Construction.

"Bainbridge" was laid down on 15 August 1899, by Neafie and Levy Ship and Engine Building Company at their shipyard in Philadelphia, as one of nine ships built to a design by the US Navy's Bureau of Construction and Repair. Although the name-ship of her class, "Bainbridge" was not the first ship of the class to be laid down or completed. "Bainbridge" was launched on 27 August 1901. She was placed in reserve commission at Philadelphia on 24 November 1902, with Lieutenant G. W. Williams in command, and towed to Norfolk, Virginia. She was placed in full commission on 12 February 1903. The cost for the hull and machinery was $283,000.  The "Bainbridge"-class design was intended to combine high speed with improved seaworthiness, and had a raised forecastle instead of the "turtleback" forecastle common in European designs. The hull was long overall and between the perpendiculars, with a beam of and a mean draft of. Design displacement was and full load, although all ships of the class, including "Bainbridge" were overweight, with "Bainbridge" displacing full load when completed. "Bainbridge" was powered by triple expansion steam engines rated at, fed by four Thornycroft boilers which raised steam at. Design speed was, she reached a speed of during sea trials. Four funnels were fitted. Armament consisted of two /50 caliber guns, five 6-pounder () guns and two torpedo tubes.

Service history.

First commissioning.

Assigned to the 1st Torpedo Flotilla, she spent the next three months completing trials and outfitting. On 1 June 1903, her flotilla made the trip to Annapolis, Maryland, where it became part of the North Atlantic Fleet's recently formed Coast Squadron. A week later, "Bainbridge" left Annapolis with the Flotilla and the Coast Squadron and headed south to Newport News, Virginia. The destroyer and her traveling companions set out on 18 June for a summer of drills and exercises in New England waters. Those evolutions consisted of a search problem followed by joint maneuvers with units of the Army, most of which took place along the coast of Maine. Detached from the Coast Squadron on 26 September 1903, the 1st Torpedo Flotilla returned to Hampton Roads to fit out for service on the Asiatic Station.  Following weeks of preparation, "Bainbridge" stood out of Chesapeake Bay and headed south with the rest of the 1st Torpedo Flotilla and on 12 December 1903. After stops in South Carolina at Charleston and Parris Island, the little convoy arrived at Key West, Florida, on 18 December. The auxiliary cruiser relieved "Baltimore" as the flotilla's escort for the remainder of the journey to the Far East.

Transfer to the Far East.

Setting out on 23 December 1903, the flotilla proceeded by way of Puerto Rico and the Canary Islands to Gibraltar where it arrived on 27 January 1904. Resuming the voyage on 31 January, the warships stopped at Algiers for a week in early February. On 9 February, they arrived at Valletta, Malta, where the flotilla and "Buffalo" had to lay over for a fortnight while went into dry dock to have her propellers repaired after damaging them while mooring. Transiting the Suez Canal on 26 February, the flotilla stayed at Port Suez, Egypt, until the 29th when it headed down the Red Sea to Aden. In March, "Bainbridge" and her companions visited Bombay, India, and Colombo, Ceylon. They made the last stop before reaching their destination, a port call at Singapore, between 3 and 9 April. The flotilla then made the relatively short final leg of the voyage, from Singapore to Cavite in the Philippines, on 9 April 1904.

Far East duty.

Their successful completion of the four-month voyage from the east coast to the Orient did much to prove torpedo-boat destroyers capable of extended operations at sea with the fleet. The manner in which she and her colleagues served on the Asiatic Station, alternating between duty in Chinese waters and service in the Philippines, further substantiated their utility and hinted at their ultimate versatility. Less than seven weeks after arriving in the Philippines, "Bainbridge" led the flotilla, she wore the flotilla commander's flag, out of Manila Bay on its way to its first tour of duty in China. The warships spent June and early July at Hong Kong, making the passage from Hong Kong to Shanghai on 11 July. For the rest of the summer, "Bainbridge" and the other destroyers joined the Asiatic Fleet's Battleship Squadron in gun and torpedo drills off the Chinese coast and spent much time showing the flag in Chinese ports.  The latter employment, supporting American diplomatic presence in China, had taken on an increasing importance as the Imperial Chinese government's effectiveness degenerated in the course of the nineteenth century and during the early years of the twentieth century. Foreign governments felt compelled to send naval forces to provide protection for their nationals conducting all sorts of business in China but then used this need as a pretext to extort quasi-colonial concessions from the prostrate nation. As a result, the Great Powers entered into a fierce competition for political and economic advantage in China. "Bainbridge" and her flotilla-mates served as a part of American diplomacy's effort both to maintain Chinese sovereignty and to keep access open to American interests in China.

Russo-Japanese War.

This, her first, tour of duty in China coincided with one of the several occasions when the friction over benefits in China created enough heat to burst into the flames of war. Earlier in the year, war between Japan and Russia began with Japan's attack on the Russian squadron at Port Arthur. Unable to bottle the Russian ships up securely in Port Arthur or to lure them out to their destruction, the Japanese set about investing their base. After several months, the siege forced the Russian squadron to attempt the run to Vladivostok on 10 August 1904. Japanese mines sank or damaged several Russian ships; and, in the ensuing confusion, some Russian ships were separated from the main body before it retired back into Port Arthur to its ultimate doom. Thus, "Bainbridge" found herself at Shanghai when, one of the refugees from Admiral Vitgeft's squadron, sought sanctuary there. When her pursuers sent a destroyer into the Yangtze to reconnoiter "Askold", Rear Admiral Yates Stirling dispatched "Bainbridge" to deter the probe and to discourage a repetition of the high-handed Japanese behavior at Chefoo where they had violated international law by seizing another refugee from Vitgeft's squadron after she had interned herself in the neutral port. The ploy succeeded. The Japanese chose to allow "Askold" to intern herself, and the Russian commander wisely did so.  Following that incident, "Bainbridge" spent another two months in Chinese waters before departing Shanghai on 4 October. She and her flotilla-mates then passed three weeks at Hong Kong before resuming the voyage to the Philippines on 26 October. The destroyer reached Cavite on 28 October and spent the remainder of 1904 and the first few weeks of 1905 engaged in local operations, mostly torpedo drills and gunnery practice. In March 1905, "Bainbridge" and the destroyer flotilla left the Philippines with the Battleship Squadron for dry docking in Hong Kong. She returned to Manila with those units early in April, and the destroyers received orders to head "south to patrol the coast of Palawan and the waters north of Borneo..." These orders came in response to reports that Russian Rear Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky's Baltic Fleet had finally set sail after a three-month layover at Madagascar to complete its voyage to join the war in the Far East. "Bainbridge" and her colleagues spent the next few months guarding the American Philippines against neutrality violations by the Russians and the Japanese. This danger effectively evaporated with the nearly complete destruction of the Russian Baltic Fleet by Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō at the Battle of Tsushima on 27 and 28 May.

"Show the flag" - China 1905–1906.

On 1 July 1905, "Bainbridge" stood out of Manila Bay with the flotilla to accompany the battleship and cruiser squadrons on the annual northern redeployment to conduct summer exercises and to "show the flag" in Chinese waters. The first portion of the normal summer drills and port visits went off as usual; but, early in August, China displayed another burst of nationalism when a boycott was organized in response to the Chinese exclusion policy then in effect on the American west coast. Initially, this brought little disruption to the Asiatic Fleet's routine. The warships carried out their exercises and visited Chinese ports as usual. The destroyers even returned south to the Philippines in October according to custom. Only then came the break with normal routine. Instead of passing the winter months in the Philippines, "Bainbridge" and "Barry" spent just six weeks there before returning north to China late in November after President Theodore Roosevelt chose to brandish the "Big Stick".  The mission lasted through the winter with the destroyers joining other ships of the Asiatic Fleet in repeated calls at Chinese ports in a vigorous display of the naval might of the United States. By the spring of 1906, the Chinese national feeling against the United States had subsided so that, though "Bainbridge" and "Barry" remained in Chinese waters and continued to "show the flag," they were also able to resume many of the normal training evolutions more typical of their annual summer sojourns in Chinese waters. Her stay in northern waters thus continued through the summer and into the fall. At the end of September, "Bainbridge" and "Barry" left Chefoo, China, in company with to return to the Philippines for the first time since the previous fall. After stopping off at Amoy, China, from 3 to 8 October, the warships arrived back at Cavite on the 10th.

First decommissioning.

On 9 January 1907, "Bainbridge" was placed out of commission at the Cavite Navy Yard to undergo repairs to her machinery. Problems with the boilers in the new destroyers had been reported as early as 1905 when the Asiatic Fleet commander's report alluded to the need to retube them as soon as circumstances allowed. The repairs appear to have staggered, no doubt to allow some of the flotilla to remain active and possibly because of limited yard facilities. Three of them;, and had been out of commission at Cavite since early December 1905. Presumably, "Bainbridge"s decommissioning date had been arranged to nearly coincide with "Chauncey"s return to active duty on 12 January 1907. "Bainbridge" remained out of service at Cavite for nearly 14 months before being recommissioned on 2 April 1908, Ens. Joseph V. Ogan in command.

Second commissioning − Xinhai Revolution.

