Origins.

In late 1982, SMH (makers of the Swatch brand of watches) CEO Nicolas Hayek began developing an idea for a new car using the same type of manufacturing strategies and personalization features used to popularize Swatch watches. He believed that the automotive industry had ignored a sector of potential customers who wanted a small and stylish city car. This idea soon became known as the "Swatchmobile". Hayek's private company Hayek Engineering AG began designing the new car for SMH, with seating for two and a hybrid drivetrain.  While design of the car was proceeding, Hayek feared existing manufacturers would feel threatened by the Swatchmobile. Thus, rather than directly competing, he preferred to cooperate with another company in the automotive industry. This would also relieve SMH of the cost burden in setting up a distribution network. Hayek approached several automotive manufacturers and on 3 July 1991, he reached an agreement with Volkswagen to share development of the new project.  By 1993, Ferdinand Piëch had become CEO of Volkswagen and he immediately sought to terminate the project with SMH. Volkswagen had already been working on their own "three-litre car": a car which would consume three litres of fuel per one hundred km of driving (the eventual Volkswagen Lupo 3L). Volkswagen's own concept was believed to be a better business proposition, featuring four seats and more cargo room.  Hayek had suspected that Piëch would seek to end the agreement with SMH upon his ascendancy to the CEO position; therefore, he discreetly began approaching other car companies with the Swatchmobile project. Rebuffed by BMW, Fiat, General Motors and Renault, he finally reached an informal agreement with Daimler-Benz AG, maker of Mercedes-Benz cars.  A deal was announced on 4 March 1994, at a press conference at Mercedes-Benz headquarters in Stuttgart that the companies would join forces in founding Micro Compact Car AG (MCC). 49% of the initial capital of 50 million Swiss francs were provided by SMH and the remaining 51% by Daimler-Benz. The company consisted of two subsidiaries: MCC GmbH based in Renningen (a suburb of Stuttgart) which would design the car, and the then-unnamed manufacturing plant. SMH Auto SA, owned by Hayek, would design a hybrid electric drive system for the car, while Hayek Engineering would audit the design and manufacturing.  The press conference also featured the debut of two concept cars: the "eco-sprinter" and "eco-speedster", styled by Mercedes-Benz's design studio in California. The cars were similar to the eventual Smart City-Coupé. No mention was made of the fact that SMH had no input in the design of these concepts, and they were badged as Mercedes-Benzes.  By the end of April 1994, MCC had set up a head office in Biel/Bienne, Switzerland.

Company history.

Three co-directors were immediately named to head the new company: designer and engineer Johann Tomforde and financial administrator Christoph Baubin from Daimler-Benz, and marketing manager Hans Jürg Schär, who spearheaded the original Swatch marketing campaigns in the mid-1980s. Tomforde had been working on the Mercedes City Car (coincidentally abbreviated MCC) project at Daimler-Benz since 1990, which produced the "eco-sprinter" and "eco-speedster" concepts as well as the "Vision-A" concept, which eventually became the Mercedes-Benz A-Class.  One of the first controversies at MCC was the name of the car itself. Nicolas Hayek insisted it retain Swatch in some way: "Swatchmobile", or "Swatch Car". Daimler-Benz refused, and pushed for a neutral name. The final selection was "Smart", an acronym that had been previously used internally by MCC for "Swatch Mercedes Art".  By May 1994, the co-directors had identified 74 potential sites for the assembly plant. The final site was announced on 20 December 1994: Hambach, France. The purpose-built factory quickly gained the nickname "Smartville".  In 1995, Tomforde devised a modular system of assembly for the car, insisting suppliers design and assemble, and even install their own modules onto the final car, at the new plant using their own employees thus reducing the cost overhead for the parent companies and divesting MCC of the financial and legal liabilities for those parts. It also provided a fiscal framework whereby MCC could share the development costs with the suppliers, rather than having to fund the entire project themselves. MCC secured contracts with suppliers to design and supply almost all parts of the car: seats by Faurecia, interiors by VDO, chassis and door modules by Magna, door panels by Dynamit Nobel, and suspension by Krupp.  Despite offloading a substantial amount of the development on the suppliers MCC required more capital. Recapitalization by Daimler-Benz increased their share of ownership in the company to 81% by 1996, leaving SMH with only the remaining 19%.  The assembly plant opened on 27 October 1997, with a ceremonial ribbon-cutting by then-French President Jacques Chirac and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. Introduction of the new Smart City-Coupé was planned for March, 1998, however dynamic instability of the prototypes prompted Daimler-Benz to announce postponing the launch until October, 1998. Johann Tomforde was replaced as chief engineer by Gerhard Fritz. Fritz lowered the centre of gravity, widened the track, stiffened the suspension, changed the steering, and added ballast weight to the front of the car in order to increase its stability in emergency avoidance manoeuvres (notably the Swedish "moose test").  The car launched successfully in nine European countries in October 1998, but the final design did not fulfill Hayek's expectations. Hayek pushed for a hybrid drivetrain but the final product used a relatively conventional gasoline engine. Shortly afterward Daimler-Benz bought out SMH's remaining stake in the company. MCC was now a wholly owned subsidiary of Daimler-Benz (which soon merged with Chrysler Corporation to become DaimlerChrysler). The office in Biel was shut down and operations were consolidated at the MCC GmbH design centre in Germany. On 1 January 1999, MCC GmbH changed its name to "MCC smart GmbH", and by 2000, it dropped the last vestiges of the association with SMH, becoming "smart GmbH".  The model line was subsequently expanded to include the Roadster a rear-engine, rear-drive and four-door, four-seat supermini aptly named Forfour (the original City-Coupé was renamed "Fortwo" to fit the new naming scheme).  The expansion did not increase profits at the company; Smart GmbH lost nearly four billion euros from 2003 to 2006. Plans were enacted to increase the company's profitability and integrate its operations with Daimler (at the time DaimlerChrysler).  In 2005, Daimler decided against purchasing a 50% share in the Dutch NedCar plant used to manufacture the ForFour, ending its production. A planned SUV called Formore was terminated as the assembly plant in Brazil was being fitted with machines, and production of the Roadster was discontinued. In 2006, after dwindling sales and heavy financial losses, Smart GmbH was liquidated and its operations were absorbed by DaimlerChrysler directly.  Until April 2019, Smart operated under the Mercedes-Benz Cars division of Daimler AG, offering the Fortwo coupé, Fortwo convertible and Forfour hatchback.  In March 2019, Geely purchased a 50% stake.  In 2019, Daimler announced a new production plant will be built in China with support from Geely and will start production of next generation Smart Cars in 2022.

Models.

Apart from the original Smart Fortwo, a sporty Smart Roadster, a limited production of 2000 erstwhile concept Smart Crossblade and a supermini Smart Forfour were also offered. These have now been discontinued. There were also plans to introduce the French made cross-over based on the body of the ForFour and the AWD hardware of the Mercedes C-class with the name of Formore but industrialization of this was cancelled at the 11th hour (even as tooling was being installed in the assembly plant) due to unfavourable exchange rate swings and spending cutbacks driven by losses elsewhere within Smart.

Electric version.

An all-electric version of the Fortwo, the Smart Fortwo Electric Vehicle (previously known as Smart ED), began development in 2006. Field testing began in London with 100 units in 2007, and the second generation, with a total of 2,000 units produced, was introduced in 2009 and available in 18 markets around the world for leasing or through the Car2Go carsharing service in San Diego and Amsterdam. Production of the second-generation Smart Fortwo electric drive began in November 2009, in Hambach, France. The Smart EDs have a lithium-ion battery provided by Tesla Motors with capacity of. The range of a fully charged battery is up to under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's official all-electric range is and rated the Smart ED with a combined fuel economy of 87 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) (2.7 L gasoline equivalent/100 km; 104 mpg-imp gasoline equivalent).  The third-generation Smart electric drive launched in the U.S. and Europe in 2013 and Daimler AG plans to mass-produce the electric car with availability in 30 markets worldwide. The third-generation Smart electric drive was unveiled at the September 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show. Key differences with the second-generation model include a more powerful electric motor, which improves acceleration and top speed, a new lithium-ion battery pack that will allow to increase the range to, and an option for quick-charge will be available.  The fourth-generation Smart fortwo electric drive was shown on 29 September 2016 at the 2016 Paris Motor Show. Based on the redesigned 453 chassis, the new model will launch as a 2017 model. Smart claims the new model will feature a 17.6-kilowatt-hour lithium-ion battery pack with 80 horsepower and 118 pound-feet of torque. Estimated range will be 99 miles on the European testing cycle.

Marketing.

Asia.

Japan.

First generation Smart models equipped with engine sizes smaller than fit into the Kei car category of cars in Japan, and are eligible for a range of lower taxes. Recent models with a larger engine do not meet the Kei qualifications. Because of high taxation on older cars in Japan, many older used smart cars are exported to other countries with right-hand drive, like Great Britain and South Africa. An official version of the Smart Fortwo called the "Smart K" has been released to fit the Kei car category. English musician Steve Appleton is featured in a Smart TV commercial, running in Japan during 2010.

China.

Smart was shown in April 2008, at the Beijing Auto Show. Smart Fortwo started the pre-sales in October 2008 and the Smart vending machine road show in 12 cities from October 2008 to February 2009.

Hong Kong.

Smart is available in Hong Kong with authorized dealer, Zung Fu Motors.

Indonesia.

Since 29 November 2010, the Smart Fortwo has been available in Indonesia with PT. Mercedes-Benz Indonesia (MBI) as the authorized dealer. MBI originally offered three models: Pure Coupe, Passion Coupe, and Passion Cabriolet, for sale in Jakarta and Bali. Indonesia is also the first country in Southeast Asia to have the Smart Electric Drive, which has been lent to the Government of DKI Jakarta for a one-year period and can be extended for further indefinite period by a signed agreement between PT. Mercedes-Benz Indonesia, PT. Siemens Indonesia, and the Government of DKI Jakarta. The Smart ED will then serve as a pilot project to prove the effectivity of zero-emission car usage that can utilize alternative sources of energy.

