Katedrála Nanebevzetí blahoslavené Panny Marie (León)

Construction.

The Cathedral's construction lasted between 1747 and 1814 and was consecrated by Pope Pius IX in 1860. Cathedral has maintained the status of being the largest cathedral in Central America and one of the best known in the Americas due to its distinct architecture and special cultural importance.

Architecture.

The architectural design was developed in 1762 by the Guatemalan architect Diego José de Porres Esquivel. It blends the Baroque and Neoclassicism styles with some influences from Gothic, Renaissance and Mudéjar styles. Thus the building can be categorized as belonging to the Eclecticism style. The cathedral has a rectangular plan, of a type general in those centuries and similar to those of the cathedrals of Lima and Cuzco, Peru. The towers and the facade are mainly Neoclassical. The cathedral has a nave and four aisles, ten arched bays and two towers in the facade, flanking a central round pediment marking the position of the nave. The sacrarium, whose salient breaks the rectangular symmetry of the building on the South side, is located almost parallel to the biggest altar. Their interior is roomy and its columns cruciform; the central nave is divided by columns from the lateral aisles and the structure is finished off over the crossing by a great dome. The facade, elevated on a terrace, combines Baroque show with the neoclassical style. The windows are arched and the two towers have Chinese domes. Due to the robustness of its walls, the Cathedral has survived tremors, volcanic eruptions of the Cerro Negro volcano and wars.  Seven tunnels start under the church and lead to the other churches in the city. The church has seven cellars; they provide stability in the event of earthquakes. One of these cellars leads to the tunnels that make their way to the other churches in the city. Above ground, the church has 34 domes which help provide both ventilation and light; "the building is one of the best naturally illuminated cathedrals in America". People were offered the possibility to be buried below the cathedral, helping to fund the construction and maintenance of the building.

Historical value.

The Cathedral has the historical value of being the Episcopal first diocese of the Catholic Church in Nicaragua, founded in 1531 and therefore one of the oldest dioceses in America. It is currently the headquarters of the Diócesis of León. Beneath the Cathedral, in crypts designed to survive earthquakes, the mortal remains of 27 people rest, among them 10 bishops, 5 priests, an eminent leader of the independence movement, three poets, a musician, six notables and a slave. Here are buried prominent Nicaraguan people, such as Miguel Larreynaga, poets Rubén Darío, Salomón de la Selva and Alfonso Cortés, the musician José de la Cruz Mena, doctor Luis H. Debayle, professor Edgardo Buitrago, the first bishop of León and last bishop of all of Nicaragua, Monsignor Simeón Pereira, and Bishop Castellón and the priest Marcelino Areas. The tomb of Darío, father of the Modernist movement in Spanish-language literature and considered "Prince of Castilian letters", is to the foot of the statue of San Pablo. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Bishop, Monsignor Simón Pereira y Castellón (the same who presided over the funeral of Darío the 13 February 1916) commissioned the Granadan sculptor Jorge Navas Cordonero to make the statue of the Virgin Mary crowning the central pediment of the facade, and the Atlantes between the pediment and the towers. Navas also sculpted the Neoclassical statues of the Twelve Apostles next to the columns of the central nave, the lion of Dario's tomb, very similar to the Lion of Lucerne, Switzerland (carved by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen, 1770–1844), the sculpture of Christ marking Monsignor Pereira's tomb, and several other decorations inside the Cathedral and its Chapel of the Sacrarium.

The Cathedral of the Assumption of Mary, also known as the "Real and Renowned Basilica Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary"(Spanish: "Real e Insigne Basílica de la Asunción de la Bienaventurada Virgen María"), is a significantly important and historic landmark in Nicaragua. The Cathedral was awarded World Heritage Site status with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The site's nomination is Nicaragua's third cultural landmark, following the ruins of León Viejo and El Güegüense.

Katedrála Nanebevzetí blahoslavené Panny Marie ve městě León na západě Nikaragui je významná církevní stavba. Její výstavba probíhala od roku 1747 až do začátku 19. století. Je vystavěna v barokním, později i v neoklasicistním stylu. Katedrála je jednou z největších církevních staveb ve Střední Americe. Pro katedrálu je charakteristická střízlivost vnitřní výzdoby a dostatek přirozeného světla v interiéru. V katedrále jsou pohřbeny významné osobnosti historie Nikaraguy - např. Rubén Darío.


Report.

Background.

This was the first running of the Argentine Grand Prix since. The race had been removed from the Formula One calendar due to the retirement of Carlos Reutemann and Argentina's invasion of the Falkland Islands, before being reinstated following President Carlos Menem's rise to power in 1989 and the subsequent modernisation of the Autódromo Oscar Alfredo Gálvez.  The No. 6 configuration of the circuit was to be used - the race having previously used the No. 2 and No. 9 configurations, as well as the long and fast No. 15 configuration. To celebrate the race's return, Reutemann drove a demonstration lap of the circuit aboard the Ferrari 412 T1 on the Thursday afternoon before the race. The track, however, was criticised due to its "dirtiness".  In the two weeks between the Brazilian and Argentine Grands Prix, the FIA rescinded the rule requiring that holes be cut in the airboxes; consequently, all the cars arrived at the circuit with their airbox holes filled.

Practice and qualifying.

As the No. 6 configuration of the circuit was new to the Formula One calendar, a familiarisation session was held on the Thursday. The first practice session proper was held on Friday morning, followed in the afternoon by the first one-hour qualifying session. On Saturday, the second practice session was held, followed by the second qualifying session.  Both qualifying session took place in wet conditions, with several drivers spinning; only towards the end of the Saturday session did the conditions improve. David Coulthard took the first pole position of his F1 career, with a time of 1:53.241 in his Williams. Teammate Damon Hill was alongside him on the front row of the grid, despite his time being 0.8 seconds slower, with Michael Schumacher third in the Benetton. Eddie Irvine took fourth in the Jordan, followed by Mika Häkkinen in the McLaren, Jean Alesi in the Ferrari, and Mika Salo in the Tyrrell. The top ten was completed by Gerhard Berger in the second Ferrari, Heinz-Harald Frentzen in the Sauber and Rubens Barrichello in the second Jordan. The Simteks impressed with Jos Verstappen taking 14th, ahead of Mark Blundell in the second McLaren and both Ligiers, and Domenico Schiattarella 20th.

Race.

In dry conditions and with President Menem in attendance, Coulthard led away while, behind him, Alesi spun on the inside of the first corner. Salo, braking to avoid Alesi, was hit from behind by Luca Badoer's Minardi, causing him to run into the side of the second Benetton of Johnny Herbert. In turn, Herbert hit Barrichello, as did Badoer, with the second Tyrrell of Ukyo Katayama also becoming involved. Behind them, Olivier Panis in the Ligier hit the back of Pierluigi Martini in the second Minardi. The race was red-flagged, and Alesi, Herbert, Barrichello, Katayama, Panis and Martini returned to the pits to take their teams' respective spare cars for the restart (meaning Badoer's weekend was over), while Salo's car was repaired on the grid.  On the second formation lap, Karl Wendlinger stalled his Sauber and was forced to start at the back of the grid. Coulthard again led away, while behind him there were more collisions: Häkkinen trod on Irvine's front wing on the run down to the first corner and retired immediately, while Wendlinger tangled with both Pacifics, putting all three out. Irvine made it back to the pits for a replacement nose, but retired on lap 7 when his engine failed.  Coulthard led until lap 6 when his throttle failed and restarted, allowing Schumacher and Hill past. Hill overtook Schumacher on lap 11 and led until making his first pit stop on lap 16. The recovering Coulthard passed Schumacher to take back the lead, only for his throttle to fail permanently almost immediately after. When Schumacher made his first stop, Alesi inherited the lead and held it for eight laps, before pitting himself. Behind them, Verstappen moved up to sixth in his Simtek, before suffering a long pit stop followed by a gearbox failure on lap 24.  After his stop, Alesi was nearly half a minute behind Hill, but ahead of Schumacher. Hill retained the lead for the rest of the race, though Alesi closed the gap to 6.4 seconds by the chequered flag. Despite setting the fastest lap of the race on lap 55, Schumacher finished 27 seconds behind Alesi, with teammate Herbert fourth. Salo was running fifth, close behind Herbert, when he collided with Aguri Suzuki in the second Ligier on lap 48; he angrily confronted the Japanese driver in the pit lane before telling the BBC that "drivers like Suzuki should not be in Formula One". Fifth thus went to Frentzen, with Berger picking up the final point for sixth. Following Verstappen's retirement, Schiattarella finished ninth to equal Simtek's best-ever result.  Berger's point kept him in the lead of the Drivers' Championship, pending the appeals to Schumacher and Coulthard's disqualifications from the Brazilian Grand Prix.

Post-race.

Four days after the race, the FIA International Court of Appeal overturned the disqualifications from Brazil, meaning that Schumacher led the Drivers' Championship by four points from Hill with Berger dropping to fifth.  Meanwhile, in response to the criticism, the track was resurfaced over the winter of 1995-96, ready for the 1996 running of the race.

The 1995 Argentine Grand Prix (formally the XVIII Gran Premio Marlboro de la Republica Argentina) was a Formula One motor race held on 9 April 1995 at the Autódromo Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Buenos Aires, Argentina. It was the second race of the 1995 Formula One World Championship and the first running of the Argentine Grand Prix since.

Grand Prix Argentiny 1995 (XVIII Gran Premio de la Republica Argentina), 2. závod 46. ročníku mistrovství světa jezdců Formule 1 a 37. ročníku poháru konstruktérů, historicky již 566. grand prix, se odehrála na okruhu Autódromo Oscar Alfredo Gálvez.


History.

Joseph Tyrrell discovered a huge coal seam here in 1883, besides large dinosaur skeletons.

2013 Alberta flood.

In June 2013, Alberta, Canada, experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the Bow, Elbow, Highwood, Oldman, and Red Deer rivers and tributaries. Twenty-four municipalities declared local states of emergency as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police stated four people may have drowned near High River. Over 100,000 people have been displaced throughout the region.

Course.

