post-disco dance music around it".  The 808 was subsequently used by hip hop acts including Run-DMC, LL Cool J, and Public Enemy. It has been described as hip hop's equivalent to the Fender Stratocaster guitar, which dramatically influenced the development of rock music. The 808 bass drum, in particular, became so essential that Hank Shocklee of the Bomb Squad production group declared that "it's not hip hop without that sound". The "New Yorker" wrote that the "trembling feeling of [the 808 bass drum], booming down boulevards in Oakland, the Bronx, and Detroit, are part of America's cultural DNA". Even after the 808 fell out of use by East Coast hip hop producers in the 1990s, it remained a staple of southern hip hop.  The 808's limited pattern storage encouraged artists to push its limits; according to "Slate", "those eight-bar units became veritable playgrounds for invention and creativity." Artists manipulated the bass drum to produce new sounds, such as on the 1984 single "Set it Off", in which producer Strafe used it to imitate the sound of an underground nuclear test. Producer Rick Rubin popularized the technique of lengthening the bass drum decay and tuning it to different pitches to create basslines. On their 1986 track "Paul Revere", the Beastie Boys reversed a recording of an 808 to produce backwards-sounding percussion.  The 808 also saw extensive use beyond hip hop, such as on Whitney Houston's 1987 pop hit "I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me)". In the 1984 Talking Heads concert film "Stop Making Sense", singer David Byrne performs "Psycho Killer" on acoustic guitar accompanied by an 808, stumbling against its "gunshot"-like sounds. Songwriter Phil Collins found the machine useful for looping rhythms for long periods, since human drummers would be tempted to add variations and fills. The "New Yorker" wrote that "the introduction of Roland's magic box was indisputably the big bang of pop's great age of disruption, from 1983 to 1986. The 808's defiantly inorganic timbres... sketched out the domain of a new world of music."  In the United Kingdom, the 808 was popularized by the electronic group 808 State, who took their name from the machine and used it extensively. 808 State's Graham Massey said, "The Roland gear began to be a kind of Esperanto in music. The whole world began to be less separated through this technology, and there was a classiness to it—you could transcend your provincial music with this equipment." With the rise of rave culture, a precursor to acid house, the 808 became a staple sound on British radio.  The 808 is one of the most influential inventions in popular music. In 2019, "DJMag" wrote that it is "probably the most used drum machine in the last 40 years". Samples of its sounds are common in music software, and it has inspired numerous unlicensed clones. "Flavorwire" wrote that "the 808 has become so ubiquitous over the years that its beats are almost a language of their own—you know the sounds even if you have no idea what a drum machine is, and as such, you also notice when somebody messes with them or uses them in unusual contexts". The "New Yorker" wrote in 2015 that the 808 was the bedrock of the modern "urban-youth-culture soundtrack", particularly in trap music, and had influenced a new blend of dance and retro hip hop that "embraces and fetishizes... street music from the past". According to "Slate", it was instrumental in pop music's shift from conventional structure and harmonic progression to "thinking in terms of "sequences", discrete passages of sound and time to be repeated and revised "ad infinitum"".

Successors.

The 808 was followed in 1983 by the TR-909, the first Roland drum machine to use samples. Like the 808, the 909 was influential on popular music, influencing genres such as techno, house and acid.  Roland has included samples of the 808 in subsequent drum machines, including the Grooveboxes in the 1990s, the TR-8 in 2014, and the TR-8S in 2018. In 2017, Roland released the TR-08, a miniaturized 808 featuring an LED display, MIDI and USB connections, expanded sequencer control, and a built-in speaker. Roland released the first official software emulations of the 808 and 909 in 2018.

The Roland TR-808 Rhythm Composer, commonly known as the 808, is a drum machine manufactured by the Roland Corporation between 1980 and 1983. It was one of the first drum machines to allow users to program rhythms instead of using preset patterns. Unlike its nearest competitor at the time, the more expensive Linn LM-1, the 808 generates sounds using analog synthesis rather than playing samples.

Roland TR-808 Rhythm Composer (skladatel rytmů) je jeden z prvních programovatelných bicích automatů. "TR" je zkratka pro "Transistor Rhythm". Tento hudební nástroj byl představen v roce 1980 firmou Roland Corporation. Původní představa použití byla o tom, že by tento hudební nástroj používali studioví hudebníci při tvorbách různých demíček. Je třeba poznamenat, že oproti skutečnému bicí, nezní příliš jako skutečné bicí.


Production.

"Never Gonna Give You Up" was recorded at PWL Studios in South London, England. The song's basslines were produced using a Yamaha DX7 digital synthesizer, while a Linn 9000 was used for the drums and sequencing. Other equipment used included a Roland Juno 106 analog synthesizer, and Yamaha Rev5 and Rev7 reverberators.

Original success.

On 12 March 1988, "Never Gonna Give You Up" reached number one in the American "Billboard" Hot 100 after having been played by resident DJ, Larry Levan, at the Paradise Garage in 1987. The single topped the charts in 25 countries worldwide.  The single also reached the No. 1 spot on the year-end singles charts in the UK and South Africa.

Rickrolling.

"Never Gonna Give You Up" is the subject of a popular Internet prank known as "rickrolling" involving misleading links (commonly shortened URLs) redirecting to the song's music video. Originally started by users on 4chan, by May 2007, the practice had achieved notoriety on the Internet, and it increased in popularity after its use as a 2008 April Fools' Day joke by various media companies and websites, including YouTube rickrolling all of its featured videos on that day and websites allowing people to rickroll their friends' devices.  In "a couple of weeks", about 13 million people had been tricked into watching Astley's video, the BBC reported on 1 April 2008. "I think it's just one of those odd things where something gets picked up and people run with it", Astley told the "Los Angeles Times" in late March 2008, adding: "That's what's brilliant about the Internet."  Astley also appeared in the 2008 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, interrupting a song performed by those on a float promoting the Cartoon Network program "Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends" with a lipsynched performance of "Never Gonna Give You Up".  There were reports that despite the video garnering millions of hits on YouTube, Astley earned almost no money from the online phenomenon, receiving only US$12 in royalties from YouTube for his performance share, as of August 2010, but Astley denied those reports in 2016.

Impact and legacy.

"Time Out" listed "Never Gonna Give You Up" at number 33 in their "The 50 best '80s songs" list in 2018, adding: "Those synthesized strings, that thumping boots-and-pants beat, Astley's weirdly robust croon and his romantic-wooing-as-used-car-salesman pitch ('You wouldn't get this from any other guy')... It all adds up to three-and-a-half of the most effervescent minutes in the '80s canon."  During the live version of the song, Astley often says to the audience during the last verse, "We've known each other since 1987!" referencing to the year the song was released in and later in the verse, he sings "And if you ask me how I'm feeling" and then shouts "I'm feeling bloody marvellous!" In some countries, Astley will say things like "I'm doing pretty good!" or "I'm feeling fantastic, thank you very much!" instead of the usual 'bloody marvellous' comment.

Music video.

On 24 October 2009, the music video for "Never Gonna Give You Up", directed by Simon West, was uploaded to YouTube. It has over 700 million views as of June 2020.

"Never Gonna Give You Up" is a song recorded by British singer and songwriter Rick Astley, released as a single on 27 July 1987. It was written and produced by Stock Aitken Waterman. The song was released as the first single from Astley's debut album, "Whenever You Need Somebody" (1987). The song was a worldwide number-one hit, initially in the singer's native United Kingdom in 1987, where it stayed at the top of the chart for five weeks and was the best-selling single of that year. It eventually topped the charts in 25 countries, including the United States and West Germany.

"Never Gonna Give You Up" je píseň od britského zpěváka Ricka Astleyho. Píseň byla publikována jako první singl z debutního alba "Whenever You Need Somebody". Píseň byla mezinárodní hit, v UK Singles Chart se probojovala na #1, to samé skoro ve všech západních hitparádách.


Early life.

Parker was born in Detroit to Venolia Parker and Ray Parker Sr. He has two siblings, his brother Opelton and his sister Barbara. Parker attended Angel Elementary School where his music teacher, Afred T Kirby, inspired him to be a musician at age 6 playing the clarinet. Parker attended Cass Tech High School in the 10th grade.  Parker is a 1971 graduate of Detroit's Northwestern High School. He was raised in the Dexter-Grand Boulevard neighborhood on its West Side. Parker attended college at Lawrence Institute of Technology.

Career.

Early work.

Parker gained recognition during the late 1960s as a member of Bohannon's house band at the legendary 20 Grand nightclub. This Detroit hotspot often featured Tamla/Motown acts, one of which, the (Detroit) Spinners, was so impressed by the young guitarist's skills that they added him to their touring group. Through the Bohannon relationship at 16 he recorded and co-wrote his first songs with Marvin Gaye. Parker was also employed as a studio musician as a teenager for the emergent Holland-Dozier-Holland's Invictus/Hot Wax stable, and his choppy style was particularly prevalent on "Want Ads", a number one single for Honey Cone. Parker was later enlisted by Lamont Dozier to appear on his first two albums for ABC Records.  In 1972, Parker was a guest guitarist on Stevie Wonder's funk song "Maybe Your Baby" from Wonder's album "Talking Book". He also was the lead guitarist for Stevie Wonder when Wonder served as the opening act on the Rolling Stones' 1972 tour. In 1973, he became a sideman in Barry White's The Love Unlimited Orchestra, before creating Raydio, an R&B group, in 1977, with Vincent Bonham, Jerry Knight, and Arnell Carmichael. Parker appeared briefly in the 1974 film "Uptown Saturday Night" as a guitar player in the church picnic scene.  Parker also wrote songs and did session work for The Carpenters, Rufus and Chaka Khan, The Supremes, Aretha Franklin, Stevie Wonder (an association which prompted a permanent move to Los Angeles), Deniece Williams, Bill Withers, Michael Henderson, Jean-Luc Ponty, Leon Haywood, The Temptations, The Spinners, Boz Scaggs, David Foster, Rhythm Heritage, Gladys Knight & the Pips, Honey Cone, Herbie Hancock, Tina Turner, and Diana Ross.  Parker's first bona fide hit as a writer was "You Got the Love", co-written with Chaka Khan and recorded by Rufus. The single hit #1 on the R&B charts and #11 on the pop charts in December 1974. In 1976 he worked as rhythmic guitarist for Lucio Battisti's album "Io tu noi tutti", translated as "Me you and all of us".

