Name.

The name of the Heruli is sometimes spelled as Heruls, Herules, Herulians or Eruli. In the earliest mentions of them in 4th century records, they are called Eluri instead, leading to some doubts about whether they were the same people.  The name Heruli was often written without "h" in Greek (Έρουλοι, 'Erouloi') and Latin (Eruli), and is sometimes thought to be Germanic and related to the English word "earl" (see erilaz) implying that it was an honorific military title. There is even speculation that the Heruli were not a normal tribal group but a brotherhood of mobile warriors, though there is no consensus for this old proposal, which is based only on the name etymology and the reputation of Heruli as soldiers.

Language.

The Heruli are believed to have been Germanic-speaking. Personal names provide important evidence on the language of the Heruli. A large number of Heruli names are attested, and many of these are certainly Germanic, being similar to Gothic names.  The Heruli are specifically believed to have spoken an East Germanic language. These languages were also spoken by the Goths, Burgundians, Rugii, Vandals, Gepids and others. It has however also been proposed that they spoke a North Germanic language.

Classification.

When first mentioned by Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, the Heruli were referred to as "Scythians", along with the Goths and allied tribes. The use of this term for Heruli and Goths probably began as early as Dexippus, whose work is now lost. The term does not imply any specific ethnic classification.  In late antiquity, the Gepids, Vandals, Rugii, Scirii, the non-Germanic Alans and the actual Goths, were all classified by Roman ethnographers as "Gothic" peoples, and modern historians generally consider the Heruli to be one of these. While historians such as Walter Goffart have pointed out that the Herules are never included in the lists of "Gothic peoples" of Procopius, Mihail Zahariade has shown that the Latin and Greek sources not only distinguish the Heruli ("Elouroi" in this period) from the Goths during their first 3rd century seaborne offensive (see below), but also Zonaras specifically stated that the Heruli were of Gothic stock — a categorization implied by other chroniclers of those events when they refer to Goths.  None of these eastern peoples were considered Germanic by Roman ethnographers at the time. However, in modern scholarship the Heruli are usually classified as a Germanic people. On account of having likely spoken an East Germanic language, the Heruli are often more specifically classified as an East Germanic people.

History.

Origins.

The origins of the Heruli are traditionally sought in north-central Europe, possibly Scandinavia.  In his 6th century work "Getica", the historian Jordanes, based in Constantinpole, wrote that the Heruli had been driven out of their homeland in Scandinavia by the Danes. This has been read as implying Heruli origins in the Danish isles or southernmost Sweden. The reliability and correct interpretation of this passage in the "Getica" is however disputed. On the other hand, his contemporary Procopius recounted a migration of a 6th-century group of Heruli noblemen to Thule (which for him, but not Jordanes, was the same as Scandinavia), from their "homeland" on the Middle Danube. Later, Danubian Heruli found new royalty among these northern Heruli. This account has been seen as implying an old and continuous connection between the Heruli and Scandinavia, although some recent scholars are skeptical of this interpretation, and have noted that Procopius does not depict the Heruli as returning to a homeland, but as leaving their homeland.  Ellegård has proposed that the Danish expulsion of the Heruli might have happened in the 6th century, and been an expulsion of the immigrants from the Danube: "the only thing we can say with reasonable certainty is that a small group of Eruli lived there for some 38-40 years in the first half of the sixth century A.D". He proposes that the evidence makes it most likely that "a loose group of Germanic warriors which came into being in the late third century in the region north of the Danube limes that extends roughly from Passau to Vienna".

On the Pontic steppe.

The Heruli are believed to have migrated towards the region north of the Black Sea in the 3rd century AD. Other Germanic peoples, such as the Rugii and the Goths, are believed to have carried out a similar migration at this time. These peoples replaced the Sarmatians as the dominant power north of the Black Sea. The Sarmatians had in the 1st century AD replaced the Bastarnae, who are believed to have been a Germanic people. The arrival of the Heruli has been seen as part of a bigger cultural shift in this region, involving the migration from the northwest of Germanic peoples, who replaced the Sarmatians as the dominant power in the region.  The first relatively clear mention of the Heruli by Graeco-Roman writers concerns two major campaigns into the Balkans of 267/268 and 269/270. Goths, Heruli (referred to as "Eluri", Ἔλουροι, in the oldest sources), and other "Scythian" peoples from the region of the Sea of Azov, took control of Black Sea Greek cities, and gained a fleet that they used to launch raids along the northern Black Sea and as far as Greece and Asia Minor. These invasions began in the reign of Gallienus (260-268 AD), and continued until at least 269 during the reign of Marcus Aurelius Claudius, who subsequently took up the title "Gothicus" due to his victory.  In 267, Heruli (Αἴρουλοι) commanded a naval attack from the Sea of Azov, past the Danube delta, and into the straits of the Bosphorus where they took control of Byzantion and Chrysopolis, both near Constantinople itself. They then retreated to the Black sea, before returning, raiding Cyzicus and then entering the Aegean sea where they troubled Lemnos, Skyros and Imbros, before landing near Sparta and plundering the Peloponnese, including not only Sparta, but also Corinth, Argos, and the sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia. Still within 267 they reached Athens, where local militias had to defend the city. It seems to have been the Heruli specifically who sacked Athens despite the construction of a new wall, during Valerian’s reign only a generation earlier. This was the occasion for a famous defense made by Dexippus, whose writings were a source for later historians.  Further north, in 268, Gallienus defeated Heruli at the river Nestos using a new mobile cavalry, but as part of the surrender a Herulian chief named Naulobatus became the first barbarian known from written records to receive imperial insignia from the Romans, gaining the rank of a Roman consul. It is highly likely that these defeated Heruli were then made part of the Roman military.  Recent researchers such as Steinacher now have increased confidence that there was a distinct second campaign which began in 269, and ended in 270. Later Roman writers reported that thousands of ships left from the mouth of the Dnieper, manned by a large force of various different Scythian peoples, including Peuci, Greutungi, Austrogothi, Tervingi, Vesi, Gepids, Celts, and Heruli. These forces divided into two parts in the Hellespont. One force attacked Thessaloniki, and against this group the Romans, led by Claudius now, had a major victory at the Battle of Naissus (Niš, Serbia) in 269. This was apparently a distinct battle from that at the Nessos. A Herulian chieftain named Andonnoballus is said to have switched to the Roman side, and this was once again a case where Heruli appear to have joined the Roman military. The second group sailed south and raided Rhodes, Crete, and Cyprus and many Goths and Heruli managed to return safely to harbor in the Crimea. Lesser attacks continued until 276.  The Heruli are believed to have formed part of the Chernyakhov culture, which, although dominated by the Goths and other Germanic peoples, also included Bastarnae, Dacians and Carpi. The Heruli are thus archaeologically indistinguishable from the Goths.  Jordanes reports that the Heruli in the late 4th century AD were conquered by Ermanaric, king of the Greuthungian Goths. Ermanaric's realm may also have included Finns, Slavs, Alans and Sarmatians. Before being conquered by Ermanaric, Jordanes says that the Heruli were lead by their king Alaric. Herwig Wolfram has suggested that the future Visigothic king Alaric I may have been named after this Herulian king.  Doubts have been raised about this earliest, Black Sea period in the history of the Heruli. The first author known to have equated these "Eruli" with the later "Eruli" was Jordanes, in the 6th century.

The "western" Heruli, soldiers and pirates.

The proposal that there may have been a Western kingdom of Heruli has posed a problem for scholars. This question arises because of the evidence of Heruli activity in the western Roman empire. The existence of this western kingdom is increasingly doubted.  Heruli were already seen in western Europe before the empire of Attila, at the time of their first ambitious campaigns in the east. In 268 Claudius Mamertinus reported the victory of Maximian over a group of Heruli and Chaibones (known only from this one report) attacking Gaul.  It is believed that it was from this time that the Romans instituted a Herulian auxiliary unit, the "Heruli seniores", who were stationed in northern Italy. This "numerus Erulorum" was a lightly-equipped unit often associated with the Batavian "Batavi seniores". In 366 the Batavians and Heruli fought against Alamanni near the Rhine, under the leadership of Charietto who died in the battle, and then against Picts and Scoti in Britain. They were subsequently sent to fight Parthians in the east.  In 405 or 406, a large number of barbarian groups crossed the Rhine, entering the Roman empire, and the Heruli appear in the list of peoples given by the historian Jerome. However this list is sometimes thought to have drawn on historical lists for literary effect.  Later mentions of Heruli in western incidents where they were not clearly connected to the Roman military include two sea raids in northern Spain in the 450s, and the presence of Heruli at the Visigothic court of Euric in about 475. The raids were reported by Hydatius. Sidonius Apollinaris mentions Heruli at the Visigothic court in 476, although this is in a poetic letter. Recent scholars such as Steinacher and Halsall have pointed out that this type of evidence is consistent with the internal military conflicts that were happening in the Roman empire during this period. Halsall for example writes that it "must at least be a possibility that their raid constituted part of a Romano-Visigothic offensive against the Sueves" who had been part of an invasion of the same area. Steinacher demonstrates using examples from the period, including Charietto's life story, that barbarian soldiers could switch from being Roman soldier, to pirate, and back to soldier.  The Greek poet Sidonius Apollinaris specifically imagined the Heruli he saw at Euric's court as Oceanic sea-farers, but Steinacher argues that this raiding by sea was simply a logical strategy for Visigothic campaigns against the Iberian Suevi, and difficult to use as a proof that the Heruli had a coastal kingdom somewhere in the north.  Given the writing style of Sidonius this reference could also be "nothing more than a bookish reference to third-century accounts of Herules attacking from the sea".

Kingdom on the Middle Danube.

