Background.

Defence co-operation with France and the European Union.

In 1996, the British Defence Secretary Michael Portillo signed a letter of intent with his French equivalent to establish Anglo-French naval study groups, one of which was to be about future development of aircraft carriers. This was followed by the Saint-Malo declaration of 1998, in which Tony Blair and Jacques Chirac agreed to work together on an integrated European Union defence force. In December 1999, the European Council established the Helsinki Headline Goal, which focussed on creating a European Union Rapid Reaction Force to operate at the global level. One element of such a force was to be three large aircraft carriers, two provided by the Royal Navy and one by the French. According to this plan, other western European navies were to provide the escort cover needed by the carriers.

Strategic Defence Review.

In May 1997, the newly elected Labour government led by Tony Blair launched the Strategic Defence Review, which re-evaluated every weapon system, then active or in procurement, with the exception of the Eurofighter Typhoon and the ballistic missile submarines. The report, published in July 1998, stated that aircraft carriers offer the following:  The report concluded: "the emphasis is now on increased offensive air power, and an ability to operate the largest possible range of aircraft in the widest possible range of roles. When the current carrier force reaches the end of its planned life, we plan to replace it with two larger vessels. Work will now begin to refine our requirements but present thinking suggests that they might be of the order of 30,000–40,000 tonnes and capable of deploying up to 50 aircraft, including helicopters."

Design studies.

Initial Ministry of Defence (MoD) design studies for what was then the "Invincible" class replacement were conducted in the mid-1990s. Options considered at this early stage included the possibilities of lengthening the hulls and extending the life of the existing "Invincible" class ships, converting commercial ships to carriers, and the construction of purpose-built new aircraft carriers.  On 25 January 1999, six companies were invited to tender for the assessment phase of the project – Boeing, British Aerospace, Lockheed Martin, Marconi Electronic Systems, Raytheon and Thomson-CSF. On 23 November 1999, the MoD awarded detailed assessment studies to two consortia, one led by BAe (renamed BAE Systems on 30 November 1999) and one led by Thomson-CSF (renamed Thales Group in 2000). The brief required up to six designs from each consortium with air-groups of thirty to forty Future Joint Combat Aircraft (FJCA). The contracts were split into phases; the first £5.9 million phase was for design assessment which would form part of the aircraft selection, while the second £23.5 million phase involved "risk reduction on the preferred carrier design option".  Final carrier design submissions by the two rival industry teams in November 2002 led to a design down-selection decision in January 2003, in which the UK government decided to discontinue the BAE Systems carrier designs and to proceed instead with the rival ‘adaptable’ carrier design offered by the Thales team. The political decision was also taken at this point to progress CVF through a joint Aircraft Carrier Alliance (ACA) team formed of representatives from the MoD and the former BAE Systems and Thales teams.  The design offerings of the unsuccessful BAE Systems team are reported by Campbell-Roddis (2017).  The successful (down-selected) Thales/BMT team's aircraft carrier design, and its subsequent evolution into the final "Queen Elizabeth" class ship design, is reported by Knight (2009) and Harris et al. (2009).

Capability requirements and ship size.

The vessels, described as "supercarriers" by the media, legislators and sometimes by the Royal Navy, displace approximately each, almost three times the displacement of its predecessor, the. They are the largest warships ever built in the United Kingdom. The last large carriers proposed for the Royal Navy, the CVA-01 programme, were cancelled by the Labour government in the 1966 Defence White Paper. In November 2004, giving evidence to the House of Commons Defence Committee, First Sea Lord Admiral Sir Alan West explained that the sortie rate and interoperability with the United States Navy were factors in deciding on the size of the carriers and the composition of the carriers' air-wings:

Aircraft and carrier format selection.

On 17 January 2001, the UK signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the United States Department of Defense (DoD) for full participation in the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) programme, confirming the JSF as the FJCA. This gave the UK input into aircraft design and the choice between the Lockheed Martin X-35 and Boeing X-32. On 26 October 2001, the DoD announced that Lockheed Martin had won the JSF contract.  On 30 September 2002, the MoD announced that the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force would operate the STOVL F-35B variant. Also announced was that the carriers would take the form of large, conventional carriers, initially adapted for STOVL operations. The carriers, expected to remain in service for fifty years, were designed for but not with catapults and arrestor wires. The carriers were thus planned to be "future proof", allowing them to operate a generation of CATOBAR aircraft beyond the F-35. Four months later on 30 January 2003, the Defence Secretary, Geoff Hoon, announced that the Thales Group design had won the competition but that BAE Systems would operate as prime contractor.  When the Secretary of State for Defence announced the contract for the vessels, the cost was initially estimated at £3.9 billion. The contracts were officially signed one year later on 3 July 2008, after the creation of BVT Surface Fleet through the merger of BAE Systems Surface Fleet Solutions and VT Group's VT Shipbuilding which was a requirement of the UK Government. At the time of approval the first carrier was expected to enter service in July 2015 and the budget was £4,085m for two ships. The financial crisis led to a decision in December 2008 to slow production, delaying the first ship until May 2016 and the second by two years. This decision alone added £1,560m to the cost. By March 2010 the budget was estimated at £5,900m; taking off the cost of capital led to a MPR10 Capital DEL baseline cost of £5,254m at this time. If the carriers had been abandoned in the 2010 SDSR then the MoD could have cancelled £1.5bn of planned spending on "Queen Elizabeth" and £1.3bn of planned spending on "Prince of Wales", but the loss of VAT exemption meant that cancelling one or two carriers would have overall saved £989m and £2,098m respectively. These long term savings were less important than the short term costs, there would have been nearly an extra £1bn of expenditure on cancellation costs in the FY11/12 budget. In November 2013 the contract was renegotiated with a budget of £6,200m and BAE agreeing to pay 50% of any cost overruns rather than 10% as previously.  Then in August 2009, speculation mounted that the UK would drop the F-35B for the F-35C model, which would have meant the carriers being built to operate conventional take off and landing aircraft using the US-designed Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) catapults.

Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010.

On 19 October 2010, the government announced the results of its Strategic Defence and Security Review. The review stated that only one carrier was certain to be commissioned; the fate of the other was left undecided. The second ship of the class could be placed in "extended readiness" to provide a continuous single carrier strike capability when the other was in refit, or provide the option to regenerate more quickly to a two carrier strike ability. Alternatively, the second ship could be sold in "cooperation with a close ally to provide continuous carrier-strike capability".  It was also announced that the operational carrier would have catapult and arrestor gear (CATOBAR) installed to accommodate the carrier variant of the Joint Strike Fighter rather than the short-take off and vertical-landing version.  The decision to convert "Prince of Wales" to CATOBAR was reviewed after the projected costs rose to around double the original estimate. On 10 May 2012, the Defence Secretary, Philip Hammond, announced in Parliament that the government had decided to revert to its predecessor's plans to purchase the F-35B rather than the F-35C, and to complete both aircraft carriers with ski-jumps in the STOVL configuration. The total cost of the work that had been done on the conversion to a CATOBAR configuration, and of reverting the design to the original STOVL configuration, was estimated by Philip Hammond to be "something in the order of £100 million". In later testimony before a parliamentary committee, Bernard Gray, Chief of Defence Materiel, revealed that even though the carriers had been sold as adaptable and easy to convert for CATOBAR, no serious effort had been made in this direction since 2002.

Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015.

On 23 November 2015, the government published its 2015 Strategic Defence and Security Review which confirmed its plans to bring into service both "Queen Elizabeth"-class aircraft carriers, with one to be available at all times. The review also confirmed that one of the carriers would have enhanced amphibious capabilities. The government also reaffirmed its commitment to ordering 138 F-35 Lightning IIs, although the specific variant(s) was not mentioned. The review stated that 24 of these aircraft would be available to the aircraft carriers by 2023.

Design.

General characteristics.

The ships' company is 679, rising to 1,600 when the air crew is added. In April 2015 a parliamentary reply stated that the average crew size would be 672. The ships have a displacement of 65,000 tonnes on delivery, but the design allows for this to reach over 70,000 tonnes as the ships are upgraded through their lifetime. They have an overall length of, a width at deck level of, a height of, a draught of, and a range of. The Ministry of Defence decided not to use nuclear propulsion due to its high cost, so Integrated Electric Propulsion was chosen whereby power is supplied by two Rolls-Royce Marine Trent MT30 gas turbine generator units and four Wärtsilä diesel generator sets (two and two ). The Trents and diesels are the largest ever supplied to the Royal Navy, and together they feed the low-voltage electrical systems as well as four GE Power Conversion's 20 MW Advanced Induction Motor (arranged in tandem) electric propulsion motors that drive the twin fixed-pitch propellers.  Instead of a single island superstructure containing both the ships' navigation bridges and flying control (flyco) centres, the ships have these operations divided between two structures, with the forward island for navigation and the aft island for controlling flying operations. The primary reason for having twin islands was to space out the funnels, as the ships were designed with redundancy with "duplicated main and secondary machinery in two complexes with independent uptakes and downtakes in each of the two islands", while the alternative of consolidating all the exhaust trunkings would have reduced hangar space as well as increasing the vulnerability to flooding. There are also additional benefits to having separate islands rather than a single large island, such as easier construction, reduced wind turbulence, and freed up deck space. Using two structures provides separate mountings for the air surveillance radar (forward), which does not interfere with the medium range radar (aft); furthermore, visibility is improved for both navigation and landing operations.  Under the flight deck are a further nine decks. The hangar deck measures with a height of, large enough to accommodate up to twenty fixed and rotary wing aircraft. To transfer aircraft from the hangar to the flight deck, the ships have two large lifts, each of which is capable of lifting two F-35-sized aircraft, or one C47 Chinook from the hangar to the flight deck in sixty seconds. The ships' only announced self-defence weapons are currently the Phalanx CIWS for airborne threats, with miniguns and 30 mm cannon to counter seaborne threats.

Systems.

