Early and personal life.

Bogdanovic was born in Belgrade to parents Dušan and Emilija, who left Belgrade for the UK in 1992 with their eight-year-old son Alex and daughter Olga. At school, he started playing socially at the urging of a best friend.  He is nicknamed 'Boggo' and 'A-Bog' ("Bog" means "God" in Serbian)

Junior career.

Started playing regularly on the international junior circuit in 1999. He had a lot of success in juniors for Great Britain, reaching a high of no 8, winning the Uruguay Bowl in Montevideo and reaching the semifinal of the US Junior Open in United States in 2001, the first British player ever to do so. He finished runner-up in the U18 national championships in 2001 to Richard Bloomfield.

Senior career.

2001-2002.

Finished runner-up in the senior national championships that autumn beating top 100 player Martin Lee and British no 4 Arvind Parmar before losing in the final to Lee Childs in straight sets. In 2002, he was given a wildcard for Wimbledon, being the youngest man in the draw. However, he lost in the first round. His first senior title was won this year, the Futures tournament in Nottingham. That autumn he won the senior national championships, beating Martin Lee again and defeating Jamie Delgado 7–5, 6–2 in the final.

2003: Davis Cup debut.

Bogdanovic made his debut in the Davis Cup for Great Britain in February 2003 against Australia, playing against the then world number 1, Lleyton Hewitt. Bogdanovic, then ranked at 457 in the world, made a great start on the clay court surface against a surprisingly lacklustre Hewitt and led 5–3 in the first set, but Hewitt then found his form and cruised to victory in straight sets, 7–5, 6–1, 6–2. Bogdanovic beat Todd Woodbridge 6–2, 7–6, in a dead-rubber to prevent a whitewash.

2004: LTA controversy.

At a Sarajevo challenger event in March 2004, Bogdanovic withdrew from his quarterfinal match, due to food poisoning. The next week, he was scheduled thereafter to play in a futures event in Greece but, for the same reasons, stated he was unable to do so.  In April 2004, the Lawn Tennis Association accused Bogdanovic of having an attitude problem; they withdrew his £80,000 per year funding and LTA coach (Martin Bohn), and stopped his free use of the practice courts at their headquarters at Queen's Club. Bogdanovic also lost his place in Great Britain's Davis Cup squad following just one victory in eight singles rubbers.  Bogdanovic was runner-up in the Bournemouth Futures (to Gael Monfils) in May, and the Nottingham Challenger (to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga) in July, but won the Manchester Challenger in July.  Bogdanovic lost to Roger Federer in the first round at Wimbledon in June, but qualified for the US Open in September and lost to Álex Calatrava in the first round in five sets.  During Wimbledon 2004, the LTA met with Bogdanovic and offered to let him rejoin the LTA training squad. Bogdanovic declined, preferring to work with a coach he had hired himself, initially Mike Raphael, then Paul Hand.

2005.

Bogdanovic beat Mark Hilton in the final of the Nottingham Challenger, the last all-British Challenger final until the 2016 RBC Tennis Championships of Dallas, when Kyle Edmund beat Daniel Evans.

2006.

The 2006 Grass court season was disappointing, seeing Bogdanovic going out in first rounds of the Surbiton Trophy, Queens and the Nottingham Open ATP tournaments. As well at Wimbledon. He drew strong opponents in all three ATP events. At Queens he took World number 33 Dmitry Tursunov to a tie- break, in Nottingham he took a set off world 52 Max Mirnyi and at Wimbledon he made a credible showing against world number 2 Rafael Nadal. Alex received Wild Card entry into all three.  For the first time in his career, his ranking was high enough for him to be granted regular entry (i.e. without having to qualify) into the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships in Newport, Rhode Island the week after Wimbledon, which his compatriot Greg Rusedski had won the previous two years.  Bogdanovic was drawn to play against American world 735 in the 1st round, Jesse Levine. He won this match 6–4 7–5, his first ATP tour victory of the season. Alex went on to beat George Bastl of Switzerland 6–1 7–6 (8–6), in the second round, to advance to the quarter finals of an ATP Tour for the first time in his career. He lost to the 6th seed from Austria, Jürgen Melzer in 3 sets after having won the first set.

2007.

Bogdanovic had a slow start to the season with his ranking dropping to 150. However his season picked up its pace when he was victorious in the Valencia challenger raising his ranking to 132. He followed this up with another consecutive challenger final in Cardiff, but failed to beat Frédéric Niemeyer in this encounter.  Bogdanovic then had a poor clay court season with 2 first-round challenger exits and failing to qualify for the French Open main draw. After this came a 2nd-round defeat to Richard Bloomfield at the Surbiton Trophy.  Bogdanovic competed at two ATP tour events, Queen's and the Nottingham Open, before Wimbledon, where he had been granted entry via a wildcard.  At Queen's he managed to gain an impressive victory over world number 42 Hyung-Taik Lee, and beat British youngster Jamie Baker in the second round to play Andy Roddick. He put on a superb performance against Roddick having won the first set 6–4, and pushed Roddick to a close tie-break in the second set. During the tie-break he was two points from victory, but Roddick took advantage of the Hawk-eye system and a correctly challenged call put him 6–5 up in the tie-break before winning the second set to make it one set all. Roddick broke Alex's serve for the first time in the final set making the final result 4–6 7–6(7–5) 6–4. Bogdanovic's impressive run at Queen's meant a career high of 108. After the match Roddick complimented Bogdanovic and claimed he was "lucky to get out of there." He eagerly backed the idea Alex should easily burst into the top 50 at least by the end of 2007, though this did not happen.  In November, Andy Murray split from his coach Brad Gilbert, who was being funded £750,000 a year by the Lawn Tennis Association. Brad Gilbert's contract was due to run until July 2009, but was revised to December 2008 and changed to spend at least 15 weeks coaching Bogdanovic, the British No 2.

2008.

Bogdanovic's projected entry into the World's Top 50 did not materialise. In a poor start to 2008, he was involved in Great Britain's Davis Cup defeat by Argentina and slipped out of the Top 200. His poor 2008 continued, with wildcard entries for the Artois Championships and Wimbledon men's singles tournament resulting in defeats. At Wimbledon he faced Simone Bolelli from Italy and lost in four sets 6–7, 6–4, 3–6, 6–7, his seventh consecutive defeat in the first round at Wimbledon. This low was followed by a victory in the Challenger Banque Tournament in Canada, which helped boost Bogdanovic back into the Top 200, for a short period at least.  As Great Britain's 2nd ranked player Bogdanovic was selected for the Davis Cup World Group play-off against Austria in September. Playing the first singles rubber against World No 41 Jürgen Melzer, he lost in 4 sets. He played the final rubber against Alexander Peya, a player ranked two places below, in match to decide which country will be relegated from the World Group to the Group One Euro/African Zone. After winning the first, he faded to lose in four sets.  Despite captain John Lloyd admitting that the final tie was 50/50 in a televised interview by Sue Barker, his comments and further comments by LTA chief executive Roger Draper regarding a lack of a number two player suggests that this could be the last time Bogdanovic will represent his country in a Davis Cup tie.

2009.

In January 2009, Bogdanovic was dropped from Great Britain's Davis Cup squad. In June, he went out of Wimbledon to Tomáš Berdych in straight sets in 87 minutes in the first round. This was his eighth straight loss at Wimbledon. In total he won 3 out of 27 sets at Wimbledon.  He continued to compete largely on the Challenger circuit, winning in Kolding, Denmark, which helped him to retain his place in the world top 200.  In December, the Lawn Tennis Association decided to cut his annual financial support from £15,000 to the stipulated minimum of £4,000, because they believed he wasn't working hard enough, though Bogdanovic disagreed.

2010.

The new Davis Cup Captain Leon Smith wanted Bogdanovic to take part in Great Britain's vital Davis Cup tie vs Turkey in July. Defeat would have meant Great Britain's relegation to Europe Zone Group III. However Bogdanovic declined because of the 'disrespectful' way the Lawn Tennis Association reduced his funding the previous December. Leon Smith told him that he wouldn't receive any wildcards.  Bogdanovic didn't receive his usual wildcard into the Wimbledon main draw and he had to qualify. In the second round of qualifying, he lost to Nicolas Mahut 3–6 6–3 24–22 in a match that lasted over 4 hours.

2011.

In March, Leon Smith recalled Bogdanovic to the Davis Cup squad after a three-year absence, for the Euro/Africa Zone Group II tie against Tunisia. Although Bogdanovic (No 374) had lost all six of his live Davis Cup rubbers, he had at least won the Tamarac Futures tournament in Florida this January, and was widely regarded as the most gifted British player after Andy Murray. James Ward lost at the first hurdle in six of his seven tournaments at the beginning of this year, so Leon Smith sprang a surprise when his final choice of singles players were James Ward (No 214) and Jamie Baker (No 406), who had lost first time out in his last two events. James Ward won both his singles rubbers, and with GB’s doubles win, Great Britain clinched the tie.

2012.

In July, Bogdanovic won two Futures titles back to back, Pittsburg, USA Futures F18 and Rochester, USA Futures F19.  Bogdanovic was in the semi final of the Champaign Challenger, USA. Elsewhere on the Futures circuit, Bogdanovic made the final of the Irvine, USA Futures F26, two semifinals and a quarterfinal.

2013.

January saw a semi final appearance at Florida USA F1, then in April, he was a finalist at Oklahoma USA F9.  During the grass court season, he was beaten in the Nottingham Challenger first round, Queen's Club initial qualifying round and Wimbledon second qualifying round.  In July, Bogdanovic played the first rounds of the Winnetka Challenger and the Binghampton Challenger, which were his last matches before his retirement.

Potential.

Bogdanovic is generally regarded as a player who has never fulfilled his potential. "The Times" writes that "Bogdanovic has long been regarded as a player too satisfied by failure and in denial of the true facts of tennis life."  When the Lawn Tennis Association reduced his annual funding in 2010, to a minimum of £4,000, because they believed he could work harder if he tried, Bogdanovic declared 'I just thought that was disrespectful because that's untrue. He said my intensity wasn't good enough and that hurt a lot because I've been trying to give it my best shot for the last eight years. If it was easy then everyone would be in the top 100. I found out they didn't believe in me any more. They questioned my efforts and I have always tried to do the best that I can.'

Performance Timelines.

"To prevent confusion and double counting, information in this table is updated only once a tournament or the player's participation in the tournament has concluded. This table is current through the 2014 Australian Open."