In the early 5th century AD, large groups of peoples left the Middle Danube region, including the groups who crossed the Rhine in 405, many of eventually reached Iberia, and also the forces of Radagaisus who invaded Italy. During this period, the Huns and their allies begin to be found in this same area instead, having crossed the Carpathians from the east. By 450 AD, the Heruli were firmly part of the Hunnic empire of Attila. The Gepids, Rugi, Scirii and many Goths, Alans and Sarmatians were also part of Attila's empire. They were among the peoples who are reported as having fought for Attila at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.  After the death of Attila, his sons lost power over the various peoples of his empire at the Battle of Nedao in 454. The centre of this alliance was now settled upon the Roman border north of the Middle Danube. Heruli who were possibly on the winning side with the Gepids, were subsequently among the several peoples now able to form a kingdom in that area. The Herulian kingdom, was established north of modern Vienna and Bratislava, near the Morava river, and possibly extending as far east as the Little Carpathians. They ruled over a mixed population including Suevi, Huns and Alans. Compared to other Middle Danubian kingdoms in this period, Peter Heather has described this Heruli kingdom as "middle-sized", similar to the Rugian one, but "clearly not as militarily powerful, say, as the Gothic, Lombard, or Gepid confederations which generated much longer-lived political entities, and into which elements of the Rugi and Heruli were eventually absorbed".  From this region the life story of Severinus of Noricum reports that the Heruli attacked Ioviaco near Passau in 480. The Heruli do not appear in early lists of Odoacer's allies after Nedao, but benefited from the downfall of his people the Scirii. They established control on the Roman (south) side of the Danube, north of Lake Balaton in modern Hungary when they were apparently able to take over the kingdoms of the Suevi and Scirii, who had been under pressure from the Ostrogoths, who continued to press their old allies from the south.  Odoacer, the commander of the Imperial "foederati" troops who deposed the last Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus in 476 AD came to be seen as king over several of the Danubian peoples including the Heruli, and the Heruli were strongly associated with his Italian kingdom. The Heruli on the Danube also took control of the Rugian territories, who had become competitors to Odoacer and been defeated by him in 488. However Heruli suffered badly in Italy, as loyalists of Odoacer, when he was defeated by the Ostrogoth Theoderic.  By 500 the Herulian kingdom on the Danube, apparently by now under a king named Rodulph, had made peace with Theoderic and become his allies. Paul the Deacon also mentions Heruli living in Italy under Ostrogothic rule. Peter Heather estimates that the Herulian kingdom could muster an army of 5,000-10,000 men. Theoderic's efforts to build a system of alliances in Western Europe were made difficult both by counter diplomacy, for example between Merovingian Franks and the Byzantine empire, and also the arrival of a new Germanic people into the Danubian region, the Lombards who were initially under Herule hegemony. The Herulian king Rodulph lost his kingdom to the Lombards at some point between 494 and 508.

Later history.

After the Middle Danubian Herulian kingdom was destroyed by the Lombards in or before 508, Herulian fortunes waned. According to Procopius, in 512 a group including royalty went north and settled in Thule, which for Procopius meant Scandinavia. Procopius noted that these Heruli first traversed the lands of the Slavs, then empty lands, and then the lands of the Danes, until finally settling down nearby the Geats. Peter Heather considers this account to be "entirely plausible" although he notes that others have labelled it a "fairy story", and given that it only appears in one source it is possible to deny its validity.  Another Heruli group were assigned civil and military offices by Theoderic the Great in Pavia in north Italy.  What happened to the main part of the Danubian Heruli has been difficult to reconstruct from Procopius, but according to Steinacher they first moved downstream on the Danube to an area where the Rugii had sought refuge in 488. Here they suffered famine. They sought refuge among the Gepids, but wanting to avoid being mistreated by them crossed the Danube came under East Roman authority.  Anastasius Caesar allowed them to resettle depopulated "lands and cities" in the empire in 512. Modern scholars debate whether they were moved then to Singidunum (modern Belgrade), or first to Bassianae, and to Singidunum some decades later, by Justinian. This area had been re-acquired by the empire from the Goths, who now ruled Italy from Ravenna. Justinian integrated them into the empire as a buffer between the Romans and the more independent Lombards and Gepids to the north. Under his encouragement, the Herule king Grepes converted to Orthodox Christianity in 528 together with some nobles and twelve relatives. Procopius who felt that this made them somewhat gentler, also showed in his account of the wars against the African Vandals, that some of them were Arian christians.  The Heruli were often mentioned during the times of Justinian, who used them in his extensive military campaigns in many countries including Italy, Syria, and North Africa. Pharas was a notable Herulian commander during this period. Several thousand Heruli served in the personal guard of Belisarius throughout the campaigns, and Narses also recruited from them. They were a participant in the Byzantine-Sasanian wars, such as the Battle of Anglon.  Grepes and most of his family had apparently died by the early 540s, possibly in the Plague of Justinian (541-542). Procopius related that in the 540s the Heruli who had been settled in the Roman Balkans killed their own king Ochus and, not wanting the one assigned by the emperor, Suartuas, they made contact with the Heruli who had gone to Thule decades earlier, seeking a new king. Their first choice fell sick and died when they had come to the country of the Dani, and a second choice was made. The new king Datius arrived with his brother Aordus and 200 young men. The Heruli who were sent against Suartuas defected with him and were supported by the empire. The supporters of Datius, two thirds of the Heruli, submitted to the Gepids. This period of rebellion against Rome lasted approximately 545-548, the period immediately before conflict between their larger neighbours the Gepids and Lombards broke out, but this rebellion was repressed by Justinian. In 549, when the Gepids fought the Romans, and Heruli fought on both sides. In any case after one generation in the Belgrade area, the Herulian federate polity in the Balkans disappears from the surviving historical records, apparently replaced by the incoming Avars.  Peter Heather has written that: Sarantis however shows that the Belgrade-region Heruli continued to be recruited, and to play a role in local conflicts involving the Gepids and Lombards, into the 550s. Suartas, a Herule general for the Romans, led Herule forces against the Gepids in 552 for example. However it appears that by this period the semi-independent Heruli near Belgrade became Roman provincials.  In 566, Sinduald, a Herule military leader under Narses, was declared a king of Heruli in Trentino in northern Italy, but he was executed by Narses. Sinduald was said to be a descendant of the Herules who had already entered Italy under Odoacer.  Paul the Deacon writes that many Heruli joined the Lombard king Alboin in their eventual conquest of Italy from the empire in the late 6th century AD.  Along with the Rugii and Scirii, the Heruli may have contributed to the formation of the Bavarii.

Culture.

Religion.

The early religion of the Heruli is vividly described by Procopius in his "". He describes them as a polytheistic society known to practice human sacrifice. The Heruli appears to have been worshippers of Odin, and might have been responsible for the spread of such worship to Northern Europe.  By the time of Justinian, Procopius reports that many Heruli had become Arian Christians. In any case, Justinian appears to have pursued a policy of attempting to convert them to Chalcedonian Christianity.

Society.

Procopius writes that the Heruli practiced a form of senicide, having a non-relative kill the sick and elderly and burning the remains on a wooden pyre. Procopius also states that, following the death of their husbands, Herulian women were expected to commit suicide by hanging.  Furthermore, Procopius claims that the Heruli practiced homosexuality or bestiality, depending on the interpretation: The translated ""especially men with asses"" is from the original Greek text (provided next to Dewing's translation) ""ἂλλας τε καί ἀνδρῶν καί ὄνων"" where "ὄνων" is genitive plural of "ὄνος", meaning "donkeys".  It appears that Procopius disliked the Heruli and wanted to present them in an as negative light as possible. His description of bestiality among the Heruli might therefore be untrue.

Warfare.

Described the Heruli were famous for the quality of their infantry, who were recruited as mercenaries by all other peoples. They were known particularly for their speed, and were perhaps used for the stabbing cavalry. Procopius described the Heruli in battle against Persians, carrying no protective armor save a shield and thick jacket. This form of warfare has been compared to that of the berserkers of the Viking Age.  Herulian slaves are known to have accompanied them into combat. Slaves were forbidden from donning a shield until having proven themselves brave on the battlefield. This practice might be a relic of ancient Indo-European tradition. Steinacher has pointed out, that while this remark has reasonably been seen as evidence of an "initiation rite", initiation rites are so common that caution is required:

Material culture.

The tumuli of the Heruli on the Middle Danube in the early 6th century are very similar to contemporary tumuli built in southern Sweden. At this time, the Heruli appears to have had close trade relations with peoples living near the Baltic Sea.

Possible connection to Runic.

The Heruli have sometimes been credited with inventing the Runic script. It has been suggested that the Heruli brought the Runic script to Northern Europe.

Physical appearance.

In "Getica", Jordanes writes that the Heruli claimed to be the tallest people of Scandza. Jordanes further writes that all the peoples of Scandza "surpassed the Germans in size and spirit". Sidonius Apollinaris wrote that the Heruli had blue-grey eyes.

The negative excursus of Procopius.

Scholars remark that the historian Procopius had a notable fascination with the Herules, which colors his descriptions of them. As Steinacher remarks "Procopius's Herul excursus [...] is full of stereotypes and negative attitudes towards this primitive people and its archaic conventions". This means that caution is required when using his descriptions as evidence. In the words of Walter Goffart:  Although Procopius praised the Herule named Pharas who brought about the surrender of the north African Vandal king Gelimer, he noted that "despite" being born a Herule, he did not drink excessively and was not unreliable.

The Heruli (or Herules) were an early Germanic people. Possibly originating in Scandinavia, the Heruli are first mentioned by Roman authors as one of several "Scythian" groups raiding Roman provinces in the Balkans and Aegean, attacking by land, and notably also by sea. During this time they reportedly lived near the Sea of Azov.

