History.

The modern location of Wuhai was originally composed of two towns: Wuda which lied of the western side of the Yellow River and Haibowan which was located in the eastern side of the river. Wuda became a coal mining town around 1864 when it was settled by Chinese laborers. Slightly later, Haibowan was settled by Chinese farmers around 1900. Wuda and Haibowan were merged as Wuhai in 1976.

Demographics.

Wuhai has an area of and, as of 2000, 427,553 inhabitants (243.76 inhabitants/km).

Administrative subdivisions.

Wuhai city is divided into three districts:

Economy.

The city's economy is heavily based on coal mining, electric power generation, metal-working and chemical industries, but also on fruit (grapes, winemaking) and dairy farming. Wuhai is a stop on the Baotou-Lanzhou rail line, and an airport was opened in 2003.  Rock art in six places at the foot of the Zhuozi Shan (Mount Zhuozhi) has been dated back to the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, the Warring States period, and the Han Dynasty.

Transportation.

The fastest route to Wuhai from other cities in China lies through Beijing. There are 2 Hainan Airlines flights arriving and departing Wuhai daily via Hohhot and Xi'an. Flights take approximately 2 to 3 hours. Direct flights from Beijing to Wuhai are planned in 2010 and will reduce travel time to 90 minutes. Another option is getting to Wuhai via a 1-hour direct flight from Yinchuan, the closest neighboring city with a major regional airport.  Wuhai lies on a major Yellow River train route, connecting a large number of cities in Inner Mongolia, central and southern China. Travel time from Beijing by train is approximately 20 hours and prices range from 350 yuan (US$50) for 2nd class "hard sleeper" ticket to 480 yuan (US$75) for the 1st class "soft sleeper" ticket. Tickets from neighboring Baotou cost approx 53 yuan (US$8.6 as of 2014/09/15) for a 4-hour train journey.  Transportation within the city is very simple and affordable. Almost every other car is a taxi. Meter starts from 5 yuan (US$0.8) for the first 2 miles and 1.2 yuan (US$0.19) for every mile thereafter. Buses are very frequent and cost 1 yuan per person.

Beijing PanAm International Aviation Academy (BPIAA).

Although Wuhai in general is lacking large higher educational institutions, in the early 2007 a major foreign investment was injected into the development of a local flight training base for Chinese airline cadets located in Wuhai Regional Airport (ICAO abbrev. "ZBUH"). The flight base has 8 to 14 Diamond DA40 light training aircraft providing flight lessons for over 130 students designated to train at this base. Convenient airport location close to the city, low levels of pollution and relatively fair weather/visibility factors allow flight training approximately 300 days per year (subject to military restrictions). The arrival of Beijing Panam International Aviation Academy also laid a foundation for the first ever foreign community in Wuhai, composed mostly of foreign Flight Instructors from various ICAO countries working on annual contracts for BPIAA.  At the end of 2008, following the World economic recession, the company, previously belonging to an American AIG Insurance Corporation, fell into financial difficulties and stopped operating awaiting injection of the new investment funds either from the Chinese government or independent investors.

Dining, Entertainment and Night Life.

Wuhai's dining scene consists of numerous small bars and restaurants, catering for a range of Chinese, Mongolian and western cuisines. Popular dining choices are: Hot pot serving a type of Chinese meat and vegetable fondue in a traditional "uni-pot" way or a modern "personal pot" styles. Pots are filled with either creamy or spicy soups and set on fire which is built into the table. Thinly-sliced meat, vegetables and flat noodles are served uncooked. It is up to the customer to add the ingredients to the hot-pot sitting on the table where it's cooked in seconds. A traditional and very popular activity, bringing families and friends together every weekend.  Mongolian BBQ serving a variety of meats (mostly beef, lamb, and chicken) roasted on open fire and seasoned with local spices. Popular BBQ dining areas could be found on both southern and northern sides of central square.  Western restaurants, serving a variety of foods catering for the European and American tastes are also available. Fast food places serving westerns-style foods are located right in the middle of town near Wuhai hotel on an intersection of two central roads.  Traditional Chinese Han restaurants are widely available. Serving a great variety of noodles and rather oily meat dishes.  Mongolian Mn-Mye dishes, served in a large traditional wok for the whole table to share. Hundreds of ingredient combinations could be ordered by a customer by ticking boxes on a menu order form while visiting these specialist restaurants. Once ordered, the Mn-Mye chef combines the requested ingredients in a wok, adds fresh chilly peppers, ginger, garlic, coriander and other indigenous spices. The dish is ready in minutes.  There is a Mongolian style theme park built in the north-western part of the city. It offers authentic Mongolian-style dining in a traditional Yurt restaurant, camel rides and other activities. Desert Fun park is also located further north, offering dune cart rides, quad biking, dune jeep riding, etc.  A fair number and variety of local bars and clubs are located around the city, among them "100% Night Club", "Huang Kang" (daily life rock music by band "Fu Sha"), "V8 Bar" (popular dance music), and "Music Kitchen" (mix of professional and amateur life music performances).  A Colombian coffee house, called "The Plow Coffee" serving a selection of domestic and foreign coffees is located one block to the South-East of the central "People's Square" serves as a trendy and modern hang-out for foreigners and locals.  A large number of KTV (Karaoke) style bars are widely available around the city and enjoy a great popularity among locals.

Recreation and Sports.

A number of very modern gyms with an average membership fee between $40 to US$60 per months are available for use in the city center and other convenient locations. Shi Ji Yuan Hotel offers good 25m swimming pool facilities (attendance fee around $2. No lifeguard). A modern round mini-stadium building, located in the middle of town, offers new tennis and basketball playgrounds as well as some ThaiJi and KungFu classes.  Mountain climbing is extremely popular activity among the locals and foreigners alike. There is a long mountain ridge located to the south-east of the city, a short walk away from its SE corner. Mountain peaks range from 400m AGL to 700m AGL and take approximately 1 to 2 hours to conquer, depending on your physical abilities. Beginner level climbers are likely to enjoy this hike. For the more advanced mountaineers, the highest peak to the south of the city is standing almost 1000m AGL tall and may be a little more challenging to climb. City charges no fees for mountain-climbing activities and welcomes anyone to try.  A full-size western-style bowling alley is located in the NW part of the city, near a central street roundabout. Alley features a full bar, computerized score-keeping system and costs 12 yuan per game in the evening and 3 yuan in the morning, before 12:00.

Housing Project Scandal.

Wuhai has been the center of public outrage when it was revealed that money originally assigned to build low income housing project was used to build extravagant office buildings instead.  According to the 2006 official statistics by the local government, 45,344 households totaling 146,306 people, or over 30% of total population in the urban area, lived in shacks in the slums. These low income families had to deal with problems including the lacks of drainage, clean water supply and poor hygiene conditions. As a result, a housing project was planned to rebuild the area, starting in February, 2006. The plan called for 15% completion by the end of 2007, 40% completion respectively in 2008, and 2009, and the remaining by the end of 2010. In reality, however, the plan failed to materialize because not a single penny was provided. Subsequent investigation by auditing authorities and media investigation revealed that the CYN 150 million funds that were supposed used as the initial funding was used to build luxury office buildings instead.  The new governmental office building, dubbed as the "Wuhai Urban Administrative Center Building", was located in the Binhe () New District. The building totaled 17 stories above the ground, with an addition one below the ground. In addition, there was also another 5-story building connected to this main building. The total area is around 61,168 square meters, with construction begun in March, 2006, and the building complex is expected to be fully operational before the end of 2008. The contractor admitted that the office building complex is as luxurious as a four-star hotel. Audits and investigation revealed that the building complex cost CYN 150 million, and the initial fund for the housing project to rebuild the slums populated by the low income families was used, causing the housing project to be stalled in idle.  When the scandal was exposed by numerous Chinese media such as Economic Reference (), it greatly angered the public. Further public outrage resulted in the fact that the current office building was already too extravagant: it occupies an area totaled 100,000 square meters, with over 20,000 square meters office space, and additionally, the current office building was just completed in October, 2001. Auditing and investigation also revealed that many cadres opposed the construction of the luxury office building complex and pointed out that according to the law, such project must be evaluated and approved by higher authorities, which it was highly unlikely because it would be nothing more than a waste for a show-piece project, and there was no money to fund such projects.  However, the opposition was brushed aside and those cadres who voice their concern were scolded by the local party bosses, who harshly criticized those opposed as "lacking the open mind, not following the great rapid development of Wuhai". As a result, the local government bypassed the law by deciding to carry out the construction anyway, and the CYN 150 million funds that were supposed used as the initial funding in the housing project was used to build luxury office building complex instead. Not surprisingly, when media requested interviews with local high-ranking officials regarding the matter, none came forward.

Wuhai (; "Üqai qota", Mongolian cyrillic.Үхай хот) is a prefecture-level city and regional center in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China, and is by area the smallest prefecture-level division of the region. It is located on the Yellow River between the Gobi and Ordos deserts. Wuhai became a single city occupying both banks of the Yellow River with the amalgamation on 1976 of left-bank (west) Uda (then administrated by Bayan Nuur League) together with Haibowan on the right (east) bank (then administrated by Ikh Juu league). Wuhai is one of very few cities with an antipode which is not only on land (as opposed to open ocean), but which is another inhabited city; the antipode of Wuhai is almost exactly on the city of Valdivia, Chile. Football commentator and Television host Huang Jianxiang is born here.