The river originates on the eastern slopes of the Canadian Rockies, in the Sawback Range near the Skoki Valley inside Banff National Park, and then flows east through the mountains and foothills region. It turns north-east before Sundre and flows to an artificial reservoir named Gleniffer Lake, created in 1983 by the Dickson Dam and keeps this heading to the city of Red Deer, where it turns east, and then south before Stettler. It flows south with its valley protected by provincial and regional parks such as "Tolman Badlands Heritage Rangeland", Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park, Dry Island Corridor and Midland Provincial Park. At Drumheller it has a south-east direction, and while it flows through Dinosaur Provincial Park it turns east and flows to the Alberta/Saskatchewan border, which it crosses at Empress. It flows for through Saskatchewan before it merges into the South Saskatchewan River.  The waters of Ewing Lake, Little Fish Lake also flow into the Red Deer River.

Fish species.

Sport fish include: northern pike, sauger, lake whitefish, yellow perch, burbot, lake sturgeon, mountain whitefish, goldeye, brown trout, bull trout, rainbow trout, brook trout, and cutthroat trout.  Other fish include: emerald shiner, river shiner, spottail shiner, flathead chub, longnose dace, quillback carpsucker, longnose sucker, white sucker, shorthead redhorse, silver redhorse, perch, spoonhead sculpine, lake chub, northern pearl dace, northern redbelly dace, finescale dace, fathead minnow and brook stickleback.

Environmental concerns.

Pipeline leaks.

The Red Deer River is the water source for the City of Red Deer, Alberta and the surrounding area. Pipelines cross under the river and there have been leaks disrupting access to potable water. Increased water flow of the Red Deer River system during heavy rainfall in June 2008 eroded supporting soil, freely exposing a section of Pembina Pipeline Corporation's Cremona crude oil pipeline to the Red Deer River currents. About 75 to 125 barrels of crude oil flowed upstream from the breakpoint under a Red Deer River channel, leaving an oily sheen on Gleniffer Reservoir and 6800 kilograms (15 000 lbs) of oil-soaked debris. The remediation was not completed until 2011.  Heavy rains in early June 2012 caused a similar but larger leak on a Plains Midstream Canada 46-year-old pipeline on a Red Deer River tributary, Jackson Creek, Alberta (51°52'19" 114°36'23") near Gleniffer Lake and Dickson Dam, which spilled approximately 1000 and 3000 barrels (160,000-475,000 litres) of light sour crude into the Red Deer River.

The Red Deer River is a river in Alberta and a small portion of Saskatchewan, Canada. It is a major tributary of the South Saskatchewan River and is part of the larger Saskatchewan-Nelson system that empties into Hudson Bay.

Red Deer River (česky "Jelení řeka") je velká řeka pramenící a tekoucí na území provincie Alberta na jihu Kanady. Je hlavním přítokem řeky South Saskatchewan. Její celková délka činí 724 kilometrů a zavlažuje 45 100 čtverečních kilometrů území. Název je odvozen od místního indiánského označení pro řeku "Was-ka-soo" (jelení řeka).


Description.

The theatre is one of two apparent twins constructed along the quays of the Seine, facing each other across the open Place du Châtelet. The other is the Théâtre de la Ville. Their external architecture is essentially Palladian entrances under arcades, although their interior layouts differ considerably. At the centre of the plaza is an ornate, sphinx-endowed fountain, erected in 1808, which commemorates Napoleon's victory in Egypt.

Origins.

The Théâtre Impérial du Châtelet was built for Hippolyte Hostein's equestrian company, the Théâtre Impérial du Cirque, whose previous theatre, the Cirque Olympique on the Boulevard du Temple, was slated for demolition by Baron Haussmann to allow the construction of the Boulevard du Prince-Eugène (now the Boulevard Voltaire).  The site for the new theatre was acquired by the City of Paris in October 1859, and construction took place between 1860 and 1862. The interior designers included Eugène Carrières and Armand Cambon, and the curtain was created by Charles Cambon.  The theatre originally seated 2,200 people, although Haussmann claimed it held 3,600. The repertory, fixed by a decree of 20 September 1862, included military works and "féeries" in one or several acts, as well as dramas and "vaudevilles".  Hostein left as director in September 1868. Nestor Roqueplan ran the theatre from 1 July 1869 to April 1870.

Fall of the Second Empire.

The theatre was closed from September 1870 to July 1871 due to the Franco-Prussian War. The war brought about the fall of the Second French Empire, and under the succeeding French Third Republic, the appellation "impérial" was dropped. Hippolyte Hostein returned as the theatre's director in 1873–1874.  Notably, beginning in April 1876, the stage version of Jules Verne's Around the World in Eighty Days, adapted by Verne and Adolphe d'Ennery, began a run spanning sixty-four years and 2,195 performances (although not continuously). It was only the Nazi occupation of Paris in May 1940 that closed this production permanently.  Into the 20th Century, the theatre was used for operettas, variety and ballet performances, for classical and popular music concerts. It was also, for a time, a cinema. Claude Debussy's "Le Martyre de saint Sébastien" received its premiere in the theatre on 22 May 1911. It was the first venue for the Ballets Russes, before they moved to the new théâtre des Champs-Élysées with their 1913 season: among the ballets premiered at the Châtelet are Igor Stravinsky's "Petrushka" on 13 June 1911, Paul Dukas' "La Péri" on 22 April 1912, Vaslav Nijinsky's "Afternoon of a Faun" on 29 May 1912, Maurice Ravel's "Daphnis et Chloé" on 8 June 1912, and Erik Satie and Jean Cocteau's "Parade" on 18 May 1917. In addition, many foreign composers and conductors made appearances in the theatre, including Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss.

Recent history.

Since 1979, it has been operated by the City of Paris, and, after undergoing a major restoration, re-opened under the name of Théâtre Musical de Paris in 1980. It was acoustically re-modeled again in 1989 and reverted to the Théâtre du Châtelet name. Shirley Horn recorded her 1992 live album "I Love You, Paris" at the Théâtre du Châtelet.  For a time it was mainly used for opera performances and concerts. The Orchestre de Paris and the Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France have played there. In 1993 the Philharmonia Orchestra of London began an annual residency period.  Under the direction of Stéphane Lissner for four years from 1995, the theatre received additional improvements in acoustics and sightlines.  In 2004, became artistic director of the theatre. He de-emphasized classical music and dance performances and introduced more lucrative productions of Broadway musicals, including "Kiss Me, Kate", "Singin' in the Rain", "42nd Street", and "An American in Paris". In 2017, Choplin was succeeded by Ruth Mackenzie, who was appointed artistic director alongside general director Thomas Lauriot dit Prévost, who worked at the theatre with Choplin from 2006 to 2013.  In 2019, Comme des Garçons launched a fragrance called ""Odeur Du Théâtre Du Châtelet Acte I"" created by Caroline Dumur inspired by the history of the theatre mixed with the modernity of its new creative director Ruth Mackenzie.

The Théâtre du Châtelet () is a theatre and opera house, located in the place du Châtelet in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, France.

Théâtre du Châtelet je divadlo v Paříži, které se nachází na "Place du Châtelet" v 1. obvodu. Bylo otevřeno v roce 1862 a dnes slouží především pro operní představení a koncerty klasické hudby. Má kapacitu 1923 míst. Budova je od roku 1979 chráněná jako historická památka.


Etymology.

The name of the genus "Gymnadenia" is formed from Greek words (', "nude") and (', "gland") and refers to the characteristics of the organs for secreting nectar. The specific Latin name "conopsea" derives from the Greek'('), literally meaning "mosquito-like", probably because of the similarity of the long spur of the flower with the mouthparts of a mosquito.  The scientific binomial name of this plant was initially "Orchis conopsea", proposed by the Swedish naturalist and botanist Carl von Linné (1707–1778) in his'of 1753. The name has been subsequently amended to the one currently accepted ("Gymnadenia conopsea"), by the British botanist Robert Brown (1773–1858) in 1813. In German, this plant is called'or '; in French, is called'or '; in Italy, it is called'("pink hand"); in Croatian, it is known under "".

Description.

"Gymnadenia conopsea" reaches on average of height, with a maximum of. These plants are bulbous geophytes, as they bring their buds in underground tubers or bulbs, organs that annually produce new stems, leaves and flowers. Furthermore, these orchids are "terrestrial", because unlike "epiphyte" species do not live at the expense of other plants of major sizes.  The stem is leafy and robust, with a striated surface. The leaves are long, narrow and lanceolate and vary from 3 to 7. The leaf color is gray-green. Size of leaf: width 1 to 2 cm, length 10 – 25 cm.  These orchids have two ovoidal bulbs, deeply webbed and with many small and short lobes. Size of tubers: 1 to 3.5 cm.  The inflorescence is long and it is composed of flowers gathered in dense cylindrical spikes (up to 50 flowers per spike). These inflorescences are scented and genes underlying eugenol (a volatile scent compound) production have been identified in Gymnadenia conopsea, G. odoratissima and G. densiflora. The flowers are petiolated, placed in the axils of long bracts and reach on average. They have a distinctive three lobed lip and long spurs. Their light scent is similar to cloves. Their colors vary from white and pink to pink-purple, more rarely white. These flowers bloom in the Summer, from June to July. They are hermaphrodite and pollinated by insects (entomophily), including moths.

Ecology.

The species is almost exclusively pollinated by moths (Lepidoptera). The most common pollinators are the small elephant hawk-moth ("Deilephila porcellus"), hummingbird hawk-moth ("Macroglossum stellatarum"), silver Y ("Autographa gamma"), burnished brass ("Diachrysia chrysitis") and large yellow underwing ("Noctua pronuba"). Fruit set is high with an average of 73%.  The seed's germination is conditioned by the presence of mycorrhizal fungi. "Gymnadenia conopsea" is held to be a mycorrhizal generalist, able to form associations with a variety of different fungal species including species in the Tulasnellaceae, Ceratobasidiaceae and Pezizales.

Distribution.

This plant is quite common throughout northern Europe with the exception of the Dinaric Alps. In Asia it is common in areas to the north of the Himalayas. "Gymnadenia conopsea" ssp. "borealis" has been recorded from Co. Donegal, Ireland in 2004.

Habitat.

This species' habitat includes mountain meadows and pastures, grassland and fens. They grow on siliceous and calcareous substrate, mildly damp and with low nutritional value, at an altitude of above sea level.

Gymnadenia conopsea, commonly known as the fragrant orchid or marsh fragrant orchid, is a herbaceous plant of the family Orchidaceae native to northern Europe.