Aleksa Bogdanovic (; born 22 May 1984) is a retired Serbian-born British tennis player, and former UK no 2. On the professional tour, he won 9 Challenger titles and 4 Futures events, but never managed to break into the top 100. He also competed in 22 Grand Slam qualification draws, only managing to qualify one time for the main draw (the 2004 US Open where he lost in the first round]. He received a wildcard into the Wimbledon main draw eight consecutive years (from 2002-2009), but lost in the first round every time (winning a total of just three sets in eight matches).

Aleksa "Alex" Bogdanović (srbsky: Aлeкca Бoгдaнoвић; narozený 22. května 1984, Bělehrad, Jugoslávie, dnes Srbsko), známý pod přezdívkami "Boggo" či "A-Bog", je britský profesionální tenista srbského původu hrající levou rukou. Do Velké Británie odešel s rodiči Dušanem a Amelií ve věku sedmi let. Dosud nevyhrál žádný turnaj ATP.


Biography.

Heym was born in Hirschberg, Lower Silesia in 1887 to Hermann and Jenny Heym. Throughout his short life, he was constantly in conflict with social conventions. His parents, members of the Wilhemine middle class, had trouble comprehending their son's rebellious behavior. Heym's own attitude towards his parents was paradoxical; on the one hand he held a deep affection for them, but on the other he strongly resisted any attempts to suppress his individuality and autonomy.  In 1900 the Heyms moved to Berlin, and there Georg began unsuccessfully attending a series of different schools. Eventually, he arrived at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Gymnasium at Neuruppin in Brandenburg. He was very unsatisfied, and as a way to achieve some release he began writing poetry. After he graduated and went to study law at Würzburg, he started writing plays as well. However, publishers largely ignored his work.  In 1910 Heym met the poet and writer Simon Guttmann, who invited Heym to join the recently founded "Der Neue Club", a descendant of a student society at the University of Berlin. Other members of this Club included Kurt Hiller, Jakob van Hoddis, and Erwin Loewenson (also known as Golo Gangi); often visiting were Else Lasker-Schüler, Gottfried Benn, and Karl Kraus. Although the Club had no actual stated objective, its members all shared a sense of rebellion against contemporary culture and possessed a desire for political and aesthetic upheaval. The Club held "Neopathetisches Cabaret" meetings in which members presented work, and it was here that Heym first gained notice. His poetry immediately attracted praise. In January 1911, Ernst Rowohlt published Heym's first book and the only one to appear in his lifetime: "Der ewige Tag" ("The Eternal Day").  Heym later went through several judicial jobs, none of which he held for long due to his lack of respect for authority. On 16 January 1912, Heym and his friend Ernst Balcke went on a skating trip to the frozen river Havel. They never returned. A few days later their bodies were found. Appearances indicated that Balcke had fallen through the ice and Heym had attempted to save him but fell in as well. Heym remained alive for half an hour, calling out for help. His cries were heard by some nearby forestry workers, but they were unable to reach him.

Georg Heym (30 October 1887 – 16 January 1912) was a German writer. He is particularly known for his poetry, representative of early Expressionism.

Georg Heym (30. října 1887 Hirschberg, Dolní Slezsko – 16. ledna 1912 Berlín) byl německý spisovatel, autor zejména raně expresionistické lyriky.


Discovery and naming.

In 1974 Canadian amateur paleontologist Irene Vanderloh discovered the skeleton of a small theropod near Steveville in Alberta. She showed it to John Storer of the Provincial Museum of Alberta, who brought it to the attention of Hans-Dieter Sues. In 1978 Sues named and described the specimen as the type species "Saurornitholestes langstoni". The generic name is in reference to the Saurornithoididae, due to the resemblance with this group that is today seen as part of the Troodontidae, and combines their name with a Greek "lestes", "thief". The specific name honours Wann Langston, Jr.  The holotype specimen, TMP 1974.10.5, was uncovered in a layer of the Dinosaur Park Formation dating to the late Campanian. It consists of a very fragmentary skeleton including teeth, skull elements, two vertebrae, ribs, tail elements and a part of the hand. Also three paratypes were assigned: CMN 12343, CMN 12354, and UA 5283, all frontals.  Two more complete and larger partial skeletons (RTMP 88.121.39 and MOR 660), dozens of isolated bones, and scores of teeth are today known from the badlands of Dinosaur Provincial Park in Alberta; most of these are housed at the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology, in Drumheller, Alberta and remain undescribed. The Alberta and Montana remains are usually attributed to the single species "Saurornitholestes langstoni", though they come from a variety of rock formations indicating a wide span of time; for example, the Oldman Formation (dated to about 77 million years ago) and the upper Two Medicine Formation (about 72 million years ago). Similar teeth are found in younger deposits, dated to around 70 to 69 million years ago, but whether they represent "S. langstoni" or a different, related species is unknown. Neonate-sized "Saurornitholestes" fossils have been reported in the scientific literature.  Fragmentary fossils of "Saurornitholestes" have also been found from the eastern half of North America. A tooth found in the Mooreville Chalk of Alabama has been assigned to the genus. In 2015, Schwimmer et al. identified the existence of "Saurornitholestes langstoni" from the Tar Heel, Coachman, and Donoho Creek formations of North and South Carolina based on diagnostic teeth and a pedal ungual. This also makes "S. langstoni" the only dromaeosaurid taxon reported with certainty from the East Coast.  "Saurornitholestes sullivani" is known from the Hunter Wash fauna of the Kirtland Formation in New Mexico, based on the frontal SMP VP-1270. It differs from "S. langstoni" in the characters of the frontal.  A well-preserved skeleton of "Saurornitholestes" discovered in 2014 is currently under preparation by University of Alberta paleontologists working in Japan. After examining the skull of that specimen, Currie and Evans announced in 2019 that the "Zapsalis" teeth from the Dinosaur Park Formation represented the second premaxillary tooth of "S. langstoni".

Formerly assigned species.

In 2006 Robert Sullivan named and described a second nominal species, "Saurornitholestes robustus", based on holotype SMP VP-1955, a left frontal. The specific name refers to the great thickness of this bone, the only trait in which the species is known to differ from "S. langstoni". The holotype was found in the Willow Wash fauna of the Kirtland Formation in New Mexico, dated to about 73 million years ago. However, a subsequent overview of dromaeosaurid phylogeny asserted that "S. robustus" lacked dromaeosaurid characters and should be considered an indeterminate theropod, and a study published in 2014 took the conclusion a step further by demonstrating that "S. robustus" was assignable to Troodontidae based on similarities with troodontids.  Possible indeterminate fossils are known from the Hell Creek Formation in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota, dated to about 66 million years ago.

Description.

Like other theropods in the Dromaeosauridae, "Saurornitholestes" had a long, curving, blade-like claw on the second toe. "Saurornitholestes" was more long-legged and lightly built than other dromaeosaurids such as "Velociraptor" and "Dromaeosaurus". It resembles "Velociraptor" in having large, fanglike teeth in the front of the jaws. "Saurornitholestes" most closely resembles "Velociraptor", although the precise relationships of the Dromaeosauridae are still relatively poorly understood.  "Saurornitholestes" was about long and weighed approximately. At the hip it stood 0.6 meters (2 feet), or around as tall as the length of a terrier.  "Saurornitholestes sullivani" is thought to have had a keen sense of smell, due to its skull suggesting an unusually large olfactory bulb.  The second premaxillary teeth of (at least) "Saurornitholestes", "Velociraptor", and "Bambiraptor" may have been structurally specialized for preening feathers. This may also have been the function of the unusual premaxillary teeth of the oviraptorosaurs "Protarchaeopteryx" and "Incisivosaurus."

Classification.

In 1978 Sues assigned "Saurornitholestes" to the Dromaeosauridae. Later studies most often found it a member of the dromaeosaurid Velociraptorinae, but a cladistic analysis by Philip J. Currie in 2009 recovered a position in a more basal dromaeosaurid clade that was named the Saurornitholestinae.  The cladogram below follows a 2015 analysis by paleontologists Robert DePalma, David Burnham, Larry Martin, Peter Larson, and Robert Bakker, using updated data from the Theropod Working Group. Another cladogram was recovered in a 2019 analysis by Philip J. Currie and David C. Evans. Currie and Evans recovered "Saurornitholestes" as the sister taxon of "Atrociraptor".

Paleobiology.

In 2001, Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. They found that only two of the 82 "Saurornitholestes" foot bones checked for stress fractures actually had them. Two of the nine hand bones examined for stress fractures were found to have them.

Feeding habits.

"Saurornitholestes"' feeding habits were discovered to be typical of coelurosaurian theropods, with a characteristic "puncture and pull" feeding method. Studies of wear patterns on the teeth of this animal by Angelica Torices "et al." in a study regarding theropod feeding habits indicate that dromaeosaurid teeth share similar wear patterns to those seen in the tyrannosauridae and troodontidae, respectively. However, micro-wear on the teeth indicated that "Saurornitholestes" likely preferred larger prey items than the troodontids it shared their environment with. Such differentiations in its diet likely allowed the theropod to inhabit the same environment as its more distant maniraptoran relations. The same study also indicated that both "Saurornitholestes" and the related "Dromaeosaurus" (also analyzed in the study) likely included bone in their diet and were better adapted to handle the stresses associated with attacking struggling prey while troodontids, equipped with weaker jaws, preyed on softer animals and prey items such as invertebrates and carrion. This feeding strategy and ability to handle struggling prey was also a feature that the dromaeosaurid also shared with tyrannosaurids such as "Gorgosaurus", which was also analyzed in said study alongside these smaller theropods.

Paleoecology.

"Saurornitholestes" was found on both sides of the Western Interior Seaway. Alberta, the location of "Saurornitholestes langstoni", had a habitat similar to the United States Middle West being plains and floodplain swamps. In its eastern range, "Saurornitholestes" lived alongside hadrosaurs like "Eotrachodon" and "Hypsibema", large theropods like "Appalachiosaurus" and "Dryptosaurus", an unidentified ornithomimosaur, and another unidentified small theropod that was likely either a dromaeosaurid or a troodontid.  "Saurornitholestes" appears to have been the most common small theropod in Dinosaur Provincial Park, and teeth and bones are much more common than those of its more massive contemporary, "Dromaeosaurus". Little is known about what it ate and how it lived, but a tooth of "Saurornitholestes" has been found embedded in the wing bone of a large pterosaur, probably a juvenile "Quetzalcoatlus". Because the pterosaur was so much larger than "Saurornitholestes", Currie and Jacobsen suggest that the theropod was probably scavenging the remains of an already dead animal.