Wu-chaj (, pchin-jinem "Wūhǎi") je městská prefektura v Čínské lidové republice, kde patří do autonomní oblasti Vnitřní Mongolsko. Leží na Žluté řece mezi pouštěmi Gobi a Ordos. Město vzniklo v roce 1976 sloučením dvou sídel na protilehlých březích řeky.


Structure.

The domed, round shelter was used by numerous Native American cultures. The curved surfaces make it an ideal shelter for all kinds of conditions. These structures are formed with a frame of arched poles, most often wooden, which are covered with some sort of bark roofing material. Details of construction vary with the culture and local availability of materials. Some of the roofing materials used include grass, brush, bark, rushes, mats, reeds, hides or cloth.  Wigwams were most often seasonal structures although the term is applied to rounded and conical structures built by Native American groups that were more permanent. Wigwams usually take longer to put up than tipis and their frames are usually not portable like a tipi.  A typical wigwam in the Northeast had a curved surface which can hold up against the worst weather. Young green tree saplings of just about any type of wood, ten to fifteen feet long, were cut down and bent. While the saplings were being bent, a circle was drawn on the ground. The diameter of the circle varied from ten to sixteen feet. The bent saplings were then placed over the drawn circle, using the tallest saplings in the middle and the shorter ones on the outside. The saplings formed arches all in one direction on the circle. The next set of saplings were used to wrap around the wigwam to give the shelter support. When the two sets of saplings were finally tied together, the sides and roof were placed on it. The sides of the wigwam were usually bark stripped from trees. The male of the family was responsible for the framing of the wigwam.  Mary Rowlandson uses the term Wigwam in reference to the dwelling places of the Native Americans that she stayed with while in their captivity during King Philip's War in 1675. The term wigwam has remained in common English usage as a synonym for any "Indian house"; however this usage is incorrect as there are known differences between the wigwam and the tipi within the Native American community.  During the American revolution the term "wigwam" was used by British soldiers to describe a wide variety of makeshift structures.

Wickiups of the west.

Wickiups were used by different indigenous peoples of the Great Basin, Southwest, and Pacific Coast. They were single room, dome-shaped dwellings, with a great deal of variation in size, shape, and materials.  The Acjachemen, an indigenous people of California, built cone-shaped huts made of willow branches covered with brush or mats made of tule leaves. Known as "Kiichas", the temporary shelters were utilized for sleeping or as refuge in cases of inclement weather. When a dwelling reached the end of its practical life it was simply burned, and a replacement erected in its place in about a day's time.  Below is a description of Chiricahua wickiups recorded by anthropologist Morris Opler:  The home in which the family lives is made by the men and is ordinarily a circular, dome-shaped brush dwelling, with the floor at ground level. It is eight feet high at the center and approximately seven feet in diameter. To build it, long fresh poles of oak or willow are driven into the ground or placed in holes made with a digging stick. These poles, which form the framework, are arranged at one-foot intervals and are bound together at the top with yucca-leaf strands. Over them a thatching of bundles of big bluestem grass or bear grass is tied, shingle style, with yucca strings. A smoke hole opens above a central fireplace. A hide, suspended at the entrance, is fixed on a cross-beam so that it may be swung forward or backward. The doorway may face in any direction. For waterproofing, pieces of hide are thrown over the outer hatching, and in rainy weather, if a fire is not needed, even the smoke hole is covered. In warm, dry weather much of the outer roofing is stripped off. It takes approximately three days to erect a sturdy dwelling of this type. These houses are "warm and comfortable even though there is a big snow." The interior is lined with brush and grass beds over which robes are spread...

"Wigwam" in different Algonquian languages.

The English word "wigwam" derives from Eastern Abenaki "wigwôm", from Proto-Algonquian "*wi·kiwa·ʔmi". Others have similar names for the structure:  wickiup:

Use of similar dwellings elsewhere today.

Near identical constructions, called "aqal", are used by today's nomadic Somali People as well as the Afar people on the Horn of Africa. Pieces of old clothing or plastic sheet, woven mats (traditionally made of grass), or whatever material is available will be used to cover the "aqal"s roof. Similar domed tents are also used by the Bushmen and Nama people and other indigenous peoples in Southern Africa.  In Britain, similar structures known as bender tents are built quickly and cheaply by New Age travellers, using poles from the woods (often hazel) and plastic tarpaulins.  Yaranga has similar shape, but have internal yoronga-room inside the dome.

Pop Culture References.

Music  Sports

A wigwam, wickiup, wetu, or wiigiiwaam in the Ojibwe language, is a semi-permanent domed dwelling formerly used by certain Native American tribes and First Nations band governments. They are still used for ceremonial purposes. The term "wickiup" is generally used to label these kinds of dwellings in the Southwestern United States and Western United States, while "wigwam" is usually applied to these structures in the Northeastern United States and Canada. "Wetu" is the Wampanoag term for a wigwam dwelling. These terms can refer to many distinct types of Native American structures regardless of location or cultural group. The wigwam is not to be confused with the Native Plains teepee, which has a very different construction, structure, and use.

Vigvam je indiánská chýše kupolovitého nebo kuželovitého tvaru, zhotovená z ohnutých dřevěných prutů pokrytých březovou kůrou, rohožemi, proutím nebo (zvláště v zimě) kůžemi. Ve vigvamech bydleli Indiáni žijící ve východních lesích a subarktické oblasti, např. Čipevajané, Kríové, Odžibvejové a Mikmakové. Vigvam bývá často, ale nesprávně, zaměňován za týpí, kuželovitý stan pokrytý bizoními kůžemi, používaný prérijními indiány, např. Lakoty, Šajeny, Arapahy nebo Kajovy.


The city and borough.

The borough of Xochimilco was created in 1928, when the federal government reorganized the Federal District of Mexico City into sixteen boroughs. The Xochimilco borough was centered on what was the city of Xochimilco, which had been an independent settlement from the pre-Hispanic period to the 20th century. The area's historic separation from Mexico City proper remains in its culture. While officially part of the city, its identity is more like a suburb. This historic center was designated as a "Barrio Mágico" by the city in 2011. The borough is center-south of the historic center of Mexico City, and bordered by the boroughs of Tlalpan, Coyoacán, Tláhuac and Milpa Alta. It extends over, accounting for 8.4% of the Federal District's territory. It is the third largest borough, after Tlalpan, and Milpa Alta. The borough has an emblem, also known as an "Aztec glyph", which is a representation of the area's spongy soil from which two flowering plants emerge. In spite of the serious environmental issues, 77.9% of the territory is designated as ecological reserve, 15.2% as residential and 4.6 as commercial and industrial.  The borough is divided into eighteen “barrios,” which make up the old city of Xochimilco and fourteen communities outside the traditional city called “pueblos.” The barrios are El Rosario, Santa Crucita, Caltongo, San Lorenzo, San Diego, La Asunción, San Juan, San Antonio, Belem, San Cristóbal, San Esteban, La Santísima, La Guadalupita, La Concepción Tlacoapa, San Marcos and Xaltocan, The fourteen pueblos are San María Tepepan, Santiago Tepalcatlalpan, San Mateo Xalpa, San Lorenzo Atemoaya, Santa Cruz Xochitepec, San Lucas Xochimanca, San Francisco Tlalnepantla, Santa María Nativitas, San Gregorio Atlapulco, Santiago Tulyehualco, San Luis Tlaxialtemalco, San Andrés Ahuayucan, Santa Cecilia Tepetlapa and San Cruz Acalpixca. There are also 45 smaller divisions called “colonias” and twenty major apartment complexes. The city acts as the local government for all the communities of the borough, whether part of the city or not. These offices are located on Calle Guadalupe I. Ramirez 4, in the El Rosario area. The borough has of primary roadway and of paved surface. Major thoroughfares include the Xochimilco-Tulyehualco road, Nuevo León, Periférico Sur, Avenida Guadalupe and Calzada México-Xochimilco. However, many of the areas of the borough are still semi-rural, with communities that still retain many old traditions and economic activities. For example, San Antonio Molotlán is noted for textiles and its Chinelos dancers. San Lorenzo Tlaltecpan is known for the production of milk and there are still a large number of stables in the area.  The most notable neighborhoods/communities include Xaltocan, Ejidos de Tepepan, La Noria, Las Cruces, Ejidos de Xochimilco and San Gregorio Atlapulco. San Francisco Caltongo is one of the oldest neighborhoods of the borough. Xaltocán

Canals, chinampas and trajineras.

Lake Xochimilco and the canal system.

Xochimilco is characterized by a system of canals, which measure about a total of 170 km. These canals, and the small colorful boats that float on them among artificially created land called chinampas are internationally famous. These canals are popular with Mexico City residents as well, especially on Sundays. These canals are all of what is left of what used to be a vast lake and canal system that extended over most parts of the Valley of Mexico, restricting cities such as Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) and Xochimilco to small islands. This system of waterways was the main transportation venue, especially for goods from the pre-Hispanic period until the 20th century. In the pre-Hispanic period, parts of the shallow lakes were filled in, creating canals. Starting in the early colonial period, the interconnected lakes of the valley, including Lake Xochimilco, were drained. By the 20th century, the lakes had shrunk to a system of canals that still connected Xochimilco with the center of Mexico City. However, with the pumping of underground aquifers since the early 20th century, water tables have dropped, drying canals, and all that are left are the ones in Xochimilco. The canals are fed by fresh water springs, which is artificially supplemented by treated water. This because water tables are

Chinampas.