North America.

Canada.

The Smart Fortwo was introduced in Canada in late 2004 and was sold through Mercedes-Benz dealers. Demand was initially heavy with up to 6-month waiting lists in major urban areas in the spring of 2005. The vehicle was especially popular for commuters, small car enthusiasts, people needing light delivery and service vehicles. Demand relaxed slightly in the second year on the market. Sales rebounded with the second generation. Canadian Smart cdis cannot be registered in some states in the US.  10,239 Smart Fortwo cdis had been sold in Canada by the first month of 2008. Just before the Type 450 ended production (after which the production had equaled 770,256 cars) Mercedes-Benz Canada built up stock of cdis to tide dealers over until the successor model 451 arrived at the end of 2007.  The Canadian version of the Type 450 Smart Fortwo cdi sold to 915 customers over three months in 2004; 4,080 were sold in 2005, and 3,023 in 2006. Virtually all the deliveries in 2004 and many of the deliveries in 2005 were to long-time Smart fans who had been waiting for their car for years, which largely accounts for the higher numbers. Through 2007, sales totaled about 2,200 units, with the last few cars being sold in the first month of 2008, when the new Type 451 was already on sale. The Smart's strongest sales performance ever in Canada was in April 2007, when more than 500 units were sold. Sales are strongest (per capita) in Western Canada, with Vancouver Island and Vancouver being especially hot markets.  The 2008-2011 (North America) Smart Fortwo Type 451 was totally redesigned, with a 70 HP naturally aspirated Mitsubishi-sourced gasoline engine of 999 cc for North America, up from the 799 cc cdi diesel, with the attendant loss of fuel economy. Smart decided not to import the cdi version of the 451, now with 55 DIN HP, although this decision has led to criticism that the new Smart does not get the fuel economy that many would expect from such a small car. The 799 cc, far more fuel efficient diesel is sold in Europe and some other markets.  The BRABUS Tailor-Made program is not well advertised in Canada, but at least 16 Tailor-Made cars have been produced to Canadian specification. These vehicles are sent to the BRABUS factory in Bottrop, Germany, where the standard ex-works cars are stripped to the shell and repainted/retrimmed to suit individual customers' tastes. The first four are the BRABUS Canada 1; three in bright red (including the tridion, two cabriolets and one coupé) and one in all white (a cabriolet). Aside from the special paint, all had every BRABUS part fitted to the body and interior, and the seats, door panels and dashboards were trimmed in black Nappa leather and Alcantara. Three of these cars are in British Columbia and #1-of-1, the Concept vehicle used at Canadian International Auto Shows (a red cabrio with silver alloys), is now in London, Ontario. The next BRABUS Tailor-Made Canadian car was a one-off all orange 451 made for a customer in Vancouver. The other ten were all ordered by Mercedes-Benz Canada as the special "edit10n" of the Canadian BRABUS 451 (with only 70 HP), painted in metallic dark grey with an orange Nappe leather interior. There is also at least one BoConcept 451 built to Canadian standards.  In 2009, the Government of Canada acquired the European Smart mhd (micro hybrid drive) through partnership with Mercedes-Benz Canada. The project was administered by the ecoTECHNOLOGY for Vehicles(eTV) program within Transport Canada. Goals were to identify the benefits of the start-stop system equipped on the vehicle and how to accelerate the penetration of this technology throughout Canada. See Smart mhd Test Results Report.  On April 30, 2019 Daimler announced 2019 will be the last year for Canada and will continue to support owners going forward.

United States.

Before 2008, Smart cars were only available in the United States as "grey market" imports, such as ZAP. U.S. federal regulations allow certain grey market importing in large quantities provided the vehicles are modified and tested to conform to U.S. safety and emissions regulations. Smarts were imported into the United States by "The Defiance Company LLC", modified by G&K Automotive Conversion in Santa Ana, California, and distributed and sold by independent dealerships which were not affiliated with Mercedes. U.S. regulations did not permit the purchase and import of used Smart CDi vehicles from Canada, as the diesel powered Canadian Smarts did not meet American emissions regulations.  In June 2006, DaimlerChrysler confirmed that Smart would be officially launched in the United States in the first quarter of 2008. The cars were offered through a dealership holding company Penske Automotive Group, which created a new U.S. dealership network for the brand under the name Smart USA. Initially, an updated gasoline powered Fortwo was offered, starting around US$12,000. The new model made its debut at European auto shows in November 2006.  A "Forbes" article has been critical of the stated reasons that Daimler-Chrysler gave for introducing the car in the United States. The Smart Fortwo may have claimed to be the most fuel-efficient fully gasoline-engined car for sale in the US, but it actually lags behind the 4-door Mitsubishi Mirage and 2-door Scion iQ (combined 40 mpg and 37 mpg, respectively). According to the EPA, the Smart's fuel efficiency is lower than the fuel efficiency of some hybrids, including the Ford Fusion, the Toyota Prius, the Honda Civic Hybrid, and the 2-seat Honda Insight, which achieve 41/36, 51/48, 40/43, and 40/43 respectively while the Smart achieves 33 city and 41 highway. The Smart Fortwo is the most efficient car at its pricepoint, since it costs about half as much as a hybrid in the US.  The Fortwo has received much attention in the U.S. In its April 2008 issue, "Men's Vogue" raised the question, "in a nation where your supersized car is your castle, is the Smart too mini for a man?".  To obtain a Smart Fortwo originally required obtaining a "reservation" costing $99 through a dealer or over the internet. The waiting time in January 2009 was approximately 12 months; by July 2009, there was no wait to obtain a vehicle and dealers had them in stock for immediate delivery.  On January 25, 2010, Smart USA began its first lease program in the US market for Smart Fortwo models. The program was scheduled to last through February 28, 2010, but has been extended indefinitely despite lack of leasing sales.  Penske Automotive Group announced plans February 14, 2011, to relinquish distribution of the Smart Fortwo under Smart USA, to Mercedes-Benz USA. In 2011, Smart USA offered four versions of their Fortwo model. These models include the following: cabriolet, the high-cost convertible version; passion, the mid-cost moonroof version; pure, the low-cost basic version; and electric drive, the electric version.  On July 1, 2011, Mercedes-Benz USA took over the distribution, sales and marketing of the Smart brand from Penske Automotive Group. Smart is owned and produced by Mercedes' parent, Daimler AG.  The third generation Smart Fortwo coupe (C453) was introduced in the United States as a 2016 model in September 2015. The fortwo cabrio (A453) model arrived at American dealerships in 2016 as a 2017 model, and was sold alongside the fortwo coupe. In February 2017, smart USA announced that gasoline models would be discontinued after the 2017 model year, and the brand would focus on an all-electric strategy beginning for the 2018 model year. Both coupe and cabrio models will remain on sale as battery-electric vehicles, with the fortwo cabrio electric drive being offered as the only electric convertible for sale in the United States.  The year 2018 marked 10 years of Smart sales in the US, and the brand offered a limited-edition 10th anniversary edition fortwo coupe electric drive to celebrate. The edition was announced in January 2018, and shown at the 2018 North American International Auto Show.  Smart exited the US market after the 2019 model year due to slow sales and the high cost of homologating the Fortwo for the US.

Mexico.

Smart offers the hardtop and convertible models of the Fortwo coupé in Mexico.  The Smart Fortwo was introduced in 2003, and were sold in department stores Sanborns and Liverpool. Later Mercedes-Benz dealers started to offer the car. Currently Smart cars are still offered in the country, with only the Fortwo model available.  Smart Fortwo has fierce competition with the Hyundai Atos, Pontiac Matiz, and Chevrolet Chevy, which are compacts with low gas consumption at less than half the cost of a Smart but with more space for passengers.

South America.

Argentina.

In Argentina, the Fortwo has been for sale since 2010 and models (Fortwo Cabrio and Fortwo Coupé) can be bought in dealerships located in the Puerto Madero neighborhood of Buenos Aires.

Brazil.

In Brazil, the Fortwo has been for sale since 2009 and models (Fortwo Cabrio turbo, Fortwo Coupé turbo and Fortwo Coupé MHD) can be bought in some Smart and/or Mercedes-Benz dealerships in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre cities. The electric, Brabus and Forfour versions are not available for the Brazilian market.

Oceania.

Australia.

Smart models were for sale in Australia from 2003 to 2015. It was announced in March 2015 that the Smart brand would be withdrawn from Australia due to poor sales.

Europe.

United Kingdom.

Launched in the United Kingdom in 2000, the current range features the Smart Fortwo convertible, and Smart Fortwo Coupé. Smart is available in the UK through Mercedes-Benz retailers.  The UK is host to a number of annual events, both official and unofficial, including the Smart Festival, held annually at Mercedes-Benz World in Weybridge, near historic Brooklands - the world's first purpose-built motor racing circuit.

Russia.

The Smart brand debuted in the Russian market in 2012 with the Fortwo model only.

Safety.

The Smart Fortwo uses a very small front crumple zone. The second generation Smart Fortwo has been awarded 4 out of 5 stars in the Euro NCAP Adult Occupant Protection and 2 out of 4 stars in the Pedestrian protection test, but was not tested for Child Occupant Protection as it has no rear seats. The original Smart was awarded 3 out of 5 stars for Adult Occupant Protection. In American tests using a five-star rating, Smart cars received a four-star safety rating for the driver from a front impact, and a five-star safety rating for the driver for a side impact. It also received "Good" ratings for front and side crash protection in Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) tests. However, in an April 2009 40 mph frontal offset crash test between a Fortwo and a Mercedes C-Class, "the Smart went air-borne and turned around 450 degrees" causing "extensive intrusion into the space around the dummy from head to feet". The IIHS rated the Smart Fortwo "Poor," noting that "Multiple injuries, including to the head, would be likely for a real-world driver of a smart in a similar collision."  The main structure of the car is a stiff structure, marketed as the Tridion Safety Cell, designed to activate the crumple zones of a colliding vehicle. This design creates a safety cell around the passengers, according to the manufacturer.

