Properties and occurrence.

Zeolites have a porous structure that can accommodate a wide variety of cations, such as Na, K, Ca, Mg and others. These positive ions are rather loosely held and can readily be exchanged for others in a contact solution. Some of the more common mineral zeolites are analcime, chabazite, clinoptilolite, heulandite, natrolite, phillipsite, and stilbite. An example of the mineral formula of a zeolite is: ·2HO, the formula for natrolite. These cation exchanged zeolites possess different acidity and catalyse several acid catalysis.  Natural zeolites form where volcanic rocks and ash layers react with alkaline groundwater. Zeolites also crystallize in post-depositional environments over periods ranging from thousands to millions of years in shallow marine basins. Naturally occurring zeolites are rarely pure and are contaminated to varying degrees by other minerals, metals, quartz, or other zeolites. For this reason, naturally occurring zeolites are excluded from many important commercial applications where uniformity and purity are essential.  Zeolites are the aluminosilicate (<chem>AlO4^5-</chem> and <chem>SiO4^4-</chem>) members of the family of microporous solids known as "molecular sieves", and mainly consist of Si, Al, O, and metals including Ti, Sn, Zn, and so on. The term molecular sieve refers to a particular property of these materials, i.e., the ability to selectively sort molecules based primarily on a size exclusion process. This is due to a very regular pore structure of molecular dimensions. The maximum size of the molecular or ionic species that can enter the pores of a zeolite is controlled by the dimensions of the channels. These are conventionally defined by the ring size of the aperture, where, for example, the term "8-ring" refers to a closed loop that is built from eight tetrahedrally coordinated silicon (or aluminium) atoms and 8 oxygen atoms. These rings are not always perfectly symmetrical due to a variety of causes, including strain induced by the bonding between units that are needed to produce the overall structure, or coordination of some of the oxygen atoms of the rings to cations within the structure. Therefore, the pores in many zeolites are not cylindrical.  Zeolites transform to other minerals under weathering, hydrothermal alteration or metamorphic conditions. Some examples:

Production.

Industrially important zeolites are produced synthetically. Typical procedures entail heating aqueous solutions of alumina and silica with sodium hydroxide. Equivalent reagents include sodium aluminate and sodium silicate. Further variations include changes in the cations to include quaternary ammonium cations.  Synthetic zeolites hold some key advantages over their natural analogues. The synthetic materials are manufactured in a uniform, phase-pure state. It is also possible to produce zeolite structures that do not appear in nature. Zeolite A is a well-known example. Since the principal raw materials used to manufacture zeolites are silica and alumina, which are among the most abundant mineral components on earth, the potential to supply zeolites is virtually unlimited.

Natural occurrence.

Conventional open-pit mining techniques are used to mine natural zeolites. The overburden is removed to allow access to the ore. The ore may be blasted or stripped for processing by using tractors equipped with ripper blades and front-end loaders. In processing, the ore is crushed, dried, and milled. The milled ore may be air-classified as to particle size and shipped in bags or bulk. The crushed product may be screened to remove fine material when a granular product is required, and some pelletized products are produced from fine material.  zeolite-rich rock at low cost and the shortage of competing minerals and rocks are probably the most important factors for its large-scale use. According to the United States Geological Survey, it is likely that a significant percentage of the material sold as zeolites in some countries is ground or sawn volcanic tuff that contains only a small amount of zeolites. Some examples of such usage include dimension stone (as an altered volcanic tuff), lightweight aggregate, pozzolanic cement, and soil conditioners.

Artificial synthesis.

There are over 200 synthetic zeolites that have been synthesized by a process of slow crystallization of a silica-alumina gel in the presence of alkalis and organic templates. Many more such structures could theoretically be made. In addition to variations in structures, zeolites can also be made with a variety of other atoms in them to make them chemically interesting and active. Some examples of the so-called heteroatoms that have been incorporated include germanium, iron, gallium, boron, zinc, tin, and titanium. One of the important processes used to carry out zeolite synthesis is sol-gel processing. The product properties depend on reaction mixture composition, pH of the system, operating temperature, pre-reaction'seeding' time, reaction time as well as the templates used. In sol-gel process, other elements (metals, metal oxides) can be easily incorporated. The silicalite sol formed by the hydrothermal method is very stable. The ease of scaling up this process makes it a favorite route for zeolite synthesis.

The zeolite conundrum.

Computer calculations have predicted that millions of hypothetical zeolite structures are possible. However, only 232 of these structures have been discovered and synthesized so far, so many zeolite scientists question why only this small fraction of possibilities are being observed. This problem is often referred to as "the bottleneck problem". Currently there are a number of theories attempting to explain the reasoning behind this question.

Uses of zeolites.

Zeolites are widely used as ion-exchange beds in domestic and commercial water purification, softening, and other applications. In chemistry, zeolites are used to separate molecules (only molecules of certain sizes and shapes can pass through), and as traps for molecules so they can be analyzed.  Zeolites are also widely used as catalysts and sorbents. Their well-defined pore structure and adjustable acidity make them highly active in a large variety of reactions.  Zeolites have the potential of providing precise and specific separation of gases, including the removal of HO, CO and SO from low-grade natural gas streams. Other separations include noble gases, N, O, freon and formaldehyde.  Zeolites assist silver in naturally emitting light, which could lead to new lighting technologies—supplementing or replacing fluorescent lights or LEDs.  On-board oxygen generating systems (OBOGS) and oxygen concentrators use zeolites in conjunction with pressure swing adsorption to remove nitrogen from compressed air in order to supply oxygen for aircrews at high altitudes, as well as home and portable oxygen supplies.

Industry.

Synthetic zeolites, as other mesoporous materials (e.g. MCM-41), are widely used as catalysts in the petrochemical industry, for instance in fluid catalytic cracking and hydrocracking. Zeolites confine molecules in small spaces, which causes changes in their structure and reactivity. The acidic forms of zeolites prepared are often powerful solid-state solid acids, facilitating a host of acid-catalyzed reactions, such as isomerisation, alkylation, and cracking.  Catalytic cracking uses reactor and a regenerator. Feed is injected onto hot, fluidized catalyst where large gasoil molecules are broken into smaller gasoline molecules and olefins. The vapor-phase products are separated from the catalyst and distilled into various products. The catalyst is circulated to a regenerator where air is used to burn coke off the surface of the catalyst that was formed as a byproduct in the cracking process. The hot regenerated catalyst is then circulated back to the reactor to complete its cycle.  Zeolites have uses in advanced nuclear-waste reprocessing methods, where their micro-porous ability to capture some ions while allowing others to pass freely allows many fission products to be efficiently removed from the waste and permanently trapped. Equally important are the mineral properties of zeolites. Their alumino-silicate construction is extremely durable and resistant to radiation even in porous form. Additionally, once they are loaded with trapped fission products, the zeolite-waste combination can be hot pressed into an extremely durable ceramic form, closing the pores and trapping the waste in a solid stone block. This is a waste form factor that greatly reduces its hazard compared to conventional reprocessing systems. Zeolites are also used in the management of leaks of radioactive materials. For example, in the aftermath of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, sandbags of zeolite were dropped into the seawater near the power plant to adsorb radioactive caesium which was present in high levels.  The German group Fraunhofer e.V. announced that they had developed a zeolite substance for use in the biogas industry for long-term storage of energy at a density 4x more than water. Ultimately, the goal is to be able to store heat both in industrial installations and in small combined heat and power plants such as those used in larger residential buildings.

Solar energy storage and use.

Zeolites can be used to thermochemically store solar heat harvested from solar thermal collectors as first taught by Guerra in 1978 and for adsorption refrigeration as first taught by Tchernev in 1974. In these applications, their high heat of adsorption and ability to hydrate and dehydrate while maintaining structural stability is exploited. This hygroscopic property coupled with an inherent exothermic (energy releasing) reaction when transitioning from a dehydrated to a hydrated form make natural zeolites useful in harvesting waste heat and solar heat energy.

Commercial and domestic.

Zeolites are also used as a molecular sieve in cryosorption style vacuum pumps.  The largest single use for zeolite is the global laundry detergent market. This amounted to 1.44 million metric tons per year of anhydrous zeolite A in 1992.  Non-clumping cat litter is often made of zeolite or diatomite.  Synthetic zeolites are used as an additive in the production process of warm mix asphalt concrete. The development of this application started in Germany in the 1990s. They help by decreasing the temperature level during manufacture and laying of asphalt concrete, resulting in lower consumption of fossil fuels, thus releasing less carbon dioxide, aerosols, and vapours. The use of synthetic zeolites in hot mixed asphalt leads to easier compaction and, to a certain degree, allows cold weather paving and longer hauls.  When added to Portland cement as a pozzolan they can reduce chloride permeability and improve workability. They reduce weight and help moderate water content while allowing for slower drying which improves break strength. When added to lime mortars and lime-metakaolin mortars, synthetic zeolite pellets can act simultaneously as pozzolanic material and water reservoir.  Debbie Meyer Green Bags, a produce storage and preservation product, uses a form of zeolite as its active ingredient. The bags are lined with zeolite to adsorb ethylene, which is intended to slow the ripening process and extend the shelf life of produce stored in the bags.

Gemstones.

Thomsonites, one of the rarer zeolite minerals, have been collected as gemstones from a series of lava flows along Lake Superior in Minnesota and to a lesser degree in Michigan, U.S. Thomsonite nodules from these areas have eroded from basalt lava flows and are collected on beaches and by scuba divers in Lake Superior.  These thomsonite nodules have concentric rings in combinations of colors: black, white, orange, pink, purple, red, and many shades of green. Some nodules have copper inclusions and rarely will be found with copper "eyes". When polished by a lapidary the thomsonites sometimes display a "cat's eye" effect (chatoyancy).

Biological.

