Background.

Chad is a landlocked country in Africa whose northern region lies within the eastern reaches of the Sahara Desert and whose southern region lies within the eastern portion of the Sahel. It borders Libya to the south, Niger to the east, Sudan to the west, and the Central African Republic to the north. Chad was originally part of French West Africa until 1960, when it declared independence. Some four years later, the former French colony made its début at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan. For the next three decades, Chad became embroiled in civil war and experienced invasions by Libya and upheavals by Sudanese-backed rebels; the civil war ended in 1990, although rebel threats had persisted between then and 2008. During Chad's greatest era of instability, athletes from the country did not attend the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montréal, Quebec, Canada or the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, USSR, although delegations were sent to all other games between 1964 and 2008.  The largest Chadian delegation to reach the Olympics appeared in the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea and at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain; each time, Chad's National Olympic Committee sent six athletes. During the 1992 games, the NOC sent the nation's first female Olympian. Since then (and up to the Beijing games), at least one woman has been a part of the Chadian delegation. The smallest contingency of Chadian Olympians occurred during the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, when only Kaltouma Nadjina competed on the country's behalf. The delegation that arrived in Beijing consisted of two athletes—one man (30-year-old Moumi Sébergué) and one woman (15-year-old Hinikissia Albertine Ndikert), both participants in track events. Ndikert was Chad's flagbearer at the ceremonies. Up to and including the Beijing games, there has yet to have been a medalist from Chad.

Athletics.

Competitors in athletics events could qualify for the next round of competition in two ways. Qualifying by right was posting a high result in their own heat, and qualifying by result was posting a high result in overall standings. Ranks shown are thus those within each heat, not in overall standings.  Moumi Sébergué represented Chad at the Beijing Olympics in the men's 100 meters dash. Born in 1977, Sébergué first participated in the Olympics at age 22 when he raced in the men's 100 meters at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia, placing seventh in his qualification heat and not progressing to later rounds. He did not attend the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, but returned to the Olympics at Beijing at the age of 30. During the course of the August 14, 2008 races in his event, when the qualification round took place, Sébergué competed in the tenth heat against seven other athletes. He finished the race in 11.14 seconds, placing seventh in the heat ahead of Tuvalu's Okinali Tinilau (11.48 seconds) and behind Gabon's Wilfried Bingangoye (10.87 seconds) in a heat led by the Netherlands Antilles' Churandy Martina (10.35 seconds) and Japan's Naoki Tsukahara (10.39 seconds). Of the 80 athletes who participated in the events, the Chadian sprinter ranked 70th. He did not advance to later rounds.  Hinikissia Albertine Ndikert competed on Chad's behalf as the national delegation's only female athlete at the Beijing games. She participated in the women's 100 meters dash, and was 15 years old at the time of the competition. Ndikert had not previously competed in any Olympic games. During the qualification round of the event, which took place on August 15, 2008, Ndikert competed in the eighth heat against seven other athletes. She finished the race in 12.55 seconds, placing seventh; she defeated the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Franka Magali (12.57 seconds) and fell behind Papua New Guinea's Mae Koime (11.68 seconds) in a heat led by Nigeria's Damola Osayomi (11.13 seconds) and the Bahamas' Debbie Ferguson-McKenzie (11.17 seconds). Of the event's 85 competitors, Ndikert finished in 64th place. Therefore, Ndikert did not advance to round two and beyond.

Chad sent a delegation of two athletes to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China: Moumi Sébergué, who competed in the men's 100 meters, and Hinikissia Albertine Ndikert, who competed in the women's 100 meters and also bore the Chadian flag during ceremonies. The appearance of this delegation marked the tenth appearance of Chad at the Summer Olympics, the first been in 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, and its seventh appearance since its Olympic hiatus between 1976 and 1980. Both Sébergué and Ndikert ranked seventh in their respective heats and did not advance past the qualification round. As of the end of the 2012 London Olympics, there have been no medalists from Chad.

Čad se zúčastnil Letních olympijských her 2008 v Pekingu, jednalo se v pořadí o 10. účast této země na letní olympiádě. Reprezentovali jej dva sportovci v jediném sportu, atletice, přičemž oba byli vyřazeni již v rozbězích. Vlajkonoškou výpravy byla Hinikissia Ndikert.


Biography.

Moqed was a law student from the small town of Al-Nakhil, Saudi Arabia (west of Medina), studying at King Fahd University's Faculty of Administration and Economics. Before he dropped out, he was apparently recruited into al-Qaeda in 1999 along with friend Satam al-Suqami, with whom he had earlier shared a college room.  The two trained at Khalden, a large training facility near Kabul that was run by Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi. A friend in Saudi Arabia claimed he was last seen there in 2000, before leaving to study English in the United States. In November 2000, Moqed and Suqami flew into Iran from Bahrain together.  Some time late in 2000, Moqed traveled to the United Arab Emirates, where he purchased traveler's cheques presumed to have been paid for by 9/11 financier Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including Wail al-Shehri, Saeed al-Ghamdi, Hamza al-Ghamdi, Ahmed al-Haznawi and Ahmed al-Nami.  Known as "al-Ahlaf" during the preparations, Moqed then moved in with hijackers Salem al-Hazmi, Abdulaziz al-Omari and Khalid al-Mihdhar in an apartment in Paterson, New Jersey.

2001.

According to the FBI, Moqed first arrived in the United States on May 2, 2001.  In March 2001, Moqed, Hani Hanjour, Hazmi and Ahmed al-Ghamdi rented a minivan and travelled to Fairfield, Connecticut. There they met a contact in the parking lot of a local convenience store who provided them with false IDs. (This was possibly Eyad Alrababah, a Jordanian charged with document fraud).  Moqed was one of the five hijackers who asked for a state identity card on August 2, 2001. On August 24, both Mihdhar and Moqed tried to purchase flight tickets from the American Airlines online ticket-merchant, but had technical difficulties resolving their address and gave up.  Employees at Advance Travel Service in Totowa, New Jersey later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there. They claimed that Hani Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking. Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane. Their credit card failed to authorize, and after being told the agency did not accept personal cheques, the pair left to withdraw cash. They returned shortly afterwards and paid $1842.25 total in cash. During this time, Moqed was staying in Room 343 of the "Valencia Motel". On September 2, Moqed paid cash for a $30 weekly membership at Gold's Gym in Greenbelt, Maryland.  Three days later he was seen on an ATM camera with Hani Hanjour. After the attacks, employees at an adult video store, "Adult Lingerie Center", in Beltsville claimed that Moqed had been in the store three times, although there were no transactions slips that confirmed this.

Attacks.

On September 11, 2001, Moqed arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport.  According to the 9/11 Commission Report, Moqed set off the metal detector at the airport and was screened with a hand-wand. He passed the cursory inspection, and was able board his flight at 7:50. He was seated in 12A, adjacent to Mihdhar who was in 12B. Moqed helped to hijack the plane and assisted Hani Hanjour in crashing the plane into the Pentagon at 9:37 A.M., killing 189 people (64 on the plane and 125 on the ground).  The flight was scheduled to depart at 08:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles. The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08:50:51. At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south, and then hijackers set the flight's autopilot heading for Washington, D.C. Passenger Barbara Olson called her husband, United States Solicitor General Theodore Olson, and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives. At 09:37, American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the west facade of the Pentagon, killing all 64 aboard (including the hijackers), along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon. In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any DNA samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.  After the attacks his family told Arab News that Moqed had been a fan of sports, and enjoyed travelling. Additionally, the U.S. announced it had found a "Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Student Identity Card" bearing Moqed's name in the rubble surrounding the Pentagon. They also stated that it appeared to have been a forgery.

Majed Mashaan Ghanem Moqed (, ; also transliterated as Moqued) (June 18, 1977 – September 11, 2001) was one of five hijackers of American Airlines Flight 77 as part of the September 11 attacks.

Majed Mashaan Moqed (arabsky: ماجد مشعان موقد, přepisem Moqued) (zemř. 11. září 2001) byl terorista, jeden z pěti, které FBI označila jako únosce letu Let American Airlines 77, kterým byly spáchány teroristické útoky 11. září 2001.


Life.

Jungk was born into a Jewish family in Berlin. His father was David Baum (pseudonym: Max Jungk, 1872, Miskovice – 1937, Prague). When Adolf Hitler came to power, Jungk was arrested and released, moved to Paris, then back to Nazi Germany to work in a subversive press service. These activities forced him to move through various cities, such as Prague, Paris, and Zurich, during World War II. He continued journalism after the war.  He is also well known as the inventor of the future workshop, which is a method for social innovation, participation by the concerned, and visionary future planning "from below". In chapter six of his book "The Big Machine", Jungk described CERN as the place to find the "first Planetarians, earth dwellers who no longer feel loyalty to a single nation, a single continent, or a single political creed, but to common knowledge that they advance together." There is an international library in Salzburg called Robert-Jungk-Bibliothek für Zukunftsfragen (Robert Jungk Library for Questions about the Future).  His book "" was the first published account of the Manhattan Project and the German atomic bomb project, and its first Danish edition included a passage which implied that the project had been purposely dissuaded from developing a weapon by Werner Heisenberg and his associates (a claim strongly contested by Niels Bohr), and led to a series of questions over a 1941 meeting between Bohr and Heisenberg in Copenhagen, Denmark, which was later the basis for Michael Frayn's 1998 play, "Copenhagen".  In 1986, he received the Right Livelihood Award for "struggling indefatigably on behalf of peace, sane alternatives for the future and ecological awareness."  In 1992 he made an unsuccessful bid for the Austrian presidency on behalf of the Green Party.  Jungk died in Salzburg.

Robert Jungk (; born "Robert Baum", also known as "Robert Baum-Jungk"; May 11, 1913 – July 14, 1994) was an Austrian writer and journalist who wrote mostly on issues relating to nuclear weapons.