Herulové byli východogermánský kmen, pocházející zřejmě z jižní Skandinávie. Poprvé jsou římskými autory zmiňováni jako jedna z několika „skytských“ skupin útočících na římské provincie na Balkáně ve 3. století n. l. V této době žili poblíž Azovského moře.


History.

In the 19th century, Bougival emerged as a fashionable suburb of Paris. Pauline Viardot had a villa there, as did her paramour Ivan Turgenev, who died in the town in 1883. Bougival was also known as the "Cradle of Impressionism" during the Belle Époque. Painters Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Sisley among others painted the light, sky, and water of this area. Alexandre Dumas, fils set parts of his novel "The Lady of the Camellias" in Bougival.  The Junior division of the British School of Paris (formerly the English School of Paris) was located in Bougival up until 2008. Prior to the English School, it was a Catholic all-girls school called Marymount in the 1960s. It was reported that the Germans occupied the estate during World War II, along with the nuns that lived there, due to the estate's vantage point of the Seine River.

Transport.

Bougival is served by Bougival station on the Transilien Paris – Saint-Lazare suburban rail line. This station is located at the border between the commune of Bougival and the commune of La Celle-Saint-Cloud, on the La Celle-Saint-Cloud side of the border.  Two multiple locks on the River Seine are located in Bougival.

Education.

Schools in Bougival include:  Public preschools:  Public elementary schools:  There is a private school, Ecole privée Sainte-Thérèse/Collège privée Sainte Thérèse, that goes from preschool through junior high school level 3e.  Nearby public secondary schools:  Junior high schools:  Senior high schools/sixth form colleges:  The Bibliothèque Emile Richebourg is the community's public library.

Notable residents.

Rennequin Sualem, inventor of the Marly Machine, died in Bougival in 1708. Ivan Turgenev died in Bougival in 1883, as well as Georges Bizet in 1875. Pauline Viardot made Bougival her home. Gabrielle d'Estrées had a château there (destroyed in the 19th century).  The town has since been home to noted residents including, Frank Alamo, Guillaume Depardieu, Jean-Louis Aubert, Michel Rocard, Flavie Flament, Laurent Garnier, Jean-Marie Hullot, Jean Michel Jarre, Benjamin Castaldi, Neymar da Silva Santos Júnior (known as Neymar or Neymar Jr) and Gilbert Montagné have been residents of Bougival. Noted advertising pioneer Charles-Louis Havas lived in Bougival. Centennial Yvonne van Quickenborn, entrepreneur (STOP) and musician, spent the last 70 years of her life in Bougival.

Bougival is a commune (or village) in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. Bougival is located from the center of Paris, in its western suburbs.

Bougival ["bužival"] je město v západní části metropolitní oblasti Paříže ve Francii v departmentu Yvelines a regionu Île-de-France. Od centra Paříže je vzdálené 15,3 km.


Basic example.

The prototypical example of a congruence relation is congruence modulo formula_1 on the set of integers. For a given positive integer formula_1, two integers formula_3 and formula_4 are called congruent modulo formula_1, written if formula_7 is divisible by formula_1 (or equivalently if formula_3 and formula_4 have the same remainder when divided by formula_1).  For example, formula_12 and formula_13 are congruent modulo formula_14,  since formula_16 is a multiple of 10, or equivalently since both formula_12 and formula_13 have a remainder of formula_19 when divided by formula_14.  Congruence modulo formula_1 (for a fixed formula_1) is compatible with both addition and multiplication on the integers. That is,  if  then  The corresponding addition and multiplication of equivalence classes is known as modular arithmetic. From the point of view of abstract algebra, congruence modulo formula_1 is a congruence relation on the ring of integers, and arithmetic modulo formula_1 occurs on the corresponding quotient ring.

Definition.

The definition of a congruence depends on the type of algebraic structure under consideration. Particular definitions of congruence can be made for groups, rings, vector spaces, modules, semigroups, lattices, and so forth. The common theme is that a congruence is an equivalence relation on an algebraic object that is compatible with the algebraic structure, in the sense that the operations are well-defined on the equivalence classes.  For example, a group is an algebraic object consisting of a set together with a single binary operation, satisfying certain axioms. If formula_29 is a group with operation formula_30, a congruence relation on formula_29 is an equivalence relation formula_32 on the elements of formula_29 satisfying for all formula_36, formula_37, formula_38, formula_39. For a congruence on a group, the equivalence class containing the identity element is always a normal subgroup, and the other equivalence classes are the cosets of this subgroup. Together, these equivalence classes are the elements of a quotient group.  When an algebraic structure includes more than one operation, congruence relations are required to be compatible with each operation. For example, a ring possesses both addition and multiplication, and a congruence relation on a ring must satisfy whenever formula_41. For a congruence on a ring, the equivalence class containing 0 is always a two-sided ideal, and the two operations on the set of equivalence classes define the corresponding quotient ring.  The general notion of a congruence relation can be given a formal definition in the context of universal algebra, a field which studies ideas common to all algebraic structures. In this setting, a congruence relation is an equivalence relation formula_32 on an algebraic structure that satisfies for every formula_1-ary operation formula_45 and all elements formula_46 such that formula_47 for each formula_48

Relation with homomorphisms.

If formula_49 is a homomorphism between two algebraic structures (such as homomorphism of groups, or a linear map between vector spaces), then the relation formula_50 defined by  is a congruence relation. By the first isomorphism theorem, the image of "A" under formula_53 is a substructure of "B" isomorphic to the quotient of "A" by this congruence.

Congruences of groups, and normal subgroups and ideals.

In the particular case of groups, congruence relations can be described in elementary terms as follows: If "G" is a group (with identity element "e" and operation *) and ~ is a binary relation on "G", then ~ is a congruence whenever:  Conditions 1, 2, and 3 say that ~ is an equivalence relation.  A congruence ~ is determined entirely by the set {"a" ∈ "G" : "a" ~ "e"} of those elements of "G" that are congruent to the identity element, and this set is a normal subgroup. Specifically, "a" ~ "b" if and only if "b" * "a" ~ "e". So instead of talking about congruences on groups, people usually speak in terms of normal subgroups of them; in fact, every congruence corresponds uniquely to some normal subgroup of "G".

Ideals of rings and the general case.

A similar trick allows one to speak of kernels in ring theory as ideals instead of congruence relations, and in module theory as submodules instead of congruence relations.  A more general situation where this trick is possible is with Omega-groups (in the general sense allowing operators with multiple arity). But this cannot be done with, for example, monoids, so the study of congruence relations plays a more central role in monoid theory.

Universal algebra.

The idea is generalized in universal algebra: A congruence relation on an algebra "A" is a subset of the direct product "A" × "A" that is both an equivalence relation on "A" and a subalgebra of "A" × "A".  The kernel of a homomorphism is always a congruence. Indeed, every congruence arises as a kernel. For a given congruence ~ on "A", the set "A"/~ of equivalence classes can be given the structure of an algebra in a natural fashion, the quotient algebra. The function that maps every element of "A" to its equivalence class is a homomorphism, and the kernel of this homomorphism is ~.  The lattice Con("A") of all congruence relations on an algebra "A" is algebraic.  John M. Howie described how semigroup theory illustrates congruence relations in universal algebra:

In abstract algebra, a congruence relation (or simply congruence) is an equivalence relation on an algebraic structure (such as a group, ring, or vector space) that is compatible with the structure in the sense that algebraic operations done with equivalent elements will yield equivalent elements. Every congruence relation has a corresponding quotient structure, whose elements are the equivalence classes (or congruence classes) for the relation.

Kongruence je algebraický pojem označující ekvivalenci na algebře, která je slučitelná se všemi operacemi na této algebře (tedy například, pokud jsou tři páry prvků ekvivalentní a výsledky nějaké operace na těchto párech jsou také ekvivalentní, pak existuje pro tyto páry kongruence).


History.

Antiquity.

Bergamo occupies the site of the ancient town of "Bergomum", founded as a settlement by the Celtic tribe of Cenomani. In 49 BC it became a Roman municipality, containing c. 10,000 inhabitants at its peak. An important hub on the military road between Friuli and Raetia, it was destroyed by Attila in the 5th century.

Middle Ages.

From the 6th century Bergamo was the seat of one of the most important Lombard duchies of northern Italy, together with Brescia, Trento, and Cividale del Friuli: its first Lombard duke was Wallaris.  After the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by Charlemagne, it became the seat of a county under one Auteramus (d. 816). An important Lombardic hoard dating from the 6th to 7th centuries was found in the vicinity of the city in the 19th century and is now in the British Museum.  From the 11th century onwards, Bergamo was an independent commune, taking part in the Lombard League which defeated Frederick I Barbarossa in 1165. The local Guelph and Ghibelline factions were the Colleoni and Suardi, respectively.  Feuding between the two initially caused the family of Omodeo Tasso to flee north, but he returned to Bergamo in the later 13th century to organize the city's couriers: this would eventually lead to the Imperial Thurn und Taxis dynasty generally credited with organizing the first modern postal service.

Early modern.

After a short period under the House of Malatesta starting from 1407, Bergamo was ceded in 1428 by the Duchy of Milan to the Republic of Venice in the context of the Wars in Lombardy and the aftermath of the 1427 Battle of Maclodio.  Despite the brief interlude granted by the Treaty of Lodi in 1454, the uneasy balance of power among the Northern Italian states precipitated the Italian Wars, a series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 that involved, at various times, also the Papal States, France, and the Holy Roman Empire.  The wars, which were both a result and cause of Venetian involvement in the power politics of mainland Italy, prompted Venice to assert its direct rule over its mainland domains.  As much of the fighting during the Italian Wars took place during sieges, increasing levels of fortification were adopted, using such new developments as detached bastions that could withstand sustained artillery fire.  The Treaty of Campo Formio (17 October 1797) formally recognized the inclusion of Bergamo and other parts of Northern Italy into the Cisalpine Republic, a "sister republic" of the French First Republic that was superseded in 1802 by the short-lived Napoleonic Italian Republic and in 1805 by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy.

