Biography.

Maupertuis was born at Saint-Malo, France, to a moderately wealthy family of merchant-corsairs. His father, Renė, had been involved in a number of enterprises that were central to the monarchy so that he thrived socially and politically. The son was educated in mathematics by a private tutor, Nicolas Guisnée, and upon completing his formal education his father secured him a largely honorific cavalry commission. After three years in the cavalry, during which time he became acquainted with fashionable social and mathematical circles, he moved to Paris and began building his reputation as a mathematician and literary wit. In 1723 he was admitted to the Académie des Sciences.  His early mathematical work revolved around the vis viva controversy, for which Maupertuis developed and extended the work of Isaac Newton (whose theories were not yet widely accepted outside England) and argued against the waning Cartesian mechanics. In the 1730s, the shape of the Earth became a flashpoint in the battle among rival systems of mechanics. Maupertuis, based on his exposition of Newton (with the help of his mentor Johan Bernoulli) predicted that the Earth should be oblate, while his rival Jacques Cassini measured it astronomically to be prolate. In 1736 Maupertuis acted as chief of the French Geodesic Mission sent by King Louis XV to Lapland to measure the length of a degree of arc of the meridian. His results, which he published in a book detailing his procedures, essentially settled the controversy in his favour. The book included an adventure narrative of the expedition, and an account of the Käymäjärvi Inscriptions in Sweden. On his return home he became a member of almost all the scientific societies of Europe.  After the Lapland expedition, Maupertuis set about generalising his earlier mathematical work, proposing the principle of least action as a metaphysical principle that underlies all the laws of mechanics. He also expanded into the biological realm, anonymously publishing a book that was part popular science, part philosophy, and part erotica: "Vénus physique". In that work, Maupertuis proposed a theory of generation (i.e., reproduction) in which organic matter possessed a self-organizing “intelligence” that was analogous to the contemporary chemical concept of affinities, which was widely read and commented upon favourably by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. He later developed his views on living things further in a more formal pseudonymous work that explored heredity, collecting evidence that confirmed the contributions of both sexes and treated variations as statistical phenomena.  In 1740 Maupertuis went to Berlin at the invitation of Frederick II of Prussia, and took part in the Battle of Mollwitz, where he was taken prisoner by the Austrians. On his release he returned to Berlin, and thence to Paris, where he was elected director of the Academy of Sciences in 1742, and in the following year was admitted into the Académie française. Returning to Berlin in 1744, again at the desire of Frederick II, he was chosen president of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1746, which he controlled with the help of Leonhard Euler until his death. His position became extremely awkward with the outbreak of the Seven Years' War between his home country and his patron's, and his reputation suffered in both Paris and Berlin. Finding his health declining, he retired in 1757 to the south of France, but went in 1758 to Basel, where he died a year later. Maupertuis's difficult disposition involved him in constant quarrels, of which his controversies with Samuel König and Voltaire during the latter part of his life are examples.

Evolution.

Some historians of science point to his work in biology as a significant precursor to the development of evolutionary theory, specifically the theory of natural selection. Other writers contend that his remarks are cursory, vague, or incidental to that particular argument. Mayr's verdict was "He was neither an evolutionist, nor one of the founders of the theory of natural selection [but] he was one of the pioneers of genetics". Maupertuis espoused a theory of pangenesis, postulating particles from both mother and father as responsible for the characters of the child. Bowler credits him with studies on heredity, with the natural origin of human races, and with the idea that forms of life may have changed with time.  Maupertuis was a strong critic of the natural theologians, pointing to phenomena incompatible with a concept of a good and wise Creator. He was also one of the first to consider animals in terms of variable populations, in opposition to the natural history tradition that emphasised description of individual specimens.  The difficulty of interpreting Maupertius can be gauged by reading the original works. Below is a translation from the "Essai de cosmologie", followed by the original French passage:  "Mais ne pourroit-on pas dire, que dans la combinaison fortuite des productions de la Nature, comme il n'y avoit que celles où se trouvoient certains rapports de convenance, qui pussent subsister, il n'est pas merveilleux que cette convenance se trouve dans toutes les especes qui actuellement existent? Le hasard, diroit-on, avoit produit une multitude innombrable d'Individus; un petit nombre se trouvoit construit de maniere que les parties de l'Animal pouvoient satisfaire à ses besoins; dans un autre infiniment plus grand, il n'y avoit ni convenance, ni ordre: tous ces derniers ont péri; des Animaux sans bouche ne pouvoient pas vivre, d'autres qui manquoient d'organes pour la génération ne pouvoient pas se perpétuer; les feuls qui soient restés, sont ceux où se trouvoient l'ordre & la convenance: & ces especes que nous voyons aujourd'hui, ne sont que la plus petite partie de ce qu'un destin aveugle avoit produit."  The same text was published earlier (1748) as "" (translation: ""). King-Hele (1963) points to similar, though not identical, ideas of thirty years later by David Hume in his "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion" (1777).  The chief debate that Maupertuis was engaged in was one that treated the competing theories of generation (i.e. preformationism and epigenesis). His account of life involved spontaneous generation of new kinds of animals and plants, together with massive elimination of deficient forms. These ideas avoid the need for a Creator, but are not part of modern thinking on evolution. The date of these speculations, 1745, is concurrent with Carl Linnaeus's own work, and so predates any firm notion of species. Also, the work on genealogy, coupled with the tracing of phenotypic characters through lineages, foreshadows later work done in genetics.

Least action principle.

The principle of least action states that in all natural phenomena a quantity called 'action' tends to be minimised. Maupertuis developed such a principle over two decades. For him, action could be expressed mathematically as the product of the mass of the body involved, the distance it had travelled and the velocity at which it was travelling.  In 1741, he gave a paper to the Paris Academy of Sciences, "Loi du repos des corps", ("Law of bodies at rest"). In it he showed that a system of bodies at rest tends to reach a position in which any change would create the smallest possible change in a quantity that he argued could be assimilated to action.  In 1744, in another paper to the Paris Academy, he gave his "Accord de plusieurs lois naturelles qui avaient paru jusqu'ici incompatibles" ("Agreement of several natural laws that had hitherto seemed to be incompatible") to show that the behaviour of light during refraction – when it bends on entering a new medium – was such that the total path it followed, from a point in the first medium to a point in the second, minimised a quantity which he again assimilated to action.  Finally, in 1746 he gave a further paper, the "Loix du mouvement et du repos" ("Laws of movement and rest"), this time to the Berlin Academy of Sciences, which showed that point masses also minimise action. Point masses are bodies that can be treated for the purposes of analysis as being a certain amount of matter (a mass) concentrated at a single point. A major debate in the early part of the eighteenth century concerned the behaviour of such bodies in collisions. Cartesian and Newtonian physicists argued that in their collisions, point masses conserved both momentum and relative velocity. Leibnizians, on the other hand, argued that they also conserved what was called "live force" or "vis viva". This was unacceptable for their opponents for two reasons: the first that live force conservation did not apply to so-called ‘hard’ bodies, bodies that were totally incompressible, whereas the other two conservation principles did; the second was that live force was defined by the product of mass and square of velocity. Why did the velocity appear twice in this quantity, as squaring it suggests? The Leibnizians argued this was simple enough: there was a natural tendency in all matter towards motion, so even at rest, there is an inherent velocity in bodies; when they begin to move, there is a second velocity term corresponding to their actual motion.  This was anathema to Cartesians and Newtonians. An inherent tendency towards motion was an ‘occult quality’ of the kind of favoured by mediaeval scholastics and to be resisted at all costs.  Today the concept of a ‘hard’ body is rejected; and mass times the square of velocity is just twice kinetic energy so modern mechanics reserves a major role for the inheritor quantity of ‘live force’.  For Maupertuis, however, it was important to retain the concept of the hard body. And the beauty of his principle of least action was that it applied just as well to hard and elastic bodies. Since he had shown that the principle also applied to systems of bodies at rest and to light, it seemed that it was truly universal.  The final stage of his argument came when Maupertuis set out to interpret his principle in cosmological terms. ‘Least action’ sounds like an economy principle, roughly equivalent to the idea of economy of effort in daily life. A universal principle of economy of effort would seem to display the working of wisdom in the very construction of the universe. This seems, in Maupertuis's view, a more powerful argument for the existence of an infinitely wise creator than any other that can be advanced.  He published his thinking on these matters in his "Essai de cosmologie" ("Essay on cosmology") of 1750. He shows that the major arguments advanced to prove God, from the wonders of nature or the apparent regularity of the universe, are all open to objection (what wonder is there in the existence of certain particularly repulsive insects, what regularity is there in the observation that all the planets turn in nearly the same plane – exactly the same plane might have been striking but 'nearly the same plane' is far less convincing). But a universal principle of wisdom provides an undeniable proof of the shaping of the universe by a wise creator.  Hence the principle of least action is not just the culmination of Maupertuis's work in several areas of physics, he sees it as his most important achievement in philosophy too, giving an incontrovertible proof of God.  The flaws in his reasoning are principally that there is no obvious reason why the product of mass, velocity and distance should be particularly viewed as corresponding to action, and even less reason why its minimisation should be an 'economy' principle like a minimisation of effort. Indeed, the product of mass, velocity and distance is mathematically the equivalent of the product of the live force and time; thus the integral over distance of the product of mass and velocity is equivalent of the integral over time of the live force. Leibniz had already shown that this quantity is likely to be either minimised "or maximised" in natural phenomena. Minimising this quantity could conceivably demonstrate economy, but how could maximising it? (See also the corresponding principles of "stationary" actions by Lagrange and Hamilton).

Relation to Kant.

