Etymology.

The term derives from the medieval term "private soldiers" (a term still used in the British Army), denoting individuals who were either hired, conscripted, or mustered into service by a feudal nobleman commanding a battle group of an army. The usage of "private" dates from the 18th century.

Asia.

Indonesia.

In Indonesia, this rank is referred to as (specifically "Prajurit" which means, soldier), which is the lowest rank in the Indonesian National Armed Forces and special Police Force. In the Indonesian Army, Indonesian Marine Corps, and Indonesian Air Force, "Private" has three levels, which are: Private ("Prajurit Dua"), Private First Class ("Prajurit Satu"), and Master Private ("Prajurit Kepala"). After this rank, it is promoted the rank: Corporal.

Israel.

In the Israel Defense Forces, ("private") refers to the lowest enlisted rank. After 7–10 months of service (7 for combatants, 8 for combat support and 10 for non-combatants) soldiers are promoted from private to corporal ( or ), if they performed their duties appropriately during this time. Soldiers who take a commander's course, are prisoner instructors or practical engineers become corporals earlier. An IDF private wears no uniform insignia and is sometimes described as having a "slick sleeve" for this reason.

Korea.

The equivalent ranks to privates within the North and South Korean armies are "ilbyeong" (private first class) and "ibyeong" (private second class). The symbol for this rank is 1 line ( | ) or 2 lines ( || ). Private second class is known by 1 line, while private first class is 2 lines.

Singapore.

Once recruits complete their Basic Military Training (BMT) or Basic Rescue Training (BRT), they attain the rank of private (PTE). Privates do not wear ranks on their rank holder. PTEs who performed well are promoted to the rank of Lance Corporal (LCP). The PFC rank is rarely awarded nowadays by SAF. All private enlistees can be promoted directly to lance corporal should they meet the minimum qualifying requirements, conduct appraisal and work performance. Recruits who did not complete BMT but completed 2 years of National Service will be promoted to private.

Commonwealth.

Australia.

In the Australian Army, a soldier of private rank wears no insignia. Like its British Army counterpart, the Australian Army rank of private (PTE) has other titles, depending on the corps and specification of that service member.  The following alternative ranks are available for privates in the Australian Army:

Bangladesh.

In the Bangladesh Army the lowest enlisted rank is "sainik" (সৈনিক), literally meaning "soldier".

Canada.

In the Canadian Armed Forces, "private" is the lowest rank for members who wear army uniform. There are three levels of private: private (recruit), private (basic), and private (trained). All persons holding the rank of private are referred to as such and the qualifier shown in brackets is used on employment records only. The air force rank of aviator was formerly called "private", but this changed when traditional air force rank insignia were restored in 2014. The French-language equivalent of private is.  Canadian Army privates may be known by other titles, depending on their military trade and their unit’s tradition:

India and Pakistan.

In the Indian Army and Pakistan Army the lowest enlisted rank is sepoy (/ˈsiːpɔɪ/), literally meaning "soldier" derived from Persian. A sepoy does not wear any rank insignia on his uniform. They are commonly referred to as "jawans".

South Africa.

In the South African Army the lowest enlisted rank is Private. Privates don't wear insignia on their uniforms. In the different corps it is known with different titles.

United Kingdom.

In the British Army, a private (Pte) equates to both OR-1 and OR-2 on the NATO scale, although there is no difference in rank. Privates wear no insignia. Many regiments and corps use other distinctive and descriptive names instead of private, some of these ranks have been used for centuries, others are less than 100 years old. In the contemporary British Armed Forces, the army rank of private is broadly equivalent to able seaman in the Royal Navy, aircraftman, leading aircraftman and senior aircraftman in the Royal Air Force, and marine (Mne) or bandsman, as appropriate equivalent rank in the Royal Marines. In the Boys' Brigade the rank of private is used when a boy moves from the junior section to the company section.  Distinctive equivalents for private include:

Royal Marines.

In the Corps of Royal Marines the rank structure follows that of British infantry regiments with the exception that the Royal Marines equivalent of private is Marine (Mne).  During the course of the First World War, some Royal Marines also took the rank of Sapper, this was usually found as part of the Royal Marine Divisional Engineers of the Royal Naval Division.

Europe and Latin America.

Austria.

The lowest rank in the Austrian Armed Forces is the "Rekrut" (literally "Recruit"). For recruits in training to become non-commissioned or commissioned officers the rank bears an additional silver crossbar.  Up until 1998 the rank was called "Wehrmann". In 2017 the silver crossbar was removed, as the system of the 'officers career' changed.

Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Mexico and Spain.

The equivalent rank to private in the Spanish, Mexican, Colombian, Dominican and Argentinian army is the "soldado raso" meaning "rankless soldier" or simply "soldado".

Belgium.

On enlistment in the Belgian army one is given the rank of (Dutch) or (French), whether one wishes to be a volunteer, non-commissioned officer or officer. Subsequent rank depends on the branch of the service: for example, at the Royal Military Academy (for officer training) one is soon promoted to the rank of (Dutch) or (French) i.e. "corporal". The insignia is a simple black mark or the simplified version of the Royal Military Academy's coat of arms for candidate officers.

Brazil and Portugal.

"Soldado" is the rank equivalent to private in the Brazilian and Portuguese Armed Forces. "Soldado" means "soldier" in Portuguese.

Finland.

The Finnish equivalent rank is "sotamies" (literally "war man"), although since 1973 this has been purely a paper term as all infantry troopers were renamed as "jääkäri" troops, previously reserved only to mobile light infantry. As in the British army, the various branches use different names:  In the Finnish Air Force, the basic rank is "lentosotamies" ("flight war man"). In the Finnish Navy, the basic rank is "matruusi" ("seaman") or "tykkimies" ("cannon man") in the marine infantry.  Special corps troopers may be referred by their function or unit, such as "kaartinjääkäri" (Guards jaeger), "panssarijääkäri" (panzer jaeger), "laskuvarjojääkäri" (paratroop jaeger), "rajajääkäri" (border jaeger) or "rannikkojääkäri" (coastal jaeger).

France.

In the French army "soldat de seconde classe" is the lowest military rank. This rank is also referred to as "recrue" ("recruit").

Germany.

The German "Bundeswehr" modern-day equivalent of the private rank (NATO-standard code OR-2) is Gefreiter.  The equivalent of the lowest rank (NATO-standard code OR-1) is either "Schütze" (rifleman), "Kanonier" (gunner) or "Jäger" (light-infantryman otherwise ranger), and sometimes in general simply "Soldat" (soldier), as well as other unit-specific distinctions. Up until 1918 it was "Gemeine" (Ordinary [soldier]) as well as unit-specific distinctions such as "Musketier" (musketeer), "Infanterist" (infantryman), "Kürassier" (cuirassier), "Jäger" (light-infantryman otherwise ranger), "Füsilier" (fusilier) etc., until 1945 "Soldat" (soldier) and unit-specific distinctions such as "Schütze" (rifleman), "Grenadier" (grenadier) etc. The navy equivalent of the OR-1 rank is known as "Matrose" (sailor or seaman), and the German Air Force equivalent is "Flieger" (aviator or airman) which is also used by army aviators.

Hungary.

The name of the lowest rank in the Hungarian army ("Magyar Honvédség") is the "honvéd" which means "homeland defender". The word is also used informally for a soldier in general of any rank (i.e. "our "honvéds"" or an officer referred as a "honvédtiszt", "honvéd" officer). This is because Hungarian military traditions are strictly defensive, despite the Hungarian army participating in offensives on foreign soil in both world wars. The word "honvéd" has been in use since the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The term is not used for soldiers of foreign armies: a foreign soldier with no rank is called "közlegény", literally "common lad" or "common man".

Ireland.

Private (Pte) ("saighdiúr singil" in Irish), is the lowest enlisted rank in the Irish Army. Soldiers enlist as recruits then undergo a basic course of instruction. There are three grades of private in the army. After basic training the soldier is upgraded (rather than promoted) from recruit to private 2 star (Pte 2*) ("saighdiúr singil, 2 réalta"). After more corps-specific training (usually lasting eight weeks) the soldier is upgraded to private 3 star (Pte 3*) ("saighdiúr singil, 3 réalta"). All are usually just addressed as "private", although before being upgraded, recruits may be addressed as "recruit".  In corps units, the rank designation changes. In the artillery, the rank is known as gunner (Gnr), but usually only after the completion of a gunners' course, and in the cavalry it is known as trooper (Tpr). Communications and Information Services privates are known as signalman or signalwoman. Medical orderlies are sometimes referred to as medic, although this can apply to privates and corporals.

Italy.

In the Italian Army is the lowest military rank. This rank is also referred to as (meaning recruit).

Netherlands.

In the Royal Netherlands Army, the "Landmacht", the equivalent ranks are "soldaat" (soldier), similar to the original French, with different classes:  Depending on where the "soldaat" serves, he may be deemed a "kanonnier" (gunner in the artillery), "huzaar" (hussar in the cavalry) or "fuselier" (rifleman in the rifles) as well as "commando", "jager" or "rijder". There is less differentiation than in other countries between different armed forces. A "soldaat" can be promoted to "korporaal" (corporal).

Sweden.

In the Swedish Armed Forces a recruit is given the rank of in the army and in the navy.  After basic training which is roughly 3 months other terms can be used such as ’’soldat’’ (soldier), ’’jägare’’, etc.

Switzerland.

In the Swiss Armed Forces a recruit is given the rank of (equivalent to NATO OR-2), usually after completion of the first 12 weeks of basic training, also referred to as recruit school.

Turkey.

In the Turkish Land Forces, Turkish Air Force and Turkish Naval Forces; "Er" (Private) is the lowest rank possible. This rank does not have any insignia.