Late modern and contemporary.

The 1815 Congress of Vienna assigned Bergamo to the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, a crown land of the Austrian Empire. The visit of Emperor Ferdinand I in 1838 coincided with the opening of the new boulevard stretching into the plains, leading to the railway station that was inaugurated in 1857.  The Bergamasques welcomed Austrian rule at first, but later challenged it in Italian independentist insurrections in 1848.  Giuseppe Garibaldi conquered Bergamo in 1859, during the Second Italian War of Independence. As a result, the city became part of the newly-proclaimed Kingdom of Italy founded in 1861.  Due to its contribution to the Italian unification movement, Bergamo has become known as "Città dei Mille" ("City of the Thousand"), because a significant part of the rank-and-file supporting Giuseppe Garibaldi in his 1860 Expedition of the Thousand against the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies came from Bergamo and its environs.  During the twentieth century, Bergamo became one of Italy's most industrialized areas.  In 1907 Marcello Piacentini devised a new urban master plan that was implemented between 1912 and 1927, in a style reminiscent of Novecento Italiano and Modernist Rationalism.  The 2017 43rd G7 summit on agriculture took place in Bergamo, in the context of the broader international meeting organized in Taormina (Sicily). The "Charter of Bergamo", an international commitment signed during the summit, aims to reduce hunger worldwide by 2030, strengthen cooperation for agricultural development in Africa, and ensure price transparency.  In early 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy, Bergamo's healthcare system was overwhelmed by patients with COVID-19, the disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. There were reports of doctors confronted with ethical dilemmas with too few ICU beds and mechanical ventilation systems. Morgues were overwhelmed, and images of military trucks carrying the bodies of COVID-19 victims out of the city were shared worldwide. Doctors pleaded with the rest of Italy, Europe and the world to take the spreading virus pandemic seriously.

Geography.

Climate.

Bergamo has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa" in the Koeppen climate classification).

Cityscape.

The town has two centres: "Città alta" ("upper city"), a hilltop medieval town, surrounded by 16th-century defensive walls, and the "Città bassa" ("lower city"). The two parts of the town are connected by funicular, roads, and footpaths.

Upper city.

The upper city, surrounded by Venetian walls built in the 16th century, forms the historic centre of Bergamo. Notable buildings within the upper city include:

Lower city.

The lower city is the modern centre of Bergamo. At the end of the 19th century "Città Bassa" was composed of residential neighborhoods built along the main roads that linked Bergamo to the other cities of Lombardy. The main boroughs were Borgo Palazzo along the road to Brescia, Borgo San Leonardo along the road to Milan and Borgo Santa Caterina along the road to Serio Valley. The city rapidly expanded during the 20th century. In the first decades, the municipality erected major buildings like the new courthouse and various administrative offices in the lower part of Bergamo in order to create a new center of the city. After World War II many residential buildings were constructed in the lower part of the city which are now divided into twenty-five neighborhoods:  Boccaleone, Borgo Palazzo, Borgo Santa Caterina, Campagnola, Carnovali, Celadina, Centro-Papa Giovanni XXIII, Centro-Pignolo, Centro-Sant'Alessandro, Città Alta, Colli, Colognola, Conca Fiorita, Grumello del Piano,,, Malpensata, Monterosso, Redona, San Paolo, San Tomaso de' Calvi, Santa Lucia, Valtesse-San Colombano, Valverde con Valtesse-Sant'Antonio, Villaggio degli Sposi  The most relevant sites are:

Demographics.

In 2010, there were 119,551 people residing in Bergamo (in which the greater area has about 500 000 inhabitants), located in the province of Bergamo, Lombardia, of whom 46.6% were male and 53.4% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 16.79 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 23.61 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 17.88 percent (minors) and 20.29 percent (pensioners).  The average age of Bergamo residents is 45 compared to the Italian average of 43. In the eight years between 2002 and 2010, the population of Bergamo grew by 5.41 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 5.77 percent.  The city has sizable immigrant populations in its' bustling industrial economy. They include those from Albania, Romania, Bolivia, China, the Arab World and Sub-Saharan Africa. About 10% of Bergamo residents are born outside Europe.

Economy.

Bergamo is situated in Lombardy, Italy's northern region where about a quarter of the country's GDP is produced.  Nowadays, the city has an advanced tertiary economy focussed on banking, retail, and services associated to the industrial sector of its province. Corporations and firms linked to the area include UBI banking group, Brembo (braking systems), Tenaris (steel), ABB (power and automation technology), S. Pellegrino (beverage company based in San Pellegrino Terme), Italcementi (cement and concrete) and Riva-Ferretti (yachts and luxury ships based in Sarnico).  Bergamo produces the Denominazione di origine controllata wines Moscato di Scanzo and Valcalepio.

Culture.

Notable natives.

Bergamo was the hometown and last resting place of Enrico Rastelli, a highly technical and world-famous juggler who lived in the town and, in 1931, died there at the early age of 34. There is a life-sized statue of Rastelli within his mausoleum. A number of painters were active in the town as well; among these were Giovanni Paolo Cavagna, Francesco Zucco, and Enea Salmeggia, each of whom painted works for the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. Sculptor Giacomo Manzù and the bass-baritone opera singer Alex Esposito were born in Bergamo.  The American electrical engineer and professor Andrew Viterbi, inventor of Viterbi's algorithm, was born in Bergamo, before migrating to the US during the Fascist era because of his Jewish origins. Designers born in Bergamo include the late Mariuccia Mandelli, the founder of Krizia and one of the first female fashion designers to create a successful line of men's wear.

Transportation.

Airport.

Bergamo is served by Il Caravaggio International Airport south-east of the town. The city is also served by Milan Linate Airport south-west of Bergamo.

Motorway.

Motorway A4 is the main axis connecting the city with the east and the west of the country, to cities such as Milan, Turin, Venice and Trieste.

Railway.

Bergamo railway station is connected to Milan, Lecco, Cremona, Treviglio, Brescia and Monza with regional trains operated by Trenord. The city is also served by two daily Frecciargento services to Rome operated by Trenitalia.

Urban transport.

Transport within Bergamo is managed by ATB and includes a network of bus lines together with two funicular systems opened in 1887 ("Funicolare di Bergamo Alta") and in 1912 ("Funicolare di Bergamo Alta - Monte San Vigilio"). The Bergamo–Albino light rail was inaugurated in 2009.  Two light rail lines are currently in the planning stage:

International relations.

Twin towns − sister cities.

Bergamo is twinned with:  Bergamo has a partnership with:

Consulates.

Bergamo is home to the following consulates:

Bergamo (, ; ; ; ) is a city in the alpine Lombardy region of northern Italy, approximately northeast of Milan, and approximately from Switzerland, the alpine lakes Como and Iseo, and 70 km (43 mi) from Garda and Maggiore. The Bergamo Alps ("Alpi Orobie") begin immediately north of the city.

Bergamo (Bèrghem) je italské město v oblasti Lombardie, hlavní město stejnojmenné provincie. Leží asi 40 km severovýchodně od Milána v předhůří Alp. Má 113 143 obyvatel. Město se skládá ze dvou částí: "Città alta" (Horní město), středověké město na vrcholu kopce obklopené obrannými zdmi ze 17. století a "Città bassa" (Dolní město), založené počátkem 20. století. Obě části města jsou propojeny ulicí Viale Roma a následně lze použít do Horního města lanovku, která je v provozu celý týden.


Legendary narrative.

According to the "Kojiki" and the "Nihon Shoki", Ōjin was the son of the Emperor Chūai and his consort Empress Jingū. As Chūai died before Ōjin's birth, his mother Empress Jingū became the de facto ruler. The history book written to the 8th century, alleged that the boy Ōjin was conceived but unborn when Chūai died. His widow, Empress Jingū, then spent three years in conquest of a promised land, which is conjectured to be Korea, but the story is largely dismissed by scholars for lack of evidence. Then, after her return to Japanese islands, the boy was born, three years after the death of the father.  Either a period of less than nine months contained three "years" (some seasons), e.g. three harvests, or the paternity is just mythical and symbolic, rather than real. Ōjin was born (in 200 according to the traditional) in Tsukushi Province upon the return of his mother from the invasion of the promised land, and was named Prince Hondawake. He became the crown prince at the age of four. He was crowned (in 270) at the age of 70 and reigned for 40 years until his death in 310, although none of the TC dates around his reign have any historical basis. He supposedly lived in two palaces, both of which are in present-day Osaka.  Ōjin was traditionally identified as the father of Emperor Nintoku, who acceded after Ōjin's death.

Known information.

While the historical existence of Emperor Ōjin is debated among historians, there is a general consensus that he was "probably real". If Ōjin was an actual historical figure then historians have proposed that he ruled later than attested. Dates of his actual reign have been proposed to be as early as 370 to 390 AD, to as late as the early 5th century AD. At least one Japanese historian has cast doubt on this theory though, by revising a supporting statement given in 1972. In this new narrative Louis Perez states: "only kings and emperors after the reign of Ojin......are seen as historical figures". In either case there is also no evidence to suggest that the title "tennō" was used during the time to which Ōjin's reign has been assigned. It is certainly possible that he was a chieftain or local clan leader, and that the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan. The name Ōjin"-tennō" was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.  While the actual site of Ōjin's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a "kofun"-type Imperial tomb in Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ōjin's mausoleum, and is formally named "Eega no Mofushi no oka no misasagi". At some point Ōjin was made a guardian Kami of the Hata clan, and is now also deified as Hachiman Daimyōjin. Outside of the "Kiki", the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Family.