Pětiprstka žežulník ("Gymnadenia conopsea") je jedním ze dvou druhů rodu pětiprstka, které v současnosti rostou v české přírodě. Vytrvalá, středně vysoká, hlíznatá rostlina s květenstvím složeným z nejčastěji načervenale kvetoucích květů, která se přes dřívější, poměrně hojný výskyt stala rostlinou ohroženou.


History.

Beit Shemesh Station was built under Ottoman rule with the construction of the Jaffa-Jerusalem railway, the first rail line in Palestine. The station has been known under four different names: its original name, Dayr Aban, which was changed during the late Mandatory period to Artuf, and later to Hartuv, the name of a nearby Jewish moshava. The location of the station remained unchanged throughout this period, at a point that now lies on the northern border of the city of Beit Shemesh, near Highway 38.  The station was closed to passenger trains in July 1998 due to the poor condition of the tracks. During the upgrade of the Jerusalem line, the station was also redesigned, and the line connected to the Gush Dan train system. The upgrade of the tracks was conducted in two parts: first, which was completed on September 13, 2003, included running track to Beit Shemesh, and the second, concluded on April 9, 2005, extended the line to Jerusalem. At the end of 2006, the track was split in two and the Beit Shemesh station became an intermediate station for transferring between the Tel Aviv-Beit Shemesh line and the Beit Shemesh-Jerusalem line. The split line was cancelled on March 15, 2008.

Line split.

When the line to Jerusalem was completed on April 9, 2005, rail service on the Tel Aviv-Beit Shemesh line was on IC3 trains only, because this was the type of train with the smallest distance between the bogies. Following numerous cracks in the bogies as a result of the winding track and steep slope and the high cost of operation arising from repair of the bogies, it was decided to use only two IC3 systems on the track to Jerusalem. In 2006, the track was split into two for a trial period: Tel Aviv-Beit Shemesh and Beit Shemesh-Jerusalem. Following the split it was attempted to operate double-decker passenger cars until Beit Shemesh, and IC3 systems until Jerusalem. Due to the prolonged wait times in Beit Shemesh—45 minutes in the direction of Tel Aviv and 15 minutes in the direction of Jerusalem—there was a significant decline in the number of rail passengers to and from Jerusalem. In 2007, it was decided to move the Tel Aviv-Beit Shemesh transfer to Nahal Sorek, instead of the transfer at Na'an. As a result, travel time was lengthened by three minutes for trains travelling on the line in all directions, but the waiting time for the train change to and from Jerusalem was reduced to five minutes. With the reduction of travel times, the number of passengers gradually began to rise. The line split was cancelled on March 15, 2008. In 2017 the line split was reinstated with waiting times of between 5 and 31 minutes. A few trains per day run direct.

Structure of the station.

The station includes a large passenger hall, an underground crossing between tracks, a side platform, and an island platform.

Train service.

From Sunday to Thursday, a train leaves the station every hour in the direction of Tel Aviv, and every one or two hours in the direction of Jerusalem.  On Fridays and holiday evenings, trains leave the station every hour in the direction of Tel Aviv and Jerusalem.  On Shabbat evenings and holiday evenings, a single train stops at the station in the direction of Tel Aviv and Jerusalem.

Beit Shemesh railway station is an Israel Railways station in Beit Shemesh, Israel, on the Tel Aviv–Lod–Jerusalem line. The station is located near the northern industrial zone of Beit Shemesh.

Železniční stanice Bejt Šemeš (: תחנת הרכבת בית שמש, "Tachanat ha-rakevet Bejt Šemeš") je železniční stanice na železniční trati Tel Aviv-Jeruzalém v Izraeli.


History.

Ramla Station was built as part of the Jaffa–Jerusalem railway, 22.5 km to the southeast of the Jaffa railway station; the first service to Jaffa began in April 1891. The original Jaffa railway station closed in 1948, when the line's western terminus was changed to Tel Aviv's Beit Hadar station (also known as the Customs House station), thus making Ramla the oldest active railway station in Israel.  During the unrest of the 1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine the original station building was bombed by the Irgun on 27 May 1947.  In the 1950s a small concrete halt was built. On August 14, 1998, the station was closed since the section of line between Jerusalem and the Beit Shemesh railway station ceased operating due to deteriorating track conditions.  In 2001 it was decided to relocate the station to the west, closer to Ramla's city center and adjacent to the Ramla central bus station and civic center. The new Ramla station was opened on April 12, 2003, and service to Jerusalem resumed on April 9, 2005, the line having been completely renovated after being out of service for six years.  As part of the double-tracking and upgrading project of the Lod–Beersheba main line, the size of the station was doubled in 2012. Also as part of the project, the railway's route in the area was improved and actually no longer passes next to the original 1891–1998 station location (which was located at ).

Ramla West railway station.

When suburban service to the Rehovot railway station, on the Lod–Ashkelon line commenced in 1990, a halt named Ramla West constructed on the line just south of the then-level crossing (now grade separation) with Road 44. However, due to its inconvenient location it was not popular and was closed after just few months.

Services.

There is hourly train service in each direction to and from Tel Aviv and Jerusalem.  Trains to Be'er Sheva Center railway station stop at the station also at this time.

Ramla railway station is a railway station in Ramla, Israel, on the Tel Aviv–Beit Shemesh–Jerusalem line. The station is located in the east of Ramla. The station is also on a section shared with the Be'er Sheva–Tel Aviv line, which branches out in a southerly direction about 3 km east of Ramla.

Železniční stanice Ramla (: תחנת הרכבת רמלה, "Tachanat ha-rakevet Ramla") je železniční stanice na trati Tel Aviv-Jeruzalém a trati Tel Aviv-Beerševa v Izraeli.


History.

Gangneung was the place where Yemaek people lived from ancient times and was the land of Wiman Joseon in 129 BC. In 128 BC, Nam Ryeo, the army officer of Yaekam, punished Wujang of Wisman Korea and became the territory of the Han dynasty. In the 14th year of Goguryeo Muchheon(313), it entered Goguryeo territory.  In 639, Silla occupied this place and ruled it as a 'Seogyeong' (). In 658, King Moo-yeong abolished the Seogyeong and made an arsenal to send the todok, because it was adjacent to Malgal. In 757, it was renamed Sungju and restored it in 776.  It was renamed Myungju again during the Goryeo period, and it was under the jurisdiction the north of Chuncheon in the 14th year of Sungjong (995). It separated the Hamgyeong-do from the Gangeung and called it Gangneung-do, but it has always been the center of administration and military. At the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty, it called to Hwadangdo and Wonchundo and rename Gangneung by the name of Gangwon Province in the 5th year of King Sejong (1423).  Some areas have been incorporated into Yangyang since 1945, and Gangneung City was established in 1995 as a Gangneung and Myeongju merged.  On 18 September 1996 a North Korean submarine ran aground near Gangneung in an attempted infiltration mission, spurring a 49-day manhunt for the escaped passengers. For more details, refer to the 1996 Gangneung submarine infiltration incident.

Symbols of Gangneung.

The flag of the city shows a red sun in the centre and blue wave in front, on a white background. The sun represents the sunrise, the wave the sea. The flower of the city is the crepe myrtle, the tree of the city is the pine tree, its bird the swan. The animal of Gangneung is the tiger.

Geography.

Gangneung is located in the eastern center of the Taebaek Mountains, which is the waist of the Korean peninsula. The east side is the Sea of Japan, the west side is the inner side of Hongcheon County, the Pyeongchang County's Jinbu-myeon and the Daegwallyeong-myeon respectively. The southern side is in contact with Donghae City and the Jeongseon County's critical side. The north side is adjacent to Yangyang County Hyunbuk-myeon and Hyunnam-myeon.  The total area of Gangneung City is about as of the end of 2015, which accounts for 6.2% of Gangwon Province's. 80.4% of the area of Gangneung,, is forestland.

Climate.

Gangneung experiences a humid subtropical climate (Köppen "Cfa") with cool to cold winters and hot, humid summers. Since Gangneung is a coastal city, it has generally milder winters and relatively cooler summers than the rest of Korea. It is bordered by mountains to the west and the sea to the east.

Administrative divisions.

The district includes one town (eup), seven townships (myeon), 13 neighborhoods (dong).

Tour.

Sunrise.

Sunrises, especially the first in the New Year, are important in traditional Korean culture. The Jeongdongjin and Gyeongpo beaches in Gangneung are popular places to enjoy a sunrise.

Gyeongpodae and Area.

Gangneung is considered special in that it has access to both a lake and the sea. Gyeongpodae is a pavilion overlooking a Gyeongpo lake. It is said that one can see the moon five times when at Gyeongpodae. One sees the moon once in the sky, once reflected in the lake, once reflected in the sea, once reflected in the drinking glass, and once more in the eyes of a lover. The site of Gyeongpodae is known for its location east of the centre of the city.  Inside the Gyeongpodae pavilion, built with 28 pillars, is the "Gyeongpodaebu", a poem by Yul Gok. "Gyeongpodaebu" describes the movement of the heavens and the moon. The best view of the moon is on the 15th of the lunar month.  The nearby Gyeongpo Beach has a sandy beach and a line of fresh seafood restaurants, with its proximity to Seoul making it a popular summer destination.

Beach.

In addition to the Jungdongjin beach where "Sandglass", a TV series was taken, there are 18 beaches such as Anmok beach, Gyeongpo beach, Gangmun beach.

Culture.

Heritage.

There are a total of 128 cultural properties in Gangneung. Among them, there are 34 State-designated heritage and 58 Province-designated heritage.  National Treasure in Gangneung is Gate to an official inn in Gangneung. This gate is the front gate of the Gangneung official inn built in the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the oldest gate in the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the only cultural property designated as a national treasure among the buildings in Gangwon-do.  Ojukheon is the birthplace of Shin Saimdang and Yulgok Lee. It was designated as Treasure No.165 by being recognized as one of the oldest architecture in the Korea and being a rare example of preserving the shape of the house of the Joseon Dynasty.  Gangneung Guseongsa site, which was founded by Burma in the 13th year of King Munsung of Silla(851), has been designated as Korea's Historic Site No.448. Inside the temple, treasures are designated as Treasures No. 85, Treasures No. 86, There is a stone Buddhist image designated as No. 38.

