Early life.

Severini was born into a poor family in Cortona, Italy. His father was a junior court official and his mother a dressmaker. He studied at the Scuola Tecnica in Cortona until the age of fifteen, when he and a group of fellow-classmates were expelled from the entire Italian school system for the attempted theft of exam papers. For a while he worked with his father; then in 1899 he moved to Rome with his mother. It was there that he first showed a serious interest in art, painting in his spare time while working as a shipping clerk. With the help of a patron of Cortonese origins he attended art classes, enrolling in the free school for nude studies (an annex of the Rome Fine Art Institute) and a private academy. His formal art education ended after two years when his patron stopped his allowance, declaring, "I absolutely do not understand your lack of order."  In 1900 he met the painter Umberto Boccioni. Together they visited the studio of Giacomo Balla, where they were introduced to the technique of Divisionism, painting with adjacent rather than mixed colors and breaking the painted surface into a field of stippled dots and stripes. The ideas of Divisionism had a great influence on Severini's early work and on Futurist painting from 1910 to 1911.  Severini settled in Paris in November 1906. The move was momentous for him. He said later, "The cities to which I feel most strongly bound are Cortona and Paris: I was born physically in the first, intellectually and spiritually in the second." He lived in Montmartre and dedicated himself to painting. There he met most of the rising artists of the period, befriending Amedeo Modigliani and occupying a studio next to those of Raoul Dufy, Georges Braque and Suzanne Valadon. He knew most of the Parisian avant-garde, including Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Juan Gris, Pablo Picasso, Lugné-Poe and his theatrical circle, the poets Guillaume Apollinaire, Paul Fort, Max Jacob, and author Jules Romains. The sale of his work did not provide enough to live on and he depended on the generosity of patrons.

Futurism.

He was invited by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and Boccioni to join the Futurist movement and was a co-signatory, with Balla, Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, and Luigi Russolo, of the "Manifesto of the Futurist Painters" in February 1910 and the "Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting" in April the same year. He was an important link between artists in France and Italy and came into contact with Cubism before his Futurist colleagues. Following a visit to Paris in 1911, the Italian Futurists adopted a sort of Cubism, which gave them a means of analysing energy in paintings and expressing dynamism. Severini helped to organize the first Futurist exhibition outside Italy at Galerie Bernheim-Jeune, Paris, in February 1912 and participated in subsequent Futurist shows in Europe and the United States. In 1913, he had solo exhibitions at the Marlborough Gallery, London, and Der Sturm, Berlin; it was during the show in London when he met and befriended British artist C. R. W. Nevinson, ultimately leading to the latter's decision to become a fellow Futurist.  In his autobiography, written many years later, he records that the Futurists were pleased with the response to the exhibition at Galerie Bernheim-Jeune, but that influential critics, notably Apollinaire, mocked them for their pretensions, their ignorance of the main currents of modern art and their provincialism. Severini later came to agree with Apollinaire.  Severini was less attracted to the subject of the machine than his fellow Futurists and frequently chose the form of the dancer to express Futurist theories of dynamism in art. He was particularly adept at rendering lively urban scenes, for example in "Dynamic Hieroglyph of the Bal Tabarin" (1912) and "The Boulevard" (1913). During the First World War he produced some of the finest Futurist war art, notably his "Italian Lancers at a Gallop" (1915) and "Armoured Train" (1915).

Crystal Cubism and Neo-classicism.

In 1916 Severini departed from Futurism and painted several works in a naturalistic style inspired by his interest in early Renaissance art. After the First World War, Severini gradually abandoned the Futurist style and painted in a synthetic Crystal Cubist style until 1920. By 1920 he was applying theories of classical balance based on the Golden Section to still lifes and figurative subjects from the traditional commedia dell'arte. He became part of the "return to order" in the arts in the post-war era. Works such as "The Two Pulchinellas" (1922) exemplify Severini's turn toward a more conservative, analytic type of painting, which nonetheless suggests metaphysical overtones.  After 1920, Severini divided his time between Paris and Rome. In 1921, he was commissioned by George Sitwell to paint murals for Montefugoni castle, which the latter had bought in 1909; the same year, Severini published "Du cubisme au classicisme: Esthétique du compas et du nombre", a book summarizing his research into mathematical theories of harmony and proportion. The murals were completed in 1922.  In 1923 and 1925 he took part in the Rome Biennale. He exhibited in Milan with artists of the Novecento Italiano group in 1926 and 1929 and in their Geneva exhibition of 1929. From 1928 he began to incorporate elements of Rome's classical landscape in his work. In 1930 he took part in the Venice Biennale, exhibited in the Rome Quadrennials of 1931 and 1935, and in 1935 won the first prize for painting, with an entire room devoted to his work. He contributed a cycle of works to the Paris Exhibition. He explored fresco and mosaic techniques and executed murals in various media in Switzerland, France, and Italy.  During this decade, he taught the Swiss printmaker Lill Tschudi, who had previously studied at the Grosvenor School of Modern Art.

Later life.

In the 1940s Severini's style became semi-abstract. In the 1950s he returned to his Futurist subjects: dancers, light and movement. He executed commissions for the church of Saint-Pierre in Freiburg and inaugurated the "Conségna delle Chiavi" ("Delivery of the Keys") mosaic. His mosaics were shown at the Cahiers d'Art gallery in Paris and he participated in a conference on the history of mosaic at Ravenna. He received commissions to decorate the offices of KLM in Rome and Alitalia in Paris and took part in the exhibition "The Futurists, Balla - Severini 1912–1918" at the Rose Fried Gallery in New York. In Rome he reconstructed his "Pan Pan Dance" mosaic, which had been destroyed in the war. He was awarded the "Premio Nazionale di Pittura" of the Accademia di San Luca in Rome, exhibited at the 9th Rome Quadrennal and was given a solo exhibition at the Accademia di San Luca.  Throughout his career he published important theoretical essays and books on art. In 1946 he published an autobiography, "The Life of a Painter".  Severini died in Paris on 26 February 1966, aged 82. He was buried at Cortona.

Public collections.

Among the public collections holding works by Gino Severini are:

Gino Severini (7 April 1883 – 26 February 1966) was an Italian painter and a leading member of the Futurist movement. For much of his life he divided his time between Paris and Rome. He was associated with neo-classicism and the "return to order" in the decade after the First World War. During his career he worked in a variety of media, including mosaic and fresco. He showed his work at major exhibitions, including the Rome Quadrennial, and won art prizes from major institutions.

Gino Severini (7. dubna 1883 – 26. února 1966) byl italský malíř a představitel futurismu. Od roku 1906 žil v Paříži. Byl signatářem "Manifestu futuristických malířů".


Forms.

Like other parts of the verb, participles can be either active (e.g. "breaking") or passive (e.g. "broken"). Participles are also often associated with certain verbal aspects or tenses. The two types of participle in English are traditionally called the present participle (forms such as "writing", "singing" and "raising") and the past participle (forms such as "written", "sung" and "raised").

Usage.

Participles can be used as an adjective:  Another use is in a phrase which serves as a shortened form of a relative clause:  These phrases are equivalent to  Such participle phrases generally follow the noun they describe, just as relative clauses do.  Often a participle replaces an adverbial clause. For example:  In the above sentence, the participles can be interpreted as equivalent to an adverbial clause of time, namely "after he had drawn his sword", and "when she was sleeping".  A verb phrase based on a participle is called a participle phrase or participial phrase ("participial" is an adjective derived from "participle"). For example, "wearing a hat" and "broken by the wind" are participial phrases based respectively on an English present participle and past participle. Since these phrases are equivalent to a clause, they may also be called a participle clause or participial clause. Participial clauses generally do not have an expressed grammatical subject; but occasionally a participial clause does include a subject, as in the English nominative absolute construction "The king having died,...".  A fourth use of participles in some languages is in combination with an auxiliary verb such as "has" or "is" to make a compound or periphrastic verb tense which in other languages can often be expressed by a single word:

Types of participle.

Participles are often connected to certain grammatical tenses or grammatical aspects. The two types of participle in Modern English are termed present participle and past participle, respectively. However, Crystal indicated that "there is a tendency to avoid the traditional terms (and use terms like "-ing form" and "-ed/-en form" instead)". Other grammar books also noted that the terms do not imply that they are tensed forms. The traditional terms are misleading because the present participle is often associated with the progressive (continuous) aspect, while the past participle is linked with the perfect aspect or passive voice. See the examples below:  The first sentence is in the past tense, but a present participle was used to express the progressive aspect. The second sentence is in the future tense, but a past participle was used for the perfect meaning.  Participles may also be identified with a particular voice: active or passive. Some languages (such as Latin and Russian) have distinct participles for active and passive uses. In English, the present participle is essentially an active participle, while the past participle has both active and passive uses.  The following examples illustrate this:  A distinction is also sometimes made between adjectival participles and adverbial participles. An adverbial participle (or a participial phrase/clause based on such a participle) plays the role of an adverbial (adverb phrase) in the sentence in which it appears, whereas an adjectival participle (or a participial phrase/clause based on one) plays the role of an adjective phrase. Some languages have different forms for the two types of participle; such languages include Russian and other Slavic languages, Hungarian, and many Eskimo languages, such as Sireniki, which has a sophisticated participle system. Details can be found in the sections below or in the articles on the grammars of specific languages.  Some descriptive grammars treat adverbial and adjectival participles as distinct lexical categories, while others include them both in a single category of participles. Sometimes different names are used; adverbial participles in certain languages may be called converbs, gerunds, or gerundives (though this is not consistent with the meanings of the terms "gerund" or "gerundive" as normally applied to English or Latin), or transgressives.  Participles can be used adjectivally (i.e. without characteristics of canonical verbs) as "attributive adjectives". They then take neither object complements nor modifiers that are typical of canonical verbs, but adjectivally attributive participles are capable of being modified by adverbs such as "very" or "slightly". The difference is illustrated by the following examples:  In the first sentence "interesting" functions transitively as a nonfinite verb that takes the object "him", thereby forming the phrase "interesting him", which constitutes an adjectival phrase that modifies the noun, "subject". However, in the second sentence "interesting" functions non-transitively; it instead acts as a prepositive adjective that can be modified by typical adverbs such as "very" or "quite" (or a prefix such as "un-"). Similar examples are ""interested" people", "a "frightened" rabbit", ""fallen" leaves", ""meat-eating" animals".