Research into and development of the many biochemical and biomedical applications of zeolites, particularly the naturally occurring species heulandite, clinoptilolite and chabazite has been ongoing.  Zeolite-based oxygen concentrator systems are widely used to produce medical-grade oxygen. The zeolite is used as a molecular sieve to create purified oxygen from air using its ability to trap impurities, in a process involving the adsorption of nitrogen, leaving highly purified oxygen and up to 5% argon.  QuikClot brand hemostatic agent, which is used to stop severe bleeding, contains a calcium-loaded form of zeolite found in kaolin clay.  In agriculture, clinoptilolite (a naturally occurring zeolite) is used as a soil treatment. It provides a source of slowly released potassium. If previously loaded with ammonium, the zeolite can serve a similar function in the slow release of nitrogen. Zeolites can also act as water moderators, in which they will absorb up to 55% of their weight in water and slowly release it under the plant's demand. This property can prevent root rot and moderate drought cycles. Clinoptilolite has also been added to chicken food: the absorption of water and ammonia by the zeolite made the birds' droppings drier, less odoriferous and hence easier to handle.  Pet stores market zeolites for use as filter additives in aquaria, where they can be used to adsorb ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds. They must be used with some care, especially with delicate tropical corals that are sensitive to water chemistry and temperature. Due to the high affinity of some zeolites for calcium, they may be less effective in hard water and may deplete calcium. Zeolite filtration is also used in some marine aquaria to keep nutrient concentrations low for the benefit of corals adapted to nutrient-depleted waters.  Where and how the zeolite was formed is an important consideration for aquarium applications. Most Northern hemisphere natural zeolites were formed when molten lava came in contact with sea water, thereby "loading" the zeolite with Na (sodium) sacrificial ions. The mechanism is well known to chemists as ion exchange. These sodium ions can be replaced by other ions in solution, thus the takeup of nitrogen in ammonia, with the release of the sodium. A deposit near Bear River in southern Idaho, (US) is a fresh water variety (Na < 0.05%). Southern hemisphere zeolites are typically formed in freshwater and have a high calcium content.

Zeolite mineral species.

The zeolite structural group (Nickel-Strunz classification) includes:

Zeolites are microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts. The term "zeolite" was originally coined in 1756 by Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who observed that rapidly heating the material, believed to have been stilbite, produced large amounts of steam from water that had been adsorbed by the material. Based on this, he called the material "zeolite", from the Greek, meaning "to boil" and, meaning "stone". The classic reference for the field has been Breck's book "Zeolite Molecular Sieves: Structure, Chemistry, And Use".

Zeolity ( – „vařit„ a "lithos" – „kámen“) jsou hlinitokřemičité minerály mající mikroporézní strukturu. Termín zeolit byl původně vytvořen v 18. století švédským mineralogem Axelem Fredrikem Cronstedtem, který pozoroval, že při rychlém ohřívání přírodních minerálů kameny začnou tančit. Použitím řeckých slov, které znamenají „kameny, které vaří“, pojmenoval tento materiál zeolit. Kameny „vřou“, protože voda obsažená v pórech zeolitu uniká při zahřívání ven.


History.

Milk Inc. released their first single "La Vache" in April 1997. At first they were only successful in Belgium and the United Kingdom, but are now available in many European countries and in the United States. Milk Inc. have had several tours throughout Europe. Their music is characterized by a specific emotional mood, which is created through the use of appropriate synthesizers. In its early days as Milk Inc., the band had also had a guitarist and harpist, John Miles Jr., which is an unusual instrument to be used in dance music. The band also experimented with different genres such as death metal, punk and opera, but their music was unsuccessful in these genres.  The band has had many line-up changes throughout its history. The band has found much success in Europe, with many of their singles charting in countries such as the Netherlands, United Kingdom, France and Spain. They are most successful in their native country Belgium, where they have twenty-seven hit singles which have been in the Ultratop Chart, twenty-two of them being in the top ten and four of them being number ones. Furthermore, all of their seven albums have charted there, with two of them reaching number one. The band are the current record holders for the number of TMF Awards in Belgium and the Netherlands, with a total of 17 awards received.  In 2006, to celebrate their 10th anniversary, Milk Inc. decided to surprise fans with a two-hour live concert at the Sportpaleis Arena in Belgium. They performed many of their well-known hit songs as well as songs from the album Supersized.

Members.

Current.

Linda Mertens.

Linda was born on 20 July 1978 in Wilrijk, Belgium. From her early years Linda dreamt of becoming a performing artist. She studied art and after high school spent two years studying hairdressing. In 2000 Linda went to a club with some friends where Regi was deejaying, whilst there she asked him if he needed a singer for any of his projects and was asked to audition. At the time she did not know that Regi was looking for a new singer for Milk Inc.; she has been the lead singer for Milk Inc. ever since.

Regi Penxten.

Regi was born on 4 March 1976 at Hasselt in Belgium. At the age of 12, he got his first computer connected to a synthesizer. This marks the beginning of his passion for music. He studied at the music academy to learn to read music and he also played the guitar from an early age.  Regi Penxten decided to make music his career after, at the age of 18, he released some Underground and Trance EP on the Dance Opera and Illusion Label. Despite this, his parents wanted him to have a good education, thus he studied Telecommunication Electronics in Belgium. His success in the music industry started with "La Vache" in 1996, which was a big hit in France.  The Milk Inc. project was not enough for him, so he has more music projects ongoing with several singers and other producers. Regi's first solo album "Registrated" went gold before its release date. It is a compilation of various Belgian artists.

Filip Vandueren.

Filip Vandueren co-produces Milk Inc. with Regi Penxten, and plays keyboards in the band's full live shows and concerts.  Vandueren works as a producer under several names, including Philip Banks and Jedidiah Albertson. He started as a hard trance and underground producer at the DanceOpera Label. He has different projects to his name, such as K-Lab (known for "Reunion" — old school trance with a happy late-nineties feeling), The Klan, Karnak-X ("Sky-Trance"), Vidts and Vandueren with Quality Trance at the Oceanic Records label, and DJ Jan vs Vandueren with progressive and hard trance with remixes for DJ Tiësto and DJ Esteem.

Former members.

Ivo Donckers.

Co-founder and member from the start of the project Milk Inc. until 2000. He was the most important member, and producer of this project. Studio technician at Antler Subway (EMI), he was responsible for many projects and remixes for 2Unlimited, Ace Of Base, 2 Fabiola, etc. The gimmick in La Vache was a piece of vocal from a previous recording from Ivo Donckers & Sven Maes, pitched up.

Nikkie Van Lierop.

Born 7 March 1963 in Simmern, Germany, Anita Dominika Cornelia van Lierop, better known as Nikkie Van Lierop, and by her artist name "Jade 4U" and as a co-founder of Lords of Acid. In the spring of 1997 Praga Khan produced a remix of the song "La Vache". Since then the singer Nikkie along with Praga Khan contributed parts in lyrics and melody. In the music video "La Vache" that was filmed in England, Jade 4U can be seen. After the resounding success of the songs she sang in the performances during the first tour of Milk Inc. in France and Corsica. She left the band in order to concentrate on Praga Khan and Lords of Acid which had gained a cult following in the United States.

Sofie Winters.

Sofie Winters was born 22 May 1976 in Leuven, Belgium. She replaced Van Lierop for a few months. During her time at Milk Inc., Winters was a singer in the song "Free Your Mind". Winters was then, and still is today, a model and actress.

Ann Vervoort.

Graphic designer Ann Vervoort (10 March 1977 – 22 April 2010) was a dancer for Pat Krimson before she joined Milk Inc. She was brought in by Regi Penxten in 1997 as a replacement for Sofie Winters as a singer for appearances. Karine Boelaerts, a Belgian studio singer, who was already working for other projects such as 2 Fabiola was hired to record all the songs.  In the middle of September 2000, Vervoort left Milk Inc. and moved to Ibiza with her boyfriend Patrick Claesen (alias Pat Krimson) producer of 2Fabiola, Nunca and Leopold 3, where they founded the record label Beni Musa Records. Vervoort was replaced by Linda Mertens. On 22 April 2010, Vervoort was found dead at her house in Houthalen-Helchteren. According to the newspaper "Het Laatste Nieuws", an amount of alcohol and drugs were involved.

John Miles Jr..

John Miles Jr. is the son of the renowned musician John Miles. Miles studied pop music at Newcastle College and worked as a guitarist already known as "Popmusikern", with artists including Debbie Harry, Bryan Ferry, Joe Cocker and Andrea Bocelli. Miles co-wrote songs with Regi Penxten and Filip Vandueren when he became a group member in 1997 and performed as their guitarist on stage. The first single he was involved in making, "In My Eyes", was a commercial success. That was partly Miles' merit, his influence as a songwriter and the new style of the music effect he brought to the group. This in combination with the voice of Karin Boelaerts brought the music to a new level. All the songs he co-wrote were published during his time at Milk Inc. At the same time Vervoort stopped as playback, Miles wanted to leave Milk Inc. as well. He accompanied the group until the beginning of 2001. In 2002, the group had two top ten hits in the UK with "In My Eyes" (UK #9) and "Walk On Water" (UK #10). In the years 2006–2008, he rejoined Milk Inc. as a guitarist on their Supersized and Forever shows at the Antwerp Sportpaleis. Miles has since gone on to join another Belgian dance act, Sylver.

milk inc [Milk INCORPORATED (for a little while as La Vache in France) → Milk INC. → milk inc] was a dance band that formed in the commercial dance scene in Belgium in 1996. The discography of the band includes a total of seven studio albums and thirty-nine singles (as of 21 June 2013). Concerts are performed annually by Milk Inc. at Sportpaleis.

Milk Inc. (také známá jako Milk Incorporated) je belgická trance vokálová skupina, která vznikla v roce 1996. Do dnešních dnů vydala 5 plnohodnotných alb, 29 singlů a jednotlivé písničky Milk Inc. se také často objevují na žánrových kompilacích jako například Future Trance. Členové skupiny jsou: Nikkie Van Lierop, Sofie Winter, Ann Vervoort a John Miles Jr. Skupina získala mnoho ocenění a jen domácí TMF Awards Belgium vyhrála v letech 1999 – 2008 patnáctkrát.