The ship's radars will be the BAE Systems and Thales S1850M, the same as fitted to the Type 45 destroyers, for long-range wide-area search, the BAE Systems Artisan 3D Type 997 maritime medium-range active electronically scanned array radar, and a navigation radar. BAE claims the S1850M has a fully automatic detection and track initiation that can track up to 1,000 air targets at a range of around. Artisan can "track a target the size of a snooker ball over away", with a maximum range of 200 km. (Artisan is also fitted on Type 23 frigates and the assault ships,.) They will also be fitted with the Ultra Electronics Series 2500 Electro Optical System (EOS) and Glide Path Camera (GPC).  Munitions and ammunition handling is accomplished using a Babcock designed highly mechanised weapons handling system (HMWHS). This is a first naval application of a common land-based warehouse system. The HMWHS moves palletised munitions from the magazines and weapon preparation areas, along track ways and via several lifts, forward and aft or port and starboard. The tracks can carry a pallet to magazines, the hangar, weapons preparation areas, and the flight deck. In a change from normal procedures the magazines are unmanned, the movement of pallets is controlled from a central location, and manpower is only required when munitions are being initially stored or prepared for use. This system speeds up delivery and reduces the size of the crew by automation.

Crew facilities.

Crew facilities will include a cinema, physical fitness areas and four galleys manned by sixty-seven catering staff. There are four large dining areas, the largest with the capacity to serve 960 meals in one hour. There are eleven medical staff for the eight-bed medical facility, which includes an operating theatre and a dental surgery. There are 1,600 bunks in 470 cabins, including accommodation for a company of 250 Royal Marines with wide assault routes up to the flight deck.

Carrier air group.

The vessels are expected to typically carry forty aircraft: thirty-six Lightning strike fighters and four Merlin helicopters equipped with EWS and ASW. and they can carry up to 70 F-35Bs. The 2010 SDSR anticipated the routine peacetime deployment of twelve F-35Bs; thereafter, an initial surge capacity of a further 24 F-35Bs plus additional helicopters would be available to join the carrier at short notice. The maximum load capacity is 72 aircraft of all types. Fourteen Merlin HM2 will be available as a Maritime Force Protection package on the carriers with typically nine in anti-submarine configuration and four or five with Crowsnest for airborne early warning; alternatively a "littoral manoeuvre" package could include a mix of Royal Navy Commando Helicopter Force Merlin HC4, Wildcat AH1, RAF Chinook transports, and Army Air Corps Apache attack helicopters. six landing spots are planned, but the deck could be marked out for the operation of ten medium helicopters at once, allowing the lift of a company of 250 troops. The hangars are designed for operating Chinooks without blade folding and the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey tiltrotor; the two aircraft lifts can each accommodate a Chinook with unfolded blades.

Fixed-wing aircraft.

Although the size of the "Queen Elizabeth" class would enable it to accommodate most current and projected carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft, the lack of arresting gear means that, as initially completed, it is only capable of operating either STOVL aircraft, such as the AV-8B Harrier II or F-35B Lightning, tiltrotors such as the Osprey, or aircraft that do not require either catapult-assisted take-off or arrested recovery.

F-35 Lightning II.

With the retirement of the Harrier GR7 and GR.9 in 2010, there remained no carrier-capable fixed-wing aircraft available to the Royal Navy or Royal Air Force. Their replacement is the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.  As originally intended, the ships will carry the STOVL version, the F-35B. The aircraft will be flown by pilots from the Fleet Air Arm and the Royal Air Force. The aircraft are expected to begin trials flying from "Queen Elizabeth" in 2018 with a carrier air wing fully operational by 2020.  For a period following the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review, the government had intended to purchase the F-35C carrier variant and modify one carrier to use the CATOBAR system to launch and recover these aircraft. This was because the cheaper F-35C variant has a greater range and can carry a larger and more diverse payload than the F-35B. On 10 May 2012 the Defence Secretary Philip Hammond announced in Parliament that the government had decided to revert to its predecessor's plans to purchase the F-35B rather than the F-35C, and to abandon the completion of "Prince of Wales" in a CATOBAR configuration. The reason given was that "conversion to 'cats and traps' will cost about double what was originally estimated – and would not be delivered until 2023 at the earliest". On 19 July 2012, Hammond indicated in a speech in the United States that the UK would order an initial 48 F-35B aircraft to be operated jointly by the Royal Air Force and Fleet Air Arm. In November 2015, the government announced its commitment to an order of 138 F-35 aircraft, with 24 available for carrier duties by 2023.  Although the F-35B is fully capable of performing vertical landing, in a similar fashion to the way that the Harrier and Sea Harrier operated, this method of operation places limitations on the loads that the aircraft is capable of returning to the ship with. As a consequence, to avoid the costly disposal at sea of both fuel and munitions, the Royal Navy is developing the Shipborne rolling vertical landing (SRVL) technique for its operation of the Lightning II. SRVL is a hybrid landing technique that uses the Lightning's vectored thrust capability to slow its forward speed to around 70 knots to allow it to make a rolling landing, using its disc brakes, without the need of an arrestor wire. A special type of metallic 'thermal paint' is being developed to withstand temperatures of up to 1,500 °C in the vicinity of jet nozzles.  In December 2016, the British Government announced that it reached an agreement with the United States to allow the deployment of USMC F-35s from "Queen Elizabeth" upon the ship's entry into service, with a reciprocal arrangement seeing RAF and FAA aircraft operating from ships of the US Navy.

Helicopters.

Merlin.

The AgustaWestland AW101 is a medium-sized multi-role helicopter. Two versions are in service with the UK armed forces, where it is known as Merlin. The utility version can carry up to twenty-four troops seated or sixteen stretcher patients and the HM2 anti-submarine warfare variant has a dipping sonar and sonar-buoys, and a complete electronic warfare suite.  Both versions use a common airframe, with three Rolls-Royce Turbomeca RTM322 engines, their range and endurance using only a two engine cruise option, is, or six hours. However, range can be extended further when the five underfloor fuel tanks are supplemented with auxiliary fuel tanks fitted in the cabin. Armament depends on mission, but includes anti-ship missiles, torpedoes, three door-mounted machine guns, multi-purpose rocket, cannon pods, air-to-air missiles and air-to-surface missiles. At least 14 Merlin HM2s will be assigned to the carrier.

Wildcat.

On 23 March 2015, the Royal Navy's first Wildcat HMA2 entered service. The Wildcat can be equipped with several mission sensors, which can include: radar, active dipping sonar, electro-optical imaging, electronic surveillance measures and an integrated self-defence suite. The HM2 maritime version can be armed with air-to-surface missiles, torpedoes, depth charges, cannons and heavy machine guns. The aircraft has a maximum range of and an endurance of four and a half hours.

Airborne early warning and control.

The 1982 Falklands War made clear the importance of airborne early warning and control and led to the development of the Sea King AEW2, which was succeeded by the Sea King ASaC7. This will be retired in the second half of 2018 and planning for its replacement was identified at an early stage as an integral part of the next-generation aircraft carrier. The programme became known as the "Future Organic Airborne Early Warning" (FOAEW), and contracts were placed with BAE / Northrop Grumman and Thales in April 2001. In April 2002, BAE and Northrop Grumman received a follow-on study contract for Phase II of the project, by then renamed Maritime Airborne Surveillance and Control (MASC). The MASC assessment phase began in September 2005 and by May 2006 three study contracts were awarded for MASC platform and mission systems options: one to Lockheed Martin UK for a Merlin helicopter fitted with AEW mission systems, another to AgustaWestland to maintain the present Sea King ASaC7 and finally to Thales UK to upgrade the Sea King's mission systems.  The 2010 SDSR delayed the project which became a competition between Thales and Lockheed to supply Crowsnest, a bolt-on sensor package that can be carried by any Merlin HM2. The Thales pod is based on the Sea King's Searchwater 2000; Lockheed had intended to use a derivative of the F-35's APG-81 radar but is now believed to be using an Elta system. Both systems will begin flight trials in the summer of 2014 ahead of Main Gate in 2016. Ten pods are planned with IOC in 2019. Until the Crowsnest system is available, a small force of Sea King ASaC.7 helicopters will remain in service with 849 Naval Air Squadron after the final withdrawal of the remainder of the Royal Navy's Sea Kings.

Construction.

During a speech on 21 July 2004, Geoff Hoon announced a one-year delay to allow contractual and cost issues to be resolved. The building of the carriers was confirmed in December 2005. The building is being undertaken by four companies across seven shipyards, with final block integration and assembly at Rosyth:  In December 2007, eight diesel engines and electricity generators, four for each ship, were ordered from Wärtsilä. On 4 March 2008, contracts for the supply of 80,000 tonnes of steel were awarded to Corus Group, with an estimated value of £65 million. Other contracts included £3 million for fibre optic cable, over £1 million for reverse osmosis equipment to provide over 500 tonnes of fresh water daily, and £4 million for aviation fuel systems. On 3 April 2008, a contract for the manufacture of aircraft lifts (worth £13m) was awarded to MacTaggart Scott of Loanhead, Scotland. In mid May 2008, the Treasury announced that it would be making available further funds on top of the regular defence budget, reportedly allowing the construction of the carriers to begin. This was followed, on 20 May 2008, by the government giving the "green light" for construction of the "Queen Elizabeth" class, stating that it was ready to sign the contracts for full production once the creation of the planned shipbuilding joint venture between BAE Systems and the VT Group had taken place. This joint venture, BVT Surface Fleet, became operational on 1 July 2008. VT Group later sold its share to BAE Systems which renamed the unit BAE Systems Surface Ships. It will undertake approximately forty per cent of the project workload.  On 1 September 2008, the MoD announced a £51 million package of important equipment contracts; £34 million for the highly mechanised weapons handling system for the two ships, £8 million for supply of uptake and down-take systems for both ships, £5 million for air traffic control software, £3 million for supply of pumps and associated systems engineering, and £1 million for emergency diesel generators. On 6 October 2008, it was announced that contracts had been placed for "the carriers' Rolls-Royce gas turbines, generators, motors, power distribution equipment, platform management systems, propellers, shafts, steering gear, rudders and stabilisers".  The construction of the two carriers involves more than 10,000 people from 90 companies, 7,000 of them in the six shipyards building the sections of the ships.

Ships.

"Queen Elizabeth".

The first steel cut for the project, in July 2009, signalled the start of construction of Lower Block 3 at BAE Systems Clyde, where production of Lower Block 4 started in January 2010. Meanwhile, construction of the bow Lower Block 1 was carried out at Appledore, North Devon, and was completed in March 2010.  On 25 January 2010, it was announced that the Cammell Laird shipyard has secured a £44 million contract to build the flight decks of the carriers. That same day, construction began in Portsmouth of the 6,000-tonne Lower Block 2 for "Queen Elizabeth". On 16 August 2011, the 8,000-tonne Lower Block 03 of "Queen Elizabeth" left BAE Systems Surface Ships' Govan shipyard in Glasgow on a large ocean-going barge. Travelling around the northern coast of Scotland, the block arrived at Rosyth on the evening of 20 August 2011. Her forward island was built at BAE Portsmouth and attached on 14 March 2013; the aft island was attached in June 2013 and the ski jump in November 2013.  "Queen Elizabeth" was christened on 4 July 2014, and floated-out on 17 July 2014. On 26 June 2017, the new carrier left Rosyth for the first time to commence sea trials. Flight trials with helicopters began in July 2017 and F-35B flight trials are expected towards the end of 2018. Initial operational capability is expected to be declared in 2020.

