Characteristics.

Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of a typical ray-finned fish are shown in the adjacent diagram.  Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales; but all teleosts, the most advanced actinopterygii, have leptoid scales. The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges while the inner part is crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more transparent than other types of scales, and lack the hardened enamel or dentine-like layers found in the scales of many other fish. Unlike ganoid scales, which are found in non-teleost actinopterygii, new scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows.

Fin arrangements.

Ray-finned fish are very varied in size and shape, and in the number of their ray-fins and the manner in which they arrange them.

Reproduction.

In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage. However other patterns of ontogeny exist, with one of the commonest being sequential hermaphroditism. In most cases this involves protogyny, fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. Protandry, where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny. Most families use external rather than internal fertilization. Of the oviparous teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care. Viviparity, ovoviviparity, or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition. Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of teleost species; male care is far more common than female care. Male territoriality "preadapts" a species for evolving male parental care.  There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred.

Fossil record.

The earliest known fossil actinopterygiian is "Andreolepis hedei", dating back 420 million years (Late Silurian). Remains have been found in Russia, Sweden, and Estonia.

Classification.

Actinopterygians are divided into the subclasses Chondrostei and Neopterygii. The Neopterygii, in turn, are divided into the infraclasses Holostei and Teleostei. During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic the teleosts in particular diversified widely, and as a result, 96% of all known fish species are teleosts. The cladogram shows the major groups of actinopterygians and their relationship to the terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods) that evolved from a related group of fish. Approximate dates are from Near et al., 2012.  The polypterids (bichirs and reedfish) are the sister lineage of all other actinopterygians, the Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) are the sister lineage of Neopterygii, and Holostei (bowfin and gars) are the sister lineage of teleosts. The Elopomorpha (eels and tarpons) appear to be the most basal teleosts.  The listing below follows Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes with notes when this differs from Nelson, ITIS and FishBase and extinct groups from Van der Laan 2016.

Actinopterygii (), or the ray-finned fishes, constitute a class or subclass of the bony fishes. The ray-finned fishes are so called because their fins are webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines ("rays"), as opposed to the fleshy, lobed fins that characterize the class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish). These actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the link or connection between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles).

Paprskoploutví (Actinopterygii) je třída prehistorických i moderních kostnatých ryb, která je velice velkou a velice úspěšnou skupinou. Tvoří více než polovinu žijících obratlovců. Vznik paprskoploutvých ryb je datován až do spodního devonu 400 miliónů let; ke konci devonu a počátkem karbonu byli již paprskoploutví vedoucí skupinou obratlovců.


Basic concepts.

Family types.

Family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity (by recognized birth), affinity (by marriage), or co-residence/shared consumption (see Nurture kinship). In most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children. As the basic unit for raising children, Anthropologists most generally classify family organization as matrifocal (a mother

Terminology.

Different societies classify kinship relations differently and therefore use different systems of kinship terminology – for example some languages distinguish between affinal and consanguine uncles, whereas others have only one word to refer to both a father and his brothers. Kinship terminologies include the terms of address used in different languages or communities for different relatives and the terms of reference used to identify the relationship of these relatives to ego or to each other.  Kin terminologies can be either descriptive or classificatory. When a descriptive terminology is used, a term refers to only one specific type of relationship, while a classificatory terminology

Tri-relational Kin-terms.

While normal kin-terms discussed above denote a relationship between two entities (e.g. the word'sister' denotes the relationship between the speaker or some other entity and another feminine entity who shares the parents of the former), trirelational kin-terms--also known as triangular, triadic, ternary, and shared kin-terms--denote a relationship between three distinct entities. These occur commonly in Australian Aboriginal languages with

Kin-based Group Terms and Pronouns.

Many Australian languages also have elaborate systems of referential terms for denoting groups of people based on their relationship to one another (not just their relationship to the speaker or an external propositus like 'grandparents'). For example, in Kuuk Thaayorre"," a maternal grandfather and his sister are referred to as "paanth ngan-ngethe" and addressed with the vocative "ngethin." In Bardi, a father and his sister are "irrmoorrgooloo"; a man's wife and his children are "aalamalarr."  In Murrinh-patha, nonsingular pronouns are differentiated not only by the gender makeup of the group, but also by the members' interrelation. If the members are in a sibling-like relation, a third pronoun (SIB) will be chosen distinct from the Masculine (MASC) and Feminine/Neuter (FEM).

Descent.

Descent rules.

In many societies where kinship connections are important, there are rules, though they may be expressed or

Descent groups.

A descent group is a social group whose members talk about common ancestry. A unilineal society is one in which the descent of an individual is reckoned either from the mother's or the father's line of descent. Matrilineal descent is based on relationship to females of the family line. A child would not be recognized with their father’s family in these societies, but would be seen as a member of their mother’s family’s line. Simply put, individuals belong to their mother's descent group. Matrilineal descent includes the mother's brother, who in some societies may pass along inheritance to the sister's children or succession to a sister's son. Conversely, with patrilineal descent, individuals belong to their father's descent group. Children are

Lineages, clans, phratries, moieties, and matrimonial sides.

A lineage is a unilineal descent group that can demonstrate their common descent from a known apical ancestor. Unilineal lineages can be matrilineal or patrilineal, depending on whether they are traced through mothers or fathers, respectively. Whether matrilineal or patrilineal descent is considered most significant differs from culture to culture.  A clan is generally a descent group claiming common descent from an apical ancestor. Often, the details of parentage are not important elements of the clan tradition. Non-human apical ancestors are called totems. Examples of clans are found in Chechen, Chinese, Irish, Japanese, Polish, Scottish, Tlingit, and Somali societies.  A

Marriage (affinity).

Marriage is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws. The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged. When defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal. A broad definition of marriage includes those that are monogamous, polygamous, same-sex and temporary.  The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce. Marriage may result, for example, in "a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners."

Alliance (marital exchange systems).

Systemic forms of preferential marriage may have wider social implications in terms of economic and political organization. In a wide array of lineage-based societies with a classificatory kinship system, potential spouses are sought from a specific class of relative as determined by a prescriptive marriage rule. Insofar as regular marriages following prescriptive rules occur, lineages are linked together

History.

One of the foundational works in the anthropological study of kinship was Morgan's "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family" (1871). As is the case with other social sciences, Anthropology and kinship studies emerged at a time when the understanding of the Human species' comparative place in the world was somewhat different from today's. Evidence that life in stable social groups is not just a feature of humans, but also of many other primates, was yet to emerge and society was considered to be a uniquely human affair. As a result, early kinship theorists saw an apparent need to explain not only the details of "how" human social groups are constructed, their patterns, meanings and obligations, but also "why" they are constructed at all. The "why" explanations thus typically presented the fact of life in social groups ("which appeared to be unique to humans") as being largely a result of human ideas and values.

Morgan's early influence.

Morgan's explanation for why humans live in groups was largely based on the notion that all humans have an inherent "natural valuation" of genealogical ties (an unexamined assumption that would remain at the heart of kinship studies for another century, see below), and therefore also an inherent desire to construct social groups around these ties. Even so, Morgan found that members of a society who are "not" close genealogical relatives

Kinship networks and social process.

A more flexible view of kinship was formulated in British social anthropology. Among the attempts to break out of universalizing assumptions and theories about kinship, Radcliffe-Brown (1922, The Andaman Islands; 1930, The social organization of Australian tribes) was the first to assert that kinship relations are best thought of as concrete networks of relationships among individuals. He then described these relationships, however, as typified by interlocking interpersonal roles. Malinowski (1922, Argonauts of the Western Pacific) described patterns of events with concrete

"Kinship system" as systemic pattern.

The concept of “system of kinship” tended to dominate anthropological studies of kinship in the early 20th century. Kinship systems as defined in anthropological texts and ethnographies were seen as constituted by patterns of behavior and attitudes in relation to the differences in terminology, listed above, for referring to relationships as well as for addressing others. Many anthropologists went so far as to see, in these patterns of kinship, strong relations between kinship

Conflicting theories of the mid 20th century.

In trying to resolve the problems of dubious inferences about kinship "systems", George P. Murdock (1949, Social Structure) compiled kinship data to test a theory about universals in human kinship in the way that terminologies were influenced by the behavioral similarities or social differences among pairs of kin, proceeding on

Recognition of fluidity in kinship meanings and relations.