In "Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens", Immanuel Kant quotes Maupertuis' 1745 discussion of nebula-like objects, which Maupertuis notes are actually collections of stars, including Andromeda.  Arthur Schopenhauer suggested that Immanuel Kant's "most important and brilliant doctrine"—contained in the "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781)—was asserted by Maupertuis:

Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (; ; 1698 – 27 July 1759) was a French mathematician, philosopher and man of letters. He became the Director of the Académie des Sciences, and the first President of the Prussian Academy of Science, at the invitation of Frederick the Great.

Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (28. září 1698, Saint-Malo, Francie – 27. července 1759, Basilej, Švýcarsko) byl francouzský filosof, matematik a přírodovědec. Byl ředitelem francouzské Akademie věd. Připisuje se mu objev principu nejmenší akce.


Etymology.

The song originally was not a song but a composition for piano without lyrics, written by Mikhail Glinka (1804–1857) and entitled (in French) "Motif de chant national". The song has been confused with the closing chorus of Glinka's opera "A Life for the Tsar", probably because both begin with the same word ("Slav’sya"), but the two compositions are unrelated (though the operatic music, too, has been suggested as a candidate for the Russian national anthem). The song has been known under its current title of "The Patriotic Song" in the mid-1940s.

History.

The TV news program on USSR Central Television "Vremya" used the tune as the theme song from 1984 to 1986.  In the 1990s, Boris Yeltsin chose the tune as the new state anthem of the Russian SFSR and it was officially adopted as such on 23 November 1990 by the Supreme Soviet of Russia. It remained in "de facto" usage through inertia by the new Russian Federation from 1991 until its official confirmation as the state's national anthem in 1993 when the Russian constitution was enacted. Also favored by the Russian Orthodox Church, the music went without lyrics for several years. In 1999 Viktor Radugin won a contest to provide suitable words for it with his poem "Sláv'sya, Rossíya!" (). However, no lyrics and none of the entries were ever adopted.  It reportedly proved to be unpopular with the Russian public and with many politicians and public figures, because of its tune and lack of lyrics, and consequently its inability to inspire Russian athletes during international competitions.  It was replaced soon after Yeltsin's successor as President of the Russian Federation, Vladimir Putin, first took office on 7 May 2000. The federal legislature established and approved the music of the National Anthem of the Soviet Union, with newly written lyrics, in December 2000. Yeltsin criticized Putin for supporting the semi-reintroduction of the Soviet-era national anthem, although opinion polls showed that many Russians favored this decision.

Unofficial lyrics of "Славься, Россия!".

These are the unofficial lyrics to "Славься, Россия!" by Viktor Radugin.

Above the Motherland Majestically.

Above the Motherland Majestically () by Vladimir Kalinkin, written in 1998 was another proposed set of lyrics. Performed by honored Russian artist Vladimir Detayov, the Duma was made aware of this piece's existence in April 1999. At the initiative of the Ministry of Ethnic Policy of Russia, this record was first publicly presented at the First Congress of the Assembly of Peoples of Russia. During the summer of that year, it was performed on the radio station "Radio of Russia" and the TV channel "Moskoviya", devoted to writing a text for the national anthem of the state.  In January 2000, was carried out in a new orchestral arrangement demo studio recording of these prospective lyrics performed by the National Academic Orchestra of Folk Instruments Russia it. NP Osipova and the Russian State Academic Choir of them. AV Sveshnikov. Overall the song received very positive reviews, although like "Slav'sya Rossiya", never attained official status.

Unofficial lyrics of "Над Отчизной величаво!".

These are the unofficial lyrics of "Над Отчизной величаво!", written by V.M. Kalinkin ().

"The Patriotic Song" () was the national anthem of Russia from 1991 to 2000. It was previously the regional anthem of the Russian SFSR from 1990 until 1991, when it had renamed itself as the Russian Federation and left the Soviet Union. Unlike most national anthems, it had no official lyrics (although unofficial ones written for it were proposed, they were not adopted).

Patriotická píseň nebo Vlastenecká píseň ("Патриотическая песня") je skladba, kterou složil Michail Ivanovič Glinka v roce 1833 a která byla hymnou Ruska v letech 1990–2000.


Design and development.

Bomarc A.

In 1946, Boeing started to study surface-to-air guided missiles under the United States Army Air Forces project MX-606. By 1950, Boeing had launched more than 100 test rockets in various configurations, all under the designator XSAM-A-1 GAPA (Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft). Because these tests were very promising, Boeing received a USAF contract in 1949 to develop a pilotless interceptor (a term then used by the USAF for air-defense guided missiles) under project MX-1599.  The MX-1599 missile was to be a ramjet-powered, nuclear-armed long-range surface-to-air missile to defend the Continental United States from high-flying bombers. The Michigan Aerospace Research Center (MARC) was added to the project soon afterward, and this gave the new missile its name Bomarc (for Boeing and MARC). In 1951, the USAF decided to emphasize its point of view that missiles were nothing else than pilotless aircraft by assigning aircraft designators to its missile projects, and anti-aircraft missiles received F-for-Fighter designations. The Bomarc became the F-99.  Test flights of XF-99 test vehicles began in September 1952 and continued through early 1955. The XF-99 tested only the liquid-fueled booster rocket, which would accelerate the missile to ramjet ignition speed. In February 1955, tests of the XF-99A propulsion test vehicles began. These included live ramjets, but still had no guidance system or warhead. The designation YF-99A had been reserved for the operational test vehicles. In August 1955, the USAF discontinued the use of aircraft-like type designators for missiles, and the XF-99A and YF-99A became XIM-99A and YIM-99A, respectively. Originally the USAF had allocated the designation IM-69, but this was changed (possibly at Boeing's request to keep number 99) to IM-99 in October 1955.  In October 1957, the first YIM-99A production-representative prototype flew with full guidance, and succeeded to pass the target within destructive range. In late 1957, Boeing received the production contract for the IM-99A Bomarc A interceptor missile, and in September 1959, the first IM-99A squadron became operational.  The IM-99A had an operational radius of and was designed to fly at Mach 2.5–2.8 at a cruising altitude of. It was long and weighed. Its armament was either a conventional warhead or a W40 nuclear warhead (7–10 kiloton yield). A liquid-fuel rocket engine boosted the Bomarc to Mach 2, when its Marquardt RJ43-MA-3 ramjet engines, fueled by 80-octane gasoline, would take over for the remainder of the flight. This was the same model of engine used to power the Lockheed X-7, the Lockheed AQM-60 Kingfisher drone used to test air defenses, and the Lockheed D-21 launched from the back of an M-21, although the Bomarc and Kingfisher engines used different materials due to the longer duration of their flights.

Operational units.

The operational IM-99A missiles were based horizontally in semi-hardened shelters, nicknamed "coffins". After the launch order, the shelter's roof would slide open, and the missile raised to the vertical. After the missile was supplied with fuel for the booster rocket, it would be launched by the Aerojet General LR59-AJ-13 booster. After sufficient speed was reached, the Marquardt RJ43-MA-3 ramjets would ignite and propel the missile to its cruise speed of Mach 2.8 at an altitude of.  When the Bomarc was within of the target, its own Westinghouse AN/DPN-34 radar guided the missile to the interception point. The maximum range of the IM-99A was, and it was fitted with either a conventional high-explosive or a 10 kiloton W-40 nuclear fission warhead.  The Bomarc relied on the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), an automated control system used by NORAD for detecting, tracking and intercepting enemy bomber aircraft. SAGE allowed for remote launching of the Bomarc missiles, which were housed in a constant combat-ready basis in individual launch shelters in remote areas. At the height of the program, there were 14 Bomarc sites located in the US and two in Canada.

Bomarc B.

The liquid-fuel booster of the Bomarc A had several drawbacks. It took two minutes to fuel before launch, which could be a long time in high-speed intercepts, and its hypergolic propellants (hydrazine and nitric acid) were very dangerous to handle, leading to several serious accidents.  As soon as high-thrust solid-fuel rockets became a reality in the mid-1950s, the USAF began to develop a new solid-fueled Bomarc variant, the IM-99B Bomarc B. It used a Thiokol XM51 booster, and also had improved Marquardt RJ43-MA-7 (and finally the RJ43-MA-11) ramjets. The first IM-99B was launched in May 1959, but problems with the new propulsion system delayed the first fully successful flight until July 1960, when a supersonic MQM-15A Regulus II drone was intercepted. Because the new booster took up less space in the missile, more ramjet fuel could be carried, increasing the range to. The terminal homing system was also improved, using the world's first pulse Doppler search radar, the Westinghouse AN/DPN-53. All Bomarc Bs were equipped with the W-40 nuclear warhead. In June 1961, the first IM-99B squadron became operational, and Bomarc B quickly replaced most Bomarc A missiles. On 23 March 1961, a Bomarc B successfully intercepted a Regulus II cruise missile flying at, thus achieving the highest interception in the world up to that date.  Boeing built 570 Bomarc missiles between 1957 and 1964, 269 CIM-10A, 301 CIM-10B.  In September 1958 Air Research & Development Command decided to transfer the Bomarc program from its testing at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to a new facility on Santa Rosa Island, immediately south of Eglin AFB Hurlburt Field on the Gulf of Mexico. To operate the facility and to provide training and operational evaluation in the missile program, Air Defense Command established the 4751st Air Defense Wing (Missile) (4751st ADW) on 15 January 1958. The first launch from Santa Rosa took place on 15 January 1959.

Operational history.