Emperor Ōjin's family allegedly consisted of 28 children, which include 2 unnamed princesses from a previous marriage. He had one spouse who bore him a son that would become the next Emperor, as well as 10 consorts.

Further reading.

, also known as or, was the 15th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 270 to 310.

Ódžin () byl v pořadí 15. japonským císařem. Je to první historicky doložený japonský císař. S jistotou se k němu nedají přiřadit žádná přesnější data, období jeho vlády a života se datuje pouze podle toho, co říká japonská tradice.


World Bank Group.

The World Bank Group is an extended family of five international organizations, and the

History.

The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, along with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American. The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D.C., and work closely with each other.  Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations. The intention behind the founding of the World Bank was to provide temporary loans to low-income countries which were unable to obtain loans commercially. The Bank may also make loans and demand policy reforms from recipients.

1944–1974.

In its early years the Bank made a slow start for two reasons: it was underfunded, and there were leadership struggles between the US Executive Director and the President of the organization. When the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries. Until 1968, its loans were earmarked for the construction of infrastructure works, such as seaports, highway systems, and power plants, that would generate enough income to enable a borrower country to repay the loan. In 1960, the International Development Association was formed (as opposed to a UN fund named SUNFED), providing soft loans to developing countries.

1974–1980.

From 1974 to 1980 the bank concentrated on meeting the basic needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased, as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and other sectors.  These changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson. McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to

1980–1989.

McNamara was succeeded by US President Jimmy Carter's nominee, Alden W. Clausen, in 1980. Clausen replaced many members of McNamara's staff and crafted a different mission emphasis. His 1982 decision to replace the bank's Chief Economist, Hollis B. Chenery, with Anne Krueger was an example of this new focus. Krueger was

1989–present.

Beginning in 1989, in response to harsh criticism from many groups, the bank began including environmental groups and NGOs in its loans to mitigate the past effects of its development policies that had prompted the criticism. It also formed an implementing agency, in accordance with the Montreal Protocols, to stop ozone-depletion damage to the Earth's atmosphere by phasing out the use of 95% of ozone-depleting chemicals, with a target date of 2015. Since then, in accordance with its so-called "Six Strategic Themes", the bank has put various additional policies into effect to preserve the environment while promoting development. For example, in 1991 the bank announced that to protect against deforestation, especially in the Amazon, it

Criteria.

Various developments had brought the Millennium Development Goals targets for 2015 within reach in some cases. For the goals to be realized, six criteria must be met: stronger and more inclusive growth in Africa and fragile states, more effort in health and education, integration of the development and environment agendas, more as well as better aid, movement on trade negotiations, and stronger and more focused support from multilateral institutions like the World Bank.  To make sure that World Bank-financed operations do not compromise these goals but instead add to their realisation, environmental, social and legal safeguards were defined. However, these safeguards have not been implemented entirely yet. At the World Bank's annual meeting in Tokyo 2012 a review of these safeguards has been initiated, which was welcomed by several civil society organisations.

Leadership.

The President of the Bank is the president of the entire World Bank Group. The president is responsible for chairing meetings of the Boards of Directors and for overall management of the Bank. Traditionally, the President of the Bank has always been a US citizen nominated by the United States, the largest shareholder in the bank (the managing director of the International Monetary Fund having always been a European). The nominee is subject to confirmation by the Board of Executive Directors, to serve for

Members.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has 189 member countries, while the International Development Association (IDA) has 173 members. Each member state of IBRD should also be a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the Bank (such as IDA).

Voting power.

In 2010 voting powers at the World Bank were revised to increase the voice of developing countries, notably China. The countries with most voting power are now the United States (15.85%), Japan (6.84%), China (4.42%), Germany (4.00%), the United Kingdom (3.75%), France (3.75%), India (2.91%), Russia (2.77%), Saudi Arabia (2.77%) and Italy (2.64%). Under the changes, known as 'Voice Reform – Phase 2', countries other than China

List of 20 largest countries by voting power in each World Bank institution.

The following table shows the subscriptions of the top 20 member countries of the World Bank by voting power in the following World Bank institutions as of December 2014 or March 2015: the International

Poverty reduction strategies.

For the poorest developing countries in the world, the bank's assistance plans are based on poverty reduction strategies; by combining an analysis of local groups with an analysis of the country's financial and economic situation the World Bank develops a plan pertaining to the country in question. The government then identifies the country's priorities and targets for the reduction of poverty, and the World Bank instigates its aid efforts correspondingly.  Forty-five countries pledged US$25.1 billion in "aid

Global partnerships and initiatives.

The World Bank has been assigned temporary management responsibility of the Clean Technology Fund (CTF), focused on making renewable energy cost-competitive with coal-fired power as quickly as possible, but this may not continue after UN's Copenhagen climate change conference in December 2009, because of the Bank's continued investment in coal-fired power plants. (In December 2017, Kim announced the World Bank would no longer finance fossil fuel development.)  Together with the World Health Organization, the World Bank administers the International Health Partnership (IHP+). IHP+ is a group of partners committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development cooperation into practice in the health sector. IHP+ mobilizes national governments, development agencies, civil society and others to support a single, country-led national health strategy in a well-coordinated way.

Climate change.

World Bank President Jim Yong Kim said in 2012:  "A 4 degree warmer world can, and must be, avoided – we need to hold warming below 2 degrees... Lack of action on climate change threatens to make the world our children inherit a completely different world than we are living in today. Climate change is one of the single biggest challenges facing development, and we need to assume the moral responsibility to take action on behalf of future generations, especially the poorest."  A World Bank report into climate change in 2012 noted that (p. xiii) "even with the current mitigation commitments and pledges fully implemented, there is roughly a 20 percent likelihood of exceeding 4 °C by 2100." This is despite the fact that

Training wings.

Global Operations Knowledge Management Unit.

The World Bank Institute (WBI) was a "global connector of knowledge, learning and innovation for poverty reduction". It aimed to inspire change agents and prepare them with essential tools that can help achieve development results. WBI had four major strategies to approach development problems: innovation for development, knowledge exchange, leadership and coalition building, and structured learning. World Bank Institute (WBI) was formerly known as Economic Development Institute (EDI),

Global Development Learning Network.

The Global Development Learning Network (GDLN) is a partnership of over 120 learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) in nearly 80 countries around the world. GDLN Affiliates collaborate in holding events that connect people across countries and regions for learning and dialogue on development issues.  GDLN clients are typically NGOs, government, private sector and development agencies who find that they work better together on subregional, regional or global development issues using the facilities and tools offered by GDLN Affiliates. Clients also benefit from the ability of Affiliates to help them choose and apply these tools effectively, and to tap development practitioners and experts worldwide. GDLN Affiliates facilitate around 1000 videoconference-based activities a year on behalf of their clients, reaching some 90,000 people worldwide. Most of these activities bring together participants in two or more countries over a series of sessions. A majority of GDLN activities are organized by small government agencies and NGOs.

GDLN Asia Pacific.

The GDLN in the East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid growth and Distance Learning Centers now operate, or are planned in 20 countries: Australia, Mongolia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Thailand, Laos, Timor Leste, Fiji, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and New Zealand. With over 180 Distance Learning Centers, it is the largest development learning network in the Asia and Pacific region. The Secretariat Office of GDLN Asia Pacific is located in the Center of Academic Resources of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.  GDLN Asia Pacific was launched at the GDLN's East Asia and Pacific regional meeting held in Bangkok from 22 to 24 May 2006. Its vision is to become "the premier network exchanging ideas, experience and know-how across the Asia Pacific Region". GDLN Asia Pacific is a separate entity to The World Bank. It has endorsed its own Charter and Business Plan and, in accordance with the Charter, a

JUSTPAL Network.

A Justice Sector Peer-Assisted Learning (JUSTPAL) Network was launched in April 2011 by the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) Department of the World Bank's Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region. The JUSTPAL objective is to provide an online and offline platform for justice professionals to exchange knowledge, good practices and peer-driven improvements to justice systems and thereby support countries to improve their justice sector performance,

Country assistance strategies.

As a guideline to the World Bank's operations in any particular country, a Country Assistance Strategy

Clean Air Initiative.

Clean Air Initiative (CAI) is a World Bank initiative to advance innovative ways to improve air quality in

United Nations Development Business.

Based on an agreement between the United Nations and the World Bank in 1981, "Development Business" became the official source for World Bank Procurement Notices, Contract Awards, and Project Approvals.  In 1998, the agreement was re-negotiated, and included in this agreement was a joint venture to

Open data initiative.

The World Bank collects and processes large amounts of data and generates them on the basis of economic models. These data and models have gradually been made available to the

Grants table.

The following table lists the top 15 DAC 5 Digit Sectors to which the World Bank has committed funding, as recorded by it in

Open Knowledge Repository.

The World Bank hosts the Open Knowledge Repository (OKR) as an official open access

Criticisms and controversy.