Building on Lévi-Strauss's (1949) notions of kinship as caught up with the fluid languages of exchange, Edmund Leach (1961, Pul Eliya) argued that kinship was a flexible idiom that had something of the grammar of a language, both in the uses of terms for kin but also in the fluidities of language, meaning, and networks. His field studies criticized the ideas of structural-functional stability of kinship groups as corporations with charters that lasted long beyond the lifetimes of individuals, which had been the orthodoxy of British Social Anthropology. This sparked debates over whether kinship could be resolved into specific organized sets of rules and components of meaning,

Schneider's critique of genealogical concepts.

Before the questions raised within anthropology about the study of 'kinship' by David M. Schneider and others from the 1960s onwards, anthropology itself had paid very little attention to the notion that kinship bonds were anything other than connected to consanguineal (or genealogical) relatedness (or its local cultural conceptions). Schneider's 1968 study of the symbolic meanings surrounding ideas of kinship in American Culture found that Americans ascribe a special significance to 'blood ties' as well as related symbols like the naturalness of marriage and raising children within this culture. In later work (1972 and 1984) Schneider argued that unexamined genealogical notions of kinship had been embedded in anthropology since Morgan's early work because American anthropologists (and anthropologists in western Europe) had made the mistake of assuming these "particular

Post-Schneider.

Schneider's critique is widely acknowledged to have marked a turning point in anthropology's study of social relationships and interactions. Some anthropologists moved forward with kinship studies by teasing apart biological and social aspects, prompted by Schneider's question;  Schneider also dismissed the sociobiological account of biological influences, maintaining that these did not fit the ethnographic evidence (see more below). Janet Carsten employed her studies with the Malays to reassess kinship. She uses the idea of "relatedness" to move away from a pre-constructed analytic opposition between the biological and the social. Carsten argued that relatedness should be described in terms of indigenous statements and practices, some of which fall outside what anthropologists have conventionally understood as kinship;  Philip Thomas' work with the Temanambondro of Madagascar highlights that nurturing processes are considered to be the 'basis' for kinship ties in this culture, notwithstanding genealogical

Biology, psychology and kinship.

Like Schneider, other anthropologists of kinship have largely rejected sociobiological accounts of human social patterns as being both reductionistic and also empirically incompatible with ethnographic data on human kinship. Notably, Marshall Sahlins strongly critiqued the sociobiological approach through reviews of ethnographies in his 1976 "The Use and Abuse of Biology" noting that for humans "the categories of 'near' and 'distant' [kin] vary independently of consanguinal distance and that these categories organize actual social practice" (p. 112). Independently from anthropology, biologists studying organisms' social behaviours and relationships have been interested to understand under what conditions significant social behaviors can evolve to become a typical feature of a species (see inclusive fitness theory). Because complex social relationships and cohesive social groups are common not only to humans, but also to most primates, biologists maintain that these biological theories of sociality should in principle be generally applicable. The more challenging question arises as to how such ideas can be applied to the human species whilst fully taking account of the extensive ethnographic evidence that has emerged from anthropological research on kinship patterns.  Early developments of biological inclusive fitness theory and the derivative field of Sociobiology, encouraged some sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists to approach human kinship with the assumption that inclusive fitness theory predicts that kinship relations in humans "are indeed" expected to depend on genetic relatedness, which they readily connected with the "genealogy" approach of early anthropologists such as Morgan (see above sections). However, this is the position that Schneider, Sahlins and other anthropologists explicitly reject.

Nonreductive biology and nurture kinship.

In agreement with Schneider, Holland argued that an accurate account of biological theory and evidence supports the view that social bonds (and kinship) are indeed mediated by a shared social environment and processes of frequent interaction, care and nurture, rather than by genealogical relationships "per se" (even if genealogical relationships frequently correlate with such processes). In his 2012 book "Social bonding and nurture kinship" Holland argues that sociobiologists and later evolutionary psychologists misrepresent biological theory, mistakenly believing that inclusive fitness theory predicts that genetic relatedness "per se" is the condition that "mediates" social bonding and social cooperation in organisms. Holland points out that the biological theory (see inclusive fitness) only specifies that a statistical relationship between social behaviors and genealogical relatedness is a criterion for the "evolution" of social behaviors. The theory's originator, W.D.Hamilton considered that organisms' social behaviours were likely

Evolutionary psychology.

The other approach, that of Evolutionary psychology, continues to take the view that genetic relatedness (or genealogy) is key to understanding human kinship patterns. In contrast to Sahlin's position (above), Daly and Wilson argue that "the categories of 'near' and 'distant' do not 'vary independently of consanguinal distance', not in any society on earth." (Daly et al. 1997, p282). A current view is that humans have an inborn but culturally affected system for detecting certain forms of genetic relatedness. One important factor for sibling detection, especially relevant for older siblings, is that if an infant and one's mother are seen to care for the infant, then the infant and oneself are assumed to be related. Another factor, especially important for younger siblings who cannot use the first method, is that persons who grew up together see one another as related. Yet another may be genetic detection based on the

Extensions of the kinship metaphor.

Detailed terms for parentage.

As social and biological concepts of parenthood are not necessarily coterminous, the terms "pater" and "genitor" have been used in anthropology to distinguish between the man who is socially recognised as father (pater) and the man who is believed to be the physiological parent (genitor); similarly the terms "mater" and "genitrix" have been used to distinguish between the woman socially recognised as mother (mater) and the woman believed to be the physiological parent (genitrix). Such a distinction is useful when the individual who is considered the legal parent of the child is not the individual who is believed to be the child's biological parent. For example, in his ethnography of the Nuer, Evans-Pritchard notes that if a widow, following the death of her husband, chooses to live with a lover outside of her deceased husband's kin group, that lover is only considered genitor of any subsequent children the widow has, and her deceased husband continues to be considered

Composition of relations.

The study of kinship may be abstracted to binary relations between people. For example, if "x" is the parent of "y", the relation may be symbolized as "xPy". The converse relation, that "y" is the child of "x", is written "yP""x". Suppose that "z" is another child of "x": "zP""x". Then "y" is a sibling of "z" as they share the parent "x":.

In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox states that "the study of kinship is the study of what man does with these basic facts of lifemating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc." Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are "working with the same raw material as exists in the animal world, but [we] can conceptualize and categorize it to serve social ends." These social ends include the socialization of children and the formation of basic economic, political and religious groups.

Příbuzenství je hlavním principem organizace jednotlivců do sociálních skupin, rolí a kategorií. Jak z právního pohledu, tak např. z hlediska kulturní a sociální antropologie je příbuzenství vztahem založeným zejména na pokrevním poutu, přičemž základní jednotkou příbuzenských vztahů je rodina.


Biography.

Born in Denver, Colorado, Hall holds three degrees from Carnegie Institute of Technology, a B.S. in 1956, an M.S. in 1958, and a Ph.D. in 1961. He completed his postdoctoral studies at the Department of Commerce's National Bureau of Standards, now the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), where he remained from 1962 until his retirement in 2004. He has lectured at the University of Colorado Boulder since 1967.  Hall is currently a NIST Senior Fellow, Emeritus and remains a Fellow at JILA, formerly the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, and Lecturer at the CU-Boulder Physics Department. JILA is a research institute managed jointly by CU-Boulder and NIST.  Hall shared half of the Nobel prize with Theodor W. Hänsch for their pioneering work on laser-based precision spectroscopy and the optical frequency comb technique. The other half of the prize was awarded to Roy J. Glauber.  Hall has received many other honors for his pioneering work, including the Optical Society of America's Max Born Award "for pioneering the field of stable lasers, including their applications in fundamental physics and, most recently, in the stabilization of femtosecond lasers to provide dramatic advances in optical frequency metrology".  Hall is one of the 20 American recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physics to sign a letter addressed to President George W. Bush in May of 2008, urging him to "reverse the damage done to basic science research in the Fiscal Year 2008 Omnibus Appropriations Bill" by requesting additional emergency funding for the Department of Energy’s Office of Science, the National Science Foundation, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology.  In 2015, Hall signed the Mainau Declaration 2015 on Climate Change on the final day of the 65th Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting. The declaration was signed by a total of 76 Nobel Laureates and handed to then-President of the French Republic, François Hollande, as part of the successful COP21 climate summit in Paris.

John Lewis "Jan" Hall (born August 21, 1934) is an American physicist, and Nobel laureate in physics. He shared the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics with Theodor W. Hänsch and Roy Glauber for his work in precision spectroscopy.

John L. Hall (* 21. srpna 1934, Denver, Colorado, USA) je americký fyzik, nositel Nobelovy ceny za fyziku v roce 2005.


Discovery and naming.