Robert Jungk, vlastním jménem Robert Baum (11. května 1913, Berlín, Německo - 14. července 1994, Salzburg, Rakousko) byl rakouský futurolog, novinář a spisovatel židovského původu.


Background and composition.

After the success of "Missundaztood" (2001) and its accompanying worldwide "Party Tour", P!nk began work on her third studio album. Wanting to expand more on the rock sound she explored with "Missundaztood", P!nk sought out producers and writers that had experience within the genre. Most of the tracks on "Try This" were produced and co-written by punk band Rancid singer and guitarist Tim Armstrong, whom Pink met through a mutual friend at a Transplants video shoot. The two hit it off and Pink ended up co-writing ten songs with him in a week when Transplants were on a tour with the Foo Fighters. Eight of these tracks appeared on "Try This", which also features three songs written with Linda Perry, who co-wrote much of "Missundaztood" (2001), Pink's second album. The album includes a collaboration with electroclash artist Peaches, "Oh My God", and Pink's contribution to the "" film soundtrack, "Feel Good Time" (produced by and featuring William Orbit), as a non-U.S. bonus track.  "Try This" was Pink's final studio album under Arista Records. In 2006, Pink said that she was unhappy with the way the label wanted her to make an album after the success of "M!ssundaztood". "I was kind of rebelling against the label on that one," she said. "I was going: 'You want a record? Fine, I'll write 10 songs in a week for your fuckin' record and you can press it up and put it out.'" She described the promotional campaign for the album as "an awful time. I was walking out of half my interviews crying. I just felt they were putting a quarter in the slot to watch the monkey dance." "Try This" is P!nk's first album to carry a Parental Advisory warning, and therefore her first album released alongside an edited version.  Musically, "Try This" is a pop/rock & roll album, which incorporates elements of punk rock ("Trouble"), R&B ("Catch Me While I'm Sleeping", "Love Song"), new wave and disco ("Humble Neighborhoods").

Critical reception.

The album received almost entirely positive reviews from critics with an average Metacritic rating of 71, indicating generally positive reviews. However, there were some negative reviews, with "New York" magazine stating "Pink pitches a brand of seriousness that is pure Lifetime-TV mawkishness", and "The Guardian" commented that "Like a lot of pop at the moment, it just sounds like a wan imitation of Pink's second album". "Entertainment Weekly" gave the album a positive review and called it "A hooky, engaging throwaway that expands Pink's range while holding on fiercely to her irascible inner child."

Commercial performance.

"Try This" debuted at number nine on the U.S. "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 147,000 copies, a weaker debut than that of "Missundaztood". The album also reached the top ten on album charts in the UK, Canada and Australia. As of March 2007, it had sold 719,000 copies in the U.S. according to Nielsen SoundScan. "Try This" re-entered the Australian album chart in June 2009.  The album's first single, "Trouble", a song Armstrong original wrote for his band Rancid in 2003, reached number two in Canada and the top ten in the UK and Australia, but it peaked only at number 68 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100. In 2003, "Catch Me While I'm Sleeping" was issued as a promotional single in the U.S.; in the same period, a promo CD-R acetate of "Humble Neighborhoods" was made available in the UK. Follow-up single "God Is a DJ" failed to chart on the Hot 100, although it reached number 11 in the UK. A third single, "Last to Know", was released exclusively in Europe and peaked at 21 in the UK.  Pink embarked on the Try This Tour in Europe during 2004, and a DVD chronicling the tour was released in 2006. "Trouble" was used in the films "White Chicks" (2004), "" (2004) and "" (2005), and "God Is a DJ" was featured in the film "Mean Girls" (2004).

Track listing.

Notes

Certifications.

!scope="row"|Worldwide

Try This is the third studio album by recording artist Pink, released on November 11, 2003. It featured the singles "Trouble," which earned Pink a Grammy Award, "God Is a DJ" and "Last to Know". Despite being P!nk's lowest-selling album, "Try This" was certified Platinum by the RIAA for shipments of over one million copies. Pink supported the album with the Try This Tour in 2004 across Europe and Australia.

Try This je třetí studiové album zpěvačky Pink vydané 10. listopadu 2003 u Arista Records. V polovině roku 2003 přispěla P!nk písní "Feel a good time" k filmu, v tomto filmu se objevila jako provozovatelka motokrosové rampy. Tuto píseň napsala spolu se zpěvákem Beckem a produkovala ji spolu s umělcem Williamem Orbitem.


Social and biological factors.

Human sexuality has many aspects. In biology, sexuality describes the reproductive mechanism and the basic biological drive that exists in all sexually reproducing species and can encompass sexual intercourse and sexual contact in all its forms. There are also emotional and physical aspects of sexuality. These relate to the bond between individuals, which may be expressed through profound feelings or emotions. Sociologically, it can cover the cultural, political, and legal aspects; philosophically, it can span the moral, ethical, theological, spiritual, and religious aspects.  Which aspects of a person's sexuality attract another is influenced by cultural factors; it has varied over time as well as personal factors. Influencing factors may be determined more locally among sub-cultures, across sexual fields, or simply by the preferences of the individual. These preferences come about as a result of a complex variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors.  A person's physical appearance has a critical impact on their sexual attractiveness. This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship:  As with other animals, pheromones may have an impact, though less significantly in the case of humans. Theoretically, the "wrong" pheromone may cause someone to be disliked, even when they would otherwise appear attractive. Frequently, a pleasant-smelling perfume is used to encourage the member of the opposite sex to more deeply inhale the air surrounding its wearer, increasing the probability that the individual's pheromones will be inhaled. The importance of pheromones in human relationships is probably limited and is widely disputed, although it appears to have some scientific basis.  Some people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism and are sexually stimulated by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial.  Pheromones have been determined to play a role in sexual attraction between people. They influence gonadal hormone secretion, for example, follicle maturation in the ovaries in females and testosterone and sperm production in males.

High anxiety.

Research conducted by Donald G. Dutton and Arthur P. Aron in the 1970s aimed to find the relation between sexual attraction and high anxiety conditions. In doing so, 85 male participants were contacted by an attractive female interviewer at either a fear-arousing suspension bridge or a normal bridge. Conclusively, it was shown that the male participants who were asked by the female interviewer to perform the thematic apperception test (TAT) on the fear-arousing bridge, wrote more sexual content in the stories and attempted, with greater effort, to contact the interviewer after the experiment than those participants who performed the TAT on the normal bridge. In another test, a male participant, chosen from a group of 80, was given anticipated shocks. With him was an attractive female confederate, who was also being shocked. The experiment showed that the male's sexual imagery in the TAT was much higher when self shock was anticipated and not when the female confederate shock was anticipated.

Enhancement.

People consciously or subconsciously enhance their sexual attractiveness or sex appeal for a number of reasons. It may be to attract someone with whom they can form a deeper relationship, for companionship, procreation, or an intimate relationship, besides other possible purposes. It can be part of a courtship process. This can involve physical aspects or interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners, and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting a partner and maintaining sexual interest, can include flirting, which can be used to attract the sexual attention of another to encourage romance or sexual relations, and can involve body language, conversation, joking, or brief physical contact.

Sex and sexuality differences.

Men have been found to have a greater interest in uncommitted sex compared to women. Some research shows this interest to be more sociological than biological. Men have a greater interest in visual sexual stimuli than women. However, additional trends have been found with a greater sensitivity to partner status in women choosing a sexual partner and men placing a greater emphasis on physical attractiveness in a potential mate, as well as a significantly greater tendency toward sexual jealousy in men and emotional jealousy in women.  Bailey, Gaulin, Agyei, and Gladue (1994) analyzed whether these results varied according to sexual orientation. In general, they found biological sex played a bigger role in the psychology of sexual attraction than orientation. However, there were some differences between homosexual and heterosexual women and men on these factors. While gay and straight men showed similar psychological interest in casual sex on markers of sociosexuality, gay men showed a larger number of partners in behaviour expressing this interest (proposed to be due to a difference in opportunity). Self-identified lesbian women showed a significantly greater interest in visual sexual stimuli than heterosexual women and judged partner status to be less important in romantic partnerships. Heterosexual men had a significantly greater preference for younger partners than homosexual men. People who identify as asexual may not be sexually attracted to anyone. Gray asexuality includes those who only experience sexual attraction under certain circumstances; for example, exclusively after an emotional bond has been formed. This tends to vary from person to person.

Sexual preferences and hormones.

The ovulatory shift hypothesis refers to the idea that female humans tend to exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their cycle, as an evolutionarily adaptive means to ensure that a high quality male is chosen to copulate with during the most fertile period of the cycle. It is thought that, due to the length of time and the parental investment involved for a woman to reproduce, changes in female psychology during menstrual periods would help them make critical decisions in mating selection. For example, it has been suggested that women's sexual preferences shift toward more masculine physical characteristics during peak phases of fertility. In such, a symmetrical and masculine face outwardly indicates the reproductive value of a prospective mate.

Ovulation and female sexual preferences.

