Etymology.

The name chalcopyrite comes from the Greek words, which means copper, and ', which means striking fire. It was sometimes historically referred to as "yellow copper".

Identification.

Chalcopyrite is often confused with pyrite and gold since all three of these minerals have a yellowish color and a metallic luster. Some important mineral characteristics that help distinguish these minerals are hardness and streak. Chalcopyrite is much softer than pyrite and can be scratched with a knife, whereas pyrite cannot be scratched by a knife. However, chalcopyrite is harder than gold, which, if pure, can be scratched by copper. Chalcopyrite has a distinctive black streak with green flecks in it. Pyrite has a black streak and gold has a yellow streak.

Chemistry.

Natural chalcopyrite has no solid solution series with any other sulfide minerals. There is limited substitution of Zn with Cu despite chalcopyrite having the same crystal structure as sphalerite.  Minor amounts of elements such as Ag, Au, Cd, Co, Ni, Pb, Sn, and Zn can be measured (at part per million levels), likely substituting for Cu and Fe. Selenium, Bi, Te, and As may substitute for sulfur in minor amounts. Chalcopyrite can be oxidized to form malachite, azurite, and cuprite.

Paragenesis.

Chalcopyrite is present with many ore-bearing environments via a variety of ore forming processes.  Chalcopyrite is present in volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits and sedimentary exhalative deposits, formed by deposition of copper during hydrothermal circulation. Chalcopyrite is concentrated in this environment via fluid transport.  Porphyry copper ore deposits are formed by concentration of copper within a granite stock during the ascent and crystallisation of a magma. Chalcopyrite in this environment is produced by concentration within a magmatic system.  Chalcopyrite is an accessory mineral in Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits, formed from an immiscible sulfide liquid in sulfide-saturated ultramafic lavas. In this environment chalcopyrite is formed by a sulfide liquid stripping copper from an immiscible silicate liquid.

Occurrence.

Even though Chalcopyrite does not contain the most copper in its structure relative to other minerals, it is the most important copper ore since it can be found in many localities. Chalcopyrite ore occurs in a variety of ore types, from huge masses as at Timmins, Ontario, to irregular veins and disseminations associated with granitic to dioritic intrusives as in the porphyry copper deposits of Broken Hill, the American cordillera and the Andes. The largest deposit of nearly pure chalcopyrite ever discovered in Canada was at the southern end of the Temagami Greenstone Belt where Copperfields Mine extracted the high-grade copper. Chalcopyrite is present in the supergiant Olympic Dam Cu-Au-U deposit in South Australia.  Chalcopyrite may also be found in coal seams associated with pyrite nodules, and as disseminations in carbonate sedimentary rocks.

Structure.

Chalcopyrite is a member of the tetragonal crystal system. Crystallographically the structure of chalcopyrite is closely related to that of zinc blende ZnS (sphalerite). The unit cell is twice as large, reflecting an alternation of Cu and Fe ions replacing Zn ions in adjacent cells. In contrast to the pyrite structure chalcopyrite has single S sulfide anions rather than disulfide pairs. Another difference is that the iron cation is not diamagnetic low spin Fe(II) as in pyrite.  In the crystal structure, each metal ion is tetrahedrally coordinated to 4 sulfur anions. Each sulfur anion is bonded to two copper atoms and two iron atoms.

Extraction of copper.

Copper metal can be extracted from the open air roasting of a mixture of chalcopyrite and silica sand, as shown in the following reaction:  Although if roasted partially it produces and.

Chalcopyrite ( ) is a copper iron sulfide mineral that crystallizes in the tetragonal system. It has the chemical formula CuFeS. It has a brassy to golden yellow color and a hardness of 3.5 to 4 on the Mohs scale. Its streak is diagnostic as green tinged black.

Chalkopyrit (Henckel, 1725), chemický vzorec CuFeS (sulfid měďnato-železnatý), je čtverečný minerál. Název pochází z řeckých slov "chalkos" – měď a "pyr" – oheň. Starší český název je kyz měděný.


Career.

The son of a former Wehrmacht officer, Voigt was born in Viersen. After graduating from high school, he became an airframe mechanic apprentice. In 1971, he had studied aerospace engineering at the Aachen University of Applied Sciences for two terms, but didn't graduate. In 1972, he was conscripted by the Bundeswehr. Later, he worked in the German Air Force from 1972 to 1984 and graduated as an officer from the Luftwaffe Officer's School. He served in Germany and at a NATO facility in Greece. Between 1982 and 1987, he studied political science at the Munich School of Political Science and graduated with a master's degree in political science from LMU.

Political career.

He joined the NPD at age 16 in 1968. He was elected as party chairman in 1996, succeeding Günter Deckert. From September 2006 till 2010, Voigt was an elected member of the Berlin municipal government in the Treptow-Köpenick district. He has been previously unsuccessful in the European Parliament elections and when running for mayor of Saarbrücken.  On 13 March 2008, Voigt was charged (for at least the second time) with incitement (Volksverhetzung) for distributing racially charged pamphlets. In 2009, he was given a seven-month suspended sentence and ordered to donate 2,000 Euro to UNICEF. Voigt protested against the charge, claiming it was politically motivated.  On 13 November 2011 Voigt was replaced as leader of the NPD by Holger Apfel.  Voigt was elected as a member of the European Parliament in the 2014 European Elections.

Udo Voigt (; born 14 April 1952) is a German politician and former Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) between 2014 and 2019. He was a member of the European Parliament Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs. He served as leader of NPD from 1996 to 2011. By profession he is a former aviation engineer and captain in the German Air Force and has a master's degree in political science from LMU. Voigt has in recent years become a strong supporter of Vladimir Putin, and more recently also Donald Trump, and has said that Germany should have "a chancellor like Putin."

Udo Voigt (* 14. duben 1952 Viersen) je německý politik a jeden z bývalých předsedů extremistické Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands (NPD). Pod jeho agresivním vedením dosáhla strana nejlepších volebních výsledků od 60. let a získala zastoupení v zemských sněmech v Sasku a v Meklenbursku-Předním Pomořansku.


Early life.

Lisa Gerrard was born in Melbourne to Irish immigrant parents, and grew up in Prahran, an inner suburb with a substantial Greek population. She recalled growing up with "Mediterranean music blaring out of the houses" and said that this influenced her music, particularly on later Dead Can Dance albums and in her solo and collaborative works.  Gerrard first began forming bands and creating original music as a member of Melbourne's little band scene, an experimental post-punk scene which flourished from 1978 until 1981. It was in this scene that she first met Dead Can Dance co-founder Brendan Perry. Perry recalls, "It never occurred to me that we would one day collaborate musically together because at the time I thought her music was too avant garde. I particularly remember one song that she sang about finding a man in the park and asking her mother if she could bring him home to keep in her wardrobe as she attacked this chinese dulcimer with two bamboo sticks". Around this time, Gerrard became the lead vocalist of Microfilm, which released one single, "Centrefold", in 1980.

Career.

Dead Can Dance.

Dead Can Dance originally formed as a quartet in 1981 in Melbourne, but in 1982 moved to London with members Gerrard, Brendan Perry and bass player Paul Erikson. Shortly after coming to England, Erikson flew back to Australia, leaving the band as a duo. Dead Can Dance recorded eight albums on the 4AD Records recording label beginning with the self-titled "Dead Can Dance" LP in 1984. In 2005, the song "Nierika" became part of the opening titles for Mexican television station TV Azteca's soap opera "La Chacala". The band split in 1998, but reunited in 2005 for a world tour. In 2012, the band announced a new world tour to coincide with the release of their new album, "Anastasis".

Solo and collaborative career.