The canals of Lake Xochimilco were initially created along with artificial agricultural plots called chinampas. Chinampas were invented by the pre-Hispanic peoples of the region around 1,000 year ago as a way to increase agricultural production. On the shallow waters of the lakes, rafts were constructed of juniper branches. Onto these rafts floating on the water, lakebed mud and soil were heaped and crops planted. These rafts, tied to juniper trees, would eventually sink and a new one be built to replace it. Over time, these sunken rafts would form square or rectangular islands, held in place in part by the juniper trees. As these chinampa islands propagated, areas of the lake were reduced to canals. These “floating gardens” were an important part of the economy of the Aztec Empire by the time the Spanish arrived. Today, only about 5,000 chinampas, all affixed to the lake bottom, still exist in their original form, surrounded by canals and used for agriculture. The rest have become solid ground and urbanized. In the center of Xochimilco,

The Island of the Dolls.

About an hour long canal ride from an embarcadero, pier, lies Isla de las Muñecas, or the Island of the Dolls. It is the best-known "chinampa", or floating garden, in Xochimilco. It belonged to a man named Don Julián Santana Barrera, a native of the La Asunción neighborhood. Santana Barrera was a loner, who was rarely seen in most of Xochimilco. According to the legend, One Early morning a young girl and her sisters went swimming in the canal but the current was too strong. The sisters got separated and the current pulled one of the sisters all the way down the canal when Santana Barrera discovered the young girl while she was drowning. When Santana finally got to her she was already dead. He

History.

The name "Xochimilco" comes from Nahuatl and means "flower field." This referred to the many flowers and other crops that were grown here on chinampas since the pre-Hispanic period.  The first human presence in the area was of hunter gatherers, who eventually settled into farming communities. The first settlements in the Xochimilco area were associated with the Cuicuilco, Copilco and Tlatilco settlements during the Classic period. The Xochimilca people, considered one of the seven Nahua tribes that migrated into the Valley of Mexico, first settled around 900 BC in Cuahilama, near what is now Santa Cruz Acalpixca. They worshipped sixteen deities, with Chantico, goddess of the hearth and Cihuacoatl, an earth goddess and Amimitl, god of chinampas the most important.  The Xochimilcas were farmers and founded their first dominion under a leader named Acatonallo. He is credited with inventing the chinampa system of agriculture to increase production. These chinampas eventually became the main producer with crops such as corn, beans, chili peppers, squash and more. The city of Xochimilco was founded in 919. Over time, it grew and began to dominate other areas on the south side of the lakes such as Mixquic, Tláhuac, Culhuacan and even parts of what is now the State of Morelos. Xochimilco had one woman ruler, which did not happen anywhere else in Mesoamerica in the pre-Hispanic period. She is credited with adding a number of distinctive dishes to the area's cuisine, with inclusions such as necuatolli, chileatolli (atole with chili pepper), esquites and tlapiques.  In 1352, then emperor Caxtoltzin moved the city from the mainland to the island of Tlilan. In this respect it was like another island city in the area, Tenochtitlan. Although no longer an island, the city center is still in the same spot. In 1376, Tenochtitlan attacked Xochimilco, forcing the city to appeal to Azcapotzalco for help. The conquest was unsuccessful, but Xochimilco was then forced to pay tribute to Azcapotzalco. Tenochtitlan succeeded in conquering Xochimilco in 1430, while it was ruled by Tzalpoyotzin. Shortly thereafter, Aztec emperor Itzcoatl built the causeway or calzada that would connect the two cities over the lake. During the reign of Moctezuma Ilhuicamina, the Xochimilcas contributed materials and manpower to construct a temple to Huitzilopochtli. They also participated in the further conquests of the Aztec Empire such as in Cuauhnáhuac (Cuernavaca), Xalisco and the Metztitlán and Oaxaca valleys. For their service, Ahuizotl, granted the Xochimilcas autonomy in their lands, and the two cities coexisted peacefully. Aztec emperors would pass by here on royal barges on their way to Chalco/Xico, then an island in Lake Chalco. For centuries Xochimilco remained relatively separate from Mexico City but provided much of the larger city's produce.  Aztec emperor Moctezuma Xocoyotzin imposed a new governor, Omácatl, onto Xochimilco due to the arrival of the Spanish, but this governor was forced to return to Tenochtitlan, when the emperor was taken prisoner. He was then succeeded by Macuilxochitecuhtli, but eighty days later he too went to Tenochtitlan to fight the Spanish alongside Cuitláhuac. He was followed by Apochquiyautzin, who remained loyal to Tenochtitlan. For this reason, Hernán Cortés decided to send armies to subdue Xochimilco before taking Tenochtitlan. This occurred on 16 April 1521. During the battle, Cortés was almost killed when he fell off his horse, but he was saved by a soldier named Cristóbal de Olea. The battle was fierce and left few Xochimilca warriors alive. According to legend, it was after this battle that Cuauhtémoc came to Xochimilco and planted a juniper tree in the San Juan neighborhood to commemorate the event.  Pre-Hispanic Xochimilco was an island connected to the mainland by three causeways. One of these still exists in the form of Avenida Guadalupe I.Ramirez, one of the city's main streets. This causeway led to the main ceremonial center of the town, which was called the Quilaztli. The Spanish destroyed the Quilaztli during the Conquest, and replaced it with the San Bernardino de Siena Church, which would become the social and political center of the colonial city. The city in turn, was the most important settlement in the south of the Valley of Mexico in the colonial era. It became a settlement of Spanish, criollos and mestizos, with the indigenous living in rural communities outside of the city proper.  During the Siege of Tenochtitlan, Hernan Cortes attacked the city and the "great number of warriors" in it. During the battle, Cortes was

Religion.

From the pre-Hispanic period to the present, religion has pervaded the life of people in this region. Since it was imposed in the early 16th century, the Catholic religion has permeated and molded popular culture. Like in other parts of Mexico, indigenous ideas and practices, such as those of the Xochimilca, were not completely eradicated. Instead, many were integrated and readapted to Catholicism. One example of this is the building of churches over former temples and other sacred sites. These churches' decoration often have indigenous elements to them as well. Despite the fact that 91% of the population self identifies as Catholic, there are still many indigenous and traditions related to the agricultural cycle. A more important syncretism has been the many religious festivals that occur through the year, and the means by which these festivals are sponsored and organized. Much of religious practice in the borough is through symbolic processes that work to produce a kind of social cohesion. The most visible of these are the large civic/religious festivals.  There is some religious plurality in the borough although they represent a very small minority of the population. There are thirty six non-Catholic congregations in the borough with about seventy places of worship. Almost all are Protestant or Evangelical groups established by missionaries, mostly from the United States. The first was established 120 years ago, but most have been established in the last twenty years, with a small but growing number of followers. However, since almost all social activity is related to this popular Catholic festival calendar, intolerance of religious minorities generally takes the subtle form of being excluded from events, although a number of non-Catholics participate in festivities anyway.  These mostly religious festivals and other traditions have been maintain despite the urbanization of the borough. The calendar of celebrations here is extensive. Some are civic or political events such as Independence Day or local celebrations such as the birth of poet Fernando Celada, the birth of Quirino Mendoza y Cortés, composer of “Cielito Lindo,” and the commemoration of the meeting of Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata on December 4 in this area. However, most events are tied to religious activity and tradition, organized by volunteers called mayordomos. The mayordomia system is the most important social structure in the borough. The primary task of these volunteers is to sponsor and organized any many religious festivals and celebrations that occur through the year, as well as other duties. This may be paid for by collecting donations or paid for directly by the mayordomo. There are 422 officially recognized festivals during the year, including those local to specific communities. One of these more localized festivals is on May 3, Day of the Holy Cross, which has been celebrated in communities such as Santa Cruz Xochitepec (or Magdalena Xochitepec), Santa Cruz Acalpixcan and the center of Xochimilco for over 400 years.  However, the best known mayordomo position is not for a festival, but rather for the care of an image of the child Jesus called the Niñopa. The image is over 435 years old and has a following of about 25,000 in the Xochimilco area. It measures and weighs less than a kilo. The name “Niñopa” comes from the Spanish word “niño” (child) and the Nahuatl suffix “-pan” (place) to mean “child of the place.” The image was thought to have been made of orange tree wood, but this was proven false when the image was dropped and a finger damaged, allowing for the taking of a small sample. The analysis showed that it was made in the local area of a tree called a chocolín, in the 16th or 17th century. The prestige for becoming a mayordomo for the Niñopa is so great, that the waiting time to become one is decades long. The mayordomo receives nothing for the care of the image and pays all expenses out of pocket, which includes building rooms for the image to stay, and sponsoring the nearly daily events dedicated to this image. The annual cycle begin on February 2, when the image is received by a new mayordomo. During the year, the image visits homes and hospitals, accompanied by Chinelos dancers. In addition to the Niñopan, other important child Jesus figures include the Niño Dormidito in the Xaltocan neighborhood, the Niño de Belen at the Salitre Embarcadero, the Niño Tamalerito, and the Niño de San Juan. These images, along with the Niñopan, are celebrated together on April 30, at an event called the Niños Sagrados. There are various replicas of the Niñopa, which are owned by former mayordomos.  Fifteen of the eighteen pueblos of Xochimilco hold major events for Day of the Dead, including costume parades, exhibitions, especially of altars, in cemeteries, museums, plazas and more. The Dolores Olmedo Museum has an annual monumental altar to the dead for the occasion As per traditions, the cemeteries of smaller communities such as San Francisco Tlalnepantla, Santa Cruz Xochitepec and Santa María Nativitas are lit with the glow of numerous candles and loved ones sit vigil over the graves. The best known event associated with Day of the Dead is the “la Cihuacoatle, Leyenda de la Llorona,” which is a spectacle based

Non-religious festivals.