Smart (stylized as smart) is a German automotive brand and division of Daimler AG. The company is based in Böblingen, Germany. It produces microcars and subcompacts, primarily the Fortwo and Forfour. The primary assembly plant is the Smartville in Hambach, France. A second plant exists in Novo Mesto, Slovenia. Marketed in 46 countries around the world, production of the Fortwo had surpassed 1.7 million units by early 2015.

Smart, původně Smart GmbH (původně MCC Smart GmbH), je automobilová značka společnosti Daimler AG. Daimler / Smart je výrobce micro a mini automobilů se sídlem v Böblingenu, Německo. Výrobní závod je umístěn v Hambachu ve Francii.


History.

According to ARIJ, Israel confiscated land from two nearby Palestinian villages in order to construct Oranit: most of the land was taken from Azzun Atma, while 6 dunams from ‘Izbat Salman.  In April 1983, the Israeli government approved the establishment of Oranit, one of three settlements planned for "western Samaria".  According to Amnesty International the majority of the land of the neighboring Palestinian village of 'Izbat Salman was lost when Oranit was established, with most of the remainder being effectively lost when the West Bank barrier was built to encompass Oranit and enough surrounding land for future expansion of the settlement. The UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East has estimated that three Palestinian villages in the vicinity lost 3,000 dunams of land with the creation of Oranit settlement. Thirty Palestinian farmers were initially given access to their farmland through the gates of the settlement. This right was soon withdrawn for "security reasons" and the settlement has since expanded onto this Palestinian farmland.  In 1985, the first residents moved in. In 1990, Oranit achieved local council status. In 2009, Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu imposed a 10-month freeze on construction in Oranit and other Israeli settlements in the West Bank. Building inspectors of the Israeli military's civil administration issued a stop-work order, sending home a crew of Palestinian laborers who had been employed at a building site in Oranit.  According to Zvika Ma-Yafit, former mayor of Oranit, the town maintains good relations with nearby Kafr Qasim and the two towns have cooperated on environmental projects such as the development of a joint sewage system. Many residents of Kafr Qasim work in Oranit as gardeners and handymen. He says the motive for moving to Oranit is not ideological but quality of life.

Demographics.

According to a 2009 survey, the population is young and evenly divided between men and women. Around 15% of the population is Orthodox, two-thirds of whom live in the town's religious neighborhood. Oranit ranked 8 out of 10 on the Israeli socio-economic scale.

Education and culture.

In an educational project at MultiCenter, a computer center at Park Afek industrial zone, Jewish and Arab youngsters from Oranit, Rosh Ha'ayin and Kafr Qasim created a computer model for a virtual city of coexistence. According to the project director, the children learn about each other's language and culture, discuss strategies for promoting tolerance and avoiding violence, and use a program developed by MultiCenter to create a virtual dream city, complete with a map, logo and charter.  Community facilities include a public swimming pool and tennis courts.

Oranit () is an Israeli settlement and local council located in the Seam Zone, abutting the Green Line. It is surrounded by Horshim forest to the west, Rosh HaAyin and Kfar Qasim to the southwest, Sha'arei Tikva to the east, and Khirbet Abu Salman to the northeast. In it had a population of.

Oranit ( אֳרָנִית, v oficiálním přepisu do angličtiny Oranit) je izraelská osada a místní rada (malé město) na Západním břehu Jordánu v distriktu Judea a Samaří.


Early life.

Svoboda was born in Prague in 1907. Attending a series of schools, he studied at the College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of Czech Technical University in Prague (CTU), from where he graduated in 1931. In that same year, he traveled to England briefly to study physics, but returned to Czechoslovakia to conduct research and study under Václav Dolejšek, who made very significant discoveries in X-ray spectrography.

Professional career.

Svoboda and Dolejšek worked together on several projects, including X-rays and other astronomy-related aspects, but the rapidly rising specter of what was occurring in Germany, set against the backdrop of the economic collapse during his time, made pure science difficult to pursue. Even so, Svoboda took up positions at the CTU, including becoming an assistant professor of electrical engineering. He eventually gained his Ph.D in 1935, working on the concepts of mathematical models in the use and transmission of electricity and current.

Wartime.

In 1936, with war looming, Svoboda quit his positions in academia and joined the CDF and the Ministry of National Defense. Working there on a variety of projects, he was successful in vastly improving anti-aircraft artillery sights, capable of using predictive motion to "lead" a moving aircraft based on its direction and speed and adjusting the aim accordingly so that flak would hit. He worked on this project until the fall of Czechoslovakia in 1939.  At that time, alarmed that their research would fall into the hands of Nazi scientists, Svoboda and his research team fled to France, hoping to find a sympathetic ear and a place to work to fight the Germans however they could. Unfortunately, by the time Svoboda had gotten settled in, Germany's Wehrmacht had started the blitzkrieg, bypassing the Maginot Line and directly threatening Paris where he was working. During this time, Svoboda began work on what would eventually become his computer in later years, but his designs and drawings were all he had. Unwilling to leave such treasures to the Germans, he took them with him, but buried them in the construction of his bicycle.

Escape from Europe.

Svoboda's flight this time was far less organized, fleeing fast moving Panzer units. Just before France fell his pregnant wife Milada bore him twin sons while on the run. During the flight one of the babies passed away, and there was a great deal of harassment as they fled.  They managed to arrive in Marseilles, where they attempted first to get out of France to Casablanca, and when that failed, managed to get to Lisbon. Unfortunately, the ship's captain had no room for much cargo—with over two million refugees in Lisbon, space was at a premium. Sadly, Svoboda had to throw his bicycle in which were hidden plans of anti-aircraft sight. They should be hidden not to fall in Nazi's hands.

Living in the US.

Svoboda arrived in the US in 1941, settling in New York City after almost a year of trials and tribulations. Svoboda participated in experiments in the Radiation Laboratory at MIT in Boston, and worked to develop a new auto-aiming targeting scope for warship anti-aircraft cannons. This was eventually developed fully as the Mark 56 Gun Fire Control System, which was mounted in the final stages of the war and was very effective in reducing the amount of damage by kamikaze airplane attacks, for which he was given a Naval Ordnance Development Award. In particular, he designed the linkage computer that was part of the Mk. 56 system. At the time, he was more proud of the design than the medal, but in later years it would come in handy.  Later, he conducted initial design work with other scientists such as John von Neumann, Vannevar Bush, and Claude Shannon on emerging computing elements, including ciphering.

After the war.

After the war, he spent some time helping to write computer documentation for the initial efforts in the US before returning to Prague. While initially he had wanted to stay in the USA to participate in the development of computers, early frustrations and military controls of the project made him decide he would be better off trying to build up a Czechoslovakian computer.  He returned to Prague in 1946, and became the department head at Prague's CTU of the Department of Mathematics. He attempted to get tenure but initially was rebuffed, and thus in 1950 he accepted an offer from Eduard Čech, the director of the Central Institute of Mathematical Studies, to come there and set up a new institute of what was called at the time "mathematical machinery".  In 1950, he launched the Academy of Science's Institute of Mathematical Machinery, and constructed the computer known as SAPO, the world's first fault-tolerant computer design. Based on unorthodox and untried elements and designs such as electromagnetic relays and drums, its architecture was quite advanced compared to other contemporary efforts such as ENIAC.  Svoboda went on to design several other follow-on computers, but after Czechoslovakia fell more fully under Soviet domination, began to feel constrained. Soviet officials limited his work and his access to the military computers he helped design, and eventually locked him out of his own office and told him that he would have to report to a political officer.

Return to the US.

Svoboda left the unstable situation in Czechoslovakia in 1964, traveling first to Yugoslavia and from there to Greece, and then to the USA once more. Upon his arrival immigration officials were unmoved by his situation until he produced the medal given to him by the US Navy. Communication with certain authorities established his bona fides as a useful scientist, and he was quickly admitted to the country.  He worked at the University of California in Los Angeles as a professor of computer sciences, refining his theories on computer design, fault tolerance, mathematics and electrical engineering, and retired in 1977.  He died on 18 May 1980 in Portland, Oregon.  In 1999, the President of the Czech Republic Václav Havel awarded him the Medal of Merit, 1st degree, in memoriam.

Impact.

Svoboda was one of the most influential scientists in the 20th century. His designs and influence can be felt in everything from the computer design of the Apollo program to the theory behind what became the Phalanx CIWS, from early work on computer modeling to innovative combinations of electrical engineering with logic design to make fault-tolerant computers.  Svoboda's resistance to both Nazi Germany and, later, the USSR was a reason cited by many fleeing scientists during the 1960s from Czechoslovakia, who said he gave them the courage to dissent. His influence on computer technology is no less profound, as he was the author of one of the very first books on computer science and many of the basic axioms developed in its theory were worked on by him along with many other scientists.  Among his publications is the volume ""Computing Mechanisms and Linkages"", part of the M.I.T. Radiation Laboratory series; it describes advanced procedures for optimizing linkage-type mechanical analog computing mechanisms, no doubt learned from when he designed such a computer for the U.S. Navy's Mk. 56 G.F.C.S.

Antonín Svoboda (1907–1980) was a Czech computer scientist, mathematician, electrical engineer, and researcher. He is credited with originating the design of fault-tolerant computer systems, and with the creation of SAPO, the first Czech computer design.

Prof. Dr. Ing. Antonín Svoboda (14. října 1907 Praha – 18. května 1980 Portland, Oregon, USA) byl český vynálezce a počítačový vědec, konstruktér prvních československých samočinných počítačů SAPO a EPOS 1, profesor University of California, Los Angeles. V roce 1999 mu prezident Václav Havel udělil medaili Za zásluhy I. stupně in memoriam.


Plot.