1977–1981: Raydio.

Raydio scored their first big hit, "Jack and Jill", from their self-titled album in 1978 with Arista Records. The song reached #8 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, earning a gold single and gold album in the process. Their follow-up song, "You Can't Change That", was released in 1979 from the "Rock On" album. The song was another Top 10 hit, peaking at #9 on the Billboard chart during the summer and also selling a million copies.  In 1980, the group became known as Ray Parker Jr. and Raydio. The group released two more albums, "Two Places at the Same Time" in 1980 and "A Woman Needs Love" in 1981 both gold albums. In 1981, he produced the hard funk single "Sweat (till you get wet)" by Brick. During the 1980s, Ray Parker Jr. and Raydio had two Top 40 hits ("Two Places at the Same Time" - #30 in 1980 and "That Old Song" - #21 in 1981) and their last and biggest hit, "A Woman Needs Love (Just Like You Do)", released in 1981, went to #4 on the Billboard Hot 100 Charts and to #1 on the R&B Charts for two weeks in 1981.

Solo years.

Raydio broke up in 1981. Parker continued with his solo career, scoring six Top 40 hits, including the hit single "The Other Woman" (Pop #4) in 1982 and "Ghostbusters" in 1984. "Ghostbusters" was at #1 for three weeks on Billboard's Hot 100 chart, and at #1 for two weeks on its Black Singles chart. The song was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1984 but lost to Stevie Wonder's "I Just Called to Say I Love You" from "The Woman in Red". Parker's song secured him a 1984 Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance. Other hits from this period included "I Still Can't Get Over Loving You" (Pop #12) and "Jamie" (Pop #14).  Parker was one of the first black artists to venture into the then-fledgling world of music videos. In 1978, Hollywood producer Thom Eubank produced several music videos of songs from Raydio's first, eponymous album on Arista Records. The single "Jack & Jill" was the first released to air on Wolfman Jack's Saturday night television show, "The Midnight Special". The music videos were also transferred to film and projected in movie theaters all over Europe. He also made two different videos for his hit "The Other Woman". The first was Halloween-themed and centered around a haunted castle with dancing corpses and vampires. The second was more performance-oriented, with Parker performing the song against an outer space background with backup singers. Parker's "Ghostbusters" video, helmed by the film's director, Ivan Reitman, was one of the first movie-themed videos to find success on MTV. Parker also wrote and produced hits for New Edition ("Mr. Telephone Man"), Randy Hall, Cheryl Lynn ("Shake It Up Tonight"), Deniece Williams ("I Found Love"), and Diana Ross. He performed guitar on several songs on La Toya Jackson's 1980 debut album. In 1989, he also wrote "Ghostbusters", a rap performed by Run-D.M.C., for the movie "Ghostbusters II". 1989 also saw Parker work with actor Jack Wagner ("General Hospital") on an album for MCA Records that was eventually shelved and never released. A single from the Jack Wagner sessions, "Wish You Were Mine", featuring an intro rap by Parker, was released on a 1990 MCA promotional sampler CD. In 2006, Parker released a new CD titled "I'm Free". Parker is also the founder and owner of the Los Angeles-based recording facility Ameraycan Recording Studios.  In July 2016, Parker performed on the ABC network's television show "Greatest Hits".  In 2014, Parker was invited by producer Gerry Gallagher to record with Latin rock legends El Chicano as well as Alphonse Mouzon, Brian Auger, Alex Ligertwood, Siedah Garrett, Walfredo Reyes Jr., Spencer Davis, Lenny Castro, Vikki Carr, Pete Escovedo, Peter Michael Escovedo, Jessy J, Marcos J. Reyes, Salvador Santana, and David Paich, and is featured on guitar on the song "Something Got Me Started" from Gallagher's most recent studio album due out in 2019.

"Ghostbusters" theme song lawsuit.

In 1984 Huey Lewis sued Columbia Pictures and Parker, stating that the melody to the "Ghostbusters" theme song infringed on the copyright of the Huey Lewis and the News song "I Want a New Drug", which had been released on their album "Sports" the previous year. The three parties reached a settlement in 1995 which banned them from revealing any information that was not included in a press release they jointly issued at the time. In March 2001, Parker filed a suit against Lewis for breaching part of the settlement which prohibited either side from speaking about it publicly.

Acting.

Parker also made acting appearances on the 1980s sitcom "Gimme a Break", 1984 CBS Saturday morning kids' show "Pryor's Place" (for which Parker appeared in the opening title sequence singing the theme song), "Disorderlies" (1987), "Enemy Territory" (1987), "Charlie Barnett's Terms of Enrollment" (1986) (V) aka "Terms of Enrollment "(USA: short title), two episodes of "Berrenger's" (1985), and "Uptown Saturday Night" (1974). He was also a production assistant for the film "Fly by Night" (1993). He made guest appearances on "21 Jump Street" and "Kids Incorporated". In early 2009, Parker appeared in a television advertisement for 118 118, a British directory enquiries provider. This featured Parker singing a 118-specific version of the "Ghostbusters" theme song.  On 15 April 2009, Parker's 118 theme song was made available as a downloadable ringtone from the 118 118 mobile website. In 2014, Parker appeared in the fifth episode of the first season of NBC's romantic comedy television series "A to Z", singing the "Ghostbusters" theme song for a Halloween party. Parker was highlighted on TV One's series, "Unsung" in the fifth season.

Personal life.

Parker's father died of cancer on March 12, 1992, at age 82; his mother died of Alzheimer's on December 18, 1993, at age 83. At age 40, in 1994, he married his wife, Elaine. They have four sons: Ray III (Little Ray), Redmond, Gibson, and Jericho. In 2014, Parker received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to music.  On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Ray Parker Jr. among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Discography.

"For Ray Parker Jr.'s releases with Raydio, see Raydio discography."

Ray Erskine Parker Jr. (born May 1, 1954) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, record producer and actor. As a solo performer, he wrote and performed the theme song to the 1984 movie "Ghostbusters". He also performed with his band, Raydio, and with Barry White.

Ray Parker, Jr. (*1. května 1954) je americký kytarista, producent a skladatel. K jeho nejslavnějším dílům patří titulní píseň z filmu "Krotitelé duchů". Rovněž je to frontman kapely Raydio se kterou měl hity jako "Jack and Jill", "Is This a Love Thing" či "A Woman Needs Love".


History.

The "camera lucida" was patented in 1806 by William Hyde Wollaston.  The basic optics were described 200 years earlier by Johannes Kepler in his Dioptrice (1611), but there is no evidence he or his contemporaries constructed a working camera lucida. By the 19th century, Kepler's description had fallen into oblivion, so Wollaston's claim was never challenged. The term ""camera lucida"" (Latin "well-lit room" as opposed to "camera obscura" "dark room") is Wollaston's. (cf. Edmund Hoppe, Geschichte der Optik, Leipzig 1926)  While on honeymoon in Italy in 1833, the photographic pioneer William Fox Talbot used a "camera lucida" as a sketching aid. He later wrote that it was a disappointment with his resulting efforts which encouraged him to seek a means to "cause these natural images to imprint themselves durably".  In 2001, artist David Hockney's book "" was met with controversy. His argument, known as the Hockney-Falco thesis, is that the notable transition in style for greater precision and visual realism that occurred around the decade of the 1420s is attributable to the artists’ discovery of the capability of optical projection devices, specifically an arrangement using a concave mirror to project real images. Their evidence is based largely on the characteristics of the paintings by great artists of later centuries, such as Ingres, Van Eyck, and Caravaggio.  The "camera lucida" is still available today through art-supply channels but is not well known or widely used. It has enjoyed a resurgence as of 2017 through a number of Kickstarter campaigns.

Description.

The name ""camera lucida"" (Latin for "light chamber") is obviously intended to recall the much older drawing aid, the "camera obscura" (Latin for "dark chamber"). There is no optical similarity between the devices. The "camera lucida" is a light, portable device that does not require special lighting conditions. No image is projected by the "camera lucida".  In the simplest form of "camera lucida", the artist looks down at the drawing surface through a glass pane or half-silvered mirror tilted at 45 degrees. This superimposes a direct view of the drawing surface beneath, and a reflected view of a scene horizontally in front of the artist. This design produces an inverted image which is right-left reversed when turned the right way up. Also, light is lost in the imperfect reflection.  Wollaston's design used a prism with four optical faces to produce two successive reflections (see illustration), thus producing an image that is not inverted or reversed. Angles ABC and ADC are 67.5° and BCD is 135°. Hence, the reflections occur through total internal reflection, so very little light is lost. It is not possible to see straight through the prism, so it is necessary to look at the very edge to see the paper.  The instrument often came with an assortment of weak negative lenses, to create a virtual image of the scene at several distances. If the right lens is inserted, so that the chosen distance roughly equals the distance of the drawing surface, both images can be viewed in good focus simultaneously.  If white paper is used with the "camera lucida", the superimposition of the paper with the scene tends to wash out the scene, making it difficult to view. When working with a "camera lucida", it is often beneficial to use toned or grey paper. Some historical designs included shaded filters to help balance lighting.

Microscopy.