For three years after her return to active service, the warship carried out a normal routine for Asiatic Fleet destroyers unburdened by extraordinary diplomatic demands. This meant drilling and patrolling in the Philippines each winter followed by exercises conducted in Chinese waters in the summer. Near the end of the 1911 summer cruise, however, events transpired to upset this pattern. Disturbances in China in September and early October 1911 led to an anti-Manchu revolt which grew into the revolution that toppled the dynasty in 1912. This sequence of events kept "Bainbridge" and the other destroyers from returning to the Philippines from north China in the fall of 1911. Instead, they remained in Chinese waters, where they were soon joined by every available Asiatic Fleet ship, to protect Americans and their interests in China through the winter and into the spring of 1912.

Second decommissioning.

Still, by the spring of 1912, the remarkable restraint that both factions in the struggle for power in China displayed toward foreign lives and rights allowed much of the recently assembled foreign naval might to stand down. Accordingly, though some of her sisters stayed on station in the Yangtze River, "Bainbridge" headed back to the Philippines. Her return coincided with, and may have been caused in part by, a widespread manpower shortage that forced a number of torpedo boats and destroyers into a form of caretaker status. Upon her return from China, "Bainbridge" was placed in reserve on 24 April 1912.

Third commissioning.

"Bainbridge" remained in this semi-active state for almost a year, resuming full active duty on 1 April 1913, with Lieutenant (junior grade), later Admiral, Raymond A. Spruance in command.  Though she became fully active once again, complications on the international scene still held her back from the old comfortable routine. In mid-April, the diplomatic crisis over the California Alien Land Law of 1913 arose with Japan and forestalled the usual summer deployment to Chinese waters. Instead, "Bainbridge" and the rest of the flotilla stayed close by Luzon as part of the defenses for Manila Bay in the event of a war. The situation eased considerably by the end of May, but the destroyers kept close to their Philippine base all during the summer and fall of 1913 and through the winter of 1913 and 1914. Circumstances seemed to change later because Bainbridge and her division mates sailed off on the familiar cruise to north China in the summer of 1914. That tour of duty, however, did not signal a return to the schedule of old but, instead, proved to be the last of those regular summer journeys north in the Far East. In 1915, "Bainbridge" made a short deployment to Shanghai but it came late in the fall, November and December, rather than in the summer and it was her last visit to China. She and her sisters spent all of 1916 patrolling in the Philippines and continued so engaged during the first three months of 1917. Even the entry of the United States into World War I in the spring of 1917, which found "Bainbridge" moored at Cebu in the southern islands, did not disrupt her schedule of Philippine operations immediately. Only in mid-summer 1917 did orders arrive sending her and her sisters to duty in European waters.

World War I.

On 1 August 1917, "Bainbridge" stood out of Cavite with the rest of her division and embarked on the long voyage to Europe. She steamed by way of Borneo, Singapore, Ceylon, and India, making extended pauses at Columbo, Ceylon, where the division had to wait for "Barry" to repair a damaged propeller, and at Bombay, India, before reaching the southern terminus of the Suez Canal on 23 September. The division transited the canal on 25 September arriving at Port Said, Egypt, early in the afternoon. After a week at Port Said, "Bainbridge" headed across the Mediterranean with the division. Although they had yet to reach their base of operations, the destroyers really began their war service upon entering the Mediterranean Sea where German and Austro-Hungarian submarines based on the Dalmatian coast were highly active. "Bainbridge", in fact, claimed her only submarine contact just a week after departing Port Said on her way to Gibraltar. She had steamed with the division to Malta, arriving in Valletta on 6 October and leaving again the following day escorting some ships to Naples. On the 8th, her lookouts spied a U-boat on the surface stalking one of her charges, SS "Camilla Rickmers", and "Bainbridge" charged to the attack. Before she could close the target to within gun range, however, the submarine submerged and escaped. On the 9th, "Bainbridge" and her division mates saw the merchant ships safely into Naples where they stood down for almost a week. She and her colleagues stood out of Naples on the last leg of their voyage on 15 October and reached their new base at Gibraltar on the 20th.  The warship served nine months in the European war zone based at Gibraltar escorting Allied shipping into and out of the Mediterranean Sea and between various points on the western Mediterranean littoral. On 15 July 1918, "Bainbridge" departed Gibraltar in company with to return to the United States. Sailing by way of the Azores and Bermuda, the two warships reached Charleston, S.C., on 3 August. She operated out of Charleston, carrying out a variety of patrol and escort missions, until 27 November when she set out for Boston. The destroyer served along the northeastern coast until the summer of 1919.

Final decommissioning and fate.

On 3 July 1919, "Bainbridge" was decommissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, and her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 September 1919. She was sold to Joseph G. Hitner, of Philadelphia, on 3 January 1920 for conversion to mercantile service as a fruit carrier.

Bibliography.

Books  Online resources

The second USS "Bainbridge" (Destroyer No. 1/DD-1) was the first destroyer, also called "Torpedo-boat destroyers", in the United States Navy and the lead ship of the. She was named for William Bainbridge. "Bainbridge" was commissioned 12 February 1903. She served in the Asiatic Fleet before World War I and served in patrol and convoy duty during the war. She was decommissioned 3 July 1919.

USS "Bainbridge" (DD-1) byl torpédoborec třídy Bainbridge, první torpédoborec sloužící u Námořnictva Spojených států amerických. Byl pojmenován po komodoru Williamu Bainbridgeovi.


Types.

City-wide systems.

Tallinn, capital city of Estonia with more than 420,000 inhabitants, and several mid-size European cities and many smaller towns around the world have converted their public transportation networks to zero-fare. The city of Hasselt in Belgium is a notable example: fares were abolished in 1997 and ridership was as much as "13 times higher" by 2006.

Local services.

Local zero-fare shuttles or inner-city loops are far more common than citywide systems. They often use buses or trams. These may be set up by a city government to ease bottlenecks or fill short gaps in the transport network.  Zero-fare transport is often operated as part of the services offered within a public facility, such as a hospital or university campus shuttle or an airport inter-terminal shuttle.  Some zero-fare services may be built to avoid the need for large transport construction. Port cities where shipping would require very high bridges might provide zero-fare ferries instead. These are free at the point of use, just as the use of a bridge might have been. Machinery installed within a building or shopping centre can be seen as 'zero-fare transport': elevators, escalators and moving sidewalks are often provided by property owners and funded through the sales of goods and services. Community bicycle programs, providing free bicycles for short-term public use could be thought of as zero-fare transport.  A common example of zero-fare transport is student transport, where students travelling to or from school do not need to pay. A notable example is the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, which provides much of the funding to operate the Stevens Point Transit system. All students at the university can use any of the four citywide campus routes and the other four bus routes throughout the city free of charge. The university also funds two late night bus routes to serve the downtown free of charge with a goal of cutting down drunk driving.  In some regions transport is free because the revenues are lower that expenses from fare collection is already partially paid by government or company or service (for example BMO railway road in Moscow, most part of is used to as service transport and officially pick up passengers).  Many large amusement parks will have trams servicing large parking lots or distant areas. Disneyland in Anaheim, California, runs a tram from its entrance, across the parking lot, and across the street to its hotel as well as the bus stop for Orange County and Los Angeles local transit buses. Six Flags Magic Mountain in Valencia, California, provides tram service throughout its parking lot.  In July 2017, Dubai announced it would offer free bus services for a short period of time on selected days.

Disaster relief.

Sonoma–Marin Area Rail Transit commuter rail temporarily offered free service for those needing transportation alternatives during the 2017 Tubbs Fire and 2019 Kincade Fire.

Benefits.

Operational benefits.

Transport operators can benefit from faster boarding and shorter dwell times, allowing faster timetabling of services. Although some of these benefits can be achieved in other ways, such as off-vehicle ticket sales and modern types of electronic fare collection, zero-fare transport avoids equipment and personnel costs.  Passenger aggression may be reduced. In 2008 bus drivers of Société des Transports Automobiles (STA) in Essonne held strikes demanding zero-fare transport for this reason. They claim that 90% of the aggression is related to refusal to pay the fare.

Commercial benefits.

Some zero-fare transport services are funded by private businesses, such as the merchants in a shopping mall, in the hope that doing so will increase sales or other revenue from increased foot traffic or ease of travel. Employers often operate free shuttles as a benefit to their employees, or as part of a congestion mitigation agreement with a local government.

Community benefits.

Zero-fare transport can make the system more accessible and fair for low-income residents. Other benefits are the same as those attributed to public transport generally:

Global benefits.

Global benefits of zero-fare transport are also the same as those attributed to public transport generally. If use of personal cars is discouraged, zero-fare public transport could mitigate the problems of global warming and oil depletion.

Disadvantages.

Several large U.S. municipalities have attempted zero-fare systems, but many of these implementations have been judged unsuccessful by policy makers. A 2002 National Center for Transportation Research report suggests that, while transit ridership does tend to increase, there are also some disadvantages:  This U.S. report suggests that, while ridership does increase overall, the goal of enticing drivers to take transit instead of driving is not necessarily met: because fare-free systems tend to attract a certain number of "problem riders", zero-fare systems may have the unintended effect of convincing some 'premium' riders to go back to driving their cars. It should be kept in mind that this was a study that only looked at U.S. cities, and the author's conclusions may be less applicable in other countries that have better social safety nets and less crime than the large U.S. cities studied.

Perception and analysis.