In 1955, to support a program which called for 40 squadrons of BOMARC (120 missiles to a squadron for a total of 4,800 missiles), ADC reached a decision on the location of these 40 squadrons and suggested operational dates for each. The sequence was as follows:... l. McGuire 1/60 2. Suffolk 2/60 3. Otis 3/60 4. Dow 4/60 5. Niagara Falls 1/61...6. Plattsburg 1/61 7. Kinross 2/61 8. K. 1. Sawyer 2/61 9. Langley 2/61 10. Truax 3/61 11. Paine 3/61 12. Portland 3/61... At the end of 1958, ADC plans called for construction of the following BOMARC bases in the following order: l. McGuire 2. Suffolk 3. Otis 4. Dow 5. Langley 6. Truax 7. Kinross 8. Duluth 9. Ethan Allen 10. Niagara Falls 11. Paine 12. Adair 13. Travis 14. Vandenberg 15. San Diego 16. – Malmstrom 17. Grand Forks 18. Minot 19. Youngstown 20. Seymour-Johnson 21. Bunker Hill 22. Sioux Falls 23. Charleston 24. McConnell 25. Holloman 26. McCoy 27. Amarillo 28. Barksdale; 29. Williams.

United States.

The first USAF operational Bomarc squadron was the 46th Air Defense Missile Squadron (ADMS), organized on 1 January 1959 and activated on 25 March. The 46th ADMS was assigned to the New York Air Defense Sector at McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey. The training program, under the 4751st ADW used technicians acting as instructors and was established for a four-month duration. Training included missile maintenance; SAGE operations and launch procedures, including the launch of an unarmed missile at Eglin. In September 1959 the squadron assembled at their permanent station, the Bomarc site near McGuire AFB, and trained for operational readiness. The first Bomarc-A were used at McGuire on 19 September 1959 with Kincheloe AFB getting the first operational IM-99Bs. While several of the squadrons replicated earlier fighter interceptor unit numbers, they were all new organizations with no previous historical counterpart.  ADC's initial plans called for some 52 Bomarc sites around the United States with 120 missiles each but as defense budgets decreased during the 1950s the number of sites dropped substantially. Ongoing development and reliability problems didn't help, nor did Congressional debate over the missile's usefulness and necessity. In June 1959, the Air Force authorized 16 Bomarc sites with 56 missiles each; the initial five would get the IM-99A with the remainder getting the IM-99B. However, in March 1960, HQ USAF cut deployment to eight sites in the United States and two in Canada.

Bomarc incident.

Within a year of operations, a Bomarc A with a nuclear warhead caught fire at McGuire AFB on 7 June 1960 after its on-board helium tank exploded. While the missile's explosives did not detonate, the heat melted the warhead and released plutonium, which the fire crews spread. The Air Force and the Atomic Energy Commission cleaned up the site and covered it with concrete. This was the only major incident involving the weapon system. The site remained in operation for several years following the fire. Since its closure in 1972, the area has remained off limits, primarily due to low levels of plutonium contamination. Between 2002 and 2004, 21,998 cubic yards of contaminated debris and soils were shipped to what was then known as Envirocare, located in Utah.

Modification and deactivation.

In 1962, the US Air Force started using modified A-models as drones; following the October 1962 tri-service redesignation of aircraft and weapons systems they became CQM-10As. Otherwise the air defense missile squadrons maintained alert while making regular trips to Santa Rosa Island for training and firing practice. After the inactivation of the 4751st ADW(M) on 1 July 1962 and transfer of Hurlburt to Tactical Air Command for air commando operations the 4751st Air Defense Squadron (Missile) remained at Hurlburt and Santa Rosa Island for training purposes.  In 1964, the liquid-fueled Bomarc-A sites and squadrons began to be deactivated. The sites at Dow and Suffolk County closed first. The remainder continued to be operational for several more years while the government started dismantling the air defense missile network. Niagara Falls was the first BOMARC B installation to close, in December 1969; the others remained on alert through 1972. In April 1972, the last Bomarc B in U.S. Air Force service was retired at McGuire and the 46th ADMS inactivated and the base was deactivated.  In the era of the intercontinental ballistic missiles the Bomarc, designed to intercept relatively slow manned bombers, had become a useless asset. The remaining Bomarc missiles were used by all armed services as high-speed target drones for tests of other air-defense missiles. The Bomarc A and Bomarc B targets were designated as CQM-10A and CQM-10B, respectively.  Following the accident, the McGuire complex has never been sold or converted to other uses and remains in Air Force ownership, making it the most intact site of the eight in the US. It has been nominated to the National Register of Historic Sites. Although a number of IM-99/CIM-10 Bomarcs have been placed on public display, because of concerns about the possible environmental hazards of the thoriated magnesium structure of the airframe several have been removed from public view.  Russ Sneddon, director of the Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida provided information about missing CIM-10 exhibit airframe serial 59–2016, one of the museum's original artifacts from its founding in 1975 and donated by the 4751st Air Defense Squadron at Hurlburt Field, Eglin Auxiliary Field 9, Eglin AFB. As of December 2006, the suspect missile was stored in a secure compound behind the Armaments Museum. In December 2010, the airframe was still on premises, but partly dismantled.

Canada.

The Bomarc Missile Program was highly controversial in Canada. The Progressive Conservative government of Prime Minister John Diefenbaker initially agreed to deploy the missiles, and shortly thereafter controversially scrapped the Avro Arrow, a supersonic manned interceptor aircraft, arguing that the missile program made the Arrow unnecessary.  Initially, it was unclear whether the missiles would be equipped with nuclear warheads. By 1960 it became known that the missiles were to have a nuclear payload, and a debate ensued about whether Canada should accept nuclear weapons. Ultimately, the Diefenbaker government decided that the Bomarcs should not be equipped with nuclear warheads. The dispute split the Diefenbaker Cabinet, and led to the collapse of the government in 1963. The Official Opposition and Liberal Party leader Lester B. Pearson originally was against nuclear missiles, but reversed his personal position and argued in favor of accepting nuclear warheads. He won the 1963 election, largely on the basis of this issue, and his new Liberal government proceeded to accept nuclear-armed Bomarcs, with the first being deployed on 31 December 1963. When the nuclear warheads were deployed, Pearson's wife, Maryon, resigned her honorary membership in the anti-nuclear weapons group, Voice of Women.  Canadian operational deployment of the Bomarc involved the formation of two specialized Surface/Air Missile squadrons. The first to begin operations was No. 446 SAM Squadron at RCAF Station North Bay, which was the command and control center for both squadrons. With construction of the compound and related facilities completed in 1961, the squadron received its Bomarcs in 1961, without nuclear warheads. The squadron became fully operational from 31 December 1963, when the nuclear warheads arrived, until disbanding on 31 March 1972. All the warheads were stored separately and under control of Detachment 1 of the USAF 425th Munitions Maintenance Squadron. During operational service, the Bomarcs were maintained on stand-by, on a 24-hour basis, but were never fired, although the squadron test-fired the missiles at Eglin AFB, Florida on annual winter retreats.  No. 447 SAM Squadron operating out of RCAF Station La Macaza, Quebec, was activated on 15 September 1962 although warheads were not delivered until late 1963. The squadron followed the same operational procedures as No. 446, its sister squadron. With the passage of time the operational capability of the 1950s-era Bomarc system no longer met modern requirements; the Department of National Defence deemed that the Bomarc missile defense was no longer a viable system, and ordered both squadrons to be stood down in 1972. The bunkers and ancillary facilities remain at both former sites.

Operators.

Locations under construction but not activated. Each site was programmed for 28 IM-99B missiles:

Surviving missiles.

Below is a list of museums or sites which have a Bomarc missile on display:

Impact on popular music.

The Bomarc missile captured the imagination of the American and Canadian popular music industry, giving rise to a pop music group, the Bomarcs (composed mainly of servicemen stationed on a Florida radar site that tracked Bomarcs), a record label, Bomarc Records, and a moderately successful Canadian pop group, The Beau Marks.

The Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc (IM-99 Weapon System prior to September 1962) was a supersonic ramjet powered long-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) used during the Cold War for the air defense of North America. In addition to being the first operational long-range SAM and the first operational pulse doppler aviation radar, it was the only SAM deployed by the United States Air Force.

CIM-10 Bomarc byl americký protiletadlový systém používaný ve Spojených státech amerických v letech 1959–1972 a v Kanadě v letech 1961–1972. Podle amerického kódového označení šlo o řízené střely určené k útokům na vzdušné cíle.


Geography.

Cathan is located at (48.113880, -122.274621).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 2.7 square miles (6.9 km2), of which, 2.7 square miles (6.9 km2) of it is land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km2) of it (1.12%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 526 people, 176 households, and 136 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 198.1 people per square mile (76.6/km2). There were 181 housing units at an average density of 68.2/sq mi (26.4/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 90.11% White, 0.38% African American, 3.61% Native American, 1.52% Asian, 0.57% Pacific Islander, and 3.80% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.66% of the population.  There were 176 households out of which 38.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.3% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.7% were non-families. 14.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 0.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.99 and the average family size was 3.28.  In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 28.9% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 28.9% from 45 to 64, and 4.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 108.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.2 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $58,875, and the median income for a family was $61,250. Males had a median income of $44,375 versus $31,339 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $20,940. About 1.5% of families and 1.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.3% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.

Cathan is a former census-designated place (CDP) in Snohomish County, Washington, United States. The population was 526 at the 2000 census. The CDP was discontinued at the 2010 census.

Cathan je obec v okrese Snohomish v americkém státě Washington. V roce 2000 zde žilo 526 obyvatel, ze kterých tvořili 90 % běloši, 4 % původní obyvatelé a 1,5 % Asiaté. 3 % obyvatelstva byla hispánského původu. Obec měla rozlohu 7 km2, z čehož 1 % byla voda.


History.