Bite marks from tyrannosaur.

Aase Roland Jacobsen published a description of a "Saurornitholestes" dentary in 2001. The dentary is about 12 cm long and preserves fifteen tooth positions, of which only ten preserve teeth. Three toothmarks were visible on the inner "lingual" surface of the dentary. Two of the three marks are series of grooves made by the serrations on the maker's teeth. The striations are between.37 mm and.40 mm thick with cuboidal cross-sections.  The shape of the preserved serrations are too different from those of "Saurornitholestes" for the marks to be the result of injuries incurred during intraspecific face biting behaviors. Although the right shape for "Dromaeosaurus" tooth serrations, the preserved marks are too coarse to have been left by that genus. Although a specific identification cannot be made, the most likely perpetrator would be a juvenile individual of one of the Dinosaur Park Formation's tyrannosaurids, like "Gorgosaurus", or "Daspletosaurus".

Saurornitholestes ("lizard-bird thief") is a genus of carnivorous dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur from the late Cretaceous of Canada (Alberta), United States (Montana, New Mexico, Alabama, North Carolina, and South Carolina).

Saurornitholestes byl malým teropodním dinosaurem z čeledi Dromaeosauridae, žijícím v období svrchní křídy na území dnešní provincie Alberty (Kanada, souvrství Hell Creek). Při délce kolem 1,3 až 1,8 metru vážil tento teropod jen asi 5 kilogramů.


Early life and education.

Reza Pahlavi was born in Tehran as the eldest legitimate son of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran and Farah Pahlavi, the Shahbanu of Iran. Pahlavi's siblings include his sister Princess Farahnaz Pahlavi (born 12 March 1963), brother Prince Ali-Reza Pahlavi (28 April 1966 – 4 January 2011), and sister Princess Leila Pahlavi (27 March 1970 – 10 June 2001), as well as a half-sister, Princess Shahnaz Pahlavi (born 27 October 1940).  Pahlavi studied at the eponymous "Reza Pahlavi School", a private school located in the royal palace and restricted to the imperial family and court associates. He was trained as a pilot; his first solo flight was at the age of 11, and he obtained his license a year later.  As a cadet of the Imperial Iranian Air Force, he was sent to the United States in August 1978 to continue his pilot training, and was one of 43 cadet pilots in the one-year pilot training program at the former Reese Air Force Base, TX, which included flying the Cessna T-37 Tweet and Northrop T-38 Talon. As a result of the Iranian Revolution, he left the base in March 1979, about four months earlier than planned. Pahlavi began studies at Williams College in September 1979, but dropped out in 1980. He then enrolled at The American University in Cairo as a political science student, but his attendance was irregular. He obtained a BSc degree in political science from the University of Southern California in 1985.

Political activism in exile.

The Pahlavi dynasty was founded early in the twentieth century. The 1979 revolution replaced the monarchy with an Islamic republic. After the death of his father, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, he symbolically declared himself "Shāhanshāh" (literally "King of Kings" in Persian) at the age of 21. He remains crown prince according to the former Constitution of 1906, as he is required to take the oath at the Iranian Parliament first. His press releases refer to him as either "Reza Pahlavi" or "the former Crown Prince of Iran".  On his website, Pahlavi has said that the state of Iran should become democratic and secular, and human rights should be respected. Whether the form of government would be that of a constitutional monarchy or a republic is something that he would like to leave up to the people of Iran.  Pahlavi has used his high profile as an Iranian abroad to campaign for human rights, democracy and unity among Iranians in and outside Iran. On his website he calls for a separation of religion and state in Iran and for free and fair elections "for all freedom-loving individuals and political ideologies". He exhorts all groups dedicated to a democratic agenda to work together for a democratic and secular Iranian government.  According to Reza Bayegan, Pahlavi believes in the separation of religion from politics. However, he avoids the "Islam bashing" that Bayegan writes occurs in some circles of the Iranian opposition. Rather, he believes that religion has a humanizing and ethical role in shaping individual character and infusing society with greater purpose.  In February 2011, after violence erupted in Tehran, Pahlavi said that Iran's youth were determined to get rid of an authoritarian government tainted by corruption and misrule in the hope of installing a democracy. "Fundamental and necessary change is long overdue for our region and we have a whole generation of young Egyptians and Iranians not willing to take no for an answer", he told "The Daily Telegraph". "Democratisation is now an imperative that cannot be denied. It is only a matter of time before the whole region can transform itself."  Pahlavi's book "Winds of Change: The Future of Democracy in Iran", in which he outlines possible scenarios for Iran's future, was published in 2002.  In June 2018, he made this comment: "I believe Iran must be a secular, parliamentary democracy. The final form has to be decided by the people." In a presentation at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy in December 2018, Pahlavi called for non-military support of those in Iran who were trying to replace the Islamist regime with a secular democracy. According to a news report, he was "not openly calling for the restoration of the Peacock Throne... He casts himself more as a symbol than a politician, but has called himself'ready to serve my country'".

Succession.

Reza Pahlavi II is first in the line of succession to his late father, while his younger brother Ali-Reza Pahlavi II was second in line until he committed suicide in 2011. Prior to his birth, the presumptive heir was Patrick Ali Pahlavi, the crown prince's uncle.

Reception.

In February 2019, he launched an initiative called the Phoenix Project of Iran. According to the National Interest, this is “designed to bring the various strains of the opposition closer to a common vision for a post-clerical Iran.”

Within Iran.

A report published by the Brookings Institution in 2009 said that Pahlavi lacked an organized following within Iran since there was no serious monarchist movement in Iran itself. The report described Pahlavi as having "little in common with the intellectuals and students who make up the core of the reform movement".  However, during 2017–18 Iranian protests, some demonstrators chanted slogans in favor of Pahlavi's grandfather and called for his return. After the January 2018 protests, Pahlavi and pro-monarchy sentiment experienced a resurgence in Iran.

Among Iranian expatriates.

Pahlavi enjoys wide popularity with the older generation of Iranian expatriates that left Iran at the time of the 1979 revolution and with some people in Iran. In 2006, Connie Bruck of "The New Yorker" wrote that Los Angeles is home to about 600,000 Iranian expatriates, and said it was a monarchist stronghold.  A 2013 survey of Iranian-Americans conducted by George Mason University's Center for Social Science Research found that 79% of respondents did not support any Iranian opposition groups or figures. Of the 15% that did, only 20% supported him.

Alleged foreign support.

Bob Woodward wrote in 1986 that the Reagan administration authorized the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to support and fund Iranian exiles, including Pahlavi. The agency transmitted his 11-minute speech during which he vowed "I will return" to Iranian television by pirating its frequency. The Tower Commission report, published in 1987, acknowledged that the CIA was behind this event. In 2006, Connie Bruck of "The New Yorker" wrote that "Pahlavi had CIA funding for a number of years in the eighties, but it ended after the Iran-Contra scandal". Andrew Freedman of Haverford College states that Pahlavi began cooperation with the CIA after he met director William J. Casey and received a monthly stipend, citing Pahlavi's financial advisor and other observers. Freedman also connects his residence in Great Falls, Virginia to its proximity to George Bush Center for Intelligence, headquarters of the service.  In 2009, Pahlavi denied receiving U.S. government aid or any foreign aid in an interview with "The New York Times". Pahlavi said "No, no. I don't rely on any sources other than my own compatriots" and denied allegations of working with the CIA, calling the allegations "absolutely and unequivocally false". However, in 2017 he told Jon Gambrell of the Associated Press: "I will find any means that I can... with anyone who is willing to give us a hand, whether it is the U.S. or the Saudis or the Israelis or whomever it is".

Personal life.

According to a "People" article published in 1978, Pahlavi dated a "blond, blue-eyed Swedish model he met in Rome". He lived with his girlfriend while living in Lubbock, Texas. As of 1980, he had an Egyptian girlfriend who was a student of The American University in Cairo, reportedly "closely guarded" by bodyguards.  Pahlavi began a relationship with Yasmine Etemad-Amini in 1985, and a year later married her, then aged 17, at 25 years of age. The couple have three daughters: Noor (born April 3, 1992), Iman (born September 12, 1993), and Farah (born January 17, 2004).  In 2004, Pahlavi was named as the "unofficial godfather" of Princess Louise of Belgium, the eighth granddaughter of King Albert II of Belgium.

Religious beliefs.

When interviewed about religion, Pahlavi said, "That's a private matter; but if you must know, I am, of course, by education and by conviction, a Shia Muslim. I am very much a man of faith." Iranian writer Reza Bayegan also notes that Crown Prince Reza is allegedly “deeply attached” to his Muslim faith. He has performed the Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.

Sports.

Pahlavi was a keen football player and spectator. He was fan of the capital's football club Esteghlal, then known as "Taj" () and his support was even televised by the National Iranian Radio and Television. The club performed in annual rallies organized on his birthday, which as a result identified the club with the Pahlavi's regime.

Business and legal issues.

Pahlavi has been the owner of Medina Development Company. He and his company were engaged in a civil lawsuit against a family member in the 1990s culminating in a favorable judgment in May 1997.  According to a December 2018 news report however, "he is thought to live mainly on what’s left of his family wealth, his only full-time job being speaking out about Iran".

Television network.

In November 2014, Pahlavi founded his own television and radio network called Ofogh Iran. In July 2017 it was reported that the Ofogh Iran International Media telethon no longer belongs to Reza Pahlavi.

Reza Pahlavi (; born 31 October 1960) is an Iranian politician and the heir apparent to the defunct throne of the Imperial State of Iran and the current head of the exiled House of Pahlavi. He is the older son of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and his wife Farah Diba.

Kýros Rezá Pahlaví (* 31. října 1960 Teherán) je v současnosti titulární íránský šáh z dynastie Pahlaví. Narodil se jako nejstarší syn šáha Muhammada Rezá Pahlavího a jeho ženy Farah Pahlaví (rozené Diba). Od roku 1967 až do roku 1979 byl íránským korunním princem a od roku 1980 je po smrti svého otce titulárním íránským šáhem a vůdcem dynastie Pahlaví. Jeho formální titul je "Jeho císařská Výsost Rezá Šáh Pahlaví II.", ale on sám používá jen titul "Jeho císařská Výsost Rezá Pahlaví".


Early years.