Number.

Transcription factors are essential for the regulation of gene expression and are, as a consequence, found in all living organisms. The number of transcription factors found within an organism increases with genome size, and larger genomes tend to have more transcription factors per gene.  There are approximately 2800 proteins in the human genome that contain DNA-binding domains, and 1600 of these are presumed to function as transcription factors, though other studies indicate it to be a smaller number. Therefore, approximately 10% of genes in the genome code for transcription factors, which makes this family the single largest family of human proteins. Furthermore, genes are often flanked by several binding sites for distinct transcription factors, and efficient expression of each of these genes requires the cooperative action of several different transcription factors (see, for example, hepatocyte nuclear factors). Hence, the combinatorial use of a subset of the approximately 2000 human transcription factors easily accounts for the unique regulation of each gene in the human genome during development.

Mechanism.

Transcription factors bind to either enhancer or promoter regions of DNA adjacent to the genes that they regulate. Depending on the transcription factor, the transcription of the adjacent gene is either up- or down-regulated. Transcription factors use a variety of mechanisms for the regulation of gene expression. These mechanisms include:

Function.

Transcription factors are one of the groups of proteins that read and interpret the genetic "blueprint" in the DNA. They bind to the DNA and help initiate a program of increased or decreased gene transcription. As such, they are vital for many important cellular processes. Below are some of the important functions and biological roles transcription factors are involved in:

Basal transcription regulation.

In eukaryotes, an important class of transcription factors called general transcription factors (GTFs) are necessary for transcription to occur. Many of these GTFs do not actually bind DNA, but rather are part of the large transcription preinitiation complex that interacts with RNA polymerase directly. The most common GTFs are TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID (see also TATA binding protein), TFIIE, TFIIF, and TFIIH. The preinitiation complex binds to promoter regions of DNA upstream to the gene that they regulate.

Differential enhancement of transcription.

Other transcription factors differentially regulate the expression of various genes by binding to enhancer regions of DNA adjacent to regulated genes. These transcription factors are critical to making sure that genes are expressed in the right cell at the right time and in the right amount, depending on the changing requirements of the organism.

Development.

Many transcription factors in multicellular organisms are involved in development. Responding to stimuli, these transcription factors turn on/off the transcription of the appropriate genes, which, in turn, allows for changes in cell morphology or activities needed for cell fate determination and cellular differentiation. The Hox transcription factor family, for example, is important for proper body pattern formation in organisms as diverse as fruit flies to humans. Another example is the transcription factor encoded by the Sex-determining Region Y (SRY) gene, which plays a major role in determining sex in humans.

Response to intercellular signals.

Cells can communicate with each other by releasing molecules that produce signaling cascades within another receptive cell. If the signal requires upregulation or downregulation of genes in the recipient cell, often transcription factors will be downstream in the signaling cascade. Estrogen signaling is an example of a fairly short signaling cascade that involves the estrogen receptor transcription factor: Estrogen is secreted by tissues such as the ovaries and placenta, crosses the cell membrane of the recipient cell, and is bound by the estrogen receptor in the cell's cytoplasm. The estrogen receptor then goes to the cell's nucleus and binds to its DNA-binding sites, changing the transcriptional regulation of the associated genes.

Response to environment.

Not only do transcription factors act downstream of signaling cascades related to biological stimuli but they can also be downstream of signaling cascades involved in environmental stimuli. Examples include heat shock factor (HSF), which upregulates genes necessary for survival at higher temperatures, hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), which upregulates genes necessary for cell survival in low-oxygen environments, and sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP), which helps maintain proper lipid levels in the cell.

Cell cycle control.

Many transcription factors, especially some that are proto-oncogenes or tumor suppressors, help regulate the cell cycle and as such determine how large a cell will get and when it can divide into two daughter cells. One example is the Myc oncogene, which has important roles in cell growth and apoptosis.

Pathogenesis.

Transcription factors can also be used to alter gene expression in a host cell to promote pathogenesis. A well studied example of this are the transcription-activator like effectors (TAL effectors) secreted by Xanthomonas bacteria. When injected into plants, these proteins can enter the nucleus of the plant cell, bind plant promoter sequences, and activate transcription of plant genes that aid in bacterial infection. TAL effectors contain a central repeat region in which there is a simple relationship between the identity of two critical residues in sequential repeats and sequential DNA bases in the TAL effector's target site. This property likely makes it easier for these proteins to evolve in order to better compete with the defense mechanisms of the host cell.

Regulation.

It is common in biology for important processes to have multiple layers of regulation and control. This is also true with transcription factors: Not only do transcription factors control the rates of transcription to regulate the amounts of gene products (RNA and protein) available to the cell but transcription factors themselves are regulated (often by other transcription factors). Below is a brief synopsis of some of the ways that the activity of transcription factors can be regulated:

Synthesis.

Transcription factors (like all proteins) are transcribed from a gene on a chromosome into RNA, and then the RNA is translated into protein. Any of these steps can be regulated to affect the production (and thus activity) of a transcription factor. An implication of this is that transcription factors can regulate themselves. For example, in a negative feedback loop, the transcription factor acts as its own repressor: If the transcription factor protein binds the DNA of its own gene, it down-regulates the production of more of itself. This is one mechanism to maintain low levels of a transcription factor in a cell.

Nuclear localization.

In eukaryotes, transcription factors (like most proteins) are transcribed in the nucleus but are then translated in the cell's cytoplasm. Many proteins that are active in the nucleus contain nuclear localization signals that direct them to the nucleus. But, for many transcription factors, this is a key point in their regulation. Important classes of transcription factors such as some nuclear receptors must first bind a ligand while in the cytoplasm before they can relocate to the nucleus.

Activation.

Transcription factors may be activated (or deactivated) through their signal-sensing domain by a number of mechanisms including:

Accessibility of DNA-binding site.

In eukaryotes, DNA is organized with the help of histones into compact particles called nucleosomes, where sequences of about 147 DNA base pairs make ~1.65 turns around histone protein octamers. DNA within nucleosomes is inaccessible to many transcription factors. Some transcription factors, so-called pioneer factors are still able to bind their DNA binding sites on the nucleosomal DNA. For most other transcription factors, the nucleosome should be actively unwound by molecular motors such as chromatin remodelers. Alternatively, the nucleosome can be partially unwrapped by thermal fluctuations, allowing temporary access to the transcription factor binding site. In many cases, a transcription factor needs to compete for binding to its DNA binding site with other transcription factors and histones or non-histone chromatin proteins. Pairs of transcription factors and other proteins can play antagonistic roles (activator versus repressor) in the regulation of the same gene.

Availability of other cofactors/transcription factors.

Most transcription factors do not work alone. Many large TF families form complex homotypic or heterotypic interactions through dimerization. For gene transcription to occur, a number of transcription factors must bind to DNA regulatory sequences. This collection of transcription factors, in turn, recruit intermediary proteins such as cofactors that allow efficient recruitment of the preinitiation complex and RNA polymerase. Thus, for a single transcription factor to initiate transcription, all of these other proteins must also be present, and the transcription factor must be in a state where it can bind to them if necessary. Cofactors are proteins that modulate the effects of transcription factors. Cofactors are interchangeable between specific gene promoters; the protein complex that occupies the promoter DNA and the amino acid sequence of the cofactor determine its spatial conformation. For example, certain steroid receptors can exchange cofactors with NF-κB, which is a switch between inflammation and cellular differentiation; thereby steroids can affect the inflammatory response and function of certain tissues.

Structure.

Transcription factors are modular in structure and contain the following domains:

DNA-binding domain.

The portion (domain) of the transcription factor that binds DNA is called its DNA-binding domain. Below is a partial list of some of the major families of DNA-binding domains/transcription factors:

Response elements.

The DNA sequence that a transcription factor binds to is called a transcription factor-binding site or response element.  Transcription factors interact with their binding sites using a combination of electrostatic (of which hydrogen bonds are a special case) and Van der Waals forces. Due to the nature of these chemical interactions, most transcription factors bind DNA in a sequence specific manner. However, not all bases in the transcription factor-binding site may actually interact with the transcription factor. In addition, some of these interactions may be weaker than others. Thus, transcription factors do not bind just one sequence but are capable of binding a subset of closely related sequences, each with a different strength of interaction.  For example, although the consensus binding site for the TATA-binding protein (TBP) is TATAAAA, the TBP transcription factor can also bind similar sequences such as TATATAT or TATATAA.  Because transcription factors can bind a set of related sequences and these sequences tend to be short, potential transcription factor binding sites can occur by chance if the DNA sequence is long enough. It is unlikely, however, that a transcription factor will bind all compatible sequences in the genome of the cell. Other constraints, such as DNA accessibility in the cell or availability of cofactors may also help dictate where a transcription factor will actually bind. Thus, given the genome sequence it is still difficult to predict where a transcription factor will actually bind in a living cell.  Additional recognition specificity, however, may be obtained through the use of more than one DNA-binding domain (for example tandem DBDs in the same transcription factor or through dimerization of two transcription factors) that bind to two or more adjacent sequences of DNA.

Clinical significance.

Transcription factors are of clinical significance for at least two reasons: (1) mutations can be associated with specific diseases, and (2) they can be targets of medications.

Disorders.

Due to their important roles in development, intercellular signaling, and cell cycle, some human diseases have been associated with mutations in transcription factors.  Many transcription factors are either tumor suppressors or oncogenes, and, thus, mutations or aberrant regulation of them is associated with cancer. Three groups of transcription factors are known to be important in human cancer: (1) the NF-kappaB and AP-1 families, (2) the STAT family and (3) the steroid receptors.  Below are a few of the better-studied examples:

Potential drug targets.