Founded in 1917, the football section of Silkeborg IF played in the top ranks of Jutland until a short visit in the third division in 1962. In 1966, however the team was promoted to the 2nd division of Danish football. In 1982, the club took the decisive step towards the Danish top football, as the company SIF Football Support A / S was founded, a professional company that would be responsible for professional football in Silkeborg. This resulted in a rise in 1987 to the country's top row, the 1st division. This came as a large surprise to most football enthusiasts and a reporter from the Danish newspaper "Politiken" wrote, "It will be a surprise if Silkeborg will win a corner kick." The team, however, played well and already in the third game of the season Silkeborg IF defeated Denmark's dominant team, Brøndby with a 1-0 win at home.

1994 championship.

There were many vital matches in the 1993–94 season, but perhaps the most important game for Silkeborg was the tournament's third round match at home against Brøndby. Just before the game, the team's big name Jakob Kjeldberg had been sold to Chelsea, and when Brøndby put themselves ahead 2–0 early in the game, it looked difficult for the home team. But Silkeborg totally turned the match upside down and won 4–2 in front of an enthusiastic audience. During the rest of autumn, SIF delivered one attractive game after another. The team lost only 2 of 18 matches and finished the autumn in 1st place.  The playoffs were a thrilling affair. The superior play in the autumn was followed by a more calculating style. Away from home, SIF ran into a few serious defeats, but, in turn, Silkeborg Stadion was a fortress. Here, SIF won six out of seven games and conceded only one goal. In the second-to-last round, SIF could secure the championship with an away win against the only remaining competitor, Copenhagen. Silkeborg fans flocked to the national arena, Parken Stadium, where the match was witnessed by the largest crowd in history of the Danish Superliga, namely 26,679. The many visiting SIF fans, however, witnessed SIF scoring the first goal of the match but eventually losing 1–4.  The situation before the final round was that SIF should provide a better result than Copenhagen to become champions. At home, SIF played Aalborg BK and won 2–0 on two goals by leading scorer Heine Fernandez. In Odense, OB obtained a lead over Copenhagen in the 2nd half and won 3–2 on a goal in injury time, securing SIF the championship.

2001 cup winners and relegation.

In 2001, Silkeborg won the Danish Cup with a 4–1 victory against league rivals AB. Behind 0–1 at half-time, the team scored 4 times in the second half of the match by Brian Pedersen, Thomas Poulsen and 2 from Henrik Pedersen. Steven Lustü, who later would become a prominent player for Silkeborg, played the entire game for AB. The following years' results were not very impressive. After the cup victory, the club sold Henrik Pedersen to Bolton Wanderers, Peter Kjær to Beşiktaş and Thomas Røll to Copenhagen. At the same time, Morten Bruun, the player with most caps to his name in the club history, retired. In 2003, the team was relegated to the 1st Division, but returned to the Superliga the following year. For two seasons in a row, the team finished eighth in the league with 12 teams, but in 2007 the team was again relegated. When former player Troels Bech returned to the club as head coach in 2009, however, he transformed the team and helped the club to promotion. Silkeborg finished fifth in the league in 2011, the best result in 15 years.

2018-19 1st Division Title.

In the 2018-19 Danish 1st Division Silkeborg IF were crowned champions of the First Division for a third time, ensuring a return to the Danish Superliga for the 2019-20 season following a one year absence.  Danish Striker Ronnie Schwartz was the league’s top scorer for Silkeborg with 17 league goals registered; sharing the golden boot with Roskilde’s Emil Nielsen.  They secured the league title with 61 points, only 1 point clear of nearest rivals Viborg FF ensuring an automatic return to the Superliga.

Former notable players.

Top goalscorers.

"Competitive matches only. To matches played March 22, 2017.

Top appearances.

Silkeborg Idrætsforening, (; commonly known as Silkeborg IF or SIF in short) is a professional football club based in Silkeborg, Denmark. The club was founded in 1917, reached the highest level of Danish football in 1987, and afterwards became one of the most successful football clubs in Denmark. They won the 1993–94 Danish Superliga, finished 3rd in 1994–95 and 2000-01, 2nd in 1997–98, and won the Danish Cup in 2001. Silkeborg has participated in Europe several times, winning the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1996.

Silkeborg IF je dánský fotbalový klub z města Silkeborg. Založen byl roku 1917. Jednou se stal dánským mistrem, a to v sezóně 1993/94. Roku 2001 získal dánský fotbalový pohár.


History.

Spora was founded in 1923 as an amalgam of Racing Club Luxembourg and Sporting Club Luxembourg, two of the leading lights of early Luxembourgish football. For the first seventeen years of existence, Spora would battle with FA Red Boys Differdange for ultimate ascendancy in Luxembourgish football. Although Red Boys won more trophies in this period, Spora picked up almost every piece of silverware that Red Boys didn't, with seven league titles and three Luxembourg Cups in just fifteen years.  During the German occupation of Luxembourg, the club played in the Gauliga Moselland under the name of "Moselland Luxemburg".  After the Second World War, Spora continued to win titles (albeit less frequently than before). To its pre-war haul, the club added four more championships and won the Luxembourg Cup another five times. In 1956, Spora recorded one of the most celebrated European club results in Luxembourgish history, as it beat the West German champions, Borussia Dortmund.  In 2005, Spora merged with two other clubs from Luxembourg City, CS Alliance 01 and Union Luxembourg, to form Spora's modern incarnation, Racing FC Union Luxembourg.

European Competition.

Spora qualified for UEFA European competition eleven times.  Spora won two games in Europe. In 1956–57, the team surprisingly won the second leg of their tie against West German champions Borussia Dortmund 2–1, having lost the first leg 4–3 in Germany. Under today's system, using the away goals rule, Spora would have gone through. However, in 1956, matches were replayed, and Spora was dispatched 7–0. Spora's second victory was in the 1964–65 UEFA Cup, when it won its second leg against FC Basel 1–0, but went out nonetheless, having lost the first leg 2–0.

CA Spora Luxembourg was a football club, based in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. It is now a part of Racing FC Union Luxembourg.

CA Spora Luxembourg je bývalý lucemburský fotbalový klub z města Lucemburk. Založen byl roku 1923 a svou činnost skončil roku 2005, kdy vznikl Racing FC Union Luxembourg, v němž se sloučily tři kluby z Lucemburku - Spora, Union a CS Alliance 01. Za dobu své existence Spora 11x zvítězila v lucemburském mistrovství a 8x získala lucemburský fotbalový pohár. 11x startovala v evropských pohárech, vždy vypadla hned v prvním kole. V evropských pohárech se jí podařilo zvítězit jen ve dvou utkáních, nad Borussií Dortmund (Pohár mistrů evropských zemí 1956/57) a FC Basilej (Veletržní pohár 1964/65).


Chronology.

Spin-offs.

Two spin-off books, both written from Rowley's perspective, have been released. The first one, "", was released on April 9, 2019 and is a series of anecdotes about Greg and Rowley's friendship. The second, "Rowley Jefferson's Awesome Friendly Adventure", is in the style of a fantasy adventure and is scheduled for release on August 4, 2020. The book's original release date was April 7, 2020, and it was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Toys and games.

Action figures included a minifigure pack (with Greg, Rowley, and Fregley), a 6-inch Greg Heffley figure, a 6-inch holiday figure based on "Cabin Fever", and a Greg and Rodrick plush doll.

Audiobooks.

Fourteen audiobooks have been released for the "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" series. The Recorded Books versions are read by Ramon de Ocampo, while the Penguin Books versions are read by Dan Russell, who has done so since "The Third Wheel", and in 2018 he re-narrated the first 6 books for the markets where Penguin publish the series.

Achievements.

Commercial success.

"Diary of a Wimpy Kid" was well received from "The Princeton Review", "Gold Card Association", "The Dallas News", "The TRR Editors", "The NW Press", and "The JJ Printing Company". "The New York Times", which ranks children's serials collectively on a "Series Books" bestseller list, has included the "Wimpy Kid" series for 64 weeks as of August 10, 2015. "USA Today", which ranks best sellers based on sales alone regardless of genre or intended audience, has listed "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" in its top 150, peaking at number 8, for 141 weeks as of April 4, 2010.  As of the same date, "Rodrick Rules" has been on the list for 117 weeks (peaking at number 4), "The Last Straw" has been on the list for 65 weeks (peaking at number 1), "Dog Days" has been on the list for all 25 weeks of its publication (peaking at number 1), and "The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary" has been listed for all three weeks of its publication, peaking at number 2.  The series has sold over 200 million books in 56 languages and 65 editions throughout the world. The series has also generated over $500 million in revenue.

Films.

Jeff Kinney announced that a film based on the first book would be produced by 20th Century Fox. The film was released on March 19, 2010, moved up from an April 2 release date. It was directed by Thor Freudenthal, who also directed "Hotel for Dogs". The film starred Zachary Gordon as Greg, Robert Capron as Rowley (Greg's best friend), Steve Zahn as Frank (Greg's father), Rachael Harris as Susan (Greg's mother), Devon Bostick as Rodrick (Greg's older brother), Connor and Owen Fielding as Manny (Greg's younger brother), Chloë Grace Moretz as a new character named Angie, and Grayson Russell as Fregley.  There is a second film in the "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" film series that was released on March 25, 2011, which was based on the second book "Rodrick Rules", with Zachary Gordon returning as Greg Heffley. "Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules" was also filmed in Vancouver, BC, Canada. The film also contains some scenes from "The Last Straw."  The third film combines the third and fourth books "The Last Straw" and "Dog Days", taking stories from both, but mainly from "Dog Days", from which it took its title. The decision to blend the two films was made to keep up with the ages of the actors. The film was released on August 3, 2012.  The likelihood of a fourth live action film was slim. Kinney has announced the possibility for an animated film to be based on "Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Cabin Fever" as the next installment. In an interview for the latest book "Hard Luck", Jeff Kinney stated he was working with Fox on a half-hour special of "Cabin Fever", which was to be aired in late 2014, but as of 2019 no updates on the special have been announced. In September 2016, Jeff Kinney announced officially the production of a fourth film, "", on his Twitter account. On August 6, 2019, Disney announced they were to reboot "Diary of a Wimpy Kid", "Home Alone" and "Night at the Museum" for Disney+.