In 1995, Gerrard recorded and released her first solo album, "The Mirror Pool". After the release of this album, she continued to work with Dead Can Dance, releasing the album, "Spiritchaser", in 1996. Following this, in 1998 she recorded "Duality" in collaboration with Pieter Bourke. This album would mark the beginning of an extensive collaboration for a number of film scores, including "The Insider" and "Ali". Gerrard began a new collaboration with Patrick Cassidy in 2004 with the release of "Immortal Memory". Again, this collaboration was furthered in film work, including "Salem's Lot".  The following year in 2005, Gerrard contributed to the "Ashes and Snow Soundtrack". For the songs "Womb" and "Wisdom", she and Patrick Cassidy wrote and performed together. Her collaboration with Cassidy extended to include work with conductor Julie Rogers on the songs "Devota" and "Vespers".  In 2006, "Sanctuary", a documentary about the life and work of Gerrard, was recorded and released in September. It is the work of producer and director Clive Collier and features extensive interviews with Gerrard and various people who have collaborated with her in the past, including Michael Mann, Russell Crowe, Hans Zimmer and Niki Caro. The documentary was released on DVD by Milan Entertainment on 24 April 2007.  Also in 2006, Gerrard released her second solo album, "The Silver Tree". This album was markedly different from her previous work and was also her first album released outside 4AD Records. The album was first released on iTunes, with a wider physical release planned at a future date. The album was nominated for the Australian Music Prize for 2006. In 2007 a retrospective album "The Best of Lisa Gerrard", a compilation of fifteen songs, was released covering her career in Dead Can Dance, solo work, and film work.  A world tour was undertaken in 2007 beginning in April in Melbourne, Australia. This tour marked the first time Lisa Gerrard had toured in Australia, with a performance in three cities. The tour was followed by performances in Europe and North America. More performances took place in Europe and Russia from 30 October to 22 November 2007. In November 2007, Gerrard collaborated with German electronic musician Klaus Schulze on the double-album "Farscape". The album was released 27 July 2008 and was followed by a European tour.  In 2009, Gerrard completed work on the documentary by Australian adventurer Tim Cope called "On the Trail of Genghis Khan" and contributed her voice to the soundtrack, which began airing in 2010, of the Japanese NHK taiga drama "Ryōmaden", a story based on the life of Sakamoto Ryōma. Also in 2009, Gerrard created her own record label, Gerrard Records, which, aside from being a conduit for the release of Gerrard's future works, will also act to promote and support unrecognised artists of all genres. In September 2009, Gerrard and Klaus Schulze performed another tour in six European cities – Warsaw, Berlin, Amsterdam, Essen, Paris, and Brussels. This tour coincided with the release of "Come Quietly", a joint project between Gerrard and Schulze that was released during the tour.  Gerrard released her third solo album, "The Black Opal", in October 2009. The album included collaboration with Michael Edwards, Patrick Cassidy, Pieter Bourke and James Orr and was the first release to come from Gerrard Records.  In 2010, Gerrard released a new album with fellow composer Marcello De Francisci titled "Departum" from Gerrard Records which was followed by the release of three new singles; "Coming Home" – as featured in "", "Entry" and "Come This Way".  Gerrard also collaborated with Prash Mistry from "Engine Earz Experiment" on a track titled "Spirit Guide" which will appear on his upcoming album in 2011.  On 1 December 2010, Gerrard capped off a busy 2010 with the release of a new soundtrack album with Cye Wood titled "The Trail of Genghis Khan" which contains music from the Gerrard and Wood score to the documentary TV series by Australian adventurer Tim Cope.  In July 2014, Gerrard released a new solo album entitled "Twilight Kingdom" through her own record label, Gerrard Records.  In 2014, Gerrard collaborated with British composer, songwriter and producer, Chicane. Her vocals feature in the album "The Sum of Its Parts" featuring in songs "38 Weeks" and "Orleans". The album was released in 25 January 2015 by Modena Records.  Gerrard's vocals are heavily featured in the video game "Armello" launched on 1 September 2015, titled 'Wyld's Call', produced by Michael Allen. Her vocals feature towards a Celtic theme of the soundtracks.

Film career.

Gerrard's first experience in composing music for a film came with the 1989 Spanish film "El Niño de la Luna", directed by Agustí Villaronga. The film score was composed by Dead Can Dance and the film featured Lisa Gerrard in her first acting role. "El Niño de la Luna" describes the story of David, a young orphan with special powers, escaping an institution with the help of a fellow institute inmate, Georgina, played by Lisa Gerrard.  Gerrard participated in a number of musical scores but came to fame as a film composer after recording "The Insider" in 1999, with Pieter Bourke, and "Gladiator" in 2000, with Hans Zimmer, which received an Academy Award nomination for best music score, although only Zimmer was nominated. It did, however, win a Golden Globe Award for both composers. Gerrard's score for the New Zealand independent film "Whale Rider" consisted entirely of solo material; a soundtrack album was released by 4AD.  In 2005 Gerrard collaborated with Ennio Morricone for "Fateless" followed by a collaboration with Jeff Rona on the score for the feature film "A Thousand Roads" and the song "On an Ocean" for the "Henry Poole Is Here" score. Gerrard along with Dead Can Dance also provided several contributions to the soundtrack of "Baraka", a visual journey showcasing mankind's impact on our planet. Gerrard was also invited by Denez Prigent to collaborate with him on his piece "Gortoz a ran – J'attends" (meaning "I await"), a piece that was later used in the soundtrack of Ridley Scott's film "Black Hawk Down".  In 2009 Gerrard wrote the score for "Balibo", for which she won a Best Feature Film Score award at the 2009 APRA Screen Music Awards and an Aria Award for Best Original Soundtrack/Cast/Show Album at the 2009 Aria Awards. Gerrard finished 2009 by contributing her voice to the theme song for the Japanese NHK taiga drama "Ryōmaden", which began airing in 2010.  In 2010 Gerrard completed the score for "Tears of Gaza" with Marcello De Francisci which was well received despite its controversial theme. Gerrard also scored the Jim Loach-directed "Oranges and Sunshine", starring Emily Watson and Hugo Weaving, released in April 2011, which gained her another nomination at the 2011 IF Awards for Best Music Score.  In November 2010 Gerrard provided vocals and additional music for the post-apocalyptic sci-fi thriller "Priest", scored by Christopher Young, which was released in 2011.  In November 2011 Gerrard completed the score for "Burning Man", which won her Best Music Score at the 2011 Film Critics Circle of Australia awards, beating scores for "Snowtown", "The Hunter" and "Red Dog".

Vocal ability.

Gerrard possesses the vocal range of a contralto but can also reach upward into the mezzo-soprano range. Her voice has been described as rich, deep, dark, mournful and unique.  Examples of Gerrard's mezzo-soprano range include the songs "The Host of Seraphim", "Elegy", "Space Weaver", "Come This Way" and "One Perfect Sunrise". Gerrard however performs more predominantly in the dramatic contralto range in her other songs, "Sanvean", "Sacrifice", "Largo", "Lament" and "Not Yet".  Gerrard sings many of her songs, such as "Now We Are Free", "Come Tenderness", "Serenity", "The Valley of the Moon", "Tempest", "Pilgrimage of Lost Children", "Coming Home" and "Sanvean" in idioglossia. With respect to such work she has said, "I sing in the language of the Heart. It's an invented language that I've had for a very long time. I believe I started singing in it when I was about 12. Roughly that time. And I believed that I was speaking to God when I sang in that language."

Lisa Gerrard (; born 12 April 1961) is an Australian musician, singer and composer who rose to prominence as part of the music group Dead Can Dance with music partner Brendan Perry. In addition to singing, she is an instrumentalist for much of her work, most prolifically using the "yangqin" (a Chinese hammered dulcimer).

Lisa Gerrardová (nepřechýleně "Gerrard"; * 12. dubna 1961 Melbourne) je australská hudebnice, zpěvačka a hudební skladatelka. Stala se známou jako členka hudební skupiny Dead Can Dance, kterou spoluzaložila a tvořila s Brendanem Perrym. Umělecky působí od roku 1981 do současnosti. Po rozpadu skupiny Dead Can Dance se vydala na sólovou dráhu a spolupodílela se na celé řadě projektů, zejména v oblasti filmové hudby. Za hudbu ve filmu "Gladiátor" byla za rok 2000 spolu s Hansem Zimmerem nominována na Oscara a v roce 2001 obdrželi cenu Zlatý glóbus. V hudbě, kterou komponuje, většinou i sama zpívá (má kontraalt) a hraje na různé nástroje. Velmi často užívá jang-čchin, což je čínská verze cimbálu.


Geographic range.

The subfamily Crotalinae is found in the Old World from eastern Europe eastward through Asia to Japan, China, Indonesia, peninsular India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. In the Americas, they range from southern Canada southward to Central America to southern South America.

Habitat.

Crotalines are a versatile subfamily, with members found in habitats ranging from parched desert (e.g., the sidewinder, "Crotalus cerastes") to rainforests (e.g., the bushmaster, "Lachesis muta"). They may be either arboreal or terrestrial, and one species is even semiaquatic: the cottonmouth, "Agkistrodon piscivorus". The altitude record is held jointly by "Crotalus triseriatus" in Mexico and "Gloydius strauchi" in China, both of which have been found above the treeline at over 4,000 m elevation.

Behavior.

Although a few species of crotalines are highly active by day, such as "Trimeresurus trigonocephalus", a bright green pit viper endemic to Sri Lanka, most are nocturnal, preferring to avoid high daytime temperatures and to hunt when their favored prey are also active. The snakes' heat-sensitive pits are also thought to aid in locating cooler areas in which to rest.  As ambush predators, crotalines typically wait patiently somewhere for unsuspecting prey to wander by. At least one species, the arboreal "Gloydius shedaoensis" of China, is known to select a specific ambush site and return to it every year in time for the spring migration of birds. Studies have indicated these snakes learn to improve their strike accuracy over time.  Many temperate species of pit vipers (e.g. most rattlesnakes) congregate in sheltered areas or "dens" to overwinter (see hibernation), the snakes benefiting from the combined heat. In cool temperatures and while pregnant, pit vipers also bask on sunny ledges. Some species do not mass together in this way, for example the copperhead, "Agkistrodon contortrix", or the Mojave rattlesnake, "Crotalus scutulatus".  Like most snakes, crotalines keep to themselves and strike only if cornered or threatened. Smaller snakes are less likely to stand their ground than larger specimens. Pollution and the destruction of rainforests have caused many pit viper populations to decline. Humans also threaten pit vipers, as many are hunted for their skins or killed by cars when they wander onto roads.

Reproduction.

With few exceptions, crotalines are ovoviviparous, meaning that the embryos develop within eggs that remain inside the mother's body until the offspring are ready to hatch, at which time the hatchlings emerge as functionally free-living young. In such species the eggshells are reduced to soft membranes that the young shed, either within the reproductive tract, or immediately after emerging.  Among the oviparous (egg-laying) pit vipers are "Lachesis", "Calloselasma", and some "Trimeresurus" species. All egg-laying crotalines are believed to guard their eggs.  Brood sizes range from two for very small species, to as many as 86 for the fer-de-lance, "Bothrops atrox", which is among the most prolific of all live-bearing snakes.  Many young crotalines have brightly coloured tails that contrast dramatically with the rest of their bodies. Used in a behavior known as caudal luring, the young snakes make worm-like movements with their tails to lure unsuspecting prey within striking distance.