Approximately 10% of currently prescribed drugs directly target the nuclear receptor class of transcription factors. Examples include tamoxifen and bicalutamide for the treatment of breast and prostate cancer, respectively, and various types of anti-inflammatory and anabolic steroids. In addition, transcription factors are often indirectly modulated by drugs through signaling cascades. It might be possible to directly target other less-explored transcription factors such as NF-κB with drugs. Transcription factors outside the nuclear receptor family are thought to be more difficult to target with small molecule therapeutics since it is not clear that they are "drugable" but progress has been made on Pax2 and the notch pathway.

Role in evolution.

Gene duplications have played a crucial role in the evolution of species. This applies particularly to transcription factors. Once they occur as duplicates, accumulated mutations encoding for one copy can take place without negatively affecting the regulation of downstream targets. However, changes of the DNA binding specificities of the single-copy LEAFY transcription factor, which occurs in most land plants, have recently been elucidated. In that respect, a single-copy transcription factor can undergo a change of specificity through a promiscuous intermediate without losing function. Similar mechanisms have been proposed in the context of all alternative phylogenetic hypotheses, and the role of transcription factors in the evolution of all species.

Analysis.

There are different technologies available to analyze transcription factors. On the genomic level, DNA-sequencing and database research are commonly used The protein version of the transcription factor is detectable by using specific antibodies. The sample is detected on a western blot. By using electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), the activation profile of transcription factors can be detected. A multiplex approach for activation profiling is a TF chip system where several different transcription factors can be detected in parallel.  The most commonly used method for identifying transcription factor binding sites is chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). This technique relies on chemical fixation of chromatin with formaldehyde, followed by co-precipitation of DNA and the transcription factor of interest using an antibody that specifically targets that protein. The DNA sequences can then be identified by microarray or high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) to determine transcription factor binding sites. If no antibody is available for the protein of interest, DamID may be a convenient alternative.

Classes.

As described in more detail below, transcription factors may be classified by their (1) mechanism of action, (2) regulatory function, or (3) sequence homology (and hence structural similarity) in their DNA-binding domains.

Mechanistic.

There are two mechanistic classes of transcription factors:

Functional.

Transcription factors have been classified according to their regulatory function:

Structural.

Transcription factors are often classified based on the sequence similarity and hence the tertiary structure of their DNA-binding domains:

In molecular biology, a transcription factor (TF) (or sequence-specific DNA-binding factor) is a protein that controls the rate of transcription of genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA, by binding to a specific DNA sequence. The function of TFs is to regulate—turn on and off—genes in order to make sure that they are expressed in the right cell at the right time and in the right amount throughout the life of the cell and the organism. Groups of TFs function in a coordinated fashion to direct cell division, cell growth, and cell death throughout life; cell migration and organization (body plan) during embryonic development; and intermittently in response to signals from outside the cell, such as a hormone. There are up to 1600 TFs in the human genome.

Transkripční faktor je termín užívaný pro jakýkoliv protein, který má schopnost spouštět či jinak regulovat transkripci DNA. Zahrnuje proto jak specializované proteiny spouštějící transkripci u konkrétních genů, tak i obecné faktory nutné pro správný průběh procesu transkripce.


Life.

Hussarek was born in Pressburg, Hungary (present-day Bratislava, Slovakia), the son of Johann Ritter Hussarek von Heinlein (1819–1907), a lieutenant field marshal in the Austro-Hungarian Army. He attended school in Lemberg (Lviv), Galicia, in Hermannstadt (Sibiu), and at the Theresian Academy in Vienna. In 1883, he enrolled at the University of Vienna to study canon law, obtaining his doctorate "sub auspiciis Imperatoris" in 1889. He went on to give lectures at the Theresian Academy and became an educator of Prince Abbas II, the future Khedive of Egypt.  From 1892, Hussarek served at the "k.k." Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs and also worked as a private lecturer. In 1895 he was appointed professor of ecclesiastical law at the Vienna University. Two years later he was appointed head of the Ministry's Catholic Church department; from 1907, he led the Office of Religious Affairs.  A member of the Christian Social Party, Hussarek served as Education Minister in the Cisleithanian cabinets of Karl von Stürgkh, Ernest von Koerber, and Heinrich Clam-Martinic from 1911 to 1917. He worked for the recognition of Evangelical professorships at the theological department of the Vienna University and had Sunni Islam, according to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, acknowledged as a religious community. In 1917, he was elevated to the rank of "Freiherr" by Emperor Charles I of Austria, a title he lost again after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary only two years later.  When after the conclusion of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Ukrainian People's Republic, Minister-president Ernst Seidler von Feuchtenegg resigned on 25 July 1918, Hussarek was appointed his successor. Facing the American entry into World War I, and the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, as well as rapidly deteriorating supply conditions, he tried in vain to hinder the collapse by an Imperial manifesto ("Völkermanifest"). The manifesto was issued by Charles I on October 16, granting wide-range autonomy to the Cisleithanian nations. The declaration failed: while several constituent national assemblies convened in the Austrian crown lands, the manifesto was rejected by the Hungarian minister-president Sándor Wekerle and two days later the Budapest government officially terminated the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.  Hussarek resigned on October 27, the Cisleithanian cabinet of his successor Heinrich Lammasch was already referred to as "liquidation ministry".  After the war, Hussarek again worked as a professor at the University of Vienna and as an official of the Austrian Red Cross. He died in Vienna in 1935, aged 69.

Maximilian Hussarek von Heinlein (3 May 1865 – 6 March 1935), ennobled to the rank of Baron ("Freiherr") in 1917, was an Austrian statesman who served as the penultimate Minister-President of Cisleithania in the last stage of World War I, for three months in 1918.

Maximilian Hussarek svobodný pán von Heinlein (8. května 1865 v Prešpurku – 6. března 1935 ve Vídni) byl rakouský politik a předposlední předseda vlády předlitavské části Rakousko-Uherska (vláda Maxe Hussarka).


Scope of care.

The responsibilities and duties of a UAP include:  Most UAPs, including nursing assistants, are not certified to change sterile dressings, distribute medications, insert or remove any tubing, or conduct tube feedings. Such tasks should be therefore left to the overseeing nurse or clinical licensed professional. UAPs must be delegated responsibilities. The nurses are ultimately accountable for all the care patients receive as a result of their delegating. Due to the nursing shortage and to reduce the heavy workload placed on nurses, delegating tasks to UAPs is crucial.

Types and training.

Nursing assistant, nursing auxiliary, auxiliary nurse, patient care technician, home health aide/assistant, geriatric aide/assistant, psychiatric aide, nurse aide, and nurse tech are all common titles for UAPs. There are some differences in scope of care across UAPs based on title and description.  Unlicensed assistive personnel are important members of the health care team who often hold a high level of experience and ability. While they do not require extensive health care training to practice their profession, manual dexterity and good interpersonal communication skills are usually necessary. They often undergo some formal education, apprenticeship or on-the-job training in areas such as body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and physiology, cognitive impairments and mental health issues, infection control, personal care skills, and record-keeping.  Training for UAPs is available from various outlets such as:

Certified Nursing Assistant (CNA).

The National Association of Health Care Assistants defines the role of CNAs as:  "In the United States, certified nursing assistants typically work in a nursing home or hospital and perform everyday living tasks for the elderly, chronically sick, or rehabilitation patients who cannot care for themselves."  Most community colleges offer CNA training in one semester. Other sources offer accelerated programs. Many nursing homes pay their employees to take CNA training.  CNA certification requirements vary by state. The requirements generally include:  Once these requirements are completed, the person will be certified in their state. Moving to a different state requires recertification in the new state unless both states use the NNAAP standard. In that case, the new state accepts previous NNAAP test scores and allows registration. These certification exams are distributed by the state. Classes to study for these exams are provided by the American Red Cross as well as other providers. The Red Cross courses encompass everything in the state exams, from communication to health terms to sensitivity.  In the United States, CNAs must work a minimum number of hours every two years as specified by the state and have no records of abuse or neglect to keep their certification. Each state also has its own mandatory continuing education hours that CNAs must fulfill.  Similar titles in the United Kingdom and elsewhere include healthcare assistant, healthcare support worker, or clinical support worker. These providers usually work in hospitals or community settings under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional.  In the United Kingdom, the Care Certificate was introduced in April 2015, following the Cavendish Review of April 2013 into standards of care among health care assistants and support workers in the NHS and social care settings.  The purpose of the Care Certificate is to address inconsistencies in training and competencies in the workforce so that all staff have the same introductory skills, knowledge and behaviours to provide safe, high quality and compassionate care of the highest standards. The Care Certificate was jointly developed by Skills for Health, Health Education England and Skills for Care.

Home Health Aide (HHA).

A home health aide (HHA) provides in-home care for patients who need assistance with daily living beyond what family or friends can provide. Patients include those who have a physical or mental disability, are recovering from an injury or surgery, have a chronic illness, or are advanced in age. Training requirements to become an HHA are generally minimal and vary by state.

Personal Support Worker (PSW).

Personal support worker (PSW) is the title for a similar type of health worker in Ontario, Canada. Personal support work is unique among health care professions in that the scope of a PSW's duties does not extend beyond what the client could do him/herself if the client were physically and cognitively able. No other profession's scope is similarly described.  In May 2011, Ontario's Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care (MOHLTC) announced the creation of a Registry of Personal Support Workers to acknowledge the care it provides daily to some of Ontario's most vulnerable populations, including seniors and people with chronic illnesses and disabilities. The Ontario PSW Registry was launched on June 1, 2012, and now has over 23,000 registered PSWs.

Surgical Technologist.

Surgical technologists are considered UAPs in the US, where they are also sometimes called "scrub tech". The title can mean different things in other countries. In Mozambique, for example, surgical technologists are medical professionals trained and registered to perform advanced clinical procedures including emergency surgery.

Birth Assistant.