Indo-European languages.

Germanic languages.

Early English.

In Old English, past participles of Germanic strong verbs were marked with a "ge-" prefix, as are most strong and weak past participles in Dutch and German today, and often by a vowel change in the stem. Those of weak verbs were marked by the ending "-d", with or without an epenthetic vowel before it. Modern English past participles derive from these forms (although the "ge-" prefix, which became "y-" in Middle English, has now been lost — except in some rare dialects such as the Dorset dialect, where it takes the form of "a-").  Old English present participles were marked with an ending in "-ende" (or "-iende" for verbs whose infinitives ended in "-ian").

Middle English.

In Middle English, the form of the present participle varied across regions: "-ende" (southwest, southeast, Midlands), "-inde" (southwest, southeast), "-and" (north), "-inge" (southeast). The last is the one that became standard, falling together with the suffix "-ing" used to form verbal nouns. See "-ing" (etymology).

Modern English.

Modern English verbs have two participles:  In addition various compound participles can be formed, such as "having done", "being done", "having been doing", "having been done".  Details of participle formation can be found under English verbs and List of English irregular verbs.  The present participle, or participial phrases (clauses) formed from it, are used as follows:  Past participles, or participial phrases (clauses) formed from them, are used as follows:  Both types of participles are also often used adjectivally (see above). For instance: Note, however, that a past participle that complements a stative verb (e.g., "The files that "are attached" or "Our comrades who "have fallen") becomes a passive participle within a passive voice construct. Additionally, participles that express an adjectivally attributive meaning can be affixed to form adverbs, such as "interestingly" and "excitedly".  The gerund is distinct from the present participle. A gerund can function transitively (e.g., "I like "eating ice cream") or intransitively (e.g., "I like "swimming"). In both instances, a gerund functions nominatively rather than adjectivally or adverbially whether as an object (e.g., "I like "sleeping"") or as a subject (e.g., ""Sleeping" is not allowed.") Although "gerunds" and "present participles" are morphologically identical, their grammatical functions differ substantially. Sometimes their morphological similarity can create contextual ambiguity, as Noam Chomsky pointed out in his well-known example:  When the meaning is "The practice of flying a plane is dangerous," "flying" functions as a gerund; when the meaning is "Planes that fly" or "Planes when they are flying" (i.e., in contrast to "grounded planes"), "flying" is being used adjectivally as a participle.  For more on the distinctions between these uses of the "-ing" verb form, see "-ing": uses.  For more details on uses of participles and other parts of verbs in English, see Uses of English verb forms, including the sections on the present participle and past participle.

Scandinavian languages.

In all of the Scandinavian languages the past participle has to agree with the noun to some degree. All of the Scandinavian languages have mandatory agreement with the noun in number. Nynorsk and Swedish have mandatory agreement in both number and gender. Icelandic and Faroese have agreement in number, gender and case. For the present participle there is no agreement.  Examples in Nynorsk: The participles are marked in bold. The first example involves a present participle and the two latter examples involves a past participle. All present participles end with an -ande suffix.

Latin and Romance languages.

Latin.

Latin grammar was studied in Europe for hundreds of years, especially the handbook written by the 4th-century teacher Aelius Donatus, and it is from Latin that the name and concept of the participle derives. According to Donatus there are four participles in Latin, as follows:  However, many modern Latin grammars treat the gerundive as a separate part of speech.  The perfect participle is usually passive in meaning, and thus mainly formed from transitive verbs, for example "frāctus" "broken", "missus" "sent (by someone)". However, certain verbs (called deponent verbs) have a perfect participle in an active sense, e.g. "profectus" "having set out", "hortātus" "having encouraged", etc. The present and future participles are always active, the gerundive usually passive.  Because a participle is an adjective as well as a verb, just like any other Latin adjective its ending changes according to the noun it describes. So when the noun is masculine, the participle must be masculine; when the noun is in the accusative (object) case, the participle is also in the accusative case; when the noun has plural endings, the participle also has plural endings. Thus a simple participle such as "frāctus" "broken" can change to "frācta", "frāctum", "frāctī", "frāctō" and so on, according to its gender, number, and case.  A participle can have a descriptive meaning like an adjective, or a more dynamic meaning like a verb. Thus in the following sentence the participle "strīctō" "drawn" is better taken as describing an action ("he drew his sword" or "after drawing his sword") rather than as describing the sword ("with a drawn sword"):  The dynamic, verbal meaning is more common, and Latin often uses a participle where English might use a simple verb.  The present participle often describes the circumstances attending the main verb. A typical example is:  Both the future and the perfect participle (but not the present participle) can be used with various tenses of the verb "esse" "to be" to make a compound tense such as the future-in-the-past or the perfect passive:  The perfect and future participles can also be used, with or without the verb "esse" "to be", in indirect speech clauses:  For uses of the gerundive, see Latin syntax#The gerundive.

French.

There are two basic participles:  Compound participles are possible:  Usage:

Spanish.

In Spanish, the so-called present or active participle ("participio activo" or "participio de presente") of a verb is traditionally formed with one of the suffixes "-ante, -ente" or "-iente", but modern grammar does not consider it a true participle, as such forms usually have the meaning of simple adjectives or nouns: e.g. "amante" "loving" or "lover", "viviente" "living" or "live".  Another participial form is known as the "gerundio", which ends in an (unchanging) suffix "-ando", "-endo", or "-iendo". The gerundio is used in combination with the verb "estar" ("to be") to make continuous tenses: for example, "estar haciendo" means "to be doing" ("haciendo" being the "gerundio" of "hacer", "to do"), and there are related constructions such as "seguir haciendo" meaning "to keep doing" ("seguir" being "to continue"). Another use is in phrases such as "vino corriendo" ("he/she came running") and "lo vi corriendo" ("I saw him running").  The past participle ("participio pasado" or "participio pasivo") is regularly formed with one of the suffixes "-ado" or "-ido"; but some verbs have an irregular form ending in "-to" (e.g. "escrito, visto, puesto"), or "-cho" (e.g. "dicho, hecho"). The past participle is used generally as an adjective referring to a finished action, in which case its ending changes according to gender and number. At other times is used to form compound tenses (as in English), in which case it is indeclinable. Some examples:  As an adjective:  To form compound tenses:

Hellenic languages.

Ancient Greek.

The Ancient Greek participle shares in the properties of adjectives and verbs. Like an adjective, it changes form for gender, case, and number. Like a verb, it has tense and voice, is modified by adverbs, and can take verb arguments, including an object. Participles are quite numerous in Ancient Greek: a non-defective verb has as many as ten participles.  There is a form of the participle for every combination of tense (present, aorist, perfect, future) and voice (active, middle, passive). All participles are based on the stems of the corresponding tenses. Here are the masculine nominative singular forms for a thematic and an athematic verb:  Like an adjective, it can modify a noun, and can be used to embed one thought into another.  In the example, the participial phrase "tòn eû stratēgḗsonta", literally "the one going to be a good general," is used to embed the idea "eû stratēgḗsei" "he will be a good general" within the main verb.  The participle is very widely used in Ancient Greek, especially in prose.

Celtic languages.

Welsh.

In Welsh, the effect of a participle in the active voice is constructed by "yn" followed by the verb-noun (for the present participle) and "wedi" followed by the verb-noun (for the past participle). There is no mutation in either case. In the passive voice, participles are usually replaced by a compound phrase such as "wedi cael ei/eu" ("having got his/her/their...ing") in contemporary Welsh and by the impersonal form in classical Welsh.

Slavic languages.

Polish.

The Polish word for participle is "imiesłów" (pl.: "imiesłowy"). There are four types of "imiesłowy" in two classes:  Adjectival participle ("imiesłów przymiotnikowy"):  Adverbial participle ("imiesłów przysłówkowy"):  Due to the distinction between adjectival and adverbial participles, in Polish it is practically impossible to make a dangling participle in the classical English meaning of the term. For instance, in the sentence:  it is unclear whether "I" or "they" were hiding in the closet. In Polish there is a clear distinction:

Russian.

Verb: слышать [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐtj] (to hear, imperfective aspect)  Verb: услышать [ʊˈsɫɨ.ʂɐtj] (to hear, perfective aspect)  Future participles formed from perfective verbs are not considered a part of standard language.

Bulgarian.

Participles are adjectives formed from verbs. There are various kinds:  Verb: правя [pravja] (to do, imperfective aspect):  Verb: направя [napravja] (to do, perfective aspect):

Macedonian.