"Prince of Wales".

The 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR) declared that the UK needed only one aircraft carrier; however, penalty clauses in the contract meant that cancelling the second vessel would be more expensive than actually building it. The SDSR, therefore, directed that the second aircraft carrier, "Prince of Wales", should be built but upon completion be either mothballed or sold. The SDSR also directed that the ship be converted to a CATOBAR configuration; however, the costs associated with the conversion escalated to £2bn, leading the government to reverse its decision and build the ship to the original STOVL configuration. On 26 May 2011, Defence Secretary Liam Fox cut the first steel for "Prince of Wales". The Royal Navy's 2012/13 yearbook stated "both carriers are likely to be commissioned and may even be capable of operating together". In 2014, the prime minister, David Cameron, announced that "Prince of Wales" would be brought into service.  As of 20 April 2016, construction of "Prince of Wales" was announced to be 80% complete. The ship is set to be handed over to the Royal Navy in 2019 and be fully ready for front-line duties around the globe from 2023.  On 1 September 2017 HMS "Prince of Wales" senior officer, Captain Ian Groom, confirmed that the carrier was now essential to fulfilling the Royal Navy's 'full carrier strike capability'. "Prince of Wales" is scheduled to assume responsibility for the continuing carrier trials of the F-35B in 2019 when "Queen Elizabeth" enters dry-dock for her scheduled maintenance period.

Costs.

In 2018 the Committee of Public Accounts determined that build cost of the two carriers was £6.212 billion, and operational costs up to March 2021 were estimated at £0.6 billion. Costs for the aircraft were uncertain at the current developmental position but were estimated up to March 2021 to be £5.8 billion on initial F-35s and £0.3 billion on the Crowsnest radar system for Merlin helicopters (based on an exchange rate of $1.55 to the pound in October 2017, but the rate has since fallen considerably). Important additional equipment such as communication equipment and related software for the F-35 was not yet funded. The whole life cost of the first 48 F-35s was roughly estimated as £13 billion, or over £270 million per F-35.

The "Queen Elizabeth" class is a class of two aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy. The lead ship,, was named on 4 July 2014, in honour of Elizabeth I (not Elizabeth II). She was commissioned on 7 December 2017, with an initial operating capability expected in 2018. The second,, was launched on 21 December 2017, and was commissioned on 10 December 2019. At the NATO 2014 Wales summit, then Prime Minister David Cameron announced that the second carrier would be brought into service, ending years of uncertainty surrounding its future. This was confirmed by the November 2015 Government Strategic Defence Review, with both carriers entering service, one being available at any time.

Třída Queen Elizabeth jsou letadlové lodě britského královského námořnictva. Skládá se ze dvou plavidel, zařazených do služby v letech 2017 a 2019.


Summary.

As the play begins, Valentine is preparing to leave Verona for Milan so as to broaden his horizons. He begs his best friend, Proteus, to come with him, but Proteus is in love with Julia, and refuses to leave. Disappointed, Valentine bids Proteus farewell and goes on alone. Meanwhile, Julia is discussing Proteus with her maid, Lucetta, who tells Julia that she thinks Proteus is fond of her. Julia, however, acts coyly, embarrassed to admit that she likes him. Lucetta then produces a letter; she will not say who gave it to her, but teases Julia that it was Valentine's servant, Speed, who brought it from Proteus. Julia, still unwilling to reveal her love in front of Lucetta, angrily tears up the letter. She sends Lucetta away, but then, realising her own rashness, she picks up the fragments of the letter and kisses them, trying to piece them back together.  Meanwhile, Proteus' father has decided that Proteus should travel to Milan and join Valentine. He orders that Proteus must leave the next day, prompting a tearful farewell with Julia, to whom Proteus swears eternal love. The two exchange rings and vows and Proteus promises to return as soon as he can.  In Milan, Proteus finds Valentine in love with the Duke's daughter, Silvia. Despite being in love with Julia, Proteus falls instantly in love with Silvia and vows to win her. Unaware of Proteus' feelings, Valentine tells him the Duke wants Silvia to marry the foppish but wealthy Thurio, against her wishes. Because the Duke suspects that his daughter and Valentine are in love, he locks her nightly in a tower, to which he keeps the only key. However, Valentine tells Proteus that he plans to free her by means of a

Sources.

In writing "The Two Gentlemen of Verona", Shakespeare drew on the Spanish prose romance "Los Siete Libros de la Diana" ("The Seven Books of the Diana") by the Portuguese writer Jorge de Montemayor. In the second book of "Diana", Don Felix, who is in love with Felismena, sends her a letter explaining his feelings. Like Julia, Felismena pretends to reject the letter, and be annoyed with her maid for delivering it. Like Proteus, Felix is sent away by his father, and is followed by Felismena, who, disguised as a boy, becomes his page, only to subsequently learn that Felix has fallen in love with Celia. Felismena is then employed by Felix to act as his messenger in all communications with Celia, who scorns his love. Instead, Celia falls in love with the page (i.e. Felismena in disguise). Eventually, after a combat in a wood, Felix and Felismena are reunited. Upon Felismena revealing herself however, Celia, having no counterpart to Valentine, dies of grief.  "Diana" was published in Spanish in 1559 and translated into French by Nicholas Collin in 1578. An English translation was made by Bartholomew Young and published in 1598, though Young claims in his preface to have finished the translation sixteen years earlier (c. 1582). Shakespeare could have read a manuscript of Young's English translation, or encountered the story in French, or learned of it from an anonymous English play, "The History of Felix and Philiomena",

Date and text.

Date.

The exact date of composition of "The Two Gentlemen of Verona" is unknown, but it is generally believed to have been one of Shakespeare's earliest works. The first evidence of its existence is in a list of Shakespeare's plays in Francis Meres's "Palladis Tamia", published in 1598, but it is thought to have been written in the early 1590s. Clifford Leech, for example, argues for 1592/1593; G. Blakemore Evans places the date at 1590–1593; Gary Taylor suggests 1590–1591; Kurt Schlueter posits the late 1580s; William C. Carroll suggests 1590–1592; Roger Warren

Text.

The play was not printed until 1623,

Criticism and analysis.

Critical history.

Perhaps the most critically discussed issue in the play is the sequence, bizarre by modern Western standards, in Act 5, Scene 4 in which Valentine seems to 'give' Silvia to Proteus as a sign of his friendship. For many years, the general critical consensus on this issue was that the incident revealed an inherent misogyny in the text. For example, Hilary Spurling wrote in 1970, "Valentine is so overcome [by Proteus' apology] that he promptly offers to hand over his beloved to the man who, not three minutes before, had meant to rape her." Modern scholarship, however, is much more divided about Valentine's actions at the end of the play, with some critics arguing that he does not offer

Language.

Language is of primary importance in the play insofar as Valentine and Proteus speak in blank verse, but Launce and Speed speak (for the most part) in prose. More specifically, the actual content of many of the speeches serve to illustrate the pompousness of Valentine and Proteus' exalted outlook, and the more realistic and practical outlook of the servants. This is most apparent in Act 3, Scene 1. Valentine has just given a lengthy speech lamenting his banishment and musing on how he cannot possibly survive without Silvia; "Except I be by Silvia in the night/There is no music in the nightingale./Unless

Themes.

One of the dominant theories as regards the value of "Two Gentlemen" is that thematically, it represents a 'trial run' of sorts, in which Shakespeare deals briefly with themes which he would examine in more detail in later works. E.K. Chambers, for example, believed that the play represents something of a gestation of Shakespeare's great thematic concerns. Writing in 1905, Chambers stated that "Two Gentlemen"  As such, the play's primary interest for critics has tended to lie in relation to what it reveals about Shakespeare's conception of certain themes before he became the accomplished playwright of later years. Writing in 1879, A.C. Swinburne, for example, states "here is the first dawn of that higher and more tender humour that was never given in such perfection to any man as ultimately to Shakespeare." Similarly, in 1906, Warwick R. Bond writes "Shakespeare first opens the vein he worked so richly afterwards – the vein of crossed love, of flight and exile under the escort of the generous sentiments; of disguised heroines, and sufferings endured and virtues exhibited under their disguise; and of the Providence, kinder than life, that annuls the errors and forgives the sin." More recently,

Performance.

There is no record of a performance during Shakespeare's lifetime, although due to its inclusion in Francis Meres' "Palladis Tamia", we know the play had definitely been performed by 1598. The earliest known performance was at Drury Lane in 1762. However, this production was of a version of the play rewritten by Benjamin Victor. The earliest known performance of the straight Shakespearean text was at Covent Garden in 1784, advertised as "Shaxespeare's with alterations." Although the play was supposed to run for several weeks, it closed after the first night.  From the middle of the eighteenth century, even if staging Shakespeare's original (as opposed to Victor's rewrite) it was common to cut the lines in the final scene where Valentine seems to offer Silvia to Proteus. This practice prevailed until William Macready reintroduced the lines in 1841 in a production at Drury Lane, although they were still being removed as late as 1952, in Denis Carey's production at the Bristol Old Vic. Notable nineteenth-century performances include Charles Kean's 1848 production at the Haymarket Theatre, Samuel Phelps' 1857 production at Sadler's Wells Theatre and William Poel's 1892 and 1896 productions.  During the twentieth century, the play has been produced sporadically in the English-speaking world, although it has proved more popular in Europe. Indeed, there have been only a few significant English speaking productions. Little is known, for example, about Harley Granville-Barker's 1904 production at the Court Theatre, F.R. Benson's 1910 production at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, Robert Atkins' 1923 production at the Apollo Theatre, or Ben Iden Payne's 1938 production at Stratford-upon-Avon. The earliest production about which we have significant information is Michael Langham's 1957 production at The Old Vic, starring Richard Gale as Valentine, Keith Michell as Proteus, Barbara Jefford as Julia and Ingrid Hafner as Silvia. In this production, set in late nineteenth-century Italy and grounded very much in high Romanticism, Proteus threatens to kill himself with a pistol at the end of the play, prompting Valentine's hasty offer of Silvia.  Perhaps the most notable 20th-century production was Peter Hall's 1960 production at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. Set in a late medieval "milieu", the play starred Denholm Elliott as Valentine, Derek Godfrey as Proteus, Susan Maryott as Silvia, Frances Cuka as Julia, and featured a much lauded performance by Patrick Wymark as Launce. Hall had only recently been appointed as Artistic Director of the RSC, and, somewhat unexpectedly, he chose "Two Gentlemen" as his inaugural production, billed as the opening show in a re-examination of the development of Shakespearean comedy. Ten years later, in 1970, Robin Phillips' RSC production starred Peter Egan as Valentine, Ian Richardson as Proteus, Helen Mirren as Julia, Estelle Kohler as Silvia, and Patrick Stewart as Launce. This production concentrated on the issues of friendship and treachery, and set the play in a decadent world of social elitism. Valentine and Proteus were presented as aristocratic students, the Duke was a Don, and Eglamour an old scout master. On the other hand, the poverty-stricken outlaws were dressed in animal skins.  The RSC again staged the play at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1981, as a double bill with "Titus Andronicus", with both plays heavily edited. Directed by John Barton, the production starred Peter Chelsom as Valentine, Peter Land as Proteus, Julia Swift as Julia and Diana Hardcastle as Silvia. This production saw the actors not involved in the current on-stage scene sit at the front of

Adaptations.