"Itokawa" was discovered on 26 September 1998 by astronomers with the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) program at Lincoln Laboratory's Experimental Test Site near Socorro, New Mexico, in the United States. It was given the provisional designation. The body's observation arc begins with its first observation by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey just one week prior to its official discovery observation. The minor planet was named in memory of Japanese rocket scientist Hideo Itokawa (1912–1999), who is regarded as the father of Japanese rocketry. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 6 August 2003 ().

Orbit and classification.

"Itokawa" belongs to the Apollo asteroids. They are Earth-crossing asteroids and the largest dynamical group of near-Earth objects with nearly 10,000 known members. "Itokawa" orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.95–1.70 AU once every 18 months (557 days; semi-major axis of 1.32 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.28 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic. It has a low "Earth minimum orbital intersection distance" of, which corresponds to 5.1 lunar distances.

"Hayabusa" exploration.

In 2000, it was selected as the target of Japan's "Hayabusa" mission. The probe arrived in the vicinity of "Itokawa" on 12 September 2005 and initially "parked" in an asteroid–Sun line at, and later, from the asteroid ("Itokawa" gravity was too weak to provide an orbit, so the spacecraft adjusted its orbit around the Sun until it matched the asteroid's). Hayabusa landed on 20 November for thirty minutes, but it failed to operate a device designed to collect soil samples. On 25 November, a second landing and sampling sequence was attempted. The sample capsule was returned to Earth and landed at Woomera, South Australia on 13 June 2010, around 13:51 UTC (23:21 local). On 16 November 2010, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency reported that dust collected during Hayabusa's voyage was indeed from the asteroid.

Surface features.

Names of major surface features were proposed by "Hayabusa" scientists and accepted by the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature of the International Astronomical Union. Also, the Hayabusa science team is using working names for smaller surface features. The following tables list the names of geological features on the asteroid. No naming conventions have been disclosed for surface features on "Itokawa".

Craters.

Ten impact craters on the surface of "Itokawa" were named on 18 February 2009.

Regiones.

Regio or regiones are large area marked by reflectivity or color distinctions from adjacent areas in planetary geology. The following regiones have been named on "Itokawa".

Physical characteristics.

"Itokawa" is a stony S-type asteroid. Radar imaging by Goldstone in 2001 observed an ellipsoid meters long and meters wide.  The "Hayabusa" mission confirmed these findings and also suggested that "Itokawa" may be a contact binary formed by two or more smaller asteroids that have gravitated toward each other and stuck together. The "Hayabusa" images show a surprising lack of impact craters and a very rough surface studded with boulders, described by the mission team as a rubble pile. Furthermore, the density of the asteroid is too low for it to be made from solid rock. This would mean that "Itokawa" is not a monolith but rather a rubble pile formed from fragments that have cohered over time. Based on Yarkovsky–O'Keefe–Radzievskii–Paddack effect measurements, a small section of "Itokawa" is estimated to have a density of, whereas a larger section is estimated to have a density of 1.8 g/cm3.

Rotation period and poles.

Since 2001, a large number of rotational lightcurves of "Itokawa" have been obtained from photometric observations. Analysis of the best-rated lightcurve by Mikko Kaasalainen gave a sidereal rotation period of hours with a high brightness variation of 0.8 magnitude, indicative of the asteroid's non-spherical shape (). In addition, Kaasalainen also determined two spin axes of (355.0°, −84.0°) and (39°, −87.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β). Alternative lightcurve measurements were made by Lambert ( h), Lowry ( and h), Ohba ( h), Warner ( h), Ďurech ( h), and Nishihara ( h).

Composition.

The 26 August 2011 issue of "Science" devoted six articles to findings based on dust that "Hayabusa" had collected from "Itokawa". Scientists' analysis suggested that "Itokawa" was probably made up from interior fragments of a larger asteroid that broke apart. Dust collected from the asteroid surface is thought to have been exposed there for about eight million years.  Scientists used varied techniques of chemistry and mineralogy to analyze the dust from "Itokawa". "Itokawa" composition was found to match the common type of meteorites known as "low-total-iron, low metal ordinary chondrites". Another team of scientists determined that the dark iron color on the surface of "Itokawa" was the result of abrasion by micrometeoroids and high-speed particles from the Sun which had converted the normally whitish iron oxide coloring.

2018 Hayabusa results.

Two separate groups report water in different "Itokawa" particles. Jin et al. report water in low-calcium pyroxene grains. The water's isotope level corresponds with inner Solar System and carbonaceous chondrite water isotope levels. Daly et al. report "OH and " apparently formed by implantation of solar wind hydrogen. The rims of an olivine particle "show an enrichment of up to ~1.2 at % in OH and H20". The water concentrations of the "Itokawa" grains would indicate an estimated BSI (Bulk Silicate Itokawa) water content in line with Earth's bulk water, and that "Itokawa" had been a "water-rich asteroid".

25143 Itokawa (provisional designation ) is a sub-kilometer near-Earth object of the Apollo group and a potentially hazardous asteroid. It was discovered by the LINEAR program in 1998 and later named after Japanese rocket engineer Hideo Itokawa. The peanut-shaped S-type asteroid has a rotation period of 12.1 hours and measures approximately in diameter. Due to its low density and high porosity, "Itokawa" is considered to be a rubble pile, consisting of numerous boulders of different sizes rather than of a single solid body.

(25143) Itokawa je planetka patřící do Apollonovy skupiny a mezi křížiče dráhy Marsu. Náleží také do kategorií potenciálně nebezpečných planetek a blízkozemních objektů. V tomto století však její srážka se Zemí nehrozí; největší přiblížení k Zemi na 1,9 mil. km nastalo 26. dubna 2004, další, na vzdálenost 4,1 mil. km, se uskuteční 9. dubna 2071. Současná dráha tohoto objektu sluneční soustavou nedovoluje teoreticky bližší průlet kolem Země v budoucnosti než 0,01305 AU, tj. 1,95 mil. km.


The Kyabazinga.

Busoga is ruled by the Isebantu Kyabazinga, who is currently William Kadhumbula Gabula Nadiope IV, the Gabula of Bugabula, and grandson to Wilberforce Kadhumbula Nadiope, former vice president and also Kyabazinga of Busoga Kingdom. In 1995, the government restored monarchies in Uganda in Article 246(1) of the constitution of Uganda. On 11 February 1996, Henry Wako Muloki was reinstated as Kyabazinga Isebantu of Busoga. He served until 1 September 2008, when he died of esophageal cancer at the Mulago National Referral Hospital in Kampala at age 87. In a condolence message, Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni described Muloki as "a great cultural leader and father" who was "generous and kind". Museveni noted that since his re-installation, Muloki was a unifying factor in Busoga: "The Government has had the privilege of working with Isebantu Muloki in developing our nation". Referring to the Kyabazinga as "a strong pillar", the president said that although Busoga was one of the youngest kingdoms, under Muloki's leadership it had become strong: "Uganda mourns not only one of her esteemed traditional leaders but a national who put development and the welfare of the people of Busoga at the helm of his reign". Muloki's achievements included programs for youth, the elderly, and the poor and the education of girls. Although the Royal Chiefs of Busoga at first elected Edward Columbus Wambuzi, Muloki's son, as Kyabazinga of Busoga, the election was contested due to lack of quorum (at least eight chiefs) and thus electing later Gabula Nadiope IV with ten out of eleven chiefs and was crowned on 13 September 2014.

History.

Early contact with European explorers.

Busoga's written history began in 1862. On 28 July Royal Geographical Society explorer John Hanning Speke arrived at Ripon Falls (near Jinja, where the Victoria Nile flows from Lake Victoria and begins its descent to Egypt. Since Speke's route (inland from the East African coast) took him around the southern end of Lake Victoria, he approached Busoga from the west (through Buganda). Having reached his goal (the source of the Nile), he turned northward and followed the river downstream without exploring Busoga. He records, however, being told that "Usoga" (Swahili for Busoga) was an island (it is bordered on all four sides by water).

Demographics.