Venezuela.

The rank is used by the National Bolivarian Armed Forces of Venezuela and has no insignia.

United States.

United States Army.

In the United States Army, private is used for the two lowest enlisted ranks, just below private first class (E-3) or PFC. The lowest rank is "Private (E-1)" or PV1, sometimes referred to as "recruit", but this rank can also be held by some soldiers after punishment through the Uniform Code of Military Justice, or prisoners after conviction and demotion until they are discharged. A PV1 wears no uniform rank insignia; since the advent of the Army Combat Uniform (ACU), the slang term "fuzzy" has come into vogue, referring to the blank velcro patch on the ACU where the rank would normally be placed. The second rank, "Private (E-2)" or PV2, wears a single chevron, known colloquially as "mosquito wings". Advancement to PV2 is automatic after six months' time in service, but may be shortened to four months by a waiver. A person who earned the Eagle Scout award, the Gold Award, or completed at least two years of JROTC may enlist at any time at the rank of PV2. The term of address, "Private," may be properly applied to any Army soldier E-1 (PV1) to E-3 (PFC). The abbreviation "PVT" may be used whenever the specific grade of private is immaterial (such as in Tables of Organization and Equipment).

United States Marine Corps.

In the United States Marine Corps, "private" (Pvt) refers only to the lowest enlisted rank, just below private first class. A Marine Corps private wears no uniform insignia and is sometimes described as having a "slick sleeve" for this reason. Most new, non-officer Marines begin their military career as a private. In the Marine Corps, privates first class are not referred to as "private"; it is more appropriate to use either "private first class" or "PFC".

A private is a soldier of the lowest military rank (equivalent to NATO Rank Grades OR-1 to OR-3 depending on the force served in).

Vojín je nejnižší hodnost příslušníka armády (v terminologii NATO má stupně od OR-1 do OR-3 podle typu jednotky, ve které slouží). Následující vyšší hodnost je svobodník.


Katedrála svatého Michaela archanděla a svaté Guduly

History.

A chapel dedicated to St. Michael was probably built on the "Treurenberg" hill as early as the 9th century. In the 11th century, it was replaced by a Romanesque church. In 1047, Lambert II, Count of Leuven founded a chapter in this church and organised the transportation of the relics of the martyr St. Gudula, housed before then in Saint Gaugericus Church on Saint-Géry Island. The patron saints of the church, St. Michael and St. Gudula, are also the patron saints of the City of Brussels.  In the 13th century, Henry I, Duke of Brabant ordered two round towers to be added to the church. Henry II, Duke of Brabant instructed the building of a Brabantine Gothic collegiate church in 1226. The choir was constructed between 1226 and 1276. It took about 300 years to complete the entire church. It was completed just before the reign of the Emperor Charles V began in 1519. Some chapels were added in the 16th and 17th centuries.  The church was designated a historic monument on 5 March 1936. It was not until 1962, with the creation of the Archdiocese of Mechelen-Brussels, that the collegiate church was promoted to the rank of co-cathedral, when it became the seat of the Archbishop, together with St. Rumbold's Cathedral in Mechelen.  Restoration work was carried out in the 19th century under the direction of the architect Tilman-François Suys who restored the towers and portals from 1839 to 1845, and again in the 20th century under the direction of Jean Rombaux then Victor Gaston Martiny, chief architect-town planner of the Province of Brabant and member of the Royal Committee for Monuments and Sites. The cathedral was once again thoroughly restored between 1983 and 1999. On that occasion, remains of the Romanesque church as well as the Romanesque crypt were discovered under the current choir.

Features.

Exterior.

The cathedral is built of stone from the Gobertange quarry, which is located approximately south-east of the site of the cathedral. The building's external length is and its internal length is, and the choir's exterior is wide and its interior wide. The western facade with its three portals surmounted by gables and two high towers are typical of the French Gothic style, but without a rose window, as it features instead a large window in the Brabantian Gothic style.  The two towers, the upper parts of which are arranged in terraces, are attributed to the Flemish architect Jan Van Ruysbroeck (1470–1485), who also designed the tower of Brussels' Town Hall. They are unfinished and were meant to be much higher, in a style close to the Town Hall's tower or the north tower of the Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp.  The monumental staircase for the cathedral, designed by Pieter Paul Merckx, was placed in the period 1702–1707. This staircase, a gift from the city of Brussels, was originally built against the city walls to provide access to the promenade on the stretch between the Laeken Gate and the Schaerbeek Gate.

Interior.

The choir is Gothic and contains the mausoleums of the Dukes of Brabant and Archduke Ernest of Austria made by Robert Colyn de Nole in the 17th century. Left of the choir is the Chapel of the Flamboyant Gothic Blessed Sacrament of the Miracle (1534–1539). It now houses the Treasure of the Cathedral, where the famous Drahmal Cross (also known as the Brussels Cross), an Anglo-Saxon inscribed cross-reliquary of the early 11th century, is stored. Right of the choir is the Chapel of Our Lady of Deliverance (1649–1655) which is built in a late Gothic style and has a Baroque altar by Jan Voorspoel (1666). Behind the choir is a Baroque chapel dedicated to St. Mary Magdalen (also called the Maes Chapel) dated 1675 and a marble and alabaster altarpiece depicting the Passion of Christ by Jean Mone dated 1538.  The nave has all the characteristics of Brabantine Gothic: the four-part vaults are moderately high and the robust cylindrical columns that line the central aisle of the nave are topped with capitals in the form of cabbage leaves. Statues of the 12 apostles are attached to the columns. These statues date from the 17th century and were created by sculptors Lucas Faydherbe, Jerôme Duquesnoy the Younger, Johannes van Mildert and Tobias de Lelis, all renowned sculptors of their time. The statues replaced those destroyed by iconoclasts in 1566.  The nave has a Baroque pulpit from the 17th century, made by Antwerp sculptor Hendrik Frans Verbruggen in 1699. The base represents Adam and Eve expelled from the Garden of Eden after plucking the forbidden fruit. At the top, the Virgin and Child piercing the serpent symbolise redemption.  To the right of the portal of the northern transept is an elegant 17th-century sculpture depicting "The education of the Holy Virgin by Saint Anna" by Jerôme Duquesnoy the Younger after a painting by Rubens. The side aisles contain 17th-century confessional-boxes in oak by Jan van Delen.  The cathedral contains the unmarked burial place of Dermot O'Mallun, the last Irish-born chief of the name of the O'Moloney sept of Thomond.

Stained glass.

The cathedral has stained glass windows from the 16th, 17th and 19th centuries. Particularly noteworthy are the two made in 1537 and 1538 by the Antwerp glassmaker Jean Haeck based on drawings by Bernard van Orley. They adorn the northern and southern transepts, and bear the image of Charles V. Also worth mentioning are the impressive series of fifteen stained glass windows from the 19th century in the aisles, produced by Jean-Baptiste Capronnier. They were created in 1870, for the celebration of the fifth centenary of the Legend of the Miraculous Sacrament.

Organ.

The big organ in the nave was inaugurated in October 2000. The organ has 4300 pipes, 63 stops, four manuals and one pedal. This instrument is the work of the German organ builder Gerhard Grenzing and his Spanish assistants from Barcelona.

Bells.

Both towers contain bells. The south tower contains a 49-bell carillon by the Royal Eijsbouts bell foundry from 1966, on which Sunday concerts are often given. Out of all the bells in the carillon, only 7 of them can ring. They are, from heaviest to lightest: Fabiola, Maria, Michael, Gudula, Philippe, Astrid, and Laurent. Fabiola, Philippe, Astrid and Laurent are named after members of the Belgian royal family.  The north tower contains a single bourdon called "Salvator, it" was cast by Peter van den Gheyn in 1638. There is also another empty space where a second bourdon used to be. The bourdon has a deep crankshaft, but counterweights have already been removed. There are plans to hang it again on a straight axis with a flying clapper.

Trivia.

Falcons in the cathedral.

At the end of the 1990s, Brussels ornithologists discovered a couple of peregrine falcons hibernating on top of the towers of the cathedral. In 2001, ornithologists of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (RBINS) in association with the installed a laying-nest on the edifice in an attempt to encourage nest-building. This laying-nest was never used, but in the spring of 2004, a pair of falcons nested on a balcony on top of the cathedral’s northern tower. At the beginning of March, the female laid three eggs.  As a result of watching the three chicks perform acrobatic feats on the cathedral’s gargoyles, at the end of May 2004, the project "Falcons for everyone" was developed by the RBINS in association with the. The project installed cameras with a live video stream on their website.

Administration.

The Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula serves as the co-cathedral of the Archbishop of Mechelen-Brussels, the Primate of Belgium, who is currently Archbishop Jozef De Kesel. Due to its importance and its location in the national capital, it is often used for Catholic ceremonies of national interest, such as royal marriages and state funerals. For example, in 1999, it was the setting for the wedding of Prince Philippe and Mathilde d'Udekem d'Acoz.

The Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula (, ) is a medieval Roman Catholic church in central Brussels, Belgium. It is consecrated to St. Michael and St. Gudula, the patron saints of the City of Brussels, and is considered to be one of the finest examples of Brabantine Gothic architecture.

Katedrála sv. Michaela a sv. Guduly (fr. "Cathédrale Saints-Michel-et-Gudule", niz. "Sint-Michiels- en Sint-Goedelekathedraal") je katedrála v Bruselu. Stojí na pahorku Treurenberg na pomezí tzv. Horního a Dolního města. Kostel v této lokalitě byl postaven již na počátku 11. století. V roce 1047 do něj nechal lovaňský hrabě Lambert II. přemístit relikvie svaté Guduly. Ta se stala společně s archandělem Michaelem patronem kostela i samotného města.