Theatrical.

Benjamin Victor rewrote the play for performance in 1762 (the earliest recorded performance we have of the play), at the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane. Starring Richard Yates as Launce, his wife, Mary Ann Yates as Julia and Elizabeth Pope as Silvia, Victor brought all of the Verona scenes together, removed Valentine's 'gift' of Silvia to Proteus and increased the roles of Launce and Crab (especially during the outlaw scenes, where both characters are intimately involved in the action). He also switched the emphasis of the play away from the love-friendship dichotomy and instead focused on the issues of fidelity, with

Opera/Musical.

Frederic Reynolds staged an operatic version in 1821 at Covent Garden as part of his series of adaptations of the works of Shakespeare. Reynolds wrote the lyrics, with Henry Bishop writing the music. The production ran for twenty-nine performances, and included some of Shakespeare's sonnets set to music. Augustin Daly revived the opera in 1895 at Daly's Theatre, in an elaborate production starring Ada Rehan as Julia.  In 1826, Franz Schubert set a German translation by Eduard von Bauernfeld of Proteus' serenade to Silvia ("Who is Silvia? What is she,/That all our swains commend her?") to music. This song is usually known in English as "Who is Sylvia?," but in German it is known as "An Sylvia" ("Vier Lieder", opus 106, number 4, D. 891). In 1909, Eric Coates's "Four Old English Songs" included a setting of "Who is Sylvia". In 1942, Gerald Finzi

Film.

The only cinematic adaptation of the play is "Yī jiǎn méi" (more commonly known by its English title "A Spray of Plum Blossoms"), a 1931 silent film from China, directed by Bu Wancang and written by Huang Yicuo. A loose adaptation of the play, the film tells the story of Bai Lede (Wang Chilong) and Hu Luting (Jin Yan), two military cadets who have been friends since they were children. After graduating, Hu, a playboy uninterested in love, is appointed as a captain in Guangdong and leaves

Television.

The first television adaptation was in 1952, when BBC Television Service broadcast Act 1 of the play live from the Bristol Old Vic. Directed by Denis Carey, the production starred John Neville as Valentine, Laurence Payne as Proteus, Gudrun Ure as Silvia and Pamela Ann as Julia.  In 1956, the entire play was broadcast on West German TV channel Das Erste from a performance at the Munich Kammerspiele, under the title "Zwei herren aus Verona". The theatrical production was directed by Hans Schalla, with the TV adaptation directed by Ernst Markwardt. The cast included Rolf Schult as Valentine, Hannes Riesenberger as Proteus, Helga Siemers as Julia and Isolde Chlapek as Silvia. In 1964, the play was made into a TV movie in West Germany, again using the title "Zwei herren aus Verona". Screened on ZDF, it was directed by Hans Dieter Schwarze and

Radio.

In 1923, extracts from the play were broadcast on BBC Radio, performed by the Cardiff Station Repertory Company as the first episode of a series of programs showcasing Shakespeare's plays, entitled "Shakespeare Night". In 1924, the entire play was broadcast by 2BD, directed by Joyce Tremayne and R.E. Jeffrey, with Treymane playing Silvia and Jeffrey playing Valentine, alongside G.R. Harvey as Proteus and Daisy Moncur as Julia. In 1927, the scenes between Julia and Lucetta were broadcast on BBC Radio as part of the "Echoes from Greenwich Theatre" series. Betty Rayner played Julia and Joan Rayner played Lucetta. BBC National Programme broadcast the full play in 1934, adapted for radio by Barbara Burnham and produced by Lance Sieveking. Ion Swinley played Valentine, Robert Craven was Proteus, Helen Horsey was Silvia and Lydia Sherwood played

References.

Citations.

All references to "The Two Gentlemen of Verona", unless otherwise specified, are taken from the

The Two Gentlemen of Verona is a comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1589 and 1593. It is considered by some to be Shakespeare's first play, and is often seen as showing his first tentative steps in laying out some of the themes and motifs with which he would later deal in more detail; for example, it is the first of his plays in which a heroine dresses as a boy. The play deals with the themes of friendship and infidelity, the conflict between friendship and love, and the foolish behaviour of people in love. The highlight of the play is considered by some to be Launce, the clownish servant of Proteus, and his dog Crab, to whom "the most scene-stealing non-speaking role in the canon" has been attributed.

Dva šlechtici z Verony (anglicky: "The Two Gentlemen of Verona") je komedie Williama Shakespeara, zřejmě napsaná v roce 1590 nebo 1591. Někdy je považována za jeho vůbec první hru a za zkusmý nákres témat, kterým se Shakespeare později věnoval detailněji; například je to jeho první hra, kde se hrdinka převleče za chlapce. Tématy hry jsou přátelství a nevěra, konflikt mezi přátelstvím a láskou a hloupé chování zamilovaných lidí.


Swimming career.

Juniors.

Kromowidjojo won a total of three medals at the European Junior Swimming Championships in 2005 and 2006, in the 50 meter freestyle and butterfly events.

2006.

Kromowidjojo made her international senior debut at the European LC Championships 2006 in Budapest, Hungary. She won her first international senior medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, alongside Inge Dekker, Chantal Groot and Marleen Veldhuis, at the age of 15.

2007.

Kromowidjojo qualified for her first World Championships in 2007. At the World LC Championships 2007 in Melbourne, Australia, she won a bronze medal in the 4×100 freestyle relay together with Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis. Individually she finished 13th in the 100 freestyle. At the end of 2007 she swam the A-qualification standard for the 2008 Summer Olympics in the 50 m and 100 m freestyle and swam the world record in the 4 × 100 m freestyle Short course, with Hinkelien Schreuder, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis, at the Dutch Open Swim Cup. In the week afterwards she competed in the European Short Course Swimming Championships 2007 in Debrecen, Hungary. There she swam another world record in the 4 × 50 m freestyle short course with Hinkelien Schreuder, Inge Dekker and Marleen Veldhuis.

2008.

Spring.

Kromowidjojo's first major tournament in 2008 was the 2008 European Aquatics Championships in Eindhoven. In the 4 × 100 m freestyle, she won the gold medal and with the team: Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis. They broke the world record with a time of 3:33.62. With the same team she finished fourth in the 4 × 200 m freestyle. Individually she finished 9th in the 200 m freestyle. A few weeks later at the 2008 FINA Short Course World Championships in Manchester she won the world title in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay and broke another world record, again with Dekker, Heemskerk and Veldhuis. After the 100 m freestyle heats she withdrew from the tournament with an elbow injury.

Beijing Olympics.

At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and a few days before her 18th birthday, Kromowidjojo became an Olympic champion by winning the gold medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle, again alongside Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis. Their time was 3:33.76; just outside their own world record. The day after she started individually in the 200 m freestyle ending 23rd in the heats. She was also part of both the 4 × 200 m freestyle and 4 × 100 m medley relay teams, which failed to qualify for the respective finals.

Autumn.

At the end of the year Kromowidjojo took part in several championships. She started with the Swim Cup Eindhoven 2008, where she broke the national record in the 50 m backstroke long course, her first individual national record, and qualified for the 2009 World Aquatics Championships in the 100 m freestyle. One week afterwards she took part in the European Short Course Swimming Championships 2008 in Rijeka, Croatia. She won two gold medals, in the 4×50 m freestyle and 4×50 m medley relay, and a bronze medal in the 100 m freestyle behind Marleen Veldhuis and Jeanette Ottesen. She also became sixth in the 50 m backstroke.

2009.

On 26 July 2009 at the World LC Championships 2009 in Rome, Italy, she won gold in the 4×100 freestyle relay with Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis, setting a new world record (3:31.72).

2010.

In 2010 Kromowidjojo took part in the 2010 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) winning individual gold medals in both the 50m freestyle and the 100m freestyle, setting a championship record of 51.45. She also won a gold medal as part of the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay team alongside Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Hinkelien Schreuder with another championship record of 3:28.54.

2011.

In 2011 Kromowidjojo won a gold medal at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships as part of the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay team alongside Inge Dekker, Marleen Veldhuis and Femke Heemskerk in a time of 3:33.96, 2.24 seconds above their own world record. Individually she won a bronze medal in the 100m freestyle with a time of 53.66 behind Jeanette Ottesen and Aleksandra Gerasimenya who tied for first in 53.45.

2012.

At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Kromowidjojo and her teammates started the meet with a silver medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, an event in which they were the defending champions. The gold medal went to Australia.  Later during the week, Kromowidjojo set an Olympic record of 53.05 s in the semifinals of the 100 m freestyle. The next day in the final she followed this up by winning a gold medal in a new Olympic record of 53.00 s, ahead of reigning world champion Aleksandra Gerasimenya and Tang Yi. In the 50 m freestyle she qualified fastest for the final with a personal record of 24.07 s. In the final she completed the sprint double by winning a gold medal in a new Olympic record of 24.05 s, again beating Gerasimenya, as well as training partner and compatriot Marleen Veldhuis. Kromowidjojo was honoured for her performances in the 2012 Holland Heineken House in London.  By winning the 50 m and 100 m freestyle, Kromowidjojo followed in the footsteps of compatriot Inge de Bruijn, who won both events at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney. The European Swimming Federation named Kromowidjojo female European swimmer of the year 2012.