During the 19th century, one of the main routes along which Europeans travelled from the coast to Buganda passed through southern Busoga. Speke, James Grant, Gerald Portal, Frederick Lugard, J. R. Macdonald and Bishop Tucket noted that Busoga had plentiful food and was densely populated. However, between 1898–99 and 1900–01 the first cases of sleeping sickness were reported.  In 1906, orders were issued to evacuate the region. Despite attempts to clear the area, the epidemic continued until 1910. As a result, most of the densely populated parts of Busoga (with an original population of over 200,000) were depopulated within ten years. Lubas Palace at Bukaleba and the European fruit mission collapsed, and survivors were relocated to other parts of Busoga. Southern Busoga, about one-third of the kingdom's area, was depopulated by 1910. During the 1920s and 1930s, some evacuees who survived the epidemic began to return to their original land. In 1940 a new outbreak appeared in the area, and only in 1956 did resettlement (promoted by the government) begin again.  The result of the epidemic was that southern Busoga, its most densely populated area, was virtually uninhabited. Other areas affected by sleeping sickness, including eastern Bukooli and Busiki, were depopulated as well. Famines also triggered substantial population movements. Parts of northeastern Busoga and the adjacent Bukandi district (across the Mpologoma River) experienced famines in and 1944. Populations in these areas shrank; many people were killed by the famines, and survivors moved to other areas for safety.  The effects of these movements were apparent in the growth in population of central and peri-urban Busoga. Many Basoga left Busoga during this period for other districts.

Economics.

During the pre-colonial era, people left their traditional lands and state structures disappeared. A number of clans and chiefdoms were decimated by famine and epidemics, and people migrated to Busoga with the traditions and cultures of other lands. A need for security fueled population growth in urban and peri-urban areas of Busoga such as Jinja, Iganga, Kamuli, Kaliro and their surrounding areas  From 1920 to the 1970s, Jinja (Busoga's capital) gained economic importance due to cotton production and the completion of the Uganda Railway and the Owen Falls Dam. The town became an agri-industrial centre with factories, cottage industries and a well-developed infrastructure. People from rural Busoga came to work in the factories and in domestic work. Among the newcomers were Asian families. Services such as piped water, electricity, roads, hospitals and schools were improved to serve the growing population. Farmers were assured of markets in the towns, grew cash and food crops such as cotton, coffee, bananas, potatoes, cassava, fruits and vegetables. The standard of living improved; the kingdom's revenue increased, enabling it to build more infrastructure. Subsistence farming diminished, with the population turning to economic production demanded by the Europeans.  By the time of independence in 1962, Busoga was one of the most prosperous regions in Uganda. Jinja was home to 70 percent of Uganda's industries and the Nalubaale Power Station (Owen Falls Dam), which supplies electricity to Uganda and parts of Kenya and Tanzania. Jinja was also home to the majority of Uganda's Asian population. These Ugandan Asians, brought to Uganda from the Indian sub-continent by the British during the Raj, helped establish Jinja as one of East Africa's largest commercial centres.

Politics.

Around the turn of the 16th century, the Baisengobi clan from Bunyoro gained power. Mukama Namutukula of the royal Babiito family of Bunyoro is said to have left Bunyoro during the 16th century as part of the kingdom's expansion policy, travelling east across Lake Kyoga with his wife Nawudo, a few servants, arms and a dog and landing at Iyingo in northern Busoga (in the present-day Kamuli District).  Mukama, who enjoyed hunting, was taken with the land. He engaged in metalworking: blacksmithing and making hoes, iron utensils and spears. Of Mukama's children five boys survived, and when he returned to Bunyoro he gave them land to oversee. His firstborn, Wakoli, received Bukooli; Zibondo received Bulamogi, Ngobi Kigulu, Tabingwa Luuka, and the youngest son, Kitimbo, received Bugabula. These areas later became administrative and cultural centers in Busoga. When Mukama did not return, his sons regarded themselves as the legitimate rulers of their respective areas. They presided over their dominions, employing governing methods and cultural rituals similar to those in Bunyoro. This political and cultural arrangement in Busoga continued until the late 19th century, when the colonialists persuaded its rulers to organize a federation. The federation was governed by a Lukiiko.  Before 1906 although Busoga was called a "kingdom", unlike its western neighbor Buganda it had no central ruler. That year, a king was installed at the behest of the British. Before this, the Basoga were organized in semi-autonomous chiefdoms influenced by Bunyoro and then Buganda. The Bugandan king, the Kabaka, had a centuries-long lineage. In Busoga some of the chiefs were appointed by the Kabaka, and may have been descendants of favored Baganda chiefs who were given authority to rule land in Busoga. Others belonged to landowning families in Busoga who were self-appointed rulers of large areas. The British united the chiefs in the Lukiiko and appointed Semei Kakungulu, a Muganda from Buganda, as its president (and Busoga's first leader). Strife amongst the chiefs and clans continued, with most Basoga retaining an affiliation to their chief, clan or dialect, and the Lukiiko collapsed.  Meanwhile, the colonial rulers were grooming Bugabulan ruler Yosia Nadiope (one of the first Basoga students at Kings College Budo, in 1906) as the first permanent ruler of the Busoga Federation. However, in 1913 Nadiope died of malaria. The following year, Bulamogi ruler Ezekeriel Tenywa Wako completed his studies at Kings College Budo. With British support and his administrative and educational background, Wako was a suitable candidate for the post. In 1919, the chiefs of Busoga resolved in the Lukiiko to elect Wako president of Busoga. Gideon Obodha of Kigulu (another contender for the post) was unfamiliar with the British system, and William Wilberforce Nadiope Kadhumbula of Bugabula was an infant whose regent (Mwami Mutekanga) was ineligible as a "mukoopi" (a commoner). In 1918-19, the title of Isebantu Kyabazinga was created and Wako took the throne. He received a salary of £550 and was permitted to collect taxes in Butembe county in compensation for his lost role in the chiefdom of Bulamogi. In 1925 Wako became a member of the Uganda Kings Council, consisting of the Kyabazinga of Busoga, the Kabaka of Buganda, the Omukamas of Bunyoro and Toro and the Omugabe of Ankole.  On 11 February 1939 Owekitibwa Ezekerial Tenywa Wako, father of the last Kyabazinga of Busoga Henry Wako Muloki and the Zibondo of Bulamogi, was installed as the first Kyabazinga of Busoga (a title he held until his 1949 retirement). By Wako's retirement, the Lukiiko had expanded to include elected representatives (two from each of Busoga's 55 sub-counties).  When Wako retired the Busoga Lukiiko resolved that the Kyabazinga should be elected from the five lineages of Baise Ngobi (Ababiito), hereditary rulers traditionally believed to have been the five sons of the Omukama of Bunyoro who migrated to Busoga from Bunyoro. This method of election was used for subsequent elections, beginning in 1949 when Owekitibwa Chief William Wilberforce Nadiope Kadhumbula of Bugabula was elected. He served for two terms of three years each, followed by Henry Wako Muloki (who also served two terms). In 1957, the title Inhebantu of Busoga was introduced for the wife of the Kyabazinga (or Isebantu).  When monarchies were abolished in 1966, the Kyabazinga was dethroned. Idi Amin expelled the Asians from Uganda in 1972, and Jinja suffered socially and economically. The government of Yoweri Museveni has tried to encourage them to return. The Asian influence remains, particularly in architecture and street names.  In 1995, the government restored monarchies in Uganda. On 11 February, Henry Wako Muloki was reinstated as Kyabazinga according to Kisogan tradition. Unlike most monarchs, the Kyabazinga has no heir or crown prince but is succeeded by a chief elected by the Lukiiko and the Royal Council.

Past Kyabazingas.

Three past Kyabazingas have presided over the federated state of Busoga since 1939: Ezekiel Tenywa Wako, Yosia Nadiope and William Wilberforce Nadiope Kadhumbula. Kadhumbula waged an "emizindula" (war on theft) and ended a British practice in the fight against smallpox "(kawumpuli)" where residents were required to publicly supply rat tails for counting to prove that they had killed the rats. His opposition brought him into conflict with the British; he was exiled to Bunyoro, later leading the Basoga into the Second World War.  Kadhumbula played an important role in Uganda's independence struggle; he was also the first vice-president of independent Uganda and chairman of the Uganda People's Congress (UPC). Kadhumbula built infrastructure such as roads, hospitals and government centres, and mobilised the Basoga for agriculture. Balangira High School later became Busoga College.

Political structure.

The Busoga Royal Council is composed of the 11 traditional leaders of Busoga: the heads of the five royal families and the six tribal chiefs. The "Katukiro" (Prime Minister) of Busoga is Joseph Muvawala. The office of the Katukiro in the Kingdom is an important and a vital one. The "Katukiro" is the head of the kingdom's government, and the spokesperson for the Kyabazinga and the kingdom.

Attractions and historic sites.

Kagulu Rock.

This was the first settlement area for the Bunyoro Basoga, led by Mukama. Although Kagulu's cultural influence is widespread, its visible landmark is Kagulu Rock. The rock is between two roads which fork at its foot, leading to Gwaya and Iyingo. The rock has a clear view of almost all Busoga, with steps making it easier for visitors to reach the top. Kagulu Rock has been for a long time a major adventure and tourist attraction in Eastern Uganda. Previously, it had caught the curious eyes of the foreign NGO workers in the area, but with the advent of the local initiative to promote the site, Kagulu Rock is now a big attraction to all.