Birth assistants, such as doulas, childbirth educators and other persons providing emotional support and general care and advice to women and families during pregnancy and childbirth, are also typically considered UAPs. They are distinguished from midwives, physicians, nurses, and other professionals who are trained and licensed to provide basic and emergency pregnancy and childbirth-related health care services and manage complications.

Practice.

In the context of aging populations and health care reform, UAPs are in growing demand in many countries. But without formal qualifications, UAPs are often unable to perform some tasks due to issues of liability and legality. Some places have made attempts to regulate, control, and verify education. This allows an employer to verify experience and knowledge as well as assist in preventing individuals who have been "struck" (had registration/certification invalidated) from continuing to work in healthcare roles. In the UK, for example, the credibility of the Healthcare Assistant and other social care workers is intended to be strengthened by their compulsory registration from 2009 with the General Social Care Council in England or its Scottish or Welsh equivalents.  In the United States, families and employers can verify a UAP's certification by checking the state's nursing registry. Each state is required to maintain an updated nursing registry under the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA). The registry details valid certifications and reports of abuse or neglect. The background information these registries provide is important in protecting patients.

Turnover and job stability.

Typically, the turnover rate among an organization's UAPs is very high, which can be detrimental to patients' quality of care and cause stress and dissatisfaction among the personnel. Studies exploring the reasons for turnover show that it is not just a matter of pay, but can have many causes, such as the degree of respect the unlicensed personnel receive, the stress level, physical demands, scheduling flexibility, and their commitment to the profession. UAPs need coping strategies, outlets, and a support system to deal with problems on the job such as difficult patients and grueling tasks.

Unlicensed assistive personnel (UAP) are paraprofessionals who assist individuals with physical disabilities, mental impairments, and other health care needs with their activities of daily living (ADLs). UAPs also provide bedside care—including basic nursing procedures—all under the supervision of a registered nurse, licensed practical nurse or other health care professional. UAPs must demonstrate their ability and competence before gaining any expanded responsibilities in a clinical setting. While providing this care, UAPs offer compassion and patience and are part of the patient's healthcare support system. Communication between UAPs and registered nurses (RNs) is key as they are working together in their patients' best interests. The scope of care UAPs are responsible for is delegated by RNs or other clinical licensed professionals.

Praktická sestra (dříve zdravotnický asistent) je střední odborný zdravotnický pracovník. Pracuje bez dohledu všeobecné sestry nebo porodní asistentky, poskytuje základní a specializovanou ošetřovatelskou péči v rámci ošetřovatelského procesu, podílí se na získávání informací nutných k určení ošetřovatelských diagnóz, v míře určené všeobecnou sestrou nebo porodní asistentkou plní ošetřovatelský plán a provádí ošetřovatelské výkony. V České republice je pracovní činnost praktické sestry (zdravotnického asistenta) upravena zákonem č. 96/2004 a vyhláškou č. 424/2004 Sb.. Tato profese byla vytvořena v zájmu zajištění kompatibility českého zdravotnictví se směrnicemi Evropských společenství o uznávání odborných kvalifikací.


History.

Rise.

The Wafd party was an Egyptian nationalist movement that came into existence in the aftermath of World War I. Although it was not the first nationalist group in Egypt, it had the longest lasting impact. It was preceded and influenced by smaller and less significant movements which evolved over time into the more modern and stronger nationalist Wafd Party. One of these earlier movements was the Urabi Revolt led by Ahmed Urabi in the early 1880s. This uprising fought against the ruling powers of the Egyptian Khedive and European interference with Egyptian affairs. Saad Zaghloul, the future creator and leader of the Wafd Party, was a follower of Orabi, and participated in the revolt.  The actual party began taking shape during World War I and was founded in November 1918. The original members included seven prominent figures of the Egyptian landed gentry and legal profession, including their leader Saad Zaghloul. They presented themselves with Zaghloul as their representative to Reginald Wingate, the British governor in Egypt and requested to represent Egypt at the Paris Peace Conference. They told Wingate that the main goal of the Wafd was the immediate termination of the British occupation of Egypt, but not of their intention to use the Paris Peace Conference to plead their case to the world powers. Zaghloul had created a delegation that involved representatives of most of the political and social groups of Egypt. Since it was full of so many different groups, it could not yet truly be considered a political party but more of a coalition. The Wafd had formed a constitution, outlining the ways that they wished to govern Egypt.  The Wafd was denied its request to go to London and speak with the home government, nor were they allowed to attend the Paris peace conference. The Wafd counteracted this by publishing memos and giving speeches ensuring that the delegations in Paris would know what the real Egyptian delegation desired. Zaghloul became a popular figure amongst the Egyptian public and was able to arouse popular discontent at Egyptian's continued status as a British protectorate. British authorities arrested Zaghloul and three other leaders and had them exiled to the island of Malta in 1919. These deportations caused the opposite effect to that the British had hoped, and though attempts were made to keep it quiet, word spread and eventually led to a strike of law students. This strike became a demonstration with chants including "Long live Saad.... Long live Independence". This started the revolution of 1919, and in the following days many more began to strike and the government and courts shut down entirely. The civilian demonstrators were met with armed force by the British military which resulted in the death of over 800 Egyptians and the wounding of over 1,400 more. The British then released Saad Zaghloul and his followers, hoping to create a rift in the Wafd leadership. However, the party became more unified and the strikes continued.  The Wafd was now becoming a true party and one with widespread support of the people. The delegation made its way to Paris only to hear that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson supported the British Protectorate of Egypt. Although at this point the British were still in control, the Wafd was effectively leading the people of Egypt. In 1920, the British protectorate ended and the Wafd was placed in control of Egypt. The party rapidly became the dominant political organization in the country and was the governing party (albeit in a subordinate role to the executive power of the king) through most of the liberal period which came to an end with the rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser.

Government party.

The three-decade period between Britain's nominal exit in 1922 and the nationalist revolution of 1952 saw the erection of an uneasy balance of power between the King, the British Residency, and the Wafd leadership, of which the Wafd was the least powerful. In the fragile stability of this triangle, the Wafd became Egypt's preeminent political organization, described by contemporary historians as "the first in the field," "the best organized," and "the strongest numerically." In the 1924 parliamentary election the Wafd won 179 of 211 parliamentary seats. In 1936 it won 89% of the vote and 157 seats in Parliament.  However, ties between the Wafd and the two other axes of power – the King and the Residency – were strained by the party's raison d'être of opposing British intervention in Egypt and the King's collusion therein. King Fuad I's relations with the Wafd were described as "cool," and ties between the unelected monarch and the largest political party further deteriorated after Fuad's son Farouk, who succeeded his father to the sultanate, signed an unduly quiescent treaty with the British in 1936. This alienated the party that had arisen primarily out of popular resentment of British control of Egypt and commanded popular support by associating itself most closely with the nationalist struggle for full Egyptian independence.

Decline.

The power vacuum resulting from the end of the British mandate over Egypt also precipitated a severe welfare provision vacuum which the new government failed to fill. By the 1930s, Egypt became a top destination for Christian missionary organizations, which funded and performed badly needed social services for the Egyptian middle and lower classes. Western Proselytism consortia beseeched their sponsors "to make heavy sacrifices so that Egyptian children could have a better education than their own parents could afford"; likewise, the proliferation of missionary-operated hospitals exposed the inadequacy of government-provided healthcare.  Further social unrest resulted from the government's inability to resolve metastasizing labor disputes threatening the Egyptian economy. The twin occurrences of the worldwide recession prompted by the Great Depression and a regional cotton crisis slowed Egypt's GDP growth through the late 1920s and most of the following two decades. The consequent instability in the labor market motivated early attempts at widespread unionization. Sensing a threat to its unrivaled power, the Wafd implemented numerous local labor conciliation boards, which were essentially toothless owing to the dearth of labor laws on a national level. Though the Wafd secured guarantees of a permanent national labor council, no significant labor laws were enacted; those that did gain passage were not enforced; and the Wafd was unable to effect any substantial change in the fiercely anti-union policy of the government.

Failures of youth mobilization.

During the 1920s, the party's leadership had placed very low emphasis on the recruitment and mobilization of youth. Complacent in its dominant parliamentary position, the Wafd did not pursue innovative methods of youth organization until at least the mid-1930s, leaving it hopelessly behind future competitors such as the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, which had employed a far more effective local-franchising system since its inception in 1928.  After student demonstrations against the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty and the anti-labor policies of the government began to reveal cracks in the previously ironclad Wafd coalition, party leaders created a youth wing dubbed the "Blue Shirts." However, rather than capitalizing on the grassroots nature of the youth movements, the party instead tried to slot the Blue Shirts onto their own rung in the top-down Wafd hierarchy, presenting members with uniforms, badges, and a standardized salute – all under the motto "Obedience & Struggle." By June 1937, the Wafd feared that the Blue Shirts were becoming too militant, and thereafter further restricted their privileges. Having never fully embraced youth mobilization, by the close of the 1930s the uneasy Wafd leadership had essentially abandoned any efforts at intergenerational coalition-building.

Accommodation of the British presence.

Easily the greatest factor contributing to popular disillusionment with the Wafd was the party's failure to boycott the Farouk government after it acceded to the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. The policies followed by the party during the Anglo-Egyptian crisis of the mid-1930s alienated many Egyptian nationalists – heretofore the single most reliable support bloc for the Wafd – and severed the party between its small but powerful accommodationist minority and its large but voiceless resistant majority. The failure of the Wafd to more aggressively oppose the continuation of the British presence "left Egyptian politics devoid of a popularly legitimized leader or party."

Dissolution.

The collapse of the widespread popular support once commanded by the Wafd has been historically attributed to the combined embattlements of three distinct trends in Egyptian politics of the pre-revolutionary era. The party, along with all other Egyptian political parties, was banned in January 1953 by Gamal Abdel Nasser following the Free Officers Revolution of 1952.