There are forty nine important mostly secular festivals through the year, with the most important being the Feria de la Nieve, Feria de la Alegría y el Olivo, and the Flor más Bellas del Ejido. The “Flor más Bella del Ejido” (Most Beautiful Flower of the Ejido or Field) pageant is a borough-wide event dedicated to fjthe beauty of Mexican indigenous women. The origins of this event are traced back over 220 years with symbolism that is based on the pre-Hispanic notion of a “flower-woman” representative of Mother Earth and fertility. This flower-woman is based on the goddess Xochiquetzal, the goddess of flowers and love, robbed from her husband Tlaloc by Tezcatlipoca. After the Conquest, this “flower-woman” symbol survived and would appear at certain Catholic festivals such as the Viernes de Dolores, or the Friday before Palm Sunday. An official pageant dedicated to this was established in 1786. Originally, its purpose was religious but it eventually became secularized. For this reason, the event was moved to a week before the Viernes de Dolores and then called the Viernes de las Amapolas. The event existed in this form for 170 years, with dancing, food, pulque, charros and pageants featuring china poblanas. In 1902, the tradition diminished as the last of the canals connecting the area with the Jamaica market closed. In 1921, the El Universal newspaper held a beauty pageant for the 100th anniversary of the end of the Mexican War of Independence, calling it “La India Bonita” dedicated to indigenous women. The first winner was María Bibiana Uribe. In 1936, another pageant was created for mestizo women called “la Flor Más Bella del Ejido” or the Most Beautiful Flower of the Ejido, which occurred each year on the Viernes de Dolores in the Santa Anita area. This event was moved to San Andres Mixquic in the 1950s, but the lack of crowds had it move again in 1955 to Xochimilco, where it remains.  The Feria de Nieve (Ices and Ice cream Fair) takes place in Santiago Tulyehualco each April. Flavored snow was consumed in the pre Hispanic period, eaten by the rich and made from snow from the nearby mountains and transported through this area. The consumption of this flavored snow continued into the colonial era and the first fair dedicated to it was established in 1529 by Martín de Valencia. The fair was celebrated sporadically until 1885 when there was renewed

Economy.

Since the pre-Hispanic period, Xochimilco's economy has traditionally been based on agriculture, mostly by supplying to the needs of Mexico City. This not only dominated the economy but also the area's religious practices, some of which can still be seen to the present day. Agriculture still remains important in the borough, but most of the focus has shifted to flowers and ornamental plants. One major reason for this is the poor quality of the area's water supply. Xochimilco has four major markets dedicated to the sale of plants and flowers: Cuemanco, Palacio de la Flor, Mercado de Madre Selva and the historic market at San Luis Tlaxialtemalco. Cuemanco is the largest in Xochimilco and the largest of its kind in Latin America, covering thirteen hectares, with its own cactus garden and forms part of the ecological preserve of Cuemanco. The borough produces 2.5 million poinsettias each year, accounting for most of the 3.5 million sold each year in Mexico City. This represents an income for the borough of about 25 to 30 million pesos annually, grown by about 10,000 growers.  However, starting in the latter 20th century, most of area's economy has shifted away from agriculture. One reason for this is the deterioration of the area's environment. Plagues and poor planning have gravely affected the conservation area

Other landmarks.

Aside from the canals and trajineras, the best known attraction in Xochimilco is the Dolores Olmedo Museum. This museum was once the home of socialite Dolores Olmedo. Before this, it was the main house of the La Noria Hacienda, established in the 17th century. Before she died, Ms. Olmedo decided to donate her house, much of what was in it and her art collection to the public as a museum. The buildings are surrounded by gardens planted with native Mexican species, around which wander peacocks. Another area houses a number of xoloitzcuintle dog. The museum's collection includes about 600 pre Hispanic pieces, the largest collection of works by Diego Rivera at 140 pieces, as well as a number of works by Frida Kahlo and Angelina Beloff. It also contains rooms filled with furniture, items from many parts of the world and everyday items used by Olmedo and her family. In November, the museum set up a monumental altar to the dead.  The Museo Arqueológico de Xochimilco (Archeological Museum of Xochimilco) began as a collection of pre-Hispanic artifacts such as ceramics, stone items, bones, and more that had been found in the area, often during construction projects. In 1965, the museum began to display these items to the public. In 1974, the collection moved permanently to a late 19th-century house, which was restored in the 1980s and inaugurated under its current name. This collection contains 2,441 pieces, mostly ceramic and stone objects, including figures, cooking utensils, arrowheads. It is located on Avenida Tenochtitlán in Santa Cruz Acalpixca. Located to one side is

Education.

The borough contains 116 preschools, 128 primary schools, 48 middle schools, four technical high schools and 15 high schools that serve a student population of over 100,000 students. 4.6 percent of the population is illiterate, lower than the city average. The highest percentage of illiterate people consists of those over sixty years of age. The lowest is in the 15-19-year-old bracket.

Post-secondary education.

The Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana was established in 1974 in Xochimilco under Mexican president Luis Echeverría to meet the growing demand for public university education in the city. Currently, the institution has three campuses in the Federal District, in Azcapotzalco, Iztapalapa and Xochimilco and it is composed of several academic divisions. These divisions include the División de Ciencias y Artes para el Diseño, División de Ciencias Biológicas y de la Salud and the División de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades. The institution offers about twenty bachelor's degrees,

Primary and secondary schools.

National public high schools of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) "Escuela Nacional Preparatoria" include:  Public high schools of the "Instituto de Educación Media Superior del Distrito Federal" (IEMS)

Xochimilco (;, ) is one of the 16 "mayoralities" (Spanish: "alcaldías") or boroughs within Mexico City. The borough is centered on the formerly independent city of Xochimilco, which was established on what was the southern shore of Lake Xochimilco in the pre-Hispanic period. Today, the borough consists of the eighteen “barrios” or neighborhoods of this city along with fourteen “pueblos” or villages that surround it, covering an area of. The borough is in the southeastern part of the city and has an identity that is separate from the historic center of Mexico City, due to its historic separation from that city during most of its history. Xochimilco is best known for its canals, which are left from what was an extensive lake and canal system that connected most of the settlements of the Valley of Mexico. These canals, along with artificial islands called chinampas, attract tourists and other city residents to ride on colorful gondola-like boats called “trajineras” around the of canals. This canal and chinampa system, as a vestige of the area's pre-Hispanic past, has made Xochimilco a World Heritage Site. In 1950, Paramahansa Yogananda in his "Autobiography of a Yogi" wrote that if there were a scenic beauty contest, Xochimilco would get the first prize. However, severe environmental degradation of the canals and chinampas has brought that status into question.

Xochimilco je jednou z 16 městských částí Ciudad de México. Rozprostírá se na rozloze 118 km2, v roce 2010 zde žilo 415 007 osob a hustota zalidnění dosahovala hodnoty 3 517 os./km2. První lidské osídlení této lokality sahá hluboko do předkolumbovského období, mezoamerické kultury se zde usazovaly již okolo roku 2000 př. n. l. Xochimilco se rozprostírá na původních březích, ale i v zátopě stejnojmenného jezera Xochimilco. To se zde rozprostíralo až do příchodu Španělů v 16. století, kteří ho postupem času vysušili. Pozůstatkem jezerní krajiny Mexického údolí je v současnosti rozlehlý systém kanálů a tzv. chinampas.


Background.

Born in Montreal, Quebec, to Irish pianist Francis McGarrigle and French Canadian mother Gabrielle Latrémouille, the three McGarrigle sisters (Jane, Anna, and Kate, the youngest) grew up in the village of Saint-Sauveur-des-Monts, north of Montreal. Their family was a musical one on both sides, often gathering around the piano and singing, allowing Kate and her sisters to absorb influences as varied as Gershwin, French Canadian folk songs, Stephen Foster, and composer-singers such as Wade Hemsworth, and Edith Piaf. The sisters were formally introduced to music by taking piano lessons from the village nuns.  In the 1960s Kate and Anna established themselves in Montreal's burgeoning folk scene while they attended school. From 1963 to 1967, they teamed up with Jack Nissenson and Peter Weldon to form the folk group, the Mountain City Four.  Anna, who is 14 months older than Kate, studied painting at the École des Beaux-Arts de Montréal (now part of the Université du Québec à Montréal) in Montreal; Kate studied engineering at McGill University. It was at this time that they began writing songs. Although she sang mostly in English, according to Juan Rodriguez, she and Anna "put Québécois folk music...on the global music map in 1980 with "Complainte pour Ste. Cathérine", "Entre la jeunesse et la sagesse" (commonly known as the "French Record") and 2003's "La vache qui pleure"."  The McGarrigle sisters' life has been chronicled in Dane Lanken's "Kate and Anna McGarrigle: Songs and Stories".  Place Kate-McGarrigle was inaugurated on August 7, 2013 in Montreal's Outremont borough. It contains a sculpture by Robert Wilson in the form of a double chair. McGarrigle - a Montreal native - lived nearby before her death.  Her son, Rufus, says he discussed with Kate the offer of his childhood friend, Lorca Cohen, for Rufus to sire her child. He says that Kate strongly encouraged him to accept Cohen's offer, and that he regrets she didn't live long enough to see his daughter Viva Katherine Wainwright Cohen's birth.

Awards.