The USS "Enterprise" is on an exploratory mission to leave the galaxy. En route, a damaged ship's recorder of the SS "Valiant", an Earth spaceship lost 200 years earlier, is found. Its record is incomplete, but it reveals that the "Valiant" had been swept from its path by a "magnetic space storm," and that the crew had frantically searched for information about extrasensory perception (ESP) in the ship's library computer. The recording ends with the captain of the "Valiant" apparently giving a self-destruct order.  Captain Kirk decides that they need to know what happened to the "Valiant", and the "Enterprise" crosses the edge of the galaxy. There, it encounters a strange barrier which damages the ship's systems and warp drive, forcing a retreat. At the same time, nine crew members are killed and both helmsman Gary Mitchell (Gary Lockwood) and the ship's psychiatrist Dr. Elizabeth Dehner (Sally Kellerman) are knocked unconscious by the barrier's effect. When he awakens, Mitchell's eyes glow silver, and he begins to display remarkable psychic powers.  Mitchell becomes increasingly arrogant and hostile toward the rest of the crew, declaring that he has become godlike, enforcing his desires with fearsome displays of telepathic and telekinetic power. Science Officer Spock comes to believe that the "Valiant" crew members may have experienced the same phenomenon, and destroyed the ship to keep the power from spreading. He advises Kirk that Mitchell may have to be killed before his powers develop further, but Kirk angrily disagrees.  Alarmed that Mitchell may take over the "Enterprise", Kirk decides to maroon him at an unmanned lithium-cracking facility on the remote planet of Delta Vega. Once there, the landing party tries to confine Mitchell, but his powers have become too great. He kills navigator Lt. Kelso and escapes by knocking out Kirk and Spock, taking with him Dr. Dehner, who has now developed similar powers.  Kirk follows and appeals to Dr. Dehner's humanity for help. Before Mitchell can kill Kirk, the doctor attacks and weakens him. Mitchell fatally injures Dehner, but before he can recover from the effort, Kirk uses a phaser rifle to create a rock slide, killing Mitchell.  Back on the "Enterprise", Kirk makes a log entry that both Dehner and Mitchell gave their lives "in performance of duty". He explains to Spock that he wants his friend's service record to end positively: "He didn't ask for what happened to him."

Production and casting.

The original pilot of "Star Trek", "", was rejected in February 1965 by NBC executives. The show had been sold to them as a ""Wagon Train" to the stars", and they thought the first pilot did not match the adventure format they had been promised and was "too cerebral" for the general audience. However, NBC, having been persuaded by Desilu management (and reportedly by Lucille Ball herself), maintained sufficient interest in the format to order a second pilot episode in March 1965.  Roddenberry wrote two story outlines, "The Omega Glory" and "Mudd's Women." He wrote the teleplay for the former and gave the latter to Stephen Kandel. Roddenberry asked long-time associate and veteran scriptwriter Samuel Peeples to submit ideas for another. Peeples came up with the premise and episode title for "Where No Man Has Gone Before," and was assigned to write it. Roddenberry rewrote Peeples's script several times and while he enjoyed working with Roddenberry, after seeing the pilot Peeples preferred his original version of the script. There was some discussion over who came up with the title "Where no man has gone before", Peeples stated unequivocally it was his idea not Roddenberry's. Kandel had fallen ill and his script was not finished in time; the other two were submitted to NBC for consideration. NBC preferred "Where No Man Has Gone Before" as a pilot. "Mudd's Women" was later made as the second episode in regular production, and "The Omega Glory" was made towards the end of the second season.  Casting took place in June 1965. Jeffrey Hunter was unwilling to reprise his role as Captain Christopher Pike. Lloyd Bridges and Jack Lord were considered, but William Shatner was finally cast as Pike's replacement, Captain James Kirk. The character of Number One, the female second-in-command, was dropped on the insistence of the NBC network, and Science Officer Spock was given Number One's unemotional demeanor. NBC was worried about Leonard Nimoy's "satanic" appearance and pressured for his removal. As Roddenberry later explained at conventions, he felt he had a strong enough negotiating position to save one character, but not both. Roddenberry went on to muse that, had he done it the other way around, he could not have then married the losing actor (Majel Hudec, who changed her name to Barrett and returned in the role of Christine Chapel).  Apart from Captain Kirk, the episode introduced two other regular characters to the show: James Doohan, a friend of director James Goldstone, was cast as the Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott (the name chosen after Doohan had tried various accents, and had decided that an engineer ought to be Scottish) and George Takei was cast as the ship's Physicist Sulu, who would become the helmsman in the regular series. Lieutenant Uhura and Dr. Leonard McCoy do not feature; the ship's doctor is instead Mark Piper (Paul Fix), who lost the role to DeForest Kelley.  Gary Lockwood, as Lt. Commander Gary Mitchell, had starred in the title role of Roddenberry's earlier series on NBC, "The Lieutenant"; Sally Kellerman was cast as Dr. Elizabeth Dehner. Both actors needed silver eyes and scleral lenses were called for, which were produced by expert contact lens fabricator, John Roberts, who laminated wrinkled tinfoil between layers of the scleral lenses which covered the entire eye. These, outdated by the 1960s, could be painful, perhaps dangerous to the actors' eyes (modern scleral lenses can "breathe" and are oxygen permeable). Although Kellerman could insert and remove the prosthetics easily with no discomfort, Lockwood found them difficult to see through. He needed to raise his face and sight along his nose in order to see through tiny holes in the foil. He was able to use this to enhance his performance as the mutating Mitchell, the unusual gaze giving him an arrogant and haughty demeanor.  Other cast members included Paul Carr as Navigator Lee Kelso, Lloyd Haynes as Communications Officer Alden and Andrea Dromm as Yeoman Smith (Alden and Smith were intended to be regulars in the show, but were replaced by Uhura and Janice Rand, respectively). The episode also is the first time long-running background actor Eddie Paskey appeared; his character would later be identified as Lt. Leslie.  The costumes from the first pilot were used in "Where No Man Has Gone Before" with the exception of the insignias in two respects – the outlines were gold in the first pilot but black in the second, and the insignia symbols for engineering and sciences were reversed for the series proper. Completely new uniforms and insignia would be unveiled when the series was green-lighted, with the colors altered and black collars introduced. Most of the "Enterprise" sets were also reused from "The Cage", while Sickbay was the only major set constructed for the episode. Like "The Cage", the episode was shot at Desilu's Culver City studios.  The episode was directed by James Goldstone. He was hired primarily to get his opinion on which of the first three scripts should be the second pilot. While his best friend Stephen Kandel wrote "Mudd's Women", Goldstone agreed "Where no man has gone before" was the right choice. Ernest Haller, who had won the Oscar for Best Color Cinematography on the movie "Gone with the Wind" (1939), served as director of photography for the episode. He had been brought in out of semi-retirement at Goldstone's recommendation at the last minute, after attempts to locate a cameraman had proved problematic. Robert H. Justman was credited as assistant director.  Shooting started on July 19, 1965, several days later than originally scheduled. During the filming of this episode, a wasp's nest high in the rafters of the studio was somehow disturbed, and many cast and crew members suffered stings as a result. As this happened on a Friday, the weekend break allowed time for the swelling to go down; Shatner, however, required additional makeup to hide the stings during shooting the following Monday. Filming finished late on July 28, 1965; the final footage filmed was part of the fight between Kirk and Mitchell. While the schedule allowed seven days to shoot the episode, it required nine, which was Justman's original estimate. The episode cost around $300,000, around half the money spent on making "The Cage".  In a 1988 TV special, "The Star Trek Saga: From One Generation to the Next", series creator Gene Roddenberry said that, as with the first pilot, this one still had a lot of science-fiction elements in it, but at least it ended with Kirk in a bare-knuckle fistfight with Mitchell and that's what sold NBC on "Star Trek".

Original cut.

Post-production on the episode was delayed by Roddenberry's involvement in another pilot, "Police Story". Post-production finished in January 1966 and the episode was presented to NBC for approval (which finally came in February 1966). This original version (production number 02a) differed from the later final broadcast cut (production number 02b, airing on September 22, 1966) in that each of the four acts had on-screen titles ("Act I", "Act II", etc.), as well as an epilogue. It also featured a much longer opening narration by Shatner. In some places alternate musical scores were used. In total almost five minutes of footage was removed to accommodate the original series' 50-minute network broadcast format to allow for commercials. The episode in its original version was seen by the public before the aired version, having been shown at the 24th World Science Fiction Convention in Cleveland, Ohio, on September 3, 1966—shortly before the premiere broadcast of "Star Trek" on NBC.  The studio did not retain a print of this original version, and it was officially thought to be lost. In 2009, a German film collector discovered a print of it and brought it to the attention of CBS/Paramount, which then released it under the title ""Where No Fan Has Gone Before" – The Restored, Unaired Alternate Pilot Episode" as part of the "TOS" season 3 box set on Blu-ray.

Non-canon related works.

The episode was adapted into a short story by James Blish for "Star Trek 8", published in 1972. It also became the second in Bantam's series of Fotonovels, published in 1977.

Non-canon books.

The Galactic Barrier is later associated with the Q, in the 1994 novel "Q-Squared" by Peter David, and Greg Cox's 1998 trilogy.  Gary Mitchell does not appear again in the show. Several books, including Michael Jan Friedman's "My Brother's Keeper", Vonda N. McIntyre's "Enterprise: The First Adventure", and Margaret Wander Bonanno's "Strangers from the Sky", feature the character in adventures set before the events of the episode. The 2005 "" book "Harbinger" is set immediately after the events of "Where No Man Has Gone Before" and features a troubled Kirk musing on his friend's death. Friedman's "" book "The Valiant" features two people who claim to be descended from the "Valiant"s crew.

Non-canon mini-series.

Gary Mitchell (portrayed by Daamen J. Krall) appears in the alternate timeline depicted in the 2006-2008 mini-series "".

Reception.

In 2013, W.I.R.E.D. magazine ranked this episode one of the top ten episodes of the original television series. They note famous lines such as Kirk's plea for compassion, and the lack of series regulars such as Dr. McCoy, Uhura, and Chekov.  Zack Handlen of "The A.V. Club" gave the episode a 'B+' rating, describing it as "an awkward episode" but that "it's not without its charms."  In 2016, IGN ranked "Where No Man Has Gone Before" number six in a top ten list of original series episodes.They also ranked it the 17th best episode of all "Star Trek" series.  In 2018, "PopMatters" ranked this the 4th best episode of the original series.