Budhumbula shrine and palace.

Two kilometers from Kamuli on the Kamuli-Jinja road, the site includes a shrine and the residence of former Kyabazinga William Wilberforce Kadhumbula Nadiope (who died in 1976). The marble-covered shrine contains the graves of other members of the royal family, including Nadiope's father and mother (Yosia Nadiope and Nasikombi). Other graves in the shrine are those of his son, former Uganda government minister Wilson Nadiope (who died in 1991), and his mother, Yuliya Babirye Nadiope (who died in 2004). The main palace residence is a legacy of the British colonial government, which donated it in 1914.

Source of the Nile.

The source of the Nile, the world's second-longest river, at Lake Victoria was discovered by John Speke and is an internationally known attraction.

Bujjagali Falls.

This former waterfall was submerged in November 2011 by the Bujagali Dam.

Lake Victoria.

Southern Busoga is bordered by Lake Victoria, whose coastline runs from Jinja east to the Kenyan border.

Twegaite.

This nonprofit cultural organization is headquartered in Boston. Twegaite's main objective is to revitalize Busoga's economy, health and education.

Busoga is a traditional Bantu kingdom and one of four constitutional monarchies in present-day Uganda. The kingdom is a cultural institution which promotes popular participation and unity among the people of the region through development programs to improve their standard of living. Busoga strives for a united people who have economic, social and cultural prosperity and assists the Kyabazinga.

Busoga je tradiční království 11 knížectví kmene Basoga, rozkládající se na východě Ugandy. Jeho součástí je i východní díl ugandské části Viktoriina jezera. Busoga hraničí na západě s ugandským královstvím Buganda, na severu s územím bývalých distriktů Lango a Teso, na východě pak s územím bývalého distriktu Bukedi, ve Viktoriině jezeře pak s Keňou. Území království, které v současnosti netvoří územně správní celek a má spíše jen obřadní funkci, zahrnuje distrikty Bugiri, Iganga, Jinja, Kamuli a Mayuge, které jsou součástí formální Východní oblasti. Metropolí Busogy je město Jinja.


Formula 3000 championships.

FIA International Formula 3000 Championship.

The most prestigious F3000 series, International Formula 3000, was introduced by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) in 1985 to replace Formula Two, and was itself replaced by the GP2 Series in 2005. While the International series is usually synonymous with F3000, other series racing to F3000 specification have existed.

British Formula 3000/F2 Championship.

A small British Formula 3000 series ran for several years in the late 1980s and early 1990s, usually using year-old cars. Founded in 1989 as the British Formula 3000 Championship, the series was renamed the British Formula Two Championship in 1992, but grids diminished quickly and it was ended after the 1994 season. It was restarted in 1996 and cancelled once more the following year, after one race had been held with only three cars. Two other attempts at restarting F3000 racing in the UK failed.

Euro Formula 3000/Euroseries 3000.

An Italian series evolved into a second-level one, Euro Formula 3000 (now Euroseries 3000), running the previous generation of spec Lolas. An Italian national series started in 2005 with the arrival of the GP2 Series, but has now been merged with Euroseries 3000, running both B02/50 and B99/50 cars. As of 2010, it is renamed Auto GP, using old A1 Grand Prix cars and engines in place of F3000 regulations.

American Racing Series.

The American Racing Series, a predecessor of Indy Lights, ran with March F3000 chassis (called Wildcats) and Buick V6 engines, before turning to Lolas some years later.

Japanese F3000/Formula Nippon.

Japan persisted with Formula Two rules for a couple of years after the demise of F2 in Europe, but then adopted basically F3000 rules in 1987. Unlike European F3000, the Japanese Championship featured much competition between tyre companies, and tended to feature highly paid drivers (both local and European) in cars tending to be more developed and tested than those in the European series. The Mugen engine dominated this series, and was also competitive in European F3000. Japanese F3000 was renamed Formula Nippon in 1996, and completely split off from European racing in 2009 with the new Swift chassis.

Formula Holden/Formula 4000.

In Australia Formula 4000 continued to use old F3000 chassis (predominantly Reynard) until 2006, as had its predecessors Formula Brabham and Formula Holden.

Formula 3000 was a type of open wheel, single seater formula racing, occupying the tier immediately below Formula One and above Formula Three. It was so named because the cars were powered by 3.0 L engines.

Formule 3000 byl druh automobilových závodů formulového typu. Mezinárodní automobilová federace vytvořila pro rok 1985 novou formulovou disciplínu, která se měla stát finálním krokem k přípravě jezdců pro Formuli 1. Formule 2, která tuto funkci plnila v předešlých letech se stala příliš drahou a začali ji ovládat velcí výrobci. Formule 3000 měla nabídnout rychlejší a hlavně levnější variantu závodění. Poslední ročník Formule 3000 se uskutečnil v roce 2004, od roku 2005 se jezdí seriál GP2.


Types of swings.

Tire swings are a form of swing made from a whole tire. These are often simply a new or used tire hanging from a tree on a rope. On commercially-developed playground swing sets, oversized new tires are often reinforced with a circular metal bar to improve safety and are hung on chains from metal or wooden beams. They may hang vertically or hang flat, suspended from three or more points on one side. The flat version can hold three or more children. Pumping is achieved by using one or two of the three chains attached to the swing, and two (or more) children can pump in turn.  Tire swings can also be used in "spinners", where the occupants use their feet to propel the tire.  Natural swings may be created by lianas (creeper plants) in a subtropical wild forest like Aokigahara forest near Mount Fuji.  Rope swings are swings created by tying one end of a length of rope to a tree branch, bridge, or other elevated structure. A knot or loop is usually put on the other end to prevent fraying and help the swinger stay on. Rope swings are often situated so that those swinging on them can let go and land in water deep enough to cushion the fall and to be swum around in.  The incorporation of a shortboard such as a skateboard in which the rider stands is called swing boarding. It is made safer by the use of an attached board and a harness for the rider.  Baby swings are swings with a bucket shape with holes for the child's legs, or a half-bucket shape and a safety belt, that is intended to reduce the likelihood of a very young child from falling out.  Canopy swings are similar to porch swings, but they are hung on a separate frame and are usually portable. The name is derived from a canopy installed as a sunshade.  Hammock swings are portable (removable) bed-swings made of a lightweight material such as canvas, netting (or as little as two ropes), typically suspended between two trees or attached to a hammock stand.  Tandem swings are swings designed for use by two people at the same time, facing each other or back-to-back, and are almost always part of a swing set due to the frame required to support the weights of the riders. The bench is perpendicular to its frame’s center crossbar. Face-to-face tandem benches include a subframe with integrated handles and foot pegs. Back-to-back tandems are typically in the baby bucket design, but with two pairs of leg holes, one on each side of the bench. Tandem swings are typically suspended from their frame (as in kiiking) by steel bars, although ropes and chains may be used for those used only by smaller children. Face-to-face tandem swings were featured in the playground of the Columbia Gardens.

History.

Asia.

Swinging first spread throughout China during the Spring and Autumn Period (771-476 BC). In the Han dynasty swinging continued to rise in popularity and was often performed at the Qingming Festival and the Duanwu Festival. By the time of the Song dynasty, swinging became involved in professional acrobatics, where performers would swing between boats over water.

Europe.

The earliest known representations of swings come from artifacts found in Greece. A terracotta sculpture of a woman sitting on a swing was found at Hagia Triada dated to the Late New Palace period (1450-1300 BC).  In the 1700s, French artists depicted scenes of nobility swinging recreationally.  Charles Wicksteed is thought to be the inventor of the modern day swing. In 2013, a prototype of his was unearthed near Wicksteed Park in the United Kingdom dating back to the early 1920s.  In 1993, the sport Kiiking was invented in Estonia. Players attempt to rotate 360 degrees around a spindle, on a long swing consisting of a seat hung with steel bars.

North America.

In the early 1900s, the playground movement saw swings installed in public spaces for neighborhood children. By the middle of the century, the suburban playground became popular. Many Americans put personal swing sets on their property. Public concern for children's safety influenced a change in design after the 1970s. Tubular metal sets were replaced with smaller swings of woods and resins better suited for childen.  The United States Patent and Trademark Office was disparaged in 2002 for issuing a patent to a five-year-old boy who claimed to have invented swinging sideways as a new form of entertainment. His father, a patent lawyer who wanted to show his son how the patent system worked, had told the boy that he could file a patent application on anything that he invented. The patent was rescinded upon re-examination.