Musical.

A musical titled "Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Musical" was produced by the Children's Theatre Company in 2016.

Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a series of fiction books written by the American author and cartoonist Jeff Kinney. All the main books are the journals of the main character, Greg Heffley. Befitting a teen's diary, the books are filled with hand-written notes and simple drawings of Greg's daily adventures.

Deník malého poseroutky () je americká série knih pro děti, které píše a ilustruje americký autor Jeff Kinney. První díl vyšel ve Spojených státech roku 2007, do roku 2020 vyšlo 14 dílů (plus Můj vlastní Deník malého poseroutky, Můj nový! vlastní Deník malého poseroutky, Školní deník malého poseroutky a Deník báječného kamaráda). Série je psána formou deníku hlavního hrdiny Grega Heffleyho, který se do něj svěřuje se svými problémy ve škole a v rodině. Deník mu koupila matka, on jí ovšem řekl, že nechce takový dárek, na kterém je napsáno „deník“. Ale pak si do něj zapisuje různá svoje dobrodružství.


DDTT series.

VR30DDTT.

Announced by Infiniti on December 15, 2015 the VR30DDTT was first made available in the Infiniti Q50 sedan, followed by the Infiniti Q60 coupé a year later. Both platforms come in a version. It is on the Ward's 10 Best Engines list for 2017 and 2018.  Features:  Applications:

Production.

Production of the VR30DDTT engine began in 2016 at the powertrain plant in Iwaki, Fukushima, Japan.

DETT series.

VR38DETT.

Designated the VR38DETT by Nissan, the engine is currently used in the 2007–present Nissan GT-R and the limited production Nissan Juke-R.  The VR38DETT features 24 valves controlled by dual overhead camshafts (2 per cylinder head) with variable valve timing on the intake only. The block is cast aluminium with plasma-sprayed cylinder liner bores. This coating provides a hard protective layer for the piston rings to slide on as the piston moves up and down during its power cycle. The turbine housings for the two IHI turbochargers are integrated into the exhaust manifolds to decrease weight and bolster vehicle balance. The engine also features a pressurized lubrication system controlled thermostatically. The VR38DETT is equipped with a feedback control system that changes air fuel ratio depending on the engine load which has a significant effect on reducing the fuel consumption. Fully equipped with the first set of catalytic converters, turbos, all of the engine driven accessories, front differential assembly, and turbo outlet pipes, the engine weighs.  Other pertinent features of the VR38DETT include:  Applications:

VR38DETT NISMO Engine Tuning Menu Concept (2016).

It is a version of VR38DETT engine used in Nissan GT-R, with GT3-spec camshaft, connecting rod and connecting rod bolt, intercooler, intercooler piping, turbocharger, NISMO 1st and 2nd catalyzers, titanium muffler.  The engine was unveiled in 2016 Tokyo Auto Salon.

Production.

The engines are hand built by only four specially trained mechanics called "Takumi Craftsmens" on a special line at Nissan's Yokohama plant and their names are badged on every GT-R engine. The cars are built at their Tochigi plant on a shared production line.

The VR is a series of twin-turbo DOHC V6 automobile engines from Nissan with displacements varying from. An evolution of the widely successful VQ series, it also draws on developments from the VRH, JGTC, and Nissan R390 GT1 Le Mans racing engines.

VR38DETT je motor. 3.8l twin-turbo DOHC V6 motor v současné době používá pouze Nissan GT-R. Motor váží 608 liber (276 kg). V současné době je ve výrobě pouze verze motoru VR.


History.

In a 1904 paper, Jan Baudouin de Courtenay emphasised the need to distinguish between language similarities arising from a genetic relationship ("rodstvo") and those arising from convergence due to language contact ("srodstvo"). Nikolai Trubetzkoy introduced the Russian term (; "language union") in a 1923 article. In a paper presented to the first International Congress of Linguists in 1928, he used a German calque of this term, "Sprachbund", defining it as a group of languages with similarities in syntax, morphological structure, cultural vocabulary and sound systems, but without systematic sound correspondences, shared basic morphology or shared basic vocabulary. Later workers, starting with Trubetzkoy's colleague Roman Jakobson, have relaxed the requirement of similarities in all four of the areas stipulated by Trubetzkoy.

Examples.

The Balkans.

The idea of areal convergence is commonly attributed to Jernej Kopitar's description in 1830 of Albanian, Bulgarian and Romanian as giving the impression of ""nur eine Sprachform... mit dreierlei Sprachmaterie"", which has been rendered by Victor Friedman as "one grammar with the three lexicons". The Balkan Sprachbund comprises Albanian, Romanian, the South Slavic languages of the southern Balkans (Bulgarian, Macedonian and to a lesser degree Serbo-Croatian), Greek, Balkan Turkish, and Romani. All but one of these are Indo-European languages but from very divergent branches, and Turkish is a Turkic language. Yet they have exhibited several signs of grammatical convergence, such as avoidance of the infinitive, future tense formation, and others. The same features are not found in other languages that are otherwise closely related, such as the other Romance languages in relation to Romanian, and the other Slavic languages such as Polish in relation to Bulgaro-Macedonian.

Indian subcontinent.

In a classic 1956 paper titled "India as a Linguistic Area", Murray Emeneau laid the groundwork for the general acceptance of the concept of a sprachbund. In the paper, Emeneau observed that the subcontinent's Dravidian and Indo-Aryan languages shared a number of features that were not inherited from a common source, but were areal features, the result of diffusion during sustained contact. These include retroflex consonants, echo words, subject–object–verb word order, discourse markers, and the quotative.  Emeneau specified the tools to establish that language and culture had fused for centuries on the Indian soil to produce an integrated mosaic of structural convergence of four distinct language families: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Munda and Tibeto-Burman. This concept provided scholarly substance for explaining the underlying Indian-ness of apparently divergent cultural and linguistic patterns. With his further contributions, this area has now become a major field of research in language contact and convergence.

Mainland Southeast Asia.

The Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area is one of the most dramatic of linguistic areas in terms of the surface similarity of the languages involved, to the extent that early linguists tended to group them all into a single family, although the modern consensus places them into numerous unrelated families. The area stretches from Thailand to China and is home to speakers of languages of the Sino-Tibetan, Hmong–Mien (or Miao–Yao), Tai–Kadai, Austronesian (represented by Chamic) and Mon–Khmer families.  Neighbouring languages across these families, though presumed unrelated, often have similar features, which are believed to have spread by diffusion. A well-known example is the similar tone systems in Sinitic languages (Sino-Tibetan), Hmong–Mien, Tai languages (Kadai) and Vietnamese (Mon–Khmer). Most of these languages passed through an earlier stage with three tones on most syllables (but no tonal distinctions on checked syllables ending in a stop consonant), which was followed by a tone split where the distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants disappeared but in compensation the number of tones doubled. These parallels led to confusion over the classification of these languages, until André-Georges Haudricourt showed in 1954 that tone was not an invariant feature, by demonstrating that Vietnamese tones corresponded to certain final consonants in other languages of the Mon–Khmer family, and proposed that tone in the other languages had a similar origin.  Similarly, the unrelated Khmer (Mon–Khmer), Cham (Austronesian) and Lao (Kadai) languages have almost identical vowel systems. Many languages in the region are of the isolating (or analytic) type, with mostly monosyllabic morphemes and little use of inflection or affixes, though a number of Mon–Khmer languages have derivational morphology. Shared syntactic features include classifiers, object–verb order and topic–comment structure, though in each case there are exceptions in branches of one or more families.

Northeast Asia.

Some linguists, such as Matthias Castrén, G. J. Ramstedt, Nicholas Poppe and Pentti Aalto supported the idea that the Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic families of Asia (and some small parts of Europe) are genetically related, in a controversial group they call Altaic. Koreanic and Japonic languages, which are also hypothetically related according to some scholars like William George Aston, Shōsaburō Kanazawa, Samuel Martin and Sergei Starostin, are sometimes included as part of the purported Altaic family. This latter hypothesis was supported by people including Roy Andrew Miller, John C. Street and Karl Heinrich Menges. Gerard Clauson, Gerhard Doerfer, Juha Janhunen, Stefan Georg and others dispute or reject this. A common alternative explanation for similarities between said Altaic languages such as vowel harmony and agglutination is that they are due to areal diffusion.

A sprachbund (, "federation of languages"), also known as a linguistic area, area of linguistic convergence, diffusion area or language crossroads, is a group of languages that share areal features resulting from geographical proximity and language contact. The languages may be genetically unrelated, or only distantly related, but the sprachbund characteristics might give a false appearance of relatedness.

Jazykový svaz (německy "Sprachbund") je skupina jazyků, které nejsou navzájem příbuzné (nemají společný původ jako jazyková rodina), ale dlouholetým soužitím a styky na určitém území se k sobě výrazně připodobnily. Příklady jazykových svazů jsou balkánský svaz nebo indický svaz. Někdy (Stefan M. Newerkla) se mluví také o středoevropském jazykovém svazu. Studiem jazykových svazů se zabývá areálová lingvistika.