As recently as a few decades ago, the "camera lucida" was still a standard tool of microscopists. It is still a key tool in the field of palaeontology. Until very recently, photomicrographs were expensive to reproduce. Furthermore, in many cases, a clear illustration of the structure that the microscopist wished to document was much easier to produce by drawing than by micrography. Thus, most routine histological and microanatomical illustrations in textbooks and research papers were "camera lucida" drawings rather than photomicrographs. The "camera lucida" is still used as the most common method among neurobiologists for drawing brain structures, although it is recognised to have limitations. "For decades in cellular neuroscience, camera lucida hand drawings have constituted essential illustrations. (...) The limitations of camera lucida can be avoided by the procedure of digital reconstruction". Of particular concern is distortion, and new digital methods are being introduced which can limit or remove this, "computerized techniques result in far fewer errors in data transcription and analysis than the camera lucida procedure". It is also regularly used in biological taxonomy.

A camera lucida is an optical device used as a drawing aid by artists. The "camera lucida" performs an optical superimposition of the subject being viewed upon the surface upon which the artist is drawing. The artist sees both scene and drawing surface simultaneously, as in a photographic double exposure. This allows the artist to duplicate key points of the scene on the drawing surface, thus aiding in the accurate rendering of perspective.

Camera lucida je optické zařízení používané jako pomůcka ve výtvarném umění. Poprvé toto zařízení sestrojil W. H. Wollaston v roce 1807. Název „camera lucida“ (z latiny „světlá komora“) dal tomuto zařízení Wollaston a měl zdůraznit rozdíl mezi zařízením zvaným camera obscura (z latiny „temná komora“), což je starší optické zařízení používané také jako pomůcka ve výtvarném umění. Základem tohoto zařízení je čtyřboký polopropustný hranol, v němž se horizontální světelný paprsek láme do vertikálního směru a přichází do oka kreslíře. Hranol bývá namontován na držadle připevněném k horizontální desce, na níž leží materiál, na který je kresleno. Kreslíř se dívá přes hranu hranolu a vidí současně kreslenou scénu i nakreslenou část scény. To mu umožňuje zakreslit přesně klíčové body scény.


History.

1985–1987: Formation and early years.

In mid-1985, Brooklyn native Cheryl James met Queens resident Sandra Denton, both studying nursing at Queensborough Community College. The pair became close friends and co–workers at Sears. Co-worker Hurby "Luv Bug" Azor was studying record production at the Center of Media Arts and asked James and Denton to record for him as a class project. This resulted in the single "The Showstoppa", an answer record to Doug E. Fresh's hit single "The Show" by the duo, who originally called themselves Super Nature, along with DJ Latoya Hanson in late 1985, produced by Azor. The single used a melody from the 1984 film "Revenge of the Nerds". The finished recording garnered some airplay on a New York City rap radio program. The independent Pop Art Records gave it an official release, and "The Show Stoppa (Is Stupid Fresh)" became a modest R&B hit. The single reached No. 46 on the Billboard R&B chart. In September 1985, the group signed to Next Plateau Entertainment (formerly Next Plateau Records), adopting the stage name Salt-N-Pepa and released their debut album "Hot, Cool & Vicious" in December 1986.  In 1987, the group recruited Deidra Roper, a 15-year-old high-school student (aka Spinderella) after the departure of Hanson. The group entered the music industry at a time when hip hop was believed to be a fad, and major record companies were very reluctant to sign hip hop artists. Many early hip hop artists recorded for independent labels. Salt-N-Pepa made their impact on hip hop by being one of the first all-female rap groups. With lots of concerns about sexist lyrics and video clips that objectified women's bodies in hip hop, many feminists disliked rap and hip hop because of its bad portrayal of women. However, Salt-N-Pepa changed the look of hip hop. They were scantily clad in sexy clothing and were not afraid to talk about sex and their thoughts about men. Their song "Let's Talk About Sex" was a huge hit. With the success of "The Show Stoppa," the group's name was changed to Salt-N-Pepa. The group changed their name because in "The Show Stoppa" they rap the lines "Right now I'm gonna show you how it's supposed to be 'Cause we, the Salt and Pepa MCs". This resulted in radio stations getting phone calls requesting "The Show Stoppa" by Salt & Pepper. They signed to the independent Next Plateau Records to record a full-length album. The group's first album "Hot, Cool & Vicious" was released in 1986 with the original DJ Latoya Hanson, who was later replaced by Deidra "Spinderella" Roper. The album was produced by Hurby Azor, Salt's boyfriend at the time and the group's manager. Years later, the women found themselves with legal issues with Azor as they accused him of paying unfair royalties. "Hot, Cool & Vicious" provided some moderate R&B hits with the singles "My Mic Sound Nice", "Tramp", and "Chick On The Side". But when San Francisco DJ and producer Cameron Paul created a remix to "Push It", the B-side of the "Tramp" single, it gave the group their first major hit. "Push It" (US #19, UK #2) became a platinum single in the United States, and a hit in several other countries, and was added to subsequent pressings of "Hot, Cool & Vicious". It was nominated for a Grammy Award, and the strength of that single catapulted the album to platinum sales in the U.S. with over 1 million copies sold, making Denton, James, and Roper the first female rap act to go platinum. The album ultimately sold 1.4 million copies worldwide.

1988–1991: "A Salt with a Deadly Pepa" and breakthrough.

Salt-N-Pepa's next album "A Salt with a Deadly Pepa" was released on July 26, 1988, contained the top 10 R&B hit "Shake Your Thang", featuring the go-go band E.U. A top 20 R&B hit and a minor pop hit were seen in "Get Up Everybody (Get Up)" and "Twist and Shout", respectively; with "Twist and Shout" becoming a major hit in the UK (#4), and several European countries. The album became certified gold-status, for excess sales of 600,000 copies sold in the U.S. and a total of 800,000 copies sold internationally.  The group's third album "Blacks' Magic" was released on March 19, 1990. Pepa became the first group member to become pregnant. Azor produced some songs on the album. As he was producing other acts, he agreed to let the artists work with different producers to finish the album. James and Roper took on producing assignments themselves, and the trio hired different producers, such as Invincible's producer Dana Mozie. This was the first album to feature Roper on vocals as well as DJing. The result was six singles released by Next Plateau Records, several of which became hits: "Expression" (US #26, UK #40 in "1990", UK #23 in "1992"), a platinum single that had been certified gold before it even cracked the U..S Hot 100 as it had already been #1 on the R&B Chart for 8 weeks, and produced by Salt; "Independent"; "I Don't Know" (featuring Kid 'n Play); "Do You Want Me" (US #21, UK #5), certified gold; "Let's Talk About Sex" (US #13, UK #2), certified gold, and later re-recorded as "Let's Talk About AIDs"; and "You Showed Me" (UK #15). The album ultimately sold 1.6 million copies worldwide with 1 million of those sold in the U.S. A greatest hits album called "A Blitz of Salt-N-Pepa Hits", featuring some remixed versions of songs from the group's first three albums later was released.

1993–1995: Groundbreaking success, "Very Necessary".

Salt-N-Pepa's fourth studio album "Very Necessary" was released on October 12, 1993 on London Records/PolyGram. The album featured songwriting and production by Salt, Pepa, Spinderella, and Azor. Buoyed by the hits "Shoop" (U.S. #4, UK #13), co-produced by Pepa; "Whatta Man" (U.S. #3, UK #7) (featuring En Vogue); and "None of Your Business", a top 40 U.S. hit and a top 20 UK hit, the album eventually sold 7 million worldwide, with 5 million in the U.S. (5x platinum), making them the first female rap act (solo or group) to have a multi-platinum selling album. The group toured, and Salt co-starred in the movie "Who's the Man?". Pepa co-starred in the movie "Joe's Apartment". Pepa had been romantically involved with Treach of the rap group Naughty By Nature. The trio won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group in 1995 for the single "None of Your Business", making them the first female rap act to win Grammy. The album is the best-selling album by a female rap act.

1996–2002: "Brand New" and hiatus.

By the time of their next album release, Salt-N-Pepa had gone through the legal process of completely breaking away from Azor, whom they accused of unfair royalty payments. Salt had stopped being romantically involved with him due to their many ups-and-downs. The trio also left London Records after one album and signed with Red Ant Records, though still distributed by PolyGram Records through its Island Records label. Red Ant offered the trio a $15 million signing bonus to sign. The group undertook production duties once again, but without Azor involved in any part of the album. The result was "Brand New", released on October 21, 1997, which hit stores a few months later. However, Red Ant filed for bankruptcy soon afterward, halting promotion on all its releases, including Salt-N-Pepa's album. The group toured in support of the album, but without any promotion or marketing from the now-defunct Red Ant, they only scored minor hits with "R U Ready" and "Gitty Up". The album was certified gold in the U.S. for sales of over 500,000 and sold approximately another 200,000 worldwide. Although not as big a seller as its predecessor, it kept intact an unbroken string of platinum and gold studio albums by the trio.  In March 1999, Salt-N-Pepa embarked on a tour. Pepa married Treach of Naughty by Nature on July 27 of the same year. Salt-N-Pepa's greatest-hits album, titled "The Best of Salt-N-Pepa", was released in Europe on January 25, 2000. Pepa and Treach remained married for two years, but their tumultuous marriage ended in divorce on July 31, 2001. With no albums contractually due at the time, Salt decided to quit the group, stating she had enough of the music industry and no longer wanted to be involved in it. They officially disbanded in 2002. Some time later, Salt announced that she would release her first solo album, but never ended up doing so. She was featured on the remix version of the Salt City Six's "Shine" on the album "Holy South Worldwide", a compilation of Christian rap and Christian R&P (Rhythm & Praise) songs. The album was produced by ex-Three 6 Mafia member-turned-Christian rapper Mr. Del. Salt also revealed in later interviews that she had suffered from bulimia "many years ago". Pepa appeared on the fifth season of VH-1's "The Surreal Life". Spinderella became a radio personality on KKBT 100.3 in Los Angeles. She hosted "The Backspin" (with DJ Mo'Dav), a nationally syndicated weekly radio show featuring old school hip hop music. She also periodically DJs at various clubs. The trio was disbanded for a total of five years.

2005–present: Reunion.