Free public transport creates the perception of a no-cost service, just as car drivers commonly perceive no cost to deciding to take their car somewhere. The catch of the car-based system is that the car trip is not in fact free, but it is generally perceived as such.  Likewise, this "perception" of freeness is important for public transport, which is far more environmentally and resource efficient than own-car travel – which means in this case that full access to the system need not be altogether "free" for its users but that from a financial perspective it becomes front-loaded and affordable. The invariable fact of life of delivering any public service is that the money to do so must come from somewhere – and of "free" public transport that once the user has entered into some kind of "contract" with her or his city – for example a monthly or annual transit pass that opens up the public system to unlimited use for those who pay for it. Now, how they pay and how much will be part of the overall political/economic package ("contract") of their community. In cities that offer such passes – as is the case to take but one example in most cities in France that since the mid-seventies have had their own Carte Orange – the remainder of the funds needed to pay for these services comes from other sources (mainly in this case from employers, local government).  Social-justice advocacy groups, such as the Swedish network Planka.nu, see zero-fare public transport as an effort in the redistribution of wealth. It is also argued that transportation to and from work is a necessary part of the work day, and is essential to the employer in the managing of work hours. It is thus argued that financing of public transportation should fall to employers rather than private citizens.

Free public transport, often called fare-free public transit or zero-fare public transport, refers to public transport funded in full by means other than by collecting fares from passengers. It may be funded by national, regional or local government through taxation, or by commercial sponsorship by businesses. Alternatively, the concept of "free-ness" may take other forms, such as no-fare access via a card which may or may not be paid for in its entirety by the user.

Bezplatná veřejná doprava je veřejná doprava, která je plně, nebo částečně financována jiným způsobem než vybíráním jízdného od cestujících. Financována může být státní, regionální či místní správou nebo může být sponzorována komerčními subjekty.


Nomenclature.

Transform boundaries are also known as conservative plate boundaries because they involve no addition or loss of lithosphere at the Earth's surface.

Background.

Geophysicist and geologist John Tuzo Wilson recognized that the offsets of oceanic ridges by faults do not follow the classical pattern of an offset fence or geological marker in Reid's rebound theory of faulting, from which the sense of slip is derived. The new class of faults, called transform faults, produce slip in the opposite direction from what one would surmise from the standard interpretation of an offset geological feature. Slip along transform faults does not increase the distance between the ridges it separates; the distance remains constant in earthquakes because the ridges are spreading centers. This hypothesis was confirmed in a study of the fault plane solutions that showed the slip on transform faults points in the opposite direction than classical interpretation would suggest.

Difference between transform and transcurrent faults.

Transform faults are closely related to transcurrent faults and are commonly confused. Both types of fault are strike-slip or side-to-side in movement; nevertheless, transform faults always end at a junction with another plate boundary, while transcurrent faults may die out without a junction with another fault. Finally, transform faults form a tectonic plate boundary, while transcurrent faults do not.

Mechanics.

The effect of a fault is to relieve strain, which can be caused by compression, extension, or lateral stress in the rock layers at the surface or deep in the Earth's subsurface. Transform faults specifically relieve the strain by transferring displacement between ridges or subduction zones. They also act as the plane of weakness, which may result in splitting in rift zones.

Examples.

Transform faults are commonly found linking segments of mid-oceanic ridges or spreading centres. These mid-oceanic ridges are where new seafloor is constantly created through the upwelling of new basaltic magma. With new seafloor being pushed and pulled out, the older seafloor slowly slides away from the mid-oceanic ridges toward the continents. Although separated only by tens of kilometers, this separation between segments of the ridges causes portions of the seafloor to push past each other in opposing directions. This lateral movement of seafloors past each other is where transform faults are currently active. Transform faults move differently from a strike-slip fault at the mid-oceanic ridge. Instead of the ridges moving away from each other, as they do in other strike-slip faults, transform-fault ridges remain in the same, fixed locations, and the new ocean seafloor created at the ridges is pushed away from the ridge. Evidence of this motion can be found in paleomagnetic striping on the seafloor.  A paper written by geophysicist Taras Gerya theorizes that the creation of the transform faults between the ridges of the mid-oceanic ridge is attributed to rotated and stretched sections of the mid-oceanic ridge. This occurs over a long period of time with the spreading center or ridge slowly deforming from a straight line to a curved line. Finally, fracturing along these planes forms transform faults. As this takes place, the fault changes from a normal fault with extensional stress to a strike-slip fault with lateral stress. In the study done by Bonatti and Crane, peridotite and gabbro rocks were discovered in the edges of the transform ridges. These rocks are created deep inside the Earth's mantle and then rapidly exhumed to the surface. This evidence helps to prove that new seafloor is being created at the mid-oceanic ridges and further supports the theory of plate tectonics.  Active transform faults are between two tectonic structures or faults. Fracture zones represent the previously active transform-fault lines, which have since passed the active transform zone and are being pushed toward the continents. These elevated ridges on the ocean floor can be traced for hundreds of miles and in some cases even from one continent across an ocean to the other continent.  The most prominent examples of the mid-oceanic ridge transform zones are in the Atlantic Ocean between South America and Africa. Known as the St. Paul, Romanche, Chain, and Ascension fracture zones, these areas have deep, easily identifiable transform faults and ridges. Other locations include: the East Pacific Ridge located in the South Eastern Pacific Ocean, which meets up with San Andreas Fault to the North.  Transform faults are not limited to oceanic crust and spreading centers; many of them are on continental margins. The best example is the San Andreas Fault on the Pacific coast of the United States. The San Andreas Fault links the East Pacific Rise off the West coast of Mexico (Gulf of California) to the Mendocino Triple Junction (Part of the Juan de Fuca plate) off the coast of the Northwestern United States, making it a ridge-to-transform-style fault. The formation of the San Andreas Fault system occurred fairly recently during the Oligocene Period between 34 million and 24 million years ago. During this period, the Farallon plate, followed by the Pacific plate, collided into the North American plate. The collision led to the subduction of the Farallon plate underneath the North American plate. Once the spreading center separating the Pacific and the Farallon plates was subducted beneath the North American plate, the San Andreas Continental Transform-Fault system was created. In New Zealand, the South Island's alpine fault is a transform fault for much of its length. This has resulted in the folded land of the Southland Syncline being split into an eastern and western section several hundred kilometres apart. The majority of the syncline is found in Southland and The Catlins in the island's southeast, but a smaller section is also present in the Tasman District in the island's northwest.  Other examples include:

Types.

In his work on transform-fault systems, geologist Tuzo Wilson said that transform faults must be connected to other faults or tectonic-plate boundaries on both ends; because of that requirement, transform faults can grow in length, keep a constant length, or decrease in length. These length changes are dependent on which type of fault or tectonic structure connect with the transform fault. Wilson described six types of transform faults:  "Growing length:" In situations where a transform fault links a spreading center and the upper block of a subduction zone or where two upper blocks of subduction zones are linked, the transform fault itself will grow in length.  "Constant length:" In other cases, transform faults will remain at a constant length. This steadiness can be attributed to many different causes. In the case of ridge-to-ridge transforms, the constancy is caused by the continuous growth by both ridges outward, canceling any change in length. The opposite occurs when a ridge linked to a subducting plate, where all the lithosphere (new seafloor) being created by the ridge is subducted, or swallowed up, by the subduction zone. Finally, when two upper subduction plates are linked there is no change in length. This is due to the plates moving parallel with each other and no new lithosphere is being created to change that length.  Decreasing length faults: In rare cases, transform faults can shrink in length. These occur when two descending subduction plates are linked by a transform fault. In time as the plates are subducted, the transform fault will decrease in length until the transform fault disappears completely, leaving only two subduction zones facing in opposite directions.

A transform fault or transform boundary is a fault along a plate boundary where the motion is predominantly horizontal. It ends abruptly where it connects to another plate boundary, either another transform, a spreading ridge, or a subduction zone.

Transformní zlom nebo transformní rozhraní je geologický termín popisující druh zlomu, u kterého je převládající pohyb na zlomu horizontální. Většina transformních zlomů je vázána na oblasti středooceánských hřbetů, kde dochází ke vzniku nové oceánské kůry, a tedy k akumulování napětí v zemské kůře. V těchto oblastech jsou tyto zlomy převážně ukryty pod mořskou hladinou. Nicméně nejvíce známé transformní zlomy, a současně i nejvíce nebezpečné, se nacházejí na okrajích tektonických desek. Typickým příkladem transformního zlomu je zlom San Andreas v Kalifornii či Severoanatolský zlom v severním Turecku.


Schedule.

This is the complete schedule of events on the 2014 calendar, with player progression documented from the quarterfinals stage.

Statistical information.

These tables present the number of singles (S), doubles (D), and mixed doubles (X) titles won by each player and each nation during the season, within all the tournament categories of the 2014 WTA Tour: the Grand Slam tournaments, the year-end championships (the WTA Tour Championships and the Tournament of Champions), the WTA Premier tournaments (Premier Mandatory, Premier 5, and regular Premier), and the WTA International tournaments. The players/nations are sorted by: 1) total number of titles (a doubles title won by two players representing the same nation counts as only one win for the nation); 2) cumulated importance of those titles (one Grand Slam win equalling two Premier Mandatory/Premier 5 wins, one year-end championships win equalling one-and-a-half Premier Mandatory/Premier 5 win, one Premier Mandatory/Premier 5 win equalling two Premier wins, one Premier win equalling two International wins); 3) a singles > doubles > mixed doubles hierarchy; 4) alphabetical order (by family names for players).

Titles information.

The following players won their first main circuit title in singles, doubles, or mixed doubles: The following players defended a main circuit title in singles, doubles, or mixed doubles:

Top 10 entry.

The following players entered the top 10 for the first time in their careers:

WTA rankings.

These are the WTA rankings of the top 20 singles players at the current date of the 2014 season. Players with a gold background qualified for the WTA Tour Championships.