Dangers.

Swings cause some injuries. The most common injury is due to a fall, either by unintentionally letting go of the ropes or chains or by deliberately jumping out of the swing. Less commonly, the person using the swing will bump into or kick another person who is walking or be playing too near the swing or, especially with improperly located home equipment, will bump into a fence, wall, or another fixed object. Swings are also associated with strangulation or hanging injuries, usually because the child was wearing a piece of clothing or other item became entangled in the swing.  Swings are the most common cause of injury-related to playground equipment at private homes, but a much less common cause of injury in public or school playgrounds, where injuries from climbing equipment dominate. Injuries from swings primarily affect school-age children, but preschool-age children also have a significant risk on swingsets at home.

A swing is a seat, often found at playgrounds for children, at a circus for acrobats, or on a porch for relaxing, although they may also be items of indoor furniture, such as the Latin American hammock or the Indian oonjal. The seat of a swing may be suspended from chains or ropes. Once a swing is in motion, it continues to oscillate like a pendulum until external interference or drag brings it to a halt. Swing sets are very popular with children.

Houpačka je v češtině společný název pro dvě skupiny dětských zábavných zařízení: Oba typy houpaček bývají běžnou součástí dětských hřišť, větší verze visutých houpaček lze nalézt na poutích, jedná se také o artistické (divadelní, cirkusové, varietní či kabaretní) náčiní.


Definition.

The term "fatalism" can refer to any of the following ideas:

Determinism and predeterminism.

While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, fatalism, determinism, and predeterminism are distinct, as each emphasizes a different aspect of the futility of human will or the foreordination of destiny. However, all these doctrines share common ground.  "Determinists" generally agree that human actions affect the future but that human action is itself determined by a causal chain of prior events. Their view does not accentuate a "submission" to fate or destiny, whereas "fatalists" stress an acceptance of future events as inevitable. Determinists believe the future is fixed specifically due to causality; fatalists and predeterminists believe that some or all aspects of the future are inescapable but, for fatalists, not necessarily due to causality.  Fatalism is a looser term than determinism. The presence of historical "indeterminisms" or chances, i.e. events that could not be predicted by sole knowledge of other events, is an idea still compatible with fatalism. Necessity (such as a law of nature) will happen just as inevitably as a chance—both can be imagined as sovereign. This idea has roots in Aristotle's work, "De interpretatione"  Theological fatalism is the thesis that infallible foreknowledge of a human act makes the act necessary and hence unfree. If there is a being who knows the entire future infallibly, then no human act is free. The philosopher Al Farabi makes the case that if God does in fact know all human actions and choices, then Aristotle's original solution to this dilemma stands.

Idle argument.

One famous ancient argument regarding fatalism was the so-called "Idle Argument". It argues that if something is fated, then it would be pointless or futile to make any effort to bring it about. The Idle Argument was described by Origen and Cicero and it went like this:  The Idle Argument was anticipated by Aristotle in his "De Interpretatione" chapter 9. The Stoics considered it to be a sophism and the Stoic Chrysippus attempted to refute it by pointing out that consulting the doctor would be as much fated as recovering. He seems to have introduced the idea that in cases like that at issue two events can be "co-fated", so that one cannot occur without the other.

Logical fatalism and the argument from bivalence.

The main argument for logical fatalism goes back to antiquity. This is an argument that depends not on causation or physical circumstances but rather is based on presumed logical truths. There are numerous versions of this argument, including those by Aristotle and Richard Taylor. These arguments have been objected to and elaborated on with some effect.  The key idea of logical fatalism is that there is a body of true propositions (statements) about what is going to happen, and these are true regardless of when they are made. So, for example, if it is true today that tomorrow there will be a sea battle, then there cannot fail to be a sea battle tomorrow, since otherwise it would not be true today that such a battle will take place tomorrow.  The argument relies heavily on the principle of bivalence: the idea that any proposition is either true or false. As a result of this principle, if it is not false that there will be a sea battle, then it is true; there is no in-between. However, rejecting the principle of bivalence—perhaps by saying that the truth of a proposition regarding the future is indeterminate—is a controversial view since the principle is an accepted part of classical logic.

Criticism.

Semantic equivocation.

One criticism comes from the novelist David Foster Wallace, who in a 1985 paper "Richard Taylor's "Fatalism" and the Semantics of Physical Modality" suggests that Taylor reached his conclusion of fatalism only because his argument involved two different and inconsistent notions of impossibility. Wallace did not reject fatalism "per se", as he wrote in his closing passage, "if Taylor and the fatalists want to force upon us a metaphysical conclusion, they must do metaphysics, not semantics. And this seems entirely appropriate." Willem deVries and Jay Garfield, both of whom were advisers on Wallace's thesis, expressed regret that Wallace never published his argument. In 2010, the thesis was, however, published posthumously as "Time, Fate, and Language: An Essay on Free Will".

Fatalism is a family of related philosophical doctrines that stress the subjugation of all events or actions to fate or destiny, and is commonly associated with the consequent attitude of resignation in the face of future events which are thought to be inevitable.

Fatalismus (z lat. "fatum", osud a "fatalis", osudový) je životní postoj nebo názor, založený na přesvědčení, že všechno důležité v životě a na světě je více méně předurčeno osudem a člověk to nemůže ovlivnit. Ať udělá cokoli, o výsledku rozhoduje osud. Na rozdíl od determinismu, který všechny události pokládá za určené minulými příčinami, fatalismus si všímá jen některých a pro člověka zvláště významných událostí nebo jejich konečného výsledku.


History.

Since its construction in 1972 the bridge was called "Most SNP" ("Bridge of the Slovak National Uprising"), although locally it was called New Bridge. In 1993, its name was changed by the Bratislava City Council to "Nový Most" ("New Bridge") to unify its official name with that actually used by the people, as it was the second bridge to be built over Danube river in the city. However, another three bridges have been constructed since its opening, and on 29 March 2012 members of the Bratislava City Council voted in favor of an initiative by the Mayor of Old Town Táňa Rosová (SDKÚ-DS) to change the bridge's name back to "Most SNP", effective 29 August 2012, the day of 68th anniversary of Slovak National Uprising.  The bridge was built between 1967 and 1972 under a project managed by A. Tesár, J. Lacko, and I. Slameň. It officially opened on August 26, 1972, as the second bridge over the Danube in Bratislava. A significant section of the Old Town below Bratislava Castle, which included nearly all of the Jewish quarter, was demolished to create the roadway that led to it; on the other hand, the bridge improved access between Petržalka and the rest of the city. Parts of the historical city walls were unearthed during construction.

Restaurant and observation deck.

A special attraction is the flying saucer-shaped structure atop the bridge's pylon, housing an observation deck and a restaurant, which since 2005 has been called "UFO" (previously, "Bystrica"). The restaurant serves both traditional Slovak and international cuisine, describing its cuisine as "Mediterasian". It received the Restaurant of the Year award in 2011.  Both the restaurant and the observation deck offer panoramic views of Bratislava. They are reached using lifts located in the east pillar, accessed from the walking and cycling paths on either side of the bridge. Access to the lifts normally costs €7.40 as of November 2017, but this fee is deducted from the bill for restaurant guests.  The west pillar of the bridge tower houses an emergency staircase with 430 stairs.

Most SNP ("Bridge of the Slovak National Uprising"), commonly referred to as Most Slovenského národného povstania or the UFO Bridge, and named Nový most ("New Bridge") from 1993 to 2012, is a road bridge over the Danube in Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia. It is the world's longest bridge to have one pylon and one cable-stayed plane.

Most Slovenského národního povstání (, ve zkratce Most SNP, v letech 1993 až 2012 oficiálně Nový most) je zavěšený most přes řeku Dunaj v Bratislavě. Rozpětí hlavního pole činí 303 m a 75 m kotevního pole.


Recording.

The album was recorded in Spain (El Cortijo Studio, Malaga) and produced by Jacob Hellner and Rammstein. The band recorded several songs during the sessions for "Reise, Reise" which were omitted from the album's final track listing and were later released on their follow-up album "Rosenrot". A statement from the band's management regarding the upcoming collection reads as follows:  The record company stated:

Composition.

Themes.