Taxonomy.

In the past, the pit vipers were usually classed as a separate family: the Crotalidae. Today, however, the monophyly of the viperines and the crotalines as a whole is undisputed, which is why they are treated here as a subfamily of the Viperidae.

Genera.

"*) Not including the nominate subspecies."<br> ) Type genus.

The Crotalinae, commonly known as pit vipers, crotaline snakes (named for the "krotalon" castanet/rattle of a rattlesnake's tail), or pit adders, are a subfamily of venomous vipers found in Eurasia and the Americas. They are distinguished by the presence of a heat-sensing pit organ located between the eye and the nostril on both sides of the head. Currently, 22 genera and 151 species are recognized: These are also the only viperids found in the Americas. The groups of snakes represented here include rattlesnakes, lanceheads, and Asian pit vipers. The type genus for this subfamily is "Crotalus", of which the type species is the timber rattlesnake, "C. horridus".

Chřestýšovití ("Crotalinae") jsou podčeleď hadů čeledi zmijovitých ("Viperidae"), obsahující 18 rodů a 154 druhů, včetně poddruhů. Údaje se dle jednotlivé literatury a nových výzkumů liší. Vyskytují se v Americe a jižní a jihovýchodní Asii. Na rozdíl od zmijí mají na hlavě (konkrétně mezi očima a nozdrami) termoreceptory, které mohou zjistit i nepatrné teplotní rozdíly a umožňují jim bezpečně vyhledávat potravu, kterou většinou tvoří teplokrevní obratlovci. Podobnou schopností jsou vybaveni nepříbuzní hroznýšovití a krajty, tyto čeledi však mají na rozdíl od chřestýšovitých, labiální tepločivné jamky (nacházejí se podél "rtů"). Praví chřestýši patří mezi evolučně nejmladší hady. Tvoří velice rozmanitou skupinu hadů, mezi kterými lze najít velké (chřestýš diamantový – až 2,44 m) i malé hady (stěží okolo 50 cm).


Geography.

The city of Rhodes is situated in the north-east tip of the island and forms a triangle from north to south. The municipal unit has an area of 19.481 km. It is the smallest municipal unit of the island in terms of land area and the largest in population. It borders the Aegean Sea to the north, the east and the west and with the municipalities of Ialysos and Kallithea in the south.

History.

The island of Rhodes is at a crossroads between Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. This has given the city and the island many different identities, cultures, architectures, and languages over its long history. Its position in major sea routes has given Rhodes a very rich history. The island has been inhabited since about 4000 BC (Neolithic Period).

Classical period.

The city of Rhodes was formed by the cities of Ialyssos, Kamiros and Lindos in 408 BC, and prospered for three centuries during its "Golden Age", when sea trade, skilled shipbuilders, and open-minded politicians of the city kept it prosperous until Roman times. The Colossus of Rhodes, one of the original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World was built by the Chares of Lindos between 304 and 293 BC, which took 12 years and was completed in 282 BC. The statue represented their sun god Helios, which stood at the harbour entrance. The ancient city had a well-constructed sewage system as well as a water supply network as designed by Hippodamus. A strong earthquake hit Rhodes about 226 BC, badly damaging the city and toppling the Colossus.

Roman period.

In 164 BC, Rhodes came under Roman control. It was able to keep its beauty and develop into a leading center of learning for arts and science. The Romans took from the Rhodians their maritime law and applied it to their shipping. Many traces of the Roman period still exist throughout the city and give an insight into the level of civilization at the time. According to Acts 21:1, the Apostle Paul stopped at Rhodes near the end of his third missionary journey.

Byzantine period.

In medieval times, Rhodes was an important Byzantine trading post, as also a crossroads for ships sailing between Constantinople and Alexandria. In the early years of the divided Roman Empire, the Isaurians, a mountain tribe from Cilicia, invaded the island and burned the city. In the 7th century AD it was captured by the Arabs. The latter were the ones who removed the scattered pieces of the Colossus from the port and moved them to Syria where they destroyed them to make coins. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the native noble Leo Gabalas took control of the island, but after his death and succession by his brother John, the island was briefly occupied by the Genoese before being returned to the Emperor of Nicaea, though ushering in a new, but short-lived, Byzantine period.

Knights' period.

The Knights Hospitallers captured and established their headquarters on Rhodes when they left Cyprus after the persecution of the Knights Templar in 1307. Pope Clement V confirmed the Hospitallers possession of the Island in 1309. The Knights remained on the Island for the next two centuries.  In 1444, the Mamluk fleet of Egypt laid a siege to Rhodes, but the Knights aided by the Burgundian naval commander Geoffroy de Thoisy beat off the Muslim attack.  After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Ottoman Empire began a rapid expansion and in 1480 Sultan Mehmet launched an invasion of Rhodes commanded by Mesic Pasha. The defenders repelled Turkish attacks from both landward and seaward sides and the invaders left the Island in defeat. The defeat halted a concurrent invasion of the Italian peninsula by Ottoman forces and prevented possible Muslim incursion and control of Western Europe.  After the Ottoman defeat in 1480 the Knights Grand Master, Pierre d'Aubusson, oversaw the strengthening of the cities over the next few decades. By the time of his death in 1521 Rhodes possessed the strongest fortifications of any Christian Bastion in the World. The Knights continued naval attacks launched from Rhodes on Muslim merchants until 1522 when the newly enthroned Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent led a second Siege of Rhodes in 1522.  The vastly outnumbered Knights made a spirited defense of the city and inflicted heavy casualties upon the Ottoman besiegers. In December 1522 the Knights and Suleiman came to terms and the Knights were allowed to leave the city with all the wealth they could carry, in return there would be no retribution upon the inhabitants of the city and they would be allowed to continue to freely practice Christianity. On January 1, 1523 the Knights departed from the island, leaving it to Ottoman control.

Ottoman period.

In the Ottoman era, new buildings were constructed: mosques, public baths and mansions for the new patrons. The Greeks were forced to abandon the fortified city and move to new suburbs outside its walls. The city maintained its main economic function as a market for the agricultural products of the interior of the island and the surrounding small islands.  After the establishment of their sovereignty on the island, the Ottoman Turks converted most of the churches into mosques and transformed the major houses into private mansions or public buildings. This transformation was a long-term process that aimed to adapt the buildings to the Ottoman way of living. The Knights period façades with their sculptured decorations, the arched gates and hewn stone walls were enriched with the random character of the Ottoman architecture adapted to the local climate and culture. Ιn this process most οf the architectural features of the existing buildings were preserved. The most characteristic additions were the baths (usually in the back of the buildings) and the enclosed wooden balconies on the façades over the narrow streets. In this way most of the buildings of the Hospitaliers' period in the Medieval Town were well preserved. The result was a mixture of oriental architecture with imposing western architectural remains and more recent buildings, which were characteristic of the local architecture of the time.  An interesting example of the Ottoman architecture is the building of the Hafiz Ahmed Agha Library.  Ιn the 19th century, the city was the capital of the Eyalet of the Archipelago, but the decline of the Ottoman Empire resulted in the general neglect of the town and its buildings, which further deteriorated due to the strong earthquakes that often plague the area.

Italian period.

In 1912 Italian troops took the island over with the rest of the Dodecanese Islands, and established an Italian possession known as Italian Islands of the Aegean in 1923. The architect Florestano Di Fausto can be considered the father of Italian Rhodes. He, in agreement with governor Mario Lago, was author of the city plan of 1923, choosing to respect almost totally the walled town, only demolishing the houses that were built on and around the city walls during the Ottoman era. He also turned the Jewish and Ottoman cemeteries into a "green zone" surrounding the Medieval Town. At the same time, he designed the new Italian Rhodes in the zone of the Mandraki, planning a Garden City, and building along the main sea promenade the main edifices, as the Market, the Cathedral of Saint John of the Knights, the Palace of the governor. All these building were designed in an eclectic style, mixing Ottoman, Venetian, Renaissance and local elements. The Italians preserved what was left from the Knights' period, and destroyed all Ottoman buildings. They also reconstructed the Grand Master's Palace. Furthermore, an Institute for the study of the History and Culture of the region was established, and major infrastructure work was done to modernize Rhodes.

Post-World War II period.

The British bombs that fell on the medieval city of Rhodes in 1944 claimed lives and destroyed a great number of buildings, leaving large gaps in the urban tissue. One of the first decrees of the Greek administration designated those areas as reserved for future excavations and a number of edifices as safeguarded buildings. In July 1944 the Nazis ordered the deportation of over 1,700 Jews of Rhodes including men, women, and children, of whom 1,200 were murdered at Auschwitz.  In 1957, a new city plan was approved by a decree and in 1960 the entire medieval town was designated as a protected monument by the Ministry of Culture. In 1961 and 1963 new decrees were issued concerning the new city plan. They provided for the widening of existing streets and the opening of new ones. However, these were not implemented in the old city due to the resistance of the Archaeological Service. In 1988, the old town of Rhodes was designated as a World Heritage City by UNESCO.

Government.

Rhodes City is the capital of the island of Rhodes which since 2011 became a single municipality and of the Rhodes regional unit. It was the capital of the former Dodecanese Prefecture and currently hosts many offices and services of the South Aegean region.  As an administration centre, the city also hosts numerous offices and services such as:

Main sights.

The city is home to numerous landmarks. Some of them date back to antiquity and most of the others remain from the Knights' Period.

Demographics.