There is evidence that women's mate preferences differ across the ovarian cycle. A meta analysis, investigating 50 studies about whether women's mate preferences for good gene-related male traits changed across the ovarian cycle found that women's preferences change across their cycle: Women show the greatest preference for good gene male traits at their most fertile window.  Female sexual preference for male face shapes has been shown to vary with the probability of conception. Findings showed that during a 'high conception' stage of the menstrual cycle, women were more attracted to men with less feminine/more masculine faces for short-term relationships. Unlike men, women's sexual arousal has been found to be generic—it is non-specific to either men or women. The aforementioned research suggests that there may be a possibility that female sexual arousal becomes more sex-specific during the most fertile points of the menstrual cycle.  In males, a masculine face has been positively correlated with fewer respiratory diseases and, as a consequence, masculine features offer a marker of health and reproductive success. The preference for masculine faces is only recorded in short-term mate choices. It is therefore suggested that females are attracted to masculine faces only during ovulation as masculinity reflects a high level of fitness, used to ensure reproductive success. Whilst such preferences may be of lesser importance today, the evolutionary explanation offers reasoning as to why such effects are recorded.  As well as masculinity, females are more sensitive to the scent of males who display high levels of developmental stability. An individual's developmental stability is a measurement of fluctuating asymmetry, defined as their level of deviation from perfect bilateral symmetry. In a comparison of female college students, the results indicated that those normally cycling were more receptive to the scent of shirts worn by symmetrical men when nearing peak fertility in their ovulatory cycle. The same women reported no such preference for the scent of symmetrical men when re-tested during non-fertile stages of the menstrual cycle. Those using the contraceptive pill, and therefore not following regular cyclical patterns, reported no such preference.  As with masculine faces, the ability to determine symmetry via scent was likely designed by natural selection to increase the probability of reproductive success through mating with a male offering strong genetics. This is evidenced in research focusing on traits of symmetrical males, who consistently record higher levels of IQ, coordination, social dominance, and consequently, greater reproductive fitness. As symmetry appears to reflect an abundance of desirable traits held by the male in question, it is self-evident that such males are more desirable to females who are seeking high quality mates. In such, during ovulation, females show a strong preference for symmetrical males as they are reaching peak fertility. As it would be advantageous for asymmetrical men to release a scent similar to that produced by symmetrical males, the female signal used to detect symmetry is presumed to be an honest one (asymmetrical males cannot fake it).  In addition to this, females have different behavioural preferences towards men during stages in their cycles. It has been found that women have a preference towards more masculine voices during the late-follicular, fertile phase of the menstrual cycle. They are particularly sensitive towards voice pitch and apparent vocal-tract length, which are testosterone-related traits. This effect has been found to be most significant in women who are less feminine (those with low E3G levels), in comparison to women with higher E3G levels. It has been suggested that this difference in preference is because feminine women (those with high E3G levels) are more successful at obtaining investment. It is not necessary for these women to change their mating preferences during their cycles. More masculine women may make these changes to enhance their chances of achieving investment.  Women have been found to report greater sexual attraction to men other than their own partners when near ovulation compared with the luteal phase. Women whose partners have high developmental stability have greater attraction to men other than their partners when fertile. This can be interpreted as women possessing an adaptation to be attracted to men possessing markers of genetic fitness, therefore sexual attraction depends on the qualities of her partner.

Ovulation and ornamentation.

Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's behaviour in preferences and in their overt behaviours. The ornamentation effect is a phenomenon influenced by a stage of the menstrual cycle which refers to the way a woman presents herself to others, in a way to attract potential sexual partners. Studies have found that the closer women were to ovulation, the more provocatively they dress and the more attractive they are rated.  Similar to the function in animals, it is probable that this ornamentation is to attract potential partners and that a woman's motivations may vary across her cycle. Research into this relationship has discovered that women who were to attend a discothèque and rated their clothing as'sexy' and 'bold,' also stated that their intention for the evening was to flirt and find a partner to go home with. Although direct causation cannot be stated, this research suggests that there is a direct link between a woman's ornamentation and her motivation to attract mates.  It is possible that women are sensitive to the changes in their physical attractiveness throughout their cycles, such that at their most fertile stages their levels of attractiveness are increased. Consequently, they choose to display their increased levels of attractiveness through this method of ornamentation.  During periods of hormonal imbalance, women exhibit a peak in sexual activity. As these findings have been recorded for female-initiated sexual activity and not for male-initiated activity, the causation appears to be hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle. In addition, studies have found that women report themselves to be significantly more flirtatious with men, other than their partners, during the most fertile stages of their cycle, as well as a greater desire to attend parties or nightclubs where there is the potential to meet male partners.  Research has also found that menstrual cycles affect sexual behaviour frequency in pre-menopausal women. For example, women who had weekly sexual intercourse with men had menstrual cycles with the average duration of 29 days, while women with less frequent sexual interactions tended to have more extreme cycle lengths.

Male response to ovulation.

Changes in hormones during a female's cycles affect the way she behaves and the way males behave towards her. Research has found that men are a lot more attentive and loving towards their partners when they are in the most fertile phase of their cycles, in comparison to when they are in the luteal phases. Men become increasingly jealous and possessive over their partners during this stage. It is highly likely that these changes in male behaviour is a result of the female partner's increased desire to seek and flirt with other males. Therefore, these behavioural adaptations have developed as a form of mate guarding, which increases the male's likelihood of maintaining the relationship and increasing chances of reproductive success.

Sexual attraction is attraction on the basis of sexual desire or the quality of arousing such interest. Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal is an individual's ability to attract the sexual or erotic interests of other people, and is a factor in sexual selection or mate choice. The attraction can be to the physical or other qualities or traits of a person, or to such qualities in the context where they appear. The attraction may be to a person's aesthetics or movements or to their voice or smell, besides other factors. The attraction may be enhanced by a person's adornments, clothing, perfume or style. It can be influenced by individual genetic, psychological, or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person that depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and on the criteria of the person who is attracted.

Sexuální přitažlivost (také sexuální atraktivita, hovorově být sexy) je termín, který značí sexuální vábení jedince stejného druhu za účelem sexu a většinou také rozmnožování. Atraktivnost jedince je značně individuální a odpovídá příslušnosti k druhu a také sexuálnímu chování.


History.

The history of beer in the modern Czech Republic, historically Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, goes back even before the Slavic migration in the 6th century, although the ingredients differed from those used today.  Hops have been grown, used in beer making and exported from here since the twelfth century. Most towns had at least one brewery, the most famous brewing cities in Bohemia being Budweis, Plzeň, and Prague. Other towns with breweries are Rakovník, Žatec, and Třeboň.

Beer in České Budějovice.

Today the city has two main breweries: Budějovický měšťanský pivovar a.s. (Samson Budweiser Bier) and Budějovický Budvar n.p. (Budweiser Budvar).  The city of České Budějovice was for centuries also known by its German name, Budweis. Brewing is recorded in the city since the 13th century. The modern Budějovický měšťanský pivovar was founded in 1795 as the Bürgerliches Brauhaus Budweis, and is the oldest brewery in the world to use the term "budweiser" when referring to its beer. In 1895, the Budějovický Budvar brewery opened as an ethnically Czech alternative to the German dominated Budějovický měšťanský pivovar.  In 1876, the US brewer Anheuser-Busch began making a beer which it also called "Budweiser". This led to the "Budweiser trademark dispute" between beer companies claiming trademarks rights to the name. In the European Union, Budějovický Budvar is recognized as a product with Protected Geographical Indication. Because of such disputes, Budvar is sold in the United States and Canada under the label Czechvar and Anheuser-Busch sells its beer as Bud in the most of the European Union.

Beer in Pilsen.

Pilsner Urquell was the first "pilsner" type beer in the world. In 1842, a brewery in Plzeň employed Josef Groll, a German brewer who was experienced in the Bavarian lager method of making beer. Beer in Pilsen at the time was not of very good quality and they needed to compete. Groll developed a golden Pilsner beer, the first light coloured lager beer ever brewed. It became an immediate success, and was exported all over the Austrian Empire. A special train of beer travelled from Plzeň to Vienna every morning. Exports of Czech beer reached Paris and the United States by 1874. <br>Today, beers made at Plzeňský Prazdroj are Pilsner Urquell, Gambrinus and Primus.

Beer in Prague.

Much of the brewing history of the Czech capital is connected to the various monasteries in the city, with brewing first recorded at the Benedictine Břevnov Monastery in 993 AD. It is also recorded that in 1088 AD, King Vratislav II granted a tithe of hops to the Canons of Vyšehrad Cathedral in order to brew beer.  Today the Prague brewing scene is quite diverse, with Staropramen being the only industrial brewery. There is a total of 40 breweries and brewpubs, the oldest among them being U Fleků, which was founded in 1499 and has been brewing beer ever since. Most of the other breweries and brewpubs have been established in the city post-1989 and especially, post-2000.

Beer in Brno and South Moravia.

South Moravia is known for winemaking and there are only few large breweries, namely Starobrno in Brno and Černá hora, although since the 2000s Akciový Pivovar Dalešice, Pegas and Richard have been gaining country wide popularity, despite smaller production.

Categories of beer.

Most beer brewed in the Czech Republic is lager. Czech beers vary in colour from pale (Světlé), through amber (Polotmavé) and dark (Tmavé) to black (Černé) and in strength from 3–9% ABV. Top fermented wheat beer (Pšeničné pivo) is also available.  In the Czech Republic, it is still customary to label the strength of beer by the so-called degree scale (in Czech: Stupňovitost). It is expressed as a weight percentage of sucrose and is used to indicate the percentage by weight of extract (sucrose) in a solution. So, the 12° beer has 12% of these substances dissolved in water. A 10 degree beer is about 4% alcohol by volume, a 12 degree is about 5% and 16 degree is about 6.5%.  According to Czech law, categories of beer, regardless of colour or style, are:  Originally, Pilsner was a specific term for beers brewed in Plzeň (with Pilsner Urquell being registered as a trademark by the first brewery). The term has come to mean any pale, hoppy lager as a result of imitations of the original beer, especially in Germany where the style is common.

Festivals.

There are a lot of beer festivals in the Czech Republic. One of them is Pilsner Fest, a two-day beer festival held each year by the Pilsner Urquell Brewery in Pilsen with music by local bands on four stages in the town or festival Slavnosti piva v Českých Budějovicích (in České Budějovice).  The Czech Beer Festival (Český pivní festival) in Prague is the biggest beer festival in Czech Republic held for 17 days every year in May. Festival visitors can taste more than 70 brands of Czech beer.

Exports.

Overview.