Warren Earl Burger was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, in 1907, as one of seven children. His parents, Katharine (née Schnittger) and Charles Joseph Burger, a traveling salesman and railroad cargo inspector, were of Austrian German descent. His grandfather, Joseph Burger, had emigrated from Tyrol, Austria and joined the Union Army when he was 12. Joseph Burger fought and was wounded in the Civil War, resulting in the loss of his right arm and was awarded the Medal of Honor at the age of 14. At age 16, Joseph Burger became the youngest captain in the Union Army.  Burger grew up on the family farm near the edge of Saint Paul. At age 8, he stayed home from school for a year after contracting polio. He attended John A. Johnson High School, where he was president of the student council. He competed in hockey, football, track, and swimming. While in high school, he wrote articles on high school sports for local newspapers. He graduated in 1925, and received a partial scholarship to attend Princeton University, which he declined because his family's finances were not sufficient to cover the remainder of his expenses.  That same year, Burger also worked with the crew building the Robert Street Bridge, a crossing of the Mississippi River in Saint Paul that still exists. Concerned about the number of deaths on the project, he asked that a net be installed to catch anyone who fell, but was rebuffed by managers. In later years, Burger made a point of visiting the bridge whenever he came back to town.

Education and early career.

Burger attended night school at the University of Minnesota while selling insurance for Mutual Life Insurance. Afterward, he enrolled at St. Paul College of Law (which later became William Mitchell College of Law, now Mitchell Hamline School of Law), receiving his Bachelor of Laws "magna cum laude" in 1931. He took a job at a St. Paul law firm. In 1937, Burger served as the eighth president of the Saint Paul Jaycees. He also taught for twelve years at William Mitchell. A spinal condition prevented Burger from serving in the military during World War II; instead he supported the war effort at home, including service on Minnesota’s emergency war labor board from 1942 to 1947. From 1948 to 1953, he served on the governor of Minnesota’s interracial commission, which worked on issues related to racial desegregation. He also served as president of the St. Paul’s Council on Human Relations, which considered ways to improve the relationship between the city's police department and its minority residents.

Politics.

Burger was a lifelong Republican. His political career began uneventfully, but he soon rose to national prominence. He supported Minnesota Governor Harold E. Stassen's unsuccessful pursuit of the Republican nomination for president in 1948. In 1952, at the Republican convention, he played a key role in Dwight D. Eisenhower's nomination by delivering the Minnesota delegation. After he was elected, President Eisenhower appointed Burger as the Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Civil Division of the Justice Department.  In this role, he first argued in front of the Supreme Court. The case involved John P. Peters, a Yale University professor who worked as a consultant to the government. He had been discharged from his position on loyalty grounds. Supreme Court cases are usually argued by the Solicitor General, but he disagreed with the government's position and refused to argue the case. Burger lost the case. Shortly after, Burger appeared in a case defending the United States against claims from the Texas City ship explosion disaster, successfully arguing that the Federal Tort Claims Act of 1947 did not allow a suit for negligence in policy making; the United States won the case ("Dalehite, et al., vs. United States" 346 U.S. 15 (1953)).

Court of Appeals service.

Burger was nominated by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on January 12, 1956, to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated by Judge Harold M. Stephens. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 28, 1956, and received his commission on March 29, 1956. His service terminated on June 23, 1969, due to his elevation to the Supreme Court.

National prominence.

In 1968, Chief Justice Earl Warren announced his retirement after 15 years on the Court, effective on the confirmation of his successor. President Lyndon Johnson nominated sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to the position, but a Senate filibuster blocked his confirmation. With Johnson's term as president about to expire before another nominee could be considered, Warren remained in office.

Supreme Court service.

Burger was nominated by President Richard Nixon on May 23, 1969, to a seat on the Supreme Court of the United States vacated by Chief Justice Earl Warren. In his presidential campaign, Nixon had pledged to appoint a strict constructionist as chief justice. Burger had first caught Nixon's eye through a letter of support the former sent to Nixon during the 1952 Fund crisis, and then again 15 years later when the magazine "U.S. News and World Report" had reprinted a 1967 speech that Burger had given at Ripon College. In it, Burger compared the United States judicial system to those of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark:  Through speeches like this, Burger became known as a critic of Chief Justice Warren and an advocate of a literal, strict-constructionist reading of the U.S. Constitution. Nixon's agreement with these views, being expressed by a readily confirmable, sitting federal appellate judge, led to the nomination. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on June 9, 1969, and received his commission on June 23, 1969. Earl Warren swore in the new chief justice the same day. He assumed senior status on September 26, 1986. His service terminated on June 25, 1995, due to his death.  According to President Nixon's memoirs, he had asked Justice Burger in the spring of 1970 to be prepared to run for president in 1972 if the political repercussions of the Cambodia invasion were too negative for him to endure. A few years later, in 1971 and 1973, Burger was on Nixon's short list of vice-presidential replacements for Vice President Spiro Agnew, along with John Connally, Ronald Reagan, and Nelson Rockefeller before Gerald Ford was appointed following Agnew's resignation in October 1973.

Chief Justice.

Jurisprudence.

The Court issued a unanimous ruling, "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education" (1971) supporting busing to reduce "de facto" racial segregation in schools. However, Burger wrote the majority opinion for "Milliken v. Bradley" (1974), which upheld "de facto" school segregation across school district lines if segregationist policy was not explicitly stated by all of the districts involved. In "United States v. U.S. District Court" (1972), the Burger Court issued another unanimous ruling against the Nixon administration's desire to invalidate the need for a search warrant and the requirements of the Fourth Amendment in cases of domestic surveillance. Then, only two weeks later in "Furman v. Georgia" (1972), the court, in a 5–4 decision, invalidated all death penalty laws then in force although Burger dissented from that decision. In the most controversial ruling of his term, "Roe v. Wade" (1973), Burger voted with the majority to recognize a broad right to privacy that prohibited states from banning abortions. However, Burger abandoned "Roe v. Wade" in "Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists".  On July 24, 1974, Burger led the court in a unanimous decision in "United States v. Nixon". That was Nixon's attempt to keep several memos and tapes relating to the Watergate scandal private. As documented in Woodward and Armstrong's "The Brethren" and elsewhere, Burger's original feelings on the case were that Watergate was merely a political battle, and Burger "didn't see what they did wrong." The actual final opinion was largely Brennan's work, but each justice wrote at least a rough draft of a particular section. Burger was originally to vote in favor of Nixon but tactically changed his vote to assign the opinion to himself and to restrain the opinion's rhetoric. Burger's first draft of the opinion wrote that executive privilege could be invoked when it dealt with a "core function" of the presidency and that in some cases, the executive could be supreme. However, the other justices in the Supreme Court were able to convince Burger to excise that language from the opinion: the judicial branch alone would have the power to determine whether something qualifies to be shielded under executive privilege.  Burger was opposed to gay rights, as he wrote a famous concurring opinion in the Court's 1986 decision upholding a Georgia law criminalizing sodomy ("Bowers v. Hardwick"); he relied on historical evidence that laws criminalizing homosexuality were of ancient vintage. Burger pointed out that the famous legal author William Blackstone had written that sodomy was a crime against nature'... of 'deeper malignity than rape', a heinous act 'the very mention of which is a disgrace to human nature' and 'a crime not fit to be named. That decision was overturned in 2003 by the decision in "Lawrence v. Texas", which sought relief against a Texas law, which sanctioned heterosexual sodomy but criminalized it between homosexuals.  Burger also emphasized the maintenance of checks and balances between the branches of government. In "Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha" (1983), he held for the majority that the US Congress could not reserve a legislative veto over executive branch actions.  On issues involving criminal law and procedure, Burger remained reliably conservative. He joined the majority in voting to reinstate the death penalty in "Gregg v. Georgia" (1976), and in 1983, he vigorously dissented from the Court's holding in the case of "Solem v. Helm" that a sentence of life imprisonment for issuing a fraudulent check in the amount of $100 constituted cruel and unusual punishment.

Leadership.

Rather than dominating the court, Burger sought to improve administration both within the court and within the nation's legal system. Criticizing some advocates as unprepared, Burger created training venues for state and local government advocates. He also helped found the National Center for State Courts, which is now in Williamsburg, Virginia, as well as the Institute for Court Management, and National Institute of Corrections to provide professional training for judges, clerks, and prison guards. Burger also began a tradition of annually delivering a "State of the Judiciary" speech to the American Bar Association, many of whose members had been alienated by the Warren Court. However, some detractors thought his emphasis on the mechanics of the judicial system trivialized the office of chief justice.  Burger drew internal controversy within the Supreme Court throughout his tenure, as was revealed in the controversial best-selling book by Bob Woodward and Scott Armstrong, "The Brethren". Although US Senator Everett Dirksen noted Burger "looked, sounded, and acted like a chief justice," the reporters depicted Burger as an ineffective chief justice who was not seriously respected by his colleagues for his alleged pomposity and lack of legal acumen. Woodward and Armstrong's sources indicated that some of the other justices were annoyed by Burger's practice of switching his vote in conference or simply not announcing his vote so that he could control opinion assignments. "Burger repeatedly irked his colleagues by changing his vote to remain in the majority, and by rewarding his friends with choice assignments and punishing his foes with dreary ones." Burger would also try to influence the course of events in a case by circulating a pre-emptive opinion.  Consequently, the Burger Court was described as his "in name only." "Time" magazine called him "plodding" and "standoffish" as well as "pompous," "aloof," and unpopular. Burger was a constant irritant on the Court's group dynamic, according to "The New York Times"' Linda Greenhouse. Jeffrey Toobin wrote in his book "" that by the time of his departure in 1986, Burger had alienated all of his colleagues to one degree or another. In particular, Associate Justice Potter Stewart, who had been considered a candidate to succeed Warren as chief justice, was so discontented with Burger that he became the primary source for Woodward and Armstrong when they wrote "The Brethren".  Greenhouse pointed to "INS v. Chadha" as evidence of Burger's "foundering leadership." Burger would cause the case to be delayed for over twenty months although there had been five votes to affirm the appeals court's finding of unconstitutionality after the case had been first argued: Brennan, Marshall, Blackmun, Powell, and Stevens. Burger did not allow an opinion to be assigned, first by asking for a special conference on the case and then by delaying the case for reargument when that conference fell through even though he never held a formal vote on holding the case over for reargument.

Later life.