The album is based on the crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123 on the evening of 12 August 1985. Twelve minutes into its flight, the Boeing 747 suffered an explosive decompression due to failure of its rear pressure bulkhead, caused by a faulty repair 7 years earlier. The explosion tore off most of the aircraft's vertical stabilizer and ruptured all four of the hydraulic systems, causing the loss of all flight control surfaces and rendering the aircraft uncontrollable. The pilots fought to keep the aircraft aloft for nearly 32 minutes, but eventually became trapped in the towering mountain ranges surrounding Mount Fuji and crashed, killing 520 out of the 524 passengers and crew on board. It remains the deadliest single-aircraft disaster in history. Some pressings of the album contain a recording of the last 30 seconds of the flight as an easter egg hidden in the pregap.

Songs and lyrics.

The album "revels in the type of paradoxical, multi-faceted existentialism which comes second nature to Germans but is persistently untranslatable to Americans" and it opens with the track "Reise, Reise" which means "journey, journey" or "rise, rise", and "we are immediately put on notice that this particular journey will be a grim and harrowing one, leavened by German existentialism in the grand tradition of Mann and Goethe." The references to Goethe come in "Dalai Lama", a modern version of Goethe's poem "Der Erlkönig", set in an aeroplane rather than on a horse; the title is claimed to be a reference to the 14th Dalai Lama's fear of flying., while a more sound point of view is a reference to the serfdom in Tibet.  The song "Amerika" deals with the worldwide political and cultural imperialism of the United States of America. The song's two verses are sung in German with a chorus in English: "We're all living in Amerika, Amerika ist wunderbar, We're all living in Amerika, Amerika, Amerika." The band views it as a satirical commentary on "Americanization", and it features mentions of Coca-Cola, Mickey Mouse, and Santa Claus.  The song "Mein Teil" is about Armin Meiwes, a man who achieved international notoriety for killing and eating a voluntary victim whom he had found via the Internet. After Meiwes and the victim jointly attempted to eat the victim's severed penis, Meiwes killed his victim and proceeded to eat a large amount of his flesh. Because of his acts, Meiwes is also known as the "Rotenburg Cannibal" or "Der Metzgermeister" (The Master Butcher). According to Rammstein's bassist Oliver Riedel, the song came about after "one of our members brought a newspaper to rehearsal and it had a story about the cannibal guy in it. We were fascinated, shocked and amused at the same time." Vocalist Till Lindemann stated, "It's so sick that it becomes fascinating and there just has to be a song about it". "Mein Teil" attracted controversy in Germany; the media dubbed it the "Kannibalensong" (cannibal song), which helped to boost it to second place in the German music charts after its release in early August 2004. Remixes of the song were done by Arthur Baker and the Pet Shop Boys. At the beginning of the song in the video, the phrase "Suche gut gebauten Achtzehn- bis Dreißigjährigen zum Schlachten – Der Metzgermeister" ("Looking for a well built 18 to 30-year-old to be slaughtered – The Master Butcher") is spoken, voiced by Ollie, although the album version of the song does not have this beginning. The quote is taken from an online post by Armin Meiwes.  "Ohne dich" ("Without You") is a power ballad. It is seen as expressing mourning over the loss of a loved person. It follows a slow, even romantic ballad style. The central motif is "Without you, I cannot be..., With you, I am alone also..." The song was also remixed by Slovenian avant-garde band Laibach.  "Los" is a German suffix meaning "-less" (as in "meaningless"), but it is also an adjective meaning "off" or "loose", and when used as a command it means "go!". The track itself is reminiscent of Depeche Mode's early work, with repetitive acoustic guitar and a stripped-down, insistent beat. The album ends with the track "Amour", one of the most intimate love songs written by the band. In the context of a disc filled with the imagery of "great black gaps in the fabric of human rationality", Rammstein somehow manage to make "honest and sincere romance seem just slightly alien, and tinted with enough melancholy to satisfy the heartiest emo-kid." There's also a guitar solo towards the end, another uncharacteristic gesture in the album.

Release and artwork.

On the U.S. release, the "easter egg" fragment is placed at the beginning of "Reise, Reise" in normal playback. The 2005 pressing does not contain the easter egg, but the original 2004 pressing does. On the European version the easter egg is in negative time, to access it, you must rewind the CD past the beginning of "Reise, Reise". The American iTunes version of "Reise, Reise" also contains the easter egg. On April 21, 2005, Rammstein released a special Japanese version of "Reise, Reise", with different cover art, which was later used as the "Rosenrot" cover art, though the Rammstein logo on the ship altered into the text "Rosenrot". The booklet also features the same art as "Rosenrot", but with the songs from "Reise, Reise". The easter egg is not present in negative time as it is on the European version. It features two bonus tracks: "Mein Teil (You Are What You Eat Edit)" and "Amerika (Digital Hardcore Mix)". The Japanese Limited Edition has a bonus DVD featuring footage from "Lichtspielhaus". The Japanese Limited Edition was re-issued in 2009 as SHM-CD and DVD edition, featuring the original orange cover art.  The album artwork shows a damaged aeroplane cockpit voice recorder depicted on the front and back covers. Its caption ("Flugrekorder, nicht öffnen") means "Flight Recorder, Do Not Open". The inner part of the Digipak edition case shows a picture of the six members in suits wielding suitcases and weapons (like Michael Douglas in "Falling Down") leaving from a crashed aeroplane. The cover art is an allusion to the song "Dalai Lama", which deals with an aeroplane accident. It is also suggestive of the overarching "travelling" theme of the album. While past albums have all featured the six band members in various photographic scenarios, "Reise Reise" features a minimal packaging, and there are no photographs featuring the band's members.

Critical reception.

Upon its release, the album received generally positive reviews from critics. David Jeffries from Allmusic gave the album a rating of three out of five stars, and stated that the album's content "is more of the same: the same grit, the same growl, and the same dramatic, orchestra choruses" and that "the lead single, 'Mein Teil' is no 'Du Hast' but the damning 'Amerika' almost equals their breakthrough track." He also said that there was a bit more ingenuity in the production and a little more focus in the songs but it wasn't "enough for the nonfaithful to pick up on." Jeffries highlighted the track "Stein Um Stein" because it "creeps more than stomps in parts". He also mentioned that the track "Los" features a bluesy guitar that "adds some quirk to the band's stern Teutonic pallette." He finished his review saying "few bands can industrially grind as convincingly as Rammstein. Same as it ever was, "Reise, Reise" won't do much to increase the band's fan base, but being a tight, free-of-filler album, it'll satisfy the faithful." Vaz Malik from the BBC also gave the album a mixed review and said that the band could probably be "a lot bigger" in the United States if they opted to sing in English, but "German sounds a lot more threatening and it's done them no harm in their homeland." He stated that the songs "Morgenstern" and "Stein Um Stein" probably have weak translations but in German they sound mean. He said "that tracks like 'Amerika' make the admission price worth while. Rammstein say it's their most commercial song to date. Well more like this please because it's funny but rocks at the same time." Tim O'Neil from PopMatters gave the album a favorable review and said: "for those with the patience to look beyond the "Teutonic bluster" and punk insouciance, "Reise Reise" will be a uniquely rewarding experience."

Commercial performance.

The album sold 26,716 copies in the United States in its first week of release in November 2004 to debut at position no. 61 on The Billboard 200 chart. It was in the top ten in several European charts and reached number one hit in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Iceland, Finland, Estonia and Mexico. As of February 2006, the album has shipped 1.5 million copies globally.

Personnel.

Rammstein  Additional musicians

Reise, Reise () is the fourth studio album by Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein. It was released on 27 September 2004 through Universal Music in Germany and followed shortly by its release across Europe. It was later released in North America through Republic Records on 16 November 2004. Recorded in a span of two years at El Cortijo Studios in Málaga, Spain, the album was produced by the band themselves along with Swedish record producer Jacob Hellner.

Reise, Reise je v pořadí čtvrté album od německé industrial metalové skupiny Rammstein. Bylo vydáno 27. září 2004. Při nahrávání vzniklo zhruba 20 demoskladeb. Na album se jich dostalo jen 11, na zbytku skupina pracovala ještě rok a vydala na albu Rosenrot (podobně jako Load/ReLoad od Metallicy či Toxicity/Steal This Album! od System of a Down).


History.