With over forty industrial breweries and seventy small and medium-sized family breweries in the Czech Republic, beer is one of the most important and well known exports in the Czech Republic. In 2016, approximately 3.68 million hectoliters of beer was exported within the European Union. As of 2017, the Czech Republic was number ten in the world's top beer exports, with an export amount of 273.9 million dollars in exports and 1.9 percent of the world's total beer exports. Within the European Union, the Czech Republic was ranked as the seventh largest producer.  Forty percent of beer in the Czech Republic is exported to Germany, Slovakia, Sweden, England, and Russia. Additionally, Czech exports to China doubled from 2014 to 2015, and 0.65 of 3.65 million hectoliters of beer was exported to China. In 2015, Slovakia imported 1,108 thousand hectoliters of beer and Germany imported 900 thousand hectoliters. There has been a steady decrease in beer consumption within the Czech Republic, but breweries have noted an increase in their production due to rising international interest in Czech beer.  Exports are especially important for Czech breweries, as consumption in the Czech Republic has decreased by about five liters per person. CEO of Staropramen, Petr Kovařík, speculates this is due to a smoking ban in the Czech Republic.

Economic Impacts of Beer.

The total employment generated by the beer sector in the Czech Republic provided about 76,000 jobs in 2014. This number actually declined by 4.6 percent from 2013, and this shift may be explained by the increasing number of microbreweries and specialty beers, or more beer mixes and ciders being consumed. In 2013 and 2014, the total consumer spending on beer within the Czech Republic, in euros, was at 2,563,000 million euros and 2,431,000 euros respectively. Additionally, the total brewing production increased in 2013 to 2014 from 18.7 billion euros to 19.1 billion euros. This production included all brewing companies, breweries, and microbreweries. In total, in 2016 the Czech breweries produced a record amount of beer, at 20.48 million hectoliters. This was an increase from 2015 of 1.5 percent. Tourists consumed 750,000 hectoliters of beer in 2016, and this was an increase from 2015 of nineteen percent. In 2012, beer production accounted for 0.8 percent of nominal Gross Domestic Product, and the Czech government benefits from taxes paid on beer. Revenue from excise duties, VAT tax, and income tax in 2012 was about 28,506 million Czech korunas.

Brewing Companies.

Plzeňský Prazdroj Group.

For more general information on Pilsner beer, see the article: Pilsner Urquell Brewery.  Founded in 1842, the most popular brewing company in the Czech Republic has grown significantly since its creation. In present day, the Plzeňský Prazdroj group of breweries brews the following beers: Pilsner Urquell, Gambrinus, Velkopopovický Kozel, and Radegast. This group has three separate breweries, each of which produce their own specific beer. As the most popular brewing group in the Czech Republic, their exports of beer continue to grow annually and their popularity continues to spread across the world. Not only is the beer popular internationally, but in the Czech Republic, on average forty percent of the beers served in the Czech Republic are brewed from Plzeňský Prazdroj.  In 2010, the Plzeňský Prazdroj group saw an increase in exports by five percent, especially in the German market, with 240,000 hectoliters, the Slovak market, with 114,500 hectolitres, and the British market, with 24,000 hectolitres. Additionally, in 2010 they began to sell their beers to the United Arab Emirates, Syria, South Korea, Vietnam, and Argentina.  In 2012, the Plzeňský Prazdroj group announced they had the largest beer exports yet, with a record of 685 thousand hectoliters. There continued to be an increase in sales in Slovakia, with additional export sales to Canada and Hungary. The group estimated an increase in exports to Australia by forty percent.  The company credits their growing sales to Asian countries like Vietnam and Taiwan to the number of international visitors to their country; Taiwan is the third largest nationality that visits the brewery every year, after Czechs and Germans.  In an effort to boost their popularity and continue to grow their worldwide reputation, in 2018 the Plzeňský Prazdroj group invested over 280 million Czech koruna into expanding production facilities. The goal of the expansion project is to keep up with increasing their export demands. Currently, the brewery produces 62,800 hectoliters of beer a week, but the goal is to increase production to 88,300 hectolitres a week. After the expansion, 3.5 million hectolitres of Pilsner Urquell will be produced annually.  Sales in South Korea increased forty percent in 2017 from the previous year, with half the sales being Velkopopovický Kozel. A half-liter can of Pilsner Urquell sells for 500 Czech Koruna, which is ten times the price it is sold for in the Czech Republic.  In 2016, Plzeňský Prazdroj sold 11 million hectolitres of beer, with an increase in 1 million hectoliters, and exports grew by ten percent.  Additionally, it is speculated that the increase in beer exports and consumption is contributed to the fact that the brewing company's parent company, SABMiller, was sold to the Japanese company Asahi Breweries. The company sought out to acquire more brewing companies, as beer consumption has been declining in Japan.  In present day, in 2017, over one third of Plzeňský Prazdroj's sales were from exports, which is an increase of eight percent from the previous year. Exports increased by 1.5 million hectoliters. In April, right after Ashai Breweries purchased Plzeňský Prazdroj, the company began exporting to China and the beer is now available in large cities in China. Karel Kraus, the manager of the Pilsner Urquell brand, credits the success of the brewing company to their increase in beer on tap, which is exported to more than thirty countries and represents twenty percent of the Pilsner Urquell beer industry.

Staropramen Brewery.

For more general information on Staropramen Brewery, see Staropramen Brewery.  Available in more than thirty five countries worldwide, Pivovary Staropramen is the second largest beer producer in the Czech Republic. The beers brewed by this company are: Staropramen, Braník, and Velvet. Currently, the company operates two breweries: Staropramen and Ostravar. It has been in business since 1998 and it holds 15.6 percent of the domestic market. Staropramen is owned by Molson Coors, and one of the primary goals of the parent company is to strengthen its sales in the United Kingdom.  In 2008, Staropramen exported 687,000 hectoliters of beer. This can be compared to present day, where in 2017, Staropramen sold 3.1 million hectoliters of beer. This was an increase of six thousand hectoliters from the previous year.  According to the CEO of Staropramen, Petr Kovařík, the goal of the company is: “...not to be in as many countries as possible, but we only choose the strategic markets. Where we enter, we try to do a good job.” The largest export country for Staropramen is Slovakia, and then Sweden, Germany and Great Britain. Additionally, sales in Poland have grown by ten percent in the last two years. Sales in central and southeast Europe have grown by thirty percent in the last year.  In 2016, Staropramen has launched its lighter beer Pravha in the UK, which is now brewed in Burton upon Trent. This has become quite controversial with many consumers. Although brewed to the Czech recipe, the taste has been compromised.

Heineken Ceska Republika Group.

Heineken is the third largest beer producer in the world, and the Heineken Ceska Republika Group owns three breweries in the Czech Republic. The company produces and exports Starobrno, Krušovice, Zlatopramen, and Březňák.

Budejovicky Budvar.

Budejovicky Budvar, not to be confused with the American company Budweiser, is the one of the largest brewing companies in the Czech Republic and produces Budweiser, Budvar, Budweiser Budvar. In 2014, the company exported a record number of beers, at 813,000 hectoliters. Between 2010 and 2014, the company increase the volume of exports by thirty four percent. The main sales are to Germany and Slovakia, where sales rose from 2013 to 2014 by ten percent and eight percent, respectively. Russia used to be a large importer of Budejovicky Budvar beer, but after the devaluation of the rouble in 2010.  In 2017, Budejovicky Budvar continued to increase its exports and they exported a record volume of beer at 990,508 hectoliters of beer to 76 countries. Additionally, the amount of beer exported increased in 56 countries, with the largest amount being exported to Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Canada, Germany, Austria, and Russia. This year, Budejovicky Budvar was able to begin exporting to Africa, South America, and Asia.  After 2017, Budejovicky Budvar exported 21.5 percent of Czech beer exports. As a result of the increase in exports, the brewery is beginning construction to expand its brewery and meet the export demand for its customers. Due to this record breaking year, Budejovicky Budvar is the second largest beer exporter in the Czech Republic. However, the company was unable to meet all orders due to their limited production capacities.

Beer () has a long history in what is now the Czech Republic, with brewing taking place in Břevnov Monastery in 993. The city of Brno had the right to brew beer from the 12th century while Plzeň and České Budějovice (Pilsen and Budweis in German), had breweries in the 13th century.

České pivo a pivovarnictví má dlouholetou tradici a patří mezi nejznámější piva ve světě. Nejstarší doloženou českou tradici vaření piva má Břevnovský klášter, který byl založen roku 993.


Description.

"Camarasaurus" is among the most common and frequently well-preserved sauropod dinosaurs. The maximum size of the most common species, "C. lentus", was about 15 m (49 ft) in length. The largest species, "C. supremus", reached a maximum length of 23 m (75 ft) and maximum estimated weight of 47 tonnes (51.8 tons).  The arched skull of "Camarasaurus" was remarkably square and the blunt snout had many fenestrae, though it was sturdy and is frequently recovered in good condition by paleontologists. The 19-cm-long (7.5-in) teeth were shaped like chisels (spatulate) and arranged evenly along the jaw. The strength of the teeth indicates that "Camarasaurus" probably ate coarser plant material than the slender-toothed diplodocids.  Each front limb bore five toes, with the inner toe having a large, sharpened claw. Like most sauropods, the front limbs were shorter than the hind legs, but the high position of the shoulders meant little slope in the back existed.  Serving the purpose of weight-saving, as seen in other sauropods, many of the vertebrae were hollowed out, or "pneumatic"; that is, the vertebrae were riddled with passages and cavities for an intricate system of air sacs connected to the lungs. This feature was little understood at the time "Camarasaurus" was discovered, but its structure was the inspiration for the creature's name, meaning "chambered lizard". The neck and counterbalancing tail were shorter than usual for a sauropod of this size. "Camarasaurus", like certain other sauropods, had an enlargement of the spinal cord near the hips. Palaeontologists originally believed this to be a second brain, perhaps necessary to co-ordinate such a huge creature. Indeed, while it would have been an area of intensive nervous system—probably reflex, or automatic—activity, it was not, however, a brain; such enlargements are frequently found to some degree in vertebrate animals.  "Camarasaurus" "grandis" had a more robust radius than fellow sauropod "Venenosaurus".  A specimen of "Camarasaurus" called SMA 0002 (which has also been assigned to "Cathetosaurus") from Wyoming's Howe-Stephens Quarry, referred to as "E.T.", shows evidence of soft tissue. Along the jaw line, ossified remains of what appear to have been the animal's gums have been recovered, indicating that it had deep-set teeth covered by gums, with only the tips of the crowns protruding. The teeth were, upon death, pushed further out from their sockets as the gums retracted, dried, and tightened through decay. The examinations of the specimen also indicate that the teeth were covered by tough outer scales and possibly a beak of some variety, though this is not known for certain.