Burger retired on September 26, 1986, in part to lead the campaign to mark the 1987 bicentennial of the United States Constitution, at which time he commissioned the construction of the Constitution Bicentennial Monument (The National Monument to the U.S. Constitution). He had served longer than any other chief justice appointed in the 20th century. Despite his reputation for being imperious, he was well-liked by the law clerks and judicial fellows who worked with him. In 1987, Princeton University's American Whig-Cliosophic Society awarded Burger the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service. In 1988, he was awarded the prestigious United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award as well as the Presidential Medal of Freedom.  In a 1991 appearance on the "MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour", Burger stated that the notion that the Second Amendment guaranteed an unlimited individual right to obtain guns "has been the subject of one of the greatest pieces of fraud, I repeat the word 'fraud,' on the American public by special interest groups."  Burger died in his sleep on June 25, 1995, from congestive heart failure at the age of 87, at Sibley Memorial hospital in Washington, D.C. He drafted his own one-page will. All of his papers were donated to the College of William and Mary, where he had served as Chancellor; however, they will not be open to the public until ten years after the death of Sandra Day O'Connor, the last surviving member of the Burger Court, per the donor agreement.  Burger's casket lay in repose in the Great Hall of the United States Supreme Court Building. His remains are interred at Arlington National Cemetery.

Legacy.

As chief justice, Burger was instrumental in founding the Supreme Court Historical Society and was its first president. Burger is often cited as one of the foundational proponents of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR), particularly in its ability to ameliorate an overloaded justice system. In a speech given in front of the American Bar Association, Justice Burger lamented the state of the justice system in 1984, "Our system is too costly, too painful, too destructive, too inefficient for a truly civilized people. To rely on the adversary process as the principal means of resolving conflicting claims is a mistake that must be corrected." The Warren E. Burger Federal Courthouse in Saint Paul, Minnesota, and the Warren E. Burger Library at his alma mater, the Mitchell Hamline School of Law (formerly the William Mitchell College of Law, and the St. Paul College of Law at the time of Burger's attendance) are named in his honor.

Family and personal life.

He married Elvera Stromberg in 1933. They had two children, Wade Allen Burger (1936–2002) and Margaret Elizabeth Burger (1946–2017). Elvera Burger died at their home in Washington, D.C., on May 30, 1994, at the age of 86.

Warren Earl Burger (September 17, 1907 – June 25, 1995) was the 15th chief justice of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1986. Born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, Burger graduated from the St. Paul College of Law in 1931. He helped secure the Minnesota delegation's support for Dwight D. Eisenhower at the 1952 Republican National Convention. After Eisenhower won the 1952 presidential election, he appointed Burger to the position of Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Civil Division. In 1956, Eisenhower appointed Burger to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Burger served on this court until 1969 and became known as a critic of the Warren Court.

Warren E. Burger (17. září 1907, Saint Paul, Minnesota – 25. červen 1995, Washington, D.C.) byl americký politik a předseda Nejvyššího soudu USA.


History.

The first duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was Ernest I, who reigned from 1826 until his death in 1844. He had previously been Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (as Ernest III) from 1806 until the duchy was reorganized in 1826.  Ernest's younger brother Léopold became King of the Belgians in 1831, and his descendants continue to serve as Belgian monarchs. Léopold's only daughter, Princess Charlotte of Belgium, was the consort of Maximilian I of Mexico, and she was known as Empress Carlota of Mexico in the 1860s. Ernest I's second son, Prince Albert (1819–1861), married Queen Victoria in 1840, and thus is the progenitor of the United Kingdom's royal family, called the House of Windsor since 1917.  In 1826, a cadet branch of the house inherited the Hungarian princely estate of the Koháry and converted to Roman Catholicism. Its members managed to marry a queen regnant of Portugal, an imperial princess of Brazil, an archduchess of Austria, a French royal princess, a royal princess of Belgium and a royal princess of Saxony. A scion of this branch, Ferdinand, became ruling Prince and then Tsar of Bulgaria, and his descendants continued to reign there until 1946. The current head of the House of Bulgaria, the former Tsar Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who was deposed and exiled after World War II, goes by the name of Simeon Sakskoburggotski and served as Bulgaria's prime minister from 2001 to 2005.  The ducal house consisted of all male-line descendants of John Ernest IV, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld legitimately born of an equal marriage, males and females (the latter until their marriage), their wives in equal and authorised marriages, and their widows until remarriage. According to the House law of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the full title of the Duke was:  There were two official residences, in Gotha and Coburg. Therefore, the whole ducal court, including the court theatre, had to move twice a year: from Gotha to Coburg for the summer and from Coburg to Gotha for the winter.  For the Court Theater, two almost identical buildings had to be built in 1840 in Gotha (destroyed in World War II) and Coburg (now the Coburg State Theater) and thereafter maintained at the same time. In addition to the residential castles, Friedenstein Palace in Gotha and Ehrenburg Palace in Coburg, the ducal family also used the Schloss Reinhardsbrunn in Gotha, as well as the Schloss Rosenau and Callenberg Castle in Coburg, and a hunting lodge, Greinburg Castle, in Grein, Austria.

Branches.

Ducal branch.

Heads of the house since 1918.

Although the ducal branch is eponymous with the dynasty, its head is not the senior member of the family genealogically or agnatic. In 1893, the reigning duke Ernest II died childless, whereupon the throne would have devolved, by male primogeniture, upon the descendants of his brother Prince Albert. However, as heirs to the British throne, Albert's descendants consented and the law of the duchy ratified that the ducal throne would not be inherited by the British monarch or heir apparent. Therefore, the German duchy became a secundogeniture, hereditary among the younger princes of the British royal family who belonged to the House of Wettin, and their male-line descendants.  Instead of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom) inheriting the duchy, it was diverted to his next brother, Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. Upon the latter's death without surviving sons, it went to the youngest grandson of Prince Albert and Queen Victoria, Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany. Charles Edward's uncle Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and his male line had renounced their claim. Although senior by birth, they were either not acceptable to the German Emperor as either a member of the British military or unwilling to move to Germany.  The current head of the ducal branch is Andreas, the grandson of Charles Edward. Since the duchy was abolished in 1918, the heads use the title Prince rather than Duke.

House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry.

The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry is a Catholic cadet branch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. It was founded with the marriage of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, second son of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, with Princess Maria Antonia Koháry de Csábrág. Their second son Prince August inherited the estates of the House of Koháry in Hungary and Austria. August's youngest son became Ferdinand I of Bulgaria.

Kingdom of Portugal.

The Portuguese line was founded by Prince Ferdinand's eldest son, Ferdinand the younger, who married Queen Maria II of the House of Braganza and became king himself. It was overthrown in the Revolution of 1910, after which it became extinct in 1932 upon the death of Manuel II. Duarte Nuno of Braganza and his successors were descendants of the banished Miguelist line.

Kings of the Belgians.

The Belgian line was founded by Leopold, youngest son of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.

Belgian royal house.

Because of the First World War, the title of the family was unofficially changed in 1920 or 1921 to "of Belgium", and the armorial bearings of Saxony were removed from the Belgian royal coat of arms. Since the 2017 Carnet Mondain, the title "Saxe-Cobourgh-Gotha" is again in use for all the descendants of Leopold I, with the exception of King Philippe, his wife, his brother and his sister (Astrid) who keep their title "of Belgium"; therefore the descendants of Astrid of Belgium do not bear this title, but that of "of Austria-Este" of their father. The armorial bearing of Saxony was put back in 2019.

United Kingdom.

The British line was founded by King Edward VII, eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. His successor, King George V, changed the name of the royal house and family to Windsor.

Genealogy.

Patrilineality, descent as reckoned from father to son, had historically been the principle determining membership in reigning families until late in the 20th century, thus the dynasty to which the monarchs of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha belonged genealogically throughout the 1900s is the House of Wettin, despite the official use of varying names by different branches of the patriline.

The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (; ) is a German dynasty that ruled Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, one of the Ernestine duchies.

Koburkové, nebo Sasko-Kobursko-Goth(aj)ští," respektive dynastie sasko-kobursko-goth(aj)ská," nebo také "dynastie Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha" ("dynastie Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha,", ), je původně německá panovnická dynastie.


Recording.

Production on the album began in May 2008 and ended in late of the same year. Originally the album was to be called "Acquitted", but was later confirmed to be "Freedom" by Akon's label, Universal Music. Although there are some vulgarities on "Freedom", it does not carry the Parental Advisory warning, making it Akon's first album not to do so. In July, a leaked recording of Akon's duet with Michael Jackson titled "Hold My Hand" was released to the Internet and at first showings of the song was supposedly taken out by Akon's music label. The song was originally posted as an Akon demo with only Akon performing the song. The leaked song was rumored to be featured on both his and Jackson's own upcoming album. In an interview with MTV, Akon was hopeful to include the song on the album. However, on October 17, Akon's label released information on the track listing and the album does not feature the duet with Jackson. The UK bonus track, "Clap Again" samples "Click Click Click" by New Kids on the Block. The leaked version of the lead single "Right Now (Na Na Na)" included verse from rhythm and blues artist Danny Fernandes but never made the final cut; Akon decided to go solo. The tracks "Against the Grain" and "We Don't Care" were originally named "Falling in Love" and "Could You Be the Reason" respectively. "Troublemaker" seems to be a continuation of Akon's first solo #1 "Billboard" Hot 100 single "Don't Matter", with the lyrics suggesting that it is, as he says "Similar to the words it "don't matter", but this time they wanna see us together, look at us now."

Critical reception.

"Freedom" so far has a score of 58 out of 100 from Metacritic based on "mixed or average reviews". "Rolling Stone" described Akon's third studio album as "melodrama about love and love lost delivered in a hooting style over synth-swamped beats." Dan LeRoy of "The Hartford Courant" gave a positive review to the album, stating, "Akon's undeniable gift for hooks makes this an easy listen, and the ex-con posturing isn't missed." "The Boston Globe" also stated, "This tuneful, seemingly effortless set of sun-kissed pop reminds you why he's in so much demand." 411mania gave the album a score of eight out of ten and said, "This CD is great for the clubs and perhaps for driving down the road trying to find something to put in your cars, but the lyrics are your basic run-of-the-mill R&B song lyrics and leave you a little empty. The one thing I can say for Akon is that he has a pretty decent voice, he's got a great look, and he's got great promoters." "Entertainment Weekly" gave the album a C-, stating, "Akon's philosophy of liberty also includes the freedom to reuse nearly identical hooks for 13 songs straight." musicOMH gave the album one star out of five and stated, "Unfortunately, all this really means is an extra emphasis on weirdly pitched keyboard riffs and slightly dated sounding beats," and also stated "The album opens with its two best songs, which is never a good idea when there are twelve still to get through." "The New York Times" critic Jon Caramanica described the track "Holla Holla", featuring T-Pain, "is the first of theirs (song) in which the student clearly bests the mentor." Meanwhile, following the album's UK release, noted R&B writer Pete Lewis of the award-winning Blues & Soul stated: "With his new album's expansive moods ranging from banging ghetto jams like 'I'm So Paid' and sexual, T-Pain-featuring 'Holla Holla', to uplifting universal anthems like the autobiographical title-track and reggae-infused 'Sunny Day', hopes are high this time round for 'Freedom' to even eclipse Akon's already-amazing past international success."