Both Salt and Pepa appeared on VH-1's "Hip Hop Honors" in September 2005 as the trio were honorees. All three women reunited the following year for the next "Hip Hop Honors" program and performed "Whatta Man" with En Vogue. It was the trio's first performance in six years, and was their first performance of "Whatta Man" with En Vogue on stage. Salt-N-Pepa reformed in 2007. All three women now have children. Spinderella has a daughter with former NBA player Kenny Anderson. Her daughter has appeared on MTV's "My Super Sweet Sixteen" in 2008. Pepa has a son and a daughter. Salt has a daughter and a son.  On October 14, 2007, "The Salt-n-Pepa Show" debuted on VH1. Pepa initially started the formation of the series as shepreviously appeared on the network in "The Surreal Life". "The Salt-n-Pepa Show" chronicled events in the lives of Pepa and Salt as they work out past issues and return to the recording studio. Spinderella has been featured in several episodes. Later in 2008, the trio performed with MC Lyte, Yo-Yo, and Lady of Rage at the BET Hip Hop Awards. Pepa released an autobiography titled "Let's Talk About Pep" in August 2008. The book was co-written by Karen Hunter. It features an introduction by Queen Latifah, and an epilogue by Missy Elliott. To accompany the book, she launched her own social network for her fans and also starred in the reality TV series "Let's Talk About Pep" on the VH-1 network.  On May 9, 2009 Salt-N-Pepa performed a concert in Honolulu, along with SWV and Lisa Lisa. The name of the show was Ladies of the 80s. They performed at the Good Vibrations Festival in Australia in February 2010, and the South West Four Festival, Clapham Common, London on August 29, 2010. On October 12, 2010, Salt-N-Pepa received the I Am Hip Hop Award at the BET Hip Hop Awards.  On February 4, 2011, Salt-N-Pepa headed on a national tour titled Salt-N-Pepa's Legends of Hip Hop Tour. Other acts on the tour included Whodini, Rob Base, Kurtis Blow, Doug E Fresh, Biz Markie, Naughty By Nature, MC Lyte, Big Daddy Kane, Kool Moe Dee, Slick Rick and Chubb Rock. On November 21, 2011, Salt-N-Pepa appeared on "The X Factor" Australia's third season with contestant and finalist Johnny Ruffo. They performed "Push It". On July 30, 2012, Salt-N-Pepa opened for rap group Public Enemy in Brooklyn, New York as part of the Martin Luther King Jr. Concert Series. They brought rap duo Kid 'n Play after performing "Whatta Man".  The trio made a November 2014 appearance in a Geico insurance commercial performing "Push It". DJ Spinderella replaced temporary DJ Wendy Williams (The Wendy Williams Show) during Salt-N-Pepa's performance of "Push It", first airing December 18, 2015. The trio's hit song "Shoop" made a comeback on February 12, 2016, as one of the main theme songs featured in the blockbuster Marvel movie "Deadpool". The duo, along with DJ Spinderella performed in Red Deer, Alberta (Canada) for Westerner Days at the Enmax Centrium on July 21, 2016.  In 2017–2018, the group toured as part of the I Love the 90's tour, performing in various locations, including in the UK Wembley Arena, Glasgow SSE, Liverpool Echo Arena and Birmingham. On October 16, 2018, Salt-N-Pepa appeared on the U.S. version of "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire", with Kid N Play serving as their "plus one" in-studio lifeline.  In March 2019, it was announced that Salt-N-Pepa would have a biographical miniseries coming to the Lifetime network, highlighting the rise of the group to become one of the first successful female rap groups in hip hop. Queen Latifah, as well as Salt-N-Pepa will be executive producers of the series.  On May 2, 2019, the Mixtape Tour commenced in Cincinnati, Ohio. Performers on this tour include Salt-N-Pepa, Debbie Gibson, Tiffany, and Naughty by Nature, with New Kids on the Block being billed as the headline performers. The next day, DJ Spinderella announced in an Instagram post that she had been "terminated" from Salt-N-Pepa as of January, and broke her silence after the band hadn't made a public announcement regarding their parting of ways. DJ Cocoa Chanelle, formerly of BET Networks and HOT 97, became the replacement DJ.

Salt-N-Pepa (also stylized as Salt 'N' Pepa or Salt 'N Pepa) is an American hip-hop girl group formed in 1985. Group members included Salt (Cheryl James), Pepa (Sandra Denton), and DJ Spinderella (Deidra Roper). They were signed to Next Plateau Records and released their single "Push It" in 1987, which hit number one in three countries and became a top 10 or top 20 hit in various countries. Their debut album "Hot, Cool & Vicious" sold more than 1 million copies worldwide, making them the first female rap act to achieve gold and platinum-status. Their fourth album "Very Necessary" sold over 7 million copies worldwide (5 million in the U.S.), making it the highest-selling album by a female rap act in history.

Salt-N-Pepa je americké dívčí hip-hopové trio z Queensu, New Yorku. Skupina byla založena v roce 1985. Kapela se skládá z Cheryl "Salt" Jamesové, Sandry "Pepa" Dentonové a DJ Deidry "Dee Dee" Roperové.


Founding.

The business first began in Cincinnati. Here, Larry Flynt and his brother, Jimmy Flynt, opened up a store in 1969. Jimmy wrote the check for $5,000 to pay for the club in Cincinnati, and he was listed on the masthead for volume 1, number 1 of the magazine in July, 1974. However, Larry fired his brother in 2009, and since then he has been developing his own business, Jimmy Flynt's Sexy Gifts Stand. An old member of "Hustler" magazine has described the relationship, saying, "Larry is the show, and Jimmy makes it go".

Publisher.

"Hustler" is officially published by LFP, Inc, which also produces pornographic films. The abbreviation "L.F.P." originally stood for "Larry Flynt Publications."  A Canadian version of "Hustler" is published by a Quebec-based firm. This magazine is not owned by Larry Flynt, but is licensed to publish material from the American version. In general, Canadian "Hustler" imitates the appearance and tone of its American counterpart, with Canadian content added. In 1999, the magazine created a minor controversy in Canada by inviting readers to submit sexually explicit stories about Sheila Copps, a left-leaning member of the Liberal cabinet. There have also been Australian, British and South African versions of the magazine.  During a bookstore signing in July 2011, Flynt stated that less than five percent of his income comes from the print magazine; he also speculated that the print magazine will not be around in 2 to 3 years.

Regular features.

One feature of "Hustler" is a column called "Asshole of the Month". In every monthly issue of the magazine, a public figure is selected for severe criticism as that month's "asshole". An illustration depicting the criticized person's head emerging from the anus of a cartoon donkey is shown alongside the article. After Flynt's imprisonment in 1977 and his alleged conversion to evangelical Christianity, he promised to reform "Asshole of the Month". However, as of 2016, reform in the feature has yet to be seen.  In the 1970s, "Hustler" ran a comic strip feature entitled "Honey Hooker". In each installment, Honey would have graphic sexual encounters with any male (or female) she ran across. She might be in American colonial times one month or in a Super Bowl locker room the next. This feature was designed to compete against "Playboy"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Little Annie Fanny and "Penthouse"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Wicked Wanda. In keeping with "Hustler"'s focus on the seamier and less romantic aspects of sexuality, Honey Hooker, unlike Fanny and Wanda, was explicitly portrayed as being a prostitute.  The "Beaver Hunt" section of the magazine contains explicit nudes of amateur models submitted by readers.  Another "Hustler" feature that was heavily criticized was the "Chester the Molester" cartoon. Each month's issue depicted Chester, a cartoon middle-aged pedophile, joyfully raping or molesting young girls. After increasing citicism, the cartoon became "Chester and Hester", featuring Hester, an unattractive middle-aged woman who was either Chester's wife or girlfriend. Following Flynt's alleged religious conversion, he introduced "Chester the Protector", a reincarnation of the molester character who served as a hero to protect young girls from rape and seduction.  A regular feature entitled "Ads We'd Like to See" recreates advertisements of everyday products in a sexualized or violent way. For example, an advertisement in the 1980 issue called 'Doer's Lite Label', a parody of Dewar's Lite Label Whiskey, featured Kenneth Bianchi, the Hillside Strangler. Listed as his greatest accomplishment was Cindy Lee Hudspeth, whom he actually strangled in 1978. He is quoted as saying "You gotta treat 'em rough...". This section was highly criticized for admiring men who had committed sexualized crimes against women.  In addition to its regular features, "Hustler" occasionally published special features and issues. Examples include the "All Meat" issue from 1978, where the cover spread depicted a naked woman being fed into a meat grinder upside down. In 1977, the magazine's front page read "First-Time Ever Scratch 'N' Sniff Centerfold".

Controversy and criticism.

In 1984, conservative academic Judith Reisman received a grant from the Department of Justice to complete a study at American University concerning the cartoons of "Playboy", "Penthouse", and "Hustler", specifically the sexual depictions of minors in these cartoons. She finished the study in 1986, and found that on average, the number of times per issue that "Hustler" referred to children, crime, and violence was 46.  Reisman published a nearly 1,600-page report of her findings, condemning the sexual depictions of children in pornographic magazines, but her work was met with criticism from her peers. An American University professor, Dr. Myra Sadker, said that she was "very dismayed about the quality of office management and the nature of the research that was going on." Many fellow academics have disputed the neutrality of the research. Avedon Carol, a sex crime researcher and author, said that Reisman's study was a "scientific disaster, riddled with researcher bias."  "Hustler"'s chief cartoon artist Dwaine Tinsley was arrested on May 18, 1989, after being accused by his 18-year-old daughter Allison of molesting her since she was thirteen years old. According to court records, he allegedly told his coworkers, "You can't write about this stuff all the time if you don't experience it." Tinsley was found guilty of five counts of child molestation and sentenced to six years in prison although he only spent 23 months behind bars. Tinsley was the artist behind the regular "Chester the Molester" series, which ran from 1976 to 1989.  In a 2012 issue of "Hustler", S. E. Cupp, a conservative commentator, was photoshopped and depicted as explicitly performing oral sex. The article describes Cupp as a "lovely young lady who read too much Ayn Rand in high school and ended up joining the dark side...But her hotness is diminished when she espouses dumb ideas like defunding Planned Parenthood."> Despite having a disclaimer that the photo was not real, the photograph horrified Cupp, knowing that "this photo will be out there forever." Flynt's response was that the photoshopped image was meant to be satirical: "I'm able to publish this because of the Supreme Court case I won in 1984, Flynt V. Falwell." Cupp did not pursue either Flynt or the magazine because of "free speech". Cupp ultimately chose to "express a little gratitude for "Hustler,"" saying "I’m completely serious here—there is an accompanying sidebar to this story, in which they lay out why they did this to me. It’s under a hundred words, and in that paragraph they say, ‘S.E. Cupp, she’s lovely, she’s smart, she’s fine, but she happens to be a crazy conservative who is pro-life and wants to defund Planned Parenthood. And for that, she deserves a phallus in her mouth.’ That is essentially what they're saying, and I have to commend that as being incredibly honest.”  Hustler's American flag hijab cover was criticized as an attack on American patriotism and Islam.