History of discovery.

The first record of "Camarasaurus" comes from 1877, when a few scattered vertebrae were located in Colorado, by Oramel W. Lucas. Pursuing his long-running and acrimonious competition (known as the Bone Wars) with Othniel Charles Marsh, the paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope paid for the bones, and moving quickly, named them in the same year. For his part, Marsh later named some of his sauropod findings "Morosaurus grandis", but most paleontologists today consider them to be a species of "Camarasaurus" Re: "Morosaurus" agilis. Such naming conflicts were common between the two rival dinosaur hunters.  A complete skeleton of "Camarasaurus" was not described, by Charles W. Gilmore, until 1925. Because it was the skeleton from a young "Camarasaurus", though, many illustrations from the time show the dinosaur to be much smaller than it is now known to be.

Species.

The type species of "Camarasaurus" is Cope's original species, "C. supremus" (meaning "the biggest chambered lizard"), named in 1877. Other species since discovered include "C. grandis" ("grand chambered lizard") in 1877, "C. lentus" in 1889, and "C. lewisi" (originally described as a new genus "Cathetosaurus") in 1988.  "C. supremus", as its name suggests, is the largest known species of "Camarasaurus" and one of the most massive sauropods known from the late Jurassic Morrison Formation. Except for its huge size, it was nearly indistinguishable from "C. lentus". "C. supremus" was not typical of the genus as a whole, and is known only from the latest, uppermost parts of the formation. Both "C. grandis" and "C. lentus" were smaller, as well as occurring in the earlier stages of the Morrison.  Stratigraphic evidence suggests that chronological sequence aligned with the physical differences between the three species, and it describes an evolutionary progression within the Morrison Formation. "C. grandis" is the oldest species and occurred in the lowest rock layers of the Morrison. "C. lentus" appeared later, co-existing with "C. grandis" for several million years, possibly due to different ecological niches as suggested by differences in the spinal anatomy of the two species. At a later stage, "C. grandis" disappeared from the rock record, leaving only "C. lentus". Then "C. lentus", too, disappeared; at the same time, "C. supremus" appeared in the uppermost layers. This immediate succession of species, as well as the very close similarity between the two, suggests that "C. supremus" may have evolved directly from "C. lentus", representing a larger, later-surviving population of animals.  "C. lewisi" species was originally named as "Cathetosaurus lewisi" and later synonymized with "Camarasaurus". A 2013 analysis split the two genera again.

Classification.

The scientific classification of "Camarasaurus", using the Linnaean system, is given in the box to the upper right, but among palaeontologists, this method of taxonomic classification of dinosaurs is being supplanted by the cladistics-inspired phylogenetic taxonomy.  A simplified cladogram of Macronaria after D'Emic (2012) is shown below: "Camarasaurus" is considered to be a basal macronarian, more closely related to the common ancestor of all macronarians than to more derived forms like "Brachiosaurus".

Paleobiology.

Herding.

A fossil record exists of two adults and a 12.2-m-long (40 ft) juvenile that died together in the Late Jurassic epoch, around 150 million years ago (in northeast Wyoming, United States). Their bodies were assumed to be washed by a river in spate (flood) to their final resting place in alluvial mud. The scenario suggests that "Camarasaurus" traveled in herds or at least in family groups. At other sites, fossil camarasaur eggs have been found in lines, rather than in neatly arranged nests as with some other dinosaurs, which suggests that, like most sauropods, "Camarasaurus" did not tend its young.

Feeding.

Previously, scientists have suggested that "Camarasaurus" and other sauropods may have swallowed gastroliths (stones) to help grind the food in the stomach, regurgitating or passing them when they became too smooth. More recent analysis, however, of the evidence for stomach stones suggests this was not the case. The strong, robust teeth of "Camarasaurus" were more developed than those of most sauropods and were replaced on average every 62 days (M. D'Emic et al.), indicating that "Camarasaurus" may have masticated food in its mouth to some degree before swallowing. Other findings indicate that "Camarasaurus" spp. preferred vegetation different from other sauropods, allowing them to share the same environment without competing.

Growth.

Long-bone histology enables researchers to estimate the age that a specific individual reached. A study by Griebeler et al. (2013) examined long-bone histological data and concluded that the "Camarasaurus" sp. CM 36664 weighed, reached sexual maturity at 20 years and died at age 26.

Metabolism.

Eagle "et al." performed clumped isotope thermometry on the enamel covering the teeth of various Jurassic sauropods, including "Camarasaurus". Temperatures of were obtained, which is comparable to that of modern mammals.

Paleopathology.

A "Camarasaurus" pelvis recovered from Dinosaur National Monument in Utah shows gouging attributed to "Allosaurus".  In 1992, a partial "C. grandis" skeleton was discovered at the Bryan Small Stegosaurus Quarry of the Morrison Formation near Canon City, Colorado. This specimen preserved a partial right humerus catalogued as DMNH 2908 and associated vertebrae from the back and tail. In 2001, Lorie McWhinney, Kenneth Carpenter, and Bruce Rothschild published a description of a pathology observed on the humerus. They noted a juxtacortical lesion 25 by 18 cm wide made of bone that resembled woven fibers. Although woven bone forms in accessory dental bone, in other locations, it is a sign of injury or illness. The woven bone's "undulating fibrous bundles" were observed oriented in the direction of the "m. brachialis". The lesion's fusion and lack of porosity at its near and far ends indicate the periostitis was inactive or healed. McWhinney and the other researchers argued that this injury would have been a continuous source of hardship for the animal. It would have exerted pressure on the muscles. This pressure would have compressed the muscles' blood vessels and nerves, reducing the range of motion of both the limb's flexor and extensor muscles. This effect would have hindered the "mM. brachialis", "m. brachoradialis", and to a lesser degree the "m. biceps brachii" to the lesion's position on the humerus. The researchers inferred that the inflammation of the muscles and periosteum would have caused additional complications in the lower region of the fore limb, as well. The lesion would also have caused long-term fasciitis and myosistis. The cumulative effect of these pathological processes would have moderate to severe effects on the ability of the limb to move and "made everyday activities such as foraging for food and escaping predators harder to accomplish."  To help determine the cause of the pathology, McWhinney and the other researchers performed a CT scan in 3-mm increments. The CT scan found that the mass had a consistent radiodensity and was separated from the cortex of the bone by a radioleucent line. No evidence was found of stress fracture or infectious processes like osteomyelitis or infectious periostitis. They also ruled out osteochondroma because the axis of the spur is 25° relative to the vertical axis of the humerus, whereas an osteochondroma would have formed at 90° to the axis of the humerus. Other candidates identified by the scientists for the origin of the spur-bearing lesion included:

Paleoecology.

Habitat.

The Morrison Formation, situated along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, is home to a fossil-rich stretch of Late Jurassic rock. A large number of dinosaur species can be found here, including relatives of "Camarasaurus" such as "Diplodocus", "Apatosaurus", and "Brachiosaurus", but camarasaurs are the most abundant of the dinosaurs in the formation. A number of complete skeletons have been recovered from Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming, usually found in stratigraphic zones 2-6. According to radiometric dating, the Morrison sedimentary layers range between 156.3 million years ago (Mya) at the base, to 146.8 Mya at the top, which places it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. Its environment is interpreted as semiarid with distinct wet and dry seasons.  Dinosaur and trace fossils are found particularly in the Morrison Basin, which stretches from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. Eroded material from their east-facing drainage basins was carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels, and floodplains. The formation is similar in age to the Solnhofen Limestone Formation in Germany and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania. In 1877, it became the center of the Bone Wars, a fossil-collecting rivalry between early paleontologists Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope.

Paleofauna.

The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs such as "Barosaurus", "Diplodocus", "Apatosaurus", "Brontosaurus", and "Brachiosaurus". Dinosaurs living alongside "Camarasaurus" included the herbivorous ornithischians "Camptosaurus", "Gargoyleosaurus", "Dryosaurus", "Stegosaurus", and "Othnielosaurus". Predators in this paleoenvironment included the theropods "Saurophaganax", "Torvosaurus", "Ceratosaurus", "Marshosaurus", "Stokesosaurus", "Ornitholestes", and "Allosaurus", which accounted for up to 75% of theropod specimens, and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. "Camarasaurus" is commonly found at the same sites as "Allosaurus", "Apatosaurus", "Stegosaurus", and "Diplodocus".  Other organisms in this region included bivalves, snails, ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans, and several species of pterosaurs such as "Harpactognathus" and "Mesadactylus". Early mammals present were docodonts (such as "Docodon"), multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the "Araucaria"-like conifer "Brachyphyllum".

Camarasaurus ( ) was a genus of quadrupedal, herbivorous dinosaurs. It was the most common of the giant sauropods to be found in North America. Its fossil remains have been found in the Morrison Formation of Colorado and Utah, dating to the Late Jurassic epoch (Kimmeridgian to Tithonian stages), between 155 and 145 million years ago.

Camarasaurus (z latinského "camara" - dutina, kamarasaurus měl totiž v obratlích velké dutiny) byl rodem obřích čtyřnohých býložravých dinosaurů. Tento rod představuje nejrozšířenější ze sauropodů, kteří obývali v době před 150 miliony let Severní Ameriku.


Early life and education.