Kate and Anna's 1976 self-titled debut album was chosen by "Melody Maker" as Best Record of the Year. Their albums "Matapedia" (1996) and "The McGarrigle Hour" (1998) won Juno Awards. In 1999 Kate and Anna received Women of Originality awards. In 1993 she was made a Member of the Order of Canada.  In 2006 Kate and Anna McGarrigle were the recipients of the Lifetime Achievement Award at the SOCAN Awards.

Death.

McGarrigle was diagnosed with cancer in 2006 and established the Kate McGarrigle Fund at the McGill University Health Centre, which she set up in 2008 to raise awareness of sarcoma, a rare cancer that affects connective tissue such as bone, muscle, nerves and cartilage.  She died of clear-cell sarcoma on January 18, 2010, aged 63 at her home in Montreal, Quebec. Her sister Anna wrote on their website:  She made her last public appearance, with Rufus and Martha Wainwright, at the Royal Albert Hall in London, just six weeks before her death. The show raised $55,000 for the Kate McGarrigle Fund.  On June 12, 2010, the Meltdown Festival staged a tribute concert in her honour, organised by Richard Thompson. The concert included performances by her daughter Martha Wainwright, son Rufus Wainwright, sister Anna McGarrigle, ex-husband Loudon Wainwright III, Neil Tennant, Nick Cave, Emmylou Harris, Richard and Linda Thompson, and longtime friends and musical collaborators Chaim Tannenbaum and Joel Zifkin. Her close friend Emmylou Harris wrote the song "Darlin' Kate" in her memory, which appears on her album "Hard Bargain".  A "Celebration of Kate McGarrigle" was held on May 12 and 13, 2011, at New York City's Town Hall. Among the participating artists honoring her at these concerts were Martha Wainwright, Rufus Wainwright, Anna McGarrigle, Emmylou Harris, Lisa Hannigan, Norah Jones, Antony Hegarty, Jimmy Fallon, Krystle Warren, Justin Vivian Bond, Teddy Thompson, Jenni Muldaur, writer Michael Ondaatje and longtime friends and McGarrigle sidemen Chaim Tannenbaum and Joel Zifkin. The celebration was curated by Joe Boyd and filmed by Lian Lunson. "" was released in June 2013; "" served as the film's soundtrack.

Kate McGarrigle, CM (February 6, 1946 – January 18, 2010) was a Canadian folk music singer-songwriter, who wrote and performed as a duo with her sister Anna McGarrigle.

Kate McGarrigleová, CM, nepřechýleně "Kate McGarrigle" (6. února 1946 Montreal, Québec, Kanada − 18. ledna 2010 tamtéž) byla kanadská zpěvačka a akordeonistka. Spolu se svou sestrou Annou tvořila hudební duo Kate & Anna McGarrigle. S Loudonem Wainwrightem III měla děti Rufuse Wainwrighta a Marthu Wainwrightovou.


Early life.

The date of his birth is unclear: it could be 1314, 1319, or 1322. His medieval biography states that he was born to Kiril and Maria, a boyar family, near Rostov the Great, where Varnitsy Monastery now stands.  The narrative of Epiphanius does not specify the exact birthplace of the monk, stating only that before the migration from Rostov principality the monk's family lived "in a village in the area, which is within the Rostov principality, not very close to the city of Rostov". It is considered that it is the village Varnitsa () near Rostov. The future saint received the baptismal name of Bartholomew (Варфоломе́й "Varfolomei" in Russian) in honor of the Apostle Bartholomew.  Although an intelligent boy, Bartholomew had great difficulty learning to read. His biography states that a "starets" (spiritual elder) met him one day and gave him a piece of "prosphora" (holy bread) to eat, and from that day forward he was able to read. Orthodox Christians interpret the incident as being an angelic visitation.  When the Principality of Rostov fell into the hands of Prince Ivan Danilovich of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, his parents Kirill and Maria became impoverished and moved to Radonezh together with their three sons, Stefan, Bartholomew and Peter.

Monastic life.

Upon his parents' death, Bartholomew went to Khotkovo near Moscow, where his older brother Stefan was a monk. He persuaded Stefan to find a more secluded place to live the ascetic life. In the deep forest at Makovets Hill they decided to build a small cell and a church dedicated in honor of the Trinity. Thus started the history of the great Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra.  In time, Stefan moved to a monastery in Moscow. Varfolomei took monastic vows, taking the name Sergius, and spent more than a year in the forest alone as a hermit. Soon, however, other monks started coming to him and building their own cells. After some time, they persuaded him to become their "hegumen", or father superior, and he was ordained to the priesthood. Following his example, all the monks had to live by their own labor. Over time, more and more monks and donations came to this place. Nearby, there appeared a "posad", which grew into the town of Sergiev Posad, and other villages.  When the news of Sergius's accomplishments reached Patriarch Philotheus of Constantinople, he sent to him a monastic charter. During the reign of St. Dmitri Donskoi, his disciples started to spread his teaching across central and northern Russia. They settled intentionally in the most impracticable places and founded numerous monasteries, of which Borisoglebsky, Ferapontov, Kirillo-Belozersky and Vysotsky monasteries could be mentioned. St. Sergius was also connected with the foundation of two monastic communities in Moscow, Andronikov and Simonov monasteries. All in all, the disciples of Sergius founded about 40 monasteries, thus greatly extending the geographical extent of his influence and authority. However, when Metropolitan Alexius asked him to become his successor, Sergius declined, preferring to remain a simple monk.  As an ascetic, Sergius did not take part in the political life of the country. However, he blessed Dmitry Donskoy when he went to fight the Tatars in the signal Battle of Kulikovo field, but only after he was certain Dmitry had pursued all peaceful means of resolving the conflict. Some historians interpreted his political stance as aspiring to make peace and unite Russian lands under the leadership of Moscow.

Death and canonization.

Sergius died on September 25, 1392, and was glorified (canonized) in 1452. His incorrupt relics were found in 1422 and placed in the new Trinity Cathedral of the lavra which he founded. The church commemorates him on September 25, the day of his death, and on July 5, the day his relics were uncovered. (See September 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)). Among the many affectionate titles given him, he has been referred to as the "Abbot of Russia" and "valiant voivod" of the Russian land.  The Catholic Church officially recognizes Sergius as a saint, and he is honored in the Calendar of Saints of several churches of the Anglican Communion.  The ecumenical Fellowship of Saint Alban and Saint Sergius is named in part for him.  In December 1937, Pavel Florensky (1882–1937), a Russian theologian, priest, mathematician, inventor, philosopher and engineer died in the Soviet Gulag and it is thought he was condemned by an extrajudicial NKVD troika under NKVD Order No. 00447 to be executed during the 1930s Bolshevik purges after refusing to disclose the hiding place of Sergius' head which the Bolsheviks wanted destroyed. It is rumored that Florensky and other theologians were involved in a plot to save and hide the relics of St. Sergius. The relics were returned by Pavel Golubtsov, later "Archbishop Sergius," to the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra (Trinity Cathedral) of the lavra in 1946 when it was reopened.

Legacy.

Much information about the saint and his acts is taken from the writing of his life composed in the 15th century, which has come down to us in many later editions in the 15th to 20th century Russian manuscripts. The memory of Sergius of Radonezh has lived on thanks to the unique manuscript entitled "The Life of St. Sergius of Radonezh" written by famous hagiographer Pachomius the Serb, also known as Pachomius Logothetes. The original manuscript is housed in the National Library of Russia.

Venerable Sergius of Radonezh (, "Sergii Radonezhsky"; 14 May 1314 – 25 September 1392), also transliterated as Sergiy Radonezhsky or Serge of Radonezh, was a spiritual leader and monastic reformer of medieval Russia. Together with Venerable Seraphim of Sarov, he is one of the Russian Orthodox Church's most highly venerated saints.

Sergej Radoněžský, též Sergij Radoněžský či Sergej z Radoněže (3. května 1314 – 25. září 1392) byl ruský středověký duchovní vůdce, jeden z nejuctívanějších pravoslavných svatých. Je považován za velkou osobnost ruských dějin, důkazem čehož je, že roku 2008 byl zvolen do padesátky největších Rusů historie. Kanonizován byl roku 1452.


Structure.

Quassel is based on a client–server model. The core application uses a LAN or the Internet to connect to one or more clients, and also various IRC servers. The client does not communicate with the IRC server directly; it does so through the core. This way, the connection to the IRC network is maintained by the core, even though no clients are using it. A "monolith" version of the application is also supported; which acts like a normal IRC client, with no separation between core and client. Android (Quasseldroid) and iOS (iQuassel) clients are also available.  This system is similar to what Irssi, WeeChat with GNU Screen, and Smuxi use.

Features.

Quassel allows simultaneous connections to multiple IRC servers. Different identities can be created, and used on one or more of the servers the core connects to. These identities each contain default nicknames, fallback nicknames, away messages and so on. Each identity can be assigned to one or more servers.  Quassel stores discussion history in either a PostgreSQL or a SQLite database. When scrolling up through the chat window, older sections of chat are loaded automatically from stored logs. In this way, one can seamlessly view logs of past discussions.  Aliases, command "shortcuts", are also available; with these, a user can create an alias for a long command with many parameters. The connection between the client and the core can be encrypted using Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), and proxies are supported.  In a 2009 roundup of large IRC clients for Tom's Hardware, Adam Overa described Quassel as being "fully featured" with "tons of options," and, "even new users should have no problem connecting to servers and finding channels using the GUI tools for server presets and channel lists."

Quassel IRC, or Quassel, is a graphical, distributed, cross-platform IRC client, introduced in 2008. It is released under the GNU General Public License for: GNU and Unix-like operating systems, OS X and Microsoft Windows. It has also been ported to OS/2 Warp due to its cross-platform nature. Since the release of Kubuntu 9.04 (Jaunty Jackalope) Quassel is Kubuntu's default IRC client. Quassel uses the Qt application framework.