Commercial performance.

"Freedom" debuted at number seven on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 111,000 copies in its first week. As of July 2011, it has sold 782,000 copies in the US.

Singles.

The first single released from the album, "Right Now (Na Na Na)", which peaked at #8 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 was Akon's 12th top 10 hit on the chart. The second single is "I'm So Paid", featuring Lil Wayne and Young Jeezy. The single made a "Hot Shot Debut" at #40 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and fell off the charts after a few weeks, but then re-entered and peaked at #31. "Beautiful", the third single, debuted and peaked at #19 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The fourth single from the album was "We Don't Care", The music video surfaced online on June 16. The songs "Troublemaker" featuring Sweet Rush and "Keep You Much Longer" peaked at #97 and #123 respectively on the "Billboard" Hot 100 based solely on iTunes downloads following the album's release without single releases.

Freedom is the third studio album by American hip hop and R&B singer and record producer Akon. The album was originally named "Acquitted"; however, Akon changed it before it was released. It was released as a download on December 1, 2008, and in stores December 2, 2008. The album debuted at number 7 on the "Billboard" 200 with 110,600 copies sold in its first week.

Freedom je třetí studiové album amerického zpěváka Akona. Vyšlo v prosinci 2008. Během prvního týdne se prodalo 110 000 kopií tohoto alba. Zajímavostí je, že jde o Akonovo první album, které nenese označení "nevhodné pro mladistvé" (Parental Advisory).


Process.

Two owners place their gamecock in the cockpit. The cocks fight until ultimately one of them dies or is critically injured. Historically, this was in a "cockpit", a term which was also used in the 16th century to mean a place of entertainment or frenzied activity. William Shakespeare used the term in "Henry V" to specifically mean the area around the stage of a theatre. In Tudor times, the Palace of Westminster had a permanent cockpit, called the Cockpit-in-Court.

History.

Cockfighting is an ancient spectator sport. There is evidence that cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilization. The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) holds:  Based on his analysis of a Mohenjo-daro seal, Iravatham Mahadevan speculates that the city's ancient name could have been Kukkutarma ("the city [-rma] of the cockerel [kukkuta]"). However, according to a recent study, "it is not known whether these birds made much contribution to the modern domestic fowl. Chickens from the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley (2500–2100 BC) may have been the main source of diffusion throughout the world." "Within the Indus Valley, indications are that chickens were used for sport and not for food" (Zeuner 1963) and that by 1000 BC they had assumed "religious significance".  Some additional insight into the pre-history of European and American secular cockfighting may be taken from "The London Encyclopaedia":  An early image of a fighting rooster has been found on a 6th-century BC seal of Jaazaniah from the biblical city of Mizpah in Benjamin, near Jerusalem. Remains of these birds have been found at other Israelite Iron Age sites, when the rooster was used as a fighting bird; they are also pictured on other seals from the period as a symbol of ferocity, such as the late-7th-century BC red jasper seal inscribed "Jehoahaz, son of the king", which likely belonged to Jehoahaz of Judah "while he was still a prince during his father's life".  The anthropologist Clifford Geertz wrote the influential essay "", on the meaning of the cockfight in Balinese culture.

Regional variations.

In some regional variations, the birds are equipped with either metal spurs (called "gaffs") or knives, tied to the leg in the area where the bird's natural spur has been partially removed. A "cockspur" is a bracelet (often made of leather) with a curved, sharp spike which is attached to the leg of the bird. The spikes typically range in length from "short spurs" of just over an inch to "long spurs" almost two and a half inches long. In the highest levels of 17th century English cockfighting, the spikes were made of silver. The sharp spurs have been known to injure or even kill the bird handlers. In the "naked heel" variation, the bird's natural spurs are left intact and sharpened: fighting is done without gaffs or taping, particularly in India (especially in Tamil Nadu). There it is mostly fought naked heel and either three rounds of twenty minutes with a gap of again twenty minutes or four rounds of fifteen minutes each and a gap of fifteen minutes between them.  Cockfighting is common throughout Southeast Asia, where it is implicated in spreading bird flu. Cockfighting is a popular form of fertility worship in Southeast Asia.

India.

Cockfighting ("Kodi Pandem" in Telugu) ("Kori katta" in Tulu) ("Vetrukkaal seval porr" in Tamil which means "naked heel cockfight") is a favourite sport of people living in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh, Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts of Tulu Nadu region of Karnataka, and the state of Tamil Nadu, India. Three- or four-inch blades ("Bal" in Tulu) are attached to the cocks' legs. Knockout fights to the death are widely practised in Andhra Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu, the winner is decided after three or four rounds. People watch with intense interest surrounding the cocks. The sport has gradually become a gambling sport.  In Jharkhand the cockfighting game is known as "pada", the spurs are called "kant", the cockpit is called "chhad", and the person in the cockpit or who ties the spurs is called "kantkar".  In the Tamil Nadu districts of Chennai, Tanjore, Trichy and Salem, only the 'naked heel' variation is permitted. In Erode, Thiruppur, Karur and Coimbatore districts, only bloody blade fights are conducted. During festival seasons, this is the major game for men. Women normally don't participate. Only the Pure breeds are chosen to the fight. Naked heel cocks Fight for long duration compared with Blade fight cocks.  The cockfight, or more accurately expressed the secular cockfight, is an intense sport, recreation, or pastime to some, while to others, the cockfight remains an ancient religious ritual, a sacred ceremony (i.e. a religious and spiritual cockfight) associated with the ‘daivasthanams’ (temples) and held at the temples precincts. In January 2012 at India's 'Sun God' Festival the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) district committee, demanded that police not interfere in the cockfighting known as ‘kozhi kettu’ as it is a part of the temple rituals.

Indonesia.

Cockfighting is a very old tradition in Balinese Hinduism, the Batur Bang Inscriptions I (from the year 933) and the Batuan Inscription (dated 944 on the Balinese Caka calendar) disclose that the "tabuh rah" ritual has existed for centuries.  In Bali, cockfights, known as "tajen", are practiced in an ancient religious purification ritual to expel evil spirits. This ritual, a form of animal sacrifice, is called "tabuh rah" ("pouring blood"). The purpose of tabuh rah is to provide an offering (the blood of the losing chicken) to the evil spirits. Cockfighting is a religious obligation at every Balinese temple festival or religious ceremony. Cockfights without a religious purpose are considered gambling in Indonesia, although it is still largely practiced in many parts of Indonesia. Women are generally not involved in the tabuh rah process. The tabuh rah process is held on the largest pavilion in a Balinese temple complex, the wantilan.  The American anthropologist Clifford Geertz published his most famous work, "", on the practice of cockfights in Bali. In it, he argued that the cockfight served as a pastiche or model of wider Balinese society from which judgments about other aspects of the culture could be drawn.

Philippines.

Cockfighting, locally termed "sabong", is a popular pastime in the Philippines, where both illegal and legal cockfights occur. Legal cockfights are held in cockpits every week, whilst illegal ones, called "tupada" or "tigbakay", are held in secluded cockpits where authorities cannot raid them. In both types, knives or "gaffs" are used. There are two kinds of knives used in Philippine cockfighting: single-edged blades (used in derbies) and double-edged blades; lengths of knives also vary. All knives are attached on the left leg of the bird, but depending on agreement between owners, blades can be attached on the right or even on both legs. "Sabong" and illegal "tupada", are judged by a referee called "sentensyador" or "koyme", whose verdict is final and not subject to any appeal. Bets are usually taken by the "kristo", so named because of his outstretched hands when calling out wagers from the audience and skillfully doing so purely from memory.  The country has hosted several "World Slasher Cup" derbies, held biannually at the Smart Araneta Coliseum, Quezon City, where the world's leading game fowl breeders gather. World Slasher Cup is also known as the "Olympics of Cockfighting". The was held in the World Trade Center Metro Manila.  Cockfighting was already flourishing in pre-colonial Philippines, as recorded by Antonio Pigafetta, the Italian diarist aboard Ferdinand Magellan’s 1521 expedition. Cockfighting in the Philippines is derived from the fact that it shares elements of Indian and other Southeast Asian cultures, where the jungle fowl (bankivoid) and Oriental type of chicken are endemic.

Other bird species.

Male saffron finches and canaries have been used in fights on occasion.

Legal status.

Argentina.

Article 3.8 of Law 14.346 on the Ill-Treatment and Acts of Cruelty to Animals of 1954 explicitly prohibits 'carrying out public or private acts of animal fights, fights of bulls and heifers, or parodies [thereof], in which animals are killed, wounded or harassed.'

Australia.

Cockfighting, and the possession of cockfighting equipment, is illegal in Australia.

Belgium.

In Belgium, cockfights have been prohibited in 1867. In 1929 all organised fights between animals were banned. In 1986 and 1991, the animal welfare act was amended by also criminalising attendance of cockfights. Offenders risk six months imprisonment and a fine of 2,000 euros. Since the 1990s, several people have been prosecuted for cockfighting.

Brazil.

Cockfighting ("rinha de galos") was banned in 1934 with the help of President Getúlio Vargas through Brazil's 1934 constitution, passed on 16 July. Based on the recognition of animals in the Constitution, a Brazilian Supreme Court ruling resulted in the ban of animal related activities that involve claimed "animal suffering such as cockfighting, and a tradition practiced in southern Brazil, known as 'Farra do Boi' (the Oxen Festival)", stating that "animals also have the right to legal protection against mistreatment and suffering".

Chile.

Chilean Law no. 20.380 on Animal Protection of 25 August 2009 explicitly exempts various forms of 'animal sports' in Article 16: 'The norms of this law will not apply to sports in which animals participate, such as rodeo, cowfights, movement to the rein and equestrian sports, which will be governed by their respective regulations.'

Colombia.