Keith Haring was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, on May 4, 1958. He was raised in Kutztown, Pennsylvania, by his mother, Joan Haring, and father, Allen Haring, an engineer and amateur cartoonist. Keith attended Kutztown Area High School and graduated in 1976. His family attended the United Church of God. He had three younger sisters, Kay, Karen, and Kristen. He became interested in art at a very young age, spending time with his father producing creative drawings. His early influences included Walt Disney cartoons, Dr. Seuss, Charles Schulz, and the Looney Tunes characters in "The Bugs Bunny Show".  In his early teenage years, Haring was involved with the Jesus Movement. Later, he hitchhiked across the country, while selling T-shirts that he made featuring the Grateful Dead and anti-Nixon shirts. He studied commercial art from 1976 to 1978 at Pittsburgh's Ivy School of Professional Art, but eventually lost interest. He was inspired to focus on his own art after reading "The Art Spirit" (1923) by Robert Henri. This influenced his decision to leave the Ivy School after two semesters.  Haring had a maintenance job at the Pittsburgh Center for the Arts and was able to explore the art of Jean Dubuffet, Jackson Pollock, and Mark Tobey. He was highly influenced around this time by a 1977 retrospective of Pierre Alechinsky's work and by a lecture that the sculptor Christo gave in 1978. From Alechinsky's work, he felt encouraged to create large images that featured writing and characters. From Christo, Haring was introduced to ways of incorporating the public into his art. His first important one-man exhibition was in Pittsburgh at the Center for the Arts in 1978.  Haring moved to New York in 1978 to study painting at the School of Visual Arts. He also worked as a busboy during this time at the nightclub Danceteria. While attending school he studied semiotics with Bill Beckley and experimented with video and performance art. Haring was also highly influenced in his art, by author William Burroughs.

Career.

Early work (up to 1981).

Haring first received public attention with his graffiti art in subways where he created white chalk drawings on a black, unused advertisement backboard in the stations. He considered the subways to be his "laboratory", a place where he could experiment and create his artwork and saw the black advertisement paper as a free space and "the perfect place to draw". Starting in 1980, he organized exhibitions at Club 57, a gallery that hosted performances and exhibitions from emerging artists, which were filmed by the photographer Tseng Kwong Chi. Around this time, "The Radiant Baby", a crawling infant with emitting rays of light, became his most recognized symbol. He used it as his tag to sign his work while a subway artist. His images were primarily composed of solid, bold lines with vibrant colors.  Symbols and images (such as barking dogs, flying saucers, and large hearts) became common in his work and iconography. The writings of Burroughs and Brion Gysin inspired his work with lettering and words. In 1980, he created headlines from word juxtaposition and attached hundreds to lamp-posts around Manhattan. These included phrases like "REAGAN SLAIN BY HERO COP" and "POPE KILLED FOR FREED HOSTAGE" among others. That same year, in one of his earliest public projects, Haring altered a banner advertisement above a subway entrance in Times Square that showed a female embracing a male's legs, blacking-out the first letter so that it essentially read "hardon" instead of "Chardón", a French clothing brand (pictured here). He later used other forms of commercial material to spread his work and messages. This included mass producing buttons and magnets to hand out and working on top of subway ads.  In 1981, he sketched his first chalk drawings on black paper and painted plastic, metal, and found objects. Haring would buy materials from hardware stores to use, such as tarpaulin or muslin, and he would utilize any medium that could provide a proper context for his work and/or could hold the marks. As a result, Haring's works spread quickly and he became exceedingly more recognizable. He used his imagery during the last years of his life to speak about his illness and to generate activism and awareness about AIDS.  In December 2007, an area of the American Textile Building in the TriBeCa neighborhood of New York City was discovered to contain a Haring painting from 1979.

International breakthrough (1982) and rise to fame.

1982 was an important year for Haring. He was featured in Documenta (Germany) and the São Paulo Biennale (Brazil). In October 1982, he had his first exclusive exhibition in the Tony Shafrazi Gallery with artist LA II. He was in several group exhibitions including Fast at Alexander Milliken Gallery in New York City which included Jean Michel Basquiat.  He created more than 50 public works between 1982 and 1989 in dozens of cities around the world. He often used lines to show energy and movement. One of his early works, "Untitled", in 1982 depicts two figures with a radiant heart-love motif, which critics have interpreted as a boldness in homosexual love and a significant cultural statement.  In the following years, Haring traveled in many countries for exhibitions and public projects in Europe, America and Asia.  Throughout the 1980s, Haring made art for a variety of sources, nightclubs and discotheques, such as the Palladium in Manhattan, MTV set decorations, a backdrop for the Philadelphia stage of the iconic 1985 Live Aid concerts for world hunger, walls on the Lower East Side, and props for various dance works. His works also included murals for the CAPC Musée d'Art Contemporain de Bordeaux, the Children's Hospital in Washington, D.C., and the Necker Children's Hospital in Paris.  In 1984, Haring visited Australia and painted murals in Melbourne (such as the 1984 'Detail-Mural at Collingwood College, Victoria') and Sydney, and received a commission from the National Gallery of Victoria and the Australian Centre for Contemporary Art to create a mural which temporarily replaced the water curtain at the National Gallery. He also visited and painted in Rio de Janeiro, the, the Whitney, Minneapolis and Manhattan. He continued to be politically active, designing a Free South Africa poster in 1985 and in the same year, worked on his project, Citykids Speak on Liberty which involved 1000 children. In spring 1986, he had his first solo museum exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, where he also painted a mural on the museum's then-storage facility. In 1986, Haring was asked by the Checkpoint Charlie Museum to create a mural on the Berlin Wall. The mural was 300 meters long and depicted red and black interlocking human figures against a yellow background. The colors were a representation of the German flag and symbolized the hope of unity between East and West Germany.  Haring also created public murals in the lobby and ambulatory care department of Woodhull Medical and Mental Health Center on Flushing Avenue, Brooklyn.  Haring collaborated with Grace Jones, whom he had met through Andy Warhol. In 1985, Haring and Jones worked together on Jones's two live performances at the Paradise Garage, which Robert Farris Thompson has called an "epicenter for black dance". Each time, Haring covered Jones' body with graffiti. Haring also collaborated with David Spada, a jewelry designer, to design the sculptural adornments for Jones. He also collaborated with fashion designers Vivienne Westwood and Malcolm McLaren on their A/W 1983/84 Witches collection, with his artwork covering the clothing which was most famously worn by a pink-wigged Madonna for a performance of her song "Like a Virgin" on the British pop-music program "Top of the Pops" and the American TV dance program "Solid Gold".

Pop Shop 1986.

In April 1986, Pop Shop was opened in Soho and made Haring's work readily accessible to purchase at reasonable prices, though he was highly criticized for the commercialization of his work. Shirts, posters, and other items showing his work was sold there. The Pop Shop remained open after Haring's death and profits go to the Keith Haring Foundation.  Commercialization allowed Haring's art to be easier and more affordable to own. Throughout his career, Haring made his art widely available through the location of his subway art and art on billboards, as well as through the Pop Shop. His attempts to make his work relatable and accessible to a wide audience can also be seen in his figures not having discernable ages, races, or identities. By the arrival of Pop Shop, his work began reflecting more socio-political themes, such as anti-Apartheid, AIDS awareness, and the crack cocaine epidemic. In 1987, he had his own exhibitions in Helsinki, Antwerp, and elsewhere. He also designed the cover for the benefit album "A Very Special Christmas". In 1988, he joined a select group of artists whose work has appeared on the label of Chateau Mouton Rothschild wine.  His "Crack is Wack" mural, created in 1986, is visible from New York's FDR Drive. It was originally considered as vandalism by the New York Police Department and Haring was arrested. But after local media outlets picked up the story, Haring was released on a lesser charge. While in jail, Haring's original work was vandalized. This mural is an example of Haring's use of consciousness raising rather than consumerism, "Crack is Wack" rather than "Coke is it." He later made an updated version of the mural on the same wall. In 1989, he criticized the avoidance of social issues such as AIDS through a piece called "Rebel with Many Causes" that revolves around a theme of "hear no evil, see no evil, speak no evil". A rare video of Haring at work demonstrates his energetic style. In his journal, in 1978, he wrote: "I am becoming much more aware of movement. The importance of movement is intensified when a painting becomes a performance. The performance (the act of painting) becomes as important as the resulting painting." Haring would often work quickly, trying to create as much work as possible—sometimes completing as many as 40 paintings in a day.

Final years.

When Haring's friend died of a drug overdose in New York in 1988, he paid homage to him with his work "A Pile of Crowns, for Jean-Michel Basquiat".  Haring was openly gay and used his work to advocate for safe sex. In 1988, he was diagnosed with HIV.  From 1982 to 1989, he was featured in more than 100 solo and group exhibitions and produced more than 50 public artworks in dozens of charities, hospitals, day care centers, and orphanages. He used his imagery during the last years of his life to speak about his illness and to generate activism and awareness about AIDS. In 1989, he was invited by the Lesbian and Gay Community Services Center to join a show of site-specific artwork for the building at 208 West 13th Street. He chose the second-floor men's room for his mural "Once Upon a Time". In June, on the rear wall of the convent of the Church of Sant'Antonio () in Pisa, he painted the last public work of his life, the mural "" (translation: "All world"). He died in 1990 at the age of 31.

Friendships.

In the early eighties Haring had established friendships with fellow emerging artists Futura 2000, Kenny Scharf, Madonna, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. Haring and graffiti artist Angel "LA II" Oritz collaborated in producing a T-shirt design for friends Willi Smith and Laurie Mallet’s clothing label WilliWear Productions in 1984. He later became friends with Grace Jones, Yoko Ono, James Rosenquist, Niki de St Phalle, Jean Tinguely and Claude Picasso.  Andy Warhol, who befriended him in 1983, was the theme of several of his pieces, including "Andy Mouse". His friendship with Warhol would prove to be a decisive element in his eventual success. "I met (Warhol) finally through (photographer] Christopher Makos, who brought me to the Factory. At first, Andy was very distant. It was difficult for him to be comfortable with people if he didn’t know them. Then he came to another exhibition at the Fun Gallery (February 1983), which was soon after the show at Shafrazi (October 1982). He was more friendly. We started talking, going out. We traded a lot of works at that time. Andy Warhol mentions in his diaries going to the closing party on November 13, 1982, of the exhibition at Shafrazi.