The Wafd Party ("Delegation Party";, "Ḥizb al-Wafd") was a nationalist liberal political party in Egypt. It was said to be Egypt's most popular and influential political party for a period from the end of World War I through the 1930s. During this time, it was instrumental in the development of the 1923 constitution, and supported moving Egypt from dynastic rule to a constitutional monarchy, where power would be wielded by a nationally-elected parliament. The party was dissolved in 1952, after the 1952 Egyptian Revolution.

Wafd "(arabsky: حزب الوفد المصري, doslovně "delegace"") je bývalá nacionalisticky orientovaná, egyptská politická strana, která vznikla v roce 1919 a po Násirově coup d'état v roce 1952 zanikla. Jejím zakladatelem byl Saíd Zaglúl.


Origins.

U.S. motivations for these conflicts were largely economic and military. The term "Banana Wars" was coined much later to cast the motivations for these interventions as almost exclusively the preservation of U.S. commercial interests in the region.  Most prominently, the US was advancing its economic, political, and military interests to maintain its sphere of influence and securing the Panama Canal (opened in 1914) which it had recently built to promote global trade and to project its own naval power. US companies such as the United Fruit Company also had financial stakes in the production of bananas, tobacco, sugar cane, and other commodities throughout the Caribbean, Central America and northern South America.

Interventions.

Other Latin American nations were influenced or dominated by American economic policies and/or commercial interests to the point of coercion. Theodore Roosevelt declared the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904, asserting the right of the United States to intervene to stabilize the economic affairs of states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts. From 1909–1913, President William Howard Taft and his Secretary of State Philander C. Knox asserted a more "peaceful and economic" Dollar Diplomacy foreign policy, although that too was backed by force, as in Nicaragua.

American fruit companies.

The first decades of Honduras' history is marked by instability in terms of politics and economy. Indeed 210 armed conflicts occurred between independence and the rise to power of the Carias government. This instability was due in part to the American involvement in the country.  The first company that concluded an agreement with the Honduras government was the Vaccaro Brothers Company (Standard Fruit Company). The Cuyamel Fruit Company then followed their lead. United Fruit Company also contracted with the government through its subsidiaries, Tela Railroad Company and Truxillo Rail Road Company.  Contract between the Honduran government and the American companies most often involved exclusive rights to a piece of land in exchange for building railroads in Honduras.  However, banana producers in Central America (including Honduras) "were scourged by Panama disease, a soil-borne fungus (...) that decimated production over large regions". Typically, companies would abandon the decimated plantations and destroy the railroads and other utilities that they had used along with the plantation, so the exchange of services between the government and the companies was not always respected.  The ultimate goal of the contracts for the companies was control of the banana trade from production to distribution. The companies would finance guerrilla fighters, presidential campaigns and governments. According to Rivera and Carranza, the indirect participation of American companies in the country's armed conflicts worsened the situation. The presence of more dangerous and modern weapons allowed more dangerous warfare among the factions.  In British Honduras (modern-day Belize) the situation was significantly different. Despite the fact that the United Fruit Company was the sole exporter of bananas there and the company was also attempting to manipulate the local government, the country did not suffer the instability and armed conflicts its neighbors experienced.

Notable veteran.

Perhaps the single most active military officer in the Banana Wars was U.S. Marine Corps Major General, Smedley Butler, nicknamed "Maverick Marine", who saw action in Honduras in 1903, served in Nicaragua enforcing American policy from 1909 to 1912, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his role in Veracruz in 1914, and a second Medal of Honor for bravery in Haiti in 1915. Butler gave a speech in 1933 across the US titled "War is a Racket", where he denounced the role he had played, describing himself as "a high class muscle man for Big Business, for Wall Street and the bankers...a racketeer, a gangster for capitalism". In 1935, he adapted that speech into a published book.

The Banana Wars were occupations, police actions, and interventions on the part of the United States in Central America and the Caribbean between the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 and the inception of the Good Neighbor Policy in 1934. These military interventions were most often carried out by the United States Marine Corps, which developed a manual, "The Strategy and Tactics of Small Wars" (1921) based on its experiences. On occasion, the Navy provided gunfire support and Army troops were also used.

Jako Banánové války se neoficiálně označují intervence, okupace a ozbrojené konflikty Spojených států amerických z první třetiny 20. století v několika zemích Karibiku a Střední Ameriky. Odehrávaly se mezi lety 1903 a 1935. Hlavní roli v nich hrály ozbrojené síly Spojených států amerických. Většiny konfliktů se z americké strany účastnil (a později je sám vedl) generál Smedley Butler (který na konci své vojenské kariéry svých činů litoval ve své knize "War Is a Racket", kde tyto války popsal jako „znásilnění půl tuctu republik ve Střední Americe ve prospěch Wall Streetu“).


Overview.

Early history.

The shilling has been the currency of parts of Somalia since 1921, when the East African shilling was introduced to the former British Somaliland protectorate. Following independence in 1960, the somalo of Italian Somaliland and the East African shilling (which were equal in value) were replaced at par in 1962 by the Somali shilling. Names used for the denominations were cent (singular: centesimo; plural: centesimi) and سنت (plural: سنتيمات) together with shilling (singular: scellino; plural: scellini) and شلن.

Banknotes.

On 15 October 1962, the Banca Nazionale Somala (National Bank of Somalia) issued notes denominated as 5, 10, 20 and 100 scellini/shillings. In 1975, the "Bankiga Qaranka Soomaaliyeed" (Somali National Bank) introduced notes for 5, 10, 20 and 100 shilin/shillings. These were followed in 1978 by notes of the same denominations issued by the "Bankiga Dhexe Ee Soomaaliya" (Central Bank of Somalia). 50 shilin/shillings notes were introduced in 1983, followed by 500 shilin/shillings in 1989 and 1000 shilin/shillings in 1990. Also in 1990 there was an attempt to reform the currency at 100 to 1, with new banknotes of 20 and 50 new shilin prepared for the redenomination.

Coins.

In terms of coins, the East African shilling and somalo initially circulated. In 1967, coins were issued in the name of the Somali Republic in denominations of 5, 10 and 50 cents/centesimi and 1 shilling/scellino. In 1976, when the Somali names for the denominations were introduced, coins were issued in the name of the Somali Democratic Republic for 5, 10 and 50 senti and 1 shilling.

Modern history.

Unregulation.

Following the breakdown in central authority that accompanied the civil war, which began in the early 1990s, the value of the Somali shilling was disrupted. The Central Bank of Somalia, the nation's monetary authority, also shut down operations. Rival producers of the local currency, including autonomous regional entities such as the Somaliland territory, subsequently emerged. These included the Na shilling, which failed to gain widespread acceptance, and the Balweyn I and II, which were forgeries of pre-1991 bank notes. Competition for seigniorage drove the value of the money down to about $0.04 per ShSo (1000) note, approximately the commodity cost. Consumers also refused to accept bills larger than the 1991 denominations, which helped to stop the devaluation from spiraling further. The pre-1991 notes and the subsequent forgeries were treated as the same currency. It took large bundles to make cash purchases, and the United States dollar was often used for larger transactions.

Somaliland shilling.

The Somaliland shilling is the official currency of Somaliland, a self-declared republic that is not internationally recognized and acts as an autonomous region of Somalia. The currency is not recognized as legal tender by the international community, and it currently has no official exchange rate. It is regulated by the Bank of Somaliland, the regions central bank and Somaliland people.

Regulation.

In the late 2000s, Somalia's newly established Transitional Federal Government revived the defunct Central Bank of Somalia. In terms of financial management, the monetary authority is in the process of assuming the task of both formulating and implementing monetary policy. Owing to a lack of confidence in the Somali shilling, the U.S. dollar is widely accepted as a medium of exchange alongside the Somali shilling. Dollarization notwithstanding, the large issuance of the Somali shilling has increasingly fueled price hikes, especially for low-value transactions. The new central bank of Somalia expects this inflationary environment to come to an end as soon as the Central Bank assumes full control of monetary policy and replaces the presently circulating currency introduced by the private sector.  With a significant improvement in local security, Somali expatriates began returning to the country for investment opportunities. Coupled with modest foreign investment, the inflow of funds have helped the Somali shilling increase considerably in value. By March 2014, the currency had appreciated by almost 60% against the U.S. dollar over the previous 12 months. The Somali shilling was the strongest among the 175 global currencies traded by Bloomberg, rising close to 50 percentage points higher than the next most robust global currency over the same period.

Historical exchange rates.

Free market rates in Somalia:

The Somali shilling (sign: Sh.So.; ; ; ; ISO 4217: SOS) is the official currency of Somalia. It is subdivided into 100 "senti" (Somali, also ), "cents" (English) or (Italian).

Šilink (somálsky "shilin", anglicky "shilling") je od roku 1962 měnou v Somálsku. Kód měny ISO 4217 je SOS. Je rozdělen do 100 centů (som. "senti", ang. "cents").


Desirable properties.

The ideal working fluid or often called refrigerant would have favorable thermodynamic properties, be noncorrosive to mechanical components, and be safe, including freedom from toxicity and flammability. It would not cause ozone depletion or climate change. Since different fluids have the desired traits in different degree, choice is a matter of trade-offs.  The desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below the target temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form, and a high critical temperature. Since boiling point and gas density are affected by pressure, refrigerants may be made more suitable for a particular application by appropriate choice of operating pressures.

Environmental issues.