"Where No Man Has Gone Before" is the third episode of the of the American science fiction television series, "". Written by Samuel A. Peeples and directed by James Goldstone, it first aired on September 22, 1966.

„Kam se dosud člověk nevydal“ (v originále „Where No Man Has Gone Before“) je v řadě druhý pilotní díl první sezóny seriálu Star Trek, později známého jako "". Byl natočen roku 1965 poté, co byl první pilotní díl "Klec" zamítnut společností NBC. Epizoda byla vysílána jako třetí v pořadí 22. září 1966.


The Enemy Within (Star Trek: The Original Series)

Plot.

The USS "Enterprise" is on a geological exploration of the planet Alpha 177. Geological Technician Fisher is injured after a fall and transported aboard "Enterprise", though Chief Engineer Scott has some trouble with the transporter. The transporter equipment appears to be fine but he notices some magnetic dust from ore samples covering Fisher's uniform that may have interfered with the transport.  Captain Kirk transports back to the ship. The transporter appears to work correctly, but Kirk experiences some disorientation, and Scott escorts Kirk out of the transporter room. While unsupervised, the transporter activates a second time, materializing a second version of Kirk which behaves more maliciously than his counterpart. This "evil" Kirk begins to wander the ship, and those he encounters are confused by his behavior.  Scott assists in beaming a dog-like animal specimen from the planet, but two identical creatures materialize – one completely docile and the other vicious. Scott surmises that the ore dust has caused the transporter to split the personalities of those they beamed up, creating good and evil counterparts. Scott reports this to Mr. Spock and then orders the transporter taken out of service to investigate, stranding the landing party on the planet as the bitterly cold night sets in. Elsewhere on the ship, the "good" Kirk begins to feel uncertain, and struggles to make decisions. The "evil" Kirk, in a drunken state, sexually assaults Yeoman Janice Rand in her quarters. She scratches his face with her fingernails. When Fisher witnesses this and calls security, the "evil" Kirk attacks and knocks him out. Rand reports the incident to the bridge. The "good" Kirk orders the crew to capture the "evil" Kirk, but at Spock's advice he keeps the fact that their quarry is his evil half a secret so as not to weaken the crew's faith in him; the crew are instead told of an imposter recognizable by the scratches on his cheek.  The "evil" Kirk hears this announcement and uses makeup to mask his injury. He secures a phaser from a security officer, before going into hiding in engineering. Putting himself in his shoes, the "good" Kirk anticipates this move. While the two Kirks scuffle, Spock disables the "evil" Kirk with a Vulcan nerve pinch. Spock recognizes both Kirks are suffering fatigue, and they must find a way to reverse the transporter accident to save both Kirk and the landing party. Spock and Scott use power from the ship's impulse drive to reverse the transporter on the dog-like specimen. When it materializes, the creature is whole but dead. Spock suggests that it died because its animal brain could not handle the stress of its two halves being reintegrated, so Kirk will be able to survive the same procedure, while Dr. Leonard McCoy insists they can't take the risk that the death was caused by ongoing transporter malfunction.  With the landing party nearly dead from cold, the "good" Kirk opts to gamble on the procedure rather than wait for an autopsy on the creature. When he releases the "evil" Kirk, his other self overpowers him, and gives him facial scratches like his own. Pretending to be the "good" Kirk, he tells Rand the truth about the "imposter", and makes a date with her before heading to the bridge. He orders the crew to leave orbit, telling the navigator that the landing party cannot be saved. The "good" Kirk and McCoy race to the bridge, where the two Kirks face off. The "good" Kirk at last persuades the "evil" Kirk that they need each other to survive, and will both live on as parts of each other. He orders Scott to attempt the reversal process, and Kirk rejoined as one being. With his sense of command and good will restored (and the transporter repaired), Kirk orders the landing party beamed up. They are safe despite the cold. Rand tells Kirk about her last encounter with "evil" Kirk, but he cuts her off before she can discuss the issue of his romantic overtures.

Production.

The episode's writer, Richard Matheson, was inspired by Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson's famous character who is struggling with his evil alter ego.  The subplot of four crewmembers stranded on the planet in freezing temperatures was added later as a re-write. Matheson opposed the idea as he thought B-stories slowed stories down. He said, "They added a whole subplot about people down on the planet, ready to freeze to death, because they have a transporter functioning problem...I stuck entirely with Bill."  Leonard Nimoy, unhappy with part of the script that called for Spock to hit "evil" Kirk on the head with a phaser to render him unconscious, suggested the idea of the Vulcan nerve pinch. William Shatner helped demonstrate Nimoy's concept and episode director Leo Penn accepted it.  This episode is one of the small group for which a full score was written, in this case by Sol Kaplan. Jeff Bond noted:

Reception.

Zack Handlen of "The A.V. Club" gave the episode an 'A-' rating, noting that while the last act of the episode was somewhat redundant, the first two run smoothly, and describing Shatner's acting as Kirk's good half as "very solid stuff."  In 2014, IO9 rated "The Enemy Within " the 81st greatest episode of "Star Trek". In 2016, IGN ranked "The Enemy Within" the 7th best episode of the original series.  In 2016, "Empire" ranked this the 15th best out of the top 50 episodes of all the 700 plus Star Trek television episodes.  In 2016, "Radio Times" ranked the moment where Kirk exclaims "I'm Captain Kirk!!", the tenth best moment of all Star Trek film and television up to that time. They felt that Shatner's acting performance "completely carries this early first season episode."  In 2017, "Fatherly" ranked this episode as one of the top 10 episodes for kids to watch.  In 2018, "PopMatters" ranked this the 8th best episode of the original series. They praised Shatner (who plays both Kirk, and his sinister transporter clone) for his nuanced yet over-the-top performance, depicting an extraordinary range of emotions.  A 2018 "Star Trek" binge-watching guide by "Den of Geek", recommended this episode as one of the best of the original series.  In 2019, "Nerdist" included this episode on their "Best of Kirk" binge-watching guide.  In 2019, CBR ranked this episode as one of the top 8 most memorable episodes of the original "Star Trek".

"The Enemy Within" is the fifth episode of the of the American science fiction television series, "". Written by Richard Matheson and directed by Leo Penn, it first aired on October 6, 1966.

„Nepřítel v nás“ (v originále „The Enemy Within“) je v pátý díl první sezóny seriálu Star Trek, později známého jako "". Byl vysílán poprvé 6. října 1966.


History.

Portuguese language in Brazil.

The existence of Portuguese in Brazil is a legacy of the Portuguese colonization of the Americas. The first wave of Portuguese-speaking immigrants settled in Brazil in the 16th century, but the language was not widely used then. For a time Portuguese coexisted with Língua Geral—a lingua franca based on Amerindian languages that was used by the Jesuit missionaries—as well as with various African languages spoken by the millions of slaves brought into the country between the 16th and 19th centuries. By the end of the 18th century, Portuguese had affirmed itself as the national language. Some of the main contributions to that swift change were the expansion of colonization to the Brazilian interior, and the growing numbers of Portuguese settlers, who brought their language and became the most important ethnic group in Brazil.  Beginning in the early 18th century, Portugal's government made efforts to expand the use of Portuguese throughout the colony, particularly because its consolidation in Brazil would help guarantee to Portugal the lands in dispute with

Loanwords.

The development of Portuguese in Brazil (and consequently in the rest of the areas where Portuguese is spoken) has been influenced by other languages with which it has come into contact, mainly in the lexicon: first the Amerindian languages of the original inhabitants, then the various African languages spoken by the slaves, and finally those of later European and Asian immigrants. Although the vocabulary is still predominantly Portuguese, the influence of other languages is evident in the Brazilian lexicon, which today includes, for example, hundreds of words of Tupi–Guarani origin referring to local flora and fauna; numerous West African Yoruba words related to foods, religious concepts, and musical expressions; and English terms from the fields of modern technology and commerce. Although some of these words are more predominant in Brazil, they are also used in Portugal and other countries where Portuguese is spoken.  Words derived from the Tupi language are particularly prevalent in place names ("Itaquaquecetuba," "Pindamonhangaba," "Caruaru", "Ipanema", "Paraíba"). The native languages also contributed the names of most of the plants and animals found in Brazil (and most of these are the official names of the animals in other Portuguese-speaking countries as well), including "arara" ("macaw"), "jacaré" ("South American caiman"), "tucano" ("toucan"), "mandioca" ("cassava"), "abacaxi" ("pineapple"), and many more. However, many Tupi–Guarani toponyms did not derive directly from

Other influences.

Use of the reflexive "me", especially in São Paulo and the South, is thought to be an Italianism, attributed to the large Italian immigrant population, as are certain prosodic features, including patterns of intonation and stress, also in the South and Southeast.  Some authors claim that the loss of initial "es-" in the forms of the verb "estar" (e.g. "Tá bom") —now widespread in Brazil —reflects an influence from the speech of African slaves. The same feature, however, can be found in European Portuguese and several other Romance languages. It is also claimed that some common grammatical features of Brazilian Portuguese —such as the near-complete disappearance of certain verb inflections and a marked preference for

Written and spoken languages.

The written language taught in Brazilian schools has historically been based by law on the standard of Portugal, and until the 19th century, Portuguese writers often were regarded as models by some Brazilian authors and university professors. However, this aspiration to unity was severely weakened in the 20th century by nationalist movements in literature and the arts, which awakened in many Brazilians a desire for a national style uninfluenced by the standards of Portugal. Later, agreements were reached to preserve at least an orthographic unity throughout the Portuguese-speaking world, including the African and Asian variants of the language (which are typically more similar to EP, due to a Portuguese presence lasting into the second half of the 20th century).  On the other hand, the spoken language

Formal writing.