Death.

Haring died on February 16, 1990, of AIDS-related complications. He is among those commemorated in the AIDS Memorial Quilt. As a celebration of his life, Madonna declared that the first New York date of her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour would be a benefit concert for Haring's memory and donated all proceeds from her ticket sales to AIDS charities including AIDS Project Los Angeles and amfAR; the act was documented in her film "." Additionally, his work was featured in several of Red Hot Organization's efforts to raise money for AIDS and AIDS awareness, specifically its first two albums, "Red Hot + Blue" and "Red Hot + Dance", the latter of which used Haring's work on its cover. His art remains on display worldwide.

Legacy.

In 2014 Haring was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco’s Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields."  In June 2019, Haring was one of the inaugural fifty American "pioneers, trailblazers, and heroes" inducted on the National LGBTQ Wall of Honor within the Stonewall National Monument (SNM) in New York City's Stonewall Inn. The SNM is the first U.S. national monument dedicated to LGBTQ rights and history, and the wall's unveiling was timed to take place during the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots.

The Keith Haring Foundation.

In 1989, Haring established the Keith Haring Foundation to provide funding and imagery to AIDS organizations and children's programs. The foundation's stated goal is to keep his wishes and expand his legacy by providing grants and funding to non-profit organizations that educate disadvantaged youths and inform the public about HIV and AIDS. It also shares his work and contains information about his life. The foundation also supports arts and educational institutions by funding exhibitions, educational programs, and publications.

Influences.

Haring's work demonstrates political and personal influences. References to his sexual orientation are apparent throughout his work, and his journals confirm its impact on his work. There are symbolic allusions to the AIDS epidemic in some of his later pieces, such as "Untitled (cat. no. 27)", "Silence=Death" and his sketch "Weeping Woman". In some of his works—including cat. no. 27—the symbolism is subtle, but he also produced some blatantly activist works. "Silence=Death", which mirrors the ACT UP poster and uses its motto, is almost universally agreed upon as a work of HIV/AIDS activism.  Haring's use of commercial brands and flat, bold colors demonstrate the influence of Pop Art on his work.  Haring was influenced by fellow artists, including Andy Warhol, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Frank Stella, and Roy Lichtenstein.  In some of his art he drew connections between the end of the world and the AIDS virus. In a piece that he made with William Burroughs, he depicts the virus as demon-like creatures, the number 666, and a mushroom cloud.  Haring's proximity to the nuclear meltdown at Three Mile Island had a large impact on him. His fear of nuclear disaster started to appear in his art. An example of this is a black and white striped flag that he said symbolized the danger of a nuclear apocalypse.  Haring was deeply influenced by the Jesus Movement as a youth, and it continued to play a role in his art for his entire career. The movement was an extremely evangelical, loosely organized, diverse group of Christians. They were known for their anti-materialism and anti-establishment beliefs, focus on the Last Judgement, and their compassionate treatment of the poor. As a young teenager, Haring became very involved in the movement. Religious symbols started to be incorporated into his drawings around that age as well as Jesus Movement sentiments. This includes anti-church establishment views that can be seen in some of his later work. Though his time as a "Jesus Person" did not last beyond his teenage years, religious images, symbols, and references continued to appear in his art. In an interview near the end of his life he commented, "[All] that stuff stuck in my head and even now there are lots of religious images in my work. Some people even think my work is by a religious fanatic or maniac."  When he was a subway artist, Haring used a tag to sign his work. His tag (the Radiant Child) depicts a baby with lines radiating out of it, alluding to the Christ child. He continued to make images depicting the Christ child, including Nativity scenes in his characteristic style during his time as a subway artist. His last pieces were two religious triptychs; both went to Episcopal cathedrals. In them he illustrates the Last Judgement, though who is being saved in the pieces is ambiguous.

Exhibitions.

Haring contributed to the New York New Wave display in 1981 and in 1982, had his first exclusive exhibition in the Tony Shafrazi Gallery. That same year, he took part in Documenta 7 in Kassel, Germany, as well as Public Art Fund's "Messages to the Public" in which he created work for a Spectacolor Board in Times Square. He contributed work to the Whitney Biennial in 1983, as well as in the São Paulo Biennial. In 1985, the CAPC in Bordeaux opened an exhibition of his works, and he took part in the Paris Biennial.  During his lifetime, Haring had over 50 one person shows, and, since his death, has been featured in over 150 exhibitions around the world.  Haring has been the subject of several international retrospectives. His art was the subject of a 1997 retrospective at the Whitney Museum in New York, curated by Elisabeth Sussman. In 1996, a retrospective at the Museum of Contemporary Art Australia was the first major exhibition of his work in Australia. In 2008 there was a retrospective exhibition at the MAC in Lyon, France. In February 2010, on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the Haring's death, Tony Shafrazi Gallery showed an exhibition containing dozens of works from every stage of Haring's career. In March 2012, a retrospective exhibit of his work, "Keith Haring: 1978–1982", opened at the Brooklyn Museum in New York. In April 2013, "Keith Haring: The Political Line" opened at the and In November 2014, then at the De Young Museum in San Francisco. His work was exhibited in 2019 at Gladstone Gallery in Belgium.  The first major UK exhibition of Haring’s work, featuring more than 85 artworks, was at Tate Liverpool from June 14 until November 10, 2019.

Collections.

Haring's work is in major private and public collections, including the Museum of Modern Art, the Morgan Library and Museum, and the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City; Los Angeles County Museum of Art; the Art Institute of Chicago; the Bass Museum in Miami; Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris; the Brant Foundation Art Study Center in Greenwich, Connecticut; the Carnegie Museum of Art and the Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh; the Ludwig Museum in Cologne; and the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam. He also created a wide variety of public works, including the infirmary at Children's Village in Dobbs Ferry, New York, and the second floor men's room in the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual & Transgender Community Center in Manhattan, which was later transformed into an office and is known as the Keith Haring Room. In January 2019 an exhibit called "Keith Haring's New York" opened at New York Law School in the main building of its Tribeca campus.  The Nakamura Keith Haring collection, established in 2007 in Hokuto, Yamanashi, Japan, is an art museum exhibiting exclusively the artworks of Haring.

Art market.

Haring created the Pop Shop in 1986 SoHo district of Manhattan, selling T-shirts, toys, posters, and other objects that show his works—allowing his works to be accessible to a larger number of people.  Haring was represented until his death by art dealer Tony Shafrazi. Since his death in 1990, his estate has been administered by the Keith Haring Foundation and the Pop Shop. The foundation has a two-fold mission of supporting educational opportunities for underprivileged children and financing AIDS research and patient care. The foundation is represented by Gladstone Gallery.

Authentication issues.

There is no catalogue raisonné for Haring; however, there is copious information about him available on the estate's website and elsewhere, enabling prospective buyers or sellers to research exhibition history. In 2012, the Keith Haring Foundation disbanded its authentication board; that same year, it donated $1 million to support exhibitions at the Whitney Museum of American Art and $1 million to Planned Parenthood of New York City's Project Street Beat. A 2014 lawsuit, filed by a group of nine art collectors at the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, argued that the foundation's actions have "limited the number of Haring works in the public domain, thereby increasing the value of the Haring works that the foundation and its members own or sell."

In popular culture.

Haring is the subject of a composition, "Haring at the Exhibition", written and performed by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero in collaboration with DJ Nicola Guiducci. The work combines excerpts from popular chart music of the 1980s with samples of classical music compositions by Lorenzo Ferrero and synthesized sounds. It was featured at "The Keith Haring Show", an exhibition which took place in 2005 at the Triennale di Milano.  In 2006, he was named by Equality Forum as one of their 31 Icons of LGBT History Month.  In 2008, filmmaker Christina Clausen released the documentary "The Universe of Keith Haring". In the film, his legacy is "resurrected through colorful archival footage and remembered by friends and admirers such as artists Kenny Scharf and Yoko Ono, gallery owners Jeffrey Deitch and Tony Shafrazi, and the choreographer Bill T. Jones".  Madonna, who was friends with Haring during the 1980s, used his art as animated backdrops for her 2008/2009 Sticky and Sweet Tour. The animation is standard Haring, featuring his trademark blocky figures dancing in beat to an updated remix of "Into the Groove".  "Keith Haring: Double Retrospect" is a monster sized jigsaw puzzle by Ravensburger measuring in at with 32,256 pieces, breaking "Guinness Book of World Records" for the largest puzzle ever made. The puzzle uses 32 pieces of his work and weighs.  On May 4, 2012, on what would have been Haring's 54th birthday, Google honored him in a Google Doodle.  Haring created numerous public artworks with social messages, including the iconic image of a mother and child chosen to appear on the first A Very Special Christmas album benefitting Special Olympics in 1987. Through the decades, this image has graced subsequent albums in the collection, which has become the most successful benefit series in music history. The iconic image for the "A Very Special Christmas" compilation album consists of a typical Haring figure holding a baby. Its "Jesus iconography" is considered unusual in modern rock holiday albums.  Haring had a balloon in tribute to him at the 2008 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade.  Tim Finn wrote the song "Hit The Ground Running", on his album "Before & After", in memory of Haring.  In 2017, his sister Kay Haring wrote a children's book, "Keith Haring: The Boy Who Just Kept Drawing," which ranked among the top ten sellers every week for over a year in the Amazon category of Children's Art History.

Keith Allen Haring (May 4, 1958 – February 16, 1990) was an American artist whose pop art and graffiti-like work grew out of the New York City street culture of the 1980s. Much of his work includes sexual allusions that turned into social activism. He achieved this by using sexual images to advocate for safe sex and AIDS awareness.