Macedonian has completely lost or transformed the participles of Common Slavic, unlike the other Slavic languages. The following points may be noted:

Baltic languages.

Lithuanian.

Among Indo-European languages, the Lithuanian language is unique for having fourteen different participial forms of the verb, which can be grouped into five when accounting for inflection by tense. Some of these are also inflected by gender and case. For example, the verb "eiti" ("to go, to walk") has the active participle forms "einąs/einantis" ("going, walking", present tense), "ėjęs" (past tense), "eisiąs" (future tense), "eidavęs" (past frequentative tense), the passive participle forms "einamas" ("being walked", present tense), "eitas" (“walked” past tense), "eisimas" (future tense), the adverbial participles "einant" ("while [he, different subject] is walking" present tense), "ėjus" (past tense), "eisiant" (future tense), "eidavus" (past frequentative tense), the semi-participle "eidamas" ("while [he, the same subject] is going, walking") and the participle of necessity "eitinas" ("that which needs to be walked"). The active, passive, and the semi-participles are inflected by gender, and the active, passive, and necessity ones are inflected by case.

Semitic languages.

Arabic.

The Arabic verb has two participles: an active participle (اسم الفاعل) and a passive participle (اسم المفعول ), and the form of the participle is predictable by inspection of the dictionary form of the verb. These participles are inflected for gender, number and case, but not person. Arabic participles are employed syntactically in a variety of ways: as nouns, as adjectives or even as verbs. Their uses vary across varieties of Arabic. In general the active participle describes a property of the syntactic subject of the verb from which it derives, whilst the passive participles describes the object. For example, from the verb كتب "kataba", the active participle is "kātib" كاتب and the passive participle is "maktūb" مكتوب. Roughly these translate to "writing" and "written" respectively. However, they have different, derived lexical uses. كاتب "kātib" is further lexicalized as "writer", "author" and مكتوب "maktūb" as "letter".  In Classical Arabic these participles do not participate in verbal constructions with auxiliaries the same way as their English counterparts do, and rarely take on a verbal meaning in a sentence (a notable exception being participles derived from motion verbs as well as participles in Qur'anic Arabic). In certain dialects of Arabic however, it is much more common for the participles, especially the active participle, to have verbal force in the sentence. For example, in dialects of the Levant, the active participle is a structure that describes the state of the syntactic subject after the action of the verb from which it derives has taken place. "ʼĀkil", the active participle of "ʼakala" ("to eat"), describes one's state after having eaten something. Therefore, it can be used in analogous way to the English present perfect (for example, "ʼAnā ʼākil" انا آكل meaning "I have eaten", "I have just eaten" or "I have already eaten"). Other verbs, such as "rāḥa" راح ("to go") give a participle ("rāyiḥ" رايح), which has a progressive ("is going...") meaning. The exact tense or continuity of these participles is therefore determined by the nature of the specific verb (especially its lexical aspect and its transitivity) and the syntactic/semantic context of the utterance. What ties them all together is that they describe the subject of the verb from which they derive. The passive participles in certain dialects can be used as a sort of passive voice, but more often than not, are used in their various lexicalized senses as adjectives or nouns.

Finno-Ugric languages.

Finnish.

Finnish uses six participles to convey different meanings. Below is a table displaying the declension of the participles of the verb tappaa (to kill).  The participles work in the following way:  Each and every one of these participles can be used as adjectives, which means that some of them can be turned into nouns.

Hungarian.

Hungarian uses adjectival and adverbial participles.  Adjectival participles ("melléknévi igenév") can be one of these three types:  Adverbial participles ("határozói igenév") can be:  In Hungarian grammar the infinitive is also considered a kind of participle, namely the noun participle ("főnévi igenév").

Turkic languages.

Turkish.

Participles are called "sıfat-fiil" (lit. adjective-verb) or "ortaç" in Turkish.  Turkish participles consist of a verb stem and a suffix. Some participles may be conjugated, but some may not. Participles always precede the noun they are defining, as in English.  Participle suffixes, like many other suffixes in Turkish, change according to the vowel harmony and sandhi.  There are eight types of participle suffixes; "-en", "-esi", "-mez", "-ar", "-di(k/ği)" "-ecek" and "-miş"

Austronesian languages.

Malay and Indonesian.

Malay and Indonesian use prefixes such as "di-" (intentional), "ter-" (accidental) or "sudah".

Eskimo-Aleut languages.

Sireniki Eskimo.

Sireniki Eskimo language, an extinct Eskimo–Aleut language, has separate sets of "adverbial participles" and "adjectival participles". Different from in English, adverbial participles are conjugated to reflect the person and number of their implicit subjects; hence, while in English a sentence like "If "I" were a marksman, "I" would kill walruses" requires two full clauses (to distinguish the two verbs' different subjects), in Sireniki Eskimo one of these may be replaced with an adverbial participle (since its conjugation indicates the subject).

Constructed languages.

Esperanto.

Esperanto has six different participle conjugations; active and passive for past, present and future. The participles are formed as follows:  For example, a "falonta botelo" is a bottle that will fall or is about to fall. A "falanta botelo" is one that is falling through the air. After it hits the floor, it is a "falinta botelo." These examples use the active participles, but the usage of the passive participles is similar. A cake that is going to be divided is a "dividota kuko". When it is in the process of being divided, it is a "dividata kuko". Having been cut, it is now a "dividita kuko".  These participles can be used in conjunction with the verb to be, "esti", forming 18 compound tenses (9 active and 9 passive). However, this soon becomes complicated and often unnecessary, and is only frequently used when rigorous translation of English is required. An example of this would be "la knabo estos instruita", or, the boy will have been taught. This example sentence is then in the future anterior.  When the suffix "-o" is used, instead of "-a", then the participle refers to a person. A "manĝanto" is someone who is eating. A "manĝinto" is someone who ate. A "manĝonto" is someone who will eat. Also, a "manĝito" is someone who was eaten, a "manĝato" is someone who is being eaten, and a "manĝoto" is someone who will be eaten.  These rules hold true for all transitive verbs. Since copular and intransitive verbs do not have passive voice, their participle forms can only be active.  An informal and unofficial addition to these six are the participles for conditional forms, which use "-unt-" and "-ut-". For example, "parolunto" refers to someone who would speak (or would have spoken), and a "leguta libro" is a book that would be read (or have been read). These unofficial participle forms are however very rarely used in practice, and more often as a linguistic joke than in a serious way.

A participle () is a linguistics term for a certain class of nonfinite verb forms whose sentence function varies according to the contextual structure in which the participle occurs. Depending on the context, a participle may function adverbially or as an adjective. Its name derives from the Latin "participium", a calque of Greek μετοχή ("metokhḗ") "partaking" or "sharing"; because the Ancient Greek and Latin participles evince some analogous adverbial attributes and adjectival characteristics vis-à-vis nouns (gender, number, case) as well as verbs (tense and voice).

Příčestí (participium, z lat. "participare" – „mít účast“; české označení vzniklo obrozeneckým převzetím ruského "pričástije", což je částečný kalk z latiny) je neurčitý jmenný tvar slovesa, který má v jazyce různé funkce:


Description.

The type specimen of "Scansoriopteryx heilmanni" (specimen number CAGS02-IG-gausa-1/DM 607) represents the fossilized remains of a hatchling maniraptoran dinosaur, similar in some ways to "Archaeopteryx". A second specimen, the holotype of "Epidendrosaurus ninchengensis" (IVPP V12653), also shows features indicating it was a juvenile. The specimen is partially disarticulated, and most bones are preserved as impressions in the rock slab, rather than three-dimensional structures. Because the only known specimens are juvenile, the size of a full-grown "Scansoriopteryx" is unknown–the type specimen is a tiny, sparrow-sized creature.  "Scansoriopteryx" is also notable for its wide, rounded jaws. The lower jaw contained at least twelve teeth, larger in the front of the jaws than in the back. The lower jaw bones may have been fused together, a feature otherwise known only in the oviraptorosaurs.  One distinctive feature of "Scansoriopteryx" is its elongated third finger, which is the longest on the hand, nearly twice as long as the second finger. This is unlike the configuration seen in most other theropods, where the second finger is longest. The long wing feathers, or remiges, appear to attach to this long digit instead of the middle digit as in birds and other maniraptorans. Shorter feathers are preserved attached to the second finger. A relative of "Scansoriopteryx", "Yi", suggests that this elongated third finger supported a membranous wing of some kind alongside feathers.  "Scansoriopteryx" had a non-perforated hip socket, which is more open in most, but not all, other dinosaurs. It also had a pubis (hip bone) which pointed forward, a primitive trait among theropods, and unlike some maniraptorans more closely related to birds, where the pubis points downward or backward. The legs were short, and preserve small pebbly scales along the upper foot (metatarsus), as well as possible impressions of long feathers in the same area, possibly similar to the "hind wings" of "Microraptor" and other basal paravians. It also had an unusually large first toe, or hallux, which was low on the foot and may have been reversed, allowing some grasping ability.  The tail was long, six or seven times the length of the femur, and ended in a fan of feathers.

Paleobiology.

Several tiny fossil eggs discovered in the Sao Khua Formation of Phu Phok, Thailand (one of which contained an embryo) were originally thought to have been laid by a small dinosaur similar to "Scansoriopteryx". However, further study showed that the eggs actually belonged to an anguimorph lizard.

Climbing.