In Colombia, cockfighting is a tradition, especially in the Caribbean region and in some areas of the Andean interior. Cockfights are held during the Festival de la Leyenda Vallenata in Valledupar. In August 2010, the Constitutional Court of Colombia rejected a lawsuit that sought to prohibit bullfighting, "corralejas" and cockfighting with the argument that they constitute animal abuse. In March 2019, the same court confirmed such rule, under the argument that cockfighing and bullfighting are traditions with cultural roots in some municipalities of the country. The "Asociación Nacional de Criadores de Gallos de Pelea" organizes an international cockfighting championship.  Cockfighting was immortalized in the novel "One Hundred Years of Solitude" by Gabriel García Márquez, in episodes such as the events that led to the death of Prudencio Aguilar, or the fondness for it by José Arcadio Segundo. Cockfighting was one of the main subjects of "La Caponera", a TV adaptation of Juan Rulfo's novel, "El gallo de oro", aired in Colombia and other countries in the region during the late 90s.

Costa Rica.

Cockfights have been illegal in Costa Rica since 1922. The government deems the activity as animal cruelty, public disorder and a risk for public health and is routinely repressed by the State's National Secretary for Animal Welfare. The activity is also rejected by most of the population, as 88% of Costa Ricans dislike cockfights according to recent polls of the National University. Since 2017, the activity is punishable with up to two years of prison.

Cuba.

In Cuba, cockfighting is legal and popular, although gambling on matches has been banned since the 1959 Revolution. The state has opened official arenas, including a 1,000-seat venue in Ciego de Ávila, but there are also banned underground cockfighting pits.  Cockfighting was so common during the Cuban colonization by Spain that there were arenas in every urban and rural town. The first official known document about cockfighting in Cuba dates from 1737. It is a royal decree asking, to the governor of the island, a report about the inconveniences that might cause cockfights "with the people from land and sea" and asking for information about rentals of the games. The Spaniard Miguel Tacón, Lieutenant General and governor of the colony, banned cockfighting by a decree dated on October 20, 1835, limiting these spectacles only to holidays.  In 1844, a decree dictated by the Captain General of the island, Leopoldo O'Donnell, forbade to non-white people the attendance to these shows. During the second half of the 19th century, many authorizations were conceded for building arenas, until General Juan Rius Rivera, then civilian governor in Havana, prohibited cockfighting by a decree of October 31, 1899, and later the Cuban governor, General Leonard Wood, dictated the military order no. 165 prohibiting cockfights in the whole country since June 1, 1900.  In the first half of the 20th century, legality of cockfights suffered several ups and downs.  In 1909, the then-Cuban president José Miguel Gómez, with the intention to gain followers, allowed cockfights once again, and then regulations were agreed for the fights.  Up to the beginning of 1968, cockfights used to be held everywhere in the country, but with the purpose of stopping the bets, the arenas were closed and the fights forbidden by the authorities. In 1980, authorities legalized cockfights again and a state business organization was created with the participation of the private breeders, grouped in territories. Every year the state organization announces several national tournaments from January to April, makes trade shows and sells fighting cocks to clients from other Caribbean countries.

Dominican Republic.

In the Dominican Republic, cockfighting is legal, but according to "Dominican Today" 'increasingly rejected by society' as of December 2018. There is at least one arena ("gallera)" in every town, whereas in bigger cities larger "coliseos" can be found. Important fights are broadcast on television and newspapers have dedicated pages to cockfights and the different "trabas", the local name for gamefowl breeding grounds. Those dedicated to the breeding and training of fighting cocks are called "galleros" or "traberos". The cocks are often outfitted with special spurs made from various materials (ranging from plastic to metal or even carey shell) and fights are typically to the death. Public perception of the sport is as normal as that of baseball or any other major sport.

France.

Holding cockfights is a crime in France, but there is an exemption under subparagraph 3 of article 521–1 of the French penal code for cockfights and bullfights in locales where an uninterrupted tradition exists for them. Thus, cockfighting is allowed in the Nord-Pas de Calais region, where it takes place in a small number of towns including Raimbeaucourt, La Bistade and other villages around Lille. However, the construction of new cockfighting areas is prohibited, a law upheld by the Constitutional Council of France in 2015.  Cockfighting is also legal in some French Overseas Territories.

Haiti.

Cockfighting is legal in Haiti. Nevins (2015) described it as 'the closest thing to a national sport in Haiti', being organised every Sunday morning in places across the country. Sharp spurs are attached to the roosters' feet to make them extra lethal, and the fight usually ends with the death of one of the animals.

Honduras.

In Honduras, under Article 11 of 'Decree no. 115-2015 ─ Animal Protection and Welfare Act' that went into effect in 2016, dog and cat fights and duck races are prohibited, while 'bullfighting shows and cockfights are part of the National Folklore and as such allowed'.

India.

The Supreme Court of India has banned cockfighting as a violation of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, but it remains popular, especially in the rural coast of Andhra Pradesh, with large amount of betting involved, especially around the festival of Sankranti. It is also popular in parts of Tamil Nadu.

Indonesia.

All forms of gambling, including the gambling within secular cockfighting, were made illegal in 1981 by the Indonesian government, while the religious aspects of cockfighting within Balinese Hinduism remain protected. However, secular cockfighting remains widely popular in Bali, despite its illegal status.

Iraq.

Cockfighting is illegal but widespread in Iraq. The attendees come to gamble or just for the entertainment. A rooster can cost up to $8,000. The most-prized birds are called Harati, which means that they are of Turkish or Indian origin, and have muscular legs and necks.

Japan.

Cockfighting was introduced to Japan from China in the early 8th century and rose to popularity in the Kamakura period and the Edo period. Cockfighting endured in some Japanese regions even after being banned in 1873, during the Meiji period.

Mexico.

Cockfighting is not banned in Mexico, and practiced in the Mexican states of Michoacán, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Sinaloa, and Veracruz, mostly during regional fairs and other celebrations. Cockfights are performed in "palenques" (pits). Cockfighting remains legal in the municipality of Ixmiquilpan and throughout Mexico.  In Mexico, cockfighting is part of the culture and traditions of most states, the two parties to the bird fights are distinguished through the colors red and green, so it is common to see a scarf or allusive badge hanging on the belt to these colors, in addition to being a business activity where the rooster show and musical shows are both combined. Almost all of the fairs and regional festivals of the country's municipalities are held in venues called "palenques" of roosters. These consist of a ring made of wood whose center is full of compacted earth for the best performance of the roosters. In the center, a box 4 meters per side and lines that cross from center to center each side are marked with lime. Finally, the last square, measuring 40 cm on each side, is marked in the center of the arena, where the roosters are taken the third time they are released. The Mexican states where cockfighting is most common are Michoacán, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Sinaloa and Veracruz. There are only cockfight bans in the country's capital, Mexico City, and in the states of Sonora and Coahuila since September 11, 2012, and in Veracruz since November 6, 2018

Netherlands.

In the Netherlands, organising or attending cockfights is illegal and punishable by up to three years imprisonment, or a fine of up to 20,500 euros.

New Zealand.

The act of cockfighting is illegal under the Animal Welfare Act 1999, as is the possession, training and breeding of cocks for fighting.

Pakistan.

Cockfighting is a popular sport in rural Pakistan; however, "betting is illegal under the Prevention of Gambling Act 1977". Betting is illegal, but police often turn a blind eye towards it. In Sindh (one of 4 major provinces of Pakistan), people are fond of keeping fighting cock breed, known as "Sindhi aseel" in Pakistan. These cocks are noted being tall, heavy and good at fighting. Another popular breed is called Mianwali Aseel. In "Sindh" Gamblor or Khafti uses Almond and other power enhancing medicines to feed the fighter cocks.

Panama.

Law 308 on the Protection of Animals was approved by the National Assembly of Panama on 15 March 2012. Article 7 of the law states: 'Dog fights, animal races, bullfights – whether of the Spanish or Portuguese style – the breeding, entry, permanence and operation in the national territory of all kinds of circus or circus show that uses trained animals of any species, are prohibited.' However, horse racing and cockfighting were exempt from the ban.

Paraguay.

Organising fights between all animals, both in public and private, is prohibited in Paraguay under Law No. 4840 on Animal Protection and Welfare, promulgated on 28 January 2013. Specifically:

Peru.

According to the "Encyclopedia of Latino Culture", Peru "has probably the longest historical tradition" with cockfighting, with the practice possibly dating back to the 16th century. Cockfighting is legal and regulated by the government in Peru. Most pits ("coliseos") in the country are located in Lima. Cockfighting and bullfighting are exempt from Peru's animal protection laws.  In October 2018, over 5,000 Peruvians signed a petition that called for a constitutional ban on "all cruel shows using animals" including cockfighting and bullfighting, which was accepted and taken into consideration by the Supreme Court of Peru. However, with only three of the five required judges agreeing with the petition, on 25 February 2020 the Court ruled that it could not declare the animal fighting practices unconstitutional, leaving the applicants with no further option of appeal. A week before the verdict, thousands of other people had marched through the streets of Lima in support of the animal fighting practices.

Philippines.

There is no nationwide ban of cockfighting in the Philippines but since 1948, cockfighting is prohibited every Rizal Day on December 30 where violators can be fined or imprisoned due to the Republic Act No. 229.  On March 14, 2020, the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) announced that cockfighting is temporarily banned in the Philippines due to the prohibition of mass gatherings amid the coronavirus pandemic and community quarantines across the Philippines.  Davao City Mayor Sara Duterte banned cockfighting in Davao City since April 16, 2020, also due to the coronavirus pandemic.

Spain.

Cockfighting is banned in Spain except in two Spanish regions: the Canary Islands and Andalusia. In Andalusia, however, the activity has virtually disappeared, surviving only within a program to maintain the fighting breed "combatiente español" coordinated by the University of Córdoba. Spain's Animal Protection Law of 1991 recognizes an exception for these regions based on cultural heritage and a history of cockfighting in the region. Animal rights organizations have sought to ban the bloodsport nationwide, but have not been successful in advancing legislation through the Spanish Parliament.

United Kingdom.

Cockfighting was banned outright in England and Wales and in the British Overseas Territories with the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835. Sixty years later, in 1895, cockfighting was also banned in Scotland, where it had been relatively common in the 18th century. A reconstructed cockpit from Denbigh in North Wales may be found at St Fagans National History Museum in Cardiff and a reference exists in 1774 to a cockpit at Stanecastle in Scotland.  According to a 2007 report by the RSPCA, cockfighting in England and Wales was still taking place, but had declined in recent years.

United States.