Career.

Banks was born Mario Bianchi in Cesena, Italy. In 1914, Bianchi emigrated to the United States. By 1918, he was an actor in Hollywood with the Arbuckle Company, performing in over 35 silent short comedies by the early 1920s, and then, in such feature-length action comedy-thrillers as "Play Safe" (1927). A large excerpt from this movie is included in Robert Youngson's compilation film "Days of Thrills and Laughter" (1961).  With the arrival of sound films, Banks's strong Italian accent forced him to phase out his acting career in favor of working as a gagman and director. He directed Laurel and Hardy in their film "Great Guns", under the name "Montague Banks".

Personal life.

He was married to Gladys Frazin. The marriage was not a happy one and they divorced on 29 April 1932 as a result of her abusive behaviour. She subsequently committed suicide in March 1939. He met singer and actress Gracie Fields in 1935, subsequently directed her in four of her films, and they married in March 1940. As an Italian national, he would have been classified as an 'enemy alien' in Britain during World War II. Consequently, he and Fields left the UK for Canada initially, and then the neutral United States in order to prevent his internment. Italian American internment also came into place in the United States during 1941 and 1942, affecting thousands of Italians, but this was eventually relaxed.

Death.

He held dual Italian and U.S. citizenship. He died on the Orient Express train outside Arona, Italy, of a heart attack, aged 52.

Aula Didattica Monty Banks.

In his home town of Cesena a foundation was created in honor of Banks, entitled the Aula Didattica Monty Banks. It is "an initiative promoted by the Comune, the course is open to all and provides the opportunity to create videos".

Montague (Monty) Banks (18 July 1897 – 7 January 1950 born Mario Bianchi) was an Italian comedian and film actor, director who achieved success in the United Kingdom and in the US.

Monty Banks (15. červenec 1897 – 7. leden 1950) byl italský divadelní a filmový herec, filmový režisér a producent, který se proslavil v éře němého filmu v amerických groteskách.


Early life and initial artistic activities.

Bethânia is the sixth out of eight children born into the family of José Telles Veloso ("Seu Zeca"), a government official, and Claudionor Viana Telles Veloso ("Dona Canô"), a housewife.  The name "Maria Bethânia" was chosen by her brother Caetano Veloso after the homonymous hit song written by composer Capiba and famous at the time in the voice of Nélson Gonçalves.  In her childhood, she had aspirations to become an actress. However, her mother was a musician, so music was prevalent in the Veloso household. Though Bethânia was born in Santo Amaro da Purifição, her family moved to Salvador, Bahia when she was 13. The move allowed her to experience the bohemian, intellectual circles of the city as well as to visit theaters. When she was 16, her brother Caetano Veloso invited her to sing in a film for which he was producing the soundtrack, but she refused. Nevertheless, the film's director, Álvaro Guimarães, liked her voice and invited the young musician to perform in the 1963 Nélson Rodrigues's musical "Boca de Ouro". This time Bethânia accepted, and for the first time in her life she went on stage to sing for an audience, opening the play performing a samba by Ataulfo Alves.  That same year, Bethãnia and her sister met singers Gilberto Gil and Gal Costa; Caetano had been invited to put on an MPB show to inaugurate the Teatro Vila Velha. The four artists got together and, in 1964, staged "Nós, por exemplo" ("We, for example").  The show was a success and was presented again twenty months later, with the participation of singer-songwriter Tom Zé. That same year, the group mounted another show called "Nova Bossa Velha e Velha Bossa Nova" ("New Old Bossa and Old New Bossa"). Still in that year, directed by Caetano and Gil, Bethânia performed another musical, this time on her own, called "Mora na Filosofia" ("Lives in Philosophy").  She began performing again with her brother, as well as Gilberto Gil, Gal Costa, and Tom Zé, at the opening of the Vila Velha Theater in the next year. During one of these performances, the bossa nova musician Nara Leão offered her an opportunity to take her place in a series of performances titled "Opinião".

Career.

She released her first single, a protest song called "Carcará", in 1965, the same year that her brother released his first recording. After releasing "Carcará" Bethânia returned from Rio de Janeiro, where she had gone to attend college, to Bahia. This was to only be a brief visit, as around that time she was performing at nightclubs and other venues throughout Brazil. This song also got her an offer from an RCA Records representative to record for the company. However Bethânia continually changed record labels throughout the 1970s. In 1973 Bethânia released "Drama, Luz Da Noite", in which she performed traditional Brazilian songs, as well as incorporating literary elements. In 1977 Bethânia went on tour and released a gold-certified album, both with the name of "Pássaro da Manhã". She released "Álibi" a year later which was also gold-certified with over a million copies sold. Around the end of the 1970s, Bethânia became more artistically conservative, moving away from the Tropicalismo music her frequent collaborators, including Caetano Veloso and Gilberto Gil, had been playing. During the 1980s and '90s Bethânia continued to record and perform, with 1993's "As Canções Que Você Fez Para Mim" becoming the year's most successful album in Brazil.  In 1976, she released a live album with Doces Bárbaros, a Música popular brasileira supergroup. It was recorded June 24 of that year at Anhembi Stadium in São Paulo. Its members were Gilberto Gil, Caetano Veloso, Maria Bethânia and Gal Costa, four of the biggest names in the history of the Music of Brazil. The band was the subject of a 1977 documentary directed by Jom Tob Azulay. In 1994, they performed a tribute concert to Mangueira school of samba.  French filmmaker Georges Gachot completed a documentary film "Musica é perfume" about her which was worldwide distributed. In 2008 she recorded an album with the Cuban singer Omara Portuondo which was followed by a Live DVD  In 2015, her album "Meus Quintais" was nominated for the 16th Latin Grammy Awards in the Best MPB Album category.

Controversy.

In March 2011, Bethânia found herself in the midst of a controversy after receiving permission from the Ministry of Culture of Brazil to make a poetry blog budgeted for $1.3 million tax free Reais ($783,000 USD).  The financing of the project would fall under the so-called "Lei Rouanet" (English: "Rouanet Law"), which is designed as an incentive to promote Brazilian culture. The law allows companies and individuals to invest part of their income tax in cultural projects.  The singer, considered one of the greats in Brazilian music and who has a track record of working with poets and reading bits of her favorite poetry, would use the platform to interpret poetry, both of her own and from other authors, in song through a daily series of videos, 365 in total, for the blog "O Mundo Precisa de Poesia" (English: "The World Needs Poetry").  Much of the criticisms surrounds on the project's cost and the fact that a rich and well-known artist like Bethânia can rely on such a process to get sponsored, while hundreds of other minor artists cannot find ways to survive. Pablo Villaça, from the blog "Cinema em Cena" ("Movie Theater at Home") estimated that, taking out the amount that would go to the collectors, around R$1.17 million would go toward the blog's production. Each video, then, would cost about R$3,200. He stated that this cost would not be compatible with videos of 3–5 minutes length consisting of just one person reciting poetry.  Blogger, journalist and filmmaker Mauricio Caleiro explained that this process, appropriated by the interests of big names and governed by the market, has suffered from great distortions over the years, favoring respected names over beginners, according to him:  "(...) the imbroglio involving the baiana singer revealed the problems of the “Rouanet Law”, a tool that, shortly after being created, played a key role in the survival of certain artistic areas during the neoliberal autumn, but as the episode in question shows, it eventually lead to serious distortions in relations between economy, ideology and cultural production."  To mock the whole situation, a satirical blog entitled "Bethania: 1 million reasons for you to access" was created by blogger Raphael Quatroci.  On March 16, the Ministry of Culture released a statement affirming the legality of the process and reiterating that the approval had strictly followed the rules. It said that "the criteria in the CNIC (National Commission on Cultural Incentives) are technical and legal, so to reject an applicant because she/he is famous, or not, would set up obvious and untenable discrimination."  Then, on March 27, Caetano Veloso, Bethânia's brother, came out to defend his sister, noting that other projects by many other artists, both known and unknown, were authorized to raise larger amounts.

Personal life.

She moved to Rio de Janeiro alone, at age 17, in 1963, where she lives today. Very discreet, she is not often seen in social events. Currently she lives alone in a residence that she bought in a neighborhood far away, close to the nature and bush, far from the bustle of Rio. The singer does not have children, and is adept to Brazilian religions of African origin, such as the Candomblés.

Maria Bethânia Viana Telles Veloso (; born June 18, 1946), known by her stage name Maria Bethânia, is a Brazilian singer and songwriter. Born in Santo Amaro, Bahia, she started her career in Rio de Janeiro in 1964 with the show "Opinião" ("Opinion"). Due to its popularity, with performances all over the country, and the popularity of her 1965 single "Carcará", the artist became a star in Brazil.

Maria Bethânia, celým jménem Maria Bethânia Vianna Telles Veloso (* 18. června 1946, Santo Amaro da Purificação, Brazílie), je známá brazilská zpěvačka, sestra Caetana Velosa. Kariéru zahájila v roce 1964 v Riu de Janeiru a do dnešní doby vydala více než 30 hudebních alb.


Immunologic adjuvants.

Immunologic adjuvants are added to vaccines to stimulate the immune system's response to the target antigen, but do not provide immunity themselves. Adjuvants can act in various ways in presenting an antigen to the immune system. Adjuvants can act as a depot for the antigen, presenting the antigen over a longer period of time, thus maximizing the immune response before the body clears the antigen. Examples of depot type adjuvants are oil emulsions. An adjuvant can also act as an irritant, which engages and amplifies the body's immune response. A tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis (DPT) vaccine, for example, contains small quantities of inactivated toxins produced by each of the target bacteria, but also contains some aluminium hydroxide. Such aluminium salts are common adjuvants in vaccines sold in the United States and have been used in vaccines for more than 70 years.