Uses.

Modular buildings may be used for long-term, temporary or permanent facilities, such as construction camps, schools and classrooms, civilian and military housing, and industrial facilities. Modular buildings are used in remote and rural areas where conventional construction may not be reasonable or possible, for example, the Halley VI accommodation pods used for a BAS Antarctic expedition. Other uses have included churches, health care facilities, sales and retail offices, fast food restaurants and cruise ship construction. They can also be used in areas that have weather concerns, such as hurricanes. Modular buildings are often used to provide temporary facilities, including toilets and ablutions at events. The portability of the buildings makes them popular with hire companies and clients alike. The use of modular buildings enables events to be held at locations where existing facilities are unavailable, or unable to support the number of event attendees.

Construction process.

Construction is offsite, using lean manufacturing techniques to prefabricate single or multi-story buildings in deliverable module sections. Often, modules are based around standard 20 foot containers, using the same dimensions, structures, building and stacking/placing techniques, but with smooth (instead of corrugated) walls, glossy white paint, and provisions for windows, power, potable water, sewage lines, telecommunications and air conditioning. Permanent Modular Construction (PMC) buildings are manufactured in a controlled setting and can be constructed of wood, steel, or concrete. Modular components are typically constructed indoors on assembly lines. Modules' construction may take as little as ten days but more often one to three months. PMC modules can be integrated into site built projects or stand alone and can be delivered with MEP, fixtures and interior finishes.  The buildings are 60% to 90% completed offsite in a factory-controlled environment, and transported and assembled at the final building site. This can comprise the entire building or be components or subassemblies of larger structures. In many cases, modular contractors work with traditional general contractors to exploit the resources and advantages of each type of construction. Completed modules are transported to the building site and assembled by a crane. Placement of the modules may take from several hours to several days.  Permanent modular buildings are built to meet or exceed the same building codes and standards as site-built structures and the same architect-specified materials used in conventionally constructed buildings are used in modular construction projects. PMC can have as many stories as building codes allow. Unlike relocatable buildings, PMC structures are intended to remain in one location for the duration of their useful life.

Manufacturing considerations.

The entire process of modular construction places significance on the design stage. This is where practices such as Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) are used to ensure that assembly tolerances are controlled throughout manufacture and assembly on site. It is vital that there is enough allowance in the design to allow the assembly to take up any "slack" or misalignment of components. The use of advanced CAD systems, 3D printing and manufacturing control systems are important for modular construction to be successful. This is quite unlike on-site construction where the tradesman can often make the part to suit any particular installation.

Advantages.

Modular buildings are argued to have advantages over conventional buildings, for a variety of reasons.  Modular buildings can also contribute to LEED requirements in any category site-built construction can, and can even provide an advantage in the areas of Sustainable Sites, Energy and Atmosphere, Materials and Resources, and Indoor Environmental Quality. Modular construction can also provide an advantage in similar categories in the International Green Construction Code.

Disadvantages.

Market acceptance.

Some home buyers and some lending institutions resist consideration of modular homes as equivalent in value to site-built homes. While the homes themselves may be of equivalent quality, entrenched zoning regulations and psychological marketplace factors may create hurdles for buyers or builders of modular homes and should be considered as part of the decision-making process when exploring this type of home as a living and/or investment option. In the UK and Australia, modular homes have become accepted in some regional areas; however, they are not commonly built in major cities. Modular homes are becoming increasingly common in Japanese urban areas, due to improvements in design and quality, speed and compactness of onsite assembly, as well as due to lowering costs and ease of repair after earthquakes. Recent innovations allow modular buildings to be indistinguishable from site-built structures. Surveys have shown that individuals can rarely tell the difference between a modular home and a site-built home.

Modular homes vs. mobile homes.

Differences include the building codes that govern the construction, types of material used and how they are appraised by banks for lending purposes. Modular homes are built to either local or state building codes as opposed to manufactured homes, which are also built in a factory but are governed by a federal building code. The codes that govern the construction of modular homes are exactly the same codes that govern the construction of site-constructed homes. In the United States, all modular homes are constructed according to the International Building Code (IBC), IRC, BOCA or the code that has been adopted by the local jurisdiction. In some states, such as California, mobile homes must still be registered yearly, like vehicles or standard trailers, with the Department of Motor Vehicles or other state agency. This is true even if the owners remove the axles and place it on a permanent foundation.

Recognizing a mobile or manufactured home.

A mobile home should have a small metal tag on the outside of each section. If you cannot locate a tag, you should be able to find details about the home in the electrical panel box. This tag should also reveal a manufacturing date. Modular homes do not have metal tags on the outside but will have a dataplate installed inside the home, usually under the kitchen sink or in a closet. The dataplate will provide information such as the manufacturer, third party inspection agency, appliance information, and manufacture date.

Materials.

The materials used in modular homes are typically the same as site constructed homes. Wood-frame floors, walls and roof are often utilized. Some modular homes include brick or stone exteriors, granite counters and steeply pitched roofs. Modulars can be designed to sit on a perimeter foundation or basement. In contrast, mobile homes are constructed with a steel chassis that is integral to the integrity of the floor system. Modular buildings can be custom built to a client's specifications. Current designs include multi-story units, multi-family units and entire apartment complexes. The negative stereotype commonly associated with mobile homes has prompted some manufacturers to start using the term "off-site construction."  New modular offerings include other construction methods such as cross-laminated timber frames.

Financing.

Mobile homes often require special lenders.  Modular homes on the other hand are financed as site built homes with a construction loan

Standards and zoning considerations.

Typically, modular dwellings are built to local, state or council code, resulting in dwellings from a given manufacturing facility having differing construction standards depending on the final destination of the modules. The most important zones that manufacturers have to take into consideration are local wind, heat, and snow load zones. For example, homes built for final assembly in a hurricane-prone, earthquake or flooding area may include additional bracing to meet local building codes. Steel and/or wood framing are common options for building a modular home.  Some US courts have ruled that zoning restrictions applicable to mobile homes do not apply to modular homes since modular homes are designed to have a permanent foundation. Additionally, in the US, valuation differences between modular homes and site-built homes are often negligible in real estate appraisal practice; modular homes can, in some market areas, (depending on local appraisal practices per Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice) be evaluated the same way as site-built dwellings of similar quality. In Australia, manufactured home parks are governed by additional legislation that does not apply to permanent modular homes. Possible developments in equivalence between modular and site-built housing types for the purposes of real estate appraisals, financing and zoning may increase the sales of modular homes over time.  In Wales (UK), a businessman authorized the placement of 6 mini modular homes called “Pods” for homeless persons on private property.

Building strength.

Modular homes are designed to be stronger than traditional homes by, for example, replacing nails with screws, adding glue to joints, and using 8–10% more lumber than conventional housing. This is to help the modules maintain their structural integrity as they are transported on trucks to the construction site. However, there are few studies on the response of modular buildings to transport and handling stresses. It is therefore presently difficult to predict transport induced damage.  When FEMA studied the destruction wrought by Hurricane Andrew in Dade County Florida, they concluded that modular and masonry homes fared best compared to other construction.

CE marking.

The CE mark is a construction norm that guarantees the user of mechanical resistance and strength of the structure. It is a label given by European community empowered authorities for end-to-end process mastering and traceability.  All manufacturing operations are being monitored and recorded:  This ID and all the details are recorded in a database, At any time, the producer has to be able to answer and provide all the information from each step of the production of a single unit, The EC certification guaranties standards in terms of durability, resistance against wind and earthquakes.

Surfaces and finishes.

Modular buildings can be assembled on top of multiple foundation surfaces, such as a crawl space, stilts (for areas that are prone to flooding), full basements or standard slab at grade. They can also be built to multi-story heights. Motels and other multi-family structures have been built using modular construction techniques. The height to which a modular structure can be built depends on jurisdiction, but a number of countries, especially in Asia, allow them to be built to 24 floors or more.  Exterior wall surfaces can be finalized in the plant production process or in the case of brick/stone veneers, field applications may be the builders' choice. Roof systems also can be applied in the field after the basic installation is completed.

U.S. regional differences with modular construction.

Weather, population density, geographical distances, and local housing architecture play a role in the use of modular construction for home building. Because modular construction is so adaptable, it has begun to permeate every region of the U.S.

Northeast.

The northeast is populated with factories that can combine modular housing design with other construction methods such as panelization and SIPs. Modules are typically limited to 16' width and up to 70' lengths because of the narrow road structure and densely populated areas of the region. Other limitations are placed on transportation to locations such as Connecticut, Cape Cod, and Long Island.

Mid-Atlantic.

The Mid-Atlantic region is similar to the northeast, in terms of building design and transport restriction to modules to a width of not more than 16'.

Southeast.

Manufacturers in the Southeast often limit their ability to customize homes and focus on very traditional single story floor plans. Much of the south is in coastal and high wind areas; modular construction may prove appealing in this area as it is already inherently stronger as it must be built for transport and craned installation, therefore offering wind resistance as good or higher than site-built construction.

Central Plains.

The central plains states typically are made up of farming and rural communities. Ranch homes are the mainstay of the region. Prone to strong storms and tornado conditions, modular construction offers the ability to better withstand these storm patterns than its site built counterpart. The inter-module attachments that must be made when assembling a modular home on a foundation offer an inherently stronger home than site built construction can offer. Interior finishes on both the walls and ceilings are typically textured. Corners on interior walls are typically rounded and finish trim around windows is optional. Because of the wider road and lower population density, modules can be as wide as 20' and as long as 90'. The ability to provide larger modules reduces the amount of modules needed to complete a home.

Rockies.