Quassel IRC neboli Quassel je grafický klientský program pro protokol IRC. Poprvé byl vydán v roce 2008. Je multiplatformní (je pro Linux a UN*Xy obecně, pro Microsoft Windows i pro Mac OS X), přičemž v Kubuntu je od verze 9.04 přednastaveným systémovým klientem pro IRC. Je napsán v programovacím jazyce C++ a uvolněn pod licencí GNU GPL, jedná se tedy o svobodný software.


"Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus".

"Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus" (RHDV) is a virus in the genus "Lagovirus" and the family "Caliciviridae". It is a nonenveloped virus with a diameter around 35–40 nm, icosahedral symmetry, and a linear positive-sense RNA genome of 6.4–8.5 kb. RHDV causes a generalized infection in rabbits that is characterized by liver necrosis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and rapid death. Division into serotypes has been defined by a lack of cross-neutralization using specific antisera. Rabbit lagoviruses also include related caliciviruses such as "European brown hare syndrome virus".  RHDV appears to have evolved from a pre-existing avirulent rabbit calicivirus. Nonpathogenic rabbit caliciviruses related to, but distinct from RHDV, had been circulating, apparently harmlessly, in Europe, Australia, and New Zealand prior to the emergence of RHDV. In the course of its evolution RHDV split into six distinct genotypes, all of which are highly pathogenic.  The three strains of "rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus" of medical significance are RHDV, RHDVa and RHDV2. RHDV (also referred to as RHDV, RHDV1, or as classical RHD) only affects adult European rabbits ("Oryctolagus cuniculus"). This virus was first reported in China in 1984, from which it spread to much of Asia, Europe, Australia, and elsewhere. A few isolated outbreaks of RHDV have occurred in the United States and Mexico, but they remained localized and were eradicated.  In 2010, a new lagovirus with a distinct antigenic profile was identified in France. The new virus, named "rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus 2" (abbreviated as RHDV2 or RHDVb), also caused RHD, but exhibited distinctive genetic, antigenic, and pathogenic features. Importantly, RHDV2 killed rabbits previously vaccinated with RHDV vaccines, and affected young European rabbits, as well as hares ("Lepus" spp.). All these features strongly suggest that the virus was not derived from RHDVa, but from some other unknown source. RHDV2 has since spread to the majority of Europe, as well as to Australia, Canada, and the United States.

Epidemiology and transmission.

Both viruses causing RHD are extremely contagious. Transmission occurs by direct contact with infected animals, carcasses, bodily fluids (urine, feces, respiratory secretions), and hair. Surviving rabbits may be contagious for up to 2 months. Contaminated fomites such as clothing, food, cages, bedding, feeders, and water also spread the virus. Flies, fleas, and mosquitoes can carry the virus between rabbits. Predators and scavengers can also spread the virus by shedding it in their feces. Caliciviruses are highly resistant in the environment, and can survive freezing for prolonged periods. Virus can persist in infected meat for months, and for prolonged periods in decomposing carcasses. Importation of rabbit meat may be a major contributor in the spread of the virus to new geographic regions.  RHD outbreaks tend to be seasonal in wild rabbit populations, where most adults have survived infection and are immune. As young kits grow up and stop nursing, they no longer receive the antibodies provided in their mother's milk and become susceptible to infection. Thus, RHD epizootics occur more often during the rabbits' breeding season.  Generally, high host specificity exists among lagoviruses. Classic RHDVa only affects European rabbits, a species native to Europe and from which the domestic rabbit is descended. The new variant RHDV2 affects European rabbits, as well, but also causes fatal RHD in various "Lepus" species, including Sardinian Cape hares ("L. capensis mediterraneus"), Italian hares ("L. corsicanus"), and mountain hares ("L. timidus"). Reports of RHD in "Sylvilagus" species have been coming from the current outbreak in the United States.  RHD caused by RHDV and RHDVa demonstrates high morbidity (up to 100%) and mortality (40-100%) in adult European rabbits. Young rabbits 6–8 weeks old are less likely to be infected, and kits younger than 4 weeks old do not become ill. The more recently emerged RHDV2 causes death and disease in rabbits as young as 15 days old. Mortality rates from RHDV2 are more variable at 5-70%. Initially less virulent, the pathogenicity of RHDV2 has been increasing and is now similar to that found with RHDV and RHDVa. Deaths from RHDV2 have been confirmed in rabbits previously vaccinated against RHDVa.

Pathophysiology.

Both viral strains of RHDV replicate in the liver, causing hepatic necrosis and liver failure, which can in turn lead to disseminated intravascular coagulation, hepatic encephalopathy, and nephrosis. Bleeding may occur, as clotting factors and platelets are used up.

Clinical signs.

Rabbit hemorrhagic disease causes hepatitis. The incubation period for RHDVa is 1–2 days, and for RHDV2 3–5 days. Rabbits infected with RHDV2 are more likely to show subacute or chronic signs than are those infected with RHDVa. In rabbitries, an epidemic with high mortality rates in adult and subadult rabbits is typical. If the outbreak is caused by RHDV2, then deaths also occur in young rabbits.  RHD can vary in the rate clinical signs occur. In peracute cases, rabbits are usually found dead with no premonitory symptoms. Rabbits may be observed grazing normally immediately before death.  In acute cases, rabbits are inactive and reluctant to move. They may develop a fever up to 42 °C (107.6 °F) and have increased heart and respiratory rates. Bloody discharge from the nose, mouth, or vulva is common, as is blood in the feces or urine. Lateral recumbency, coma, and convulsions may be observed before death. Rabbits with the acute form generally die within 12 to 36 hours from the onset of fever.  Subacute to chronic RHD has a more protracted clinical course, and is more commonly noted with RHDV2 infections. Clinical signs include lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, and jaundice. Gastrointestinal dilation, cardiac arrhythmias, heart murmurs, and neurologic abnormalities can also occur. Death, if it occurs, usually happens 1–2 weeks after the onset of symptoms, and is due to liver failure.  Not all rabbits exposed to RHDVa or RHDV2 become overtly ill. A small proportion of infected rabbits clears the virus without developing signs of disease. Asymptomatic carriers also occur, and can continue to shed virus for months, thereby infecting other animals. Surviving rabbits develop a strong immunity to the specific viral variant with which they were infected.

Diagnosis.

A presumptive diagnosis of RHD can often be made based on clinical presentation, infection pattern within a population, and "post mortem" lesions. Definitive diagnosis requires detection of the virus. As most caliciviruses cannot be grown in cell culture, molecular and serologic methods of viral detection are often used.  Complete blood counts from rabbits with RHD often show low levels of white blood cells and platelets, and chemistry panels show elevated liver enzymes. Evidence of liver failure may also be present, including increased bile acids and bilirubin, and decreased glucose and cholesterol. Prolonged prothrombin and activated partial thromboplastin times are typical. Urinalysis can show bilirubinuria, proteinuria, and high urinary GGT.  The classic "post mortem" lesion seen in rabbits with RHD is extensive hepatic necrosis and jaundice. Also, multifocal hemorrhages, splenomegaly, bronchopneumonia, pulmonary hemorrhage or edema, and myocardial necrosis ma be seen.  A variety of molecular tests can be used to identify RHD viruses. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction tests are a commonly used and accurate testing modality for viruses. Other tests used include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, electron microscopy, immunostaining, Western blot, and "in situ" hybridization. The tissue of choice for molecular testing is fresh or frozen liver, as it usually contains the largest numbers of virus, but if this is not available, spleen and serum can also be used. Identification of the strain of RHDV is needed so vaccination protocols can be adjusted accordingly.

Prevention and control.

Vaccines.

A number of vaccines available against RHD are sold in countries where the disease is endemic. All provide 12 months of protection against RHD viruses. Because RHD viruses cannot normally be grown "in vitro", how these vaccines are produced is affected. Inactivated RHD vaccines, including Eravac, Felavac, and Cylap, are “liver-derived”, meaning that laboratory rabbits are intentionally infected with RHD and their livers and spleens harvested to make vaccines. Each rabbit used results in the production of thousands of vaccine doses. This has led to controversy among rabbit lovers, who question the ethics of some rabbits having to die to protect others but is not an issue where rabbits are primarily farmed for meat. Another method of reproducing the virus is through recombinant technology, where antigenic portions of the RHD viruses are inserted into viruses that can be grown in culture. This is the method used to create Nobivac Myxo-RHD PLUS.  Vaccines against only the classic RHDVa strain are: Cylap RCD Vaccine, made by Zoetis, protects rabbits from two different strains of RHDVa (v351 and K5) that are used for wild rabbit control in Australia. CUNIPRAVAC RHD®, manufactured by HIPRA, protects against the RHDVa strains found in Europe. Nobivac Myxo-RHD, made by MSD Animal Health, is a live myxoma-vectored vaccine that offers one year duration of immunity against both RHDVa and myxomatosis.  Vaccines against only the newer RHDV2 strain are: Eravac vaccine, manufactured by HIPRA, protects rabbits against RHDV2 for a year.  Vaccines that protect against both RHDVa and RHDV2 strains include: Filavac VHD K C+V, manufactured by Filavie, protects against both classical RHDVa and RHDV-2. It is available in single dose and multidose vials. A soon-to-be-released vaccine from MSD Animal Health, Nobivac Myxo-RHD PLUS, is a live recombinant vector vaccine active against both RHDVa and RHDV2, as well as myxomatosis.  Countries in which RHD is not considered endemic may place restrictions on importation of RHDV vaccines. Importation of these vaccines into the United States can only be done with the approval of the United States Department of Agriculture and the appropriate state veterinarian.