Both city and island population continue to grow contrary to national levels; the city has an official permanent population of 49,541 in 2011 census but its estimated that some 65–70.000 reside permanently within city limits. During summer population reaches 100.000 due to some 25–30.000 hotel beds operating within city limits as well numerous seasonal workers that migrate from rest of Greece due to high unemployment mostly in peninsular parts of the country.

Education.

State facilities by category: The last years two private schools were also established and offer classes from primary to lyceum education with one located within city limits, Rodion Paideia. The Music School of Rhodes (Greece) can be located just outside Rhodes, in Koskinou village.

Health.

Rhodes state general hospital is located in the southwestern district of Agioi Apostoloi. Erected less than 20 years ago, it is a modern facility with many departments as well the base for EKAV ambulances serving the city and island's northern part. Hospital is also equipped with a helicopter landing zone being able to accept urgent cases via airlifts from the rest Dodecanese islands.  A private hospital, Euromedica, also operates just off city limits, in Koskinou western edge. Numerous private medical facilities also operate within city while many private doctors keep their clinics in and around city centre.

Transportation.

Air.

Both the city and the island of Rhodes are served by Diagoras International Airport, situated south west of the city. It is connected to all other major Greek airports and to Cyprus throughout the year. During tourism season, international flights connect the island with numerous European cities and with Israel, Egypt and Lebanon.

Sea.

The city hosts 3 major ports that each serve a different purpose. Kolona serves intra-Dodecanese traffic, Central serves cruise ships and international traffic and Akandia domestic as well cargo traffic.  Ferries connect daily the island with several nearby islands within the Dodecanese Islands, as well as with the Cycladic Islands and the Greek mainland (Pireaus) while twice weekly a ferry goes to Heraklion, Crete. There are also frequently routes to opposing Turkish coast towns such as Marmaris and Fethiye. Rhodes is also a popular port of call for cruise itineraries, especially in the summer months.  City also hosts two marinas, a municipal one in downtown Mandraki and a private one next to Akandia port.

Surface.

The city's public transit system is served by municipal bus company RODA (blue and/or white buses) and consists of a bus network which connects city centre to districts but also connects the city to outlying resorts and towns (Faliraki in the east and Ixia, Ialysos, Tholos in the west) as well Rhodes International Airport. The city centre is also the point of departure for KTEL buses (orange buses) that serve island's east coast suburban routes. There is a proposal for KTEL buses to relocate in available space next to Akandia port but its still unknown if and when this will happen.  Taxis are widely available in the city and usually can be found in designated taxi ranks or via phone call. It is normal during high season rush hours to queue in ranks due to increased demand.  Plans for a 16 km tram network consisting of 2 lines and 13 stations were presented years ago but since then nothing further emerged probably due to lack of funds.  City's road network is mostly old consisting mainly of narrow and one way streets and major arteries can't really cope with increased traffic making congestion unavoidable especially rush hours. Parking especially around city centre and during market hours as well summer season is extremely difficult due to lack of free spaces although it is monitored by the municipality imposing a fee. The municipality is currently redeveloping certain free areas near the centre to parking lots which are expected to lower traffic burden. A ring road also exists but it is unfinished connecting currently Rhodes Port to Rhodes-Kallithea Avenue. City is also the starting point of 3 of island's 5 main avenues connecting it with Faliraki through Rhodes-Kallithea Avenue, Lindos through Rhodes-Lindos Avenue and west coast (Ialysos, Airport, Tholos, Kamiros) through Rhodes-Kamiros Avenue.

Media.

Television and radio.

Most major nationwide television stations broadcast in the city. There are also five local television stations and a number of local and national radio stations.

Newspapers.

There are two daily newspapers issued that deal with both the city and the whole region. Moreover, there are few others with specific themes.

Sports.

The city after a long dark period of almost 15 years is reviving in many team sports. Football and basketball are the most popular but a wide variety is also in development during the last years with the most noticeable in rugby.

Football.

The city has two major football teams; Diagoras GS and AS Rodos after a long period are back in national level and competed in Greek National Second Division (Football League) during 2017–18 season with the latter being relegated to local league. Rest of the city-based teams compete in the local Amateur Divisions and include teams that once competed in national level such as ARS Rodiakos and DANS Dorieas.

Basketball.

The last 15 years basketball is represented in national level by Kolossos Rodou BC which competes in National A1 Ethniki since 2007. Other teams, either active or defunct, are AS Diagoras Rhodes with notable presence some years ago in national lower-level leagues C and B, Rodion Athlisis, Galazia Akadimia and now defunct ASK Ibiskos, DANS Dorieas and AS Rodos. City also hosts AS Dodekanisos, the pride of the Aegean that competes and stars in the national basketball league for handicapped people.

Volleyball.

Rodion Athlisis competes successfully during the last years in A2 Ethniki Volleyball and lost promotion to top tear A1 Ethniki Volleyball for 2 consecutive seasons (2017 and 2018) in playoff games. Rest of city based teams compete in local level.

Other.

A variety of other sports is also available and in development in the city. In rugby the recently formed Colossoi of Rhodes reached the top league finals for the second time in a row. The Nautical Club of Rhodes and Ygros Stivos of Rhodes have water polo teams in low level national divisions; the Rhodian Tennis Club play tennis and ping-pong in its privately owned facilities; AS Diagoras Rhodes have competitive teams in cycling and in track and field athletics. Finally, jiu jitsu, karate, tae-kwon-do and other Eastern oriented sports are available with local teams that enjoy sporadic national success.

Sports venues.

The city has three major sports venues; the Rhodes Municipal Stadium and the Kallipateira National Athletic Center serve all outdoor activities while the Municipal Indoor Hall of "Venetokleio" serves indoor sports. Agioi Apostoloi municipal stadium serves solely football while privately owned indoor sports arenas are held by Diagoras and Rodion Athlisis clubs with the latter owning and operating also a 25-m indoor swimming pool as well.

Climate.

In Köppen climate classification, it is classified as hot-summer Mediterranean climate. The lowest recorded temperature and the highest recorded temperature was.

International relations.

Consulates.

The city of Rhodes is also home to many foreign consulates.

Twin towns — sister cities.

Rhodes is twinned with:

Notable people.

Ancient  Modern

Rhodes (, "Ródos" ) is the principal city and a former municipality on the island of Rhodes in the Dodecanese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Rhodes, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. It has a population of approximately 90,000 in its metropolitan area. Rhodes has been famous since antiquity as the site of Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The citadel of Rhodes, built by the Hospitalliers, is one of the best-preserved medieval towns in Europe, which in 1988 was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Rhodos (, ) je řecká obecní jednotka a město na ostrově Rhodos v Egejském moři v souostroví Dodekany. Je hlavním městem ostrova. Do roku 2011 bylo obcí. Nachází se v severovýchodní části ostrova u pobřeží. Na východě s obecní jednotkou Petaloudes a na jihu s obecní jednotkou Kallithea. Je jednou z deseti obecních jednotek na ostrově. Historické jádro města, jemuž vévodí Palác velmistrů, který zbudovali Johanité, patří k nejlépe zachovaným středověkým městům v Evropě, a je proto od roku 1988 zapsáno na seznam světového dědictví UNESCO. Město Rhodos patří k oblíbeným turistickým cílům, není tedy divu, že se jeho historická část a přilehlé oblasti tomuto trendu přizpůsobily, neboť zdejší obyvatelé žijí v podstatě pouze z turistického ruchu.


Life prior to aerial service.

Coiffard was born in Nantes, Loire-Atlantique, on 16 July 1892 to Jean Coiffard and Mary Josephine Teresa de Laurent. He joined the army on 16 November 1910. The following year, he served against the Rifs in Morocco. He also served in Tunisia before World War I. He was wounded three times during his service in Africa, and awarded three citations while there. He was serving in an artillery unit when World War I began in 1914.  Repeatedly wounded and cited for courage under fire, Coiffard transferred to the infantry as a sergeant on 29 August 1914. On 29 May 1915, he earned the Medal Militaire for voluntarily braving heavy artillery fire to repair field phone lines between artillery and infantry units. He was finally declared unfit for ground combat because of a serious wound. Consequently, he joined the air service on 4 January 1917.

Aerial service.

He completed flight training 19 April 1917 and joined Escadrille N.154 on 28 June 1917. He achieved his first victory on 5 September. Coiffard scored two more successes in early 1918. This earned him the award of Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur on 2 February. The citation notes he was wounded four times as an infantryman.  However, not until the squadron transitioned in June from Nieuports to the sturdy SPAD series did he hit his stride. N.154 was re-designated Spa154 to mark the change in aircraft. Coiffard had his new craft's wheels and cowl painted red and dubbed his new Spad XIII 'Mado' after his girlfriend. He also began collaborating with squadron mates in concerted attacks on observation balloons. As a result, Spa154 would become the premier balloon busting squadron of the war, with over 70 claimed. However, the French system of awarding a victory to every pilot involved in a shoot-down blurs the actual count.  Lieutenant Coiffard succeeded to the task of squadron commander upon the wounding of Capitaine Lahoulle on 15 July. In this capacity, he was admired as a trainer of his pilots; on one occasion, he sent a pilot on a month's leave to recuperate from combat fatigue.  As a "balloon specialist" Coiffard made his mark as a warrior, destroying nine "Drachen" balloons in July, along with three German aircraft. At the end of July he had run his score to 17, adding eight in August and six more in September. On three occasions, he shot down three balloons in the same day. On the last of these triple victory days, 15 September, he and his wingman downed three observation balloons in six minutes.

His death in action.