The written Brazilian standard differs from the European one to about the same extent that written American English differs from written British English. The differences extend to spelling, lexicon, and grammar. However, with the entry into force of the Orthographic Agreement of 1990 in Portugal and in Brazil since 2009, these differences were drastically reduced.  Several Brazilian writers have been awarded with the highest prize of the Portuguese language. The Camões Prize awarded annually by Portuguese and Brazilians is often regarded as the equivalent of the Nobel Prize in Literature for works in Portuguese.  Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, João Guimarães Rosa, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Graciliano Ramos, João Cabral de Melo Neto, Cecília Meireles, Clarice Lispector, José de Alencar, Rachel de Queiroz, Jorge Amado, Castro Alves, Antonio Candido, Autran Dourado, Rubem Fonseca, Lygia Fagundes Telles and Euclides da Cunha are Brazilian writers recognized for writing the most outstanding work in the Portuguese language.

Spelling differences.

The Brazilian spellings of certain words differ from those used in Portugal and the other Portuguese-speaking countries. Some of these differences are merely orthographic, but others reflect true differences in pronunciation.  Until the implementation of the 1990 orthographic reform, a major subset of the differences related to the consonant clusters "cc", "cç", "ct", "pc", "pç", and "pt". In many cases, the letters "c" or "p" in syllable-final position have become silent in all varieties of Portuguese, a common phonetic change in Romance languages (cf. Spanish "objeto", French "objet"). Accordingly, they stopped being written in BP (compare Italian spelling standards), but continued to be written in other Portuguese-speaking countries. For example, we had EP "acção" / BP "ação" ("action"), EP "óptimo" / BP "ótimo" ("optimum"), and so on, where the consonant was silent both in BP and EP, but the words were spelled differently. Only in a small number of words is the consonant silent in Brazil and pronounced elsewhere or vice versa, as in the case of BP "fato",

Language register – formal vs. informal.

The linguistic situation of the BP informal speech in relation to the standard language is controversial. There are authors (Bortoni, Kato, Mattos e Silva, Bagno, Perini) who describe it as a case of diglossia, considering that informal BP has developed – both in phonetics and grammar – in its own particular way.  Accordingly, the formal register of Brazilian Portuguese has a written and spoken form. The written formal register (FW) is used in almost all printed media and written communication, is uniform throughout the country and is the "Portuguese" officially taught at school. The spoken formal register (FS) is essentially a phonetic rendering of the written form. (FS) is used in very formal situations, such as speeches or ceremonies or when reading directly out of a text. While (FS) is necessarily uniform in lexicon and grammar, it shows noticeable regional variations in pronunciation.

Characteristics of informal Brazilian Portuguese.

The main and most general (i.e. not considering various regional variations) characteristics of the

Grammar.

Syntactic and morphological features.

Topic-prominent language.

Modern linguistic studies have shown that Brazilian Portuguese is a topic-prominent or topic- and subject-prominent language. Sentences with topic are extensively used in Portuguese, perhaps more in Brazilian Portuguese most often by means of turning an element (object or verb) in the sentence into an introductory phrase, on which the body of the sentence constitutes a comment (topicalization), thus emphasizing it, as in "Esses assuntos eu não conheço bem" – literally, "These subjects I don't know [them] well" (although this sentence would be perfectly acceptable in Portugal as well). In fact, in the Portuguese language, the anticipation of the verb or object at the beginning of the sentence, repeating it or using the respective pronoun referring to it, is also quite common, e.g. in "Essa menina, eu não sei o que fazer com ela" ("This girl, I don't know what to do with her") or "Com essa menina eu não sei o que fazer" ("With this girl I don't know

Progressive.

Portuguese makes extensive use of verbs in the progressive aspect, almost as in English.  Brazilian Portuguese seldom has the present continuous construct estar a" + infinitive, which, in contrast, has become quite common in European over the last few centuries. BP maintains the Classical Portuguese form of continuous expression, which is made by estar" + gerund.  Thus, Brazilians will always write "ela está dançando" ("she is

Personal pronouns.

Preferences.

There are many differences between formal written BP and EP that are simply a matter of different preferences between two alternative words or constructions that are both officially valid and acceptable.

Simple versus compound tenses.

A few synthetic tenses are usually replaced by compound tenses, such as in:  Also, spoken BP usually uses the verb "ter" ("own", "have", sense of possession) and rarely "haver" ("have", sense of existence, or "there to be"), especially as an auxiliary (as it can be seen above) and as a verb of existence.  This phenomenon is also observed in Portugal.

Differences in formal spoken language.

Phonology.

In many ways, Brazilian Portuguese (BP) is conservative in its phonology. That also is true of Angolan Portuguese, São Tomean Portuguese, and other African dialects. Brazilian Portuguese has eight oral vowels, five nasal vowels, and several diphthongs and triphthongs, some oral and some nasal.

Vowels.

The reduction of vowels is one of the main phonetic characteristics of Portuguese generally, but in Brazilian Portuguese the intensity and frequency of that phenomenon varies significantly.  Vowels in Brazilian Portuguese generally are pronounced more openly than in European Portuguese, even when reduced. In syllables that follow the stressed syllable, ⟨o⟩ is generally pronounced as, ⟨a⟩ as, and ⟨e⟩ as. Some dialects of BP follow this pattern for vowels "before" the stressed syllable as well.  In contrast, speakers of European Portuguese pronounce unstressed ⟨a⟩ primarily as, and they elide some unstressed vowels or reduce them to a short, near-close near-back unrounded vowel, a sound that does not exist in BP. Thus, for example, the word "setembro" is in BP, but in European Portuguese.  The main difference among the dialects of Brazilian Portuguese is the frequent presence or absence of open vowels in unstressed syllables. In dialects of the South and Southeast, unstressed ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ (when they are not reduced to and ) are pronounced as the close-mid vowels and. Thus, "operação" (operation) and "rebolar" (to shake one's

Consonants.

Palatalization of /di/ and /ti/.

One of the most noticeable tendencies of modern BP is the palatalization of and by most regions, which are pronounced and (or and ), respectively, before. The word "presidente" "president", for example, is pronounced in these regions of Brazil but in Portugal. The pronunciation probably began in Rio de Janeiro and is often still associated with this city but is now standard in many other states and major cities, such as Belo Horizonte and Salvador, and it has spread more recently to some regions of São Paulo (because of migrants from other regions), where it is common in most speakers under 40 or so. It has always been standard in Brazil's Japanese community since it is also a feature of

Differences in the informal spoken language.

There are various differences between European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese, such as the dropping of the second-person conjugations (and, in some dialects, of the second-person pronoun itself) in everyday usage and the use of subject pronouns () as direct objects.

Grammar.

Spoken Brazilian Portuguese usage differs from Standard Portuguese usage. The differences include the placement of clitic pronouns and, in Brazil, the use of subject pronouns as objects in the third person. Nonstandard verb inflections are also common in colloquial Brazilian Portuguese.

Affirmation and negation.

Spoken Portuguese rarely uses the affirmation adverb sim ("yes") in informal speech. Instead, the usual reply is a repetition of the verb of the question.  BP: or  Translation  In BP, it is common to form a yes/no question as a declarative sentence followed by the tag question "não é?" ("isn't it?"), contracted in informal speech to "né?" (compare English "He is a teacher, isn't he?"). The affirmative answer to such a question is a repetition of the verb: "É:".  BP:  — "Ele

Imperative.

Standard Portuguese forms a command according to the grammatical person of the subject (who is ordered to do the action) by using either the imperative form of the verb or the present subjunctive. Thus, one should use different inflections according to the pronoun used as the subject: "tu" ('you', the grammatical second person with the imperative form) or "você" ('you', the grammatical third person with the present subjunctive):  Currently, several dialects of BP have largely lost the second-person pronouns, but even they use the second-person imperative in addition to the third-person present subjunctive form that should be used

Deictics.

In spoken Brazilian Portuguese, the first two adjectives/pronouns usually merge:  Example:  Perhaps as a means of avoiding or clarifying some ambiguities created by the fact that "este" ( > ) and "esse" have merged into the same word, informal BP often uses the demonstrative pronoun with some

Personal pronouns and possessives.

Use of prepositions.

Just as in the case of English, whose various dialects sometimes use different prepositions with the same verbs or nouns ("stand in/on line, in/on the street"), BP usage sometimes requires prepositions that would not be normally used in Portuguese for the same context.

Diglossia.

According to some contemporary Brazilian linguists (Bortoni, Kato, Mattos e Silva, Perini and most recently, with great impact, Bagno), Brazilian Portuguese may be a highly diglossic language. This theory claims that there is an L-variant (termed "Brazilian Vernacular"), which would be the mother tongue of all Brazilians, and an H-variant (standard Brazilian Portuguese) acquired through schooling. L-variant represents a simplified form of the language (in terms of grammar, but not of phonetics) that could have evolved from 16th-century Portuguese, influenced by Amerindian (mostly Tupi) and African languages, while H-variant would be based on 19th-century European Portuguese (and very similar to Standard European Portuguese, with only minor differences in spelling and grammar usage). Mário A. Perini, a Brazilian linguist, even compares the depth of the differences between L- and H- variants of Brazilian Portuguese with those between Standard Spanish and European Portuguese. However, his proposal is not widely accepted by either grammarians or academics. Milton M. Azevedo wrote a chapter on diglossia in his monograph: "Portuguese language (A linguistic introduction)", published by Cambridge University Press in 2005.

Usage.

From this point of view, the L-variant is the spoken form of Brazilian Portuguese, which should be avoided only in very formal speech (court interrogation, political debate) while the H-variant is the written form of Brazilian Portuguese, avoided only in informal writing (such as song lyrics, love letters, intimate friends correspondence). Even language professors frequently use the L-variant while explaining students the structure and usage of the H-variant; in essays, nevertheless, all students are expected to use H-variant.  The L-variant may be used in songs, movies, soap operas, sitcoms and other television shows, although, at times, the H-variant is used in historic films or soap operas to

Prestige.

This theory also posits that the matter of diglossia in Brazil is further complicated by forces of political and cultural bias, though those are not clearly named. Language is sometimes a tool of social exclusion or social choice.  Mário A. Perini, a Brazilian linguist, has said:  According to Milton M. Azevedo (Brazilian linguist):  According to Bagno (1999) the two variants coexist and intermingle quite seamlessly, but their status is not clear-cut. Brazilian Vernacular is still frowned upon by most grammarians and language teachers, with only remarkably few linguists championing its cause. Some of this minority, of which Bagno is an example,

Impact.