Prize money leaders.

Serena Williams lead for the 2nd consecutive year, and 5th overall, with the second highest single-season earnings. Also for the second consecutive season, top-25 players earned over $1,000,000.The top-37 players earned over $1,000,000. Sara Errani and Roberta Vinci each made $1,001,168 by playing in doubles tournaments. It was the 1st time in WTA Tour history a player earned over $1,000,000 in doubles events.

Points distribution.

The points distribution was modified for the 2014 season. Main draw rounds usually give a little less points, but there is no change for the champion (W). Points for qualifying rounds (Q) have changed in both directions depending on the tournament category. Points earned in 2013 retain their value until they expire after 52 weeks.

Retirements.

Following is a list of notable players (winners of a main tour title, and/or part of the WTA Rankings top 100 (singles) or (doubles) for at least one week) who announced their retirement from professional tennis, became inactive (after not playing for more than 52 weeks), or were permanently banned from playing, during the 2014 season:

Comebacks.

Following are notable players who will come back after retirements during the 2014 WTA Tour season:

Awards.

The winners of the 2014 WTA Awards were announced throughout the last two weeks of November.

The 2014 WTA Tour was the elite professional tennis circuit organized by the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) for the 2014 tennis season. The 2014 WTA Tour calendar comprises the Grand Slam tournaments (supervised by the International Tennis Federation (ITF)), the WTA Premier tournaments (Premier Mandatory, Premier 5, and regular Premier), the WTA International tournaments, the Fed Cup (organized by the ITF), and the year-end championships (the WTA Tour Championships and the WTA Tournament of Champions). Also included in the 2014 calendar is the Hopman Cup, which was organized by the ITF and did not distribute ranking points.

WTA Tour 2014 představovala 44. ročník nejvyšší úrovně ženského profesionálního tenisu, hranou v roce 2014. Sezóna trvala od 30. prosince 2013 do 9. listopadu 2014. Zahrnovala 58 turnajů, až na výjimky, organizované Ženskou tenisovou asociací (WTA).


Names and etymology.

Its upper stretch near the AnhuiJiangxi border is also known as the Xin'an River (, "Newly Peaceful"); its middle stretch through the mountains of Zhejiang is also known as the Fuchun River (, "Abundant Spring River"); and the former name of its lower stretchthe Zhe () or Crooked Rivergave Zhejiang Province its name.  Historically, it was first documented in the "Classic of Mountains and Seas" () as Zhejiang River (), later in "Zhuangzi" ()as Zhe River (), and in the "Water Classic" () as Jianjiang River (). All those names probably originate from the language of extinct Baiyue peoples. In the early 18th century, the "Kangxi Dictionary" () regarded Zhejiang River () as Crooked River for its crooked lower stretch and countercurrent tidal bore.  The origin of its current name, the Qiantang River (), literally the River of King Qian's Dyke, however, has nothing to do with the King Qian of Wuyue. It previously referred to the lower stretch within the Qiantang County(, former name of Hangzhou City) and later in the 20th century began referring to all stretches of the river.

History.

It was linked by the Eastern Zhejiang Canal to Shaoxing during the Spring and Autumn Period and to Ningbo's Yong River during the Three Kingdoms Period. It was linked by the Grand Canal to Beijing during the Sui Dynasty. Its present name derives from a major dyke constructed near Hangzhou by the Tang warlord Qian Liu, who established the Wuyue Kingdom in the early 10th century.

Basin.

Qiantang River is one of the famous rivers in the southeast coast of China. It runs through Zhejiang, Anhui, Fujian, Jiangxi, provinces, which is the largest river in Zhejiang. "Qiantang" originally refers to the name of the river below the gate of Hangzhou, but now refers to the whole river basin. Qiantang River basin generally is abundant rainfall with developed water system (total of 60 tributaries), which is feather distribution. If count from the north source (Xinan river), the length of Qiantang river is 588.73 km. While if count from the south source (Qu river), the length of Qiantang river is 522.22 km. The main rivers of Qiantang river basin are Majin river, Changshan river, Qu river, Lan river, Xinan river, Fuchun river and Qiantang river.

Hydrological characteristics.

Overall, the runoff of Qiantang River is abundant. However, the incoming water of Qiantang River is strongly impacted by seasonal variation. In general, the runoff from April to June can occupy about 50% of the total annual flow. Because Qiantang River valley is located in the southeast coastal monsoon climate zone, the main source of runoff is atmospheric precipitation. The runoff and precipitation in Qiantang river valley show obvious consistency in both regional distribution and annual variation. The average annual discharge is 2.905×10^10 cubic meters, and the average annual sediment discharge is 6.68×10^6 tons. In addition, the annual runoff of the Qiantang River and its tributaries showed significant changes in abundance and drought.  Tidal bore is one of the symbolic features of the Qiantang River. Due to The riverbed of the estuary (Hangzhou bay) sharply shrank and lifted, he tidal range increases along the way, resulting the sharp deformation of tide waves. The average tidal range of Zhenhai on the south bank of Wankou was 1.69 meters, the average tidal range of Ganpu was 5.45 meters. Tidal current hangzhou bay is a clockwise rotating tidal current and the speed is generally 15~20 m/s, The north shore can up to 3~4 m/s. The average income tidal current of Ganpu station was 18,850,000 cubic meters per second. On the other hand, the river bed at the estuary of the Qiantang river is wide and shallow, forming a broad intertidal zone. Under the influence of seasonal runoff and tidal fluctuation, the riverbed is easy to produce violent deformation. In autumn, due to the strong tide, the main trough oscillates along the direction of the rising tide crest. In the season of abundant runoff, the main trough swings along the direction of ebb tide. Because of the process of main trough oscillation, the beach ground is easy to collapse and retreat quickly.

Tidal bore.

The river and Hangzhou Bay are known for the world's largest tidal bore. The oldest known tide table is for the Qiantang River and may have aided ancient travelers wishing to see the famous tidal bore. The tide rushing into the river mouth from the bay causes a bore which can reach up to 9 meters (30 ft) in height, and travel at up to 40 km per hour (25 miles an hour). Known locally as the Silver (or Black) Dragon, the wave sweeps past Hangzhou, menacing shipping in the harbor.  In August 2013, the tidal bore turned out stronger than expected due to Typhoon Trami, reaching more than twice its usual height as it broke on the flood barrier, sweeping it and injuring numerous spectators.  There have been attempts to surf the tidal bore. The first person to ride the bore was Stuart Matthews from England. The 1988 record was 1.9 km by Stuart Matthews. Then, in October 2007, a group of international surfers brought by Antony Colas, did several attempts, one wave being ridden continuously by French Patrick Audoy and Brazilian Eduardo Bagé for 1h10min, for 17 km. In September 2008 a group of American surfers convinced the Chinese government to allow them to surf a section of the river.  In November 2013, Red Bull held the first surf competition on the river, called the Qiantang Shoot Out. The bore was considered the most unusual wave in the world for a surfing contest.

Ecological Environment.

The Qiantang River basin is rich in ecosystem types. Forest ecosystems are mojor distributed in the west and south which are composed by evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved forests. The forest ecosystem with complete functions as well as the widely wetland breeds a variety of species. However, with the development of industry, the ecological environment of Qiantang River basin has deteriorated and soil erosion is becoming serious. Although the forest coverage is high, the trend of islandization and fragmentation of wildlife native habitats is obvious and biodiversity is under threat.  In recent years, the government tries to combine the environmental protection, prevention and control of water conservancy projects. The construction of "sea pond" is the symbolic part of "green barrier" of Qiantang River.

Major Attraction.

Qiantang River Tidal Bore.

Qiantang River Tidal Bore is an important scenic spot of Qiantang River. Generally, around August 15th, Lunar Calendar is the best time to observe the tides. At that time, the largest Qiantang river tidal bore can be several meters. Before the arrival of the sea tide, a tiny white dot appeared in the distance, which turned into a silver thread in a blink of an eye. Later on, accompanied by waves of dull thunder, the white line rolled to the sea. In ancient Hangzhou, Phoenix mountain, Jianggan area were the best place to watch. Due to the change of geographical location, from the Ming dynasty, Haining, Hanguan was the first resort for tide observation, so it was also called "Haining Tidal Bore".

Qiantang River Bridge.

Qiantang river Bridge, also called the first Qiantang River Bridge designed by Chinese bridge expert Yisheng Mao, which is a double-deck truss girder bridge spanning the Qiantang river in Hangzhou city, Zhejiang province, China. It is located at the southern end of Hangzhou city and about 700 meters to the east of Liuhe pagoda, between Nanxing bridge station of Zhejiang-jiangxi railway. It is the first double-deck railway and highway bridge designed and built by China itself, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese Bridges. Qiantang river bridge is 1453 meters long, 9.1 meters wide and 71 meters high. The upper deck of the bridge is a two-way two-lane highway with a design speed of 100km/h, and the lower deck is a single-track railway with a design speed of 120km/h. During World WarII, the Qiantang River Bridge was hit by Japanese air raids. And then, the Qiantang River Bridge was blown up to the piers only, to resist the Japanese attack. It was repaired in 1948.

Culture.