On 28 October 1918, Spa 154 was on patrol. Coiffard spotted German Fokker D.VIIs, and gave the signal to attack, which was seen only by his wingman. He and Second Lieutenant Condemine fought it out with the German patrol. While downing his 34th victim (a Fokker D.VII) he was critically wounded by two bullets; one hit him in the thigh and the other pierced his chest back to front passing through a lung. He flew 12 kilometers back to a perfect landing in friendly hands despite his wound, but died three hours later while receiving a blood transfusion in an ambulance transporting him to Berenicourt. The following day, he was posthumously made an Officer de la Légion d'honneur.  Coiffard's record included 24 balloons (21 shared) and 10 airplanes (4 shared), ranking him sixth among French aces. Only two World War I aces shot down a greater number of observation balloons.  He was buried in the National Necropolis of Sommepy-Tahure (Marne) in grave number 1027.

Decorations and awards.

Médaille militaire.

"On 29 May 1915, as an artillery observer in the trenches under extremely violent bombardment by heavy artillery, he spontaneously offered himself to serve as a liaison between the infantry and artillery, the telephone connection with the artillery having been destroyed by enemy fire. When the infantry telephone network had been severed in its turn he carried it along the artillery line and made repairs in terrain attacked by 105 and 150 artillery projectiles. Non-commissioned officer of remarkable courage and sang-froid; the campaigns in Tunisia and Morocco, three wounds, three citations."

Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur.

"A valiant officer and a model of courage, initiative and devotion. Wounded four times in the infantry, he entered the aviation service where he has proven his most brilliant military qualities. He downed his third enemy plane on 2 February 1918, during the course of a particularly difficult combat. Médaille militaire for feats of war. Six citations."

Officier de la Légion d'honneur.

"An officer of fierce energy and incomparable bravery. In Morocco he had already gained attention by his audacity. In the actual war he served successively in the artillery, infantry and air service attracting throughout amazement and admiration because of his scorn of death and his admirable spirit of sacrifice. In pursuit aviation his will to conquer allowed him to accomplish a series of exploits with regularity and speed which have never been equaled. He reported 32 official victories, of which 27 were gained in three months. Three wounds, Médaille militaire and Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur for feats of war. Fifteen citations."

Michel Joseph Callixte Marie Coiffard (16 July 1892 – 29 October 1918) was one of the leading French flying aces of World War I. He was notable for his success as a balloon buster shooting down enemy observation balloons, which were usually heavily defended by anti-aircraft machine guns and artillery and by fighter planes. He scored 34 victories in his career.

Michel Joseph Callixte Marie Coiffard (16. července 1892 – 29. října 1918) byl šestým nejúspěšnějším francouzským stíhacím pilotem první světové války s celkem 34 uznanými sestřely.


Biography.

Blicher was the son of a literarily inclined Jutlandic parson whose family was distantly related to Martin Luther.  He grew up in close contact with nature and peasant life in the moor areas of central Jutland. After trying his hand as a teacher and a tenant farmer, he at last became a parson like his father and from 1825-1847 served in the parish of Spentrup.  As a clergyman, Blicher is said to have been less than inspired. His main interests were hunting and writing. In 1842, he was accused of alcoholism and abandoned from a Cooperation of Danish writers. Many struggles with his superiors the following years led to his dismissal shortly before his death.  He had ten children, seven sons and three daughters, with his wife Ernestine Juliane Berg, whom he married on 11 June 1810.

Significance as a writer.

Prose.

Blicher is known as the pioneer of the novella in Danish. From the 1820s until his death he wrote several tales that were published in local periodicals (mostly dealing with his home region), as well as historical and amateur scientific sketches. Much of this work is entertainment but as many as twenty or thirty pieces have been called literary masterpieces.  In his prose, Blicher describes human fate in his home region in Jutland. Blicher is often called a tragic and melancholic writer, but he is not without wit and humour.  Blicher is one of the first novelists to make significant use of the unreliable narrator theme in literature. Four notable examples are:  He had additional talents, too: "E Bindstouw" is a mixture of tales and poetry on the model of the Decameron, written in the Jutlandic dialect. Here he turns loose his humorous side.  Earlier reviews noted that Blicher’s literary skill lies in his descriptions of scenery, especially the Jutlandic moor landscape and its inhabitants: the long-suffering peasantry and “free” moor gypsies. Later some biographies pointed out his skills in describing tragedy and psychology.  Stylistically, Blicher alternates between his own detailed intellectual narrative style and the colloquial speech of peasants, squires and robbers.

Poetry.

Blicher wrote poetry from the years of the Napoleonic Wars until his death. Among his most important poems are the melancholic "Til Glæden" (“To Joy”) from 1814, his interesting local patriotic song ""Kærest du Fødeland"" (Dearest You Birthland) that shows his love for his home region, and his impressive winter poem ""Det er hvidt herude"" (It is white out here), published in his notable poetry collection ""Trækfuglene"" (Birds of Passage) in 1838.  The whole collection ""Trækfuglene"" was inspired by a serious extended illness. In this uncharacteristic poetry work, he let a range of symbolic birds express his own personal situation.  The bluff and cheerful dialect poem "Jyden han æ stærk å sej" ("The Jutlander he is strong and tough") is from 1841.  Many of Blichers poems have been accompanied by melodies later on. Notable examples includes ""Det er hvidt herude"" often sung to a melody composed by Thomas Laub in 1914 and ""Sig nærmer tiden, da jeg må væk"" (The time approaches when I must go) sung to a melody composed by Oluf Ring in 1922, both from ""Trækfuglene"".

Political and social themes.

Blicher was a man of far-ranging interests. Beginning as a conservative he developed into an eager critic of society, uniting the role of the enlightened citizen of the 18th century with modern liberalism. He tried to arrange national feasts in Jutland and proposed numerous laws and reforms, but he was never really accepted by the established liberal politicians.  Also something of an Anglophile, he translated British poetry, including Macpherson’s Ossian and novels such as Goldsmith’s "The Vicar of Wakefield" – once he even tried to write poetry in English.  Though being a member of the first Romanticist generation of Danish writers, Blicher is in many ways unique. He is more of a realist, dealing with broken dreams and with Time as man’s superior opponent. His religion is the old rationalist one.  He is a belated Danish pupil of the 18th century English epistolary style while, in his interest for dialect and peasants, he anticipates the regional writers who emerged around 1900, such as Johannes Vilhelm Jensen.

Present-day appreciation.

Today Blicher is regarded as the pioneer of the Danish short story and regional writing. Many of his verses have been set to music and his best novels have been reprinted many times.  Steen Steensen Blicher never enjoyed international interest on the scale of Hans Christian Andersen or Karen Blixen, but in Denmark he is almost as well-known. In 2006, his novel "Præsten i Vejlbye" was adopted in the Danish Culture Canon, which means, officially one of the 10 Order of Merit novels in Danish literature of all time.  In Denmark, Blicher enjoyed fame and recognition in his own lifetime, and has been praised for his contributions to Danish culture ever since. In 1951, literary scholars initiated the Danish Blicher Society to "further and deepen the interest for Blichers life and writings", through various activities. They have awarded Blicherprisen (The Blicher Prize) annually since 1955 and the society is still active as of 2018.

Steen Steensen Blicher (11 October 1782, Vium – 26 March 1848 in Spentrup) was an author and poet born in Vium near Viborg, Denmark.

Steen Steensen Blicher (11. října 1782, Vium u Viborgu – 26. března 1848, Spentrup) byl dánský kněz, básník, prozaik a překladatel období romantismu. Proslul zejména povídkami a novelami vypovídajícími o životě prostých lidí v Jutsku.


History.

Before the establishment of the Donetsian Oblast, three districts (okruhas) existed on its territory from 1923 to 1930. The Donets Governorate was terminated in 1925. As part of Soviet Ukraine, the Donetsian Oblast was established on 2 July 1932 out of the Kharkiv Oblast, the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast and a number of raions that were under the direct administration of Kharkiv (then-capital of Soviet Ukraine). Artemivsk (today Bakhmut) served as the oblast's administrative center for two weeks until 16 July 1932, when the city of Stalino (today Donetsk) took on the role. Until 1938, the Donetsian Oblast included the territories of the modern Donetsk Oblast and the Luhansk Oblast. In June 1938 it was split into the Stalino Oblast (modern Donetsk Oblast) and the Voroshylovhrad Oblast (modern Luhansk Oblast).  During the Nazi German occupation from fall 1941 to fall 1943, Donetsk Oblast was known as Yuzivka Oblast (after the original name of Donetsk).  As part of de-Stalinization in the Soviet Union, in 1961 Stalino along with Stalino Oblast were renamed into Donetsk and Donetsk Oblast, respectively.  During the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 83.9% of voters in Donetsk Oblast approved Ukraine's declaration of independence in the 1991 referendum.  In the mid-1990s the region became known for its heightened criminal activity, including the killings of high-profile business people such as Akhat Bragin and Yevhen Shcherban. Donetsk Oblast was also a base for Ukraine's main pro-Russian political faction, Party of Regions, which became part of the Ukrainian government in 2002 and paved a way into Ukrainian politics for the powerful "Donetsk political clan". In 1994 a referendum took place in Donetsk Oblast and Luhansk Oblast, with around 90% supporting the Russian language gaining the status of an official language alongside Ukrainian, and for Russian to be an official language on a regional level; however, the referendum was annulled by the Kiev government.  In late 2004, the Party of Regions was involved in the creation of a political project, South-East Ukrainian Autonomous Republic, which intended to include Donetsk Oblast. Having close ties with the Russian government, the Party of Regions along with local communists and pro-Russian activists instigated the pro-Russian unrest which escalated into the War in Donbass. In May 2014 Ukraine lost control over its border with Russia in Donetsk Oblast. Currently, portions of the region are controlled by the Novorossiya Armed Forces and claimed by the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic.