A 2018 study by the nonprofit organization "Drawdown" put proper refrigerant management and disposal at the very top of the list of climate impact solutions, with an impact equivalent to eliminating over 17 years of US carbon dioxide emissions.  The inert nature of many haloalkanes, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), particularly CFC-11 and CFC-12, made them preferred choices among refrigerants for many years because of their non-flammability and non-toxicity. However, their stability in the atmosphere and their corresponding global warming potential and ozone depletion potential raised concerns about their usage. This led to their replacement with HFCs and PFCs, especially HFC-134a, which are not-ozone depleting, and have lesser global warming potentials. However, these refrigerants still have global warming potentials thousands of times greater than CO. Therefore, they are now being replaced in markets where leaks are likely, by using a fourth generation of refrigerants, most prominently HFO-1234yf, trademarked by Chemours as Opteon-YF, which have global warming potentials much closer to that of CO.  In order from the highest to the lowest potential of ozone depletion are: Bromochlorofluorocarbon, CFC then HCFC.  New refrigerants were developed in the early 21st century that are safer for the environment, but their application has been held up due to concerns over toxicity and flammability.  Compared to halogenated refrigerants, hydrocarbons like isobutane (R-600a) and propane (R-290) offer several advantages: low cost and widely available, zero ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential. They also have good energy efficiency, but are flammable and can form an explosive mixture with air if a leak occurs. Despite the flammability, they are increasingly used in domestic refrigerators. EU and US regulations set maximum charges of 57 or 150 grams of refrigerant, keeping the concentration in a standard kitchen below 20% of the lower explosive limit. The LEL can be exceeded inside the appliance, so no potential ignition sources can be present. Switches must be placed outside the refrigerated compartment or replaced by sealed versions, and only spark-free fans can be used. In 2010, about one-third of all household refrigerators and freezers manufactured globally used isobutane or an isobutane/propane blend, and this was expected to increase to 75% by 2020.

History.

Early mechanical refrigeration systems employed sulfur dioxide, methyl chloride or ammonia. Being toxic, sulfur dioxide and methyl chloride rapidly disappeared from the market with the introduction of CFCs. Occasionally, one may encounter older machines with methyl formate, methyl chloride, or dichloromethane (called carrene in the trade).  Chlorofluorocarbons were little used for refrigeration until better synthesis methods, developed in the 1950s, reduced their cost. Their domination of the market was called into question in the 1980s by concerns about depletion of the ozone layer.  Following legislative regulations on ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), substances used as substitute refrigerants such as perfluorocarbons (FCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have also come under criticism. They are currently subject to prohibition discussions on account of their harmful effect on the climate. In 1997, FCs and HFCs were included in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. In 2006, the EU adopted a Regulation on fluorinated greenhouse gases, which makes stipulations regarding the use of FCs and HFCs with the intention of reducing their emissions. The provisions do not affect climate-neutral refrigerants. Hydrocarbons are seeing increasing use as refrigerants.

Uses.

Refrigerants such as ammonia (R717), carbon dioxide and non-halogenated hydrocarbons do not deplete the ozone layer and have no (ammonia) or only a low (carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons) global warming potential. They are used in air-conditioning systems for buildings, in sport and leisure facilities, in the chemical/pharmaceutical industry, in the automotive industry and above all in the food industry (production, storage, marine shipping, retailing). In these settings their toxicity is less a concern than in home equipment.  Emissions from automobile air conditioning are a growing concern because of their impact on climate change. From 2011 on, the European Union will phase out refrigerants with a global warming potential (GWP) of more than 150 in automotive air conditioning (GWP = 100 year warming potential of one kilogram of a gas relative to one kilogram of CO). This will ban potent greenhouse gases such as the refrigerant HFC-134a (also known as R-134a in North America) —which has a GWP of 1410—to promote safe and energy-efficient refrigerants.  One of the most promising alternatives is CO (R-744). Carbon dioxide is non-flammable, non-ozone depleting, has a global warming potential of 1. R-744 can be used as a working fluid in climate control systems for cars, residential air conditioning, hot water pumps, commercial refrigeration, and vending machines. R12 is compatible with mineral oil, while R134a is compatible with synthetic oil that contains esters. GM announced that it would start using "hydrofluoroolefin", HFO-1234yf, in all of its brands by 2013. Dimethyl ether (DME) is also gaining popularity as a refrigerant, but like propane, it is also dangerously flammable.  Some refrigerants are seeing rising use as recreational drugs, leading to an extremely dangerous phenomenon known as inhalant abuse.

Disposal.

Under Section 608 of the United States' Clean Air Act it is illegal to knowingly release refrigerants into the atmosphere. SNAP approved hydrocarbon substitutes (isobutane and propane: R600a, R441a and R290), ammonia and CO are exempt from the venting prohibition.  When refrigerants are removed they should be recycled to clean out any contaminants and return them to a usable condition. Refrigerants should never be mixed together outside of facilities licensed to do so for the purpose of producing blends. Some refrigerants must be managed as hazardous waste even if recycled, and special precautions are required for their transport, depending on the legislation of the country's government.  Various refrigerant reclamation methods are in use to recover refrigerants for reuse.

Refrigerants by class and R-number.

Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:  The R-# numbering system was developed by DuPont corporation (which owned the Freon trademark), and systematically identifies the molecular structure of refrigerants made with a single halogenated hydrocarbon. The meaning of the codes is as follows: For example, R-134a has 2 carbon atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 4 fluorine atoms, an empirical formula of tetrafluoroethane. The "a" suffix indicates that the isomer is unbalanced by one atom, giving 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane. R-134 (without the "a" suffix) would have a molecular structure of 1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethane.  The same numbers are used with an R- prefix for generic refrigerants, with a "Propellant" prefix (e.g., "Propellant 12") for the same chemical used as a propellant for an aerosol spray, and with trade names for the compounds, such as "Freon 12". Recently, a practice of using abbreviations HFC- for hydrofluorocarbons, CFC- for chlorofluorocarbons, and HCFC- for hydrochlorofluorocarbons has arisen, because of the regulatory differences among these groups.

Notable blends.

Below are some notable blended HFC mixtures. There exist many more (see list of refrigerants). All R-400 (R-4xx) and R-500 (R-5xx) hydroflurocarbons are blends, as noted above.

Air as a refrigerant.

Air has been used for residential, automobile, and piston- and turbine-powered aircraft air-conditioning and/or cooling. Air is not more widely used as a general-purpose refrigerant because there is no change of phase, and is therefore too inefficient to be practical in most applications. It has been suggested that with suitable compression and expansion technology, air can be a practical (albeit not the most efficient) refrigerant, free of the possibility of environmental contamination or damage, and almost completely harmless to plants and animals.  However, an explosion could result from vapors or atomized refrigerant-type compressor lubricating oils being compressed together with air, in a process similar to a diesel engine.

Water as a refrigerant.

Water—natural, non toxic, low cost, environmentally friendly, and widely available—is widely used in water cooling, and if evaporated in the process may be called a "refrigerant". Water also commonly serves as a heat transfer and storage material, and in large systems it may actually fill all of these roles. The simplest and lowest cost open-cycle cooling systems, known as swamp coolers in the south-west United States, do not even need power for a compressor, merely a blower fan, so humidified cooled air is simply vented into the living space. Portable free-standing units can be obtained at discount stores for less than $200. However, if these systems are improperly implemented the drawbacks are multiple and severe.  The total cooling power of the unit is limited by the fact that neither coolant nor air can be recirculated. If the cooling unit does not have a supply of fresh dry air and the waste air is not effectively vented, stagnant humid air will make the space more uncomfortable than if it were merely ventilated.  An additional limitation of such systems would be that if the air outside is already humid, cooling power is severely limited. This is why such units are not found in areas of frequent and high humidity, such as the south-east United States.  If the temperature outside is severely hot, above, the simple unit will not cool the air sufficiently for comfort even if the dew point outside is very low. In these instances more-complex systems such as two stage, indirect-direct or hybrid will be needed.  While all the drawbacks can be addressed in various ways, the complexity and initial cost of these systems increases to the point that the installation cost comes into competition with common refrigerant based direct cooling systems. At this price point, direct cooling systems are often chosen even though the long term energy cost of evaporative systems may be lower.

A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a fluid, used in a heat pump and refrigeration cycle. In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again. Many working fluids have been used for such purposes. Fluorocarbons, especially chlorofluorocarbons, became commonplace in the 20th century, but they are being phased out because of their ozone depletion effects. Other common refrigerants used in various applications are ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and non-halogenated hydrocarbons such as propane.

Chladivo je chemická látka nebo směs látek používaná v tepelném cyklu, kde podléhá fázové přeměně z plynu na kapalinu a zpět. Hlavní oblasti použití chladiv jsou chladničky/mrazničky, klimatizace a tepelné čerpadlo. Používání chladiv vzbuzuje čím dál větší obavy, od doby, kdy bylo v 80. letech 20. století zjištěno, že nejpoužívanější chladiva jsou hlavní příčinou vzniku ozonové díry.


History.

The defense of the Gaullist identity against President Giscard d'Estaing (1976–1981).

In 1974, the divisions in the Gaullist movement permitted the election of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing to the Presidency of the French Republic. Representing the pro-European and Orleanist centre-right, he was the first non-Gaullist becoming head of state since the beginning of the Fifth Republic in 1958. However, the Gaullist Party remained the main force in parliament and Jacques Chirac was appointed Prime Minister. Chirac resigned in August 1976 and in December 1976 the RPR was created in order to restore the Gaullist domination over the institutions of the French republic.  Though retaining its support for the president's government, the RPR criticized the executive duo composed of President Giscard d'Estaing and Prime Minister Raymond Barre. Its first master stroke was in March 1977 the election of Chirac as Mayor of Paris against Michel d'Ornano, a close friend of President Giscard d'Estaing. Nevertheless, it was faced with the creation of the Union for French Democracy (UDF), a confederation of the parties supporting the presidential policies and which competed for the leadership over the right. Consequently, the stake of the 1978 legislative election was not only the victory of the right over the left, but the domination of the RPR over the UDF in the parliamentary majority.  Given the increasing unpopularity of the executive duo, and with a view to the next presidential election, the RPR became increasingly critical. In December 1978, six months before the European Parliament election, the "Call of Cochin" signed by Chirac denounced the appropriation of France by "the foreign party," which sacrificed the national interests and the independence of the country in order to build a federal Europe. This accusation clearly targeted Giscard d'Estaing. RPR leaders contrasted this as coming from the social doctrine of Gaullism as opposed to a perceived liberalism on the part of the President.  As RPR candidate at the 1981 presidential election, Chirac formulated vigorous condemnations of President Giscard d'Estaing, who ran for a second term. Eliminated in the first round, Chirac refused to give an endorsement for the second round, though he did say privately that he would vote for Giscard d'Estaing. In fact, the RPR was expected to work for the defeat of the incumbent president.