Lawsuits and litigation.

The magazine has had many lawsuits since the 1980s, including claims of defamation and enforcement of sexual violence and behavior. However, there have not been any lawsuits against the magazine or incorporation as of 2016.  In "Douglass v. Hustler Magazine Inc.", actress Robyn Douglass sued "Hustler" for defamation and unlawfully placing her under a false light. Douglass posed nude for freelance photographer Augustin Gregory, believing that her photos would appear on an issue of "Playboy Magazine". However, Gregory was hired to "Hustler" and Douglass' photos were published in the 1981 January issue without Douglass' consent. She brought the case to the United States District Court from the North District of Illinois on the basis that the magazine had defamed her name and likeness. The court cases ended in favoring Douglass since the magazine had violated her right of publicity, awarding her $600,000.  In the 1984 "Keeton v. Hustler Magazine, Inc." court case, Kathy Keeton, vice chairman of "Penthouse", sued "Hustler" for defamation. Keeton brought the case to New Hampshire due its generous six-year statute of limitations for libel and the state believed it was able to support taking jurisdiction due to the magazine's content. The magazine sold up to 15,000 issues since 1975, containing a cartoon where Keeton had received a venereal disease from Robert Guccione, a publisher of Penthouse. Keeton was awarded $2 million for the defamation damages.  Hustler Magazine, Inc. v. Falwell, 485 U.S. 46 (1988), is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the First and Fourteenth Amendments prohibit public figures from recovering damages for the tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED), if the emotional distress was caused by a caricature, parody, or satire of the public figure that a reasonable person would not have interpreted as factual.  In "Herceg v. Hustler" (1989), a family attempted to sue "Hustler" for the suicide of their fourteen-year-old boy on the basis that its illustrations stimulated violence. Within the magazine's contents was the article "Orgasm of Death", demonstrating practices of erotic asphyxia via photographs in order to heighten sexual pleasure in men. However, "Hustler" placed disclaimers on the photographs of "Do Not Attempt" to prevent the audience from mimicking the photos. The court case ended in favoring the magazine; the court agreed that the depictions were not forcing readers to perform these erotic or dangerous activities.

Editorial policy.

"Hustler" has had what would be considered a left-wing (liberal) editorial policy on economics, foreign policy, and social issues. Flynt and "Hustler" are also noted for having a more populist and working-class outlook than the more upscale-oriented "Playboy" and "Penthouse". Throughout the 1980s, Flynt used his magazine as a podium with which to launch attacks on the Reagan Administration and the Religious Right. He even published a short-lived political magazine called "Rebel". During the controversy surrounding Bill Clinton's impeachment, Flynt publicly announced his sympathy for Clinton, and offered cash rewards to anyone with information regarding sexual impropriety on the part of the president's critics. In 2003, Flynt ran unsuccessfully for the office of Governor of California during that state's recall election.  Every month "Hustler" is mailed, uninvited and for free, to all of the offices of Members of the United States Congress. This practice began at some point between 1974 and 1983, and it continues as of April 2014. In an interview, Flynt explained, "I felt that they should be informed with what's going on in the rest of the world... Some of them didn't appreciate it much. I haven't had any plans to quit."  In a 1983 parody of an advertisement for Campari, "Hustler" described the then-prominent fundamentalist Protestant minister Jerry Falwell having a drunken, incestuous encounter with his mother in an outhouse. Falwell sued Flynt, alleging libel and intentional infliction of emotional distress. The case was ultimately decided by the Supreme Court in Flynt's favor. The decision strengthened free speech rights in relation to parodies of public figures. "See" "Hustler Magazine v. Falwell".

Other venture.

Related magazines.

LFP, Inc. publishes several other magazines that use the "Hustler" brand:

Websites.

In 1995, the company launched Hustler.com. Larry Flynt Productions, operates Hustler.com and a number of related sites, where it sells pictures and videos with content similar to that in its magazines. The site was targeted by Anonymous in Operation Payback in October 2010.

Erotic Movie Awards.

During the Golden Age of Porn, and prior to getting into the movie business themselves, "Hustler" was one of two magazines that announced awards for adult sex films, the other being "Adam Film World". They were discontinued in the late 1980s.  The awards were based on fan ballots printed in the publication. In announcing its third annual awards, the magazine said, ""Hustler"'s erotic-movie awards are intended to reward excellence in the erotic-film industry and thereby encourage the fast-buck makers of mediocrity to clean up their act or go out of business."

Hustler is a monthly pornographic magazine published by Larry Flynt in the United States. Introduced in 1974, it was a step forward from the "Hustler Newsletter", originally conceived as cheap advertising for his strip club businesses at the time. The magazine grew from a shaky start to a peak circulation of around 3 million in the early 1980s; it has since dropped to approximately 500,000. It shows explicit views of the female genitalia, becoming one of the first major US-based magazines to do so, in contrast with relatively modest publications like "Playboy".

Hustler je měsíční pornografický časopis, který založil Larry Flynt roku 1974. Jeho předchůdcem byl zpravodaj "Hustler Newsletter", který sloužil jako reklama pro Flyntovy striptýzové kluby. Ze slabých počátků se časopis vyšplhal až k nákladu okolo tří milionů kusů měsíšně, dnes si drží průměr okolo pěti set tisíc kusů.


Name.

Originally known as "Stützerkopf", the name "Großvenediger" () is first recorded from a 1797 border survey. The origin of this name is unclear, probably deriving from Venetian merchants on their way over the mountain passes. An alternative theory is that the view from the summit may reach as far as Venice, some away, however, this is not in accordance with the facts.  The author and mountaineer Ignaz von Kürsinger (1795–1861), one of the first climbers of the Großvenediger in 1840, coined the epithet "weltalte Majestät" (World-old Majesty).

Climbing history.

Several attempts were made in the early 19th century to reach the Großvenediger summit, after the first ascent of the nearby Großglockner in 1800. On 9 August 1828, an expedition of 17 men, including the Habsburg archduke John of Austria, failed in their attempt to climb Großvenediger due to an avalanche.  It wasn't until 3 September 1841, forty years after the first ascent of the Großglockner, that a team led by Josef Schwab made the first successful attempt on the Großvenediger summit, starting at the northern foot in Neukirchen in the Salzach Valley, climbing up southwards along the Obersulzbach tributary valley and over the Stierlahnerwand. Other members of the team included Ignaz von Kürsinger, Paul Rohregger, Anton von Ruthner and Franz Spitaler. Of the 40 participants, only 26 finally reached the summit, the others having stayed back due to fatigue.  Today several mountain huts serve as basis for summit ascents, though mountaineering on nival level can be dangerous in view of numerous crevasses.

Main routes to the summit.

The Großvenediger can be reached via three different common routes (north, east and south).

Northern Ascent.

Of the three different routes, this is the least travelled. Compared to the other two main routes, one starts from the state of Salzburg rather than from Tyrol. The starting point is the and the ascent is from the via the and.

Eastern Ascent.

The east ascent takes about eight hours, where one puts about 2,200 vertical meters behind him. Without a break, this could be achieved in around four hours. This is a light- to medium-difficulty high alpine tour.  The starting point here is the. From there you march on a gravel road to to the Venedigerhaus (1691 m). After half an hour towards the end of the valley, a steep and very strenuous ascent follows. The route then meanders to the (2796 m). The route then follows the glacier to the west, where extra caution is required due to the crevasses. The final ascent becomes very steep and the route goes to the summit ridge, which is becoming increasingly narrow.

Southern Ascent.

The ascent from the is considered one of the easiest, although the risk of crevices and the narrow ridge crossing to the summit should not be underestimated. Due to the relatively 'easy' ascent, this is the most popular of the three common routes.  Starting from the Defreggerhaus, the route goes north along the 'Moränenrückens' up to the 'Mullwitzaderl'. It follows an incline to the 'Rainertörl', continuing south below the Rainerhorn and going a bit steeper to the Rainertörl (3421 m). The way leads to the northwest, slightly rising to the steep ascent of the Venediger and finally reaches the broad shoulder and narrow ridge to the summit.  All three climbs on the Großvenediger are technically not difficult, but the higher elements pose a risk, as they lead across a glacier terrain full of crevasses. Depending on the conditions, these are sometimes difficult to recognise and are also a danger in ski tours.

Großvenediger () is the main peak of the Venediger Group within the Hohe Tauern mountain range, on the border of the Austrian state of Tyrol (East Tyrol) with Salzburg. It is generally considered to be Austria's fourth highest mountain (although it can be up to sixteenth if every subsidiary summit is counted). The summit, covered by glaciers, is part of the Hohe Tauern National Park.

Großvenediger (; 3662 m) je 4. nejvyšší hora Rakouska, která se nachází ve skupině Venediger patřící do Vysokých Taur na hranicích spolkových zemí Solnohradsko a Tyrolsko.


Playing.