Disinfection.

Caliciviruses are stable in the environment and difficult to inactivate. Products commonly used for household disinfection such as Clorox® and Lysol® disinfecting wipes do not work against these viruses. One effective option is to wipe down surfaces with a 10% bleach solution, allowing 10 minutes of contact time before rinsing. Other disinfectants shown to work include 10% sodium hydroxide, 2% One-Stroke Environ®, Virkon® S, Clorox® Healthcare Bleach Germicidal Wipes, Trifectant®, Rescue®, and hydrogen peroxide cleaners. Surface debris must always be mechanically removed prior to disinfection. A list of disinfectants that are effective against calicivirus (in this case norovirus) can be found on the Environmental Protection Agency's website. Studies have show that many quaternary ammonium compound based disinfectants do not inactivate caliciviruses.

Quarantine and other measures.

Because of the highly infectious nature of the disease, strict quarantine is necessary when outbreaks occur. Depopulation, disinfection, vaccination, surveillance, and quarantine are the only way to properly and effectively eradicate the disease. Deceased rabbits must be removed immediately and discarded in a safe manner. Surviving rabbits should be quarantined or humanely euthanized. Test rabbits may be used to monitor the virus on vaccinated farms.

Geographic distribution.

RHD is primarily a disease affecting European rabbits, which are native to the Iberian Peninsula and are found in the wild in much of Western Europe. Domesticated breeds are farmed throughout the world for meat and fur, and are becoming increasingly popular pets. European rabbits have been introduced to and become feral and sometimes invasive in Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and various islands.  RHD was first reported in 1984 in the People's Republic of China. Since then, RHD has spread to over 40 countries in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe, and Oceania, and is endemic in most parts of the world.

Asia.

The first reported outbreak of RHD caused by RHDVa occurred in 1984 in the Jiangsu Province of the China. The outbreak occurred in a group of Angora rabbits that had been imported from Germany. The cause of the disease was determined to be a small, nonenveloped RNA virus. An inactivated vaccine was developed that proved effective in preventing disease. In less than a year, the disease spread over an area of 50,000 km in China and killed 140 million domestic rabbits.  South Korea was the next country to report RHD outbreaks following the importation of rabbit fur from China. RHD has since spread to and become endemic in many countries in Asia, including India and the Middle East.

Europe.

From China, RHDVa spread westward to Europe. The first report of RHD in Europe came from in Italy in 1986. From there, it spread to much of Europe. Spain's first reported case was in 1988, and France, Belgium, and Scandinavia followed in 1990. Spain experienced a large die-off of wild rabbits, which in turn caused a population decline in predators that normally ate rabbits, including the Iberian lynx and Spanish imperial eagle.  RHD caused by RHDVa was reported for the first time in the United Kingdom in 1992. This initial epidemic was brought under control in the late 1990s using a combination of vaccination, strict biosecurity, and good husbandry. The newer viral strain RHDV2 was first detected in England and Wales in 2014, and soon spread to Scotland and Ireland.  In 2010, a new virus variant called "rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus 2" (RHDV2) emerged in France. RHDV2 has since spread from France to the rest of Europe, Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand. Outbreaks started occurring in the United States and Vancouver Island Canada in 2019.  RHD was detected for the first time in Finland in 2016. The outbreak occurred in feral European rabbits, and genetic testing identified the viral strain as RHDV2. Cases of viral transmission to domesticated pet rabbits have been confirmed, and vaccinating rabbits has been recommended.

Oceania.

In 1991, a strain of the RHDVa virus, Czech CAPM 351RHDV, was imported to Australia under strict quarantine conditions to research the safety and usefulness of the virus if it were used as a biological control agent against Australia and New Zealand's rabbit pest problem. Testing of the virus was undertaken on Wardang Island in Spencer Gulf off the coast of the Yorke Peninsula, South Australia. In 1995, the virus escaped quarantine and subsequently killed 10 million rabbits within 8 weeks of its release. In March 2017, a new Korean strain known as RHDV K5 was successfully released in a deliberate manner after almost a decade of research. This strain was chosen in part because it functions better in cool, wet regions where the previous "Calicivirus" was less effective.  In July 1997, after considering over 800 public submissions, the New Zealand Ministry of Health decided not to allow RHDVa to be imported into New Zealand to control rabbit populations. However, in late August, RHDVa was confirmed to have been deliberately and illegally introduced to the Cromwell area of the South Island. An unsuccessful attempt was made by New Zealand officials to control the spread of the disease. It was, however, being intentionally spread, and several farmers (notably in the Mackenzie Basin area) admitted to processing rabbits that had died from the disease in kitchen blenders for further spreading. Had the disease been introduced at a better time, control of the population would have been more effective, but it was released after breeding had commenced for the season, and rabbits under 2 weeks old at the time of the introduction were resistant to the disease. These young rabbits were, therefore, able to survive and breed rabbit numbers back up. Ten years on, rabbit populations (in the Mackenzie Basin in particular) are beginning to reach near preplague proportions once again, though they have not yet returned to pre-RHD levels. Resistance to RHD in New Zealand rabbits has led to the widespread use of Compound 1080 (Sodium fluoroacetate). The government and department of conservation are having to increase their use of 1080 to protect reserve land from rabbits and preserve the gains made in recent years through the use of RHD.

North and South America.

Isolated outbreaks of RHDVa in domestic rabbits have occurred in the United States, the first of which was in Iowa in 2000. In 2001, outbreaks occurred in Utah, Illinois, and New York. More recent outbreaks of RHDVa have occurred in 2005 in Indiana and 2018 in Pennsylvania. Each of these outbreaks was contained and was the result of separate but indeterminable introductions of RHDVa. RHDVa does not affect the native cottontail and jackrabbits in the United States, so the virus did not become endemic.  The first report of RHDV2 virus in North America was on a farm in Québec, Canada, in 2016. In 2018, a larger outbreak occurred in feral European rabbits on Delta and Vancouver Islands, Canada. The disease was confirmed later that year in a pet rabbit in Ohio. In July 2019, the first case of RHDV2 in Washington was confirmed in a pet rabbit from Orcas Island. In 2020, outbreaks of RHD have been reported in domestic rabbits in Washington and New York. Outbreaks of the disease in domestic rabbits, as well as cottontail rabbits and hares, have been reported in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Texas, Nevada, and California. Affected wildlife include mountain cottontail rabbits ("Sylvilagus nutalli"), desert cottontail rabbits ("S. audubonii"), antelope jackrabbits ("L. alleni"), and black-tailed jackrabbits ("L. californicus"). The virus circulating in the Southwest United States is distinct from the RHDV2 isolated from New York, Washington, Ohio, and British Columbia, Canada. The sources of these outbreaks are unknown.  Mexico experienced an outbreak of RHDVa in domestic rabbits from 1989 to 1991, presumably following the importation of rabbit meat from the People's Republic of China. Strict quarantine and depopulation measures were able to eradicate the virus, and the country was officially declared to be RHD-free in 1993. A second outbreak of RHD in domestic rabbits began in the state of Chihuahua in April 2020 and has since spread to Sonora, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Coahuila, and Durango.  Since 1993, RHDVa has been endemic in Cuba. Four epizootics involving domesticated rabbits were reported in 1993, 1997, 2000-2001, and 2004-2005. As consequence, thousands of rabbits have died or have been slaughtered each time. The virus is also believed to be thriving in Bolivia.

Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD), also known as viral hemorrhagic disease (VHD), is a highly infectious and lethal form of viral hepatitis that affects European rabbits. Some viral strains also affect hares and cottontail rabbits. Mortality rates generally range from 70 to 100 percent. The disease is caused by strains of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV), a lagovirus in the family "Caliciviridae".

Králičí mor je smrtelné virové onemocnění (z čeledi Caliciviridae) postihující králíky, proti němuž se lze účinně chránit vakcinací. K nakažení dochází přímým kontaktem s nakaženým jedincem nebo bodnutím komárem nebo jiným bodavým hmyzem. Po krátké inkubační době má nemoc rychlý průběh a králík umírá v křečích s příznaky dušení.


Modern cairns.