The World Bank has long been criticized by non-governmental organizations, such as the indigenous rights group Survival International, and academics, including Henry Hazlitt, Ludwig Von Mises, and its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz. Henry Hazlitt argued that the World Bank along with the monetary system it was designed within would promote world inflation and "a world in which international trade is State-dominated" when they were being advocated. Stiglitz argued that the so-called free market reform policies that the Bank advocates are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy"), in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive economies. Similarly, Carmine Guerriero notices that these reforms have introduced in developing countries regulatory institutions typical of the common law legal tradition because allegedly more efficient according to the legal origins theory. The latter however has been fiercely criticized since it does not take into account that the legal institutions transplanted during the European colonization have been then reformed. This issue makes the legal origins theory's inference unreliable and the World Bank reforms detrimental.  One of the most common criticisms of the World Bank has been the way in which it is governed. While the World Bank represents 188 countries, it is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These countries (which also provide most of the institution's funding) choose the leadership and senior management of the World Bank, and their interests dominate the bank. Titus Alexander argues that the unequal voting power of western countries and the World Bank's role in developing countries makes it similar to the South African Development Bank under apartheid, and therefore a pillar of global apartheid.  In the 1990s, the World Bank and the IMF forged the Washington Consensus, policies that included deregulation and liberalization of markets, privatization and the downscaling of government. Though the Washington Consensus was conceived as a policy that would best promote development, it was criticized for ignoring equity, employment and how reforms like privatization were carried out. Joseph Stiglitz argued that the Washington Consensus placed too much emphasis on the growth of GDP, and not enough on the permanence of growth or on whether growth contributed to better living standards.  The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report criticized the World Bank and other international financial institutions for focusing too much "on issuing loans rather than on achieving concrete development results within a finite period of time" and called on the institution to "strengthen anti-corruption efforts".  James Ferguson has argued that the main effect of many development projects carried out by the World Bank and similar organizations is not the alleviation of poverty. Instead the projects often serve to expand the exercise of bureaucratic state power. Through his case-studies of development projects in Thaba-Tseka he shows that the World Bank's characterization of the economic conditions in Lesotho was flawed, and the Bank ignored the political and cultural character of the state in crafting their projects. As a result, the projects failed to help the poor, but succeeded in expanding the government bureaucracy.  Criticism of the World Bank and other organizations often takes the form of protesting, such as the World Bank Oslo 2002 Protests, the 2007 October Rebellion, and the 1999 Battle of Seattle. Such demonstrations have occurred all over the world, even among the Brazilian Kayapo people.  Another source of criticism has been the tradition of having an American head the bank, implemented because the United States provides the majority of World Bank funding. "When economists from the World Bank visit poor countries to dispense cash and advice," observed "The Economist" in 2012, "they routinely tell governments to reject cronyism and fill each important job with the best candidate available. It is good advice. The World Bank should take it." Jim Yong Kim, a Korean-American, is the most recently appointed president of the World Bank.

Structural adjustment.

The effect of structural adjustment policies on poor countries has been one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank. The 1979 energy crisis plunged many countries into economic crisis. The World Bank responded with structural adjustment loans, which distributed aid to struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included encouraging production, investment and labour-intensive manufacturing, changing real exchange rates and altering the distribution of government resources. Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be implemented easily. For some countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, economic

Fairness of assistance conditions.

Some critics, most prominently the author Naomi Klein, are of the opinion that the World Bank Group's loans and aid have unfair conditions attached to them that reflect the interests, financial power and political doctrines (notably the Washington Consensus) of the Bank and, by extension, the countries that are

Sovereign immunity.

The World Bank requires sovereign immunity from countries it deals with. Sovereign immunity waives a holder from all legal liability for their actions. It is proposed that this

PricewaterhouseCoopers.

World Bank favored PricewaterhouseCoopers as a consultant

Coronavirus response in 2020.

The World Bank has been criticized for the slow response of its Pandemic Emergency Financing Facility (PEF), a fund which was created to provide money to help manage pandemic outbreaks. The terms of the PEF, which is financed by bonds sold to private investors, prevent any money from being released from the fund until

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of poorer countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. It comprises two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), and the International Development Association (IDA). The World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group.

Světová banka (anglicky "World Bank", zkratka WB) je označení pro sdružení dvou specializovaných organizací Organizace spojených národů (OSN), které zajišťují finanční a technickou pomoc rozvíjejícím se zemím s cílem snížit chudobu a zlepšit životní podmínky na celém světě. Tvoří ji Mezinárodní banka pro obnovu a rozvoj (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development – IBRD), která pomáhá středně bohatým a chudým (ale solventním) zemím v ekonomickém růstu, a Mezinárodní asociace pro rozvoj (International Development Association – IDA), která se snaží zabezpečit dostupnost finančních prostředků pro nejchudší země světa, obvykle formou grantů, bezúročných či nízkoúročných půjček.


Original series.

"Battlestar Galactica" (1978).

Glen A. Larson, the creator and executive producer of "Battlestar Galactica", claimed he had conceived of the "Battlestar Galactica" premise, which he called "Adam's Ark", during the late 1960s. As James E. Ford detailed in “"Battlestar Galactica" and Mormon Theology,” a paper read at the Joint Conference of the American Culture and Popular Culture Associations on April 17, 1980 (and published as “Theology in Prime Time Science Fiction: "Battlestar Galactica" and Mormon Doctrine,” "Journal of Popular Culture" #17 [1983]: 83–87), the series incorporated many themes from Mormon theology, such as marriage for "time and eternity", a "council of twelve," a lost thirteenth tribe of humans, and a planet called Kobol (an anagram of Kolob), as Larson was a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. However, he was unable to find financial backing for his TV series for a number of years. "Battlestar Galactica" was finally produced in the wake of the success of the 1977 film "Star Wars". The original Cylons of Battlestar Galactica, robotic antagonists bent on destroying all humankind, owe much to Fred Saberhagen's berserker stories, including Saberhagen's fictional race The Builders whose "sliding single red eye" became the signature design element for the Cylons.  Larson had envisioned "Battlestar Galactica" as a series of made-for-TV movies (a three-hour pilot program and two two-hour episodes) for the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). A shortened version of the three-hour pilot, "Saga of a Star World", was screened in Canadian theaters (before the TV series was telecast) and in American, European and Australian theaters later on. Instead of two additional TV movies, ABC decided to commission a weekly TV series of one-hour episodes.  In 1979 at the sixth annual People's Choice Awards, the TV series won in the category of "Best New TV Drama Series".  The first episode of the TV series (the long pilot TV movie) was broadcast on September 17, 1978. However, about 30 minutes before the end, that broadcast was interrupted by the announcement of the signing of the Egyptian–Israeli Camp David Accords. After the interruption (which was nearly an hour in length), the episode picked back up where it left off.  During the eight months after the pilot's first broadcast, 17 original episodes of the series were made (five of them two-part shows), equivalent to a standard 24-episode TV season. Citing declining ratings and cost overruns, ABC canceled "Battlestar Galactica" in April 1979. Its final episode "The Hand of God" was telecast on April 29, 1979.

"Galactica 1980".

During the autumn of 1979, ABC executives met with "Battlestar Galactica"s creator Glen Larson to consider restarting the series. A suitable concept was needed to draw viewers, and it was decided that the arrival of the Colonial Fleet at present-day Earth would be the storyline. A new TV movie called "Galactica 1980" was produced. Again, it was decided this new version of "Battlestar Galactica" would be made into a weekly TV series. Despite the early success of the premiere, this program failed to achieve the popularity of the original series, and it was canceled after just ten episodes.  In this 1980 sequel series, the Colonial fleet finds the Earth, and then it covertly protects it from the Cylons. This series was a quick failure due to its low budget (e.g., recycling footage from the 1974 Universal Studios movie "Earthquake" during a Cylon attack sequence), widely panned writing, and ill-chosen time slot (Sunday evenings, a time generally reserved for family-oriented programming and, more specifically, also for the "60 Minutes" newsmagazine program). The TV series also had to adhere to strict content restrictions such as limiting the number of acts of violence and being required to shoehorn educational content into the script and dialogue.  To cut costs, the show was set mostly on the contemporary Earth, to the great dismay of fans. Another factor for fan apathy was the nearly complete recasting of the original series: Lorne Greene reprised his role as Adama (working unpaid), Herb Jefferson, Jr. played "Colonel" Boomer in about half of the episodes (with little screentime), and Dirk Benedict as Starbuck for one episode (the abrupt final episode, though his character was to have also appeared in the unfilmed episode "Wheel of Fire", which was a semi-sequel to "The Return of Starbuck"). Richard Hatch (Apollo in the original series) was sent a script for "Galactica 1980", but he turned it down since he was not sure what his part in the series would be now that all the characters had changed.  Some TV syndication packages for "Battlestar Galactica" incorporate the episodes of this series.

Cinema releases.

Besides a re-edited version of the pilot, released in Canada, Europe, parts of Latin America, and, following the broadcast of the series, in the U.S., two other "Battlestar Galactica" feature films were released in cinemas. "Mission Galactica: The Cylon Attack" and "Conquest of the Earth" were made up of various episodes of the original series and "Galactica 1980" respectively. (See List of "Battlestar Galactica" (1978 TV series) and "Galactica 1980" episodes § Theatrical releases)

Attempted revivals.

The original series maintained a cult fandom, which has supported efforts by Glen A. Larson, Richard Hatch, and Bryan Singer (independently of one another) to revive the premise.  Richard Hatch produced a demonstration video in 1998–99 which featured several actors from the original series combined with state-of-the-art special effects. This video, titled "", was screened at some science fiction conventions, but it did not lead to a new series.  In 1999, the producer of "Wing Commander", Todd Moyer, and the producer of the original TV series, Glen Larson, announced plans to produce a motion picture based on the TV series. It would have featured Battlestar "Pegasus".  In 2000, the director and an executive producer of the "X-Men" movie, Bryan Singer and Tom DeSanto, began developing a "Battlestar Galactica" TV miniseries under the auspices of Studios USA for the Fox TV network. A continuation of the original series but set 25 years later, Singer and DeSanto's version included several members of the original cast reprising their original roles and the introduction of newer characters. It was intended to be telecast as a backdoor pilot in May 2002, and pre-production commenced and sets had even been partially constructed with a view to filming starting in November 2001. However, production delays caused by the September 11, 2001 attacks meant that Bryan Singer had to drop out, due to his commitment to direct the "X-Men 2" movie. This caused the executives of Fox TV to lose interest in this project.