A kazoo player hums, rather than blows, into the bigger and flattened side of the instrument. The oscillating air pressure of the hum makes the kazoo's membrane vibrate. The resulting sound varies in pitch and loudness with the player's humming. Players can produce different sounds by singing specific syllables such as "doo", ‘’too’’, "who", "rrrrr" or "brrrr" into the kazoo.  Some people refer to the kazoo's membrane as a reed, considering it performs the same action in the kazoo as it would a woodwind instrument, however reeds are made of cane (or a synthetic equivalent), while the membrane (most commonly made of waxy paper) is not.

History.

It's popularly believed that Alabama Vest, an African-American in Macon, Georgia, was the one who invented the kazoo around 1840, although there is no documentation to support that claim. The story originated with the Kaminsky International Kazoo Quartet, a group of satirical kazoo players, which may cast doubt on the veracity of the story, as does the name "Alabama Vest" itself.  In 1879, Simon Seller received a patent for a "Toy Trumpet" that worked on the same principle as a kazoo: "By blowing through the tube A, and at the same time humming a sort of a head sound, a musical vibration is given to the paper covering c over the aperture b, and a sound produced pleasing to the ear." Seller's "toy trumpet" was basically a hollow sheet-metal tube, with a rectangular aperture cut out along the length of the tube, with paper covering the aperture, and a funnel at the end, like the bell of a trumpet. The first documented appearance of a kazoo was that created by an American inventor, Warren Herbert Frost, who named his new musical instrument "kazoo" in his patent #270,543 issued on January 9, 1883. The patent states, "This instrument or toy, to which I propose to give the name 'kazoo' "..." Frost's kazoo did not have the streamlined, submarine shape of modern kazoos, but it was similar in that the aperture was circular and elevated above the length of the tube. The modern kazoo—also the first one made of metal—was patented by George D. Smith of Buffalo, New York, May 27, 1902.  In 1916, the Original American Kazoo Company in Eden, New York started manufacturing kazoos for the masses in a two-room shop and factory, utilizing a couple of dozen jack presses for cutting, bending and crimping metal sheets. These machines were used for many decades. By 1994, the company produced 1.5 million kazoos per year and was the only manufacturer of metal kazoos in North America. The factory, in nearly its original configuration, is now called The Kazoo Factory and Museum. It is still operating, and it is open to the public for tours.  In 2010, The Kazoo Museum opened in Beaufort, South Carolina with exhibits on kazoo history.

Professional usage.

The kazoo is played professionally in jug bands and comedy music, and by amateurs everywhere. It is among the acoustic instruments developed in the United States, and one of the easiest melodic instruments to play, requiring only the ability to vocalize in tune. In North East England and South Wales, kazoos play an important role in juvenile jazz bands. During Carnival, players use kazoos in the Carnival of Cádiz in Spain and in the corsos on the murgas in Uruguay.  In the Original Dixieland Jass Band 1921 recording of "Crazy Blues", what the casual listener might mistake for a trombone solo is actually a kazoo solo by drummer Tony Sbarbaro.  Red McKenzie played kazoo in a Mound City Blue Blowers 1929 film short. The Mound City Blue Blowers had a number of hit kazoo records in the early 1920s featuring Dick Slevin on metal kazoo and Red McKenzie on comb and tissue paper (although McKenzie also played metal kazoo). The vocaphone, a kind of kazoo with a trombone-like tone, was occasionally featured in Paul Whiteman's Orchestra. Trombonist-vocalist Jack Fulton played it on Whiteman's recording of "Vilia" (1931) and Frankie Trumbauer's "Medley of Isham Jones Dance Hits" (1932). The Mills Brothers vocal group originally started in vaudeville as a kazoo quartet, playing four-part harmony on kazoo with one brother accompanying them on guitar.  The kazoo is rare in European classical music. It does appear in David Bedford's "With 100 Kazoos", where, rather than having professionals play the instrument, kazoos are handed out to the audience, who accompany a professional instrumental ensemble. Leonard Bernstein included a segment for kazoo ensemble in the First Introit (Rondo) of his "Mass." The kazoo was used in the 1990 Koch International and 2007 Naxos Records recordings of American classical composer Charles Ives' "Yale-Princeton Football Game", where the kazoo chorus represents the football crowd's cheering. The brief passages have the kazoo chorus sliding up and down the scale as the "cheering" rises and falls.  In Frank Loesser's score for the 1961 Broadway musical comedy "How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying", several kazoos produce the effect of electric razors used in the executive washroom during a dance reprise of the ballad "I Believe in You".  In 1961 Del Shannon's "So Long Baby" issued on Big Top Records featured a kazoo on the instrumental break. In addition to the single release it featured on the UK London American release of his album Hats Off To Del Shannon. Joanie Sommers' 1962 hit single "Johnny Get Angry" featured a kazoo ensemble in its instrumental bridge, as did Ringo Starr's 1973 cover of "You're Sixteen".  Jesse Fuller's 1962 recording of his song "San Francisco Bay Blues" features a kazoo solo, as does Eric Clapton's 1992 recording of the song on MTV's Unplugged television show and album. On the song "Alligator" on the Grateful Dead album "Anthem of the Sun" three members of the band play kazoo together. Many Paolo Conte performances include kazoo passages.  Short kazoo performances appear on many modern recordings, usually for comic effect. For example, in his first album, "Freak Out!", Frank Zappa used the kazoo to add comic feel to some songs — including one of his best known, "Hungry Freaks, Daddy". In the song "Crosstown Traffic" from the album "Electric Ladyland", Jimi Hendrix used a comb-and-paper instrument to accompany the guitar and accentuate a blown-out speaker sound. The song "Lovely Rita", from the Beatles album "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", uses combs-and-paper instruments. Kazoo playing parodied the sound of a military brass band in the Pink Floyd song "Corporal Clegg". In the McGuinness Flint recording "When I'm Dead and Gone", Benny Gallagher and Graham Lyle play kazoos in harmony during the instrumental break. The New Seekers' live track "(Ever Since You Told Me That You Loved Me) I'm A Nut" features a kazoo solo by singer Eve Graham. British singer-songwriter Ray Dorset, the leader of pop-blues band Mungo Jerry, played the kazoo on many of his band's recordings, as did former member Paul King.  One of the best known kazooists of recent times is Stewart (1941–2011). Stewart, a classically trained singer, wrote a book on the kazoo, formed the "quartet" Kazoophony, performed kazoo at Carnegie Hall and on the "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" television show. The steampunk band Steam Powered Giraffe has audience members play kazoos at some of their concerts. They also sell Kazookaphones, a standard kazoo with optional bugle horn and phonograph.  The kazoo is used regularly on the radio show "I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue".  The video game "Yoshi's New Island", released in 2014, has synthesized kazoos in several tracks of its soundtrack.  The American glam metal band Steel Panther released in December 2014 the Christmas track "The Stocking Song", which includes a kazoo hook from "Deck the Halls".  The Australian psychedelic rock band Tame Impala released a single in 2009 "Sundown Syndrome", which includes kazoo rhythmic part.  The Swedish rock band Ghost have performed live acoustic renditions of their song "Ghuleh/Zombie Queen", which features the kazoo in place of the recorded version's keyboards.  The Ukrainian polka band Los Colorados released a cover of Rammstein song "Du Hast", which features a kazoo.  South Korean singer Kim Jonghyun was known for his use of the kazoo in his solo concerts, most notably "The Story by Jonghyun" concert series which continued from 2015 until his death in 2017.

Records.

On March 14, 2011, the audience at BBC Radio 3's Red Nose Show at the Royal Albert Hall, along with a star-studded kazoo band, set a new Guinness World Record for Largest Kazoo Ensemble. The 3,910 kazooists played Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyries" and the Dambusters March. This surpassed the previous record of 3,861 players, set in Sydney, Australia in 2009. The current record of 5,190 was set later the same night in a second attempt.  On August 9, 2010 the San Francisco Giants hosted a Jerry Garcia tribute night, in which an ensemble of an estimated 9,000 kazooists played "Take Me Out to the Ball Game".

The kazoo is an American musical instrument that adds a "buzzing" timbral quality to a player's voice when the player vocalizes or hums into it. It is a type of "mirliton" (which itself is a membranophone), one of a class of instruments which modifies its player's voice by way of a vibrating membrane of goldbeater's skin or material with similar characteristics.

Kazoo ([], hovorově [kazu]) je druh membranofonu, přesněji mirlitonu, tedy dechový hudební nástroj (aerofon), který vydává prostřednictvím vibrací papírové membrány specifický „bzučivý“ zvuk.


Examples.

Imagine a message to make a telephone call. In a first version of a system this might use two message elements: a "command" and a "phoneNumberToCall":  Here codice_1, codice_2 and codice_3 are integer constants and 4 and 8 are the lengths of the "value" fields, respectively.  Later (in version 2) a new field containing the calling number could be added:  A version 1 system which received a message from a version 2 system would first read the codice_1 element and then read an element of type codice_5. The version 1 system does not understand ;codice_5  so the length field is read (i.e. 14) and the system skips forward 14 bytes to read  which it understands, and message parsing carries on.  An example of usage is the Link Layer Discovery Protocol which allows for the sending of organizational-specific information as a TLV element within LLDP packets. Another example is the RR protocol used in GSM cell phones, defined in 3GPP 04.18.  In the RR protocol, each message is defined as a sequence of information elements.  TLVs are used in many protocols, such as COPS, IS-IS, and RADIUS, as well as data storage formats such as IFF and QTFF (the basis for MPEG-4 containers).

Other ways of representing data.

Core TCP/IP protocols (particularly IP, TCP, and UDP) use predefined, static fields.  Common TCP/IP-based protocols such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, POP3, and SIP use text-based "Field: Value" pairs formatted according to RFC 2822.  ASN.1 specifies several TLV-based encoding rules (BER, DER), as well as non-TLV based ones (PER, XER).  CSN.1 describes encoding rules using non-TLV semantics.  More recently, XML has been used to implement messaging between different nodes in a network. These messages are typically prefixed with line-based text commands, such as with BEEP.