Home design in this area ranges from Chalet style homes to log cabin style homes. Manufacturers in the region therefore provide a number of styles of homes. Capability varies from factory to factory as well as the ability to do complete customization of floor plans. Transportation is limited mostly to 16' wide modules to travel the roads of the area.

West Coast.

The high cost of living in coastal areas, and especially California, may provide modular construction an edge due to its lower cost. Extreme building regulation and environmental requirements can delay the start of residential construction. Several factories specialize in environmentally responsible construction by following green construction standards and offering zero energy homes.  Living in coastal areas also mean that the modular home structure should be strong enough to withstand winds with high velocity. Modular homes, built correctly, have such kind of resistance to stand high wind velocity without any damage issues.

Open modular building.

The term Modularity can be perceived in different ways. It can even be extended to building P2P (peer-to-peer) applications; where a tailored use of the P2P technology is with the aid of a modular paradigm. Here well-understood components with clean interfaces can be combined to implement arbitrarily complex functions in the hopes of further proliferating self-organising P2P technology. Open modular buildings are an excellent example of this. Modular building can also be open source and green. Bauwens, Kostakis and Pazaitis elaborate on this kind of modularity. They link modularity to the construction of houses.  This commons-based activity is geared towards modularity. The construction of modular buildings enables a community to share designs and tools related to all the different parts of house construction. A socially-oriented endeavour that deals with the external architecture of buildings and the internal dynamics of open source commons. People are thus provided with the tools to reconfigure the public sphere in the area where they live, especially in urban environments. There is a robust socializing element that is reminiscent of pre-industrial vernacular architecture and community-based building.  Some organisations already provide modular housing. Such organisations are relevant as they allow for the online sharing of construction plans and tools. These plans can be then assembled, through either digital fabrication like 3D printing or even sourcing low-cost materials from local communities. It has been noticed that given how easy it is to use these low-cost materials are (for example: plywood), it can help increase the permeation of these open buildings to areas or communities that lack the know-how or abilities of conventional architectural or construction firms. Ergo, it allows for a fundamentally more standardised way of constructing houses and buildings. The overarching idea behind it remains key - to allow for easy access to user-friendly layouts which anyone can use to build in a more sustainable and affordable way.  Modularity in this sense is building a house from different standardised parts, like solving a jigsaw puzzle.  3D printing can be used to build the house.  The main standard is OpenStructures and its derivative Autarkytecture.

Key markets.

Permanent modular buildings can be utilized in any application where stick-built construction is used. The primary markets served are K-12 education, higher education student housing, office and administrative space, retail and hospitality, healthcare, and publicly funded facilities.

Research and development.

Modular construction is the subject of continued research and development worldwide as the technology is applied to taller and taller buildings. Research and development is carried out by modular building companies and also research institutes such as the Modular Building Institute and the Steel Construction Institute. An example of a recent research project is MODCONS.

Modular buildings and modular homes are prefabricated buildings or houses that consist of repeated sections called modules. "Modular" is a construction method that involves constructing sections away from the building site, then delivering them to the intended site. Installation of the prefabricated sections is completed on site. Prefabricated sections are sometimes placed using a crane. The modules can be placed side-by-side, end-to-end, or stacked, allowing for a variety of configurations and styles. After placement, the modules are joined together using inter-module connections, also known as inter-connections. The inter-connections tie the individual modules together to form the overall building structure.

Modulární výstavba je tvorba prostoru pomocí jednoduchého geometrického principu skládání rozměrově unifikovaných prostorových jednotek – modulů. Tyto moduly – sanitární a obytné buňky (kontejnery) se prefabrikují ve výrobních závodech a osazují na připravený pozemek. Takto vytvořený objekt může sestávat z jednoho nebo několika modulů v závislosti na požadavcích stavebníka na velikost a funkci stavby.


Geography and geology.

The island has an area of, making it the largest freshwater island in the world, the 174th largest island in the world and Canada's 31st largest island.  The island separates the larger part of Lake Huron to its south and west from Georgian Bay to its east and the North Channel to the north.  Manitoulin Island itself has 108 freshwater lakes, some of which have their own islands; in turn several of these "islands within islands" have their own ponds. Lake Manitou, at, is the largest lake in a freshwater island in the world, and Treasure Island in Lake Mindemoya is the largest island in a lake on an island in a lake in the world. Motors are prohibited on boats on Nameless Lake.  The island also has four major rivers: the Kagawong, Manitou River, Blue Jay Creek in Michael's Bay and Mindemoya rivers, which provide spawning grounds for salmon and trout.  The Manitoulin Streams Improvement Association was formed in 2000 and incorporated in 2007. The organization rehabilitates streams, rivers and creeks on Manitoulin Island to improve water quality and the fisheries resource. The Manitoulin Streams Improvement Association has conducted enhancement strategies for the Manitou River and Blue Jay Creek. The association has rehabilitated 17 major sites on the Manitou River and three major sites on Blue Jay Creek; it has completed work on Bass Lake Creek and Norton's Creek. The organization plans to start work on the Mindemoya River in 2010.  Although culturally and politically considered part of Northern Ontario, the island is physiographically part of Southern Ontario, an "eastward extension of the Interior Plains, a region characterized by low relief and sedimentary underpinnings". The island consists mainly of dolomite as it is a continuation of the Bruce Peninsula and Niagara Escarpment. This geological rock formation runs south into Niagara Falls and continues into New York. The "Cup and Saucer Trail", which climbs the escarpment, provides a lookout over the island.

Culture.

The island has two incorporated towns (Northeastern Manitoulin and the Islands and Gore Bay), eight townships (Assiginack, Billings, Burpee and Mills, Central Manitoulin, Dawson, Gordon/Barrie Island, Robinson and Tehkummah) and six Anishinaabe reserves (M'Chigeeng, Sheguiandah, Sheshegwaning, Aundeck Omni Kaning, Wiikwemkoong and Zhiibaahaasing.) During the summer, the population (12,600 permanent residents) on the island grows by more than a quarter due to tourists coming for boating and other activities in scenic surroundings. The island, along with several smaller neighbouring islands, constitutes the Manitoulin District census division of Ontario.  Year-round motor-vehicle access to the island is available via the one-lane Little Current Swing Bridge, which crosses the North Channel at Little Current. From late May to early October, a daily passenger-vehicle ferry, the (Ojibwe for "Big Canoe"), travels between Tobermory on the tip of the Bruce Peninsula and South Baymouth. Winter ice prevents ferry service during that season.  Manitoulin Island's soil is relatively alkaline, which precludes the growth of common Northern Ontario flora such as blueberries, but allows for the island's trademark hawberries. These berries are so distinctive that people born on the island are referred to as "Haweaters". Each year on the August long weekend, the island hosts the Haweater Festival. The festival attracts numerous tourists; it features parades, firework shows, craft shows, and rural competitions such as horse pulls.

Demographics.

, the population was 13,255.  Ethnic groups  Religious groups  The most common first languages on Manitoulin Island in 2016 were English (80.8%), Ojibwe (11.2%), French (2.8%), German (0.8%), and Odawa (0.8%).

History.

In 1952 archeologist Thomas E. Lee discovered Sheguiandah on the island, a prehistoric site. During excavation, he found artifacts of the Paleo-Indian and Archaic periods, dating at least to 10,000 BC and possibly to 30,000 years ago. Additional studies were undertaken by a team he led from the National Museum of Canada in succeeding years. Popular interest in the finds was so high that it contributed to Ontario's passing legislation in 1953 to protect its archeological sites.  A team performed excavations again in the early 1990s, applying new methods of analysis from botany and other scientific disciplines. They concluded the site was at least 9500 years old, making it one of the most significant in Ontario.  Manitoulin means "spirit island" in "Anishinaabemowin" (Ojibwe language). The island is considered sacred by the Native Anishinaabe people, who identify as the "People of the Three Fires." This loose confederation is made up of the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi tribes.  The North Channel was part of the route used by the French colonial voyageurs and coureurs des bois to reach Lake Superior. The first known European to settle on the island was Father Joseph Poncet, a French Jesuit, who set up a mission near Wiikwemkoong in 1648. The Jesuits called the island ""Isle de Ste-Marie"." The endemic Eurasian infectious diseases carried by the visitors had a devastating effect on the island's population, as most Natives had no natural immunity to the new diseases. They suffered so many deaths in the ensuing epidemics of smallpox, measles and other diseases, that their societies were disrupted.  In addition, the Five Nations of the Iroquois began raiding the island and area to try to control the fur trade with the French. As part of what was called the Beaver Wars, the Iroquois drove the Anishinaabe people from the island by 1650. According to Anishinaabe oral tradition, to purify the island from disease, the people burned their settlements as they left. The island was mostly uninhabited for nearly 150 years.  Native people (Odawa, Ojibwe, Potawatomi) began to return to the island following the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States. They ceded the island to the British Crown in 1836; the government set aside the land as a refuge for Natives. In 1838 Jean-Baptiste Proulx re-established a Roman Catholic mission. The Jesuits took over the mission in 1845.  In 1862, the government opened up the island to settlement by non-Native people by the Manitoulin Island treaty. As the "Wikwemikong" chief did not accept this treaty, his people's reserve was held back from being offered for development. That reserve remains unceded. On August 7, 1975 the Wikwemikong Unceded Indian Reserve reasserted their claim to sovereignty over the islands off the east end of Manitoulin Island, declaring, "Wikwemikong Band has jurisdiction over its reservation lands and surrounding waters."  The province erected an Ontario Historical Plaque on the grounds of the Assiginack Museum to commemorate the Manitoulin Treaties' role in Ontario's history.