2013.

At the 2013 World Aquatics Championships in Barcelona, Kromowidjojo won the gold medal in the 50 m freestyle. This was her first individual long course world title. She also won three bronze medals, in the 100 m freestyle, 50 m butterfly, and 4 × 100 m freestyle relay.

2015.

She lost her world title in the 50 meter freestyle to Bronte Campbell of Australia, winning the silver medal 0.10 s behind. She won two more silver medals in relays.

2016.

Kromowidjojo qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, her third Olympics, in the 50 and 100 meter freestyle and the 4 × 100 meter freestyle relay. In the relay, the Dutch team finished 4th, the first time they finished outside the medals since the 1996 Olympics. In the 100 m freestyle, Kromowidjojo finished 5th, 0.09 seconds behind the third-place finisher. In the 50 m freestyle she finished 6th, 0.12 seconds behind gold medalist Pernille Blume.

2017.

Kromowidjojo competed in the Swim Cup Eindhoven (Dutch Championships) in April 2017 in the 100 m freestyle and won gold with a time of 53.72, also qualifying for Budapest World Championships. The race was very close and in the first 50 m Femke Heemskerk had the lead but in the second 50 m Kromowidjojo overtook her and finished first.

2019.

She represented the Netherlands at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships and won the silver medal in the women's 50 metre butterfly event.

International Swimming League.

In 2019 she was member of the 2019 International Swimming League representing Team Iron. She had a perfect record of winning all the skin races at each match the team competed in. She also won the 50 freestyle in Budapest and came third in the 100 freestyle. In Lewisville she picked up two second places in the 50 and 100 freestyle.

Personal life.

Kromowidjojo, who is of partly Javanese Surinamese heritage, was born in Sauwerd and started swimming at the age of 3, while on a family holiday in Spain.  She suffered viral meningitis while training with her national team in the Canary Islands in July 2010, but recovered to take part in the World Championships later that year.  Kromowidjojo was a student at the Business School Notenboom in Eindhoven. In 2013–14, she was dating former elite swimmer Pieter van den Hoogenband. They were chosen as the hottest couple of 2013 by several Dutch newspapers. Since 2015 she has a relationship with Dutch swimmer Ferry Weertman.

Ranomi Kromowidjojo (; born 20 August 1990) is a Dutch swimmer of mixed Dutch-Javanese Surinamese origin who mainly specialises in sprint freestyle events. She is a triple Olympic champion, winning the gold medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay at the 2008 Olympics, and in the 50 m freestyle and 100 m freestyle at the 2012 Olympics. Kromowidjojo holds the world record in the 50 meter freestyle short course (25 m pool), and as part of the Dutch team she holds the world records in the 4×50 m, 4 × 100 m, and 4 × 200 m freestyle relays (short course). She has won a total of 39 medals in FINA World Championship events.

Ranomi Kromowidjojo přechýleně Ranomi Kromowidjojová (* 20. srpna 1990, Sauwerd, Nizozemsko) je nizozemská plavkyně. Vybojovala řadu medailí včetně titulů na plaveckých světových šampionátech zejména v rámci nizozemských štafet, s nimiž je i držitelkou světových rekordů v závodech na 4x100 m volný způsob v dlouhém i krátkém bazénu.


Life and career.

Publicity at the time Wold first became successful in Britain, in the mid-2000s, suggested that he was then aged in his sixties, and emphasised his past as a hobo in Tennessee and Mississippi. In a 2008 interview in Memphis, Wold was quoted as stating: "I came down here as a young feller looking for the blues, but I didn't find them... Wasn't in Clarksdale but an hour before a big, old redneck policeman ran me right out of town again. That was how it was back then, and there were some places hereabouts you just didn't go if you were a hobo." By his own account, he would travel long distances by hopping freight trains, looking for work as a farm laborer or in other seasonal jobs. He claimed that he had worked at a carnival, as a cowboy and as a migrant worker. In a 2007 interview, he said: "I rode them <nowiki>[</nowiki>freight trains<nowiki>]</nowiki> for 14 years off and on..", adding "I've been married to this one girl for 25 years, so I’m a little bit settled down now..."  In 2016, an unauthorized biography by Matthew Wright presented evidence that parts of Wold's backstory may have been exaggerated. Wright drew on interviews with Wold's estranged eldest son as well as previously published material covering his career in music since the late 1960s, and commented that Wold was "retiring about facts of his own life".

Childhood and early life.

Steve Wold was born in Oakland, California, as Steven Gene Leach, though his biographer suggests that he may have been adopted as a baby. He took the surname Wold in the early 1980s, from that of his second wife. Official birth records confirm his birth year as 1951. In 2000, he gave his age as 50, though later publicity implied that he was older and some sources such as Allmusic claim he was born in 1941.  When he was four years old, his parents split up and he continued to live with his mother. He claimed that as a child he was taught to play the guitar by K. C. Douglas, who worked at his grandfather's garage, and later realised that he had been taught the blues. Douglas wrote the song "Mercury Blues" and had played with Tommy Johnson in the early 1940s. His mother remarried, to a Korean War veteran who Wold characterized as abusive, and, at the age of about 13, Wold left home following a violent confrontation with his stepfather.  Wold claimed to have lived rough and on the road in Tennessee, Mississippi and elsewhere, until at least the late 1960s. However, Wright's biography claims that Wold lived in Haight-Ashbury, San Francisco, for some time from 1965. He attended the Monterey Pop Festival, regularly saw bands such as The Grateful Dead perform in the area, and became acquainted with Janis Joplin and Jimi Hendrix.

Early musical activities.

In about 1969, he toured clubs in the region as a backing musician with Lightnin' Hopkins. In 1970, as Steve Leach, he became the bass player in an innovative band, Shanti, who performed a fusion of Indian and rock music. Other band members included Zakir Hussain and Aashish Khan, and all the band members were adherents of Transcendental Meditation. In liner notes for a 2015 reissue of Shanti's only album, writer Richie Unterberger states that "bassist Steve Leach has reinvented himself as the blues musician Seasick Steve", and his participation in Shanti was confirmed by Seattle band the Tremens.  He left California in 1972 and moved to Paris, France, where he busked in the Métro. He occasionally returned to California where he married Victoria Johnson in 1974; they had two sons together but later divorced. Wold also spent time in the 1970s in Hawaii, and worked as a session musician and studio engineer, as well as in occasional manual jobs. He has claimed to have played with other musicians including Son House, John Lee Hooker, Albert King, and Joni Mitchell around this time. In 1976, he worked with French producer Lee Hallyday and fronted the disco group Crystal Grass. Leach appeared on two Crystal Grass albums released by Philips Records in France, "Dance Up a Storm" and "Ocean Potion", the latter credited to Steve Leach with the Crystal Grass Orchestra. The group also released several singles including "You Can Be What You Dream". He also sang on the first album released by Mike Love's side project Celebration, a collaboration with members of the Paris-based band King Harvest.  Around 1980, Steve Leach returned to Europe. In 1982, he appeared as singer and guitarist on an album, "Women and Sports", by the band Clean, Athletic & Talented (C.A.T.), co-writing their single "I Love To Touch Young Girls". He met Elisabeth Wold in a blues bar in Oslo, Norway, and adopted her surname after she became his second wife. For a time in the early 1980s, he lived in London, and then with Elisabeth in Skelmersdale, England, which biographer Wright notes is the location of a major Transcendental Meditation movement center. He later claimed to have run a recording studio in Europe before selling it.  After returning to the US, he trained as a paramedic, before moving with his wife and their three sons from Nashville, Tennessee, to Olympia, near Seattle, in 1991. The move was partly motivated by Elisabeth Wold's desire to live in an area reminiscent of her native Norway, but also reflected the area's developing indie music scene. In Olympia, Wold established his own guitar store and recording studio, Moon Music. He was acquainted with Kurt Cobain, and began producing records by local musicians, including Kathleen Hanna and Fitz of Depression. Wold produced the 1996 debut album by Modest Mouse, "This Is a Long Drive for Someone with Nothing to Think About", and recordings by the band P.E.Z. on which he played guitar. He also worked closely with a local band, the Tremens, and with them started to form a band, Dr Steel and the Forty-nines, with himself as singer and lead guitarist, but this fell through. A 2001 interview with the Tremens described Wold as a "Pacific Northwest music icon... who has put his recording stamp on some of the most influential bands to come out of Puget Sound."  In 2001, Wold closed Moon Music, after being involved in up to 50 albums made there. He said at the time: "I'm finished with America. I'm 50 years old now, and I've been watching greed play the main stage since I was a teenager. I just can't stand it anymore." With his wife and their sons, he moved to Notodden in Norway, home of the Notodden Blues Festival, and set up a studio, Juke Joint, with vintage equipment that he had acquired over the years. After Wold became ill on a boat trip between Norway and Denmark, he adopted the name "Seasick Steve" as a parallel to that of blues musician Homesick James, and started to form a band, Seasick Steve and the Level Devils.  Wold released his first album, entitled "Cheap", recorded with the Level Devils as his rhythm section, with Jo Husmo on stand-up bass and Kai Christoffersen on drums. His debut solo album, "Dog House Music" was released by Bronzerat Records on November 26, 2006, after he was championed by an old friend, Joe Cushley, DJ on the "Balling The Jack" blues show on London radio station Resonance FM.

Breakthrough and subsequent career.