Mechanism.

Adjuvants are needed to improve routing and adaptive immune responses to antigens. This reaction is mediated by two main types of lymphocytes, B and T lymphocytes. Adjuvants apply their effects through different mechanisms. Some adjuvants, such as alum, function as delivery systems by generating depots that trap antigens at the injection site, providing a slow release that continues to stimulate the immune system. This is now under debate, as studies have shown that surgical removal of these depots had no impact on the magnitude of IgG1 response.

As stabilizing agents.

Although immunological adjuvants have traditionally been viewed as substances that aid the immune response to the antigen, adjuvants have also evolved as substances that can aid in stabilizing formulations of antigens, especially for vaccines administered for animal health.

Mechanism of immune stimulation.

Adjuvants can enhance the immune response to the antigen in different ways:

Alum as an adjuvant.

Alum was the first aluminium salt used as an adjuvant, but has been almost completely replaced by aluminium hydroxide and aluminium phosphate for commercial vaccines.

Adverse effects.

Adjuvants may make vaccines too reactogenic, which often leads to fever. This is often an expected outcome upon vaccination and is usually controlled in infants by over-the-counter medication if necessary.  An increased number of narcolepsy (a chronic sleep disorder) cases in children and adolescents was observed in Scandinavian and other European countries after vaccinations to address the H1N1 “swine flu” pandemic in 2009.  Narcolepsy has previously been associated with HLA-subtype DQB1*602, which has led to the prediction that it is an autoimmune process. After a series of epidemiological investigations, researchers found that the higher incidence correlated with the use of AS03-adjuvanted influenza vaccine (Pandemrix). Those vaccinated with Pandemrix have almost a 12 times higher risk of developing the disease. The adjuvant of the vaccine contained vitamin E that was no more than a day's normal dietary intake. Vitamin E increases hypocretin-specific fragments that bind to DQB1*602 in cell culture experiments, leading to the hypothesis that autoimmunity may arise in genetically susceptible individuals, but there is no clinical data to support this hypothesis.

An adjuvant (from Latin, "adjuvare", meaning "to help") is a pharmacological or immunological agent that improves the immune response of a vaccine. Adjuvants may be added to a vaccine to boost the immune response to produce more antibodies and longer-lasting immunity, thus minimizing the dose of antigen needed. Adjuvants may also be used to enhance the efficacy of a vaccine by helping to modify the immune response to particular types of immune system cells: for example, by activating T cells instead of antibody-secreting B cells depending on the purpose of the vaccine. Adjuvants are also used in the production of antibodies from immunized animals. There are different classes of adjuvants that can affect the immune response in different ways, but the most commonly used adjuvants include aluminium hydroxide and paraffin oil.

Adjuvans je anorganická či organická chemická látka, makromolekula nebo celé buňky některých usmrcených bakterií, které zesilují imunitní reakci na podaný antigen. Používá se jako nezbytná složka vakcín nebo při produkci protilátek z imunizovaných zvířat. Mezi nejčastěji používaná adjuvans patří hydroxid hlinitý a parafínový olej.


Design and description.

"Algérie" was built in response to the Italian heavy cruisers that were more heavily armoured than the preceding and was designed to take advantage of lighter propulsion machinery to improve her armour protection. The ship had an overall length of, a beam of, and a draft of. She displaced at standard load and at deep load. The hull was divided by 16 bulkheads into 17 watertight compartments. The ship's crew consisted of 746 men as a flagship.

Service history.

"Algérie" started World War II as flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron which also included the cruisers,,,, and destroyers from the 5th, 7th and 9th "contre-torpilleur" divisions. "Algérie", "Dupleix", the battleship and the British aircraft carrier were based in Dakar in French West Africa, while searching for the German heavy cruiser.  In March 1940, after refitting at Toulon, she accompanied the battleship to Canada, with 3,000 cases of French gold. In April, "Algérie" returned to the Mediterranean and when Italy declared war on France, she helped shell Genoa in June. Her last mission before the French surrender was as a convoy escort.  After the French defeat in 1940, "Algérie" remained with the Vichy fleet based at Toulon. Her only mission for the Vichy navy was to escort the battleship back to Toulon, as the battleship had been summarily repaired after the damages received during the British attack on Mers-el-Kébir in 1940. In 1941, her secondary and anti-aircraft weaponry was strengthened and in 1942, she was fitted with the early French-built radar.  She was still there when the Germans invaded the so-called "Free Zone" on 27 November 1942. She was among the ships scuttled in the scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon. Demolition charges were set on the ship. The Germans tried to persuade her crew that scuttling was not permitted by Armistice provisions; her captain requested the Germans to wait until his superior could advise, as the fuses were lit. When Admiral Lacroix finally arrived, he ordered the ship evacuated; as the Germans were preparing to board, he told them that the cruiser was about to explode. She was blown up and burned for 20 days.  The Italians raised her in sections on 18 March 1943. The remains were bombed and sunk again on 7 March 1944, and were finally raised and broken up for scrap in 1949.

Algérie was a French heavy cruiser that served during the early years of World War II. One of the last of the so-called "Treaty Cruisers," she was considered one of the best designs commissioned by any of the naval powers.

Algérie byl poslední a nejkvalitnější těžký křižník francouzského námořnictva. Byl jedinou lodí své třídy. Ve službě byl v letech 1934–1942. Za druhé světové války jej potopila vlastní posádka.


Polarization of Europe, 1887–1914.

To understand the long-term origins of the war in 1914, it is essential to understand how the powers formed into two competing sets sharing common aims and enemies. These two sets became, by August 1914, Germany and Austria-Hungary on one side and Russia, France, Great Britain on the other.

German re-alignment to Austria-Hungary and Russian re-alignment to France, 1887–1892.

In 1887 German and Russian alignment was secured by means of a secret Reinsurance Treaty arranged by Otto von Bismarck. However, in 1890 the treaty was allowed to lapse in favor of the Dual Alliance (1879) between Germany and Austria-Hungary. This development was attributed to Count Leo von Caprivi, the Prussian general who replaced Bismarck as chancellor. It is claimed that the new chancellor recognized a personal inability to manage the European system as his predecessor had and so he was counseled by contemporary figures such as Friedrich von Holstein to follow a more logical approach as opposed to Bismarck's complex and even duplicitous strategy. Thus, the treaty with Austria-Hungary was concluded despite the Russian willingness to amend the Reinsurance Treaty and sacrifice a provision referred to as the "very secret additions" that concerned the Straits.  Von Caprivi's decision was also driven by the belief that the

French distrust of Germany.

Some of the distant origins of World War I can be seen in the results and consequences of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871 and the concurrent unification of Germany. Germany had won decisively and established a powerful Empire, while France fell into chaos and military decline for years. A legacy of animosity grew between France and Germany following the German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. The annexation caused widespread resentment in France, giving rise to the desire for revenge, known as revanchism. French sentiments were based on a desire to avenge military and territorial losses and the displacement of France as the preeminent continental military power.

British alignment towards France and Russia, 1898–1907: The Triple Entente.

After Bismarck's removal in 1890, French efforts to isolate Germany became successful. With the formation of the Triple Entente, Germany began to feel encircled. The French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé went to great pains to woo Russia and Great Britain. Key markers were the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Great Britain and finally the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907, which became the Triple Entente. This informal alignment with Britain and formal alliance with Russia against Germany and Austria eventually led Russia and Britain to enter World War I as France's allies.  Britain abandoned its "splendid isolation" policy in the 1900s after it had been isolated during the Boer War. Britain concluded agreements, limited to colonial affairs, with its two major colonial rivals: the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907. Some historians see Britain's alignment as principally a reaction to an assertive German foreign policy and the buildup of its navy from 1898 that led to the Anglo-German naval arms race.  Other scholars, most notably Niall Ferguson, argue that Britain chose France and Russia over Germany because Germany was too weak an ally to provide an

First Moroccan Crisis, 1905–06: Strengthening the Entente.

The First Moroccan Crisis (also known as the Tangier Crisis) was an international dispute between March 1905 and May 1906 over the status of Morocco. The crisis worsened

Bosnian Crisis, 1908: Worsening relations of Russia and Serbia with Austria-Hungary.

In 1908 Austria-Hungary announced its annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, dual provinces in the Balkan region of Europe formerly under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Though Bosnia and Herzegovina were still nominally under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary had administered the provinces since the Congress of Berlin in 1878, when the great powers of Europe awarded

Agadir crisis in Morocco, 1911.

Imperial rivalries pushed France, Germany and Britain to compete for control of Morocco, leading to a short-lived war scare in 1911. In the end, France established a protectorate over Morocco that increased European tensions. The Agadir Crisis resulted from the deployment of a substantial force of French troops into the interior of Morocco in April 1911. Germany reacted by sending the gunboat SMS "Panther" to the Moroccan port of Agadir on 1 July 1911. The main result was deeper suspicion between London and Berlin, and closer military ties between London and Paris.  Increased fear and hostility drew Britain closer to France rather than Germany. British backing of France during the crisis reinforced the Entente between the two countries (and with Russia as well), increasing Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would erupt in 1914. In terms of internal British jousting, the crisis was part of a five-year struggle inside the British cabinet between radical isolationists and the

Italo-Turkish War: Abandonment of the Ottomans, 1911–12.

In the Italo-Turkish War or Turco-Italian War Italy defeated the Ottoman Empire in North Africa in 1911–12. Italy easily captured the important coastal cities but its army failed to advance far into the interior. Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet, a province of which the most notable sub-provinces, or sanjaks, were: Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli itself. These territories together formed

Balkan Wars, 1912–13: Growth of Serbian and Russian power.