“People from different places have different cultures”. Qiantang River has been regarded as the birthplace of Wuyue culture. The characteristics of Wuyue culture are pardon, inclusive, intelligent, realistic, pioneering and brave, which also have been the cultural deposits displayed by Qiantang River. In addition, Liangzhu culture, southern Song dynasty culture, West lake culture and other regional cultures are also distributed in the area of Qiantang River basin. Liangzhu culture has a long history, which adds the thick and simplicity tone to the Qiantang River. The secularization and leisure of the southern Song dynasty culture, combined with the river crossing, have the charm of Qibao teahouse and Jianqiao old street, and contributed to the economic development of the dynasty.  Qiantang River has been deeply loved by ancient Chinese writers and writers." Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains" by painter Gongwang Huang. It was regarded as the culmination of ancient Chinese landscape painting and the peak of art. Zhou Mi's "observation tide" was praised as a literary classic and it still listed as a piont article in the textbook of ancient Chinese literature. Sun Quan, as a hero and the ruler of the kingdom of Wu in The Three Kingdoms period. In modern times, writer Dafu Yu;revolutionary writer and artist Yan Xia;scientist Wang Chong are the famous person born in Qiantang River Basin, and these people made an important contribution to the development of Qiantang culture.

The Qiantang River or alternatively Tsientang River is a river in East China. An important commercial artery, it runs for through Zhejiang, passing through the provincial capital Hangzhou before flowing into the East China Sea via Hangzhou Bay. Its original name, the "Zhe River" or "Zhe Jiang", is the origin of the name of Zhejiang province. The river is also known, along with Hangzhou Bay, for having the world's largest tidal bore, a phenomenon where leading edge of the incoming tide forms a wave (or waves) of water that travels up a river or narrow bay against the direction of the river or bay's current.

Čchien-tchang je řeka na východě Čínské lidové republiky, která protéká provincií Če-ťiang a městem Chang-čou. Dosahuje délky 459 km a v zátoce Chang-čou se vlévá do Východočínského moře.


Plot summary.

The novel is set on the planet Pandora which is famous for its animated biosphere. Humans have built a base on it that serves as a biological laboratory and a hunting resort. The base is located at the top of 2 km high crag on a continent otherwise covered by forest. Biologists do not understand most of the processes occurring in the forest. Humans hunt in the forest for sport in the face of serious dangers.  The novel is divided into two parts: life in the base and life in the forest. The director of the base is Paul Gnedykh. He is responsible for overall safety, supply, and communication with Earth. He replaced the previous director after several deaths occurred on the base. One of the deaths was the biologist Mikhail "Athos" Sidorov, Gnedykh's childhood friend. Some biologists claimed they saw people in the forest, but nobody took them seriously (partially because such visions were seen when the bioblocade of the observer was weakened or expired). The forest is rapidly changing, such that maps completely obsolete in two years. Some trees move from place to place, while others show signs of feeling the "pain" of other trees. Leonid Gorbovsky stays on Pandora believing that the forest is dangerous. He wants to be near when the forest "starts acting" to be able to influence the process. Gorbovsky is upset because the base staff are being negligent about the forest, not taking the forest seriously enough.  One day a female hunter and gamekeeper becomes stranded in the forest and calls Paul Gnedykh for help. She calls from the same forest sector where Athos sent his last bearing signal. When Gnedykh and Gorbovsky arrive at the site, they see a mysterious organism that caused the helicopter crash. The organism is attracting trees and animals and eating them. It gives birth to several "children" every 87 minutes. The children are amorphous white creatures that move by means of pseudopods. The children first move from the parent uniformly in one direction. Gnedykh and Gorbovsky follow the children until they reach a lake and drown themselves. While observing the lake, Paul thinks he sees a human in the water, and records a video of the scene.  In the forest segment of the novel, Athos attempts to return to the base after living in a village in the middle of the forest. The villagers are in foggy states of mind but have abilities to "grow" themselves food, clothes, and houses; and control the flora around them. Athos was brought to the village seriously ill by Hurt-Martyr and Broken Leg - two village natives - and given a wife named Nava. Athos too has troubles with his memory. He encourages two villagers, Fist and Broken Leg, to make a trip to The City, a mysterious place, where Athos hopes to get information about how to return. Hurt-Martyr went to The City before, but never returned. The tribe tries to talk Athos out of his journey, citing the rumored Dead Ones walking around in the forest. Slightly before the planned trip, he goes on reconnaissance, and Nava follows him. They are attacked by a group of bandits, and after a brief fight they escape. They end up in another unfamiliar village where Athos meets people he recognizes as Karl and Valentine, other biologists from the base. He is unable to talk to them, as some uncontrollable fear compels him and Nava to run away from the village, now engulfed in violet fog.  When Nava wakes up the next morning she finds a scalpel in her hand. She is afraid of it, and Athos hides it in his clothing. Athos wants to return to the unfamiliar village, but when they do, they find it sinking into the water, the process referred to as Overcoming. After the trip to the sinking village, they meet three women, one of whom is Nava's mother who was captured by the Dead Ones before. Athos and Nava realize that the Dead Ones who capture women from the villages are actually droids that serve women who live in The City. These women (calling themselves Glorious Helpmates) consider men (and many other biological species) as useless, a "mistake", since the woman are able to breed non-sexually without men. These women profess control over "little ones", and control the violet fog, which is made up of bacteria that can be used for diverse purposes including communication and assassination. The Glorious Helpmates are participating in a battle with unspecified enemy. The front of this battle separates Athos from the base. The front is allegedly so biologically active that any living creature (even the Glorious Helpmates, who are protected) are likely to die there. The women take Nava from Athos. During the conversation he remembers several important experiences.  Athos is attacked by a Dead droid, which he kills with his scalpel and flees. He returns to his village, where he again encourages Fist and Broken Leg who unite and travel to the base at Devils Crag. Athos now understands that the villages will disappear because of Overcoming (the process led by the Glorious Helpmates) and wants to prevent this mass murder. Broken Leg does not want Athos to go since he believes Athos will die. In the entire section of the novel, there is almost not a single object iⱱn the forest that is not a mutable living thing. One can grow clothing from the forest, eat the ground itself as a meal, and so on.  The origin of people in the forest is unknown.

Relationship with other works.

The forest part of "Disquiet" is almost identical to the one of "Snail on the Slope", but their "base" parts are totally different, the "base" of "Snail" representative of some Kafkian bureaucratic civilization (allusive of the post-Stalinist Soviets), instead of the utopian culture of "Disquiet". Athos and Gorbovsky are substitutes of Kandid and Perez from "Snail on the Slope".  Mikhail "Athos" Sidorov also appears in the chapters "The Conspirators" and "The Assaultmen" of "" as a schoolkid and a biologist; in "Space Mowgli" as the Ark Project head; in the chapter "Defeat" of "" (that appears not in all variants of the text) as a head of small mechanical embryo testing group; in "The Time Wanderers" as a president of "Ural-North" sector of COMCON-2. The last two listed appearances certainly happen after his life in the forest at Pandora.  There is also a point of view that "Disquiet" is a fictional work within the Noon Universe rather than the full-fledged part of Noon Universe canon  There are some striking similarities between the 2009 James Cameron's film "Avatar" and the "forest" part of the novel, as attested by Boris Strugatsky himself.

References.

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Disquiet () is a 1965 science fiction novel by Soviet-Russian writers Boris and Arkady Strugatsky, set in the Noon Universe. It is the initial variant of the novel "Snail on the Slope" ("Улитка на склоне") which has a different set of characters and is not set in the Noon Universe. After completing the first draft, the authors felt a need to take the novel in a different direction, which resulted in the creation of "Snail on the Slope". However, twenty-five years later, they examined the initial draft and concluded that it was a decent novel in its own right. In 1990, it was published in «Измерение-Ф» [Dimension F] magazine. In 1995, feeling the need to expose it to a wider readership, Boris Strugastky published it online (but it has been taken offline by his heirs).

Nepokoj (Беспокойство) je vědeckofantastický román ruských sovětských spisovatelů bratrů Strugackých odehrávající se ve 22. století v tzv. Světě Poledne. Román byl napsán roku 1965 jako první varianta románu "Les" (Улитка на склоне). Poté bratři došli k názoru, že se tato varianta příliš nevydařila, a celý román "Les" přepracovali. Teprve roku 1990 došli oba k názoru, že by i původní varianta byla docela dobrou knihou tak, jak byla napsána, a román časopisecky vydali.


History.