Within data communication protocols, TLV (type-length-value or tag-length-value) is an encoding scheme used for optional information element in a certain protocol.

TLV (Type-length-value) je obecný název pro formát dat, která jsou složena z řady bloků: Struktury TLV obvykle používají binární formát dat, často jsou zaměřené na optimalizaci objemu a rychlosti zpracování dat. Používají se také pro přenos nekonečného proudu dat, například v telekomunikacích.


Origins.

The initial version of the type in Byron's work, Childe Harold, draws on a variety of earlier literary characters including Hamlet, Goethe's Werther (1774), and William Godwin's Mr. Faulkland in "Caleb Williams" (1794); he was also noticeably similar to René, the hero of Chateaubriand's novella of 1802, although Byron may not have read this. Ann Radcliffe's "unrepentant" Gothic villains (beginning in 1789 with the publication of "The Castles of Athlin and Dunbayne, a Highland Story") also foreshadow a moody, egotistical Byronic "villain" nascent in Byron's own juvenilia, some of which looks back to Byron's Gordon relations, Highland aristocrats or Jacobites now lost between two worlds. For example, in Byron's early poem "When I Roved a Young Highlander" (1808), we see a reflection of Byron's youthful Scottish connection, but also find these lines:  <poem>As the last of my race, I must wither alone, And delight but in days, I have witness'd before:</poem>  These lines echo William Wordsworth's treatment of James Macpherson's Ossian in "Glen-Almain" (1807):  <poem>That Ossian, last of all his race! Lies buried in this lonely place.</poem>  Thus Byron's poem seems to show that a brooding, melancholy influence not only from Wordsworth but also from Macpherson was very much on his mind at an early date.  After "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", the Byronic hero made an appearance in many of Byron's other works, including his series of poems on Oriental themes: "The Giaour" (1813), "The Corsair" (1814) and "Lara" (1814); and his closet play "Manfred" (1817). For example, Byron described Conrad, the pirate hero of his "The Corsair" (1814), as follows:  <poem>That man of loneliness and mystery, Scarce seen to smile, and seldom heard to sigh— (I, VIII)</poem> and<poem>He knew himself a villain—but he deem'd The rest no better than the thing he seem'd; And scorn'd the best as hypocrites who hid Those deeds the bolder spirit plainly did. He knew himself detested, but he knew The hearts that loath'd him, crouch'd and dreaded too. Lone, wild, and strange, he stood alike exempt From all affection and from all contempt: (I, XI)</poem>

Public reaction and "fandom".

Admiration of Byron continued to be fervent in the years following his death. Notable fans included Alfred Tennyson. Fourteen at the time of Byron's death, and so grieved at the poet's passing, he carved the words "Byron is dead" on a rock near his home in Somersby, declaring the "world had darkened for him" (McCarthy, 555). However, the admiration of Byron as a character led some fans to emulate characteristics of the Byronic hero. Foremost was Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, who took the Byron cult to remarkable extremes. His marriage to Byron's granddaughter (McCarthy, 562), taking a "Byron pilgrimage" around the Continent and his anti-imperialist stance that saw him become an outcast just like his hero (McCarthy, 564) cemented his commitment to emulating the Byronic character.

Literary usage and influence.

Byron's influence is manifest in many authors and artists of the Romantic movement and writers of Gothic fiction during the 19th century. Lord Byron was the model for the title character of "Glenarvon" (1816) by Byron's erstwhile lover Lady Caroline Lamb; and for Lord Ruthven in "The Vampyre" (1819) by Byron's personal physician, John William Polidori. Claude Frollo from Victor Hugo's "The Hunchback of Notre Dame" (1831), Edmond Dantes from Alexandre Dumas' "The Count of Monte Cristo" (1844), Heathcliff from Emily Brontë's "Wuthering Heights" (1847), and Rochester from Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre" (1847) are other later 19th-century examples of Byronic heroes (McCarthy, 557).  In later Victorian literature, the Byronic character only seemed to survive as a solitary figure, resigned to suffering (Harvey, 306). However, Charles Dickens' representation of the character is more complex than that. Steerforth in "David Copperfield" manifests the concept of the "fallen angel" aspect of the Byronic hero; his violent temper and seduction of Emily should turn the reader, and indeed David, against him. But it does not. He still retains a fascination, as David admits in the aftermath of discovering what Steerforth has done to Emily (Harvey, 309). He may have done wrong, but David cannot bring himself to hate him. Steerforth's occasional outbreaks of remorse reveal a tortured character (Harvey, 308), echoing a Byronic remorse. Harvey concludes that Steerforth is a remarkable blend of both villain and hero, and exploration of both sides of the Byronic character.  Scholars have also drawn parallels between the Byronic hero and the solipsist heroes of Russian literature. In particular, Alexander Pushkin's famed character Eugene Onegin echoes many of the attributes seen in "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", particularly, Onegin's solitary brooding and disrespect for traditional privilege. The first stages of Pushkin's poetic novel "Eugene Onegin" appeared twelve years after Byron's "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", and Byron was of obvious influence (Vladimir Nabokov argued in his "Commentary to Eugene Onegin" that Pushkin had read Byron during his years in exile just prior to composing "Eugene Onegin"). The same character themes continued to influence Russian literature, particularly after Mikhail Lermontov invigorated the Byronic hero through the character Pechorin in his 1839 novel "A Hero of Our Time".  The Byronic hero is also featured in many contemporary novels, and has played a role in modern literature as the precursor to a popular form of antihero. Erik, the Phantom from Gaston Leroux's "Phantom of the Opera" (1909–1910) is a well-known example from the first half of the twentieth century (Markos, 162), while Ian Fleming's James Bond (if not his cinematic incarnations) shows all the earmarks in the second half: "Lonely, melancholy, of fine natural physique, which has become in some way ravaged... dark and brooding in expression, of a cold and cynical veneer, above all "enigmatic," in possession of a sinister secret."

Byronic heroine.

There are also suggestions of the potential of a Byronic heroine in Byron's works. Charles J. Clancy argues that Aurora Raby in "Don Juan" possesses many of the characteristics typical of a Byronic hero. Described as "silent, lone" in the poem, her life has indeed been spent in isolation – she has been orphaned from birth. She validates Thorslev's assertion that Byronic heroes are "invariably solitaries" (Clancy, 29). Yet, like her male counterpart, she evokes an interest from those around her, "There was awe in the homage which she drew" (XV, 47). Again, this is not dissimilar to the description of the fascination that Byron himself encountered wherever he went (McCarthy, 161). Her apparent mournful nature is also reminiscent of the regretful mien of the Byronic hero. She is described as having deeply sad eyes, "Eyes which sadly shone, as Seraphs' shine" (XV, 45). This was a specific characteristic of the Byronic hero (Clancy, 30). This seems to express a despair with humanity, not unlike the despair present in Byron's "Cain", as Thorslev notes. She herself admits to despairing at "man's decline" (XV, 45), therefore this brings her into direct comparison with Cain's horror at the destruction of humanity (Clancy, 31).

The Byronic hero is a variant of the Romantic hero as a type of character, named after the English Romantic poet Lord Byron. Both Byron's own persona as well as characters from his writings are considered to provide defining features to the character type.

Byronský hrdina je idealizovaná, ale zkažená osoba znázorněná v životě a díle lorda Byrona. Byronova bývalá milenka Caroline Lambová ji charakterizovala jako "šílenou, zlou osobnost a je nebezpečné ji znát". Byronský hrdina se poprvé objevil v Byronově autografickém románu, epické básni Childe Haroldova pouť (1812 – 1818).


History.

A royal manor existed on the site in the 12th century. This was replaced by a fortification known as 'the Peel', built in the 14th century by occupying English forces under Edward I. The site of the manor made it an ideal military base for securing the supply routes between Edinburgh Castle and Stirling Castle. The English fort was begun in March 1302 under the supervision of two priests, Richard de Wynepol and Henry de Graundeston. The architect, Master James of St George, was also present. In September 1302, sixty men and 140 women helped dig the ditches; the men were paid twopence and the women a penny daily. One hundred foot-soldiers were still employed as labourers on the castle in November and work continued during the Summer of 1303.  In 1424, the town of Linlithgow was partially destroyed in a great fire. King James I started the rebuilding of the Palace as a grand residence for Scottish royalty, also beginning the rebuilding of the Church of St Michael immediately to the south of the palace: the earlier church had been used as a storeroom during Edward's occupation. Over the following century the palace developed into a formal courtyard structure, with significant additions by James III and James IV. James V was born in the palace in April 1512, the household of his mother Margaret Tudor at Linlithgow included the African servants Margaret and Ellen More. In April 1513 the roof of the chapel was altered and renewed, and a new organ was made by a French musician and craftsman called Gilyem and fixed to the wall. Timber was shipped to Blackness Castle and carted to the Palace. The windows of the queen's oratory, overlooking the Loch, were reglazed.  James V added the outer gateway and the elaborate courtyard fountain. The stonework of the South façade was renewed and unified for James V in the 1530s by the keeper, James Hamilton of Finnart. The older statues of the Pope, the Knight, and Labouring Man on the east side of the courtyard, with the inscriptions on ribbons held by angels were painted. Mary, Queen of Scots, was born at the Palace in December 1542 and occasionally stayed there during her reign.  James VI of Scotland held a parliament in the great hall of the palace in December 1585, the first gathering of the nobilty in the palace since the reign of his grandfather James V of Scotland. James VI gave lands including the palace to his bride Anne of Denmark as a "morning gift". On 14 May 1590 Peder Munk, the Admiral of Denmark, rode to Linlithgow from Niddry Castle, and was welcomed at the palace by the keeper Lewis Bellenden. He took symbolic possession or (sasine) by accepting a handful of earth and stone. The next keeper was the English courtier Roger Aston, who repaired the roof in 1594 using lead shipped from England.  The daughter of James VI and Anna, Princess Elizabeth lived in the Palace in the care of Helenor Hay, Countess of Linlithgow. After the Union of the Crowns in 1603 the Royal Court became largely based in England and Linlithgow was used very little. The old North Range, described as 'ruinous' in 1599, collapsed on 6 September 1607, and The 1st Earl of Linlithgow wrote to King James VI & I with the news:Please your most Sacred Majestie; this sext of September, betuixt thre and four in the morning, the north quarter of your Majesties Palice of Linlithgw is fallin, rufe and all, within the wallis, to the ground; but the wallis ar standing yit, bot lukis everie moment when the inner wall sall fall and brek your Majesties fontane." King James had it rebuilt between 1618 and 1622. The carving was designed by the mason William Wallace. In July 1620, the architect, James Murray of Kilbaberton, estimated that 3,000 stones in weight of lead would be needed to cover the roof, costing £3,600 in Pound Scots (the Scottish money of the time). On 5 July 1621 the then Earl of Mar wrote to James to tell him he had met Murray and viewed the works at 'grate lenthe.' He said the Palace would be ready for the King at Michaelmas. The carving at the window-heads and the Royal Arms of Scotland were painted and gilded. and the old statues of the Pope, Knight, and Labouring Man on the east side had also been painted. However, the only reigning monarch to stay at Linlithgow after that date was King Charles I, who spent a night there in 1633.  In 1648, part of the new North Range was occupied by The 2nd Earl of Linlithgow. An English visitor in October 1641 recorded in a poem that the roof of the great hall was already gone, the fountain vandalised by those who objected on religious grounds to the motto "God Save the King," but some woodcarving remained in the Chapel Royal.  The palace's swansong came in September 1745, when Bonnie Prince Charlie visited Linlithgow on his march south but did not stay overnight. It is said that the fountain was made to flow with wine in his honour. The Duke of Cumberland's army destroyed most of the palace buildings by burning in January 1746.