Manitoulin Island is an island in Lake Huron in Laurentia. It is located within the borders of the Canadian province of Ontario. With an area of, it is the largest fresh water island in the world, large enough that it has over 100 inland lakes itself. In addition to the historic Anishinaabe and European settlement of the island, archeological discoveries at Sheguiandah have demonstrated Paleo-Indian and Archaic cultures dating from 10,000 BC to 2,000 BC.

Manitoulin je ostrov v Huronském jezeře, který je součástí kanadské provincie Ontario. S rozlohou 2766 km2 je největším sladkovodním ostrovem světa (celkově 31. největší v Kanadě a 174. na světě). Na ostrově žije okolo 12 600 obyvatel, z toho tvoří dvě třetiny běloši a třetinu původní obyvatelé (převážně Odžibvejové). Z odžibvejštiny pochází také název Manitoulin, což znamená "Ostrov ducha". Největším sídlem je Little Current.


Biography.

Teresa Berganza was born in Madrid. She studied piano and voice at the Madrid Conservatory, where she was awarded first prize for singing in 1954. She made her concert debut in Madrid in 1955.  Berganza made her operatic debut as Dorabella in "Così fan tutte" in 1957 at the Aix-en-Provence Festival. That same year, she made her Teatro alla Scala debut and the following year her debut at Glyndebourne. In 1959, Berganza made her first appearances at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden as Rosina in "Il barbiere di Siviglia", which became one of her signature roles. In 1967, she made her Metropolitan Opera debut as Cherubino in "Le nozze di Figaro".  As a recitalist, Berganza made her Carnegie Hall debut in 1964. Her concert repertoire includes Spanish, Italian, French, German, and Russian songs. From 1957 to 1977, Berganza was married to the composer and pianist Félix Lavilla, with whom she recorded and performed regularly and with whom she has three children, including soprano Cecilia Lavilla Berganza. During the 1980s, Teresa herself was found to have been admired by Arthur Richard Jackson, the Scottish drifter who attempted to murder American actress Theresa Saldana in 1982.  Berganza shared the 1991 Prince of Asturias Award for arts and letters with six other Spanish singers. She also won the Grand Prix Rossini.  In 1992, Berganza participated in the opening ceremonies of Expo '92 in Seville and the opening ceremonies of the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. In 1994, she became the first woman elected to the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. In 1996, she was awarded the Premio Nacional de Música. She currently teaches singing at the Escuela Superior de Música Reina Sofía, continues to perform music of Spanish composers, and gives master classes all over the world. Her students have included María Bayo and Jorge Chaminé.  Berganza received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2018 International Opera Awards.

Films.

Teresa Berganza has appeared in nine motion pictures, including "Il barbiere di Siviglia" in 1972, as Zerlina in Joseph Losey's "Don Giovanni" in 1979, and both "Werther" and "Carmen" in 1980.

Vila do Conde (, ; "City of the Count") is a municipality in the Norte Region of Portugal. The population in 2011 was 79,533, in an area of 149.03 km2. The urbanized area of Vila do Conde, which includes the parishes of Vila do Conde, Azurara and Árvore, represent 36,137 inhabitants. Vila do Conde is interlinked to the north with Póvoa de Varzim, forming a single urban agglomeration. The town is on the Portuguese Way of the Camino de Santiago.

Vila do Conde je město na severu Portugalska, na severním břehu ústí řeky Ave, 32 km severně od Porto. Žije zde 28 581 obyvatel (30. 6. 2011).


History.

The IFC initiative began in 1994, when Autodesk formed an industry consortium to advise the company on the development of a set of C++ classes that could support integrated application development. Twelve US companies joined the consortium. These companies included AT&T, HOK Architects, Honeywell, Carrier, Tishman and Butler Manufacturing. Initially named the Industry Alliance for Interoperability, the Alliance opened membership to all interested parties in September, 1995 and changed its name in 1997 to the International Alliance for Interoperability. The new Alliance was reconstituted as a non-profit industry-led organization, with the goal of publishing the Industry Foundation Class (IFC) as a neutral AEC product model responding to the AEC building lifecycle. A further name change occurred in 2005, and the IFC specification is now developed and maintained by buildingSMART.

File formats.

IFC defines multiple file formats that may be used, supporting various encodings of the same underlying data.  IFC is in ASCII format which, will human-readable, suffers from common ASCII file issues, in that file-sizes are bloated, files must be read sequentially from start to finish, mid-file extraction is not possible, files are slow to parse, and definitions are non-hierarchical. In addition to ifcXML and ifcZIP, modernisation efforts include development of ifcOWL (based on Terse RDF triple language), ifcJSON (JavaScript Object Notation, broadly available) and ifcHDF5 (Hierarchical Data Format v5, binary). In 2020, buildingSmart had two JSON projects underway: ifcJSON v4 (a direct mapping from EXPRESS-based IFC v4) and ifcJSON v5, plus a research project experimenting with turning IFC into a binary format.

Architecture.

IFC defines an EXPRESS based entity-relationship model consisting of several hundred entities organized into an object-based inheritance hierarchy. Examples of entities include building elements such as IfcWall, geometry such as IfcExtrudedAreaSolid, and basic constructs such as IfcCartesianPoint.  At the most abstract level, IFC divides all entities into rooted and non-rooted entities. Rooted entities derive from IfcRoot and have a concept of identity (having a GUID), along with attributes for name, description, and revision control. Non-rooted entities do not have identity and instances only exist if referenced from a rooted instance directly or indirectly. IfcRoot is subdivided into three abstract concepts: object definitions, relationships, and property sets:

IfcObjectDefinition.

IfcObjectDefinition is split into object occurrences and object types. IfcObject captures object occurrences such as a product installation having serial number and physical placement. IfcTypeObject captures type definitions (or templates) such as a product type having a particular model number and common shape. Occurrences and types are further subdivided into six fundamental concepts: actors ("who"), controls ("why"), groups ("what"), products ("where"), processes ("when"), and resources ("how").

IfcRelationship.

IfcRelationship captures relationships among objects. There are five fundamental relationship types: composition, assignment, connectivity, association, and definition.

IfcPropertyDefinition.

IfcPropertyDefinition captures dynamically extensible property sets. A property set contains one or more properties which may be a single value (e.g. string, number, unit measurement), a bounded value (having minimum and maximum), an enumeration, a list of values, a table of values, or a data structure. While IFC defines several hundred property sets for specific types, custom property sets may be defined by application vendors or end users.

Products.

IfcProduct is the base class for all physical objects and is subdivided into spatial elements, physical elements, structural analysis items, and other concepts. Products may have associated materials, shape representations, and placement in space. Spatial elements include IfcSite, IfcBuilding, IfcBuildingStorey, and IfcSpace. Physical building elements include IfcWall, IfcBeam, IfcDoor, IfcWindow, IfcStair, etc. Distribution elements (HVAC, electrical, plumbing) have a concept of ports where elements may have specific connections for various services, and connected together using cables, pipes, or ducts to form a system. Various connectivity relationships are used for building elements such as walls having openings filled by doors or windows.  Materials may be defined for products as a whole, or as layers, profiles, or constituents for specified parts.  Representations may be defined for explicit 3D shape, and optionally as parametric constraints. Each representation is identified by IfcShapeRepresentation with a well-known name.  Placement may indicate position, vertical angle, and horizontal angle.  Quantities may be defined for take-off purposes such as Gross Area, Gross Volume, Gross Weight, Net Weight, etc. IFC defines various quantities specific to each element type and the method of calculation according to geometry and relationships.

Processes.

IfcProcess is the base class for processes and is subdivided into tasks, events, and procedures. Processes may have durations and be scheduled to occur at specific time periods. Processes may be sequenced such that a successor task may start after a predecessor task finishes, following the Critical Path Method. Processes may be nested into sub-processes for summary roll-up. Processes may be assigned to products indicating the output produced by the work performed.

Resources.

IfcResource is the base class for resources and is subdivided into materials, labor, equipment, subcontracts, crews, and more. Resources may have various costs and calendars of availability. Resources may be nested into sub-resources for granular allocation. Resources may be assigned to processes indicating tasks performed on behalf of a resource.

Contexts.

IfcProject encapsulates an overall project and indicates the project name, description, default units, currency, coordinate system, and other contextual information. A valid IFC file must always include exactly one IfcProject instance, from which all other objects relate directly or indirectly. A project may include multiple buildings, multiple participants, and/or multiple phases according to the particular use.  In addition to project-specific information, an IfcProject may also reference external projects from which shared definitions may be imported such as product types. Each external project is encapsulated using IfcProjectLibrary [IFC2x4] along with IfcRelAssociatesLibrary and IfcLibraryInformation to identify the particular revision of the imported project library.  Projects support revision control where any IfcRoot-based entity has a unique identifier and may be marked as added, modified, deleted, or having no change. Such capability allows multiple IFC files to be merged deterministically, ensuring data integrity without human intervention.

The Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) data model is intended to describe architectural, building and construction industry data. It is a platform neutral, open file format specification that is not controlled by a single vendor or group of vendors. It is an object-based file format with a data model developed by buildingSMART (formerly the International Alliance for Interoperability, IAI) to facilitate interoperability in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry, and is a commonly used collaboration format in Building information modeling (BIM) based projects. The IFC model specification is open and available. It is registered by ISO and is an official International Standard ISO 16739-1:2018.

IFC (z angl. The Industry Foundation Classes) je otevřený neutrální souborový formát podporující sdílení dat na principu Informačního modelu budovy, který umožňuje komunikaci mezi jednotlivými účastníky stavebního procesu a jejich softwarovými BIM nástroji. Specifikace IFC je registrována jako oficiální mezinárodní norma ISO 16739:2013.