The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkan Peninsula in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Four Balkan states defeated the Ottoman Empire in the first war; one of the four, Bulgaria, was defeated in the second war. The Ottoman Empire lost nearly all of its holdings in Europe. Austria-Hungary, although not a combatant, was weakened as a much-enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples.  The Balkan Wars in 1912–1913 increased international tension between the Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary. It also led to a strengthening of Serbia and a weakening

Franco-Russian Alliance changes: The Balkan inception scenario, 1911–1913.

The original Franco-Russian alliance was formed to protect both France and Russia from a German attack. In the event of such an attack both states would mobilize in tandem, placing Germany under the threat of a two-front war. However, there were limits placed on the alliance so that it was essentially defensive in character.  Throughout the 1890s and the 1900s the French and the Russians made clear the limits of the alliance did not extend to provocations caused by the others' adventurous foreign policy. For example, Russia warned France that the alliance would not operate if the French provoked the Germans in North Africa. Equally, the French insisted to the Russians that they should not use the alliance to

The Liman von Sanders "Affair" 1913-14.

This was a crisis caused by the appointment of a German officer, Liman von Sanders to command the Turkish First Army Corps guarding Constantinople, and the subsequent Russian objections. The “Liman von Sanders Affair,” began on November 10, 1913, when the Russian foreign minister, Sergei Sazonov, instructed the Russian ambassador in Berlin, Sergei Sverbeev, to tell the Germans that the von Sanders mission, would be regarded by Russia as an “openly hostile act.” In addition

Anglo-German détente, 1912–14.

Historians caution that, taken together, the preceding crises should not be seen as an argument that a European war was inevitable in 1914.  Significantly, the Anglo-German Naval Race was over by 1912. In April 1913, Britain and Germany signed an agreement over the African territories of the Portuguese empire, which was expected to collapse imminently. Moreover, the Russians were threatening British interests in Persia and India to the extent that in 1914, there were signs that the British were cooling in their relations with Russia and that an understanding with Germany might be useful. The British were "deeply annoyed by St Petersburg's failure to observe the terms of the agreement struck in 1907 and

July Crisis: The chain of events.

"Full article: July Crisis"

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian irredentists, 28 June 1914.

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were shot dead, by two gun shots in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, one of a group of six assassins (five Serbs and one Bosniak) coordinated by Danilo Ilić, a Bosnian Serb and a member of the Black Hand secret society.  The assassination is significant because it was

Austria edges towards war with Serbia.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir apparent to the Austrian throne, sent deep shockwaves through Austrian elites, and the murder has been described as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna.” It gave free rein to elements clamouring for war with Serbia, especially in the Army  It quickly emerged that three leading members of the assassination squad had spent long periods of time in Belgrade, had only recently crossed the border from Serbia and were carrying weapons

"Blank cheque"—Germany supports Austria-Hungary, 6 July.

On July 6 Germany provided its unconditional support to its ally Austria-Hungary in its quarrel with Serbia—the so-called "blank cheque". In response to a request for support, Vienna was told the Kaiser's position was that, if Austria-Hungary "recognised the necessity of taking military measures against Serbia he would deplore our not taking advantage of the present moment which is so favourable to us...we might in this case, as in all others, rely upon German support".  The thinking was that since Austria-Hungary was Germany's only ally, if the former's prestige was not restored, its position in the Balkans might be irreparably damaged, encouraging further irredentism by Serbia and Romania. A quick war against Serbia would not only eliminate her but also probably lead to further diplomatic gains in Bulgaria and Romania. A Serbian defeat would also be a defeat for Russia and

France backs Russia, 20–23 July.

French President Raymond Poincaré arrived in St. Petersburg for a long-scheduled state visit on 20 July and departed on 23 July. The French and the Russians agreed their alliance extended to supporting Serbia against Austria, confirming the already established policy behind the Balkan inception scenario. As Christopher Clark notes, "Poincare had come to preach the gospel of firmness and his words had fallen on ready ears. Firmness in this context meant an intransigent opposition to any Austrian measure against Serbia. At no point do the sources suggest that Poincare or his Russian interlocutors gave any thought whatsoever to what measures Austria-Hungary might legitimately be entitled to

Austria-Hungary presents ultimatum to Serbia, 23 July.

On 23 July, Austria-Hungary, following their own enquiry into the

Russia mobilises—The Crisis escalates, 24–25 July.

On 24–25 July, the Russian Council of Ministers met at Yelagin Palace and, in response to the crisis and despite the fact that she had no alliance with Serbia, agreed to a secret partial mobilisation of over one million men of the Russian Army and the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets. It is worth stressing, since this is a cause of some confusion in general narratives of the war that it was done prior to the Serbian rejection of the ultimatum, the Austrian declaration of war on 28 July or any military measures taken by Germany. As a diplomatic move, that had limited value since the Russians did not make this mobilisation public until 28 July.  The arguments used to support the move in the Council of Ministers were:  In addition, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov believed that war was inevitable and refused to acknowledge that Austria-Hungary had a right to counter measures in the face of Serbian irredentism. On the contrary, Sazonov had aligned himself with the

Serbia rejects the ultimatum, Austria declares war on Serbia 25–28 July.

Serbia initially considered accepting all the terms of the Austrian ultimatum before news from Russia of premobilisation measures stiffened their resolve.  The Serbs drafted their reply to the ultimatum in such a

Russia—general mobilisation is ordered, 29–30 July.

On July 29, 1914, the Tsar ordered full mobilisation but changed his mind after receiving a telegram from Kaiser Wilhelm. Partial mobilisation was ordered instead. The next day, Sazonov once more persuaded Tsar Nicholas of the need for general mobilization, and

German mobilisation and war with Russia and France, 1–3 August.

On 28 July, Germany learned through its spy network that Russia had implemented its "Period Preparatory to War". The Germans assumed that Russia had, after all, decided upon war and that her mobilisation put Germany in danger. That was doubly so because German war plans, the so-called Schlieffen Plan, relied upon Germany to mobilise speedily enough to defeat France first (by attacking largely through neutral Belgium) before turning to defeat the slower-moving Russians.  Christopher Clark states, "German

Britain declares war on Germany, 4 August 1914.

Following the German invasion of neutral Belgium, Britain issued an ultimatum to Germany on 2 August to withdraw or face war. The Germans did not comply, and Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914.  Britain's reasons for declaring war were complex. The ostensible reason given was that Britain was required to safeguard Belgium's neutrality under the Treaty of London (1839). The German invasion of Belgium was therefore the "casus belli" and importantly legitimised and galvanised popular support for the war. The strategic risk posed by German control of the Belgian and ultimately French coast was considered unacceptable. German guarantees of postwar behavior were cast into doubt by her blasé treatment of Belgian neutrality. However, the Treaty of London had not committed Britain on her own to safeguard Belgium's neutrality. Moreover, naval war planning demonstrated that Britain would have violated Belgian neutrality by blockading her ports (to prevent imported goods passing to Germany) in the event of war

Domestic political factors.

German domestic politics.

Left-wing parties, especially the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), made large gains in the 1912 German election. German government at the time was still dominated by the Prussian Junkers who feared the rise of these left-wing parties. Fritz Fischer famously argued that they deliberately sought an external war to distract the population and whip up patriotic support for the government. Indeed, one German military leader, Moritz von Lynker, the chief of the military cabinet, favored war in 1909 because it was "desirable in order to escape from difficulties at

The drivers of Austro-Hungarian policy.

The argument that Austro-Hungary was a moribund political entity, whose disappearance was only a matter of time, was deployed by hostile contemporaries to suggest that its efforts to defend its integrity during the last years before the war were in some sense illegitimate.  Clark states: "Evaluating the prospects of the Austro-Hungarian empire on the eve of the first world war confronts us in an acute way with the problem of temporal perspective... The collapse of the empire amid war and defeat in 1918 impressed itself upon the retrospective view of the Habsburg lands, overshadowing the scene with auguries of imminent and ineluctable decline."  It is true

Drivers of Serbian policy.

The principal aims of Serbian policy were to consolidate the Russian-backed expansion of Serbia during the Balkan wars of 1912-13 and to achieve dreams of a Greater Serbia, which included the "unification" of lands with large ethnic Serb populations inside the Austro-Hungarian Empire, including Bosnia  Underlying this was a culture of extreme nationalism and a cult of assassination which romanticized the slaying of the Ottoman sultan as the heroic epilogue to the otherwise-disastrous Battle of Kosovo on 28 June 1389. Clark states: “The Greater Serbian vision was not just a question of government policy, however, or even of propaganda. It was woven deeply into the culture and identity of the Serbs”.  Serbian policy was complicated by the fact that the main actors in 1914 were both

Imperialism.

The impact of colonial rivalry and aggression on Europe in 1914.

Imperial rivalry and the consequences of the search for imperial security or for imperial expansion had important consequences for the origins of the First World War.  Imperial rivalries between France, Britain, Russia and Germany played an important part in the creation of the Triple Entente and the relative isolation of Germany. Imperial opportunism, in the form of the Italian attack on Ottoman Libyan provinces, also encouraged the Balkan wars of 1912-13, which changed the balance of power in

German isolation: consequence of Weltpolitik?

Otto von Bismarck disliked the idea of an overseas empire. Bismarck supported French colonization in Africa because it diverted government attention and resources away from Continental Europe and revanchism after 1870. Germany's "New Course" in foreign affairs, termed "Weltpolitik" ("world policy”) was adopted in the 1890s after Bismarck's dismissal.  The aim of Weltpolitik was ostensibly to transform

German isolation: consequence of the Triple Entente?