Different types of cairns exist from rough piles of stones to interlocking dry stone round cylinders. The most important cairns commonly used around the world are interlocking stone survey cairns constructed around a central survey mark about every 30 km on the tallest peaks across a nation. These physical survey mark cairn systems are the basis for national survey grids to interconnect individual land survey measurements for entire nations. On occasion these permanent interlocking stone cairns are taken down then reconstructed to re-mark measurements to increase the accuracy of the national survey grid. They can also be used in unpopulated countries as emergency location points. In North America and Northern Europe any type of cairn can be used to mark mountain bike and hiking trails and other cross-country trail blazing, especially in mountain regions at or above the tree line. For example, the extensive trail network maintained by the DNT, the Norwegian Trekking Association, extensively uses cairns in conjunction with T-painted rock faces to mark trails. Other examples of these can be seen in the lava fields of Volcanoes National Park to mark several hikes. Placed at regular intervals, a series of cairns can be used to indicate a path across stony or barren terrain, even across glaciers. Such cairns are often placed at junctions or in places where the trail direction is not obvious. They may also be used to indicate an obscured danger such as a sudden drop, or a noteworthy point such as the summit of a mountain. Most trail cairns are small, usually being a foot or less in height. However, they may be built taller so as to protrude through a layer of snow. Hikers passing by often add a stone, as a small bit of maintenance to counteract the erosive effects of severe weather. North American trail marks are sometimes called "ducks" or "duckies", because they sometimes have a "beak" pointing in the direction of the route. The expression "two rocks do not make a duck" reminds hikers that just one rock resting upon another could be the result of accident or nature rather than intentional trail marking.  The building of cairns for recreational purposes along trails, to mark one's personal passage through the area, can result in an overabundance of rock piles. This distracts from cairns used as genuine navigational guides, and also conflicts with the Leave No Trace ethic. This ethic of outdoor practice advocates for leaving the outdoors undisturbed and in its natural condition.  Coastal cairns, or "sea marks", are also common in the northern latitudes, especially in the island-strewn waters of Scandinavia and eastern Canada. Often indicated on navigation charts, they may be painted white or lit as beacons for greater visibility offshore.  Modern cairns may also be erected for historical or memorial commemoration or simply for decorative or artistic reasons. One example is a series of many cairns marking British soldiers' mass graves at the site of the Battle of Isandlwana, South Africa. Another is the Matthew Flinders Cairn on the side of Arthur's Seat, a small mountain on the shores of Port Phillip Bay, Australia. A large cairn, commonly referred to as "the igloo" by the locals, was built atop a hill next to the I-476 highway in Radnor, Pennsylvania and is a part of a series of large rock sculptures initiated in 1988 to symbolize the township's Welsh heritage and to beautify the visual imagery along the highway. Some are merely places where farmers have collected stones removed from a field. These can be seen in the Catskill Mountains, North America where there is a strong Scottish heritage, and may also represent places where livestock were lost. In locales exhibiting fantastic rock formations, such as the Grand Canyon, tourists often construct simple cairns in reverence of the larger counterparts. By contrast, cairns may have a strong aesthetic purpose, for example in the art of Andy Goldsworthy.

History.

Europe.

The building of cairns for various purposes goes back into prehistory in Eurasia, ranging in size from small rock sculptures to substantial man-made hills of stone (some built on top of larger, natural hills). The latter are often relatively massive Bronze Age or earlier structures which, like kistvaens and dolmens, frequently contain burials; they are comparable to tumuli (kurgans), but of stone construction instead of earthworks. "Cairn" originally could more broadly refer to various types of hills and natural stone piles, but today is used exclusively of artificial ones.  The word "cairn" derives from Scots (with the same meaning), in turn from Scottish Gaelic, which is essentially the same as the corresponding words in other native Celtic languages of Britain, Ireland and Brittany, including Welsh (and ), Breton, Irish, and Cornish or. Cornwall () itself may actually be named after the cairns that dot its landscape, such as Cornwall's highest point, Brown Willy Summit Cairn, a 5 m (16 ft) high and 24 m (79 ft) diameter mound atop Brown Willy hill in Bodmin Moor, an area with many ancient cairns. Burial cairns and other megaliths are the subject of a variety of legends and folklore throughout Britain and Ireland. In Scotland, it is traditional to carry a stone up from the bottom of a hill to place on a cairn at its top. In such a fashion, cairns would grow ever larger. An old Scottish Gaelic blessing is, "I'll put a stone on your stone". In Highland folklore it is recounted that before Highland clans fought in a battle, each man would place a stone in a pile. Those who survived the battle returned and removed a stone from the pile. The stones that remained were built into a cairn to honour the dead. Cairns in the region were also put to vital practical use. For example, Dún Aonghasa, an all-stone Iron Age Irish hill fort on Inishmore in the Aran Islands, is still surrounded by small cairns and strategically placed jutting rocks, used collectively as an alternative to defensive earthworks because of the karst landscape's lack of soil.  In Scandinavia, cairns have been used for centuries as trail and sea marks, among other purposes. In Iceland, cairns were often used as markers along the numerous single-file roads or paths that crisscrossed the island; many of these ancient cairns are still standing, although the paths have disappeared. In Norse Greenland, cairns were used as a hunting implement, a game-driving "lane", used to direct reindeer towards a game jump.  In the mythology of ancient Greece, cairns were associated with Hermes, the god of overland travel. According to one legend, Hermes was put on trial by Hera for slaying her favorite servant, the monster Argus. All of the other gods acted as a jury, and as a way of declaring their verdict they were given pebbles, and told to throw them at whichever person they deemed to be in the right, Hermes or Hera. Hermes argued so skillfully that he ended up buried under a heap of pebbles, and this was the first cairn. In Croatia, in areas of ancient Dalmatia, such as Herzegovina and the Krajina, they are known as "gromila".  In Portugal a cairn is called a. In a legend the moledros are enchanted soldiers, and if one stone is taken from the pile and put under a pillow, in the morning a soldier will appear for a brief moment, then will change back to a stone and magically return to the pile. The cairns that mark the place where someone died or cover the graves alongside the roads where in the past people were buried are called. The same name given to the stones was given to the dead whose identity was unknown. The or are, in the Galician legends, spirits of the night. The word "Fes" or "Fieis" is thought to mean fairy, the same root as "fate" ("fado"), that can take the same meaning as the proto-Celtic *bāsto-, *bāsso-, meaning "death".

North and northeast Africa.

Cairns ("taalo") are a common feature at El Ayo, Haylan, Qa’ableh, Qombo'ul, Heis, Salweyn and Macajilayn, among other places. Northern Somalia in general is home to a lot of such historical settlements and archaeological sites wherein are found numerous ancient ruins and buildings, many of obscure origins. However, many of these old structures have yet to be properly explored, a process which would help shed further light on local history and facilitate their preservation for posterity.  Since Neolithic times, the climate of North Africa has become drier. A reminder of the desertification of the area is provided by megalithic remains, which occur in a great variety of forms and in vast numbers in presently arid and uninhabitable wastelands: cairns ("kerkour"), dolmens and circles like Stonehenge, underground cells excavated in rock, barrows topped with huge slabs, and step pyramid-like mounds.

Asia and the Pacific.

Starting in the Bronze Age, burial cists were sometimes interred into cairns, which would be situated in conspicuous positions, often on the skyline above the village of the deceased. Though most often found in the British Isles, evidence of Bronze Age cists have been found in Mongolia. The stones may have been thought to deter grave robbers and scavengers. Another explanation is that they were to stop the dead from rising. There remains a Jewish tradition of placing small stones on a person's grave as a token of respect, though this is generally to relate the longevity of stone to the eternal nature of the soul and is not usually done in a cairn fashion. Stupas in India and Tibet probably started out in a similar fashion, although they now generally contain the ashes of a Buddhist saint or lama.  A traditional and often decorated, heap-formed cairn called an "ovoo" is made in Mongolia. It primarily serves religious purposes, and finds use in both Tengriist and Buddhist ceremonies.  In Hawaii, cairns, called by the Hawaiian word are still being built today. Though in other cultures the cairns were typically used as trail markers and sometimes funerary sites, the ancient Hawaiians also used them as alters or security tower. The Hawaiian people are still building these cairns today, using them as the focal points for ceremonies honoring their ancestors and spirituality.  In South Korea cairns are quite prevalent, often found along roadsides and trails, up on mountain peaks, and adjacent to Buddhist temples. Hikers frequently add stones to existing cairns trying to get just one more on top of the pile, to bring good luck. This tradition has its roots in the worship of San-shin, or Mountain Spirit, so often still revered in Korean culture.

The Americas.

Throughout what today are the continental United States and Canada, some Indigenous peoples of the Americas have built structures similar to cairns. In some cases these are general trail markers, and in other cases they mark game-driving "lanes", such as those leading to buffalo jumps, some of which may date to 12,000 years ago.  Peoples from some of the Indigenous cultures of arctic North America (i.e. northern Canada, Alaska and Greenland) have built carefully constructed stone sculptures called and, which serve as landmarks and directional markers. The oldest of these structures are very old and pre-date contact with Europeans. They are iconic of the region (an even features on the flag of the Canadian far-northeastern territory, Nunavut), and are increasingly used as a symbol of Canadian national identity.  Cairns have been used throughout what is now Latin America, since pre-Columbian times, to mark trails. Even today, in the Andes of South America, the Quechuan peoples build cairns as part of their spiritual and religious traditions.

Anthropomorphism.

Although the practice is not common in English, cairns are sometimes referred to by their anthropomorphic qualities. In German and Dutch, a cairn is known as and respectively, meaning literally "stone man". A form of the Inuit is also meant to represent a human figure, and is called an ("imitation of a person"). In Italy, especially the Italian Alps, a cairn is an, or a "small man".

Sea cairns.

Coastal cairns called sea marks are also common in the northern latitudes, and are placed along shores and on islands and islets. Usually painted white for improved offshore visibility, they serve as navigation aids. In Sweden they are called, in Norway, and are indicated in navigation charts and maintained as part of the nautical marking system. Inversely, they are used on land as sea cliff warnings in rugged and hilly terrain in the foggy Faroe Islands. In the Canadian Maritimes, cairns have been used as beacons like small lighthouses to guide boats, as depicted in the novel "The Shipping News".

A cairn is a man-made pile (or stack) of stones. The word "cairn" comes from the (plural ). Cairns have been and are used for a broad variety of purposes, from prehistoric times to the present.

Jako mužik bývá označována hromádka z kamenů uměle vytvořená za účelem turistického značení a orientace v horách a velehorách. Bývá ho užíváno obvykle v místech, kam je obtížné dostat pásové turistické značení, či v oblastech, kde turistické značení vůbec neexistuje.