In describing "Scansoriopteryx", Czerkas & Yuan cited evidence for an arboreal (tree-dwelling) lifestyle. They noted that, unlike all modern bird hatchlings, the forelimbs of "Scansoriopteryx" are longer than the hind limbs. The authors argued that this anomaly indicates the forelimbs played an important role in locomotion even at an extremely early developmental stage. "Scansoriopteryx" has a well-preserved foot, and the authors interpreted the hallux as reversed, the condition of a backward-pointing toe being widespread among modern tree-dwelling birds. Furthermore, the authors pointed to the short, stiffened tail of the "Scansoriopteryx" specimen as a tree-climbing adaptation. The tail may have been used as a prop, much like the tails of modern woodpeckers. Comparison with the hands of modern climbing species with elongated third digits, like iguanid lizards, also supports the tree-climbing hypothesis. Indeed, the hands of "Scansoriopteryx" are much better adapted to climbing than the modern tree-climbing hatchling of the hoatzin.  The "Epidendrosaurus" was also interpreted as arboreal based on the elongated hand and specializations in the foot. The describing authors stated that the long hand and strongly curved claws are adaptations for climbing and moving around among tree branches. They viewed this as an early stage in the evolution of the bird wing, stating that the forelimbs became well-developed for climbing, and that this development later lead to the evolution of a wing capable of flight. They stated that long, grasping hands are more suited to climbing than to flight, since most flying birds have relatively short hands.  Zhang "et al." also noted that the foot of "Epidendrosaurus" is unique among non-avian theropods. While the "Epidendrosaurus" specimen does not preserve a reversed hallux, the backward-facing toe seen in modern perching birds, its foot was very similar in construction to more primitive perching birds like "Cathayornis" and "Longipteryx". These adaptations for grasping ability in all four limbs makes it likely that "Epidendrosaurus" spent a significant amount of time living in trees.

Feathers and scales.

"Scansoriopteryx" fossils preserve impressions of wispy, down-like feathers around select parts of the body, forming V-shaped patterns similar to those seen in modern down feathers. The most prominent feather impressions trail from the left forearm and hand. The longer feathers in this region led Czerkas and Yuan to speculate that adult scansoriopterygids may have had reasonably well-developed wing feathers which could have aided in leaping or rudimentary gliding, though they ruled out the possibility that "Scansoriopteryx" could have achieved powered flight. Like other maniraptorans, "Scansoriopteryx" had a semilunate (half-moon shaped) bone in the wrist that allowed for bird-like folding motion in the hand. Even if powered flight was not possible, this motion could have aided maneuverability in leaping from branch to branch. Reticulate scales were preserved in the proximal portion of the second metatarsal, and the "Epidendrosaurus" specimen also preserved faint feather impressions at the end of the tail, similar to the pattern found in "Microraptor".

Paleoecology.

The holotype skeleton of "Epidendrosaurus" was recovered from the Daohugou fossil beds of northeastern China. In the past, there has been some uncertainty regarding the age of these beds. Various papers have placed the fossils here anywhere from the Middle Jurassic period (169 million years ago) to the Early Cretaceous period (122 ma). The age of this formation has implications for the relationship between "Epidendrosaurus" and similar dinosaurs, as well as for the origin of birds in general. A Middle Jurassic age would mean that the bird-like dinosaurs in the Daohugou beds are older than the "first bird", "Archaeopteryx", which was Late Jurassic in age. The provenance of "Scansoriopteryx" is uncertain, though Wang "et al." (2006), in their study of the age of the Daohugou, suggest that it probably hails from the same beds, and thus is likely a synonym of "Epidendrosaurus".

History.

The provenance of the "Scansoriopteryx" type specimen is uncertain, as it was obtained from private fossil dealers who did not record exact geologic data. Czerkas and Yuan initially reported that it had likely come from the Yixian Formation, though Wang "et al." (2006), in their study of the age of the Daohugou Beds, suggested that it probably hails from the same beds, and thus is likely a synonym of "Epidendrosaurus". The Daohugou Beds supposedly date to the mid-late Jurassic Period, but this is hotly contested. See the Daohugou Beds article for details.  The type specimen of "Scansoriopteryx" (type genus of the Scansoriopterygidae) and its arboreal adaptations were first presented in 2000 during the Florida Symposium on Dinosaur/Bird Evolution, at the Graves Museum of Archaeology & Natural History, though the specimen would not be formally described and named until 2002.

Classification.

"Scansoriopteryx" lent its name to the family Scansoriopterygidae. Studies of dinosaur relationships have found "Scansoriopteryx" to be a close relative of true birds and a member of the clade Avialae.  The status of the name "Scansoriopteryx" has been controversial. The type specimen was described only a few months after a very similar specimen, "Epidendrosaurus ninchengensis", was described online, though the name "Epidendrosaurus" was not published in print until after "Scansoriopteryx". These two specimens are so similar that they may be the same genus, in which case Article 21 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) would give priority to "Scansoriopteryx". The journal in which "Scansoriopteryx" appeared has a very small circulation, but was distributed on roughly 2002-09-02, before the print appearance of "Epidendrosaurus", but well after the later's appearance on the Internet, enough time for the name "Epidendrosaurus" to have come into wide use by experts. This situation was used as an example in a proposed amendment to the ICZN by Jerry Harris that would consider electronic articles with Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) that are subsequently available in print to qualify as "publication" for naming purposes. Harris noted that while the name "Epidendrosarus" appeared first, "Scansoriopteryx" was the first to be published in print and is therefore the valid name, but the fact that the ICZN does not recognize online names as valid has led to confusion over which has priority. In scientific literature, the genus "Scansoriopteryx" has been treated as a senior synonym of "Epidendrosaurus" by some scientists, such as Alan Feduccia, and as a junior synonym by others such as Thomas R. Holtz, Jr. and Kevin Padian.

Alternate interpretations.

Czerkas and Yuan used the suite of primitive and birdlike characters in "Scansoriopteryx" to argue for an unorthodox interpretation of dinosaur evolution. They stated that "Scansoriopteryx" was "clearly more primitive than "Archaeopteryx"", based on its primitive, "saurischian-style" pubis and robust ischia. "Scansoriopteryx" also lacks a fully perforated acetabulum, the hole in the hip socket which is a key characteristic of Dinosauria and has traditionally been used to define the group. While the authors allowed that the hole may have closed secondarily, having evolved from a more traditional dinosaurian hip socket, they cited the other primitive features to argue that it is a true primitive trait, which would make "Scansoriopteryx" among the most birdlike "and" the most primitive known dinosaurs. Czerkas and Yuan called it a "proto-maniraptoran", supporting the hypothesis of Gregory S. Paul that the larger, ground-dwelling maniraptorans like "Velociraptor" evolved from small, flying or gliding forms that lived in trees. The authors took this idea further than Paul, however, and lent support to George Olshevsky's 1992 "birds came first" hypothesis, that "all" true theropods are secondarily flightless or at least secondarily arboreal, having evolved from small, tree-dwelling, "Scansoriopteryx"-like ancestors. Czerkas and Yuan also argued that, contrary to most phylogenetic trees, maniraptorans form a separate lineage from other theropods, and that this split occurred very early in theropod evolution.  In 2014, Czerkas, along with Alan Feduccia, published a paper further describing "Scansoriopteryx" and stating their opinion that certain archaic features of the skeleton and the hypothesis that it was arboreal ruled out the possibility that it was a theropod or even a dinosaur, but that "Scansoriopteryx" and all birds evolved from non-dinosaurian avemetatarsalian archosaurs like "Scleromochlus".

Scansoriopteryx ("climbing wing") is a genus of maniraptoran dinosaur. Described from only a single juvenile fossil specimen found in Liaoning, China, "Scansoriopteryx" is a sparrow-sized animal that shows adaptations in the foot indicating an arboreal (tree-dwelling) lifestyle. It possessed an unusual, elongated third finger which may have supported a membranous wing, much like the related "Yi qi". The type specimen of "Scansoriopteryx" also contains the fossilized impression of feathers.

Scansoriopteryx („šplhající křídlo“) byl dalším čínským opeřeným dinosaurem, který měl speciální adaptace pro arboreální způsob života (prodloužený třetí prst pro držení se na větvích stromů). Jako příbuzní dinosauři (např. "Epidendrosaurus") vykazoval tento teropod velmi ptačí vzhled. Se zmíněným rodem také tvoří čeleď Scansoriopterygidae.


Development.

After witnessing the inadequacies of their M13/40 and M14/41 medium tanks, the Italian Army decided that they needed a stopgap design until the heavier P26/40 was ready for production. The M13/40 and M14/41, although comparable to most of their early British and Allied contemporaries, had several severe drawbacks which made them very unsuited for the deserts of North Africa. Moreover, their guns, although adequate against most medium tanks, could not penetrate the most heavily armoured British types being fielded in North Africa at the time.  In early 1941 the Italians attempted to create a tank, the M16/43 "Saharan Fast Medium Tank", based on the design of a captured British A15 Crusader tank. Although the prototype tank performed well in trials, the type was cancelled in 1943; by this time, Italy had lost its North African territories and no longer needed a fast tank built for the deserts of North Africa. During the development of this tank, the Germans offered both their Panzer III and Panzer IV medium tanks for licensed production, under the condition that they supply half the resources needed for production, and all of the guns and sights for the tank. The Italians, not wanting to hand their industries to the Germans, rejected the offer, deciding instead to settle on an improved version of their own M14/41.  This tank would be 12 centimetres longer than the original M14/41, and would mount a new gun originally meant for the M16/43, a new gasoline engine (the 12 litre 190 hp SPA 15TB M42, chosen due to a shortage of diesel fuel in Italy at the time) and a new drive. The vehicle, officially known as the Carro Armato M15/42 ("M" for medium tank, the weight in tonnes (15), and the year of adoption (1942)), incorporated improvements learned from the battles in North Africa; but development of the tank's main gun and ammunition meant that it could not enter production until 1 January 1943, when it was already obsolete.  The main armament consisted of an improved version of the 47 mm/L32 main gun, known as the 47 mm/L40. It was mounted in a fully rotating, electrically driven turret, and had an elevation of 20 degrees, and a depression of 10 degrees. The gun was capable of firing hollow charge, high explosive, and armour piercing rounds. The secondary armament consisted of five Breda 38 machine guns (two mounted in the hull, another two in a coaxial mount, and the fifth on top of the tank in an anti-aircraft mount.)