Historians like Ferguson and Clark believe that Germany's isolation was the unintended consequences of the need for Britain to defend the empire against threats from France and Russia. They also downplay the impact of Weltpolitik and the Anglo-German naval race, which ended in 1911.  Britain and France signed a series of agreements in 1904, which became known as the Entente Cordiale. Most importantly, it granted freedom of action to the UK in Egypt and to France in Morocco. Equally,

Imperial opportunism.

The Italo-Turkish War of 1911–12 was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Italy in North Africa. The war made it clear that no great power appeared to wish to support the Ottoman Empire any longer, which paved the way for the Balkan Wars.  The status of Morocco had been guaranteed by international agreement, and when France attempted a great expansion of its influence there without the assent of all the other

Marxist interpretation.

Marxists typically attributed the start of the war to imperialism. "Imperialism," argued Lenin, "is the monopoly stage of capitalism." He thought that monopoly capitalists went to war to control markets and raw materials. Richard Hamilton observes that the argument goes that since industrialists and bankers were seeking raw materials, new markets and new investments overseas, then if they were blocked by other powers then the "obvious" or "necessary" solution was war.  Hamilton somewhat criticised the view that the war was launched to secure colonies; he agrees that while imperialism may have been on the mind of key decision makers, he argues this was not necessarily for logical, economic reasons. Firstly the different powers of the war had different imperial holdings - Britain had the largest empire in the world, while Russia had the second largest and France a modestly sized empire. Conversely. Germany had a few unprofitable colonies and Austria-Hungary had no overseas holdings and no desire to secure any, thus these

Social Darwinism.

Social Darwinism was a theory of human evolution loosely based on Darwinism that influenced most European intellectuals and strategic thinkers in the 1870–1914 era. The theories emphasised that struggle between nations and "races" was natural and that only the fittest nations deserved to survive. It gave an impetus to German assertiveness as a world economic and military power, aimed at competing with France and Britain for world power. German colonial rule in Africa 1884-1914 was an expression of nationalism and moral superiority that was justified by constructing an image of the natives as "Other". That approach highlighted racist views of mankind. German colonisation was characterized by the use of repressive violence in the name of "culture" and "civilisation". Germany's cultural-missionary project boasted that its colonial programs were humanitarian and educational endeavours. Furthermore, the wide acceptance of social Darwinism by intellectuals justified Germany's right to acquire colonial territories as a matter of the "survival of the fittest", according to historian Michael Schubert.  The model suggested an explanation of why some ethnic groups (called "races" at the time) had been so antagonistic for so long, such as Germans and Slavs. They were natural rivals, destined to clash. Senior German generals such as Helmuth von Moltke the Younger talked in apocalyptic terms about the need for Germans to fight for their existence as a people and culture. MacMillan states: "Reflecting the Social Darwinist theories of the era,

Web of alliances.

Although general narratives of the war tend to emphasize the importance of alliances in binding the major powers to act in the event of a crisis such as the July Crisis, historians like Margaret MacMillan warn against the argument that alliances forced the great powers to act as they did: "What we tend

Arms race.

By the 1870s or 1880s, all the major powers were preparing for a large-scale war, although none expected one. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, which was already stronger than the next two navies combined. Germany, France, Austria, Italy and Russia, and some smaller countries, set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from one to three years in the army and then spend the next twenty years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men from higher social statuses became officers. Each country devised a mobilisation system whereby the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail.  Every year, the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions. Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000 with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897 the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914 but with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. Recent wars (since 1865) had typically been short: a matter of months. All the war plans called for a decisive opening and assumed victory would come after a short war; no one planned for or was ready for the food and munitions needs of the long stalemate that actually happened in 1914–18.  As David Stevenson has put it, "A self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness... was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to disaster... The armaments race... was a necessary precondition for the outbreak of hostilities." David Herrmann goes further, arguing that the fear that "windows of opportunity for victorious wars" were closing, "the arms race did precipitate the First World War." If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have been no war. It was "... the armaments race... and the speculation about imminent or preventive wars" that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war.  One of the aims of the First Hague Conference of 1899, held at the suggestion of Tsar Nicholas II, was to discuss disarmament. The Second Hague Conference was held in 1907. All the signatories except for Germany supported disarmament. Germany also did not want to agree to binding arbitration and mediation. The Kaiser was concerned that the United States would propose disarmament measures, which he opposed. All parties tried to revise international law to their own advantage.

Technical and military factors.

Short war illusion.

Traditional narratives of the war suggested that when the war began, both sides believed that the war would end quickly. Rhetorically speaking there was an expectation that the war would be "over by Christmas" 1914. This is important for the origins of the conflict since it suggests that since it was expected that the war would be short, the statesmen did not tend to take gravity of military action as seriously as they might have done. Modern historians suggest a nuanced approach. There is ample evidence to suggest that statesmen and military leaders thought the war would be lengthy and terrible and have profound political consequences.  While it is true all military leaders planned for a swift

Primacy of the offensive and war by timetable.

Moltke, Joffre, Conrad and other military commanders held that seizing the initiative was extremely important. The theory encouraged all belligerents to devise war plans to strike first to gain the advantage. The war plans all included complex plans for mobilisation of the armed forces, either as a prelude to war or as a deterrent. The continental great powers' mobilisation plans included arming and transporting millions of men and their equipment, typically by rail and to strict schedules, hence the metaphor "war by timetable".  The mobilisation plans limited the scope of diplomacy as military

Historiography.

During the period immediately following the end of hostilities, Anglo-American historians argued that Germany was solely responsible for the start of the war. However, academic work in the English-speaking world in the later 1920s and 1930s blamed participants more equally.  Historian Fritz Fischer unleashed an intense worldwide debate in the 1960s on Germany's long-term goals. American historian Paul Schroeder agrees with the critics that Fisher exaggerated and misinterpreted many points. However, Schroeder endorses Fisher's basic conclusion:  From 1890 on, Germany did pursue world power. This bid arose from deep roots within Germany's economic, political, and social structures. Once the war broke out, world power became Germany's essential goal.  However, Schroeder argues, all of that was not the main cause of the war in 1914. Indeed, the search for a single main cause is not a helpful approach to history. Instead, there are multiple causes any one or two of which could have launched the war. He argues, "The fact that so many plausible explanations for the outbreak of the war have been advanced over the years indicates on the one hand that it was massively overdetermined, and on the other that no effort to analyze the causal factors involved can ever fully succeed."  Debate over which country "started" the war and who bears the blame continues to this day. According to Annika Mombauer a new consensus among scholars had emerged by the 1980s, mainly as a result of Fischer's intervention:  Few historians agreed wholly with his [Fischer's] thesis of a premeditated war to achieve aggressive foreign policy aims, but it was generally accepted that Germany’s share of responsibility was larger than that of the other great powers.  Regarding historians inside Germany, she adds, "There was 'a far-reaching consensus about the special responsibility of the German Reich' in the writings of leading historians, though they differed in how they weighted Germany's role".

The causes of World War I remain controversial. World War I began in the Balkans in late July 1914 and ended in November 1918, leaving 17 million dead and 20 million wounded.

Příčiny první světové války zahrnují řadu faktorů, které předcházely vypuknutí první světové války. Velkou roli hrál zejména militarismus, nacionalismus a vytvoření dvou znepřátelených mocenských bloků, Trojspolku a Trojdohody. Záminkou pro vyhlášení války byl atentát v Sarajevu na rakouského arcivévodu a následníka trůnu, Františka Ferdinanda d'Este, který byl spáchán 28. června 1914 srbským aktivistou a nacionalistou Gavrilo Principem. Krize sama vyplynula z napětí mezi velmocemi, jež bylo způsobeno mocenskými spory již před rokem 1914. Tyto spory, které se zvláště výrazně projevovaly na politicky nestabilním Balkáně, lze sledovat až ke změně rovnováhy sil v Evropě roku 1870. Na principu spojenectví a udržování rovnováhy sil byla založena evropská mocenská politika už od Vídeňského kongresu v roce 1815.


Geography.

Basilan is located between latitudes 6°15' and 7°00' and longitudes 121°15' and 122°30'. The island is bordered by the Basilan Strait to the north, the Sulu Sea to the northwest and west, the Moro Gulf to the northeast, and the Celebes Sea to the south, southeast and east.  Basilan is the largest and northernmost island of the Sulu Archipelago between the Philippine islands of Mindanao and Borneo which includes about 400 islands. Basilan Strait, about at its narrowest point, separates Basilan Island from the mainland of Mindanao and the port city of Zamboanga. The terrain of the island is simple, with several undulating slopes concentrated around Isabela City along the coastal areas and hilly towards the interior. Urban areas are usually above sea level and gently sloping to toward the hinterlands. The stand of timber and forest vegetation is more or less evenly distributed throughout. The province encompasses Basilan Island and all nearby offshore islands, together with the Pilas Island group (now Hadji Muhtamad Municipality) west of the island, and the Bubuan and Tapiantana Island group (now Tabuan-Lasa Municipality) in the south. These are listed among the Philippine islands with a moderate risk of getting hit by tsunamis. The province has a land area of under its jurisdiction. Basilan Island itself has an area of and a shoreline of.  Basilan National Park is at the eastern portion of the remaining public forest between the city of Isabela and the municipalities of Lamitan, Tipo-Tipo and Sumisip. The park has an elevation of above sea level, and the tallest peak, Puno Mahaji or Basilan Peak, dominates the park's landscape.

Climate.

The climate is similar to other areas in the Zamboanga Peninsula. The annual average rainfall is and the mean annual temperature is. The source of the rainfall is the southwest monsoon and the island's location in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The climate is

Administrative divisions.