Indigenous people like the Beothuk (known as "skrælingjar" in Greenlandic Norse), Innu and Mi'kmaq were the first inhabitants of Newfoundland and Labrador.  During the late 15th century, European explorers like João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar Corte-Real, John Cabot, Jacques Cartier and others began visiting the area.  From around the beginning of the 16th century, fishing vessels with English, Portuguese, French and Spanish crews started visiting on a seasonal basis. At some point during the early 16th Century, some of these fishing crews founded an informal settlement at Placentia.  The Beothuk gradually became extinct as a people, as they suffered from new infectious diseases carried by the colonists, to which they had no immunity and the loss of habitat due to English and French settlement.  From 1610 onwards, the Kingdom of England established colonial settlements in Newfoundland, led by proprietary governors, as England tried to create North American footholds. John Guy was governor of the first settlement at Cuper's Cove. Other settlements were Bristol's Hope, Renews, New Cambriol, South Falkland and Avalon, which was organized as a province in 1623. The first governor given jurisdiction over all of Newfoundland was Sir David Kirke in 1638.  During this period, France had also established settlements in the region, particularly to the west in what is now Quebec. It had strong trading ties to many of the indigenous peoples along the Atlantic Coast, including the Mi'kmaq and other Algonquian-speaking peoples. The rivalry between England and France in Europe was played out in conflicts in North America, where they struggled for predominance. This was particularly true in Newfoundland, where the English colonial settlements on the eastern coasts were in close proximity to the French claims in Southern Newfoundland, which the French dubbed Plaisance. The Newfoundland colony was nearly obliterated during the Avalon Peninsula Campaign of King William's War. In 1696 the French and allied Mi'kmaq armed forces wiped out all but a handful of English settlements on the island of Newfoundland. Over the next year, the English repopulated and rebuilt the colony. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 ceded all of Newfoundland to the British Crown.  Given the Newfoundland colony's isolation from the more southern British Thirteen Colonies in North America (and also from the still loyal colony of Nova Scotia, which provided a buffer), it did not become involved in their colonial rebellion of the 1770s. After the American Revolutionary War ended in 1783 with the independence of the United States, Newfoundland Colony became part of British North America. The Crown resettled some Loyalists in Newfoundland, but most were given land in Nova Scotia and present-day Ontario.  It became an official Crown colony in 1825, and Thomas John Cochrane, an officer of the Royal Navy, was appointed as its first governor. He directed the construction of Government House, which is located between Fort William and Fort Townshend. It has been designated as a National Historic Site of Canada. The colony was granted a constitution in 1832, and Cochrane became its first civil governor.  The colony was granted self-governing status in 1854. Philip Francis Little was the first Premier of Newfoundland Colony between 1855 and 1858. The colony rejected confederation with Canada in the period of 1864–69.  In 1907, Newfoundland became the Dominion of Newfoundland, a Dominion of the British Empire. Due to economic hardship in 1934 it suspended its self-government and accepted rule by a royal commission. Together with Labrador, an area on the mainland, it confederated with Canada in 1949 as the province of Newfoundland. In 2001 the province was officially renamed Newfoundland and Labrador.

Newfoundland Colony was an English and later British colony established in 1610 on the island of the same name off the Atlantic coast of Canada, in what is now the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. This followed decades of sporadic English settlement on the island, at first seasonal rather than permanent. It was made a Crown colony in 1854 and a Dominion of the British Empire in 1907. The economy collapsed during the Great Depression and Newfoundland relinquished its dominion status, becoming once again a Crown colony, governed by appointees from the Colonial Office in Whitehall in London. American forces occupied much of the colony in World War II, and prosperity returned. In 1949 the colony voted to join Canada as the Province of Newfoundland, but in 2001 its name was officially changed to Newfoundland and Labrador.

Newfoundland byla v letech 1610–1907 zprvu anglická, později britská kolonie, ležící v severovýchodní části Severní Ameriky podél atlantického pobřeží a skládající se z ostrova Newfoundlandu a východního pobřeží poloostrova Labrador. Před vznikem kolonie tu žily původní národy. Kolonie zanikla přeměnou v dominium v r. 1907.


Background.

In the year 1708, Francis II Rákóczi decided to march his troops into Silesia, to pave the way for the plans of Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia to take the Hungarian crown, thus reinforcing the Silesian Protestants as well. His army started to march down the Váh (Vág) river, and planned to pass by the town of Trencsén (now Trenčín, Slovakia) on their way to Moravia. However, the city was in the hands of a reinforced Habsburg garrison. At first, Rákóczi had no intention to besiege Trencsén (Trenčín), as to not weaken his army, but under pressure of other Kuruc commanders, he decided to do so. The commander of the garrison, Sigbert Heister, found out about the moves of the Kuruc army, and started preparing his soldiers for the attack.

Battle.

At the morning of 3 August 1708, 8,000 Habsburg-Serbian soldiers faced 15,000 Kuruc soldiers, with 12 cannons. The right wing of the Hungarian Kuruc army was composed of light cavalry and part of the infantry under command of Lőrinc Pekri. The middle was composed by the artillery, protected by the German cavalry, as well as with the Polish and German carabiniers under command of colonel de la Motte. The left wing was made out of the rest of the infantry. The terrain ahead of them, however, was unclear, with moats going through it. When Sigbert Heister saw the number of Kuruc troops, and their advantageous standing, he decided to retreat into Trenčín Castle (). At the moment of giving this order, the Kuruc artillery started firing, with Pekri's wing advancing to attack the Habsburg soldiers while they were still organising.  But the terrain was unsuitable for attack. The terrain was rugged, with two man-made ponds being next to each other, with an embankment between them. Pekri's cavalry started to go through the embankment at the trot. Meanwhile, Pekri was warned that the narrow passage might cause difficulties; he therefore decided to retreat from those positions. While his cavalry started to turn back, it became disorganized, of which the troops of Imperial commander János Pálffy - a loyalist Hungarian - took advantage; they counter-attacked, and caused the disorganized horsemen to flee.  The middle and left wing meanwhile fought off Imperial mercenaries, but the flight of the right wing brought about uncertainty among the troops. Rákóczi tried to impress his soldiers and personally entered the fight. When jumping one of the moats, however, he fell from his horse and lost consciousness. Rumours about his death started to spread between his soldiers, and even the fighting troops started to flee. Heister's cavalry broke the originally three times bigger Kuruc army during the next three hours. As a result, around 3,000 Kuruc soldiers died or were wounded, 500 were captured, along with all of their 12 cannons; Habsburg royalist losses were small in comparison.

Aftermath.

The Kuruc troops were heavily defeated in the Battle of Trenčín, revealing that they had smaller fighting capability than their foes. Heister's troops chased the remainder of Rákóczi's soldiers, captured North-Hungarian mining towns, took Nyitra (now Nitra, Slovakia) and started to besiege Érsekújvár (now Nové Zámky, Slovakia). By the end of the year 1708, the Kuruc rebels had lost all of North-western Hungary and part of the Kuruc soldiers joined the Habsburgs army. Soon, the rebels lost Bars, Hont, the town of Zólyom (now Zvolen, Slovakia) and at the beginning of 1709, had to retreat from Liptó (today Liptov region in Slovakia).  In December 1708, Rákóczi tried to save the situation of his declining army by promising freedom and land grants to the peasants who fought by his side. However, this failed to have any notable effect, as peasants and nobles continued deserting from his army.  The growing defeatism and moral decline provoked by the defeat at Trencsén (Trenčín) therefore marked the beginning of the ultimate defeat of Rákóczi's War for Independence and the perpetuation of the Kingdom of Hungary remaining subjugated to Austrian rule.

The Battle of Trenčín or Battle of Trencsén (,, ) was a battle between the Hungarian Kuruc forces of Francis II Rákóczi and the Imperial Army of the Habsburgs. It was part of Rákóczi's eight-year-long War of Independence.

Bitva u Trenčína, přesněji též také bitva u Hamrů nebo bitva u Trenčianskej Turnej bylo střetnutí armád Františka II. Rákócziho s císařskou armádou pod vedením generála Siegberta Heistera dne 3. srpna 1708. Nejintenzivnější boje probíhaly v severní části Hamrů (dnes část Trenčianské Turné), ale celé bojiště se rozkládalo mezi obcemi Soblahov, Mníchova Lehota a Trenčianska Turná, a dále i v prostorách trenčínského katastru. Armáda kuruců v boji utrpěla těžké ztráty byla nucena se vzdát svých původních plánů. Bitva byla začátkem postupné likvidace povstání Františka II. Rákócziho.


Background.

In 1805, the United Kingdom, the Austrian Empire, Sweden, and the Russian Empire formed the Third Coalition to overthrow the French Empire. When Bavaria sided with Napoleon, the Austrians, 72,000 strong under Mack, prematurely invaded while the Russians were still marching through Poland. The Austrians expected the main battles of the war to take place in northern Italy, not Germany, and intended only to protect the Alps from French forces.  A popular but apocryphal legend has it that the Austrians used the Gregorian calendar, the Russians were still using the Julian calendar. This meant that their dates did not correspond, and the Austrians were brought into conflict with the French before the Russians could come into line. This simple but implausible explanation for the Russian army being far behind the Austrian is dismissed by scholar Frederick Kagan as "a bizarre myth".  Napoleon had 177,000 troops of the Grande Armée at Boulogne, ready to invade England. They marched south on 27 August and by 24 September were ready to cross the Rhine from Mannheim to Strasbourg. After crossing the Rhine, the greater part of the French army made a gigantic right wheel so that its corps reached the Danube simultaneously, facing south. On 7 October, Mack learned that Napoleon planned to cross the Danube and march around his right flank so as to cut him off from the Russians who were marching via Vienna. He accordingly changed front, placing his left at Ulm and his right at Rain, but the French went on and crossed the Danube at Neuburg, Donauwörth, and Ingolstadt. Unable to stop the French avalanche, Michael von Kienmayer's Austrian corps abandoned its positions along the river and fled to Munich.  On 8 October 1805, Franz Auffenberg's division was cut to pieces by Joachim Murat's Cavalry Corps and Jean Lannes' V Corps at the Battle of Wertingen. The following day, Mack attempted to cross the Danube and move north. He was defeated in the Battle of Günzburg by Jean-Pierre Firmin Malher's division of Michel Ney's VI Corps which was still operating on the north bank. During the action, the French seized a bridgehead on the south bank. After first withdrawing to Ulm, Mack tried to break out to the north. His army was blocked by Pierre Dupont de l'Etang's VI Corps division and some cavalry in the Battle of Haslach-Jungingen on 11 October.  By the 11th, Napoleon's corps were spread out in a wide net to snare Mack's army. Nicolas Soult's IV Corps reached Landsberg am Lech and turned east to cut off Mack from Tyrol. Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte's I Corps and Louis Nicolas Davout's III Corps converged on Munich. Auguste Marmont's II Corps was at Augsburg. Murat, Ney, Lannes, and the Imperial Guard began closing in on Ulm. Mack ordered the corps of Franz von Werneck to march northeast, while Johann Sigismund Riesch covered its right flank at Elchingen. The Austrian commander sent Franz Jellacic's corps south toward Tyrol and held the remainder of his army at Ulm.