Keith Haring (4. května 1958, Reading, Pensylvánie, USA – 16. února 1990, New York, USA) byl umělec a společenský aktivista. Jeho dílo bylo reakcí na pouliční kulturu New Yorku 80. let.


mRNA processing.

The pre-mRNA molecule undergoes three main modifications. These modifications are 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and RNA splicing, which occur in the cell nucleus before the RNA is translated.

5' processing.

Capping.

Capping of the pre-mRNA involves the addition of 7-methylguanosine (mG) to the 5' end. To achieve this, the terminal 5' phosphate requires removal, which is done with the aid of a phosphatase enzyme. The enzyme guanosyl transferase then catalyses the reaction, which produces the diphosphate 5' end. The diphosphate 5' end then attacks the alpha phosphorus atom of a GTP molecule in order to add the guanine residue in a 5'5' triphosphate link. The enzyme (guanine-"N"-)-methyltransferase ("cap MTase") transfers a methyl group from S-adenosyl methionine to the guanine ring. This type of cap, with just the (mG) in position is called a cap 0 structure. The ribose of the adjacent nucleotide may also be methylated to give a cap 1. Methylation of nucleotides downstream of the RNA molecule produce cap 2, cap 3 structures and so on. In these cases the methyl groups are added to the 2' OH groups of the ribose sugar. The cap protects the 5' end of the primary RNA transcript from attack by ribonucleases that have specificity to the 3'5' phosphodiester bonds.

3' processing.

Cleavage and polyadenylation.

The pre-mRNA processing at the 3' end of the RNA molecule involves cleavage of its 3' end and then the addition of about 250 adenine residues to form a poly(A) tail. The cleavage and adenylation reactions occur primarily if a polyadenylation signal sequence (5'- AAUAAA-3') is located near the 3' end of the pre-mRNA molecule, which is followed by another sequence, which is usually (5'-CA-3') and is the site of cleavage. A GU-rich sequence is also usually present further downstream on the pre-mRNA molecule. More recently, it has been demonstrated that alternate signal sequences such as UGUA upstream off the cleavage site can also direct cleavage and polyadenylation in the absence of the AAUAAA signal. It is important to understand that these two signals are not mutually independent and often coexist. After the synthesis of the sequence elements, several multi-subunit proteins are transferred to the RNA molecule. The transfer of these sequence specific binding proteins cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF), Cleavage Factor I (CF I) and cleavage stimulation factor (CStF) occurs from RNA Polymerase II. The three factors bind to the sequence elements. The AAUAAA signal is directly bound by CPSF. For UGUA dependent processing sites, binding of the multi protein complex is done by Cleavage Factor I (CF I). The resultant protein complex formed contains additional cleavage factors and the enzyme Polyadenylate Polymerase (PAP). This complex cleaves the RNA between the polyadenylation sequence and the GU-rich sequence at the cleavage site marked by the (5'-CA-3') sequences. Poly(A) polymerase then adds about 200 adenine units to the new 3' end of the RNA molecule using ATP as a precursor. As the poly(A) tail is synthesized, it binds multiple copies of poly(A)-binding protein, which protects the 3'end from ribonuclease digestion by enzymes including the CCR4-Not complex.

Introns Splicing.

RNA splicing is the process by which introns, regions of RNA that do not code for proteins, are removed from the pre-mRNA and the remaining exons connected to re-form a single continuous molecule. Exons are sections of mRNA which become "expressed" or translated into a protein. They are the coding portions of a mRNA molecule. Although most RNA splicing occurs after the complete synthesis and end-capping of the pre-mRNA, transcripts with many exons can be spliced co-transcriptionally. The splicing reaction is catalyzed by a large protein complex called the spliceosome assembled from proteins and small nuclear RNA molecules that recognize splice sites in the pre-mRNA sequence. Many pre-mRNAs, including those encoding antibodies, can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences. This process is known as alternative splicing, and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a limited amount of DNA.

Histone mRNA processing.

Histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 form the core of a nucleosome and thus are called core histones. Processing of core histones is done differently because typical histone mRNA lacks several features of other eukaryotic mRNAs, such as poly(A) tail and introns. Thus, such mRNAs do not undergo splicing and their 3' processing is done independent of most cleavage and polyadenylation factors. Core histone mRNAs have a special stem-loop structure at 3-prime end that is recognized by a stem–loop binding protein and a downstream sequence, called histone downstream element (HDE) that recruits U7 snRNA. Cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor 73 cuts mRNA between stem-loop and HDE  Histone variants, such as H2A.Z or H3.3, however, have introns and are processed as normal mRNAs including splicing and polyadenylation.

Post-transcriptional modification or co-transcriptional modification is a set of biological processes common to most eukaryotic cells by which an RNA primary transcript is chemically altered following transcription from a gene to produce a mature, functional RNA molecule that can then leave the nucleus and perform any of a variety of different functions in the cell. There are many types of post-transcriptional modifications achieved through a diverse class of molecular mechanisms.

Posttranskripční modifikace je sled několika biochemických procesů, které následují u eukaryot po transkripci DNA do RNA. V rámci těchto procesů je tzv. pre-RNA (surová RNA vytvořená RNA polymerázou) upravena a vzniká tzv. "mature RNA". Známá je především úprava surové mRNA, která předchází vlastní syntéze proteinů na ribozomech.


Life.

Dmitry was the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible and Ivan's only child born to Maria Nagaya. After the death of Ivan IV, Dmitry's older brother, Feodor I, ascended to power. However, the actual ruler of the Russian state was Feodor's brother-in-law, a boyar, Boris Godunov, who had had a claim on the Russian throne. According to a later widespread version, Godunov wanted to get rid of Dmitry, who could have succeeded the throne in light of Feodor's childlessness. In 1584, Godunov sent Dmitry, his mother and her brothers into exile to the Tsarevich's appanage city of Uglich. On 15 May 1591, Dmitry died from a stab wound, under mysterious circumstances.

Accident or murder?

Russian chroniclers and later historians offered two possible scenarios of what could have happened to Dmitry. The first theory is that Dmitry was killed by the order of Boris Godunov, the assassins making it look like an accident (this version was supported by the prominent 19th-century historians Nikolai Karamzin, Sergei Soloviev, Vasily Klyuchevsky and others). The critics of this version point out that Dmitry was Ivan's son from his "fifth" (or "seventh") marriage, and thus illegitimate by the canon law (a maximum of three marriages are allowed in the Russian Orthodox Church). This would make any claim of Dmitry's for the throne dubious at best. The modern scholarship tends to exonerate Boris of any role in the prince's death.  The second theory is that Dmitry stabbed himself in the throat during an epileptic seizure, while playing with a knife (this version was supported by historians Mikhail Pogodin, Sergei Platonov, V. K. Klein, Ruslan Skrynnikov and others). The detractors of this scenario assert that, since during an epileptic seizure the palms are wide open, the self-infliction of a fatal wound becomes highly unlikely. However, the official investigation, done at that time, asserted that the Tsarevich's seizure came while he was playing a svaika game or with a knife ("v tychku") and thus holding the knife by the blade, turned toward himself. With the knife in that position, the version of self-inflicted wound on the neck while falling forward during seizure appears more likely.  There is also a third version of Dmitry's fate, which found support with some earlier historians, such as Konstantin Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Ivan Belyaev and others. They considered it possible that Godunov's people had tried to assassinate Dmitry, but killed somebody else instead and he managed to escape. This scenario explains the appearance of impostors, sponsored by the Polish nobility (see False Dmitry I, II, III). Most modern Russian historians, however, consider the version of Dmitry's survival improbable, since it is hardly possible that the boy's appearance was unknown to his assassins. Also, it is well known that many Polish nobles who supported False Dmitry I did not believe his story themselves.

Aftermath.

The death of the Tsarevich roused a violent riot in Uglich, instigated by the loud claims of Dmitry's mother Maria Nagaya and her brother Mikhail that Dmitry was murdered. Hearing this, enraged citizens lynched fifteen of Dmitry's supposed "assassins", including the local representative of the Moscow government ("dyak") and one of Dmitry's playmates. The subsequent official investigation, led by Vasily Shuisky, after a thorough examination of witnesses, concluded the Tsarevich had died from a self-inflicted stab wound to the throat. Following the official investigation, Maria Nagaya was forcibly tonsured as a nun and exiled to a remote convent.  However, when the political circumstances changed, Shuisky retracted his earlier claim of accidental death and asserted that Dmitry was murdered on Godunov's orders. On 3 June 1606, Dmitry's remains were transferred from Uglich to Moscow and his cult soon developed. In the calendar of the Russian Orthodox Church, he is venerated as a "Saint Pious Tsarevitch", with feast days of 19 October, 15 May and 3 June. In the 20th century, the majority of Russian and Soviet historians have given more credit to the conclusions of the first official investigation report under Shuisky, which ruled Dmitry's death to be an accident.

Cultural references.

The story of murder is presumed in Aleksandr Pushkin's play "Boris Godunov", made into an opera by Modest Mussorgsky.

Tsarevich Dmitry or Dmitri Ivanovich (; 19 October 1582 – 15 May 1591), also known as Dmitry of Uglich (, "Uglichskii") or Dmitry of Moscow (, "Moskovskii"), was a Russian tsarevich famously impersonated by a series of pretenders after the death of his father Ivan the Terrible.

Carevič Dimitrij Ivanovič (19. října 1582, Moskva - 15. května 1591, Uglič) byl syn cara Ivana Hrozného. Když se po smrti jejich otce stal carem jeho bratr Fjodor I. Ivanovič, byl Dimitrij se svou matkou poslán na do Ugliče, kde zůstal sedm let, načež zde zahynul za dosud nevyjasněných okolností ranou nožem do hrdla. Jeho matka následně obvinila z vraždy Danijila Michajloviče Bitjagovského a Nikitu Kačalova se synem, kteří jí měli údajně vykonat z tajného rozkazu Borise Godunova. Ti byli bezprostředně poté rozsápáni rozlíceným davem.