Basilan is subdivided into 11 municipalities and two cities.  Isabela City, on the northern shore of Basilan Island facing Zamboanga City, is a component city and then capital of the province from 1975 to 2017. Isabela City votes for provincial officials, shares its tax revenues with the province, and continues to be under the jurisdiction of Basilan for the administration of provincially devolved services and functions. However, for the administration of regional services, the city is part of the Zamboanga Peninsula Region, while the rest of Basilan in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.  Basilan used to be part

History.

Several waves of Negrito and ancient Chinese migration populated the Philippines. The Yakan people arrived in the area of the Sulu Archipelago, of which Basilan is a part, around 300 BCE to 200 BCE. Little is known of them before the era of Spanish colonization, but they still make up the largest ethnic group on the main island of Basilan. It is believed that the Yakan people of Basilan made contact with the Kingdom of Champa in present-day Vietnam, and many of them have ancestries from Champa settlers, who later integrated with the Yakan.  As the Tausug Sultanate of Sulu grew in power, the Yakans withdrew inland, until most of the coastal communities along the island's southern, western and northwestern shores were primarily inhabited by Tausugs and their vassal tribes, the Samals and Bajaus (Tau-Laut). The only exception was the relatively prosperous Yakan communities of Lamitan.  Basilan first came to European attention

Etymology.

Oral traditions of the local Yakan people include several names for pre-historic Basilan: "Uleyan", which is derived from the present-named Basilan Peak (Puno Mahaji), and later changed to "Matangal" after a mountain farther to the east of the island. These names were presumably used by the Maguindanao traders from mainland Mindanao, using these mountains as navigation landmarks when sailing the Celebes Sea.  Other names romantically given were "Puh Gulangan" or "island of forests", "Umus Tambun" or "fertile land", "Kumalarang" after the westward flowing river on the island's western half which is otherwise called Baunuh Peggesan.

Taguima.

Pre-Hispanic texts from the royal archives of the Sulu Sultanate referred to the northernmost island of the Sulu Archipelago as Taguima, from the Yakan who were called "Tagihamas" (people of the interior or hinterlands) by the Tausug and Samal peoples who came and settled in numerous scattered communities along Basilan's western and southwestern shores and outlying islets and island groups.  Later references mentioned "Bantilan", probably referring to Maluso, which was established as a major Tausug base by Sulu Sultan Muizz ud-Din (whose princely name was Datu Bantilan).  Imperial Chinese texts mention a "Kingdom of Kumalarang" (from

Treasure Islands of the Southern Seas.

Basilan Island's reputation as a staging-ground for Moro raids on Zamboanga, the Visayas and even Luzon, and as a temporary repository of the plunder from these raids, gave the island a notoriety not unlike the "Treasure Islands" of the West Indies or the buccaneers' havens and pirate coves of the Caribbean.  Spanish and Tausug fleets engaged each other in sea battles and skirmishes not far from the western shores of the islands. Many of their ships were scuttled or sunk, sometimes with precious cargoes of traded goods and Mexican silver pieces meant for the fort in Zamboanga and the naval squadron at

People.

Culture.

The biggest cultural influences on the island derive from Basilan's tri-ethnolingusitic community: the native Yakan, Tausug and Chavacano peoples. The Yakans and Tausugs are predominantly Muslim, while the Chavacano are primarily Catholic.  Among the Tausugs and Samals, the phrase ""mag-tausug na kaw"" means "become a Muslim", instead of the more literal translation, "become a Tausug", as the Tausug ethnic is regarded as the "original Muslims" of the area. Although the majority of the Yakans are Muslims, a significant number conform to traditional local beliefs, traditions and rituals, while a few have likewise opted to be baptized Catholics. Along with a majority of the Chavacano, the Cebuano and the Ilonggo/Hiligaynon Bisaya are also

Demographics.

By the eve of the Commonwealth era in the Philippines, local census estimates showed that a majority of the people of Basilan were Christian migrants, mostly plantation workers recruited from over Mindanao and the Visayas, and Tausug traders, as well as Samal and Bajau fisherfolk. Only around 5,000 Yakans were counted in the census. Until then, most Yakans preferred not to interact directly with their lowland neighbors.  Statistics from the 2010 Census report () the following breakdown (out of a total 391,179 population):  The following figures in this subsection are from the National Statistical Coordination Board, NSCB Philippine Database, Census of 2010, unless otherwise noted.  Basilan' median age was 19 years, lower than the 1995 figure of 25 years.  The sex ratio is almost even. There were 166,413 males and 166,415 females in the 2000 CPH. However, there were more females in the 15-to-39 age group and more males in all other age groups.  The economically active population, ages 15 to 64, comprises 55.2% of the population. About 42.3% are young dependents (0 to 14 years old) while fewer than 3% are old dependents (64 years old and older). The overall dependency ratio is 81.2: for every 100 persons ages 15 to 64, there were about 77 young dependents and 4 old dependents. Married

Religion.

The majority of Basilan's population is Muslim, accounting for 65%. The others are Christian (most are Roman Catholic), which accounts for a large population of Basilan at 33%.  A majority of Basilan's Muslim population (41%) practice Sunni Islam of the Shafi'i tradition, as taught by Arab, Persian, Indian Muslim, and Malay missionaries from the 14th century onwards. A substantial remainder follow a syncretist mix of Islam and Yakan folk customs and traditions exclusively among the native Yakan populations farther inland, and

Language.

Basilan is home to several ethnolingusitic groups who have their own native vernaculars; the main ones being Chavacano, Tausug, Yakan, and Cebuano (Bisaya). Chavacano is primarily the native tongue of the Christian inhabitants of the island. It is a major lingua franca of Basilan and is understood and spoken by nearly 80% of the residents, Christian and Muslim. Basilan has the biggest concentration of Chavacano speakers in the Philippines outside of Zamboanga City. A number of Muslim speakers of Chavacano are Spanish mestizos. Tausug is also widely spoken, especially among the Muslim tribes, and is spoken and understood by approximately

Education.

Basilan's literacy rate has risen over the past two decades, although it remains one of the Philippines' lowest; 72.23% are considered literate, as opposed to the national figure of 92.6%.  The province has one state college and five private colleges. Basilan State College is located in Isabela City and has an extension college in Lamitan City and Maluso. Among the private colleges, there is Computer Technologies Institute-Isabela (est. 1997) and The Mariam School of Nursing in Lamitan City (est. 2004). Basilan is served by three school divisions of the Department of Education, one each for Basilan, Isabela City and Lamitan City. The first two are headquartered in Isabela City, and the latter is in Lamitan City.  Public and private high schools

Clubs and organizations.

There are clubs and social organizations in Basilan, ranging

Economy.

Agriculture is the main source of economic livelihood. Basilan's major products include coconut (primarily copra), rubber, coffee, black pepper, and African palm oil. Other crops are palay, corn, cacao and cassava.  The Sulu and Celebes Seas provide fish such as tuna, mackerel, and sardines. Most of these are processed in canning factories in nearby Zamboanga City, General Santos City (the Philippines' tuna capital), and Navotas. The island's waters also produce grouper, squid, octopus, and marlin, while fishponds supply milkfish, prawn and shrimp. In addition, seaweed is cultivated along some coastal areas.  The island of Omosmarata in Tuburan (now Mohammad Ajul) is listed among only 15 sites in the Philippines with commercially viable ocean thermal energy potential. The Philippines' ocean thermal resource area is 1000 square kilometers, based on the archipelagic nature of the country. Based on a study conducted by the Philippines Department of Energy, the potential capacity for this resource is estimated to be 265 million megawatts.  Likewise, the Basilan Strait is listed among only eight sites in the Philippines with commercially viable ocean tidal energy potential (along with Bohol/Talibon Strait, Basiao Channel, Surigao Strait, Gaboc Channel, Hinatuan Passage, San Bernardino Strait and San Juanico Strait).  Only the provinces of Basilan, Samar and Surigao have both high ocean thermal and ocean tidal energy potential. Basilan likewise has significant as yet underdeveloped mineral deposits, specifically, iron ore, gold, manganese, copper, and coal.  Alienable and disposable lands cover, forest lands occupy, are underused, are under forest cultivation, while are under agricultural cultivation.  Local products include woven cloth and trinkets made by the Yakan tribe. Yakans use fibers from plants such as pineapple for their crafts. The weavers traditionally used extracts from leaves, roots and barks to dye their fibers. However, contact with U.S. Peace Corps workers and Christian Filipinos has influenced Yakan textile art. One influence is the introduction of chemical dyes. The museum of Lamitan displays the colorful and intricate traditional Yakan textiles and highlights of the traditional Yakan festival, Lami-lamihan.

Early history.

Basilan's economy has seen wild upswings and downturns over the course of several centuries. Pre-Hispanic Taguima had an economy based on basic subsistence agriculture, mostly root crops. Ancient Chinese texts point to the existence of a "Kingdom of Kumalarang", which presumably was located on the island's northwestern

Multinational plantations.

When the United States assumed control of the Philippines after its victory in the Spanish–American War, it brought about the single biggest change in the local economy. By around 1914, Dr. James W. Strong, a pioneering American plantation owner, cleared vast tracts of land on the island's northern plains (Isabela/Lamitan), and established what became the Philippines' first commercial rubber plantation—the American Rubber Co. Upon consulting with Fr. Zamora, a noted botanist of the University of Santo Tomas in Manila, he decided to start experimenting with rubber plants and in 1910, forming the Basilan Rubber Plantation in partnership with J.M. Menzi Corporation as principal stock holders. Seven years later, he sold out his interest to J.M. Menzi Corporation and started

The Moro uprising.