Production.

Nicola Pignato in his work quotes 180 tanks registered with their respective license plates before the armistice. A study, written by the expert Davide Guglielmi and published in the bimonthly magazine "Storia Militare", talks about 124 tanks captured by the German armed forces and 28 more produced during 1944. The total, therefore, would amount to 152 units. Cappellano on publication number 6 of 2013 of the same journal recorded different production statistics. His study was based on an original Ansaldo document. In addition to the prototype dating back to 1941, there are reported 103 vehicles assembled in 1942 and 36 in the first quarter of 1943, plus 80 planned up to December 31, 1943; however it is not known if this last quote was reached. Furthermore, the study does not mention the M15/42 produced after the Italian capitulation.

Combat use.

Italy began producing the M15/42 on 1 January 1943, and by mid-1943 had produced about 90. After the armistice of Cassibile on 8 September 1943, Italian formations from the 135th Armoured Division Ariete II fought with German troops moving to disarm them in Rome. The M15/42s were among the tanks they used in this battle.  After the armistice, Germany confiscated all remaining M15/42s. Under the Germans, an additional 28 incomplete M15/42s were produced. In German service, the M15/42 fought mostly in Yugoslavia, with 85 tanks being stationed there by December 1944.

Variants.

M.42 command tank.

The M15/42 served as the basis for the design of the "M42 Self-Propelled Command tank", intended to serve in departments equipped with self-propelled guns. The turret was removed and the rolling ring closed with an 8 mm thick armored plate, in which two doors were obtained; on the roof was mounted a Breda Mod. 38 of 8 mm in anti-aircraft function. The two Breda Mod. 38 in the casemate were instead replaced by a single Breda Mod. 31 of 13.2 mm and two Magneti Marelli radios, an RF1 CA and an RF2 CA and two extra batteries were placed in the hull; finally a rangefinder was installed. The M42 was produced in 45 units in 1943. A small number was captured by Germany, which placed them in service under the designation Panzerbefehlswagen M42 772 (i): they were employed in the Italian war theater until the end of hostilities.

Self-propelled guns.

The M15/42 served as a basis for the development of varius self-propelled guns: the Semovente 75/34, Semovente 75/46 and the Semovente 105/25 A prototype self-propelled anti-aircraft gun carrying four 20 mm Soctti-Isotta Fraschini anti-aircraft guns in a lightly armoured turret, based on the M15/42, was produced in 1943. After the armistice the Germans captured this vehicle, and may have used it as a model for their self-propelled anti-aircraft guns, derived from the Panzer IV medium tank (Flakpanzer IV).

The Carro Armato M15/42 was the last Italian medium tank produced during World War II. It was based on the earlier M13/40 and M14/41 medium tanks, and was built with the lessons from the North African Campaign in mind. The tank was meant to be a stopgap until the heavier P26/40 tank could be produced in numbers. It did not serve in North Africa, the theatre in which it was intended to operate, but served in Italy and in Yugoslavia with the German Wehrmacht.

M15/42 byl italský střední tank používaný ve druhé světové válce. Jednalo se o pokračování řady středních tanků řady "M". Oproti svému předchůdci M13/40 měl delší korbu a silnější pancéřování. Jeho produkce začala roku 1943, celkem bylo vyrobeno 90 kusů těchto tanků. Po kapitulaci Itálie byly kořistní tanky, které získala německá armáda, nazvány jako PzKpfw M15/42 738(i). Na druhé straně však byly užity i proti Němcům při bitvě o Řím.


Discomfort and disability.

Glare can be generally divided into two types, discomfort glare and disability glare. Discomfort glare results in an instinctive desire to look away from a bright light source or difficulty in seeing a task. Disability glare impairs the vision of objects without necessarily causing discomfort. This could arise for instance when driving westward at sunset.  Disability glare is often caused by the inter-reflection of light within the eyeball, reducing the contrast between task and glare source to the point where the task cannot be distinguished. When glare is so intense that vision is completely impaired, it is sometimes called dazzle.

Reducing factors.

Glare can reduce visibility by:  Sunglasses are often worn to reduce glare; polarized sunglasses are designed to reduce glare caused by light reflected from non-metallic surfaces such as water, glossy printed matter or painted surfaces. An anti-reflective treatment on eyeglasses reduces the glare at night and glare from inside lights and computer screens that is caused by light bouncing off the lens. Some types of eyeglasses can reduce glare that occurs because of the imperfections on the surface of the eye.  Light field measurements can be taken to reduce glare with digital post-processing.

Measurement.

Glare is typically measured with luminance meters or luminance cameras, both of which are able to determine the luminance of objects within small solid angles. The glare of a scene i.e. visual field of view, is then calculated from the luminance data of that scene.  The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) defines glare as: "visual conditions in which there is excessive contrast or an inappropriate distribution of light sources that disturbs the observer or limits the ability to distinguish details and objects."  The CIE recommends the "Unified glare rating" (UGR) as a quantitative measure of glare. Other glare calculation methods include "CIBSE Glare Index", "IES Glare Index" and the "Daylight Glare Index" (DGI).

Unified glare rating.

The unified glare rating (UGR) is a measure of the glare in a given environment, proposed by Sorensen in 1987 and adopted by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE). It is basically the logarithm of the glare of all visible lamps, divided by the background lumination formula_1:  formula_2  where formula_3 is the common logarithm (base 10), formula_4 is the luminance of each light source numbered formula_5, formula_6 is the solid angle of the light source seen from the observer and formula_7 is the Guth position index, which depends on the distance from the line of sight of the viewer.

Glare is difficulty of seeing in the presence of bright light such as direct or reflected sunlight or artificial light such as car headlamps at night. Because of this, some cars include mirrors with automatic anti-glare functions.

Vyskytují-li se v zorném poli oka příliš velké jasy, jejich rozdíly nebo prostorové či časové kontrasty jasů, které překračují adaptabilitu zraku, vzniká oslnění. Při oslnění nastává ztížená činnost zrakového systému. Ve fotografii se nazývají odlesky nebo přeexponovaná místa („přepaly“).


History.

The exhibition came fully into its own in the 19th century, but various temporary exhibitions had been held before that, especially the regular displays of mostly new art in major cities. The Paris Salon of the Académie des Beaux-Arts was the most famous of these, beginning in 1667, and open to the public from 1737. By the mid-18th century this and its equivalents in other countries had become crucial for developing and maintaining the reputation of contemporary artists. In London the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition has been held annually since 1769, and the British Institution ran temporary exhibitions from 1805 to 1867, typically twice a year, with one of new British painting and one of loans of old masters from the Royal Collection and the aristocratic collections of English country houses.  By the mid-19th century many of the new national museums of Europe were in place, and holding exhibitions of their own collections, or loaned collections, or a mixture of objects from both sourcers, which remains a typical mix today. The "Chronology of Temporary Exhibitions at the British Museum" goes back to 1838.  The tradition of the Universal exposition "world Expo" or "World's Fair" began with the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London; these are only held every few years. The Eiffel Tower in Paris was built for the Exposition Universelle (1889) and served as an entrance arch.  Modern exhibitions may be concerned with preservation, education and demonstration, early exhibitions were designed to attract public interest and curiosity. Before the widespread adoption of photography, the exhibition of a single object could attract large crowds. Visitors might even be overcome with Stendhal syndrome, feeling dizzy or overwhelmed by the intense sensory experience of an exhibit. Today, there is still tension between the design of exhibits for educational purposes or for the purpose of attracting and entertaining an audience, as a tourist attraction.

Art exhibitions.

Art exhibitions include an array of artifacts from countless forms of human making: paintings, drawings, crafts, sculpture, video installations, sound installations, performances, interactive art. Art exhibitions may focus on one artist, one group, one genre, one theme or one collection; or may be organized by curators, selected by juries, or show any artwork submitted.  Fine arts exhibitions typically highlight works of art with generous space and lighting, supplying information through labels or audioguides designed to be unobtrusive to the art itself.  Exhibitions may occur in series or periodically, as in the case with Biennales, triennials and quadrennials. The first art exhibition to be called a blockbuster was allegedly the 1960 Picasso show at Tate in London.

Interpretive exhibitions.

Interpretive exhibitions are exhibitions that require more context to explain the items being displayed. This is generally true of exhibitions devoted to scientific and historical themes, where text, dioramas, charts, maps and interactive displays may provide necessary explanation of background and concepts. Interpretive exhibitions generally require more text and more graphics than fine art exhibitions do.  The topics of interpretive graphics cover a wide range including archaeology, anthropology, ethnology, history, science, technology and natural history.