The cultural influence of Brazilian Portuguese in the rest of the Portuguese-speaking world has greatly increased in the last decades of the 20th century, due to the popularity of Brazilian music and Brazilian soap operas. Since Brazil joined Mercosul, the South American free trade zone, Portuguese has been

Language codes.

codice_1 is a language code for "Portuguese", defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2). There is no ISO code for spoken or written Brazilian Portuguese.  codice_2 is a language code for the "Brazilian Sign Language", defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-3).  codice_3 is a language code for the "Brazilian Portuguese", defined by Internet standards (see IETF language tag).

Brazilian Portuguese (', or ', ) is a set of dialects of the Portuguese language used mostly in Brazil. It is spoken by almost all of the 200 million inhabitants of Brazil and spoken widely across the Brazilian diaspora, today consisting of about two million Brazilians who have emigrated to other countries.

Brazilská portugalština je termín označující variantu portugalského jazyka používanou více než 191 milióny Brazilců, je to nejrozšířenější varianta portugalštiny vůbec.


Depiction.

McCoy was born in Atlanta, Georgia on 2227. The son of David, he attended the University of Mississippi and is a divorcé. McCoy later married Natira, the priestess of Yonada, characterized in the episode, "For the World Is Hollow and I Have Touched the Sky". In 2266, McCoy was posted as chief medical officer of the USS "Enterprise" under Captain James T. Kirk, who often calls him "Bones". McCoy and Kirk are good friends, even "brotherly". The passionate, sometimes cantankerous McCoy frequently argues with Kirk's other confidante, science officer Spock, and occasionally is prejudiced against Spock's Vulcan heritage. McCoy often plays the role of Kirk's conscience, offering a counterpoint to Spock's logic. McCoy is suspicious of technology, especially the transporter. As a physician, he prefers less intrusive treatment and believes in the body's innate recuperative powers. The character's nickname, "Bones", is a play on "sawbones", an epithet for physicians qualified as surgeons.  When Kirk orders McCoy's commission reactivated in "" (1979); a resentful McCoy complains of being "drafted". Spock transfers his "katra"—his knowledge and experience—into McCoy before dying in "" (1982). This causes mental anguish for McCoy, who in "" (1984) helps restore Spock's katra to his reanimated body. McCoy continues to serve on Kirk's crew aboard the captured Klingon ship in "" (1986). In "" (1989), McCoy (through the intervention of Spock's half-brother Sybok) reveals that he helped his father commit suicide to relieve him of his pain. Shortly after the suicide, a cure was found for his father's disease, and McCoy had carried the guilt about it with him until Sybok's intervention. In "" (1991), McCoy and Kirk escape from a Klingon prison world, and the "Enterprise" crew stops a plot to prevent peace between the United Federation of Planets and the Klingon Empire. Kelley reprised the role for the "Encounter at Farpoint" pilot episode of "" (1987), insisting upon no more than the minimum Screen Actors Guild payment for his appearance.  In the 1973 "" episode "", McCoy mentions he has a daughter, Joanna. Although Chekov's friend Irina in the original series episode "The Way to Eden" was originally written as McCoy's daughter, it was changed before the episode was shot.

Reboot film series.

In the 2009 "Star Trek" film, which takes place in an alternate, parallel reality, McCoy and Kirk become friends at Starfleet Academy, which McCoy joins after a divorce that he says "left [him] nothing but [his] bones." This line, improvised by Urban, explains how McCoy earned the nickname "Bones". McCoy later helps get Kirk posted aboard the USS "Enterprise". He later becomes the chief medical officer after Doctor Puri is killed during an attack by Nero. McCoy remains aboard to see the "Enterprise" defeat Nero and his crew, with Kirk becoming the commanding officer of the ship.  "The Guardian" called Urban's portrayal of McCoy in the 2009 film an "unqualified success", and "The New York Times" called the character "wild-eyed and funny". "Slate" said Urban came closer than the other actors to impersonating a character's original depiction.

Development.

Kelley had worked with "Star Trek" creator Gene Roddenberry on previous television pilots, and he was Roddenberry's first choice to play the doctor aboard the USS "Enterprise". However, for the rejected pilot "" (1964), Roddenberry went with director Robert Butler's choice of John Hoyt to play Dr. Philip Boyce. For the second pilot, "Where No Man Has Gone Before" (1966), Roddenberry accepted director James Goldstone's decision to have Paul Fix play Dr. Mark Piper. Although Roddenberry wanted Kelley to play the character of ship's doctor, he did not put Kelley's name forward to NBC; the network never "rejected" the actor as Roddenberry sometimes suggested.  Kelley's first broadcast appearance as Doctor Leonard McCoy was in "The Man Trap" (1966). Despite his character's prominence, Kelley's contract granted him only a "featuring" credit; it was not until the second season that he was given "starring" credit, at the urging of producer Robert Justman. Kelley was apprehensive about "Star Trek"s future, telling Roddenberry that the show was "going to be the biggest hit or the biggest miss God ever made". Kelley portrayed McCoy throughout the original "Star Trek" series and voiced the character in the animated "Star Trek".  Kelley, who in his youth wanted to become a doctor like his uncle, but whose family could not pay for a medical education, in part drew upon his real-life experiences in creating McCoy: a doctor's "matter-of-fact" delivery of news of Kelley's mother's terminal cancer was the "abrasive sand" Kelley used in creating McCoy's demeanor. "Star Trek" writer D. C. Fontana said that while Roddenberry created the series, Kelley essentially created McCoy; everything done with the character was done with Kelley's input.  "Exquisite chemistry" among Kelley, William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy manifested itself in their performances as McCoy, Captain James T. Kirk and science officer Spock, respectively. Nichelle Nichols, who played Uhura, referred to Kelley as her "sassy gentleman friend"; the friendship between the African-American Nichols and Southern Kelley was a real-life demonstration of the message Roddenberry hoped to convey through "Star Trek".  For the 2009 "Star Trek" film, writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman saw McCoy as an "arbiter" in Kirk and Spock's relationship.While Spock represented "extreme logic, extreme science" and Kirk symbolized "extreme emotion and intuition", McCoy's role as "a very colorful doctor, essentially a very humanistic scientist" represented the "two extremes that often served as the glue that held the trio together". They chose to reveal that McCoy befriended Kirk first, explaining the "bias" in their friendship and why he would often be a "little dismissive" of Spock. Urban said the script was "very faithful" to the original character, including the "great compassion for humanity and that sense of irascibility" with which Kelley imbued the character.New Zealand-born Urban trained with a dialect coach to create McCoy's accent and reprised the role in its sequels "Star Trek Into Darkness" and "Star Trek Beyond".

Cultural impact.

McCoy is someone to whom Kirk unburdens himself, but is a foil to Spock. He is Kirk's "friend, personal bartender, confidant, counselor, and priest". Spock and McCoy's bickering became so popular that Roddenberry wrote in a 1968 memo "we simply didn't realize... how much the fans loved the bickering between our Arrowsmith and our Alien". Urban said McCoy has a "sense of irascibility with real passion for life and doing the right thing", and that "Spock's logic and McCoy's moral standing gave Kirk the benefit of having three brains instead of just one."  Kelley said that his greatest thrill at "Star Trek" conventions was the number of people who told him they entered the medical profession because of the McCoy character. He received two or three letters a month from others reporting similar experiences. A friend observed that despite not becoming a doctor as he had hoped, Kelley's portrayal of McCoy had helped create many doctors. According to Kelley, "You can win awards and that sort of thing, but to influence the youth of the country... is an award that is not handed out by the industry".  In a humor column for the "Canadian Medical Association Journal", the ethicist Michael Yeo described the character of McCoy as "TV’s only true physician" and "someone who has broken free from the yoke of ethics and practises the art and science of medicine beyond the stultifying opposition of paternalism and autonomy".

"He's dead, Jim!".

Twenty times on the original "Star Trek", McCoy declares someone or something deceased with the line, "He's dead", "He's dead, Jim", or something similar. The phrase so became a catchphrase of the character that Kelley joked that the line would appear on his tombstone—and it appeared in the first sentence of at least one obituary—but disliked repeating such lines and refused to say it in "" when Spock is near death, since the levity brought by the catchphrase seemed in poor taste for the gravitas of the moment. Kelley and James Doohan (Scotty) agreed to swap their lines, so McCoy warns Kirk against opening the engineering doors while Scotty says, "He's dead already".  University of Southern California literature professor Henry Jenkins cites Dr. McCoy's "He's dead, Jim" line as an example of fans actively participating in the creation of an underground culture in which they derive pleasure by repeating memorable lines as part of constructing new mythologies and alternative social communities.

"I'm a doctor, not a(n)...".

Another of McCoy's catchphrases is his "I'm a doctor, (Jim) not a(n)..." statements, delivered by Kelley 11 times, and three times (by Karl Urban) in later films. McCoy repeats the line when he must perform some task beyond his medical skills, such as the "classic moment" when he is confronted with the unusual silicon-based Horta alien in "The Devil in the Dark" (1967), saying, "I'm a doctor, not a bricklayer."  Kelley himself parodied the phrase in a brief 1992 commercial for Trivial Pursuit's 10th Anniversary Edition, in which the question is asked "How many chambers are there in a human heart?" Kelley appears on screen and replies "How should I know? I'm an actor, not a doctor!".

Reception.

In 2012, IGN ranked the character Doctor McCoy, as depicted in the original series, its films, and the 2009 film "Star Trek", as the 5th top character of the "Star Trek" universe, behind Data, Picard, Spock, and Kirk.  In 2016, Doctor McCoy was ranked as the fifth most important character of Starfleet within the "Star Trek" science fiction universe by "Wired" magazine.  In 2016, SyFy ranked McCoy 3rd of the six main-cast space doctors of the "Star Trek" Franchise.  In 2017, Screen Rant ranked the Reboot film (Kelvin timeline) McCoy, played by actor Karl Urban, as the 17th most attractive person in the "Star Trek" universe.  In 2018, "The Wrap" placed Doctor McCoy as 6th out 39 in a ranking of main cast characters of the "Star Trek" franchise. In 2018, CBR ranked McCoy as the 11th best Starfleet character of "Star Trek."