The Moro uprising of 1971 affected Basilan's economy. It was led by Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) originating from Sulu, headed by University of the Philippines lecturer Nur Misuari. This was compounded by the declaration of martial law by President Ferdinand Marcos in 1972, and the decree that created Basilan Province, with its initial

Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program and the rise of Abu Sayyaf.

At the onset of the post-Marcos administration of Corazon Aquino, another blow was dealt to Basilan's economy. In 1988, Congress passed a law establishing the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), which inaugurated a land distribution program, effectively dissolving nearly all of the corporate plantations on the island. CARP applied to Basilan's large multi-national plantations despite the plantation workers' misgivings and the landowners' objections. Almost immediately, the large multi-national corporations withdrew their investments from Basilan, leaving their plantations to ill-equipped farmer beneficiaries, who managed operations in a farmers cooperative format.  The J. S. Alano coconut plantation was converted into the Tairan Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Association and Multi-Purpose Cooperative (TARBAMC), the University of the Philippines Basilan Land Grant into the Santa Clara Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Integrated Development Cooperative (SCARBIDC), and the American Rubber (B.F. Goodrich) rubber plantation was converted into the Latuan Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Association Inc. (LARBAI). The vast tracts of the Enrile-owned Cocoland Plantation, was redistributed as the Lamitan Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Cooperative (LARBECO). A number of other Agrarian

Inclusion in the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao.

The Organic Act for the creation of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) was passed into law in 1989. A plebiscite held in 14 Mindanao provinces was held in the same year. Basilan initially opted out of the autonomous region. Only Maguindanao (without Cotabato City), Lanao del Sur (without Marawi City), Sulu and Tawi-Tawi joined the ARMM.  More than a decade later, in 2001, a new law expanding the ARMM was passed, and a plebiscite was subsequently held. While Basilan's five Muslim municipalities (Maluso, Sumisip, Lantawan, Tipo-Tipo, Tuburan) opted to join the expanded ARMM, residents of the Christian areas of Isabela City and Lamitan Municipality, chose not to. Even then, only Isabela was not included in the expanded ARMM, having been granted cityhood earlier in the same year. Lamitan joined the five other municipalities, as Basilan was officially incorporated into the expanded ARMM.  Widespread corruption in the ARMM, compounded by corruption at the municipal and provincial levels, further eroded business confidence

Return of rubber.

By 2003, Basilan embarked on large-scale replanting programs covering some of privately owned and/or cooperative-controlled lands, mainly for rubber and cassava., the province had planted, of which were owned by individual farmers and the rest by cooperatives. The exact land area devoted to rubber could reach over, as there are hundreds of unrecorded small rubber growers and farmers. The provincial government reports that almost half or are immature, about

Coconut.

Although it is still the biggest single crop produced in the province, coconut/copra production annually was only 193,848 metric tons in 2003, down from its peak production of 189,297,937 metric tons just two years before. Coconut plantations and small coconut farms cover more than, all of which are classified as "productive" to "mature" areas. However, province-wide coconut production, which still accounts for 50%-60% of the province's total economic activity, has dropped precipitously to only 174,939 metric tons in 2002 due to the lingering effects of CARP, combined with

Other products.

Basilan's extensive coastline hosts seafarers and fishers, almost all of them Tausugs, Samals and Bajaus, who have been engaged in fishing for several centuries. Annual Basilan fish production is limited to 28,073 metric tons due to resistance

Banking and finance.

Banks based in Basilan have a total deposit base of more than Php764,500,000. The city hosts at least 27 pawnshop operations, each of whom has an average of three branches, mostly located in Isabela City, Lamitan, and Maluso Townsite.  The province is also serviced by satellite offices of government financing institutions such as the Social Security System and the Government

Utilities, infrastructure and health.

Basilan's electricity needs are served by the Basilan Electric Cooperative, powered by three diesel-powered electricity generating plants located at Barangay Binuangan, Isabela City, one National Power Corporation diesel-powered barge located at Barangay Tabuk, Isabela City, and two mini-hydroelectric plants located in Kumalarang, Isabela City and Balagtasan, Lamitan City. A total of 62 sitios, in 42 barangays spread out in 6 municipalities still do not have access to electricity. Only about 38% of Barangays are sufficiently powered for modern needs, and most of these are located in the cities of Isabela and Lamitan, and Maluso Municipality. Rates are currently pegged at US$0.824/kwH (Php11.42/kwH), one of the highest in the country. Basilan has a total electricity demand of 8.8MW (peak hours), and has a total reliable electricity supply of only 7.4MW, thus resulting in one of the country's longest intermittent blackout spells, running for several years now.  Basilan is served by

Tourism.

Architectural landmarks include the Santa Isabel Cathedral, the Calvario Peak, on which the Chapel of Peace stands, and the Kaum Purnah Mosque.

Politics.

Basilan's politics has been dictated by its economics. Whereas only 33% of the island's residents originate from Christian tribes in the Visayas and Luzon, this group owns 70% of the island's developed arable agricultural land (private ownership or cooperatives as farmer beneficiaries). The Yakan tribe, comprising 41% of the island's population, has full control of local governments outside of Isabela and Lamitan cities. The Tausugs, Samals and Bajaus, forming 25% of the population, control nearly 90% of the island's aquatic harvest, while the minuscule Chinese segment of the population controls nearly 100% of all commodity trading and commerce activities, especially in the bigger cities.  This volatile mix of ethnic and religious groups have defined political realignments in the island for most of its history. The Christian tribes, traditionally allied with the Tausugs, controlled Basilan politics until the 1980s, when the Yakans, aided by their almost absolute control of the hinterlands and the disappearance of the multi-national plantations, scored upset victories in electoral contests starting in 1988.  This political combine has since seen some in-fighting from two of the most formidable power blocks to have formed since the 2004 general elections. Both blocks went head-to-head in the 2007, 2010 and 2013 local elections with mixed results.  The Akbar block (Liberal Party - Atienza Wing & Lakas-CMD/Kampi) was led by the late Wahab Akbar, three-term Basilan governor and clan patriarch, together with his wives, and his nephews and nieces, all of whom won mayoral posts in all the municipalities as well as Isabela City, which is under his second wife Cherrylyn Santos-Akbar. Hja. Jum Jainuddin-Akbar, the incumbent three-term Governor of Basilan assumed the leadership of the block after Wahab Akbar himself, who was elected congressman in 2007, was assassinated in November 13 of that year. Cases were filed against Gerry Salapuddin ang Mujiv Hataman, having been accused of having master-minded the assassination. The 2013 Elections proved the staying power of the Akbars as the clan, celebrating the twin victories of both Governor Jum and Mayor Cherry, heralded the election of Alfiya Akbar-Fernandez, eldest daughter of Gov. Akbar, as the top-notcher Provincial Board Member for District 1, and Al Qaid Akbar, eldest son, who won as Isabela City Councilor. The Akbars won all of their electoral contests since 1998. Gov. Jum Akbar won in all Cities and Municipalities in Basilan, except Hdji. Muhtamad (Pilas) in the last election, with an electoral landslide of over 60,000 votes against her only opponent. This is her third and final term as governor. Mayor Cherry Santos-Akbar likewise won handily in Isabela for a third and final term in that City.  The Hataman block (Liberal Party) - Roxas/Aquino Wing) is led by Mujiv Hataman, elected Regional Governor of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) in 2013, a close friend and ally of Philippine President Benigno Simeon Aquino III. He is joined by his brother, Rep. Hajiman Hataman-Salliman, Congressman of the Lone District of Basilan, and his wife, Sitti Djalia Turabin-Hataman who won a seat as a Party-list representative in Congress, representing Anak Mindanao Party-list. They are joined by a number of clan members who likewise won local positions, especially in their bailiwick of Sumisip Municipality in Basilan. The Hatamans can boast of a mixed bag of electoral victories and defeats since 2004. Mujiv Hataman is in his first term as Regional Governor of ARMM, Cong. Jim Salliman is on his second term as Representative, and Cong. Sitti Djalia Hataman is on her first.  The Salapuddin block (Lakas-CMD/Kampi) is led by Abdulgani "Gerry" Salapuddin, three-term governor, three-term congressman and two-term Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives. To him, the 2007, 2010 and 2013 elections proved to be a débâcle, as he and his daughter - Rabia Salapuddin (who ran for governor in 2013) lost on all fronts. The Salapuddins have lost all elections since 2007.  The Akbars and Hatamans forged a political alliance in 2012, paving the way for the appointment of Mujiv Hataman to the top post at the ARMM. The criminal case against Hataman was voluntarily dropped by the Akbars in 2012, while the Supreme Court threw out the case filed against Salapuddin in 2013. Both Akbar and Hataman coalitions are currently affiliated with the Liberal Party of the Philippines, led by President Aquino. Salapuddin has remained with Lakas-CMD.

Flora and fauna.

The island chain is one of two partial land bridges to Borneo

In popular culture.

The Basilan Island was also featured in as a map in Lost Cause, the second mission of the game. Counter-Strike: Condition Zero is a multiplayer video game that follows to Counter-Strike.

The Province of Basilan (Chavacano: "Provincia de Basilan"; Tausug: "Wilaya' sin Basilan"; Yakan: "Wilayah Basilanin") is an island province of the Philippines in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region. Basilan Island is the largest and northernmost of the major islands of the Sulu Archipelago. It is just off the southern coast of the geographic Zamboanga Peninsula.

Provincie Basilan je filipínská provincie rozkládající se v Autonomním regionu Muslimské Mindanao (ARMM), na stejnojmenném ostrově. Hlavní město Isabela City, které se nachází na severním pobřeží ostrova, je ale spravováno jako součást regionu poloostrova Zamboanga.