Wold made his first UK television appearance on Jools Holland's annual "Hootenanny" BBC TV show on New Year's Eve 2006. He performed a live rendition of "Dog House Boogie" on the "Three String Trance Wonder" and the "Mississippi Drum Machine". After that show his popularity exploded in Britain, and he commented "I can't believe it, all of the sudden I'm like the cat's meow!"  He was well received in the UK, winning the 2007 MOJO Award for Best Breakthrough Act and going on to appear at major UK festivals such as Reading, Leeds and Glastonbury. In 2007 he played more UK festivals than any other artist.  Wold toured early in 2008, playing in various venues and festivals in the UK. He was joined on stage by drummer Dan Magnusson. KT Tunstall also dueted with Wold at the London Astoria in January 2008. Wold also played many other festivals throughout the world in 2008, including Fuji Rock in Japan, East Coast Blues & Roots Music Festival in Australia, also in April 2008, and Roskilde in Denmark.  Wold's major-label debut, "I Started Out with Nothin and I Still Got Most of It Left" was recorded with Dan Magnusson on drums, was released by Warner Music on September 29, 2008, and features Ruby Turner and Nick Cave's Grinderman.  He has toured the UK extensively since 2007 being supported by performers including Duke Garwood, Gemma Ray, Billie the Vision and the Dancers, Amy LaVere, Melody Nelson and Joe Gideon & The Shark. His tours in October 2008 and January 2009 were all sold out and included performances at the Royal Albert Hall, the Edinburgh Queen's Hall, the Grand Opera House in Belfast, the Apollo in Manchester, the City Hall in Newcastle and the London Hammersmith Apollo.  In 2009, Wold was nominated for a Brit Award in the category of International Solo Male Artist, That same year, BBC Four broadcast a documentary of Wold visiting the southern USA entitled "Seasick Steve: Bringing It All Back Home". On January 21, Wold hosted "Folk America: Hollerers, Stompers and Old Time Ramblers" at the Barbican in London, a show that was also televised and shown with the documentary on BBC Four as part of a series tracing American roots music.  In an interview with an Australian magazine, Wold attributed much of his unlikely success to his cheap and weather-beaten guitar, "The Trance Wonder" and reveals the guitar's mojo might come from supernatural sources.  I got it from Sherman, who is a friend of mine down in Mississippi, who had bought it down at a Goodwill store. When we were down there last time he says to me, 'I didn't tell you when you bought it off me, but that guitar used to be haunted'. I say, 'What are you talking about, Sherman?'. He says, 'There's 50 solid citizens here in Como who'll tell you this guitar is haunted. It's the darnedest thing – we'd leave it over in the potato barn and we'd come back in and it would be moved. You'd put it down somewhere and the next morning you'd come back and it would have moved. When you took that guitar the ghost in the barn left'. He told me this not very long ago and I said to him, 'Sherman! Why didn't you tell me this before?' and he said, 'Well the ghost was gone – I didn't want it around here no more!'  On January 3, 2010, Wold appeared on the popular BBC motoring show "Top Gear" as the Star In A Reasonably Priced Car. They presented him with a banjo made with hubcaps off a Morris Minor (he owned one at the time).  In February 2010, Wold was nominated for a Brit Award in the category of International Solo Male Artist for the second consecutive year.  In 2010, Wold made numerous festival appearances throughout the summer, including the Pyramid Stage at the Glastonbury Festival, the main stage at V Festival, the main stage at the Hop Farm Festival and many more.  In February 2011, Wold signed to Play It Again Sam to release his new album with the exception of the US, where it will be released on Third Man Records. Subsequently, his new album "You Can't Teach an Old Dog New Tricks" was released on his new labels and it was announced that former Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones had played on the new album, and performed alongside Wold to promote it. This caused some to believe that he will tour with Wold as a part of his backing band, joining his then-current drummer Dan. John Paul Jones did indeed appear onstage to play with Wold at the Isle of Wight 2011 festival and on the main stage of Rock Werchter 2011.  On 16 August 2014 he was the headline act at "Beautiful Days" in Honiton, Devon, UK, and on the 24th August he headlined at 'Victorious Festival' in Southsea, Portsmouth, UK.  Seasick Steve released his eighth album on October 7, 2016, called "Keepin' the Horse Between Me and the Ground".

Musical equipment.

Wold owns and plays several obscure and personalized instruments.

Guitars.

The Three-String Trance Wonder.

This is a normal guitar that resembles a GHI Guitar made in Japan in the 1960s. It has a 1950s Harmony pickup added with duct tape, and is tuned to G, G, and B (middle G is one octave higher than the bottom). This is how to set it up: Remove the low E string, put about a.049 string in the A string position tuned to G, remove the D string, put about a.028 string tuned to G in the G string position, put about a.018 string tuned to B in the B position, and remove the high E string. He was given the guitar by a friend who had it nailed to his wall as a decoration, but at his gigs, he often tells the story that he bought it for US$75 in this condition from a man who later told him he only paid US$25 for it the day before, and claims to have vowed never to add another string, and that he would tour the world telling his story of how the seller ripped him off. A lot of the time he also adds, while picking up or putting away the guitar, that it is the "biggest piece of shit in the world, I swear." In a BBC interview Wold claimed that the guitar was found by a friend, just with the three strings on it, and he decided to keep it that way.

Hubcap guitars.

When on the TV show "Top Gear", presenter Jeremy Clarkson commented that Wold's car history of over 100 cars included a Morris Minor. Wold then presented a four-string guitar that his friend Davey Chivers had made out of two old hubcaps from a 1970 Minor 1000 named Cynthia joined back-to-back and his wife's broomstick. Wold then played it a little in the episode. Clarkson replied that it was the best use of a Morris Minor he had ever seen.  A similar guitar was made out of Hudson Terraplane hubcaps, one of them given to him by Jack White, referring to "Terraplane Blues" by Robert Johnson.

Other.

The Mississippi Drum Machine.

A small wooden box that is stomped upon, providing percussion. It is decorated with a Mississippi motorcycle registration plate ("MC33583"), and a small piece of carpet.

Roland CUBE.

A Roland CUBE 30 W amplifier placed on a chair to his left and set to the 'tweed' setting.

Fender Bassman.

A Fender Bassman amplifier, used at the Pinkpop Festival 2012.

Nickname.

When asked about his nickname, Wold has said: "because it's just true: I always get seasick". When he was ill on a ferry from Norway to Copenhagen, later in his life, a friend began playfully using the name and, despite Wold not rising to it for a while, it stuck. When asked about his name on British Sunday morning television show, "Something for the Weekend", he replied, "I just get sick on boats".

Personal life.

Wold has five adult sons, and has married twice, marrying his second wife in the early 1980s. Wold has said that he has problems putting down roots in one place, and he and his wife have lived in 59 houses to date, including Norway and the United Kingdom.  Wold's son Didrik is an illustrator, and has designed his father's album artwork, merchandise, print ads, and websites. His youngest son, Paul Martin Wold, played drums on "Dog House Music" and first made a guest appearance with him on percussion at the Astoria in January 2008. He has since performed with Wold frequently, playing washboard, shakers, tambourine, floor tom and occasionally guitar. He also works as Steve's guitar-tech. Paul Martin Wold, aka "Wishful Thinking", released his debut album "A Waste of Time Well Spent" on November 2, 2009, and showcased a selection from the album whilst touring the UK with his father.

Discography.

Albums

Steven Gene Wold (né Leach, March 19, 1951), commonly known as Seasick Steve, is an American blues musician. He plays mostly personalized guitars and sings, usually about his early life doing casual work. From the late 1960s, he worked as a musician and recording engineer in the US and Europe, as well as pursuing other work, before his commercial breakthrough, initially in the UK, at the end of 2006. Some sources suggest an earlier birth date.

Steven Gene Wold, známý jako Seasick Steve (* 1951) je americký hudebník. Na kytaru začal hrát už v dětství, přibližně ve třinácti letech utekl z domova a jezdil po USA jako tulák. V šedesátých letech začal spolupracovat s různými hudebníky jako nahrávací technik. Své první album "Cheap" vydal až v roce 2004, mezinárodně známým se stal díky účinkování v pořadu Joolse Hollanda v televizi BBC v lednu 2007, díky čemuž později vydal album u Warner Bros. Records (dříve vydával u menších firem) a vystoupil na několika světových festivalech, jako je například Glastonbury. Hraje převážně na speciálně upravené kytary. Je také hudebním producentem, produkoval například alba skupiny Modest Mouse. V roce 2010 byl nominován na cenu BRIT Awards. Jako host se objevil i pořadu Top Gear. Často vystupuje pouze s bubeníkem Danem Magnussonem, občasně s ním vystupuje také baskytarista John Paul Jones, dřívější člen rockové skupiny Led Zeppelin.


History.

US.

Shale gas was first extracted as a resource in Fredonia, New York, in 1821, in shallow, low-pressure fractures. Horizontal drilling began in the 1930s, and in 1947 a well was first fracked in the U.S.  Federal price controls on natural gas led to shortages in the 1970s. Faced with declining natural gas production, the federal government invested in many supply alternatives, including the Eastern Gas Shales Project, which lasted from 1976 to 1992, and the annual FERC-approved research budget of the Gas Research Institute, where the federal government began extensive research funding in 1982, disseminating the results to industry. The federal government also provided tax credits and rules benefiting the industry in the 1980 Energy Act. The Department of Energy later partnered with private gas companies to complete the first successful air-drilled multi-fracture horizontal well in shale in 1986.

Geology.

Because shales ordinarily have insufficient permeability to allow significant fluid flow to a wellbore, most shales are not commercial sources of natural gas. Shale gas is one of a number of unconventional sources of natural gas; others include coalbed methane, tight sandstones, and methane hydrates. Shale gas areas are often known as "resource plays" (as opposed to "exploration plays"). The geological risk of not finding gas is low in resource plays, but the potential profits per successful well are usually also lower.  Shale has low matrix permeability, and so gas production in commercial quantities requires fractures to provide permeability. Shale gas has been produced for years from shales with natural fractures; the shale

Shale gas by country.

Although the shale gas potential of many nations is being studied, as of 2013, only the US, Canada, and China produce shale gas in commercial quantities, and only the US and Canada have significant shale gas production. While China has ambitious plans to dramatically increase its shale gas production, these efforts have been checked by inadequate access to technology, water, and land.  The table below is based on data collected by the Energy Information Administration agency of the United States Department of Energy. Numbers for the estimated amount of "technically recoverable" shale gas resources are provided alongside numbers for proven natural gas reserves.  The US EIA had made an earlier estimate of total recoverable shale gas in various countries in 2011, which for some countries differed significantly from the 2013 estimates. The total recoverable

Environment.

The extraction and use of shale gas can affect the environment through the leaking of extraction chemicals and waste into water supplies, the leaking of greenhouse gases during extraction, and the pollution caused by the improper processing of natural gas. A challenge to preventing pollution is that shale gas extractions varies widely in this regard, even between different wells in the same project; the processes that reduce pollution sufficiently in one extraction may not be enough in another.  In 2013 the European Parliament agreed that environmental impact assessments will not be mandatory for shale gas exploration activities and shale gas extraction activities will be subject to the same terms as other gas extraction projects.

Climate.