Reimagined series.

Miniseries revival.

Despite attempts to revive the series over the years, none came to fruition until it was reimagined in 2003 by Universal Television as "Battlestar Galactica", a three-hour miniseries. Commissioned by the Sci-Fi Channel, screenwriter Ronald D. Moore and producer David Eick were the creative forces behind it. Academy Award-nominated actor Edward James Olmos was cast in the role of Commander Adama, while two-time Academy Award nominee Mary McDonnell was cast as President Laura Roslin. Starbuck and Boomer were now female characters, portrayed by Katee Sackhoff and Grace Park respectively. Other cast members included Jamie Bamber (Captain Lee 'Apollo' Adama), James Callis (Dr. Gaius Baltar), and Tricia Helfer as a Cylon known as "Number Six". The mini-series was a ratings success for the Sci-Fi Channel and they commissioned a new weekly "Battlestar Galactica" series to follow.

"Battlestar Galactica" (2004).

The new TV series was co-funded by the UK's Sky Television, and premiered in the United Kingdom on the Sky1 satellite channel in October 2004. The series was then broadcast in North America on the Sci-Fi Channel in January 2005. Continuing where the 2003 mini-series left off, the main cast all returned to reprise their roles. Several new characters were introduced, and Richard Hatch, who played Captain Apollo in the 1970s "Battlestar Galactica" TV series, also appeared in several episodes as Tom Zarek, a former political terrorist who later becomes part of the new Colonial government.  An edited version of the pilot miniseries was aired on NBC on January 9, 2005, five days before the Sci-Fi series premiere. NBC also aired three selected first-season episodes to promote the show in advance of the second-season premiere in July 2005. The series ran for four seasons between 2004 and 2009. The second season was split into two halves screened several months apart. Due to production delays caused by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild strike, the fourth season was also split into two parts, with a seven-month hiatus in between.  The series has won widespread critical acclaim among many mainstream non-SF-genre publications. "Time" and "New York Newsday" named it the best show on television in 2005. Other publications such as "The New York Times", "The New Yorker", "National Review" and "Rolling Stone" magazine also gave the show positive reviews.  The show has received a Peabody Award for overall excellence, several Emmy Awards for Visual Effects, and Emmy nominations for Writing and Directing. "Time Magazine" named it one of the 100 Best TV Shows of All Time.

"Razor".

"Battlestar Galactica: Razor" is a 2007 television movie produced and broadcast in the gap between Seasons 3 and 4 of the re-imagined series. "Razor" is also the first two episodes of Season 4 though it chronicles events on Battlestar "Pegasus" in two time periods, both of which are "in the past" with respect to the Season 4 continuity. The "present day" framing scenes are set during Lee Adama's command of the "Pegasus" in the latter half of Season 2, while "flashback" scenes depict Helena Cain's command in the period between the Cylon attack (shown in the 2003 mini-series) and the reunion with the "Galactica" in the second season. It aired in the United States and Canada on November 24, 2007 and in the UK and Ireland on December 18, 2007. An expanded version of the movie was released on DVD on December 4, 2007.

Webisodes.

The first set of webisodes were a series of shorts produced in 2006 to promote the third season of the re-imagined show. Made as an "optional extra" to Season 3, the webisodes filled in some of the events between the second and third seasons and featured some of the main cast, though did not reveal what would happen in the beginning of Season 3, nor was viewing them essential to follow the story of the third season. Each of the ten webisodes was approximately three minutes long, and they were released twice a week leading up to the U.S. Season 3 premiere in 2006.  The "Razor Flashbacks" were a series of seven webisodes produced in 2007, set some 40 years earlier during William Adama's fighter pilot days during the later stages of the First Cylon War. They were released on the Internet as "webisodes" leading up to "Razor"'s release. They are now available on the DVD and Blu-Ray releases of "Battlestar Galactica: Razor", and some are inserted into both the broadcast and extended cuts of the movie on DVD and Blu-Ray. The installments that did not make the final cut include 1, 2, and the latter half of 7.  In May 2008, a set of 10 webisodes were announced to be in the works which were released during the seven-month hiatus between episodes 10 and 11 of Season 4. Titled "The Face of the Enemy", the web series premiered on December 12, 2008 on SciFi.com. Again, viewing of the webisodes was optional prior to the second half of Season 4.

"The Plan".

In August 2008, the Sci Fi Channel announced the production of a two-hour TV movie which was planned to air after the final episode of the series in 2009. The movie began production on September 8, 2008. The movie premiered exclusively on DVD, Blu-ray and digital download on October 27, 2009 and aired on January 10, 2010, on Sci Fi. Written by Jane Espenson and directed by Edward James Olmos, "The Plan" storyline begins before the attack on the 12 colonies and shows events primarily from the perspective of the Cylons. Edward James Olmos reprised his role as Adama, and ten of the eleven actors who played Cylons appeared, including Michael Trucco, Aaron Douglas, Dean Stockwell, Tricia Helfer, Grace Park, Rick Worthy, Matthew Bennett, Callum Keith Rennie, Michael Hogan and Rekha Sharma. The only "Cylon" actor not present was Lucy Lawless (although previously filmed footage of her was included).

"Caprica".

"Caprica" is a prequel television series to the re-imagined "Battlestar Galactica". It premiered on Syfy (formerly Sci-Fi) on January 22, 2010, and was described as "television's first science fiction family saga". It was a two-hour back door pilot for a possible weekly television series, but on December 2, 2008, Syfy gave the go-ahead to expand the project into a full, 20-episode series. "Caprica" is set on the titular planet, 58 years before the events of "Battlestar Galactica". The show revolves around two families, the Adamas and the Graystones, and the creation of the Cylons.  The pilot was directed by Jeffrey Reiner and starred Eric Stoltz, Esai Morales, Paula Malcomson, Alessandra Torresani, and Polly Walker. The pilot was released on DVD on April 21, 2009 and the series was broadcast in January 2010.  On October 27, 2010, Syfy canceled "Caprica" due to low ratings. The final five episodes were aired in the US on January 4, 2011 though they had aired a couple of months earlier on the Canadian network Space. The entire series was released on DVD in 2011.

"Blood & Chrome".

"Battlestar Galactica: Blood & Chrome" was to be a spin-off series from the re-imagined "Battlestar Galactica" series. Syfy approached show runner Ronald D. Moore to produce another spin-off set in the reimagined "Battlestar Galactica" universe, which was to begin as a two-hour pilot focused on William "Husker" Adama (portrayed by Luke Pasqualino) during the First Cylon War (as was glimpsed in "Razor" and the corresponding webisodes).  Syfy decided against moving forward with the "Blood and Chrome" TV series, but on November 5, 2012 it was announced that a 10-part webseries would begin on November 9, 2012 and be released over four weeks via Machinima.com. The webseries was also aired as a 2-hour movie on Syfy on February 10, 2013, and was released on DVD shortly afterwards.

Feature film.

Creator Glen A. Larson entered negotiations with Universal Pictures for a film adaptation of the 1978 series in February 2009. Bryan Singer signed on to direct the reboot the following August, but was obliged to direct "Jack the Giant Slayer". In October 2011 John Orloff was hired to write the script. "I have wanted to write this movie since I was 12 years old, and built a Galactica model from scratch out of balsa wood, cardboard, old model parts and LEDs," Orloff told "Deadline Hollywood" By August 2012 the script was being rewritten, with Singer explaining that "It will exist, I think, quite well between the Glen Larson and Ron Moore universes". On April 7, 2014, the studio hired Jack Paglen to write the script for the film. On February 12, 2016, Universal signed Michael De Luca, Scott Stuber and Dylan Clark to produce the "Battlestar Galactica" film. On June 9, 2016, Lisa Joy was reportedly writing the film, and Francis Lawrence was in talks to direct. On December 18, 2018, it was reported that Jay Basu ("The Girl in the Spider's Web") had been hired to rewrite Joy's script.

Second reboot.

On September 17, 2019, NBCUniversal announced a straight-to-series order of a reboot of "Battlestar Galactica", produced by Sam Esmail as part of their new Peacock streaming service, set to premiere in 2020.

Comic books.

A series of comic book publishers have adapted "Battlestar Galactica" since its inception.  Marvel Comics published a 23-issue comic book series based upon the show between 1978 and 1981. Walt Simonson, who later wrote and drew "Thor" and had a long stint on Marvel's "Star Wars" comic, was the artist for the series at its conclusion. Other comics have since been published by Maximum Press, Grandreams, "Look-in" magazine, Realm Press, and Dynamite Comics.  Dynamite Entertainment was the last company to publish comic books featuring both the classic and reimagined "Battlestar Galactica" series. They also released a 4-issue "Galactica 1980" comic miniseries written by Marc Guggenheim. The limited miniseries was a re-imagining of the original series but at the end featured a second, smaller "Battlestar" (replacing the original which was destroyed) also named "Galactica" but strongly resembling the ship seen in the reimagined Sci-Fi Channel series.

Books.

Both the original and the reimagined series have had books published about the series, academically oriented analysis, novelizations, and new works based on the characters.

Original series books.