Festivals.

Gangneung has numerous festivals. The biggest and most famous is the Gangneung Dano Festival (강릉단오제) at the Dano fairground near the Namdae River. In 1967, the Gangneung Dano Festival was designated Korean National Immaterial Cultural Heritage No. 13. On November 11, 2005, it was designated by UNESCO as one of the "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity". Nowadays, it is a combination of several commemoration rites and traditional plays. A highlight is the traditional Gwanno Mask Dance (Gwanno Gamyeongeuk), which is only performed at this festival.  In addition to well established festivals like the Dano, there are several newer festivals in Gangneung, such as the IJAF (International Junior Art Festival) enjoys great popularity. The IJAF is a cultural festival for youth from all over the world. The festival includes both performances of the participating groups and a diversified cultural program demonstrating the essence of Korean culture. Since 2002, the IJAF takes place at Gyeongpo Beach in the end of July. Also, the Gyeongpo Rock Festival was established in 2006. This festival, mostly attracting young people, offers young Korean bands from the Gangneung area a stage for their performances.

Museum.

There are a number of historical remains and museums in Gangneung. The most prominent being the Ojukheon Museum, which is named after a special black bamboo growing in this area. It was the birthplace of the famous artist, calligrapher and poet Shin Saimdang (1504–1551) (whose image is on the 50,000 won note), and her son, the scholar Yulgok (1536–1584) (whose image is on the South Korean 5,000 won note). In 1963, the Ojukheon Museum was designated as National Cultural Heritage No. 165. It includes one of the oldest wooden buildings in Korea.  Several shrines and old residential buildings deliver insight into the lives of these famous Koreans. Next to the Ojukheon Museum there is the Gangneung Municipal Museum which shows folklore and antique pieces from the history of the city. Located in the hills surrounding Gangneung City, there is the revealing Daegwallyeong Museum. It consists of a private collection with more than 1000 artifacts and shows the agricultural history of the region.

Religious architecture.

Gangneung Imdeungdong Cathedral is one of the Roman Catholic sanctuaries in Korea. Show the cathedral style of Gangwon province in the 1950s. It became Registered cultural heritage No.457.

Transportation.

On Gangneung city, the expressway is Donghae Expressway which connects Incheon to Gangneung and Yeongdong Expressway which connects Yangyang County and Donghae City. National highway is National Route 7(part of Asian Highway Route 6) which connects Goseong County to Busan. It takes about 2 hours and 30 minutes to Seoul by road.  The Yeongdong Line passes Yeongju city to Gangneung. before 2006, Saemaeul-ho stopped at Jeongdongjin Station and Gangneung Station and it took 5.5 hours at Cheongnyangni Station, but now only Mugunghwa-ho is stopped, It takes 6 hours to drive. In 2017, Gyeonggang Line was opened and Gangneung Station was designated as an esseintial-stop station. the time between Gangneung Station and Cheongnyangni Station has been reduced from the existing 6 hours to the minimum of 114 minutes after KTX operation.  It was operated by Gangneung Airport for air traffic, but passed the passenger transportation right to Yangyang International Airport in 2002 and closed its service as an airport.

Road.

Yeongdong Expressway passed city west to east, Donghae Expressway passed through the city from south to north. National Route 6, 7, 35, 59 passed through city.

Train.

KTX-Sancheon is essential stop Jinbu and Gangneung Station. On 2018 Winter Olympics period, increased frequency of KTX.

Buses.

Local transit operators connect communities in the city divided three regions. This is managed by Gangneung City Office and the operation is carried out by each transportation company.  Gangneung Intercity Bus Terminal operates the intercity bus and operates six Express Bus line in the Gangneung Express Bus Terminal, the largest terminal in Gangwon Province.

Taxi.

A total of 589 units in Gangneung are operating taxi licenses. The basic fare of Gangneung city taxi is 2,800 won for 2 km. After that, 100 won will be charged for 152m from 2 km to 6 km, and 200 won will be charged for 152m after 6 km. but Jumunjin area, Gangdong-meon, Okgye area are designated as exceptional areas to 45% extra charge.

Sea transport.

Gangneung Port Passenger Terminal of Gangneung Harbor handles the Gangneung-Ulneung passenger ship.

Sports.

Football.

Ganwon is the home of the National League football club Gangneung City FC and K League football team Gangwon FC. Since 1976, Gangneung Jeil High School and Gangneung Junior high school soccer team rivaly Durby, which is held every day in the Dano Festival, have become popular.

Ice Hockey.

In 2016, Daemyung Killer Whales, which is affiliated with the Gangneung Hockey Center, is active in the Asia League Ice Hockey.

2018 Winter Olympics.

The city 'Gangneung Coastal Cluster' will be the venue for the indoor sports of the 2018 Winter Olympics and Paralympics in Pyeongchang. All these facilities, except for the Gangneung Curling Centre, have been newly built for the Olympics.  The city will also host an Olympic Village for the athletes and a media village.

Gangneung () is a municipal city in the province of Gangwon-do, on the east coast of South Korea. It has a population of 213,658 (as of 2017). Gangneung is the economic centre of the Yeongdong region of Gangwon-do. Gangneung has many tourist attractions, such as Jeongdongjin, a very popular area for watching the sun rise, and Gyeongpo Beach. There is an ROKAF airbase south of downtown Gangneung that formerly doubled as a civil airport.

Kangnung je město na východním pobřeží Korejského poloostrova v Jižní Koreji. V roce 2006 mělo 229 869 obyvatel. Je ekonomickým centrem regionu Jongdong na východě provincie Kangwon. Má mnoho turistických atrakcí jako např. Jongdongdžin, což je jedna z nejslavnějších turistických atrakcí v Koreji. Jongdongdžin je malebné městečko, kam se Korejci sjíždějí na korejský nový rok pozorovat východ slunce. Jižně od města se nachází letecká základna jihokorejského letectva, která dříve sloužila i jako civilní letiště. Ve městě sídlí jihokorejský prvoligový fotbalový klub Kangneung City FC.


Report.

Background.

The Grand Prix was originally cancelled on 12 August 1994 when local officials refused a demand to cut down 123 trees for reasons related to safety. The trees in question were located at the Lesmo corners which lacked suitable run off-areas. After the announcement, Gianni Letta, an Italian cabinet under-secretary went to Cannes to meet with FIA president Max Mosley to discuss the issue. The meeting, also attended by Ferrari driver and representative to the drivers Gerhard Berger, agreed that changes to the shape of the curve would reduce its speed.

Race.

The two Ferraris got off the line well heading into turn 1 with Damon Hill going alongside the Ferrari cars. Eddie Irvine locked up causing him to hit the Lotus-Mugen of Johnny Herbert. Herbert spun around clipping the right rear of David Coulthard which caused a blockage in the road and led to the race being stopped. Coulthard took Hill's spare car, and Herbert sacrificed his starting position to get in his spare as well. At the second start, both Ferraris got away well, but going into Curva Grande, Jos Verstappen and Alessandro Zanardi tangled which forced Gianni Morbidelli off the track and sliding into the outer wall. Jean Alesi kept extending his lead over teammate Gerhard Berger until he suffered clutch problems while exiting his pitbox. Berger inherited the lead but he himself had problems in the pitlane getting stuck behind Olivier Panis and losing out track position to both Williams. On lap 30, Michele Alboreto's gearbox failed at the Variante Ascari spraying oil on the track. As a result, Pierluigi Martini spun off on lap 32, and then Mark Blundell on lap 40. These retirements promoted Ukyo Katayama to 5th place before he spun out and crashed at the second Lesmo six laps later. David Brabham became the final retirement when a puncture had given his Simtek terminal damage, he retired just one lap after Katayama. The two Williams led a 1-2 race until the last corner of the race when Coulthard ran out of fuel, thus gifting Berger a second place, Häkkinen third, Barrichello fourth and Brundle fifth in the second McLaren. Coulthard was still classified in sixth as all other runners were a lap down.

The 1994 Italian Grand Prix (formally the Pioneer 65 Gran Premio d'Italia) was a Formula One motor race held on 11 September 1994 at the Autodromo Nazionale di Monza, Monza. It was the twelfth race of the 1994 Formula One World Championship.

Grand Prix Itálie 1994 (LXV Gran Premio Vodafone d'Italia), 12. závod 45. ročníku mistrovství světa jezdců Formule 1 a 36. ročníku poháru konstruktérů, historicky již 560. grand prix, se již tradičně odehrála na okruhu v Monze.


Composition.

Badlands are partially characterized by their thin to nonexistent regolith layers. The regolith profiles of badlands in arid climates are likely to resemble one another. In these regions, the upper layer (~) is typically composed of silt, shale, and sand (a byproduct of the weathered shale). This layer can form either a compact crust or a looser, more irregular aggregation of "popcorn" fragments. Located beneath the top layer is a sublayer (~), below which can be found a transitional shard layer (~), formed largely of loose disaggregated shale chips, which in turn eventually gives way to a layer of unweathered shale. Badlands such as those found in the Mancos Shale, the Brule Formation, the Chadron Formation, and the Dinosaur Provincial Park can be generally said to fit this profile.  In less arid regions, the regolith profile can vary considerably. Some badlands have no regolith layer whatsoever, capping instead in bare rock such as sandstone. Others have a regolith with a clay veneer, and still others have a biological crust of algae or lichens.  In addition to lacking significant regolith, they also lack much vegetation. The lack of vegetation could very well be a result of the lack of a substantial regolith.

Formation.

The formation of badlands is a result of two processes: deposition and erosion. The process of deposition describes the accumulation, over time, of layers of mineral material. Different environments such as seas, rivers, or tropical zones, deposit different sorts of clays, silts, and sand. For instance, the badlands formations in Badlands National Park, South Dakota, United States underwent a 47-million year period of deposition which spanned three major geologic periods (the Cretaceous Period, the Late Eocene, and the Oligocene Epochs), resulting in clear, distinct layers of sediment which serve as a dramatic display of the law of superposition. Once the deposited sediments have solidified, the sedimentary material becomes subject to erosion. It is sometimes erroneously taught that badlands erode at a steady rate of about per year. In actuality, the precise processes by which the erosion responses take place vary depending on the precise interbedding of the sedimentary material. In 2010, researchers at Badlands National Park initiated a three-year project to learn more about the actual erosion rate of the specific badlands found in that park.