Barack Obama's administration has sometimes promoted shale gas, in part because of its belief that it releases fewer greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than other fossil fuels. In a 2010 letter to President Obama, Martin Apple of the Council of Scientific Society Presidents cautioned against a national policy of developing shale gas without a more certain scientific basis for the policy. This umbrella organization that represents 1.4 million scientists noted that shale gas development "may have greater GHG emissions and environmental costs than previously appreciated."  In late 2010, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued a report which concluded that shale gas emits larger amounts of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, than does conventional gas, but still

Life cycle comparison for more than global warming potential.

A 2014 study from Manchester University presented the "First full life cycle assessment of shale gas used for electricity generation." By full life cycle assessment, the authors explained that they mean the evaluation of nine environmental factors beyond the commonly performed evaluation of global warming potential. The authors concluded that, in line with most of the published studies for other regions, that shale

Water and air quality.

Chemicals are added to the water to facilitate the underground fracturing process that releases natural gas. Fracturing fluid is primarily water and approximately 0.5% chemical additives (friction reducer, agents countering rust, agents killing microorganism). Since (depending on the size of the area) millions of liters of water are used, this means that hundreds of thousands liters of chemicals are often injected into the subsurface. About 50% to 70% of the injected volume of contaminated water is recovered and stored in above-ground ponds to await removal by tanker. The remaining volume remains in the subsurface. Hydraulic fracturing opponents fear that it can lead to contamination of groundwater aquifers, though the industry deems this "highly unlikely". However,

Earthquakes.

Hydraulic fracturing routinely produces microseismic events much too small to be detected except by sensitive instruments. These microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing. However, as of late 2012, there have been three known instances worldwide of hydraulic fracturing, through induced seismicity, triggering quakes large enough to be felt by people.  On 26 April 2012, the Asahi Shimbun reported that United States Geological Survey scientists have been investigating the recent increase in the number of magnitude 3 and greater earthquake in the midcontinent of the United States. Beginning in 2001, the average number of earthquakes occurring per year of magnitude 3 or greater increased significantly, culminating in a six-fold increase in 2011 over 20th century levels. A researcher in Center for Earthquake Research and Information of University of Memphis assumes water pushed back into the fault tends to cause earthquake by slippage of fault.

The relative impacts of natural gas and coal.

Human health impacts.

A comprehensive review of the public health effects of energy fuel cycles in Europe finds that coal causes 6 to 98 deaths per TWh (average 25 deaths per TWh), compared to natural gas’ 1 to 11 deaths per TWh (average 3 deaths per TWh). These numbers include both accidental deaths and pollution-related deaths. Coal mining is one of the most dangerous professions in the United States, resulting in between 20 and 40 deaths annually, compared to between 10 and 20 for oil and gas extraction. Worker accident risk is also far higher with coal than gas. In the United States, the oil and gas extraction industry is associated with one to two injuries per 100 workers each year. Coal mining, on the other hand, contributes to four injuries per 100 workers each year. Coal mines collapse, and can take down roads, water and gas lines, buildings and many lives with them.  Average damages

Social Impacts.

Shale gas development leads to a series of tiered socio-economic effects during boom conditions. These include both positive and negative aspects. Along with other forms of unconventional energy, shale oil and gas extraction has three direct initial aspects: increased labour demand (employment); income generation (higher wages); and disturbance to land and/or other economic activity, potentially resulting in compensation. Following these primary direct effects, the following secondary effects occur: in-migration (to meet labour demand), attracting temporary and/or permanent residents, Increased demand for goods and services; leading to increased indirect employment. The latter two of these can fuel each other in a circular relationship during boom conditions (i.e. increased demand

Landscape impacts.

Coal mining radically alters whole mountain and forest landscapes. Beyond the coal removed from the earth, large areas of forest are turned inside out and blackened with toxic and radioactive chemicals. There have been reclamation successes, but hundreds of thousands of acres of abandoned surface mines in the United States have not been reclaimed, and reclamation of certain terrain (including steep terrain) is nearly impossible.  Where coal exploration requires altering landscapes far beyond the area where the coal is, aboveground natural gas equipment takes up just one percent of the total surface land area from where gas will be extracted. The environmental impact of gas drilling has changed radically in recent years. Vertical wells into conventional formations used to

Water.

With coal mining, waste materials are piled at the surface of the mine, creating aboveground runoff that pollutes and alters the flow of regional streams. As rain percolates through waste piles, soluble components are dissolved in the runoff and cause elevated total dissolved solids (TDS) levels in local water bodies. Sulfates, calcium, carbonates and bicarbonates – the typical runoff products of coalmine waste materials – make water unusable for industry or agriculture and undrinkable for humans. Acid mine wastewater can drain into groundwater, causing significant contamination. Explosive blasting in a mine can cause groundwater to seep to lower-than-normal depths or connect two aquifers that were previously distinct, exposing both to contamination by mercury, lead, and other toxic heavy metals.  Contamination of surface waterways and groundwater with fracking fluids can be problematic. Shale gas deposits are generally several thousand feet below ground. There have been instances of methane migration, improper treatment of recovered wastewater, and pollution via reinjection wells.  In

Hazards.

Drilling depths of 1,000 to 3,000 m, then injection of a fluid composed of water, sand and detergents under pressure (600 bar), are required to fracture the rock and release the gas. These operations have already caused groundwater contaminations across the Atlantic, mainly as a result of hydrocarbon leakage along the casings. In addition, between 2% and 8% of the extracted fuel would be released to

Economics.

Although shale gas has been produced for more than 100 years in the Appalachian Basin and the Illinois Basin of the United States, the wells were often marginally economic. Advances in hydraulic fracturing and horizontal completions have made shale-gas wells more profitable. Improvements in moving drilling rigs between nearby locations, and the use of single well pads for multiple wells have increased the productivity of drilling shale gas wells. As of June 2011, the validity of the claims of economic viability of these wells has begun to be publicly questioned. Shale gas tends to cost more to produce than gas from conventional wells, because of the expense of the massive hydraulic fracturing treatments required to produce shale gas, and of horizontal drilling.  The cost of extracting offshore shale gas in the UK were estimated to be more than $200 per barrel of oil equivalent (UK North Sea oil prices were about $120 per barrel in April 2012). However, no cost figures were made public for onshore shale gas.  North America has been the leader in developing and producing shale gas. The economic success of the Barnett Shale play in Texas in particular has spurred the search for other sources of shale gas across the United States and Canada,  Some Texas residents think fracking is using too much of their groundwater, but drought and other growing uses are also part of the causes of the water shortage there.  A Visiongain research report calculated the 2011 worth of the global shale-gas market as $26.66 billion.  A 2011 New York Times investigation of industrial emails and internal documents found that the financial benefits of unconventional shale gas extraction may be less than previously thought, due to companies intentionally overstating the productivity of their wells and the size of their reserves. The article was criticized by, among others, the New York Times' own Public Editor for lack of balance in omitting facts and viewpoints favorable to shale gas production and economics.  In first quarter 2012, the United States imported 840 billion cubic feet (Bcf) (785 from Canada) while exporting 400 Bcf (mostly to Canada); both mainly by pipeline. Almost none is exported by ship as LNG, as that would require expensive facilities. In 2012, prices went down to US due to shale gas.  A recent academic paper on the economic impacts of shale gas development in the US finds that natural gas prices have dropped dramatically in places with shale deposits with active exploration. Natural gas for industrial use has become cheaper by around 30% compared to the rest of the US. This stimulates local energy intensive manufacturing growth, but brings the lack of adequate pipeline capacity in the US in sharp relief.  One of the byproducts of shale gas exploration is the opening up of deep underground shale deposits to "tight oil" or shale oil production. By 2035, shale oil production could "boost the world economy by up to $2.7 trillion, a PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) report says. It has the potential to reach up to 12 percent of the world’s total oil production — touching 14 million barrels a day — "revolutionizing" the global energy markets over the next few decades." According to a 2013 Forbes magazine article, generating electricity by burning natural gas is cheaper than burning coal if the price of gas remains below US or about $3 per 1000 cubic feet. Also in 2013, Ken Medlock, Senior Director of the Baker Institute's Center for Energy Studies, researched US shale gas break-even prices. "Some wells are profitable at $2.65 per thousand cubic feet, others need $8.10...the median is $4.85," Medlock said. Energy consultant Euan Mearns estimates that, for the US, "minimum costs [are] in the range $4 to $6 / mcf. [per 1000 cubic feet or million BTU]."

Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations. Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century, and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world. In 2000 shale gas provided only 1% of U.S. natural gas production; by 2010 it was over 20% and the U.S. government's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035, 46% of the United States' natural gas supply will come from shale gas.

Břidlicový plyn je zemní plyn nahromaděný ve formacích břidlic. Břidlicový plyn se stal ve Spojených státech amerických během poslední dekády významným zdrojem zemního plynu, jehož význam stále narůstá. Zájem o tyto zdroje nekonvenčního plynu se rozšířil i v ostatních částech světa. Podle jednoho odborníka lze očekávat, že břidlicový plyn uspokojí až polovinu dodávek zemního plynu v Severní Americe v roce 2020. A už roku 2017 mohou USA v produkci ropy předhonit Saúdskou Arábii díky nekonvenční břidlicové ropě.


Infinite recursion.

The most-common cause of stack overflow is excessively deep or infinite recursion, in which a function calls itself so many times that the space needed to store the variables and information associated with each call is more than can fit on the stack.  An example of infinite recursion in C.  int foo()  The function "foo", when it is invoked, continues to invoke itself, allocating additional space on the stack each time, until the stack overflows resulting in a segmentation fault. However, some compilers implement tail-call optimization, allowing infinite recursion of a specific sort—tail recursion—to occur without stack overflow. This works because tail-recursion calls do not take up additional stack space.  Some C compiler options will effectively enable tail-call optimization; for example, compiling the above simple program using gcc with codice_1 will result in a segmentation fault, but not when using codice_2 or codice_3, since these optimization levels imply the codice_4 compiler option. Other languages, such as Scheme, require all implementations to include tail-recursion as part of the language standard.

Very deep recursion.