The opposition to President Mitterrand and the abandonment of the Gaullist doctrine (1981–1995).

After 1981, the RPR opposed with energy the policy of the Socialist Party President François Mitterrand and the left-wing governments. The RPR denounced the plan of nationalizations as the setting up of a "collectivist society". Impressed by the electoral success of New Right conservatives led by Ronald Reagan in the United States of America and by Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom, it gradually abandoned the Gaullist doctrine, claiming a less control of the state in economy. During its 1983 congress, it advocated a liberal economic programme and the pursuit of the European construction, accepting the supranationality.  This new political line contributed to the reconciliation between the RPR and the UDF. In this, they presented a common list at the 1984 European Parliament election and a platform to prepare the winning 1986 legislative election. However, a rivalry appeared between Jacques Chirac and Raymond Barre who competed for the right-wing leadership with a view to the next presidential election. Furthermore, if the right-wing coalition benefited from the failures of the Socialist power, it was confronted with the emergence of the National Front in the far right. The RPR was divided about the possibility of alliance with this party.  In 1986, being the leader of the main party of the new parliamentary majority and accepting the principle of the "cohabitation" with President Mitterrand (contrary to Barre), Chirac became again Prime Minister. He led a liberal economic policy inspired by Anglo-Saxon examples, selling many public companies, and abolishing the wealth tax. His Interior Minister Charles Pasqua led a policy of restriction of immigration. If Chirac acceded in the second round of the 1988 presidential election despite Raymond Barre's candidacy, he was defeated by Mitterrand.  While the RPR returned in the opposition, the leadership of Chirac was challenged by younger politicians who wished to renew the right. Furthermore, the abandonment of the Gaullist doctrine was criticized by Charles Pasqua and Philippe Séguin. They tried to take him the RPR lead in 1990, in vain. However, the division re-appeared with the 1992 Maastricht referendum. Chirac voted "yes" whereas Séguin and Pasqua campaigned for "no".  The "Union for France", a RPR/UDF coalition, won the 1993 legislative election. Chirac refused to re-cohabitate with Mitterrand, and Edouard Balladur became prime minister. Balladur promised that he would not be a candidate at the 1995 presidential election. Nevertheless, polls indicated Balladur was the favorite in the presidential race and, furthermore, he was supported by the most part of the right-wing politicians. He decided finally to run against Chirac. However, they claimed that they remained friends for 30 years.  The Socialists being weakened after the 14 years of Mitterrand's presidency, the main competition was within the right, between Balladur and Chirac, two Neo-Gaullists. Balladur proposed a liberal program and took advantage of the "positive results" of his cabinet, whereas Chirac advocated Keynesian economics to reduce the "social fracture" and criticized the "dominant ideas", targeting Balladur. Chirac won the 1995 presidential election.

The RPR became the presidential party (1995–2002).

After his election as President of France, Jacques Chirac nominated Alain Juppé, "the best among us" according to him, as Prime Minister. But the majority of the personalities who had supported Balladur during the presidential campaign were excluded from the government. The "balladuriens" (such as Nicolas Sarkozy) were completely isolated in the party too.  In November 1995, Prime Minister Alain Juppé announced a plan to reform the French welfare state which sparked wide social conflict. The executive duo became very unpopular and some months later President Chirac dissolved the National Assembly. His supporters lost the 1997 legislative election. Consequently, he was forced to cohabitate with a left-wing cabinet led by Lionel Jospin until 2002.  Séguin succeeded to Juppé as RPR leader, but he criticized the ascendancy of President Chirac over the party. He resigned during the 1999 European campaign while Pasqua presented a dissident list to advocate the Gaullist idea of a "Europe of nations". Pasqua founded the Rally for France (RPF) and obtained more votes than the RPR official list led by Nicolas Sarkozy. Michèle Alliot-Marie, former Minister of Youth and sports, was elected RPR leader, against the will of President Chirac who supported covertly an unfamous candidate Jean-Paul Delevoye. Besides, the RPR was involved in many financing scandals. For instance, the party was suspected to pay its employees with the funds of Paris's municipality. The RPR lost the mayoralty of Paris in 2001, in aid of the left.  After the 1999 European elections, the RPR joined the European People's Party–European Democrats (EPP-ED) parliamentary group, and became a full member of the European People's Party (EPP) in December 2001.  Before the 2002 presidential election, both RPR and non-RPR supporters of Chirac gathered in an association: the "Union on the move". It became the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) after the 21 April 2002 electoral shock. Chirac was re-elected and the new party won the legislative election.  Prior to its replacement by the UMP, the RPR had been increasingly embroiled in judicial proceedings following from the corruption scandals in the Paris region. Its former secretary-general Alain Juppé was sentenced in 2004 for a related felony. In 2007, a formal judicial investigation was opened against Jacques Chirac himself.

The Rally for the Republic ( ; RPR ), was a Gaullist and conservative political party in France. Originating from the Union of Democrats for the Republic (UDR), it was founded by Jacques Chirac in 1976 and presented itself as the heir of Gaullist politics. On 21 September 2002, the RPR was merged into the Union for the Presidential Majority, later renamed the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP).

Rassemblement pour la République, zkratka RPR, česky Sdružení pro republiku, je bývalá francouzská politická strana, která se v roce 2002 sloučila s nově vzniklou "Union pour la majorité présidentielle", později přejmenovanou na "Union pour un mouvement populaire, UMP".


Evolution.

The first group, the four "Di Giussano"s, were built to counter the French large "contre-torpilleurs", and therefore they featured very high speed, in exchange for virtually no armour protection. The two "Cadorna"s retained the main characteristics, with minor improvements to stability and hull strength.  Major changes were introduced for the next pair, the "Montecuccoli"s. About 2000 tons heavier, they had significantly better protection, and upgraded power-plants to maintain the required high speed. The two "Duca d'Aosta"s continued the trend, thickening the armour and improving the power plant again.  The final pair, the "Duca degli Abruzzi"s completed the transition, sacrificing a little speed for good protection (whose scheme was the same of the heavy cruisers) and for ten (instead of eight) 6-inch /55 guns.

Service.

All ships served in the Mediterranean during World War II.  The ships of the first two subclasses (with the exception of ) were all lost by 1942, primarily to enemy torpedoes (with sunk by destroyers at the Battle of Cape Spada after being crippled by, and suffering a similar fate at the Battle of Cape Bon, and sunk by a submarine), which led to many authors (including Preston) to question their real value as fighting ships. However, the subsequent vessels fared considerably better with all, except (sunk by an Allied bombing in December 1942), surviving the war.  After the end of the war, and were given respectively to the Greek Navy and the Soviet Navy as war reparations; "Luigi Cadorna" was quickly stricken, became a training ship, and the "Duca degli Abruzzi" subclass served on in the "Marina Militare" until the 1970s, with becoming in 1961 the first European guided missile cruiser.

The Condottieri class was a sequence of five different light cruiser classes of the "Regia Marina" (Italian Navy), although these classes show a clear line of evolution. They were built before World War II to gain predominance in the Mediterranean Sea. The ships were named after military commanders ("condottieri") of Italian history.

Třída Condottieri je souhrnné označení pro pět tříd lehkých křižníků, postavených pro italské námořnictvo v letech 1926–1937. Těchto pět tříd zahrnovalo celkem dvanáct postavených jednotek. Křižníky byly stavěny jako tzv. (~ velký průzkumník) zejména jako protiváha „supertorpédoborců“ francouzského námořnictva. Lodě byly pojmenovány po vojenských velitelích (italsky "condottieri") italské renesance.


Names.

The term "politburo" in English comes from the Russian "Politbyuro" (), itself a contraction of "Politicheskoye Byuro" (, "Political Bureau"). The Spanish term "Politburó" is directly loaned from Russian, as is the German "Politbüro". Chinese uses a calque (), from which the Vietnamese (), and Korean ( "Jeongchiguk") terms derive.

History.

The first politburo was created in Russia by the Bolshevik Party in 1917 to provide strong and continuous leadership during the Russian Revolution occurring during the same year. The first Politburo had seven members: Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Stalin, Sokolnikov, and Bubnov. During the 20th century, nations that had a politburo included the USSR, East Germany, Afghanistan, Czechoslovakia and China, among others. Today, there are five countries that have a politburo system: China, North Korea, Laos, Vietnam, and Cuba.

Socialist/Marxist–Leninist states.

In Marxist–Leninist states, the party is seen as the vanguard of the people and from that legitimizes itself to lead the state. Essentially, the party officials in the Politburo informally lead the state.  Officially, the Party Congress elects a Central Committee which, in turn, elects the Politburo and General Secretary in a process termed democratic centralism. The Politburo was theoretically answerable to the Central Committee.

Trotskyist parties.

In Trotskyist parties, the Politburo is a bureau of the Central Committee tasked with making day-to-day political decisions, which must later be ratified by the Central Committee. It is appointed by the Central Committee from among its members. The post of General Secretary carries far less weight in this model. See, for example, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party.

A politburo () or political bureau is the executive committee for communist parties. It is present in most former and existing communist states. Under Trotskyism, the Politburo is a bureau of the Central Committee.

Politbyro, zkratka z politické byro (rusky: "Политическое бюро́" [političeskoje bjuro], "politická kancelář") je nejvyšší orgán některých komunistických stran a představuje jejich nejužší politické vedení.