Geography.

Donetsk Oblast is located in southeastern Ukraine. The area of the oblast (26,517 km), comprises about 4.4% of the total area of the country. The oblast borders the Dnipropetrovsk and Zaporizhia Oblasts on the southwest, the Kharkiv Oblast on the north, the Luhansk Oblast on the northeast, the Rostov Oblast in Russia on the east, and with the Sea of Azov on the south.  Its longitude from north to south is 270 km, from east to west – 190 km. The extreme points of the oblast's borders are: "Bilosarayska Kosa" (spit) on the south, Shevchenko of Velykonovosilkivskyi Raion on the west, "Verkhnyi Kut" of Shakhtarskyi Raion on the east, and "Lozove" of Lyman Raion on the north.  The state historic-architectural preserve near the city of Sviatohirsk with the Sviatohirsk Lavra was nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.

Administrative divisions.

The province is primarily divided into 18 "raions" (districts) and 28 municipalities of equal status (22 "miskradas" and 6 "mistos" – cities of regional significance), including the provincial administrative center Donetsk. These are listed below with their areas and populations.  The province's secondary division consists of various municipalities that are governed by their councils. Those municipalities may consist of one or more populated places. All are administratively subordinate to the raion in which they are located.  The following data incorporates the number of each type of second-level administrative divisions of Donetsk Oblast:  The local administration of the oblast' is controlled by the Donetsk Oblast Rada. The governor of the oblast' is the Head of Donetsk Oblast administration, appointed by the President of Ukraine.

Demographics.

In 2013 the population of Donetsk Oblast was 4.43 million, which constituted 10% of the overall Ukrainian population, making it the most populous and most densely populated region of the country. Its large population is due to the presence of several big industrial cities and numerous villages agglomerated around them.  During the 2004 presidential election, political supporters of Viktor Yanukovych threatened to demand autonomy for Donetsk and neighboring oblasts if the election of their candidate was not recognised. However, no official moves were ever made.  At the 2001 Ukrainian National Census, the ethnic groups within the Donetsk Oblast were: Ukrainians – 2,744,100 (56.9%), Russians – 1,844,400 (38.2%), Pontic Greeks – 77,500 (1.6%), Belarusians – 44,500 (0.9%), others (2.3%).  At the 2001 census, the languages spoken within the oblast were: Russian — 74.9%, Ukrainian – 24.1%.  The oblast also contains 21% of the country's Muslims.

Economy.

Industry.

The Donetsk Oblast covers more than one half coal, finished steel, coke, cast iron and steel production in Ukraine. Ferrous metallurgy, fuel industry and power industry are in demand in the structure of industry production. There are about 882 industry enterprises that are on independent balance, and 2,095 small industry enterprises in the oblast.  The oblast' has a developed transport infrastructure which includes the Donetsk railway (covers 40% of national transportation), the Mariupol Port, the Donetsk International Airport, passenger airports in Mariupol and Kramatorsk, and dense road systems. In the Donetsk Oblast two special economic zones have been created, "Donetsk" and "Azov", which have a privileged tax regime.

Agriculture.

In 1999, the gross grain yield in the oblast was about 999.1 thousand tons, sugar beets – 27.1 thousand tons, sunflower seeds – 309.4 thousand tons, and potatoes – 380.2 thousand tons. Also, 134.2 thousand tons of meat, 494.3 thousand tons of milk and 646.4 million eggs have been produced. At the beginning of 1999 there were 2108 farms within the oblast.

Geology.

The Donetsk Oblast's climate is mostly continental, which is characterized by hot summers and relatively cold winters with changeable snow surfaces. East and southeast strong winds, high temperatures and heavy rain showers are typical in the summer. The average annual rainfall is 524 mm.  The basic minerals found here are: coal (reserves – 25 billion tons), rock salt, lime carbonate, potassium, mercury, asbestos, and graphite. The area is also rich in fertile black earth.  Important resources for recreation within the area are: the mild climate, the Sea of Azov coast, curative mud, sources of minerals, and radon and table water. Due to these numerous recreation resources, many resort hotels and camps are located here. There are about 26 health centers and pensions, 52 rest homes and boarding houses, and rest camps for children in the oblast.  The curative areas in the oblast include the Slovyansk salt lakes and mineral water sources. The oblast also contains many park zones, some of which are of great national value. They include the Khomutivsky steppe and the Azov sea coast. Overall, the Donetsk Oblast contains about 70 protected park and nature attractions including branches of the Ukrainian steppe park, six state reserves, ten memorials of nature, landscapes, and six park tracts.

Polls.

During the 1991 referendum, 83.90% of votes in Donetsk Oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine, fourth lowest in the country after Crimea, Sevastopol and Luhansk Oblast. A survey conducted in December 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found 18.5% of the oblast's population supported their region joining Russia, 53.8% did not support the idea, 22.5% were undecided, and 5.2% did not respond; insurgent-controlled areas (which hold over 50% of the population) were not polled.

The Donetsk Oblast (; ), also referred to as Donechyna (; ; literally: "Donetsia"), is an oblast (province) of eastern Ukraine. It is the most populated oblast, with around 4.5 million residents. Its administrative center is Donetsk; however, its Regional State Administration has been temporarily relocated to Kramatorsk because of the ongoing crisis in Donetsk. Historically, the region is an important part of the Donbas region. Until November 1961, it bore the name "Stalino Oblast" as Donetsk was then named "Stalino", in honor of Joseph Stalin. As part of the de-Stalinization process, it was renamed as its administrative center after Siversky Donets, the main artery of Eastern Ukraine.

Doněcká oblast ( [Donec’ka oblasť], též /"Doneččyna"; /"Doněckaja oblasť") je samosprávnou jednotkou Ukrajiny. Rozkládá se na jihovýchodě země a zaujímá podstatnou část území Donbasu. Se svými 4 356 000 obyvatel (2013) byla nejlidnatější oblastí Ukrajiny. Těží se zde uhlí a rudy kovů, je zde soustředěna metalurgie a těžký průmysl. Ze všech ukrajinských oblastí je Doněcká oblast nejvíce prorusky orientována; většina obyvatel včetně etnických Ukrajinců hovoří rusky.


Overview.

A glacier is an extended mass of ice formed from snow falling and accumulating over a long period of time; glaciers move very slowly, either descending from high mountains, as in valley glaciers, or moving outward from centers of accumulation, as in continental glaciers.  Areas of study within glaciology include glacial history and the reconstruction of past glaciation. A glaciologist is a person who studies glaciers. A glacial geologist studies glacial deposits and glacial erosive features on the landscape. Glaciology and glacial geology are key areas of polar research.

Types.

Glaciers can be identified by their geometry and the relationship to the surrounding topography. There are two general categories of glaciation which glaciologists distinguish: "alpine glaciation", accumulations or "rivers of ice" confined to valleys; and "continental glaciation", unrestricted accumulations which once covered much of the northern continents.

Movement.

When a glacier is experiencing an input of precipitation that exceeds the output, the glacier is advancing. Conversely, if the output from evaporation, sublimation, melting, and calving exceed the glaciers precipitation input the glacier is receding. This is referred to as an interglacial period. During periods where ice is advancing at an extreme rate, that is typically 100 times faster than what is considered normal, it is referred to as a surging glacier. During times in which the input of precipitation to the glacier is equivalent to the ice lost from calving, evaporation, and melting of the glacier, there is a steady-state condition. Within the glacier, the ice has a downward movement in the accumulation zone and an upwards movement in the ablation zone.

Climate Change and Glaciers.

Glaciers are a valuable resource for tracking climate change over long periods of time because they can be hundreds of thousands of years old. To study the patterns over time through glaciers, ice cores are taken, providing continuous information including evidence for climate change, trapped in the ice for scientists to break down and study. Glaciers are studied to give information about the history of climate change due to natural or human causes. Human activity has caused an increase in greenhouse gases creating a global warming trend, causing these valuable glaciers to melt. Glaciers have an albedo effect and with the melting of glaciers means less albedo. In the Alps the summer of 2003 was compared to the summer of 1988. Between 1998 and 2003 the albedo value is 0.2 lower in 2003. When glaciers begin to melt, they also cause a rise in sea level, "which in turn increases coastal erosion and elevates storm surge as warming air and ocean temperatures create more frequent and intense coastal storms like hurricanes and typhoons." Thus, human causes to climate change creates a positive feedback loop with the glaciers: The rise in temperature causes more glacier melt, leading to less albedo, higher sea levels and many other climate issues to follow. From 1972 all the way up to 2019 NASA has used a Landsat satellite that has been used to record glaciers in Alaska, Greenland and Antarctica. This Landsat project has found that since around 2000, glacier retreat has increased substantially.

Glacial Terminology.

Rate of movement.

Movement of the glacier is very slow. Its velocity varies from a few centimeters per day to a few meters per day. The rate of movement depends upon the numbers of factors which are listed below :

Glaciology (from Latin: "glacies", "frost, ice", and Ancient Greek: λόγος, "logos", "subject matter"; literally "study of ice") is the scientific study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.

Glaciologie je jednou z geologických věd. Zabývá se studiem ledovců a ledovcové činnosti. Mezi oblasti studia glaciologie náleží historie ledovců, jejich vliv na klima, dynamika pohybu ledovců, příspěvek ledovců k erozi a geomorfologii a bytosti, které žijí v ledu.