A recursive function that terminates in theory but causes a call stack buffer overflow in practice can be fixed by transforming the recursion into a loop and storing the function arguments in an explicit stack (rather than the implicit use of the call stack). This is always possible, because the class of primitive recursive functions is equivalent to the class of LOOP computable functions. Consider this example in C++-like pseudocode:  A primitive recursive function like the one on the left side can always be transformed into a loop like on the right side.  A function like the example above on the left would not be a problem in an environment supporting tail-call optimization; however it is still possible to create a recursive function that may result in a stack overflow in these languages. Consider the example below of two simple integer exponentiation functions.  Both codice_5 functions above compute an equivalent result, however, the one on the left is prone to causing a stack overflow because tail-call optimization is not possible for this function. During execution, the stack for these functions will look like this:  Notice that the function on the left must store in its stack codice_6 number of integers, which will be multiplied when the recursion terminates and the function returns 1. In contrast, the function at the right must only store 3 integers at any time, and computes an intermediary result which is passed to its following invocation. As no other information outside of the current function invocation must be stored, a tail-recursion optimizer can "drop" the prior stack frames, eliminating the possibility of a stack overflow.

Very large stack variables.

The other major cause of a stack overflow results from an attempt to allocate more memory on the stack than will fit, for example by creating local array variables that are too large. For this reason some authors recommend that arrays larger than a few kilobytes should be allocated dynamically instead of as a local variable.  An example of a very large stack variable in C:  int foo()  On a C implementation with 8 byte double-precision floats, the declared array consumes 8 mebibytes of data; if this is more memory than is available on the stack (as set by thread creation parameters or operating system limits), a stack overflow will occur.  Stack overflows are made worse by anything that reduces the effective stack size of a given program. For example, the same program being run without multiple threads might work fine, but as soon as multi-threading is enabled the program will crash. This is because most programs with threads have less stack space per thread than a program with no threading support. Because kernels are generally multi-threaded, people new to kernel development are usually discouraged from using recursive algorithms or large stack buffers.

In software, a stack overflow occurs if the call stack pointer exceeds the stack bound. The call stack may consist of a limited amount of address space, often determined at the start of the program. The size of the call stack depends on many factors, including the programming language, machine architecture, multi-threading, and amount of available memory. When a program attempts to use more space than is available on the call stack (that is, when it attempts to access memory beyond the call stack's bounds, which is essentially a buffer overflow), the stack is said to "overflow", typically resulting in a program crash.

Přetečení zásobníku je situace v programování, kdy dojde k pokusu uložit na zásobník volání více dat, než kolik se tam vejde. Velikost tohoto zásobníku je obvykle předem dána při startu programu v závislosti na architektuře systému, překladači, množství volné paměti atp. Když se program pokusí posunout vrchol zásobníku mimo vymezenou paměť, mluvíme o přetečení zásobníku. To má obvykle za následek pád programu.


Biography.

Audran was raised by her mother after her father, a doctor, died while she was young. In 1964, she married director and screenwriter Claude Chabrol, after a short marriage to the actor Jean-Louis Trintignant. Her son by her marriage to Chabrol (which ended in 1980) is the actor Thomas Chabrol (born in 1963).  Her first major role was in Chabrol's film "Les Cousins" (1959). She later appeared in most of Chabrol's films. Some of the more noteworthy of his films Audran appeared in were "Les Bonnes Femmes" (1960), "La Femme Infidèle" (1968), "Les Biches" (1968) as a wealthy bisexual who becomes involved in a ménage à trois (she first gained notice in this), "Le Boucher" (1970) as a school teacher in rural France, "Juste Avant La Nuit" (1971), and "Violette Nozière" (1978). She won the Silver Bear for Best Actress for her role in "Les Biches" at the 18th Berlin International Film Festival.  She also appeared in the first film of Éric Rohmer ("Signe du Lion"), and in films by Jean Delannoy ("La Peau de Torpedo"), Gabriel Axel ("Babette's Feast", as the mysterious cook Babette), Bertrand Tavernier ("Coup de Torchon", as the wife of the cop turned serial killer) and Samuel Fuller ("The Big Red One"). The most celebrated of her non-Chabrol roles was as Alice Senechal in Luis Buñuel's Oscar-winning film "Le charme discret de la bourgeoisie" (1972).  Also appearing in English-language productions, Audran appeared in American features, including "The Black Bird" (1975), and in TV serials, including "Brideshead Revisited" (1981), "Mistral's Daughter" (1984) and "The Sun Also Rises" (1984). She starred in the 1974 film version of Agatha Christie's mystery "And Then There Were None".  Audran won a French César Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in "Violette Nozière" (1978), and a British Film Academy award for her part in "Just Before Nightfall" (1975).  Her son Thomas told the AFP news agency that his mother had died early on 27 March 2018, following a long illness, saying: "She had been in hospital for 10 days and she had returned home. She died peacefully at around 2 am."

Stéphane Audran (born Colette Suzanne Dacheville; 8 November 1932 – 27 March 2018) was a French film and television actress, known for her performances in award-winning movies such as "The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie" (1972) and "Babette's Feast" (1987) and in critically acclaimed films like "The Big Red One" (1980) and "Violette Nozière" (1978).

Stéphane Audranová, nepřechýleně Stéphane Audran, rodným jménem Colette Suzanne Dacheville (* 8. listopadu 1932 Versailles, Francie - 27. března 2018) byla francouzskáherečka, známá rolí v oscarovém snímku "Nenápadný půvab buržoazie" z roku 1972. Dále se objevila ve filmech "Babettina hostina" (1987), odbornou kritikou kladně přijatém "Velká červená jednička" (1980) a kriminálním thrilleru "Violette Nozière" (1978).


Early life and education.

Clervoy was born 19 November 1958 in Longeville-lès-Metz, France, the son of Mireille Lemonde and Jean Clervoy, a former French Air Force pilot.  From an early age, he takes an interest in space exploration and dreams of becoming an astronaut: While born in the French region of Lorraine, Clervoy considers Toulouse to be his adopted hometown.. He has a twin brother, Patrick Clervoy, a military psychiatrist.  Received his baccalauréat from Collège Militaire de Saint-Cyr-l'École in 1976; passed Math. Sup. and Math. Spé. M' at Prytanée Militaire, La Flèche in 1978. Graduated from École Polytechnique, Paris, in 1981, he then became a member of the Corps of Armament. He graduated from École nationale supérieure de l'aéronautique et de l'espace, Toulouse, in 1983; graduated as a Flight Test Engineer from École du personnel navigant d'essais et de réception, Istres, in 1987.

Experience.

In 1983 Clervoy was seconded from the Délégation Générale pour L'Armement (DGA) to CNES (French Space Agency) where he works on autopilot systems for various projects such as the earth observation satellite SPOT, the optical inter-satellite space link STAR, or the comet probe VEGA. Clervoy is Ingénieur Général de l'Armement in the Corps of Armament at the DGA.  He was selected in the second group of French astronauts in 1985 and started intensive Russian language training. From 1987 until 1992 he directed the parabolic flight program at the Flight Test Center, Brétigny-sur-Orge and provided technical support to the European human space program within the ESA Hermes crew office in Toulouse. From 1983 to 1987, Clervoy was also a lecturer in signal processing and general mechanics at the École nationale supérieure de l'aéronautique et de l'espace, Toulouse.  In 1991, he trained in Star City, Moscow, on the Soyuz and Mir systems. In 1992, he joined the Astronaut Corps of the European Space Agency (ESA) at the European Astronaut Center EAC in Cologne. In August 1992 Clervoy was detached to the NASA Johnson Space Center/ Houston to gain the Space Shuttle mission specialist qualifications. In between his space flights, Clervoy was assigned as flight software verification lead in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) and as robotics display design lead for Shuttle and ISS. After his third spaceflight, he was assigned as the International Space Station display integration lead in the NASA-JSC Astronaut Office.  He flew twice aboard and once aboard or a total of 675 hours in space. Due to the difficulty that American astronauts had in pronouncing his name, Clervoy was nicknamed "Billy Bob."  From 2001 through 2008 he was assigned Senior Advisor Astronaut of the Automated Transfer Vehicle ESA project in Les Mureaux (France). In 2008, he was also appointed member of the selection board for the new ESA astronaut class.  Clervoy holds military and civilian parachuting licenses, military and civilian scuba-diving licenses, and private pilot license.

Current assignment.

Clervoy is a member of ESA’s European Astronaut Corps, based at the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne, Germany. As part of his ESA collateral duties, Clervoy provides support to the human spaceflight programme, the external relations department and the sustainable development office. He is also Chairman and strategy manager of Novespace, a subsidiary of French space agency CNES in charge of the parabolic flight programme based on the A310 Zero-G aircraft in Bordeaux-Mérignac, France.

Personal life.

He is married to Laurence Boulanger and they have two children. Clervoy enjoys racquet sports, skill games, canyoning, skiing, and flying activities such as boomerang, frisbee, kites.

Organisations.

Member, Association of Space Explorers (ASE). Distinguished member, French Aeronautics and Astronautics Association (3AF). Member, Air and Space Academy (ANAE). Member, International Academy of Astronautics (IAA). Member, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). Ambassador of the World Ocean Network. Patron of the marine life preservation non-profit association 'Te mana o te moana' in French Polynesia. JF Clervoy is also the ESA representative for the ocean exploration ‘SeaOrbiter’ project.

Publications.

Jean-François Clervoy is the author of the book "Histoire(s) d'Espace" relating his third mission towards the Hubble space telescope. He is also the co-author of the works: "Voler en apesanteur" and "Embarquer dès demain pour l'espace" (Ed. Vuibert), "Dans les bars des bouts du monde" and "La Diva, le Président et autres face-à-face" (Ed. L'Elocoquent), "Vox confidential" (Ed. Michel Lafon), "Histoire de la conquête spatiale" (Ed. Vuibert).

Patent.

Jean-François filed an international patent for the functions of the wrist watch ‘Speedmaster Skywalker X-33’ produced by Omega, tested and qualified by ESA.

Jean-François André Clervoy (born 19 November 1958) is a French engineer and a CNES and ESA astronaut. He is a veteran of three NASA Space Shuttle missions.

Jean-François Clervoy ( * 19. listopadu 1958 Longeville-les-Metz, Francie) je astronaut Evropské kosmické agentury. Začínal jako vojenský pilot, roku 1985 se dostal mezi astronauty francouzské kosmické agentury CNES, do vesmíru vzlétl poprvé roku 1994, už jako astronaut ESA. Do roku 1999 absolvoval tři kosmické lety – mise STS-66, STS-84, STS-103 – všechny na palubě amerických raketoplánů Space Shuttle. Let STS-84 směřoval k ruské orbitální stanici Mir, STS-103 byla servisní mise k Hubbleovu vesmírnému dalekohledu. Mezi lety pracoval v Johnsonově vesmírném středisku NASA v Houstonu, od roku 2001 se vrátil do Francie a podílel se na vývoji kosmické nákladní lodi ATV.