Terminology.

The word "badlands" is a calque from Canadian French as the early French fur traders called the White River badlands or 'bad lands to traverse', perhaps influenced by the Lakota people who moved there in the late 1700s and who referred to the terrain as, meaning 'bad land' or 'eroded land'.

Locations.

Some of the best-known badland formations can be found in Canada and the United States.

United States.

In the U.S., Makoshika State Park in Montana and Badlands National Park in South Dakota are examples of extensive badland formations. Also located in this region is Theodore Roosevelt National Park, a United States National Park composed of three geographically separated areas of badlands in western North Dakota named after former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona which is part of Navajo County encompasses numerous bad lands that also abuts the Navajo Indian Reservation and is directly North of Joseph City, Arizona. Many dinosaurs are believed to be buried in the immediate area and exploration has been ongoing since the early 20th century.  Among the Henry Mountains area in Utah, about above sea level, Cretaceous and Jurassic aged shales are exposed. Another popular area of badland formations is Toadstool Geologic Park in the Oglala National Grassland located in northwestern Nebraska. Dinosaur National Monument in Colorado and Utah are also badlands settings, along with several other areas in southern Utah, such as the Chinle Badlands in Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument. A small badland called Hell's Half-Acre is present in Natrona County, Wyoming. Additional badlands also exist in various places throughout southwest Wyoming, such as near Pinedale and in the Bridger Valley near the towns of Lyman and Mountain View, near the high Uintah Mountains. Pinnacles National Park in California also has areas of badlands, as does the Mojave Desert in eastern California.  El Malpais National Monument in western New Mexico is named after the Spanish word "malpaís", meaning bad lands.

Canada.

The Cheltenham Badlands are in Caledon, Ontario, not far from the largest city Toronto.  The Big Muddy Badlands in Saskatchewan gained notoriety as a hideout for outlaws.  There is a large badland area in Alberta, particularly in the valley of the Red Deer River, where Dinosaur Provincial Park is located, as well as in Drumheller, where The Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology is located.

New Zealand.

A well-known badlands formation in New Zealand – the Putangirua Pinnacles, formed by the erosion of the conglomerate of an old alluvial fan – is located at the head of a small valley near the southern tip of the North Island.

Italy.

Other badlands can be found in Italy, known as "Calanchi". Some examples include Aliano (Basilicata), Crete Senesi (Tuscany), Civita di Bagnoregio (Lazio).

Spain.

The Bardenas Reales near Tudela, Navarre, and the Tabernas Desert in Tabernas, Almería, and possible Los Monegros in Aragon, all of them in Spain, are all examples of European badlands.

Argentina.

The Valle de la Luna ("Valley of the Moon") is one of many examples of badland formations in midwestern Argentina. This geologic formation is the only place in the world where nearly all of the Triassic is represented in an undisturbed sequence of rock deposits.  Although most badland scenery is natural, there are some examples produced by mining, such as the Roman gold mine of Las Médulas in northern Spain. An example of badlands produced by poor farming practices is the Cheltenham Badlands in Caledon, Ontario.

Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been extensively eroded by wind and water. They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal vegetation, lack of a substantial regolith, and high drainage density. They can resemble malpaís, a terrain of volcanic rock. Canyons, ravines, gullies, buttes, mesas, hoodoos and other such geologic forms are common in badlands. They are often difficult to navigate by foot. Badlands often have a spectacular color display that alternates from dark black/blue coal stria to bright clays to red scoria.

Badlands (česky „špatné země“ / „půdy“) jsou krajinou s velmi suchým terénem a zemědělsky zcela nevyužitelnou půdou. Obvykle se jedná o vyprahlou pustinu, erodovanou dlouhodobými větry a vodou. Často je tento typ terénu doprovázen typickými geologickými tvary typu roklí, húdú (skalními věžemi) apod.


History.

Construction.

The railway was constructed by the Ottoman authorities in Palestine during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I, to assist them with moving men and materiel in the war effort. It entered service on 30 October 1915, connecting Tulkarm (where it connected to a branch line of the Jezreel Valley Railway, and through it the greater Hejaz Railway) and Lod, where it connected to the Jaffa–Jerusalem railway and the Railway to Beersheba. An extension northwards from Tulkarm to Hadera was also built in order to supply the railway with timber collected from the forests around Hadera that was used as fuel and for infrastructure. The line was built as narrow gauge () like the rest of the Ottoman railways in the region and was situated relatively inland to avoid the reach of naval guns from Royal Navy warships patrolling the Mediterranean coast.

Under British administration.

After the British conquered the area, they converted the railway to standard gauge and extended it from Hadera north to the port city of Haifa. It then became the main north-south rail link in Mandatory Palestine and was operated by Palestine Railways. While the Jaffa-Jerusalem railway was also converted to standard gauge at the same time, the Jezreel Valley Railway was not and therefore it was no longer possible for trains using the Eastern Railway to travel to sections of the Hejaz Railway due to the gauge break. During the Mandate period, stations on the Eastern Railway operated in Hadera, Qaqun, Tulkarm, Qalqilyah, Rosh HaAyin, Rantiya, Kafr Jinis, and Lydda (Lod). In the later stages of World War II and for a short time thereafter, the Eastern Railway was one link in a larger contiguous standard gauge rail network that allowed trains to travel all the way from Anatolia to southern Egypt.

State of Israel.

When the State of Israel was established in 1948, most of the line lay within its borders, except for a small section of railway near Tulkarm. In 1949 a bypass was constructed west of Tulkarm which allowed renewal of service on the railway. In 1953, Israel Railways completed constructing the Coastal Railway from Hadera to Tel Aviv on a route roughly paralleling the Eastern Railway's, but much closer to the coastline, where most of the population resides. Nevertheless, some passenger and freight service on the Eastern railway continued operating, partly to show Israeli presence in the region around the railway which lay very close to the Green Line – then the country's eastern border. The railway also derived its name from this easterly location within the country. After Israel came to control both sides of the Green Line following the 1967 Six-Day War, service on the section of the line from just south of the Hadera East railway station to Kfar Saba was discontinued in 1969. This railway section was effectively abandoned, and had since then been dismantled.  The rest of the line between Kfar Saba and Lod continued operating, albeit mainly for freight services, with a few passenger trains making use of the section between Rosh HaAyin and Lod on the way from northern Tel Aviv and points north of it to the old Jerusalem station and to southern Israel. This was because until the 1990s the Ayalon Railway did not exist and thus there was no north-south rail connection through Tel Aviv itself. As such, this section of the Eastern Railway was the only link between the northern and southern portions of Israel's rail network. In the early 2000s, the Kfar Saba–Rosh HaAyin section was rebuilt and double tracked. It now forms part of the suburban railway line serving cities in the southern Sharon plain.  Another part of the Eastern Railway that continued operating is a short section which connects the Hadera East railway station to the Coastal Railway at a point near Pardes Hanna named Remez Junction. Hadera East, a terminal station since 1969, is only used for handling freight trains bound for the adjacent Granot "Ambar North" large feed mill complex.

Plans.

Partly to alleviate congestion on the Coastal Railway as well as to increase freight capacity on the national rail network and provide rail access to a planned inland port, the government of Israel has announced plans to revive the old Eastern line at a projected cost of at least NIS 10 billion (appx. US$2.7 billion in 2018 dollars). The project involves rebuilding the railroad in the Hadera – Kfar Saba section and upgrading the existing section between Rosh HaAyin and Lod, including the construction of 30 grade separations, ten other supporting structures, and connections and flying junctions with other railroads. The entire route will be double-tracked and stations will be constructed or rebuilt in Hadera, Ahituv (formerly Qaqun), Tayibe, Kokhav Ya'ir, Kfar Saba (East), El'ad, and Te'ufa (near the old Kafr Jinis station and today's Airport City business park). A significant portion of the railway will be built alongside the existing Cross-Israel Highway.  In 2018, the National Roads Company (Netivei Yisrael) began acquiring land necessary for the project. The awarding of construction contracts began in 2019 with actual works expected to commence in 2020 and take 6 to 7 years to complete. The National Roads Company will supervise the rebuilding of the defunct line from Hadera to Kfar Sava, while Israel Railways will manage the upgrading and double tracking of the section between Rosh HaAyin and Lod.

The Eastern Railway () refers to a railroad in central Israel stretching from Lod to Hadera. The section between Kfar Saba and Lod, as well as a short section just north of Hadera are currently in use but the rest of the railway has not been operative since 1969. However, in 2019 a large-scale project began to rebuild and upgrade the railway along the entire route.

Východní železniční trať (, "ha-mesila ha-mizrachit") je zčásti zrušená železniční trať v Izraeli, která vede severojižním směrem podél východního okraje pobřežní nížiny mezi městy Chadera a Lod. Není jako celek v provozu, zčásti ji využívá nákladní přeprava a jen v omezeném úseku osobní vlaky.


Construction and design planning.

The campus and buildings of UCV are considered to be Villanueva's masterpiece. Built on the site of the old Hacienda Ibarra (which originally belonged to Simon Bolívar's family) and connected to the new city center at Plaza Venezuela, the project required a massive undertaking in both urban planning and architectural design. The selected location gave Villanueva a unique opportunity to apply his conscious integration of art and architecture on a grand scale. This vast urban complex of about 2 km2 included a total of forty buildings and it became one of the most successful applications of Modern Architecture in Latin America. Villanueva worked closely with all the artists who contributed with their oeuvres and personally supervised the project for over 25 years until the late 1960s when his deteriorating health forced him to leave some buildings in the design stage.  After the death of Juan Vicente Gómez, urban renewal became a large focus; Caracas saw "extraordinary urban-renewal plans", including Villanueva's "Synthesis of Arts" architecture, beginning with the El Silencio complex in the city center. Though the campus is unlikely to be seen as an urban project by modern definitions, it is seen as among the grand architecture that put Caracas on the map and helped to promote tourism and migration.  In 1939, commissioned groups began the new urban planning of Caracas, but "bureaucratic obligations" restricted this to Libertador municipality. The government of President Isaías Medina Angarita bought the Hacienda Ibarra in 1942, in order to expand the university beyond the limited space it had at the Saint Francis Covent. Shut down several times throughout the 1940s, the planning of the campus resumed towards the end of the Second World War. Construction began in 1944, and was continuous until 1967. University City is an example of one of Villanueva's "museographic" spaces, which take the qualities of museums and apply them to public places.  Villanueva visited France in 1944 and again in 1948, gaining inspiration for the artistic and architectural design of the campus. In 1944 he had done the first studies and a tentative plan. Villanueva altered his designs in 1949; he was able to redesign and complicate the process because of the economic and political situation he and Venezuela were in, wanting to do so for personal and professional reasons. The University City is also a model city, which supposedly brought into reality urban visions of utopia.  The first buildings erected included the medical complex. In 1949 the initial designs were changed, with the stadiums being built in 1950 and inaugurated in 1951. The stadiums construction signaled a new phase in developing the Conjunto Central (Central Complex) of the campus.  The campus construction was initiated at its Western end, where it has a symmetrical design along its east-west axis. When the Central Complex began construction, the symmetry was not applied, Villanueva instead initiating his synthesis of the arts for this part of the campus design.