Etymology and spelling.

There are at least two explanations for the etymology of the name "Jeddah", according to Jeddah Ibn Al-Qudaa'iy, the chief of the Quda'a clan. The more common account has it that the name is derived from جدة "Jaddah", the Arabic word for "grandmother". According to eastern folk belief, the tomb of Eve, considered the grandmother of humanity, is located in Jeddah. The tomb was sealed with concrete by religious authorities in 1975 due to some Muslims praying at

History.

Some archaeologists' studies suggest the existence of inhabitants in the region now known as Jeddah since the Stone Age seeing as they found some artifacts and 'Thamoudian' writings in Wadi (valley) Breiman east of Jeddah and Wadi Boib northeast of Jeddah. Some historians trace its founding to the tribe of Bani Quda'ah, who inhabited it after the collapse of Sad (dam) Ma'rib in 115 BC. Some believe that Jeddah had been inhabited before the tribe of Bani Quda'ah by fishermen in the Red Sea, who considered it a center from which they sailed out into the sea as well as a place for relaxation and well-being. According to some accounts, the history of Jeddah dates back to early times before Alexander the Great, who visited the city between 323 and 356 BC.

Pre-Islam.

Excavations in the old city suggest that Jeddah was founded as a fishing hamlet in 522 BC by the Yemeni Quda'a tribe (بني قضاعة), who left central Yemen to settle in Makkah after the destruction of the Marib Dam in Yemen.  Other

Rashidun Caliphate.

Jeddah first achieved prominence around AD 647, when the third Muslim Caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan, turned it into a port making it the port of Makkah instead of Al Shoaiba port

Umayyad Caliphate.

Umayyads inherited the entire Rashidun Caliphate including Hejaz and ruled from 661AD to 750AD. No historic records mention important events taking place in Jeddah during this period of

Abbasid Caliphate.

Abbassids, the new superpower, became the new successor to the Umayyad. In 750 the Abbasid Revolution successfully took control of almost the whole Umayyad Empire, excluding Morocco

Tulunid Wilayah and Ikhshidid Wilayah.

The power struggle between Tulunid Governors and Abbasid over Hejaz lasted for 30 years when the Tulunids finally withdrew from Arabia in 900 AD.  In 930 AD, main Hejazi cities Medina, Mecca and Taif were heavily sacked

Fatimid Caliphate.

In the 969 AD, the Fatimids from Algeria took control in Egypt from the Ikhshidid Governors of Abbasids and expanded their empire to the surrounding regions, including The Hijaz and Jeddah.

Ayyubid Empire.

After Saladin's conquest of Jerusalem, in 1171 he proclaimed himself sultan of Egypt, after dissolving the Fatimid Caliphate upon the death of al-Adid, thus establishing the Ayyubid dynasty. Ayyubid conquests in Hejaz included Jeddah, which joined the Ayyubid Empire in 1177 during the leadership of Sharif Ibn Abul-Hashim Al-Thalab (1094–1201). During their relatively short-lived

Mamluk Sultanate.

In 1254, following events in Cairo and the dissolution of the Ayyubid Empire, Hijaz became a part of the Mamluk Sultanate. The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama, having found his way around the Cape and obtained pilots from the coast of Zanzibar in AD 1497, pushed his way across the Indian Ocean to the shores of Malabar and Calicut, attacked fleets that carried freight and Muslim pilgrims from India to the Red Sea, and struck terror into the surrounding potentates. The Princes of

Ottoman Empire.

In 1517, the Ottoman Turks conquered the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt and Syria, during the reign of Selim I. As territories of the Mamluk Sultanate, the Hijaz, including Jeddah and the holy city of Mecca, passed into Ottoman possession. The Ottomans rebuilt the weak walls of Jeddah in 1525 following the defense of the city against the Lopo Soares de Albergaria's Armada arriving from the Red Sea. The new Turkish wall included six watchtowers and six city gates. They were constructed to defend against the Portuguese attack. Of the six gates, the Gate of Mecca was the eastern gate and the Gate of Al-Magharibah, facing the port, was the western gate. The Gate of Sharif faced south. The other gates were the Gate of Al-Bunt, Gate of Al-Sham

First Saudi State and Ottoman–Saudi War.

In 1802, Nejdi forces conquered both Mecca and Jeddah from the Ottomans. When Sharif Ghalib Efendi informed Sultan Mahmud

World War I and the Hashemite Kingdom.

During World War I, Sharif Hussein bin Ali declared a revolt against the Ottoman Empire, seeking independence from the Ottoman Turks and the creation of a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

A few months later, Ibn Saud, whose clan originated in the central Nejd province, conquered Medina and Jeddah via an agreement with Jeddans following the Second Battle of Jeddah. He deposed Ali bin Hussein, who fled to Baghdad, eventually settling in Amman, Jordan, where his descendants became part of its Hashemite royalty.  As a result, Jeddah came under the sway of the Al-Saud dynasty in December 1925. In 1926, Ibn Saud added the title King of Hejaz to his position of Sultan of Nejd. Today, Jeddah has lost its historical role in peninsular politics after Jeddah fell within the new province of Makkah, whose provincial capital is the city of Mecca.  From 1928 to 1932, the new Khuzam Palace was built as the new residence of

Geography.

Jeddah is located in Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coastal plain (called Tihamah). Jeddah lies in the Hijazi Tihama (Arabic: تهامة الحجاز) region which is in the lower Hijaz mountains. Historically, politically and culturally, Jeddah was a major city of Hejaz Vilayet, the Kingdom of Hejaz and other regional political entities according to Hijazi history books. It is the 100th largest city in the world by land area.

Climate.

Jeddah features an arid climate ("BWh") under Koppen's climate classification, with a tropical temperature range. Unlike other Saudi Arabian cities, Jeddah retains its warm temperature in winter, which can range from at dawn to in the afternoon. Summer temperatures are extremely hot, often breaking the mark in the afternoon and dropping to in the evening. Summers are also quite steamy,

Economy.

Jeddah has long been a port city. Even before being designated the port city for Mecca, Jeddah was a trading hub for the region. In the 19th century, goods such as mother-of-pearl, tortoise shells, frankincense, and spices were routinely exported from the city. Apart from this, many imports into the city were destined for further transit to the Suez, Africa, or Europe. Many goods passing through Jeddah could not even be found in the city or even in Arabia.  All of the capitals of the Middle East and North Africa are within two hours flying distance of Jeddah, making it the second commercial center of the Middle East after Dubai.  Also, Jeddah's industrial district is the fourth largest industrial city in Saudi Arabia after Riyadh, Jubail and Yanbu.

King Abdullah Street.

King Abdullah Street is one of the most important streets in Jeddah and runs from King Fahd Road by the waterfront in the west of Jeddah to the eastern end of the city. It is famous for hosting numerous corporate

Tahliyah Street.

Tahaliyah Street is an important fashion and shopping street in central Jeddah. It contains many upscale department and high fashion brands store

Madinah Road.

Madinah Road is a historically significant street in Jeddah. It links the Southern districts with the North, and contains the Main offices of

Culture.

Religious significance.

Most citizens are Sunni Muslims. The government, courts and civil and criminal laws enforce a moral code established by Shari'ah. A very small minority of Saudi citizens are Shia Muslims, and there is also a large foreign workforce.  The city has over 1,300 mosques.

Cuisine.

Jeddah's multi-ethnic citizenry has influenced Jeddah's traditional cuisine.  Some dishes are native to the Hejaz, like Saleeg and Mabshūr is a white-rice dish, cooked in broth, often made with chicken instead of lamb meat. Jeddah cuisine is popular as well and dishes like, Foul, Shorabah Hareira (Hareira soup), Mugalgal, Madhbi (chicken grilled on stone), Madfun (literally meaning "buried"), Magloobah, Kibdah, Manzalah (usually eaten at Eid ul-Fitr), Magliya (a local version of falafel) and Saiyadyia which can be acquired in many traditional restaurants around the city, such as Althamrat, Abo-Zaid, Al-Quarmooshi, Ayaz, and Hejaziyat.  Some were imported from other Saudi regions like Kabsa from Najd, Arīka and Ma'sūb from the southern Saudi region. Other Dishes were imported from other cultures through Saudis of different origins, like Mantu, Yaghmush and Ruz Bukhāri from Central Asia,

Open-air art.

During the oil boom in the late 1970s and 1980s, there was a focused civic effort led by the then city's mayor Mohamed Said Farsi to bring art to Jeddah's public areas. As a result, Jeddah contains a large number of modern open-air sculptures and works of art, typically situated in roundabouts, making the city one of the largest open-air art galleries in the

Museums and collections.

There are about a dozen museums or collections in Jeddah, with varied educational aims and professionalism. These include the Jeddah Regional Museum of Archaeology

Events and festivals.

Red Sea International Film Festival.

Jeddah has been selected as a place for

Jeddah International Book Fair.

Jeddah hosts an annual international book fair called Jeddah international book fair. It is the

Jeddah Season.

Jeddah Season is a part of the Saudi government's Saudi Seasons initiatives that aims at launching a high-level tourism activities in Saudi Arabia. The first version of the season has been held in June-July 2019. Around 150 activities and events have been organized in five destinations in Jeddah. As Saudi Seasons 2019 aims at shedding the light on the diverse Saudi culture and heritage. Jeddah was chosen because it is one of the most culturally-rich Saudi cities with a history that spans over 3,000 years. Most of Jeddah Season's events and activities have been held at King Abdullah Sports City, Jeddah's historical area, Al-Hamra Corniche, and the Jeddah Waterfront.