Commercial exhibitions.

Commercial exhibitions, generally called trade fairs, trade shows or expos, are usually organized so that organizations in a specific interest or industry can showcase and demonstrate their latest products, service, study activities of rivals and examine recent trends and opportunities. Some trade fairs are open to the public, while others can only be attended by company representatives (members of the trade) and members of the press.

Digitalized exhibition.

Changes in scholarly communication and the rise of the Internet have led to the creation of online exhibitions or digital exhibitions. These can include the digital viewing of physical exhibits; video tours of museums, art galleries and other cultural venues; and/or online exhibitions of "born digital" art, models or educational tools. The integration of information technology into museums and archives has also created opportunities for interactive and multimedia experiences inside cultural institutions. Many museums and galleries have extensive online resources that complement or enhance their physical exhibits. For example, the British Museum, the Louvre, the MET have put their collections online. Another example from 2009, "Public Poet, Private Man," an online exhibit on the work of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, was recognized as an outstanding digital exhibit by the Association of College and Research Libraries (ARCL).  Some museums are classified as virtual museums. They are exclusively digital and offer a wide range of online exhibitions, notably the International Museum of Women, Tucson LGBTQ Museum, Virtual Museum of Canada, Virtual Museum of Modern Nigerian Art, Museum With No Frontiers.

An exhibition, in the most general sense, is an organized presentation and display of a selection of items. In practice, exhibitions usually occur within a cultural or educational setting such as a museum, art gallery, park, library, exhibition hall, or World's fairs. Exhibitions can include many things such as art in both major museums and smaller galleries, interpretive exhibitions, natural history museums and history museums, and also varieties such as more commercially focused exhibitions and trade fairs.

Výstava a expozice jsou muzejně prezentační formy, během kterých je prezentována činnost muzea či jiné kulturní instituce nebo jejich sbírkový fond.


Early years.

Mardonius was the son of Gobryas, a Persian nobleman who had assisted the Achaemenid prince Darius when he claimed the throne. The alliance between the new king and his friend was cemented by diplomatic marriages: Darius married Gobryas' daughter, and Gobryas married Darius' sister. Furthermore, Mardonius married Darius' daughter Artozostra. Thus Darius the Great was simultaneously Mardonius' uncle, father-in-law, and half-brother-in-law.

Persian Wars with the Greeks.

First Persian invasion of Greece.

Darius appointed Mardonius as one of his generals and, after the Ionian Revolt, sent him in 492 BC to punish the Greek city-state of Athens for assisting the Ionians. On his way to Athens, he used his army in the Ionian cities to depose the Greek tyrants and set up democratic governments, an action which surprised the Greeks at that time. Historians consider that he may have taken this action so that the Ionians would not revolt a second time after the Persian army had passed through. His fleet and army then passed across the Hellespont. Mardonius first attacked Thasos, a Greek island which possessed gold mines. It became a tributary of the Achaemenid empire. The navy and the army continued onto Macedonia, which was soon added to the Persian Empire as a fully subordinate client kingdom, becoming also part of its administrative system.  However, after these victories, Mardonius’ fleet was destroyed in a storm off the coast near Mount Athos. According to Herodotus, the Persians lost 300 ships and 20,000 men. Around this time, Mardonius was commanding the army in a battle in Thrace. While Mardonius was wounded in the battle, he was victorious, re-subjugating Thrace into the empire. Nevertheless, the loss of the fleet meant that he had to retreat back into Asia Minor. He was relieved of his command by Darius, who appointed Datis and Artaphernes junior to lead the invasion of Greece in 490 BC, and though they were subsequently successful in capturing Naxos and destroying Eretria, they were later defeated at the Battle of Marathon.

Second Persian invasion of Greece.

Mardonius came back into favour under Darius' successor Xerxes I, Mardonius' cousin and brother-in-law. Xerxes was at first not interested in renewing the war with Greece, but Mardonius, who had the most influence on Xerxes in all of Persia, repeatedly tried to convince him that he must avenge Darius' defeat. This view was opposed by another of Xerxes’ advisors, Artabanus, who urged more caution in the matter. Herodotus, who portrays Mardonius as a somewhat evil adviser (as opposed to a number of other good advisers whose arguments are never followed), says that Mardonius simply wanted to become satrap (governor) of Greece and had a love for'mischief and adventure'.  He was present at the Battle of Thermopylae, and after the Persian defeat at the Battle of Salamis, he attempted to convince Xerxes to stay and fight yet another campaign. This time Mardonius could not persuade Xerxes, but when Xerxes left he did become governor of those parts of Greece that had been conquered by the Persians. He subdued Macedon, ruled at that time by King Alexander I, but Alexander himself gave valuable information about Mardonius' plans to the Athenians, saying that, as a Greek, he could not bear to see Greece defeated. After the first part of the campaign directly under the orders Xerxes I, Mardonius remained in Greece with 300,000 elite troops, who fought in the last stages of the war, destroying Athens, but being finally vanquished at the Battle of Platea:  Mardonius captured and sacked Athens, which had been deserted before the Battle of Salamis. He offered to return Athens and help rebuild the city if the Athenians would accept a truce, but the Athenians rejected the truce and prepared for another battle.

Plataea and death of Mardonius.

Mardonius prepared to meet them at the Plataea, despite the opposition from another Persian commander, Artabazus, who, like Artabanus, did not think that the Persian army could automatically defeat the Greeks. Mardonius was killed in the ensuing battle by the Spartans (see Battle of Plataea). It is claimed by Herodotus and Plutarch a Plataean called Aeimnestus killed Mardonius. This led to his army breaking up.  Herodotus relates of the Spartan leader Pausanias’ response when an Aeginetan suggests mounting on a pole the head of the slain Persian general Mardonius, as Xerxes had done to Leonidas after the battle of Thermopylae—a suggestion taken by Pausanias to threaten the very root of civilization: "Such doings befit barbarians rather than Greeks, and even in barbarians we detest them...Come not before me again with such a speech nor with such counsel, and thank my forbearance that you are not now punished".

Mardonius ( "Mardonios", Old Persian: 𐎶𐎼𐎯𐎢𐎴𐎡𐎹, "Marduniya", literally: "the mild one"; died 479 BC) was a leading Persian military commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the early 5th century BC who died at the Battle of Plataea.

Mardonios (staropersky "Mardunija"; † 479 př. n. l.) byl perský vojevůdce a jeden z hlavních aktérů řecko-perských válek. Jeho otcem byl Góbryas, muž, který se zúčastnil spiknutí proti mágu Gaumátovi, manželkou dcera krále Dareia I. Artozostra.


Biography.

Musical beginnings (1998–2004).

Born in Las Vegas, Nevada, Ross got a guitar for Christmas when he was 12, and began collaborating with best friend Spencer Smith who received a drum kit. Ross and Smith mostly covered Blink-182 songs with Ross on vocals. Their two-piece band was originally called Pet Salamander. Ross wrote lyrics to his first song when he was 14 years old.  They teamed up with Brent Wilson and another boy named Trevor Howell on guitar to make "Summer League" before they met Brendon Urie and formed Panic! at the Disco.

Panic! at the Disco (2004–2009).

Ross and Spencer Smith formed Panic! at the Disco in 2004, later joined by Brent Wilson and Brendon Urie. The band's debut album, "A Fever You Can't Sweat Out" was recorded between the time frame of June to September 2005 and was released on September 27, 2005.  With much success and touring of their debut album, the band went back into the studio on October 2007 to record what has come to be the band's second studio album, "Pretty. Odd.", which was released on March 25, 2008; the sound greatly differed to the band's debut album. This was the last studio album Ross has contributed to with Panic!, until he was credited for writing on the band's third studio album, "Vices & Virtues".

The Young Veins (2009–2010).

On July 13, 2009, Ross spoke with MTV about his split from the Panic! at the Disco. He stated that "the split had been in the cards for sometime now. It just took everyone a while to realize it". Ross told MTV that he and the remaining members of Panic! at the Disco are still good friends and had recently spoken over the Fourth of July weekend. Ross spoke about his and Walker's upcoming project as well. "He and Walker are writing and recording songs (with "Pretty. Odd." producer Rob Mathes) at a lightning-quick pace, and they'll soon be revealing the fruits of their labor". Since then, their new band called The Young Veins has released their song "Change" onto the Internet.  On July 15, 2009, Ross told MTV that the new sound he and Walker are working on is, "They're more, uh, I wouldn't want to say 'heavy,' but I guess I would have to, in the sense of, like, early garage music and Kinks and stuff. The songs are shorter and faster, and I guess they're more rock and roll than flowery stuff". He talked about how there is probably not going to be any orchestration on the album, unlike "Pretty. Odd.", which was loaded with orchestration. He and Walker are also recording with the help of Alex Greenwald from Phantom Planet along with Panic!'s former touring keyboard player, Eric Ronick. According to Ross, he and Walker are trying to release their new single tentatively titled, "Change". However, Ross is contractually bound to Fueled By Ramen to provide new music whereas Walker is not. He wants to be released from his contract with Fueled by Ramen "because it doesn't seem like it's going to be the right place for this stuff, and I think everybody knows that, on both sides, [FBR President] John Janick included. It's just been taking some time to get worked out."  On October 16, Ross had an interview with MTV saying that their first record, "Take a Vacation!", is done, and they are working to find a record company willing to release it.  The Young Veins were signed to One Haven Music and their debut was released on June 8, 2010. On December 10, 2010, The Young Veins entered on a hiatus period.