Botanical Garden.

The Caracas Botanical Garden is within the campus, and contains a large collection of international plants. Over its history, it has featured species from Central and South America, Africa, and Asia. The greatest number of plants that the Botanical Garden has housed was 2,500; these belonged to over 200 species, half of which were native to the country. The Palmetum of the center at one point held 4,000 specimens of 250 species. The gardens were opened in 1952 and occupy 70 hectares, including the Henri Pittier Library and National Herbarium.  Like other areas of the campus, neglect has caused the upkeep of the gardens to suffer. Lack of irrigation and parasitic species has caused plants to die and the beauty of the gardens to deteriorate. Events that have impacted the health of the gardens include the 2010 El Niño drought, the invasion of the Giant African snail, thefts of groundskeeping equipment, electrical blackouts, and other financial issues restricting the care and management of the facilities. According to staff in August 2019, no water had entered the gardens' pipes since the middle of January 2019. A volunteering plan was created to bring in personal water and manually irrigate the plants.

Lake Venezuela.

The Venezuela Lagoon is the largest body of water on the campus, and takes the shape of the country it is named for. By 2018, the lagoon was reported to have lost half its water; the native Santa Cruz ("Victoria amazonica") water lilies, which were 8ft across and strong enough to hold people, had died out. Other lagoons in the gardens are completely dry.

Plaza Cubierta and Tierra de nadie complex.

The Conjunto Central (Central Complex) of the University City houses many academic, administrative, and social buildings, as well as some of the campus's more famous artworks.  The Plaza Cubierta is an indoor-outdoor space designed as an "open museum", combining art into the environment and architecture into art, and is considered one of the most important artistic and cultural works of the country. It also connects many different buildings in the Central Complex. Villanueva wanted the Plaza Cubierta to be the heart of the campus, the physical and cultural center, being inspired by halls and city center plazas in Europe. It was inaugurated with the attached Aula Magna on 2 March 1954.  Buildings connected by the Plaza Cubierta include the main library, the rectory offices, the Federation of Students Center (students' union), the Aula Magna, the Paraninfo, and the concert hall (Sala de Conciertos). Of these, and all Villanueva's works, the Aula Magna is considered the "consummate example of synthesis". The Plaza Cubierta is noted for having perforated walls, sections of open roof, and a series of ramps linking elements, giving it a feeling of flow. In 2013, an open library incentive was initiated in the covered walkways of the Plaza Cubierta, as an art project and to promote book-sharing and enjoyment of the campus recreational spaces. The Rectory Plaza was intended to be a car park, and was built in 1952. However, too many people wanted to use it, becoming overpopulated with cars, and so it closed to cars in or after February 1958. The Rectory building of UCV contains offices of university and student management, including the office for the current Rector and the Federation of Students Center (Students' union). Where there was a post office for the university is now a Bank of Venezuela location. The Rectory Plaza contains large murals, and the UCV Clock Tower.  The Modernist art is not only historically renowned, but was used to the benefit of propaganda in the 1956 American film "", trying to encourage oil workers to move to Maracaibo. Jim is taken on a tour of Venezuela, and arrives at the then newly-built campus in an imported car, admiring the murals and statues. In the film, he arrives in what would become Rectory Plaza, when it was still a car park.  Behind the buildings of the Rectory Plaza, and jutting out from the main body of the Plaza Cubierta, is the Paraninfo. This is a small performing arts space, with large stained-glass windows. The Aula Magna is located between the main plaza elements of the Plaza Cubierta and the University's main library building. The interior of the hall is considered artistically and architecturally significant, especially its most notable feature, Alexander Calder's acoustic 'clouds', which serve both aesthetic and practical functions. They contributed to the science of interior space acoustics. The concrete shell-shaped building exterior is also architecturally significant. It has been named the "most important auditorium" at the university. The current director of the hall is Trina Medina, with the assistant director Rosario Silva Prieto.  Beyond the Aula Magna are the Sala de Conciertos and the Central Library. The entrance to the Sala de Conciertos is within the covered hallways that connect the spaces, marked by a large yellow mural; another predominantly yellow mural marks the back of the Sala de Conciertos, visible in the Tierra de nadie. The library features a distinct red tile design on its exterior. On an eastern wall it has a large stained-glass window designed by Fernand Léger.  Separating the Plaza Cubierta from the academic buildings and sporting facilities to the east is the Jorge Rodríguez Plaza, more commonly known as the Tierra de nadie ("English": No-man's land). The Tierra de nadie is a public space that is one of the green spaces in the University City of Caracas. It takes its name because it is an area that belongs to none of the faculties that surround it.  Maciá Pintó describes the functional and artistic design of the Plaza Cubierta as:

Sports facilities.

The Olympic Stadium of the university is one of the design elements specifically highlighted by UNESCO. It is primarily an association football stadium, and the home ground of Caracas F.C.; it has seats for almost 24,000 people. As well as the football pitch, the Olympic Stadium contains a full size running track and spaces for athletic field events, including jumping tracks and sandpits. It also hosts rugby games.  The Covered Gymnasium is also public space that is run by the university. It is at the far northern end of the university campus, with the exception of the Botanical Garden, and is noted for its shape and peculiar roof. It also features a giant mural, marking the edge of the campus by the freeway, featuring important historical figures of Venezuela.  The Estadio Universitario is a baseball stadium, next to the Olympic Stadium, and is the home field of two teams. It can hold just over 25,000 people.

Artwork.

Several artworks placed on the campus had been pre-fabricated and needed adjustment to fit either physically or aesthetically. Some of these works include Arp's "Berger des nuages", Laurens's "L'Amphion", Pevsner's "Projection dynamique dans l'espace au 30° degré", and Lobo's "Maternidad". Most other works were designed in a process from afar, with heavy conversation between artist and architect, but some murals were created on-site, including the works of Léger and Vasarely.

World Heritage Site.

The campus was designated a World Heritage Site in 2000. It was designated under cultural criteria for being a masterpiece of architecture and urban planning on the part of Villanueva, being an outstanding example of practical and aesthetic architecture, and for being exemplary of early 20th Century movements art and architecture, and demonstrating their ideals. UNESCO describes it specifically as "an outstanding example of the Modern Movement in architecture" and adds that "[t]he university campus integrates the large number of buildings and functions into a clearly articulated ensemble, including masterpieces of modern architecture and visual arts, such as the Aula Magna with the "Clouds" of Alexander Calder, the Olympic Stadium, and the Covered Plaza." The site did not have an associated retrospective Statement of Outstanding Universal Value in 2000 when it was inscribed, with one drafted by the Venezuelan state approved in 2013.  Though acknowledging that the integrity of the site is maintained in the architectural principles of Villanueva and the overall spirit of the design, the WHS program has concerns that the reinforced concrete of the structures — something that identifies the campus with architectural advances of its time — has deteriorated in the years since construction; that being prone to social unrest could provoke damage to the site; that soil erosion poses a threat to the space; and that massive student expansion opens the campus up to more deterioration and destruction, as do works undertaken to partition and reassign spaces of the campus without consideration of the architecture the works can change design and significance of, deteriorating the combined ensemble of the entire campus and working against the spirit of Villanueva's project. However, UNESCO adds that no works have compromised the authenticity or the value of the campus.  There are bodies with the purpose of creating plans to protect the site, but UNESCO reports that these are disjointed and do not work together, advising that the Cultural Heritage Institute right down to COPRED — the university's Consejo de Preservación y Desarrollo (Council of Preservation and Development) — and the separate management interface of the Jardín Botánico, as well as the regional offices of Venezuela responsible for the area at different levels of government, need to coordinate. It was also recommended that a buffer zone be initiated to the south and west of the site to protect from urban developments threatening the site.

The University City of Caracas ("Spanish:" Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas), also known by the acronym CUC, is the main campus of the Central University of Venezuela (UCV), located in central Caracas, the capital of Venezuela. It was designed by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000. The Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas is considered a "masterpiece" of architecture and urban planning, and greatly influenced Venezuelan architecture.

Univerzitní město v Caracasu ( "Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas") je kampus jedné z největších univerzit v celé Venezuele - Universidad Central de Venezuela. Rozkládá se na ploše přes 2 km2 v caracaské městské čtvrti Parroquia San Pedro. V roce 2000 bylo zapsáno na seznam světového dědictví UNESCO.


Etymology.

The name Latrun is ultimately derived from the ruins of a medieval castle. There are two theories regarding the origin of the name. One is that it is a corruption of the Old French "Le toron des chevaliers" ("The Castle" of the Knights), named by the Crusaders. The other is that it is from the Latin, Domus boni "Latronis" (The House of the Good "Thief"), a name given by 14th century Christian pilgrims after the penitent thief who was crucified by the Romans alongside Jesus ().

History.

Biblical era.

In the Hebrew Bible, the Ayalon Valley was the site of a battle in which the Israelites, led by Joshua, defeated the Amorites (Joshua 10:1–11). Later, Judah Maccabee established his camp here in preparation for battle with the Seleucid Greeks, who had invaded Israel/Judea and were camped at Emmaus; this site is today identified by archaeologists as Hurvat Eked. According to the Book of Maccabees, Judah Maccabee learned that the Greeks were planning to march on his position, and successfully ambushed the invaders. The Jewish victory in what was later called the Battle of Emmaus led to greater Jewish autonomy under Hasmonean rule over the next century.