Media.

Jeddah is served by four major Arabic-language newspapers, "Asharq Al-Awsat", "Al Madina", "Okaz", and "Al Bilad", as well as two major English-language newspapers, the "Saudi Gazette" and "Arab News". "Okaz" and "Al-Madina" are the primary newspapers of Jeddah and some other Saudi cities, with over a million readers; their focus is mainly local.  Internet blogs specifically informative of locality are abundant in Jeddah, catering mostly to the widespread expatriate population. Of

Accent.

The Jeddah region's distinctive speech pattern is called the

Cityscape.

Old Jeddah.

The Old City known as Al-Balad with its traditional multistory buildings and merchant houses, that often still belong to the families that inhabited them before the oil-era, has lost ground to more modern developments. Nonetheless, the Old City contributes to Hejazi cultural identity. Since it has been granted UNESCO World Heritage status,

Resorts and hotels.

The city has many popular resorts, including Durrat Al-Arus, Al-Nawras Mövenpick resort at the Red Sea Corniche, Crystal Resort,

Consulates.

One of two consulates of the United States of America in Saudi Arabia is located in Jeddah, along with the consulates for 67 other countries such

Historical Jeddah.

Historical Jeddah is situated on the eastern shore of the Red Sea. From the 7th century AD it was established as a major port for Indian Ocean trade routes, channelling goods to Mecca. It was also the gateway for Muslim pilgrims to Mecca who arrived by sea. These twin roles saw the city develop into a thriving multicultural centre, characterized by a distinctive architectural tradition, including tower houses built in the late 19th century by the city's mercantile elites, and combining Red Sea coastal coral building traditions with influences and crafts from along the trade routes.  Within a defensive wall that was built during Ottoman rule, the old city of Jeddah, Al-Balad, was divided into districts, or "Haras", where business and trade centred around traditional "souks", or market places, and "khans", covered markets that were generally connected to shops.

Harrat Al-Mathloum (District of the Wronged).

Located in the North East, this district was named after Abdulkarim Al-Barzangi, a Hijazi rebel who was crucified by the Ottomans, some of its landmarks are: The oldest mosque in town, its minaret was

Harrat Al-Sham (The Levantine District).

Located in the north and named after its orientation, some

Harrat Al-Yemen (The Yemeni District).

Located in the south and is also named after its orientation, its landmarks include:  By far the most famous site

Harrat Al-Bahar (The Seafront District).

Located in the south

Landmarks.

Abdul Raouf Khalil Museum.

Founded by Sheikh Abdul Raouf Khalil in 1996, this museum not only presents the rich Islamic cultural heritage of the city but also its preislamic history that goes back

King Fahd's Fountain.

King Fahd's Fountain was built in the 1980s, can be seen from a great distance and, at, is the highest water

Al-Rahmah Mosque.

Sometimes referred to as the floating mosque because of it being built above water, this fascinating mix

Al-Jawhara Stadium.

Is a new stadium launched in 2014, located north of Jeddah, is used mostly for

King Saud Mosque.

The largest mosque in the city. Built in 1987, it

NCB Tower.

Built in 1983 and believed to be the highest tower in Saudi

IDB Tower.

The Islamic Development Bank is a multilateral development financing institution. It was founded by the first conference of Finance

Jeddah Municipality Tower.

This is the headquarters of the metropolitan area of Jeddah. The municipality's new building is going to be not only Jeddah's tallest but is also going to dethrone the Burj Khalifa.  This proposed tower, formerly known as the Kingdom Tower, is being built in Jeddah by Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal and will stand tall. Upon its completion, it will be

King Road Tower.

King Road Tower is a commercial and office building, the external walls of which are used to

Al Jawharah Tower.

Al Jawharah Tower is a residential high-rise under

Jeddah Flagpole.

The King Abdullah Square on the intersection of Andalus Road with King Abdullah Road has the world's tallest flagpole. It is high and the Saudi flag

Entrance of Mecca.

Bab Makkah, also known as Makkah Gate, is a limestone coral gateway that leads into the historic Al-Balad district of Jeddah.  The Mecca Gate, named the "Quran Gate", is located 60 km outside Jeddah on the Makkah Mukkarram road of the Jeddah - Mecca

Jeddah Waterfront.

The new waterfront was inaugurated November 2017, by Makkah Governor, Prince Khaled Al-Faisal.It spans an area of 730,000 kilometres on the Red Sea. It has many facilities including: swimming beaches,

Education.

Schools, colleges and universities.

, Jeddah had 849 public and private schools for male students and another 1,179 public and private schools for female students. The medium of instruction in both public and private schools is typically Arabic, with emphasis on English as a second language. However, some private schools

Libraries.

The central library at King Abdulaziz University (main branch) is a five story building that has a large collection of Arabic and English language books, rare books and documents as well as access to several online databases. It is open for public access and allows borrowing of books after requesting a library card. Saturdays are dedicated for female visitors.  King Abdul Aziz Public Library is a philanthropic institution which was founded and supported by the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah Bin Abdulaziz, chairman of its board of directors. Established in 1985, the library was officially opened by the King

Sports.

Jeddah is the home of 2 biggest well-known football clubs teams Al-Ittihad Club (Jeddah) and Al-Ahli Saudi FC. Both teams play their league matches at King

Transport.

Airport.

Jeddah is served by King Abdulaziz International Airport. The airport has four passenger terminals. One is the Hajj Terminal, a special outdoor terminal covered by large white tents, which was constructed to handle the more than two million pilgrims who pass through the airport during the Hajj season. The Southern Terminal is used by Saudia and Flynas (both based in Saudi Arabia), while the Northern Terminal

Seaport.

The Jeddah Seaport is the 32nd busiest seaport in the world. It handles

Road and rail.

Highway 40, which begins in Jeddah, connects the city to Mecca, Riyadh and Dammam on the east coast. Jeddah does not have any rapid transit system, but a rail system connecting the city

Issues and challenges.

The city is challenged by pollution, weak sewage systems, a weak storm drain system that led to massive floodings, heavy traffic, epidemics, and water shortages.

Pollution and environment.

Air pollution is a problem for Jeddah, particularly on hot summer days. The city has experienced bush fires, landfill fires, and pollution from the two industrial zones in the north and the

Terrorism.

On 6 December 2004, a group of five men associated with the terrorist group Al-Qaeda (Al-Qaeda Organization in the Arabian Peninsula) conducted a mid-day attack on the U.S. Consulate, which killed five Consulate workers. The group was led by Fayez ibn Awwad Al-Jeheni, a former member of Saudi religious police. Two other assailants were subsequently identified by the Saudi authorities as residents of Jeddah's Al-Jamia suburb and other slums on Saudi Arabia's increasingly urbanised west coast. Buildings were attacked, hostages taken and used as human shields, and the U.S. and non-U.S. staff were under siege, although the chancery/consular section building itself was never penetrated. Closed circuit video feeds documented that the Saudi security personnel assigned to protect the facility fled when the vehicle holding the terrorists pulled up to the front gate and ran past the Delta barrier. Inside the compound, however, an armed Saudi security guard employed by the embassy shot and killed one terrorist before being fatally shot himself.  The attackers spread and ignited a flammable liquid on the front of the chancery building, and opened fire on the front doors, both of which actions did not have any penetrating

Traffic.

Roads and highways within and exiting the city are frequently clogged with traffic. Mass transit is rare and planning is nascent; most Jeddawi adults have at least one car. Motorcycles are rare on the roads, further impacting the traffic patterns. Days immediately preceding and following

Sewage.

Prior to the construction of a waste treatment plant, Jeddah's waste water was disposed of by either discharge into the sea or via absorption into deep underground pits. As the city grew, a proper waste management plant was created and the built up part of the city was connected with a sewer system by the 1970s. However, even with the ever-increasing population,

Floods.

On 25 November 2009, heavy floods affected the city and other areas of Makkah Province. The floods were described by civil defence officials as the worst in 27 years., 77 people were reported to have been killed, and more than 350 were missing. Some roads were under a metre (three feet) of water on 26 November, and many of the victims were believed to have drowned in their cars. At least 3,000 vehicles were swept away or damaged. The death toll was expected to rise as flood waters receded, allowing rescuers to reach stranded vehicles.  On 26 January 2011, again, heavy floods affected the city and other areas of Makkah Province. The cumulative rainfall

Districts.

Metropolitan Jeddah

Twin towns – sister cities.

Jeddah has 35 sister cities (or "twin towns") which are selected based on economic, cultural and political criteria.

Jeddah ( ), also spelled Jedda, Jiddah or Jidda ( ;, ), is a city in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia and the country's commercial center. With a population of about four million people (), Jeddah is the largest city in Makkah Province, the second-largest in Saudi Arabia (after the capital Riyadh), and the tenth-largest in the Arab world. Jeddah Islamic Port, located on the Red Sea, is the second-largest and second-busiest seaport in the Arab world (after Dubai's Port of Jebel Ali).

Džidda (arabsky جدّة, Džidda) je důležité město v Saúdské Arábii na pobřeží Rudého moře. Po Rijádu je to druhé největší město v zemi. Je považováno za hlavní město saúdského obchodu a nejbohatší město Blízkého východu i celé západní Asie. Dříve bylo i diplomatickým centrem Saúdské Arábie, bylo zde např. Ministerstvo zahraničních věcí nebo velvyslanectví cizích zemí, ale řada těchto orgánů se přestěhovala do Rijádu.