Solo project (2013–present).

In 2013, Ross released a two-track untitled demo EP as well as a couple of other songs through his official SoundCloud page. The description of the page says: "Thanks for waiting. I'm back now."  In 2018, Ross collaborated with Z Berg on the Christmas single "The Bad List". In an interview with "Alternative Press" regarding the single, Ross stated that he "...will be in the studio recording songs for his next solo release over the next few weeks and into [2019].".

Other projects.

Ross appeared along with former bandmates Brendon Urie, Spencer Smith, and Jon Walker in the Gym Class Heroes music video for the song "Clothes Off!!". He also appears with them in The Cab's music video for "One of THOSE Nights", along with Fall Out Boy members Patrick Stump and Pete Wentz.  In 2011, Ross was credited as a composer on ex-band Panic! at the Disco album "Vices & Virtues" for the track "Nearly Witches (Ever Since We Met...)", a song that was originally created while Ross and Walker were still in the band. He also recorded a song titled "Superbowl Hero" with Alex Greenwald and Michael Runion under a new band, RAM (Ryan, Alex, Michael).  Ross also provided backing vocals for "Stuck In Love", a song from William Beckett's solo EP "What Will Be" in autumn 2012.  In 2012, Ross featured on More Amor's single "Beach Bones".

George Ryan Ross III (born August 30, 1986) is an American musician, singer, and songwriter best known for his work as the lead guitarist and primary songwriter of the band Panic! at the Disco before his departure in 2009. Ross and former Panic! bassist Jon Walker formed The Young Veins the same year, in which Ross is the lead vocalist. They broke up in 2010.

George Ryan Ross III (*30. srpna 1986 Las Vegas, Nevada) je americký kytarista, známý především svým působením u americké kapely Panic! at the Disco v letech 2004-2009. Na debutové album A Fever You Can't Sweat Out napsal také všechny texty. S Jonem Walkerem si poté založil kapelu The Young Veins.


History.

Before the Helvetic Republic.

Before 1798, about 75 entities were making coins in Switzerland, including the 25 cantons and half-cantons, 16 cities, and abbeys, resulting in about 860 different coins in circulation, with different values, denominations and monetary systems. The local Swiss currencies included the Basel thaler, Berne thaler, Fribourg gulden, Geneva thaler, Geneva genevoise, Luzern gulden, Neuchâtel gulden, St. Gallen thaler, Schwyz gulden, Solothurn thaler, Valais thaler, and Zürich thaler.  By the end of the 18th century and the 1st half of the 19th century, most of these local Swiss currencies are either mere uncoined accounting units, or local billon coins known only to residents of the issuing canton. Larger payments are done via foreign trade coins like German reichsthalers or French écus which are recognizable within and outside Switzerland. Small change, however, are in local coins which typically cannot be recognized outside the issuing canton. A guide showing the equivalence of large trade coins to local currency is found here:

Helvetic Republic to Regeneration 1798–1847.

In 1798, the Helvetic Republic introduced the "franc", a currency based on the Berne thaler, subdivided into 10 "batzen" or 100 "centimes". The Swiss franc was equal to grams of pure silver or French francs.  This franc was issued until the end of the Helvetic Republic in 1803, but served as the model for the currencies of several cantons in the Mediation period (1803–1814). These 19 cantonal currencies were the Appenzell frank, Argovia frank, Basel frank, Berne frank, Fribourg frank, Geneva franc, Glarus frank, Graubünden frank, Luzern frank, St. Gallen frank, Schaffhausen frank, Schwyz frank, Solothurn frank, Thurgau frank, Ticino franco, Unterwalden frank, Uri frank, Vaud franc, and Zürich frank.  After 1815, the restored Swiss Confederacy attempted to simplify the system of currencies once again. As of 1820, a total of 8,000 distinct coins were current in Switzerland: those issued by cantons, cities, abbeys, and principalities or lordships, mixed with surviving coins of the Helvetic Republic and the pre-1798 Helvetic Republic. In 1825, the cantons of Berne, Basel, Fribourg, Solothurn, Aargau, and Vaud formed a monetary "concordate", issuing standardised coins, the so-called "Konkordanzbatzen", still carrying the coat of arms of the issuing canton, but interchangeable and identical in value. The reverse side of the coin displayed a Swiss cross with the letter C in the center.

Franc of the Swiss Confederation, 1850–present.

Although 22 cantons and half-cantons issued coins between 1803 and 1850, less than 15% of the money in circulation in Switzerland in 1850 was locally produced, with the rest being foreign, mainly brought back by mercenaries. In addition, some private banks also started issuing the first banknotes, so that in total, at least 8000 different coins and notes were in circulation at that time, making the monetary system extremely complicated. In practice, only the larger German or French trade coins were recognized for large payments within and outside Switzerland. Local small change or banknotes were typically useful only in the issuing canton and were not accepted elsewhere.  To solve this problem, the new Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848 specified that the federal government would be the only entity allowed to issue money in Switzerland. This was followed two years later by the first Federal Coinage Act, passed by the Federal Assembly on 7 May 1850, which introduced the franc as the monetary unit of Switzerland. The franc was introduced at par with the French franc. It replaced the different currencies of the Swiss cantons, some of which had been using a franc (divided into 10 "batzen" and 100 "centimes") which was worth 1.5 French francs.  In 1865, France, Belgium, Italy, and Switzerland formed the Latin Monetary Union, in which they agreed to value their national currencies to a standard of 4.5 grams of silver or 0.290322 grams of gold. Even after the monetary union faded away in the 1920s and officially ended in 1927, the Swiss franc remained on that standard until 1936, when it suffered its sole devaluation, on 27 September during the Great Depression. The currency was devalued by 30% following the devaluations of the British pound, U.S. dollar and French franc. In 1945, Switzerland joined the Bretton Woods system and pegged the franc to the US dollar at a rate of $1 = CHF 4.30521 (equivalent to CHF 1 = 0.206418 grams of gold). This was changed to $1 = CHF 4.375 (CHF 1 = 0.203125 grams of gold) in 1949.  The Swiss franc has historically been considered a safe-haven currency, with a legal requirement that a minimum of 40% be backed by gold reserves. However, this link to gold, which dated from the 1920s, was terminated on 1 May 2000 following a referendum. By March 2005, following a gold-selling program, the Swiss National Bank held 1,290 tonnes of gold in reserves, which equated to 20% of its assets.  In November 2014, the referendum on the "Swiss Gold Initiative" which proposed a restoration of 20% gold backing for the Swiss franc, was voted down.

2011–2014: Big movements and capping.

In March 2011, the franc climbed past the US$1.10 mark (CHF 0.91 per U.S. dollar). In June 2011, the franc climbed past US$1.20 (CHF 0.833 per U.S. dollar) as investors sought safety as the Greek sovereign debt crisis continued. Continuation of the same crisis in Europe and the debt crisis in the US propelled the Swiss franc past US$1.30 (CHF 0.769 per U.S. dollar) as of August 2011, prompting the Swiss National Bank to boost the franc's liquidity to try to counter its "massive overvaluation". "The Economist" argued that its Big Mac Index in July 2011 indicated an overvaluation of 98% over the dollar, and cited Swiss companies releasing profit warnings and threatening to move operations out of the country due to the strength of the franc. Demand for francs and franc-denominated assets was so strong that nominal short-term Swiss interest rates became negative.  On 6 September 2011, shortly after when the exchange rate was 1.095 CHF/€ and appeared to be heading for parity with the euro, the SNB set a minimum exchange rate of 1.20 francs to the euro ("capping" franc's appreciation), saying "the value of the franc is a threat to the economy", and that it was "prepared to buy foreign currency in unlimited quantities". In response to this announcement the franc fell against the euro, to 1.22 francs from 1.12 francs and lost 9% against the U.S. dollar within fifteen minutes. The intervention stunned currency traders, since the franc had long been regarded as a safe haven.  The franc fell 8.8% against the euro, 9.5% against the dollar, and at least 8.2% against all 16 of the most active currencies on the day of the announcement. It was the largest plunge of the franc ever against the euro. The SNB had previously set an exchange rate target in 1978 against the Deutsche mark and maintained it, although at the cost of high inflation. Until mid-January 2015, the franc continued to trade below the target level set by the SNB, though the ceiling was broken at least once on 5 April 2012, albeit briefly.

End of capping.

On 18 December 2014, the Swiss central bank introduced a negative interest rate on bank deposits to support its CHF ceiling. However, with the euro declining in value over the following weeks, in a move dubbed "Francogeddon" for its effect on markets, the Swiss National Bank abandoned the ceiling on 15 January 2015, and the franc promptly increased in value compared with the euro by 30%, although this only lasted a few minutes before part of the increase was reversed. The move was not announced in advance and resulted in "turmoil" in stock and currency markets. By the close of trading that day, the franc was up 23% against the euro and 21% against the US dollar. The full daily appreciation of the franc was equivalent to $31,000 per single futures contract: more than the market had moved collectively in the previous thousand days. The key CHF interest rate was also lowered from −0.25% to −0.75%, meaning depositors would be paying an increased fee to keep their funds in a Swiss bank account. This devaluation of the euro against the franc was expected to hurt Switzerland's large export industry. The Swatch Group, for example, saw its shares drop 15% (in Swiss franc terms) with the announcements so that the share price may have increased on that day in terms of other major currencies.  The large and unexpected jump caused major losses for some currency traders. Alpari, a Russian-owned spread betting firm established in the UK, temporarily declared insolvency before announcing its desire to be acquired (and later denied rumours of an acquisition) by FXCM. FXCM was bailed out by its parent company. Saxo Bank of Denmark reported losses on 19 January 2015. New Zealand foreign exchange broker Global Brokers NZ announced it "could no longer meet New Zealand regulators' minimum capital requirements" and terminated its business.  Media questioned the ongoing credibility of the Swiss central bank, and indeed central banks in general. Using phrases like "extend-and-pretend" to describe central bank exchange rate control measures, Saxobank chief economist Steen Jakobsen said, "As a group, central banks have lost credibility and when the ECB starts QE this week, the beginning of the end for central banks will be well under way". BT Investment Management's head of income and fixed interest Vimal Gor said, "Central banks are becoming more and more impotent. It also ultimately proves that central banks cannot drive economic growth like they think they can". UBS interest rate strategist Andrew Lilley commented, "central banks can have inconsistent goals from one-day to another".