Crusader era.

Little remains of the castle, which was reputedly built in 1130s by a Castilian nobleman Rodrigo González de Lara who later gave it to the Templars. The main tower was later surrounded with a rectangular enclosure with vaulted chambers. This in turn was enclosed by an outer court, of which one tower survives.

Ottoman era.

In 1883, the PEF's "Survey of Western Palestine" (SWP) described Latrun as a few adobe huts among the ruins of a medieval fortress.  In December 1890, a monastery was established at Latrun by French, German and Flemish monks of the Trappists, from Sept-Fons Abbey in France, at the request of Monseigneur Poyet of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem. The monastery is dedicated to Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows. The liturgy is in French. The monks bought the 'Maccabee Hotel', formerly called 'The Howard' from the Batato brothers together with two-hundred hectares of land and started the community in a building which still stands in the monastic domain. In 1909 it was given the status of a Priory and that of an Abbey in 1937. The monks established a vineyard using knowledge gained in France and advice from an expert in the employ of Baron Edmond James de Rothschild from the Carmel-Mizrahi Winery. Today they produce a wide variety of wines that are sold in the Abbey shop and elsewhere.  The community was expelled by the Ottoman Turks between 1914–1918 and the buildings pillaged.  Walid Khalidi in his book "All That Remains" describes al-Latrun as a small village established in the late 19th century by villagers from nearby Emmaus.

British Mandate.

In the 1922 census of Palestine, conducted by the British Mandate authorities, "Latrun" had a population of 59, all Muslims. In addition, "Dair Latrun" ("The monastery of Latrun") had a population of 37 Christian males. In the 1931 census they were counted together, and Latrun had a population 120; 76 Muslims and 44 Christians, in a total of 16 houses. The Latrun monastery was rebuilt in 1926. The crypt was completed in 1933 and the church in 1954. The monastery was designed by the community's first abbot, Dom Paul Couvreur, and is an example of Cistercian architecture. Much of the stained-glass windows were produced by a monk of the community.  A Juniorate, a school for young boys, ran from 1931 until 1963 and provided many vocations for the community, especially of Lebanese monks.  Following the 1936–39 Arab revolt, the British authorities built a number of police forts (named Tegart forts after their designer) at various locations; Latrun was chosen due to its strategic significance, particularly its dominant position above the Tel-Aviv-Jerusalem road. Many members of the Yishuv who had resisted the British administration were imprisoned in a detention camp at Latrun. Moshe Sharett, later Israel's second Prime Minister, and several other members of the Jewish Agency's Executive Committee, were held at Latrun for several months in 1946.  As of the 1945 statistics, the population of the Latrun village had grown to 190 Christians, with a total of 8,376 dunams of land. Of this, a total of 6,705 dunams were used for cereals, 439 dunams were irrigated or used for orchards, 7 for citrus and bananas, while 4 dunams were classified as built-up public areas.

1948 and 1967 Arab–Israeli Wars.

The road from the coastal plain to Jerusalem was blocked after the British withdrew and handed the fort of Latrun over to Jordan's Arab Legion. The Arab Legionnaires used the fort to shell Israeli vehicles traveling on the road below, effectively imposing a military siege on Jerusalem and the Jewish residents there, despite that the United Nations plan was to keep Jerusalem as an international zone with neither Jordan, Israel, nor the Palestinian Arab Higher Committee having sovereignty over it.  On 24 May 1948, ten days after the Israeli Declaration of Independence per the United Nations General Assembly's Resolution 181 and the Arab assaults against Israel which followed, the Jordanian Legion's fort was assaulted by combined forces of Israel's newly created 7th Armored Brigade, and a battalion of the Alexandroni Brigade. Ariel Sharon, then a platoon commander, was wounded at Latrun along with many of his soldiers. The assault, codenamed Operation Bin Nun Alef (24–25 May), was unsuccessful, sustaining heavy casualties. On 31 May 1948, a second attack against the fort, codenamed Operation Bin Nun Bet, also failed, although the outer defenses had been breached.  Many of the Israeli fighters were young Holocaust survivors who had just arrived in the country and had minimal military training. The official casualty figure for both battles was 139.  To circumvent the blocked road, a makeshift camouflaged road through the seemingly impassable mountains towards Jerusalem was constructed under the command of Mickey (David) Marcus. This bypassed the main routes overlooked by Latrun and was named the Burma Road after its emergency supply-line namesake between Kumming (China) and Lashio (Burma), improvised by the Allies in World War II. By 10 June 1948, the road was fully operational, putting an end to the month -old Arab blockade.  On 2 August, the Truce Commission drew the attention of the Security Council to the Arabs' refusal to allow water and food supplies to reach Jerusalem. After much negotiation, it was agreed that United Nations convoys would transport supplies, but the convoys often came under sniper fire. Towards the end of August, the situation improved. The destruction of the Latrun pumping station made it impossible for water in adequate quantities to flow to Jerusalem, but the Israelis built an auxiliary water pipe-line of small capacity along the "Burma Road" which provided a minimum amount of water.  After Operation Danny, Israeli forces anticipated a Jordanian counterattack, possibly from Latrun, but King Abdullah remained within the bounds of the tacit agreement made with the Jewish Agency and kept his troops at Latrun.  In the 1949 Armistice Agreements, the fort remained a salient under Jordanian control, which was in turn surrounded by a perimeter of no man's land. Under the cease-fire agreement, Jordan was not to disrupt Israeli travelers using this road; in practice, constant sniper attacks led Israel to build a bypass road around the bulge.  The Palestinian Arab residents of Latrun were evacuated to Imwas in 1949 as a result of the war and Latrun's location on the 1949 armistice line.  In the Six-Day War in 1967, Latrun was captured by the Israeli Defense Forces, and the main-road to Jerusalem was re-opened and made safe for travel. The villages of Imwas, Yalo and Bayt Nuba were razed, their residents taking refuge in the West Bank and Jordan, and Canada Park was established on the land.

Since the Six-Day War.

The Latrun monastic community allowed two communities, Neve Shalom/Wahat as-Salam and the, to be established on its land. The Tegart Fort became the Yad La-Shiryon memorial for fallen soldiers of the Israeli Armored Corps and a Museum was established there.

Latrun (, "Latrun";, "al-Latrun") is located at a strategic hilltop in the Latrun salient in the Ayalon Valley. It overlooks the road between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, 25 kilometers west of Jerusalem and 14 kilometers southeast of Ramla. It was the site of fierce fighting during the 1948 war. During the 1948–1967 period, it was occupied by Jordan at the edge of a no man's land between the armistice lines known as the Latrun salient. In the 1967 war, it was captured by Israel along with the whole salient and the West Bank, and remains a part of Israel to this day.

Latrun (: לטרון, : اللطرون, "al-Latrún") je vyvýšená lokalita ležící ve výběžku (latrunský výběžek) Západního břehu Jordánu. Je situována na pahorky nad Ajalonským údolím a pohledově kontroluje i přilehlou část pobřežní planiny v Izraeli.


Recording.

The basic track was recorded on 8 February 1967, with overdubs on 16 February (bass guitar and lead vocals), 13 March (brass section), 28 March (backing vocals and guitar solo), and 29 March (animal noises). The guitar solo was played by Paul McCartney on a Fender Esquire. At Lennon's request, George Martin brought in Sounds Incorporated to provide the song's prominent brass backing.  Lennon asked engineer Geoff Emerick to arrange the animal noises heard at beginning (and end) of the song so that each animal heard was one capable of devouring (or frightening) the animal preceding it. The final sound effect of a chicken clucking was so placed that it transforms into the guitar on the following track, "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Reprise)". These animal noises were inspired by the coda of "Caroline, No" that ended The Beach Boys' "Pet Sounds" album, one of the main inspirations for this whole album. They begin with the crow of a rooster, while the other animal sounds heard at the end of the song include birds, a cat, a dog, a cow, a horse, a sheep, a lion, an elephant, and a group of bloodhounds accompanying fox hunters on horseback with horns blasting.  The rapid 16th note bass drum fills were done on two bass drums according to "The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions" by Mark Lewisohn. The length of the mono version of "Good Morning Good Morning" is 2:35, whereas the stereo version (due to a lengthier fade out of animal sounds) runs to 2:41. The 2017 stereo mix follows the editing style of the mono version, and as a result, it is also 2:35.  For the Beatles' 2006 remix album "Love", the horse sounds were mixed into "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!".

Rhythm.

The song is played at 117 beats per minute, has an unusual rhythmic feel and uses different time signatures. Beats are played in groups of 2, 3 and 4, and time signature changes frequently. Parts with and bars alternate, with transitions. Most of the song uses simple time, where the beats are divided into two, but the middle eight sections use compound time, where the beats are divided into triplets.  The song is divided into seven sections, two of which are repeated once and one twice, in a time-symmetric pattern A, B, C, B, C, B, A (disregarding the fade out of the last bar):  A: 4,4,4,4,4 (introduction: five bars, 20 beats) B: 5,5,5,3,4,5,4,3,3,4,4 (eleven bars, 44 beats) C: 5,5,5,3,4,4,4,4,4,4 (contains refrain: ten bars, 42 beats) B: 5,5,5,3,4,5,4,3,3,4,4 (eleven bars, 44 beats) C: 5,5,5,3,4,4,4,4,4,4 (contains refrain: ten bars, 42 beats) B: 5,5,5,3,4,5,4,3,3,4,4 (eleven bars, 44 beats) A: 4,4,4,4,4,4 (end: six bars, 24 beats, with fade out bar)  This adds up to 64 bars with 260 beats, which at published 117 beats per minute would result in a length of 2:13,333... minutes.

Personnel.

Personnel per Ian MacDonald:

"Good Morning Good Morning" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1967 album "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band". It was written by John Lennon and credited to Lennon–McCartney. Inspiration for the song came to Lennon from a television commercial for Kellogg's Corn Flakes. Another reference to contemporary television was the lyric "It's time for tea and "Meet the Wife"", referring to the BBC sitcom.