Battle.

On 14 October, Ney crushed Riesch's small corps at the Battle of Elchingen and chased its survivors back into Ulm. Murat detected Werneck's force and raced in pursuit with his cavalry. Over the next few days, Werneck's corps was overwhelmed in a series of actions at Langenau, Herbrechtingen, Nördlingen, and Neresheim. On 18 October, he surrendered the remainder of his troops. Only Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este and a few other generals escaped to Bohemia with about 1,200 cavalry. Meanwhile, Soult secured the surrender of 4,600 Austrians at Memmingen and swung north to box in Mack from the south. Jellacic slipped past Soult and escaped to the south only to be hunted down and captured in the Capitulation of Dornbirn in mid-November by Pierre Augereau's late-arriving VII Corps. By 16 October, Napoleon had surrounded Mack's entire army at Ulm, and three days later Mack surrendered with 25,000 men, 18 generals, 65 guns, and 40 standards.  Some 20,000 escaped, 10,000 were killed or wounded, and the rest made prisoner. About 500 French were killed and 1,000 wounded, a low number for such a decisive battle. In less than 15 days the Grande Armée neutralized 60,000 Austrians and 30 generals. At the surrender (known as the "Convention of Ulm"), Mack offered his sword and presented himself to Napoleon as "the unfortunate General Mack". Mack was court-martialed and sentenced to two years' imprisonment.

Aftermath.

The Ulm Campaign is considered one of the finest examples of a strategic victory. The campaign was won with no major battle. The Austrians fell into the same trap Napoleon had set at the Battle of Marengo, but with greater success. Everything was made to confuse the enemy.  In his proclamation in the "Bulletin de la Grande Armée" of the 21 October 1805 Napoleon said, "Soldiers of the Grande Armée, I announced you a great battle. But thanks to the bad combinations of the enemy, I obtained the same success with no risk... In 15 days we have won a campaign."  By defeating the Austrian army, Napoleon secured his conquest of Vienna, which was to be taken one month later.  Like the Battle of Austerlitz, the Ulm Campaign is still taught in military schools worldwide.

The Battle of Ulm on 16–19 October 1805 was a series of skirmishes, at the end of the Ulm Campaign, which allowed Napoleon I to trap an entire Austrian army under the command of Karl Freiherr Mack von Leiberich with minimal losses and to force its surrender near Ulm in the Electorate of Bavaria.

Bitva u Ulmu bylo ozbrojené střetnutí války třetí koalice, ve kterém se utkala vojska napoleonské Francie a Rakouského císařství. Proběhla u města Ulm v dnešním Německu (na území Bavorska) od 15. října do 20. října 1805. Skončila tím, že se rakouské vojsko pod velením generála Macka von Leibericha vzdalo čtyřem francouzským sborům pod velením maršálů Francie Joachima Murata, Michela Neye, Jeana Lannese a Nicolase Jeana-de-Dieu Soulta. Kapitulaci však unikly některé části Mackovy široce rozptýlené armády, které se později připojily k ruské armádě, která se nacházela v prostoru města Linz (Linec), načež byl zahájen společný únik před francouzskými silami.


Implementation.

The project was created in three phases through 2008 by the Airport Authority of India with the help of the Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO) technology and space support. The goal is to provide navigation system for all phases of flight over the Indian airspace and in the adjoining area. It is applicable to safety-to-life operations, and meets the performance requirements of international civil aviation regulatory bodies.  The space component became available after the launch of the GAGAN payload on the GSAT-8 communication satellite, which was successfully launched. This payload was also part of the GSAT-4 satellite that was lost when the geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle (GSLV) failed during launch in April 2010. A final system acceptance test was conducted during June 2012 followed by system certification during July 2013.

Technology.

To begin implementing a satellite-based augmentation system over the Indian airspace, Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) codes for L1 frequency and L5 frequency were obtained from the United States Air Force and U.S Department of Defense on November 2001 and March 2005. The system will use eight reference stations located in Delhi, Guwahati, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Thiruvananthapuram, Bangalore, Jammu and Port Blair, and a master control center at Bangalore. US defense contractor Raytheon has stated they will bid to build the system.

Technology demonstration.

A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of technology demonstration system (TDS) over the Indian air space as a proof of concept had been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India (AAI) and ISRO. TDS was successfully completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference Stations (INRESs) at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Center (MCC) located near Bangalore. Preliminary system acceptance testing has been successfully completed in December 2010. The ground segment for GAGAN, which has been put up by the Raytheon, has 15 reference stations scattered across the country. Two mission control centres, along with associated uplink stations, have been set up at Kundalahalli in Bangalore. One more control centre and uplink station are to come up at Delhi. As a part of the programme, a network of 18 total electron content (TEC) monitoring stations were installed at various locations in India to study and analyse the behaviour of the ionosphere over the Indian region.  GAGAN's TDS signal in space provides a three-metre accuracy as against the requirement of 7.6 metres. Flight inspection of GAGAN signal is being carried out at Kozhikode, Hyderabad, Nagpur and Bangalore airports and the results have been satisfactory so far.

Study of Ionosphere.

One essential component of the GAGAN project is the study of the ionospheric behaviour over the Indian region. This has been specially taken up in view of the uncertain nature of the behaviour of the ionosphere in the region. The study will lead to the optimisation of the algorithms for the ionospheric corrections in the region.  To study the ionospheric behaviour more effectively over entire Indian airspace, Indian universities and R&D labs, which are involved in the development of regional based ionotropic model for GAGAN, have suggested nine more TEC stations.

Technology Integration.

GAGAN is now in operational phase and is compatible with other SBAS systems such as the wide-area augmentation system (WAAS), the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) and the Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) and will provide seamless air navigation service across regional boundaries. While the ground segment consists of eight reference stations and a master control center, which will have sub systems such as data communication network, SBAS correction and verification system, operations and maintenance system, performance monitoring display and payload simulator, Indian land uplinking stations will have dish antenna assembly. The space segment will consist of one geo-navigation transponder.

Effective flight-management system.

A flight-management system based on GAGAN will then be poised to save operators time and money by managing climb, descent and engine performance profiles. The FMS will improve the efficiency and flexibility by increasing the use of operator-preferred trajectories. It will improve airport and airspace access in all weather conditions, and the ability to meet the environmental and obstacle clearance constraints. It will also enhance reliability and reduce delays by defining more precise terminal area procedures that feature parallel routes and environmentally optimised airspace corridors.

Developments.

The first GAGAN transmitter was integrated into the GSAT-4 geostationary satellite, and had a goal of being operational in 2008. Following a series of delays, GSAT-4 was launched on 15 April 2010, however it failed to reach orbit after the third stage of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk.II that was carrying it malfunctioned.  In 2009, Raytheon had won an 82 million dollar contract. It was mainly dedicated to modernise Indian air navigation system. The vice president of Command & Control Systems, Raytheon Network Centric Systems, Andy Zogg commented:  GAGAN will be the world's most advanced air navigation system and further reinforces India's leadership in the forefront of air navigation. GAGAN will greatly improve safety, reduce congestion and enhance communications to meet India's growing air traffic management needs  In 2012, the Defence Research and Development Organisation received a "miniaturised version" of the device with all the features from global positioning systems (GPS) and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). The module weighing just 17 gm, can be used in multiple platforms ranging from aircraft (e.g. winged or rotor-craft) to small boats, ships. Reportedly, it can also assist "survey applications". It is a cost-efficient device and can be of "tremendous" civilian use. The navigation output is composed of GPS, GLONASS and GPS+GLONASS position, speed and time data. According to a statement released by the DRDO, G3oM is a state-of-the-art technology receiver, integrating Indian GAGAN as well as both global positioning system and GLONASS systems.  According to Deccan chronicle: G. Satheesh Reddy, associate director of the city-based Research Centre Imarat, said the product is bringing about a quantum leap in the area of GNSS technology and has paved the way for highly miniaturised GNSS systems for the future.  On 30 December 2012, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA), India provisionally certified the GPS-aided geo-augmented navigation (GAGAN) system to RNP0.1 (Required Navigation Performance, 0.1 Nautical Mile) service level. The certification enabled aircraft fitted with SBAS equipment to use GAGAN signal in space for navigation purposes.

Satellites.

GSAT-8 is an Indian geostationary satellites, which was successfully launched using Ariane 5 on 21 May 2011 and is positioned in geosynchronous orbit at 55 degrees E longitude.  GSAT-10 is envisaged to augment the growing need of Ku and C-band transponders and carries 12 Ku Band, 12 C Band and 12 Extended C Band transponders and a GAGAN payload. The spacecraft employs the standard I-3K structure with power handling capability of around 6 kW with a lift off mass of 3400 kg. GSAT-10 was successfully launched by Ariane 5 on 29 September 2012.  GSAT-15 carries 24 Ku band transponders with India coverage beam and a GAGAN payload. was successfully launched on 10 November 2015, 21:34:07 UTC, completing the constellation.

Indian regional navigation satellite system.