Coins.

Coins of the Helvetic Republic.

Between 1798 and 1803, billon coins were issued in denominations of 1 centime, batzen, and 1 batzen. Silver coins were issued for 10, 20 and 40 batzen, with the 40-batzen coin also issued with the denomination given as 4 francs. Gold 16- and 32-franc coins were issued in 1800.

Coins of the Swiss Confederation.

In 1850, coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 centimes and, 1, 2, and 5 francs, with the 1 and 2 centimes struck in bronze, the 5, 10, and 20 centimes in billon (with 5% to 15% silver content), and the franc denominations in.900 fine silver. Between 1860 and 1863,.800 fine silver was used, before the standard used in France of.835 fineness was adopted for all silver coins except the 5 francs (which remained.900 fineness) in 1875. In 1879, billon was replaced by cupronickel in the 5 and 10 centimes and by nickel in the 20 centimes. Gold coins in denominations of 10, 20, and 100 francs, known as Vreneli, circulated until 1936.  Both world wars only had a small effect on the Swiss coinage, with brass and zinc coins temporarily being issued. In 1931, the size of the 5-franc coin was reduced from 25 grams to 15, with the silver content reduced to.835 fineness. The next year, nickel replaced cupronickel in the 5 and 10 centimes.  In the late 1960s, the prices of internationally traded commodities rose significantly. A silver coin's metal value exceeded its monetary value, and many were being sent abroad for melting, which prompted the federal government to make this practice illegal. The statute was of little effect, and the melting of francs only subsided when the collectible value of the remaining francs again exceeded their material value.  The 1-centime coin was still produced until 2006, albeit in ever decreasing quantities, but its importance declined. Those who could justify the use of 1-centime coins for monetary purposes could obtain them at face value; any other user (such as collectors) had to pay an additional four centimes per coin to cover the production costs, which had exceeded the actual face value of the coin for many years. The coin fell into disuse in the late 1970s and early 1980s, but was only officially fully withdrawn from circulation and declared to be no longer legal tender on 1 January 2007. The long-forgotten 2-centime coin, not minted since 1974, was demonetized on 1 January 1978.  The designs of the coins have changed very little since 1879. Among the notable changes were new designs for the 5-franc coins in 1888, 1922, 1924 (minor), and 1931 (mostly just a size reduction). A new design for the bronze coins was used from 1948. Coins depicting a ring of stars (such as the 1-franc coin seen beside this paragraph) were altered from 22 stars to 23 stars in 1983; since the stars represent the Swiss cantons, the design was updated when in 1979 Jura seceded from the Canton of Bern and became the 23rd canton of the Swiss Confederation. The 10-centime coins from 1879 onwards (except the years 1918–19 and 1932–39) have had the same composition, size, and design until 2014 and are still legal tender and found in circulation. All Swiss coins are language-neutral with respect to Switzerland's four national languages, featuring only numerals, the abbreviation "Fr." for franc, and the Latin phrases "Helvetia" or "Confœderatio Helvetica" (depending on the denomination) or the inscription "Libertas" (Roman goddess of liberty) on the small coins. The name of the artist is present on the coins with the standing Helvetia and the herder.  In addition to these general-circulation coins, numerous series of commemorative coins have been issued, as well as silver and gold coins. These coins are no longer legal tender, but can in theory be exchanged at face value at post offices, and at national and cantonal banks, although their metal or collectors' value equals or exceeds their face value.

Banknotes.

In 1907, the Swiss National Bank took over the issuance of banknotes from the cantons and various banks. It introduced denominations of 50, 100, 500 and 1000 francs. 20-franc notes were introduced in 1911, followed by 5-franc notes in 1913. In 1914, the Federal Treasury issued paper money in denominations of 5, 10 and 20 francs. These notes were issued in three different versions: French, German and Italian. The State Loan Bank also issued 25-franc notes that year. In 1952, the national bank ceased issuing 5-franc notes but introduced 10-franc notes in 1955. In 1996, 200-franc notes were introduced whilst the 500-franc note was discontinued.  Eight series of banknotes have been printed by the Swiss National Bank, six of which have been released for use by the general public. The sixth series from 1976, designed by Ernst and, depicted persons from the world of science. This series was recalled on 1 May 2000 and is no longer legal tender, but notes can still be exchanged for valid ones of the same face value at any National Bank branch or authorized agent, or mailed in by post to the National Bank in exchange for a bank account deposit. The exchange program will end on 30 April 2020, after which sixth-series notes will lose all value. As of 2016, 1.1 billion francs' worth of sixth-series notes had not yet been exchanged, even though they had not been legal tender for 16 years and only 4 more years remained to exchange them. To avoid having to expire such large amounts of money in 2020, the Federal Council (cabinet) and National Bank proposed in April 2017 to remove the time limit on exchanges for the sixth and future recalled series; this proposal is still in the draft bill stage as of early 2018.  The seventh series was printed in 1984, but kept as a "reserve series", ready to be used if, for example, wide counterfeiting of the current series suddenly happened. When the Swiss National Bank decided to develop new security features and to abandon the concept of a reserve series, the details of the seventh series were released and the printed notes were destroyed. The current, eighth series of banknotes was designed by around the theme of the arts and released starting in 1995. In addition to its new vertical design, this series was different from the previous one on several counts. Probably the most important difference from a practical point of view was that the seldom-used 500-franc note was replaced by a new 200-franc note; this new note has indeed proved more successful than the old 500-franc note. The base colours of the new notes were kept similar to the old ones, except that the 20-franc note was changed from blue to red to prevent a frequent confusion with the 100-franc note, and that the 10-franc note was changed from red to yellow. The size of the notes was changed as well, with all notes from the eighth series having the same height (74 mm), while the widths were changed as well, still increasing with the value of the notes. The new series contains many more security features than the previous one; many of them are now visibly displayed and have been widely advertised, in contrast with the previous series for which most of the features were kept secret.  All banknotes are quadrilingual, displaying all information in the four national languages. The banknotes depicting a Germanophone person have German and Romansch on the same side as the picture, whereas banknotes depicting a Francophone or an Italophone person have French and Italian on the same side as the picture. The reverse has the other two languages.  When the fifth series lost its validity at the end of April 2000, the banknotes that had not been exchanged represented a total value of 244.3 million Swiss francs; in accordance with Swiss law, this amount was transferred to the Swiss Fund for Emergency Losses in the Case of Non-insurable Natural Disasters.  In February 2005, a competition was announced for the design of the ninth series, then planned to be released around 2010 on the theme "Switzerland open to the world". The results were announced in November 2005. The National Bank selected the designs of Swiss graphic designer Manuela Pfrunder as the basis of the new series. The first denomination to be issued was the 50-franc note on 12 April 2016. It was followed by the 20-franc note (17 May 2017), the 10-franc note (18 October 2017), the 200-franc note (15 August 2018), the 1000-franc note (5 March 2019) and the 100-franc note (12 September 2019). All banknotes from the eighth series will remain valid until further notice.

Circulation.

The Swiss franc is the currency and legal tender of Switzerland and Liechtenstein and also legal tender in the Italian exclave of Campione d'Italia. Although not formally legal tender in the German exclave of Büsingen am Hochrhein (the sole legal currency is the euro), it is in wide daily use there; with many prices quoted in Swiss francs. The Swiss franc is the only version of the franc still issued in Europe.  As of March 2010, the total value of released Swiss coins and banknotes was 49.6640 billion Swiss francs. Combinations of up to 100 circulating Swiss coins (not including special or commemorative coins) are legal tender; banknotes are legal tender for any amount.

The franc (, French and Romansh: "franc", ; sign: "Fr." (in German language), "fr." (in French, Italian, Romansh languages), or "CHF" in any other language, or internationally; code: CHF) is the currency and legal tender of Switzerland and Liechtenstein; it is also legal tender in the Italian exclave of Campione d'Italia. The Swiss National Bank (SNB) issues banknotes and the federal mint Swissmint issues coins.

Švýcarský frank je zákonným platidlem ve dvou alpských státech – Švýcarsku a Lichtenštejnsku. Zároveň je jediným oficiálním platidlem italské enklávy na švýcarském území – Campione d'Italia. Celá Itálie vyjma Campione d'Italia používá euro. Jiná enkláva na švýcarském území – německý Büsingen am Hochrhein – má formálně jako jedinou měnu euro, ale švýcarský frank je zde oblíbený a v každodenním platebním styku je častěji používaný než euro.