„Good Morning Good Morning“ je dvanáctá skladba z osmého studiového alba anglické rockové skupiny The Beatles "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", vydaného v roce 1967. Skladbu napsala dvojice John Lennon / Paul McCartney. Podle Johna Lennona měl při skládání písní pro album "Sgt. Pepper" puštěnou televizi, a když zrovna nehrál, uslyšel v reklamě na Kukuřičné lupínky nápěv „Good morning, good morning, good morning!“ a napadlo ho zakomponovat do nově vzniklé písně. Později se však za tuto skladbu velice styděl a veřejně ji zavrhl.


Life.

Marr was born in Magdeburg as the only son of an actor and stage director. He went to a primary school in Hanover, then to a high school in Braunschweig. In Hamburg and Bremen, he was an apprentice in commerce, then he joined his father in Vienna, who had been engaged by the Burgtheater. There he worked as an employee in two Jewish firms. Later, Marr claimed that he had unjustly lost his job.  In 1841, he went to Zürich, where he became acquainted with political émigrés (like Georg Herwegh, Julius Fröbel, and August Follen), most of whom were members of the democratic or liberal leftist movements of the early 19th century.  In 1843, Marr was expelled from Zürich under the accusation that he had furthered communist activities. He turned to Lausanne, where he joined Hermann Döleke and Julius Standau, the founders of the secret Léman-Bund, which belonged to the "Junges Deutschland" (Young German Movement). Marr eventually became the head of the secret society and began to lean towards anarchism and atheism, founded another secret society, the "Schweizerischer Arbeiterbund" (Swiss Worker's Union) and edited the "Blätter der Gegenwart für soziales Leben" (Present-Day Papers for Social Life, 1844/45). In 1845 he was expelled from Lausanne, too, and went to Hamburg. There he became a political journalist and published the satirical magazine "Mephistopheles" (1847/48–1852). He belonged to the leftists of the radical-democratic "party" and was a delegate to the National Assembly in Frankfurt after the March-Revolution of 1848. After the ultimate failure of the revolution he became, like so many other former revolutionaries, a proponent of the idea of German unification under Prussian leadership.  In 1852, Marr went abroad, to Costa Rica, where he tried to make a living as a businessman. Lacking success, he returned to Hamburg, worked again as a journalist, and in 1854 he married Georgine Johanna Bertha Callenbach, daughter of a Jewish businessman who had renounced his faith.  In 1859, Marr was elected member of the Hamburg Parliament. In an article, in the "Courier an der Weser" on 13 June 1862, he attacked the elected liberal speaker of the house, the Jewish lawyer, accusing him and other Jews of betraying the democratic movement and abusing their emancipation in order to enter the city's merchant class. After extensive public protests, Marr was not reelected in 1862.  Marr and his first wife were divorced in 1873. In 1874, Marr remarried the Jewish Helene Sophia Emma Maria Behrend, who died within the same year. Marr's first marriage was an unhappy one, and despite being financially stable, Marr was in emotional distress. Marr's second marriage was a happy one, but then his wife and child died within days of each other, which left Marr is great distress and bitter towards the world. In 1875, there was a third marriage, to Jenny Therese Kornick (whose parents lived in a Christian-Jewish mixed marriage), who bore him a son. In 1877, this marriage was ended in divorce too; Marr's last wife was Clara Maria Kelch, daughter of a Hamburg working man.  Marr's speeches and articles showed first indications of antisemitism in 1848. He was influenced by the "Burschenschaft" movement of the early nineteenth century, which developed out of frustration among German students with the failure of the Congress of Vienna to create a unified state out of all the territories inhabited by the German people. The latter rejected the participation of Jewish and other non-German minorities as members, "unless they prove that they are anxious to develop within themselves a Christian-German spirit" (a decision of the ""Burschenschaft" Congress of 1818"). While they were opposed to the participation of Jews in their movement, similarly to Heinrich von Treitschke later, they did allow the possibility of the Jewish (and other) minorities to participate in the German state if they were to abandon all signs of ethnic and religious distinctiveness and assimilate into the German "Volk".

Theories.

Marr took these philosophies one step further by rejecting the premise of assimilation as a means for Jews to become Germans. In his pamphlet "Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum" (The Way to Victory of Germanism over Judaism, 1879) he introduced the idea that Germans and Jews were locked in a longstanding conflict, the origins of which he attributed to race—and that the Jews were winning. He argued that Jewish emancipation resulting from German liberalism had allowed the Jews to control German finance and industry. Furthermore, since this conflict was based on the different qualities of the Jewish and German races, it could not be resolved even by the total assimilation of the Jewish population. According to him, the struggle between Jews and Germans would only be resolved by the victory of one and the ultimate death of the other. A Jewish victory, he concluded, would result in "finis Germaniae" (the end of the German people). To prevent this from happening, in 1879 Marr founded the League of Antisemites (Antisemiten-Liga), the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany posed by the Jews and advocating their forced removal from the country.  Although he had introduced the pseudo-scientific racial component into the debate over Jews in Germany, it is unlikely that he was influenced by the earlier theories of Arthur de Gobineau (author of "An Essay on the Inequality of Human Races", 1853), who was only translated into German in 1898, a quarter of a century after Marr's pamphlet appeared. It is, however, highly probable that Marr was able to read Gobineau in French. Furthermore, Marr himself was very vague about what constituted race and, in turn, the racial differences between Jews and Germans, though this became a feature of Nazi racial "science". It remained for later racial thinkers to postulate specific differences: these included Eugen Dühring, who suggested that it was blood, and Houston Stewart Chamberlain, an influential race theorist and husband of Eva Wagner, Richard Wagner's daughter, who suggested phrenology as a means of distinguishing races.  On the other hand, it does seem likely that Marr was influenced by Ernst Haeckel, a professor who popularized the notion of Social Darwinism among Germany's educated classes.  Despite his influence, Marr's ideas were not immediately adopted by German nationalists. The Pan-German League, founded in 1891, originally allowed for the membership of Jews, provided they were fully assimilated into German culture. It was only in 1912, eight years after Marr's death, that the League declared racism as an underlying principle. Nevertheless, Marr was a major link in the evolving chain of German racism that erupted into genocide during the Nazi era.

Alleged late renunciation of antisemitism.

According to Moshe Zimmermann in "Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism", a book written 100 years after the fact, he claims that toward the end of his life, Marr came to renounce anti-semitism, arguing that social upheaval in Germany had been the result of the Industrial Revolution and conflict between political movements. He "openly requested the Jews' pardon for having erred in isolating the problem". The "Testament of an Antisemite" supposedly attributed to Marr, but not published until Zimmerman's book, in which he explained the history of his thinking, asserting that he had originally been a "philo-Semite", having rejected "the miserable Romantic madness of Germanism". He complained that modern anti-Semitism was becoming merged with German mysticism and nationalism. Marr condemned 'the beer drinking leaders, the gay "Heil" shouters of modern anti-Semitism' and crude prejudice against Jewish writers and thinkers.

Friedrich Wilhelm Adolph Marr (November 16, 1819 – July 17, 1904) was a German agitator and publicist, who popularized the term "antisemitism" (1881).

Wilhelm Marr (16. listopadu 1819 Magdeburg - 17. července 1904 Hamburg) byl německý antisemitský a anarchistický novinář, který v roce 1879 založil "Antisemitskou ligu" a napsal knihu "Cesta k vítězství Germánství nad Židovstvím", která představuje novodobý nástup antisemitismu, který vyvrcholil holokaustem za druhé světové války.


Life and career.

Born in Kötschach-Mauthen, Carinthia, the son of a master baker, Klaus attended the Catholic junior seminary in Klagenfurt. He studied law at the University of Vienna, where he joined the "Cartellverband" of Catholic male student fraternities ("Studentenverbindung"). He obtained his doctorate in 1934 and worked in the legal department of the Chamber of Labour which at that time was integrated into the Austrofascist unitary trade union centres by the government of the Federal State of Austria. When the Chamber organisation finally was liquidated after the 1938 "Anschluss" annexation by Nazi Germany, Klaus changed to the private sector.  In 1936, Klaus married Ernestine Seywald (2 April 1914 – 1 January 2001). During World War II he served in the German Wehrmacht, temporarily as a staff member for General Heinz Guderian, as well as in campaigns in Poland, France, Finland and Russia. He was captured in early 1945 and held in a POW camp. After the war he worked as a lawyer in Hallein; in 1948 he became chairman of the regional ÖVP section Hallein District and pursued his political career.  After Klaus was elected governor of the Austrian state of Salzburg in 1949. Re-elected twice in 1954 and 1959, he rose to a leading member of the ÖVP. When his party colleague, Chancellor Julius Raab, finally resigned in 1961, Klaus' influence as a representative of the "young reformers" grew. He became Minister of Finance under Raab's successor Alfons Gorbach, whom he succeeded as ÖVP party chairman on 20 September 1963. When Gorbach resigned on 25 February 1964, Klaus also followed him as Chancellor.  In office from 2 April 1964, Klaus initially continued the grand coalition with the Socialists under Vice-Chancellor Bruno Pittermann according to the "Proporz" system that had governed Austria since 1945. In the 1966 legislative election, the ÖVP under Klaus won an absolute majority. Despite this, memories of the factionalism that had plagued the First Republic were still strong enough that Klaus initially tried to continue the grand coalition. However, when talks with Pittermann's successor as Socialist leader, Bruno Kreisky, failed, Klaus formed the first one-party government of the Second Republic. In June first steps were agreed on joining the European Economic Community which in the long run finally led to Austria joining the European Union in 1995.  Klaus started many reforms and is remembered for his effective stewardship of the government, but he lost the 1970 election to Kreisky's Socialists. Klaus might have been able to continue by entering into a coalition with the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), but immediately resigned after losing the elections.  Despite his "hard image", Klaus was celebrated at his 90th birthday all over the country. In September 1971 he published his memoirs "Macht und Ohnmacht in Österreich", and up to 1995 he frequently led seminars on political and social themes.

External links.

Јозеф Клаус

Josef Klaus (15 August 1910 – 26 July 2001) was an Austrian politician of the conservative People's Party (ÖVP). He served as State Governor ("Landeshauptmann") of Salzburg from 1949 to 1961, as Minister of Finance from 1961 to 1963 and as Chancellor of Austria from 1964 to 1970.

Josef Klaus (15. srpna 1910 Kötschach-Mauthen – 26. července 2001 Vídeň) byl rakouský konzervativní politik a v letech 1964–1970 rakouský kancléř.