The Indian government has stated that it intends to use the experience of creating the GAGAN system to enable the creation of an autonomous regional navigation system called the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System IRNSS.  IRNSS-1 Indian regional navigational satellite system (IRNSS)-1, the first of the seven satellites of the IRNSS constellation, carries a navigation payload and a C-band ranging transponder. The spacecraft employs an optimised I-1K structure with a power handling capability of around 1660W and a lift off mass of 1425 kg, and is designed for a nominal mission life of 10 years. The first satellite of IRNSS constellation was launched onboard PSLV (C22) on 1 July 2012. While the full constellation was planned to be realised during 2014 time frame, launch of subsequent satellites got delayed.  Currently all 7 satellites are in orbit but in 2017 it was announced that all three rubidium atomic clocks on board IRNSS-1A had failed, mirroring similar failures in the Galileo constellation. The first failure occurred in July 2016, following which two other clocks also failed. This rendered the satellite somewhat redundant and required replacement. Although the satellite still performs other functions, the data is coarse, and thus cannot be used for accurate measurements. ISRO plans to replace it with IRNSS-1H in July or August 2017.  Two more clocks in the navigational system had started showing signs of abnormality, thereby taking the total number of failed clocks to five.  As a precaution to extend the operational life of navigation satellite, ISRO is running only one rubidium atomic clock instead of two in the remaining six satellites. Each satellite has three clocks, therefore a total of 27 clocks for all satellites in the system (including standby satellites). The clocks of both IRNSS and GALILEO were supplied by SpectraTime. ISRO replaced the atomic clocks in two standby NavIC satellites. The setback comes at a time when IRNSS is yet to start commercial operations.

Applications.

Karnataka Forest Department has used GAGAN to build a new, accurate and publicly available satellite based database of its forestlands. This is a followup to the Supreme Court directive to states to update and put up their respective forest maps. The geospatial database of forestlands pilot has used data from the Cartosat-2 satellite. The maps are meant to rid authorities of ambiguities related to forest boundaries and give clarity to forest administrators, revenue officials as also the public, according to R.K. Srivastava, chief conservator of forests (headquarters).  The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) along with AAI has launched a new satellite-based GEMINI(Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation and Information) system that will alert deep-sea fishermen of upcoming disasters.The GEMINI app on the cellphone decodes the signals from GEMINI device and alerts the user on imminent threats like cyclones, high waves, strong winds along with PFZ and search and rescue mission.  Various Indian manufactured missiles including the BrahMos will use GAGAN for guidance.

The GPS-aided GEO augmented navigation (GAGAN) is an implementation of a regional satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) by the Government of India. It is a system to improve the accuracy of a GNSS receiver by providing reference signals. The AAI's efforts towards implementation of operational SBAS can be viewed as the first step towards introduction of modern Communication, navigation and surveillance/Air Traffic Management system over Indian airspace.

GAGAN (zkratka z GPS aided geo augmented navigation nebo GPS and geo-augmented navigation system) je regionální SBAS (rozšiřující družicový geolokační systém), zadaný a provozovaný vládou Indie. Systém se v současnosti dokončuje, operabilní má být v roce 2014.


History.

The official site of the town dates the history of Kowary dates to 1148 when semi-legendary miner Laurentius Angelus mined iron ore in the location on the behalf of Polish duke Bolesław IV the Curly, ten years later on the orders of the Polish ruler a mining settlement was founded in the area, the official page of the town also states that the Kowary miners took part in Battle of Legnica in 1241. Other possible date of the start of the town is 1355 and connects it to "Ostsiedlung". Publications published in German Empire disputed the origin of Kowary and called it 'Schmedewerk'. In 1355 year Duke Bolko II the Small, the grandson of the Polish king Władysław I the Elbow-high, the last independent Silesian Piast, granted mining privileges to the local miners. As a mining center the settlement received several privileges and was seat of a "wójt" since 1368. It remained part of the Polish Duchy of Świdnica and Jawor until 1392, afterwards it was part of the Bohemian Crown.  Since 1401 the village belonged to the possessions of the Schaffgotsch family. An accord with neighbouring Hirschberg (Jelenia Góra) in 1454 elevated the settlement above the status of a village, it wasn't until 1513 however that Casper Schaffgotsch acquired the municipal law from Bohemian king Vladislaus II against the opposition of Hirschberg. Mining flourished until the Thirty Years' War, when the town was destroyed in 1633. The main export partner was Poland, with record trade in 1558, it was also famous for its gunsmiths, with Polish king Sigismund II Augustus ordering 2000 gun barrels (later German publications claimed it was only 200).  After the war veil weaving became more and more important for the town, whereas mining diminished. In the early 18th century the town became one of the biggest veil trading places in Silesia with trade relations to Bohemia, Italy, Spain, Russia and North America.  Schmiedeberg remained in possession of the Schaffgotsch family until 1634. In the 16th century the population adopted the Protestant faith. Hans Ulrich von Schaffgotsch was arrested as a follower of Albrecht Wallenstein the town came under Imperial custody. In 1639 the emperor sold the town to Bohemian count Heřman of Czernin and his family kept Schmiedeberg until Prussian takeover of Silesia. After the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the town experienced Counter-Reformation. The Protestants could now practice their faith only at the church of peace in Jawor and later in Hirschberg and Kamienna Góra (then "Landeshut"). When Prussia annexed majority of Silesia in 1742, Prussian king Frederick II immediately sold the possessions to the town, which thereby became sovereign. Prussian conquering also meant a relief for local Protestants – they received their own church ("Bethaus"). Nevertheless, an economic decline followed. Aid by the Prussian king, the settling of Saxon damask weavers, couldn't stop the downturn. Only the Industrialisation, beginning around 1850, led to a recovery of the local economy. In 1882 the town received a rail connection to Hirschberg, which further strengthened the economy. From 1871 to 1945 it was part of Germany, however, in the 19th century the Polish magnate Radziwiłł and Czartoryski families were in possession of the Ciszyca Palace and Park in the northern part of today's Kowary.

World War II.

During World War II Poles were used as slave labour by Nazi Germany in local mines. There was also a labour camp for Jewish prisoners established in 1943, and labour units for Italian prisoners of war from the Stalag VIII-A POW camp. The town was not destroyed during the war and after the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, the town became again part of Poland. The German population fled or was expelled. The town was renamed and resettled by Poles from the Eastern Borderlands, annexed by the Soviet Union.

Sights.

Kowary is a town with rich historical architecture, which includes:  The Lower Silesia Monuments Miniature Park is located in Kowary, and there are also underground tourist routes in the former uranium ore mines.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Kowary is twinned with:

Kowary () is a town in Jelenia Góra County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland, with a population of around 11,000. It lies approximately south-east of Jelenia Góra, and south-west of the regional capital Wrocław. The town is famed for its sanatoriums and a miniature park displaying architectural monuments of the Lower Silesian region.

Kowary () jsou město a městská gmina v jihozápadním Polsku v Dolnoslezském vojvodství v okrese Jelenia Góra. V roce 2011 zde žilo 11 784 obyvatel. První písemná zmínka o obci pochází z roku 1158.


Structure.

The biliary tract refers to the path by which bile is secreted by the liver then transported to the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. A structure common to most members of the mammal family, the biliary tract is often referred to as a tree because it begins with many small branches that end in the common bile duct, sometimes referred to as the trunk of the biliary tree. The duct, the branches of the hepatic artery, and the portal vein form the central axis of the portal triad. Bile flows in the direction opposite to that of the blood present in the other two channels.  The system is usually referred to as the biliary tract or system, and can include the use of the term "hepatobiliary" when used to refer just to the liver and bile ducts. The name biliary tract is used to refer to all of the ducts, structures and organs involved in the production, storage and secretion of bile.  The tract is as follows:

Function.

Bile is secreted by the liver into small ducts that join to form the common hepatic duct. Between meals, secreted bile is stored in the gall bladder, where 80–90% of the water and electrolytes can be absorbed, leaving the bile acids and cholesterol. During a meal, the smooth muscles in the gallbladder wall contract, leading to the bile being secreted into the duodenum to rid the body of waste stored in the bile as well as aid in the absorption of dietary fats and oils by solubilizing them using bile acids.

Clinical significance.

Pressure inside in the biliary tree can give rise to gallstones and lead to cirrhosis of the liver.  The biliary tract can also serve as a reservoir for intestinal tract infections. Since the biliary tract is an internal organ, it has no somatic nerve supply, and biliary colic due to infection and inflammation of the biliary tract is not a somatic pain. Rather, pain may be caused by luminal distension, which causes stretching of the wall. This is the same mechanism that causes pain in bowel obstructions.  An obstruction of the biliary tract can result in jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes.

The biliary tract, (biliary tree or biliary system) refers to the liver, gall bladder and bile ducts, and how they work together to make, store and secrete bile. Bile consists of water, electrolytes, bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids and conjugated bilirubin. Some components are synthesised by hepatocytes (liver cells), the rest are extracted from the blood by the liver.

Žlučové cesty jsou souhrnným názvem pro soustavu dutých orgánů, které odvádějí žluč z jater do dvanáctníku, počátečního úseku tenkého střeva. Začínají v tkáni jater jako tzv. intrahepatální žlučové cesty, postupně se spojují do žlučovodů většího a většího průměru a spojují se v jediný hlavní žlučovod, který ústí do střeva. Tvoří tak žlučový strom. Žlučník napojený na žlučovody slouží jako rezervoár a úpravna žluči v době mezi jídly.