Keepers and Captains of the Palace.

The positions of official keeper and captain of the palace have been held by; James Hamilton of Finnart, 1534, Captain and Keeper; William Danielstoun from 19 November 1540; Andrew Hamilton in Briggis, from 22 August 1543; Andrew Melville of Murdocairney, later Lord Melville of Monimail, brother of James Melville of Halhill, from 15 February 1567; George Boyd, deputy Captain, 1564; Andrew Ferrier, Captain of the Palace, 1565, Frenchman; John Brown, June 1569; Andrew Lambie, June 1571; Ludovic Bellenden of Auchnoul 22 November 1587, and 1595 Roger Aston. The office was acquired by Alexander Livingstone, 1st Earl of Linlithgow, and remained in that family until 1715 when the rights returned to the Crown.

Present day.

The palace has been actively conserved since the early 19th century and is today managed and maintained by Historic Environment Scotland. The site is open to visitors all year round, usually subject to an entrance fee for non-members, but on occasion the entry fee is waived during the organisation's "Doors open days". In summer the adjacent 15th-century parish church of St Michael is open for visitors, allowing a combined visit to two of Scotland's finest surviving medieval buildings. The site was visited by 94,718 people in 2018.  For over 40 years, tours of the palace for children are lead by 'Junior Guides', pupils at Linlithgow Primary School  A Strathspey for bagpipes was composed in honour of Linlithgow Palace.  The Palace is said to be haunted by the spectre of Mary of Guise, mother to Mary, Queen of Scots.  Artistic and cultural uses  On 4 December 2012, the French fashion house Chanel held its tenth "Métiers d’Art" show in the palace. The collection, designed by Karl Lagerfeld, was called 'Paris-Édimbourg' and inspired by classic Scottish styling using tweed and tartan fabrics worn by models Stella Tennant, Cara Delevingne, and Edie Campbell.  The show renewed media interest in the possibility of restoring the roof of the palace.  In August 2014, a music festival was held on the palace's grounds called 'Party at the Palace'. This became a yearly event and again took place in 2015; from 2016 it was moved to the other side of the loch due to its popularity and need for more space. The festival still boasts views of the palace.  Some scenes in the time-traveling romance TV series Outlander are set at a fictional castle for which Linlithgow Palace stands in; this has attracted a number of international tourists.

The ruins of Linlithgow Palace are situated in the town of Linlithgow, West Lothian, Scotland, west of Edinburgh. The palace was one of the principal residences of the monarchs of Scotland in the 15th and 16th centuries. Although maintained after Scotland's monarchs left for England in 1603, the palace was little used, and was burned out in 1746. It is now a visitor attraction in the care of Historic Environment Scotland.

Ruiny Linlithgow Palace se nacházejí ve skotském městě Linlithgow, v kraji Západní Lothian, 24 km západně od Edinburghu. Ve 12. století tu existovala královské sídlo. To bylo ve 14. století vystřídáno opevněním, které vystavěla anglická armáda krále Eduarda I. Poloha sídla z něj učinila ideální vojenskou základnu chránící zásobovací cesty mezi edinburským hradem a hradem Stirling.


Classification.

The exact makeup and classification of the Guaibasauridae remains uncertain. The family was originally named by Jose Bonaparte and colleagues in 1999 to contain a single genus and species, "Guaibasaurus candelariensis". When a second specimen of "Guaibasaurus" was described from better remains in 2007, it became easier to compare it to other enigmatic early saurischians, which are often difficult to classify because they combine characteristics of the two major saurischian groups, Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha. Bonaparte and colleagues, in light of the information gained from this second specimen, found that the genus "Saturnalia" (which is anatomically very similar to "Guaibasaurus") could also be assigned to the Guaibasauridae, though they did not conduct a phylogenetic analysis or define Guaibasauridae as a clade. The researchers also tentatively assigned the poorly understood genus "Agnosphitys" to this family. However, the latter assignment was not supported by the results of the phylogenetic analyses of early dinosaurs that were carried out by Baron, Norman & Barrett (2017).  Bonaparte and colleagues (2007) found that guaibasaurids have more characteristics in common with theropods than they do with early sauropodomorphs (or "prosauropods"). Because of this, according to Bonaparte, they are most likely either a very basal group on the stem leading toward sauropodomorphs, or a group ancestral to both sauropodomorphs and theropods. Furthermore, the authors interpret this as evidence that the common ancestor of both saurischian lineages was more theropod-like than prosauropod-like.  Ezcurra (2010) defined the subfamily Saturnaliinae for the clade containing "Saturnalia" and "Chromogisaurus", which were found to be close relatives in several studies. While they are sometimes found to be a subgroup of guaibasaurids, other studies have found the saturnaliines to form an independent lineage at the very base of the sauropodomorph family tree. Langer and colleagues (2019) recovered "Pampadromaeus" and "Panphagia" as relatives of "Saturnalia" and "Chromogisaurus", elevating Saturnaliinae to family rank as Saturnaliidae. They recovered "Guaibasaurus" as a basal theropod.

Guaibasauridae is a family of basal saurischian dinosaurs, known from fossil remains of late Triassic period formations in Brazil and Argentina.

Guaibasauridae byla čeleď poměrně malých, vývojově značně primitivních plazopánvých dinosaurů, žijících v období svrchního triasu na území dnešní Brazílie a Argentiny. V současnosti do této skupiny řadíme s jistou mírou nejistoty tři rody - "Agnosphitys", "Guaibasaurus" a "Saturnalia". Průlomem v pochopení čeledi byl objev kompletnějšího materiálu guaibasaura v roce 2007. Stále však nejsou vyjasněné fylogenetické vztahy v rámci skupiny i mezi touto a příbuznými skupinami.


Toponomy.

As an example of totum pro parte, the term Western Hemisphere is widely used by some, such as the United States government, to refer to the Americas.

Geography.

The Western Hemisphere consists of the Americas, the western portions of Europe and Africa, the extreme eastern tip of Siberia (Russia), numerous territories in Oceania, and a portion of Antarctica, while excluding some of the Aleutian Islands to the southwest of the Alaskan mainland.  The center of the Western Hemisphere is located in the Pacific Ocean at the intersection of the 90th meridian west and the Equator, among the Galápagos Islands. The nearest land is Genovesa Island at.  The highest mountain in the Western Hemisphere is Aconcagua in the Andes of Argentina at.  The tallest human-occupiable building or tower in the Western Hemisphere is the CN Tower, which is located in Toronto, Canada at.

Proposed revision of hemispheric borders.

In an attempt to define the Western Hemisphere as the parts of the world which are not part of the Old World, there also exist projections which use the 20th meridian west and the diametrically opposed 160th meridian east to define the hemisphere. This projection excludes the European and African mainlands and a small portion of northeast Greenland, but includes more of eastern Russia and Oceania.

Sovereign states in both hemispheres.

Below is a list of the sovereign states which are in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres on the IERS Reference Meridian, in order from north to south:  Below is a list of the sovereign states which are in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres along the 180th meridian, in order from north to south. With the exception of the United States (due to "Wake Island", "Guam" and the "Northern Mariana Islands"), all of them are located on just one side of the International Date Line, which is curved around them.  One sovereign state has territory in both hemispheres, but neither the prime meridian nor the 180th meridian passes through its territory:

Countries and territories in the Western Hemisphere but not in the Americas.

The following countries and territories lie outside the Americas yet are entirely, mostly or partially within the Western Hemisphere:

The Western Hemisphere is a geographical term for the half of Earth which lies west of the prime meridian (which crosses Greenwich, London, United Kingdom) and east of the antimeridian. The other half is called the Eastern Hemisphere.

Západní polokoule nebo západní hemisféra je pojem označující polovinu Země, která se rozkládá západně od nultého poledníku. Druhá polovina je označována jako východní polokoule. Tento termín se také někdy používá pro označení pouze amerického kontinentu, přestože se zde nacházejí i některé evropské, africké či oceánské země. Jindy se zas jako západní polokoule světa označuje celý "Nový svět", tedy včetně kontinentu Austrálie.