Cockfighting is illegal in all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. The last state to implement a state law banning cockfighting was Louisiana; the Louisiana State Legislature voted to approve a ban in June 2007, which went into effect in August 2008.  As of 2013:  Additionally, the 2014 farm bill, signed into law by President Obama, contained a provision making it a federal crime to attend an animal fighting event or bring a child under the age of 16 to an animal fighting event.  The cockfighting ban was further extended by federal law to include U.S. territories—American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands—effective at the end of 2019, as signed into law in the 2018 farm bill by President Trump. In Puerto Rico, cockfighting is popular and has been considered a "national sport" since at least the 1950s. According to a National Park Service report, it generates about $100 million annually. There are some 200,000 fighting birds annually on the island. Puerto Rico's Cockfighting Commission regulates 87 clubs, but many non-government sanctioned "underground" cockfighting operations exist. On December 18, 2019, estimating that cockfighting employs 27,000 people and has a value to the economy of about $18 million, Puerto Rico passed a law attempting to keep the practice legal despite the imminent federal ban.  The Animal Fighting Prohibition Enforcement Act, a federal law that made it a federal crime to transfer cockfighting implements across state or national borders and increasing the penalty for violations of federal animal fighting laws to three years in prison, became law in 2007. It passed the House of Representatives 368–39 and the Senate by unanimous consent and was signed into law by President George W. Bush.  The Animal Welfare Act was amended again in 2008 when provisions were included in the 2008 Farm Bill (P.L. 110-246). These provisions tightened prohibitions on dog and other animal fighting activities, and increased penalties for violations of the act.  Major law enforcement raids against cockfighting occurred in February 2014 in New York State (when 3,000 birds were seized and nine men were charged with felony animal-fighting in "Operation Angry Birds", the state's largest-ever cockfighting bust) and in May 2017 in California (when the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department seized 7,000 cockfighting birds at a ranch in Val Verde, California, one of the largest cockfighting busts in U.S. history). In 2014, Princess Irina of Romania pleaded guilty in federal court to operating a cockfighting ring in Oregon.

In popular culture.

Cockfighting has inspired artists in several fields to create works which depict the activity. Several organizations, including the University of South Carolina, Jacksonville State University in Jacksonville, Alabama, and London football team Tottenham Hotspur F.C. have a gamecock as their mascot. The University of Delaware's mascot, the Blue Hen, was named for a blue strain of American gamecock. The students' section at University of Delaware football games is called the "Cockpit."

In music.

Cockfighting has also been mentioned in songs such as Kings of Leon's "Four Kicks" and Bob Dylan's song "Cry a While" from the album "Love and Theft". The story song "El Gallo del Cielo" by Tom Russell is entirely about cockfighting, and the lyrics utilize detailed imagery of fighting pits, gamecocks, and gambling on the outcome of the fights. Cockfighting has also been in Korean boy band Exo's music video for "Lotto".

In visual arts.

The painting "The Cock Fight" (1846) an academic exercise of the French painter Jean-Léon Gérôme, "Vainqueur au combat de coqs" (1864) bronze statue from the French sculptor Alexandre Falguière and the painting "Cockfight" (1882) from the Flemish painter Emile Claus are samples of the presence of cockfighting in visual arts.  The Expressionist painter Sir Robin Philipson, of Edinburgh, was well known for his series of works that included depictions of cockfighting. The 1930 cartoon "Mexico" shows Oswald the Lucky Rabbit challenging a bear in a cockfight. The 1938 cartoon "Honduras Hurricane" features the pirate John Silver forcing Captain Katzenjammer into a rigged cockfight. Other cartoon depictions portray humanized roosters treating cockfights like boxing matches; these cartoons include Disney's "Cock o' the Walk" (1936), MGM's "Little Bantamweight" (1938), and Walter Lantz's "The Bongo Punch" (1958).  Live-action films that include scenes of the sport include the 1964 Mexican film "El Gallo De Oro", the 1965 film "The Cincinnati Kid", and the 1974 film "Cockfighter", directed by Monte Hellman (based on the 1962 novel of the same name by Charles Willeford).  The 1990 film "No Fear, No Die" centers around two men who are part of an illegal cockfighting ring.  Cockfighting is depicted twice in the 2011 film "The Rum Diary".  The Spike TV show "1000 Ways to Die" features a death involving a cockfight, where a man who bets on a rooster attaches razors to its claws to ensure its winning, but is slashed to death himself.  In the "Seinfeld" episode "The Little Jerry", Kramer enters his rooster into a cockfight in order to get one of Jerry's bounced checks removed from a local bodega where the cockfights actually take place.  In the HBO series "Eastbound & Down", Kenny Powers moves to Mexico and is in the cockfighting business until his cock "Big Red" dies.  The 2011 Tamil film "Aadukalam" revolves around the practice of cockfighting in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. In the FX Network's police drama, "The Shield" episode titled "Two Days of Blood" (season #1, episode #12), Detective Shane Vendrell and Detective Curt Lemansky go undercover in a cockfighting event to track down an illegal arms smuggler.

In literature.

Abraham Valdelomar's 1918 tale "El Caballero Carmelo" depicts a cockfight between the protagonist, a cock named Carmelo, and his rival "Ajiseco" from a child's perspective, who considered this bird as an heroic member of his family. Nathanael West's 1939 novel "The Day of the Locust" includes a detailed and graphic cockfighting scene, as does the Alex Haley novel "" and the miniseries based on it. In Gabriel Garcia Marquez's Nobel-Prize winning 1967 novel "One Hundred Years Of Solitude", cockfighting is outlawed in the town of Macondo after the patriarch of the Buendia family murders his cockfighting rival and is haunted by the man's ghost. Cockfighting is central to García Marquez's 1965 novella No One Writes to the Colonel in which the unnamed protagonist sells all of his belongings to feed his murdered son's gamecock. Charles Willeford wrote a novel called "Cockfighter" in 1962, which gives a detailed account of the protagonist's life as a 'cocker'. A description of a border town cockfight fiesta can be found in "On the Border: Portraits of America's Southwestern Frontier".

In martial arts.

The term "human cockfighting" was used by United States senator John McCain to describe mixed martial arts, which at the time he was campaigning to ban.

In video games.

The video game "" uses a cockfight as a plot point. A man died because a rooster with a spur slashed him, but with a twist that he would have survived if his wife had called the police. Square Enix's video game "Sleeping Dogs" allows the player character to spectate and bet on various virtual cockfights based around the game's rendition of the city of Hong Kong.

A cockfight is a blood sport between two cocks, or gamecocks, held in a ring called a cockpit. The history of raising fowl for fighting goes back 6,000 years. The first documented use of the "word" gamecock, denoting use of the cock as to a "game", a sport, pastime or entertainment, was recorded in 1634, after the term "cock of the game" used by George Wilson, in the earliest known book on the sport of cockfighting in "The Commendation of Cocks and Cock Fighting" in 1607. But it was during Magellan's voyage of discovery of the Philippines in 1521 when modern cockfighting was first witnessed and documented by Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan's chronicler, in the kingdom of Taytay.

Kohoutí zápasy je forma zábavy v některých oblastech světa, kdy proti sobě před publikem bojují dva kohouti. Kohouti jsou pro tyto zápasy speciálně šlechtěni.


Biography.

Early life.

Mosley studied percussion at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama under teacher Gilbert Webster and, aged 18, played in the orchestra for the musical "Hair". His first professional band was Darryl Way's Wolf. Mosley played drums for former Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett, both on two of his solo studio albums and on tour. He played for Gordon Giltrap. He also played on the 1975 album "Birds" by Dutch band Trace.

Marillion.

Mosley joined Marillion in 1984 after a long search for a replacement for drummer and founding member Mick Pointer, who had left the band acrimoniously in 1983. He was the fifth drummer to play for Marillion and was frontman Fish's choice for the role, who had been unhappy with the band's previous drummers. Music critic John Franck stated Mosley's "spot-on drumming was the perfect foil for Marillion's meticulous musicianship". He is still a member of Marillion.

Other projects.

In 2001, Mosley joined saxophonist Ben Castle, son of entertainer Roy Castle, and they recorded a jazz-themed album together, "Postmankind". The album also featured guest performances by John Etheridge, Steve Hackett and Marillion members Steve Rothery and Pete Trewavas.  Mosley played on fellow Marillion bandmate Pete Trewavas' and Eric Blackwood's Edison's Children album "In The Last Waking Moments...", playing drums on the epic 16 minute "The Awakening".

Musical style.

Mosley's drumming skills have been praised by Steve Hackett, who has described him as "a phenomenal drummer" and "phenomenally fast". He has also said that Mosley's economy on the drums is "every bit the equal" to Phil Collins, Hackett's former Genesis bandmate.  Mosley has been cited as an influence by Tomas Haake, drummer of Swedish extreme metal band Meshuggah.  Mosley has stated that he enjoys "playing arrangements kind of in a classical format, which is in movements" but, despite his membership of several progressive rock bands over the course of his career, he does not believe in music labels and distances himself from the "progressive label" that "involves lyrics that quote dancing gnomes, Stonehenge and fairytales, etc."  Mosley has acknowledged that until and including Marillion's 1991 album "Holidays in Eden", his drumming sound was "very eighties" and featured a "big reverb", but he prefers to record drums naturally and he credits Dave Meegan, who produced 1994's "Brave" and several subsequent albums, with changing the sound of his drums to the more natural sound which has prevailed since.  Mosley has stated that he endorses the use of drum loops to start "atmosphere" and the "initial vibe" of a song, but he does not favour loops being used throughout a song because "it would be boring if it would all be programmed" and "it would be like being caged, I like to be able to play".  Mosley's drumming is the subject of a book, "A guide to the unique drumming style of Ian Mosley - Marillion's Heartbeat", written by drummer and Marillion fan Mark Pardy.  In 2019 Mosley published his collected memoirs under the title "Do I Owe You Money? - The Collected Memoirs Of Ian Mosley"

Ian F. Mosley (born 16 June 1953, Paddington, London, England) is an English drummer. He is best known for his long-time membership of the neo-progressive rock band Marillion, which he joined for their second album, "Fugazi", released in 1984. He had previously been an in-demand session drummer. Mosley's abilities have been widely praised, including by former Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett, Meshuggah drummer Tomas Haake and critic John Franck of AllMusic. "Modern Drummer" has characterised him as a "drumming great".

Ian Mosley (* 16. června 1953, Paddington, Londýn, Anglie) je rockový bubeník, který hraje v britské progresivní rockové kapele Marillion od konce roku 1983, kdy nahradil Micka Pointera. Už předtím byl známý, protože hrál na bicí na dvou sólových albech Stevea Hacketta (kytaristy Genesis). V Marillion hraje dodnes.