These "Battlestar Galactica" softcover novelisations were written by Glen A. Larson with the authors listed below. They were critically disparaged, but proved popular, with the first novel selling over a million copies within its first year. The first ten novels adapt the episode of the same title except as indicated. All novels except "Battlestar Galactica 14: Surrender the Galactica!" (ACE publishing) were originally published by Berkley, and have been republished, recently, by I Books, which called them "Battlestar Galactica Classic" to differentiate it from the reimagined series. The episodic novels featured expanded scenes, excerpts from "The Adama Journals," more background on the characters, and the expansion of the ragtag fleet to almost 22,000 ships as opposed to the 220 in the TV series. A new book series written by series star Richard Hatch starting in the 1990s continued the original story based on his attempt to revive the series, and ignored the events of "Galactica 1980." His series picked up several years after the TV series ended, and featured Apollo in command of the "Galactica" after the death of Adama, a grown-up Boxey, who was now a Viper pilot, and the rediscovery of Commander Cain and the battlestar "Pegasus," who had started a new colony and was preparing to restart the war with the Cylons.  Episodic novels Original novels  Original novels by Richard Hatch

Reimagined series books.

Tor Science Fiction has published the following works in both hardcover and paperback format.

Games.

Video games.

In 1978, Mattel Electronics released a handheld electronic LED game based on the series. The player tries to defend "Galactica" from kamikaze Cylon Raiders by manipulating a switch on the game unit to direct their fire, triggered by a red button to the left of the unit.  In November 2003, shortly before the premiere of the re-imagined TV series, Sierra released a 3D space combat "Battlestar Galactica" computer game for the original Xbox, PlayStation 2, and PC. The game took place 40 years before the original series and featured an ensign Adama flying a Viper during the Cylon war. The game was developed by Warthog.  There is also a 2D Xbox 360 Live Arcade title called "Battlestar Galactica" wherein players can co-op or dogfight with up to 8 people over Xbox Live.  "Battlestar Galactica Online" was a 3D browser-based MMOG released as an open beta on February 8, 2011 by Bigpoint Games.  "Battlestar Galactica Deadlock" is a 2017 3D turn based strategy game (released on PC, Xbox One and PS4) featuring the First Cylon War. The game is developed by Black Lab Games and published by the Slitherine Software.

Tabletop games.

The original series inspired a "Battlestar Galactica" board game. The game is set during a training mission, where two to four players maneuver pieces representing Colonial Vipers to capture a damaged Cylon Raider. Play includes using terrain elements and a number of special-ability cards to the players' advantage.  In 1979, FASA released a tabletop counter piece game for "Battlestar Galactica" based on the fighter combat, which included the "Galactica" and a Cylon Basestar to be launched from, attack with and be attacked/defended. The counters for the Vipers and the Raiders included three model versions MKI/MKII/MKIII, not just the MKII Viper and Raider MKI.  Wiz Kids, Inc. (a collectible game manufacturer) produced the "Battlestar Galactica Collectible Card Game" based on the 2003 mini-series and 2004 TV show. The premier set of this game was released in May 2006. After the release of one expansion set, Wizkids announced the game's cancellation on March 13, 2007.  A "Battlestar Galactica" role-playing game was released in August 2007 by Margaret Weis Productions at Gen Con.  In 2008 Fantasy Flight Games produced "", based on the 2003 re-imagined series. It is a semi-cooperative game of strategy for 3–6 players with some players being Cylon agents, either aware at start of the game or become aware later, as sleeper agents. Each of the 10 playable character has its own abilities and weaknesses, and they must all work together in order for humanity to survive, as well as attempt to expose the traitor while fuel shortages, food contaminations, and political unrest threaten to tear the fleet apart. The game had three expansions, "Pegasus," "Exodus" and "Daybreak".  In 2018, Ares Games released "Battlestar Galactica: Starship Battles", a miniature game by Andrea Angiolino and Andrea Mainini simulating space duels between Vipers and Raiders. Expansions with further models including capital ships have been announced. The game is based on the 2003 re-imagined series, but the license will also allow use of spaceships from the original series, with a game approach similar to Wings of War.

Theme park attractions.

Battle of Galactica opened June 9, 1979 as an event on the Studio Tour at Universal Studios Hollywood at a cost of $1 million, the most expensive special effects attraction ever built at the park at the time. This high-technology attraction featured animatronics and live actors in a spectacular laser battle based on the television series, with a 200-foot long spaceship that "swallowed" the passengers. This was the first themed attraction to feature Audio-Animatronics characters outside Disney Parks, and was the first dark ride to combine sophisticated animatronics and lasers with live actors. It was replaced in 1992 by the foundations of "".  A Battlestar Galactica: Human vs. Cylon roller coaster opened March 18, 2010 at Universal Studios Singapore.

Battlestar Galactica is an American science fiction media franchise created by Glen A. Larson. The franchise began with the original television series in 1978 and was followed by a short-run sequel series ("Galactica 1980"), a line of book adaptations, original novels, comic books, a board game, and video games. A re-imagined version of "Battlestar Galactica" aired as a two-part, three-hour miniseries developed by Ronald D. Moore and David Eick in 2003. That miniseries led to a weekly television series, which aired until 2009. A prequel series, "Caprica", aired in 2010.

Battlestar Galactica je řada amerických sci-fi filmů a televizních seriálů vytvořených na základě předlohy Glena A. Larsona. Všechny vyprávějí příběh vesmírné válečné lodi "Battlestar Galactica" a její posádky. Původní seriál "Battlestar Galactica", odvysílaný v letech 1978–1979, byl následován neúspěšným sequelem "Galactica 1980". V dalších letech vznikly romány, komiksy a počítačové hry.


Geography.

Lough Allen, out of which the Shannon takes its source, is nine miles long, and three miles wide. The lake is shaped like an isosceles triangle. The Shannon enters the lake at the wider northern end and leaves the lake at the narrow southern end. Other rivers that feed the lake include the Diffagher (northwest), the Yellow (northeast), the Stoney (east) and the Arigna (southwest). The R280 regional road skirts the west side of the lake, while the R207 follows the east bank, from Ballinagleragh to Drumshanbo. The R200 road is on the north side of the lake, traveling west from Dowra to Drumkeeran. Slieve Anierin lie to the east of Lough Allen. In recent years, there has been speculation that notable reserves of oil and gas lie beneath the Allen basin.

Ecology.

Between, water quality was reported to be excellent with an oligotrophic rating. The pike population is the "native Irish strain" ( meaning 'Irish Pike') not the other European Pike strain ( meaning'strange or foreign fish'). The ecology of Lough Allen, and other Irish waterways, remain threatened by curly waterweed, zebra mussel, and freshwater clam invasive species.

Prehistory.

Significant traces of Mesolithic inhabitation have been found around the lakeshore, with hundreds of stone tools collected. In total almost 1000 stone tools were collected during a set of surveys by Killian Driscoll, and 95% were formed on silicified dolomite, which outcrops locally. The remaining 5% were formed from flint, chert and quartz, along with the shale/mudstone and basalt ground/polished axes. The majority of the stone tools are characteristic of the Later Mesolithic, with possible evidence for the Early Mesolithic and limited evidence for Neolithic activity. The assemblage includes a number of stone axes and axe roughouts, and the roughouts represent the first recorded, by the Irish Stone Axe Project, as found in a lakeside context in Ireland, with most previously provenanced examples coming from axe quarry sites.

History.

Iron Works.

Iron Ore has been extracted at Slieve Anierin for millennia. From the early 17th century a number of mines and works were conveniently contiguous to Lough Allen, allowing for the transportation of Iron Ore over water to the Iron works in boats of up to forty tons. During the Irish Rebellion of 1641 nearly all Iron-works were destroyed, but many were revived by the English after the Irish Confederate Wars. Extensive forests around Lough Allen before the 17th century were denuded to make Charcoal for Iron works, the industry collapsing in the 19th century.

Reservoir.

On the construction of the Shannon hydroelectric scheme in 1925-9, the lake became a storage reservoir for the power station nearly 100 miles away, with sluices to control the flow into the river. This helps to maintain the flow during dry periods and manage flooding at other times. It made the Lough Allen Canal, which was rarely used by this time, unusable until restored in 1996.

Regattas.

In the mid-19th century, regattas were held by M. O'Conor at Lough Allen Island which is also known as O'Reilly's Island at the southern end of the lake. The house is destroyed, and only a ruin now exists. Regatta parties were held at Birchill's House, Blackrock. E.K. Tenison of Kilronan Castle, the world famous photographer, Captain Tottenham, Captain Birchill and Francis la Touche attended the Regatta parties. Among the yachts competing in the regattas were 'Corsair', 'Avenger', 'Querida', 'Meta' and 'Shamrock'. The Water Wags from Dun Laoghaire, organised a regatta on Lough Allen, in September 2015, for their 14'-3" long historic open clinker dinghies. competed in a regatta in 2014, including Penelope (1933), Scallywag, Swift, Moosmie (1910), Mollie, Chloe, Marie Louise (1927) and Good Hope. This was probably the first regatta on the lake since the mid-19th century.

Lough Allen () is a lake on the River Shannon in northeastern Connacht, Ireland. Most of the lake is in County Leitrim, with a smaller part in County Roscommon. The lake lies to the south of the River Shannon's source, near the Iron Mountains, and is the uppermost of the three main lakes on the river. The other two, Lough Ree and Lough Derg are much further to the south.

Lough Allen () je jezero na řece Shannon na severu centrální části Irské republiky v provincii Connacht blízko hranice se Severním Irskem. Větší část jezera leží v hrabství Leitrim a menší část v hrabství Roscommon. Rozloha jezera je 36 km2. Jezero je maximálně 17,7 km dlouhé a 4,8 km široké, protáhlé ze severu na jih, na severu rozšířené a na jihu se zužuje.