Leonard H. "Bones" McCoy is a character in the American science fiction franchise "Star Trek". McCoy was most famously portrayed by actor DeForest Kelley in the from 1966 to 1969, and he also appears in the, six "Star Trek" movies, the pilot episode of "", and in numerous books, comics, and video games. After Kelley's death, actor Karl Urban assumed the role of McCoy in the "Star Trek" reboot film in 2009.

Leonard H. McCoy (přezdívaný „Kostra“, v originále „Bones“) je fiktivní postava ze sci-fi světa "Star Trek"u. Je hlavním lékařem na hvězdné lodi USS "Enterprise" a blízkým přítelem kapitána Kirka a prvního důstojníka Spocka.


Common names and confusion.

Probably the most useful common names for "Cassytha" species are laurel dodder or dodder laurel, because they look like dodder and are fragrant members of the laurel family, Lauraceae. The name love vine has merit because some species, in particular "C. filiformis", are regarded as aphrodisiacs in the Caribbean region.

Context and distribution.

Though the Lauraceae constitute a large family, with thousands of species in tens of genera, "Cassytha" is its only known parasitic genus, and its climbing habit also is atypical of the family; most Lauraceae are woody shrubs or trees. The genus at one time was assigned its own family, Cassythaceae, but currently agreement on its inclusion into the Lauraceae is general.  As currently defined, "Cassytha" has a wide distribution for a genus of so few species. Most are native to Australia (including temperate regions, where they are the only native members of the family), but a few are indigenous to Africa, southern Asia, various islands, and regions in the Americas. Some species seem to have been spread inadvertently by human agency and probably by birds as well, and now occur on several continents; "C. filiformis", for example, grows in Hawaii (where it is said to be indigenous), the Australasian realm, northern South America, Central America, southern Florida, Japan, and South Africa. It also appears to have been transported to many major islands, and now is effectively pantropical.

Botanical details.

The genus is cited as "Cassytha" L., "Sp. Pl." 35 (1753), which means that Carl Linnaeus formally described it in 1753 in his monumental work, "Species Plantarum". Otto Stapf updated the work in "Flora Capensis" in 1912.  "Cassytha" is unusual among Lauraceae in at least two respects: they are scandent herbaceous plants, and they are obligate parasites. Their stems are thread-like or wiry, and like most twining species, they twine round the host clockwise as seen from the source of growth. The vines generally turn yellowish once they have established themselves on a productive host because they then reduce or stop their production of chlorophyll. "Cassytha" species are stem parasites, adhering to their hosts by haustoria that generally are small and oblong. Their leaves are without stipules, alternate, simple, and easily overlooked, being minute and scale-like.  Various species of "Cassytha" bear flowers in racemes, spikes, or heads. Depending on the species, the flowers are sessile or pedicellate. The individual flowers are hermaphroditic and bracteolate, each being attended by a bract and two smaller bracteoles. In general, the flowers are small, so much so that in many species they are inconspicuous.  The perianth has six tepals, the three outer tepals smaller than the inner. The 12 stamens are in four whorls. The receptacle of the fertilised fruit gradually envelops the ovary, becoming the fleshy part of the ripe fruit, which often retains the dried remnants of the perianth at its tip. In effect, the resulting fruit structure is a tiny drupe. The endocarp is bony and plays an important part in the reproductive process, both in protecting the seed while the fruit is eaten and in inhibiting germination until the endocarp decays, thereby permitting long-lived soil seed banks to accumulate.  Some species of the cactus genus "Rhipsalis" once were assigned to "Cassytha" in an error arising from the resemblance in habitus. An unfortunate consequence has been that the homonym "Cassytha" Mill. (1768) is often mentioned as a synonym of the genus "Rhipsalis", although this perception is incorrect, since the generic name "Cassytha" had already been applied to a completely different genus in a different plant family.  The morphology and ecology of "Cassytha" are so atypical of the family Lauraceae, they have been the subject of molecular genetic research to confirm their taxonomic relationships. Though special aspects to their phylogeny certainly are under debate, their assignment to the Lauraceae generally is regarded as undoubtedly correct.

Reproduction and ecology.

"Cassytha" fruits are ecologically valuable to some fruit-eating birds. The birds either regurgitate the seeds or pass them through their guts. Mammals, for example Australian macropods, also transport the seeds in their guts. The bony endocarp that protects the seed in its passage through animal guts also prevents the seed from immediate germination even if conditions are favourable. Instead, the seeds survive on or in the ground till decay weakens the endocarp sufficiently to permit moisture to enter and germination to begin. This process is not deterministic, so some of the seeds might remain inactive in the soil seed bank for many years before they germinate at unpredictable intervals. Accordingly, once soil is infested with large numbers of seeds, eradication of the population generally takes a long time. On germination, the seedlings behave as aggressive parasites; they twist about till they find a host, and those that fail to locate hosts soon die, typically in a matter of months.  Seedlings and actively growing shoots are green at first, but once their haustoria are fully established on a suitable host, the plants lose most of their chlorophyll and generally become yellowish or orange, and the "Cassytha" plant abandons its connections with its root, which soon dies.  "Cassytha" species are perennials; although they attack practically whatever host plants they encounter, including suitable annuals, they seem to show some preference for woody perennial hosts. Consequently, they often find themselves on seasonally dormant host species. When that happens and the supplies from the host largely dry up, the stems of most species of "Cassytha" turn green until the host once again becomes productive. This suggests that such species are at least marginally photosynthetic, but do not invest resources unnecessarily when photosynthesis is not required. "Cassytha" species do produce some of their own nutrients while green, so their chlorophyll production is both actual and functional.  Technically, "Cassytha" could be regarded as hemiparasitic rather than holoparasitic, but their own autotrophic contributions are plainly limited to what it takes to tide over temporary shortages. When all the hosts of a plant die, so does the parasite, so whatever the details of their biology, "Cassytha" species certainly are unconditionally obligately parasitic. No doubt their lack of a persistent root system dooms any "Cassytha" plants whose hosts supply insufficient water and mineral nutrients.  The effects of "Cassytha" on host plants varies. They are not very selective and they parasitise hosts from many plant families, often overwhelming a host so drastically as to kill it. Even when host plants survive, a heavy infestation commonly causes drastic reduction in vigour and reproductive capacity. Accordingly, some species of "Cassytha" have been examined as potential weed control agents, and others are regarded as agricultural pests in their own right.  Although "Cassytha" species are vigorous parasites, they are less aggressive, and correspondingly less serious agricultural pests, than "Cuscuta" species; "Cuscuta" species generally grow several times faster, produce more seed, and germinate more rapidly, though their seeds are less persistent in the soil.  Among their various ecological effects, "Cassytha" species act as vectors, though not exclusive vectors, for various plant diseases. They may pass various fungi, "Agrobacterium" species, viruses, and other pathogens to host plants, or from one host plant to another.

Classification.

Due to its herbaceous and parasitic habit, distinguishing the genus from all other Lauraceae, "Cassytha" has historically presented a problem for classification. Most early systems of classification based on morphological characters divided the Lauraceae into two subfamilies: Cassythoideae and Lauroideae; however, more recent molecular data disputes this division.  Based on the "trn"K intron, a common phylogenetic marker for classifying angiosperms, Rohwer and Rudolph (2005) created a phylogeny of the Lauraceae. They nested "Cassytha" within the family, more closely related to "Caryodaphnopsis," and placed both as sister to the tribe Cryptocaryeae, one of the three tribes of the Lauroideae"." More recently, embryological evidence, specifically the development of the anther tapetum, substantiated the close relationship of the two genera, but nested them within the tribe Cryptocareae. Ultimately, the exact phylogeny of "Cassytha" is still in dispute; however, its non-basal placement within the Lauraceae is undoubtedly accurate.

Uses.

"Cassytha" is best known for its parasitic habit, and the various species are neither prominent as crop plants, nor as beneficial plants at all. However, species within the genus do have minor uses in rural communities around the world. For example, the fruit of various species are eaten, both by birds and by humans, and "C. melantha" in particular has been documented as a wild-harvested Australian indigenous food. In the Caribbean region, "C. filiformis" is one of the plant species known as love vine, because it has a reputation as an aphrodisiac.  Plants in the genus contain low concentrations of several alkaloids that have not yet been shown to be of great value, but do have biochemical properties worthy of investigation. Together with the fragrant essential oils in some species, the alkaloids might be relevant to the wide application of "Cassytha" species in folk medicine and in traditional teas.  Though they are not of commercial interest as fibre crops, suitably prepared vines from some "Cassytha" species are of value in rural communities as a casual source of cord. They may be used for binding bundles of materials such as thatch, or for stringing decorative festoons.

Cassytha is a genus of some two dozen species of obligately parasitic vines in the family Lauraceae. Superficially, and in some aspects of their ecology, they closely resemble plants in the unrelated genus "Cuscuta", the dodders. When fruit and flowers are absent in the field, the physical resemblance is so close that few people without technical training can tell them apart. In this respect and in their ecology the two genera present a spectacular example of convergent evolution. Nonetheless, Nickrent comments that ""Cassytha" is uneqivocally assigned to Lauraceae based on (both) morphological and molecular data." In its divergence from habits typical of the Lauraceae, "Cassytha" also presents examples of mosaic evolution

Kaňatec ("Cassytha") je rod nižších dvouděložných rostlin z čeledi vavřínovité. Jsou to bezlisté parazitické ovíjivé byliny s drobnými květy, připomínající vzhledově kokotici. Parazitují na různých druzích dřevin, z jejichž větví získávají pomocí haustorií vodu a minerální živiny. Stonky obsahují chlorofyl a probíhá v nich fotosyntéza. Kaňatce jsou rozšířeny v tropech celého světa s přesahy do subtropů, největší počet druhů roste v Austrálii. Druh "Cassytha filiformis" je rozšířen v tropech celého světa.