The screw pump is the oldest positive displacement pump. The first records of a water screw, or screw pump, date back to Ancient Egypt before the 3rd century BC. The Egyptian screw, used to lift water from the Nile, was composed of tubes wound round a cylinder; as the entire unit rotates, water is lifted within the spiral tube to the higher elevation. A later screw pump design from Egypt had a spiral groove cut on the outside of a solid wooden cylinder and then the cylinder was covered by boards or sheets of metal closely covering the surfaces between the grooves.  Some researchers have postulated this as being the device used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. A cuneiform inscription of Assyrian King Sennacherib (704–681 BC) has been interpreted by Stephanie Dalley to describe casting water screws in bronze some 350 years earlier. This is consistent with classical author Strabo, who describes the Hanging Gardens as irrigated by screws.  The screw pump was later introduced from Egypt to Greece. It was described by Archimedes, on the occasion of his visit to Egypt, circa 234 BC. This tradition may reflect only that the apparatus was unknown to the Greeks before Hellenistic times. Archimedes never claimed credit for its invention, but it was attributed to him 200 years later by Diodorus, who believed that Archimedes invented the screw pump in Egypt. Depictions of Greek and Roman water screws show them being powered by a human treading on the outer casing to turn the entire apparatus as one piece, which would require that the casing be rigidly attached to the screw.  German engineer Konrad Kyeser equipped the Archimedes screw with a crank mechanism in his "Bellifortis" (1405). This mechanism quickly replaced the ancient practice of working the pipe by treading.

Design.

The Archimedes screw consists of a screw (a helical surface surrounding a central cylindrical shaft) inside a hollow pipe. The screw is usually turned by windmill, manual labor, cattle, or by modern means, such as a motor. As the shaft turns, the bottom end scoops up a volume of water. This water is then pushed up the tube by the rotating helicoid until it pours out from the top of the tube.  The contact surface between the screw and the pipe does not need to be perfectly watertight, as long as the amount of water being scooped with each turn is large compared to the amount of water leaking out of each section of the screw per turn. If water from one section leaks into the next lower one, it will be transferred upwards by the next segment of the screw.  In some designs, the screw is fused to the casing and they both rotate together, instead of the screw turning within a stationary casing. The screw could be sealed to the casing with pitch resin or other adhesive, or the screw and casing could be cast together as a single piece in bronze.  The design of the everyday Greek and Roman water screw, in contrast to the heavy bronze device of Sennacherib, with its problematic drive chains, has a powerful simplicity. A double or triple helix was built of wood strips (or occasionally bronze sheeting) around a heavy wooden pole. A cylinder was built around the helices using long, narrow boards fastened to their periphery and waterproofed with pitch.

Uses.

The screw was used predominately for the transport of water to irrigation systems and for dewatering mines or other low-lying areas. It was used for draining land that was underneath the sea in the Netherlands and other places in the creation of polders.  Archimedes screws are used in sewage treatment plants because they cope well with varying rates of flow and with suspended solids. An auger in a snow blower or grain elevator is essentially an Archimedes screw. Many forms of axial flow pump basically contain an Archimedes screw.  The principle is also found in pescalators, which are Archimedes screws designed to lift fish safely from ponds and transport them to another location. This technology is used primarily at fish hatcheries, where it is desirable to minimize the physical handling of fish.  An Archimedes screw was used in the successful 2001 stabilization of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Small amounts of subsoil saturated by groundwater were removed from far below the north side of the tower, and the weight of the tower itself corrected the lean. Archimedes screws are also used in chocolate fountains.

Variants.

A "screw conveyor" is an Archimedes screw contained within a tube and turned by a motor so as to deliver material from one end of the conveyor to the other. It is particularly suitable for transport of granular materials such as plastic granules used in injection molding, and cereal grains. It may also be used to transport liquids. In industrial control applications the conveyor may be used as a rotary feeder or variable rate feeder to deliver a measured rate or quantity of material into a process.  A variant of the Archimedes screw can also be found in some injection molding machines, die casting machines and extrusion of plastics, which employ a screw of decreasing pitch to compress and melt the material. It is also used in a rotary-screw air compressor. On a much larger scale, Archimedes's screws of decreasing pitch are used for the compaction of waste material.

Reverse action.

If water is fed into the top of an Archimedes screw, it will force the screw to rotate. The rotating shaft can then be used to drive an electric generator. Such an installation has the same benefits as using the screw for pumping: the ability to handle very dirty water and widely varying rates of flow at high efficiency. Settle Hydro and Torrs Hydro are two reverse screw micro hydro schemes operating in England. The screw works well as a generator at low heads, commonly found in English rivers, including the Thames, powering Windsor Castle.  In 2017, the first reverse screw hydropower in the United States opened in Meriden, Connecticut. The Meriden project was built and is operated by New England Hydropower having a nameplate capacity of 193 kW and a capacity factor of approximately 55% over a 5-year running period.

The water screw, popularly known as the Archimedes' screw and also known as the screw pump, Archimedean screw, or Egyptian screw, is a machine used for transferring water from a low-lying body of water into irrigation ditches. Water is pumped by turning a screw-shaped surface inside a pipe. Archimedes screws are also used for materials such as powders and grains. Although commonly attributed to Archimedes, the device had been used in Ancient Egypt long before his time.

Archimédův šroub je jedno z nejstarších známých čerpadel, popsané Archimédem, který toto zařízení viděl při svých cestách po Egyptě. Údajně Visuté zahrady Semiramidiny byly zavlažováný takovýmto způsobem. Jde o šikmo uloženou šnekovou hřídel v korytě, případně o korýtko nebo trubku navinutou ve šroubovici kolem šikmo uložené hřídele. Přepravovaná kapalina (nejčastěji voda) je v kapsách tvořených závity držena gravitací a čerpání je prováděno otáčením šneku nebo hřídele.


Pharmacology.

EPO is highly glycosylated (40% of total molecular weight), with half-life in blood around 5 h. EPO's half-life may vary between endogenous and various recombinant versions. Additional glycosylation or other alterations of EPO via recombinant technology have led to the increase of EPO's stability in blood (thus requiring less frequent injections).

Function.

Red blood cell production.

Erythropoietin is an essential hormone for red blood cell production. Without it, definitive erythropoiesis does not take place. Under hypoxic conditions, the kidney will produce and secrete erythropoietin to increase the production of red blood cells by targeting CFU-E, proerythroblast and basophilic erythroblast subsets in the differentiation. Erythropoietin has its primary effect on red blood cell progenitors and precursors (which are found in the bone marrow in humans) by promoting their survival through protecting these cells from apoptosis, or cell death.  Erythropoietin is the primary erythropoietic factor that cooperates with various other growth factors (e.g., IL-3, IL-6, glucocorticoids, and SCF) involved in the development of erythroid lineage from multipotent progenitors. The burst-forming unit-erythroid (BFU-E) cells start erythropoietin receptor expression and are sensitive to erythropoietin. Subsequent stage, the colony-forming unit-erythroid (CFU-E), expresses maximal erythropoietin receptor density and is completely dependent on erythropoietin for further differentiation. Precursors of red cells, the proerythroblasts and basophilic erythroblasts also express erythropoietin receptor and are therefore affected by it.

Nonhematopoietic roles.

Erythropoietin was reported to have a range of actions beyond stimulation of erythropoiesis including vasoconstriction-dependent hypertension, stimulating angiogenesis, and promoting cell survival via activation of EPO receptors resulting in anti-apoptotic effects on ischemic tissues. However this proposal is controversial with numerous studies showing no effect. It is also inconsistent with the low levels of EPO receptors on those cells. Clinical trials in humans with ischemic heart, neural and renal tissues have not demonstrated the same benefits seen in animals. In addition some research studies have shown its neuroprotective effect on diabetic neuropathy, however these data were not confirmed in clinical trials that have been conducted on the deep peroneal, superficial peroneal, tibial and sural nerves.

Mechanism of action.

Erythropoietin has been shown to exert its effects by binding to the erythropoietin receptor (EpoR). EPO binds to the erythropoietin receptor on the red cell progenitor surface and activates a JAK2 signalling cascade. This initiates the STAT5, PIK3 and Ras MAPK pathways. This results in differentiation, survival and proliferation of the erythroid cell. SOCS1, SOCS3 and CIS are also expressed which act as negative regulators of the cytokine signal.  High level erythropoietin receptor expression is localized to erythroid progenitor cells. While there are reports that EPO receptors are found in a number of other tissues, such as heart, muscle, kidney and peripheral/central nervous tissue, those results are confounded by nonspecificity of reagents such as anti-EpoR antibodies. In controlled experiments, a functional EPO receptor is not detected in those tissues. In the bloodstream, red cells themselves do not express erythropoietin receptor, so cannot respond to EPO. However, indirect dependence of red cell longevity in the blood on plasma erythropoietin levels has been reported, a process termed neocytolysis. In addition, there is conclusive evidence that EPO receptor expression is upregulated in brain injury.

Synthesis and regulation.

Erythropoietin levels in blood are quite low in the absence of anemia, at around 10 mU/mL. However, in hypoxic stress, EPO production may increase up to 1000-fold, reaching 10 000 mU/mL of blood. In adults, EPO is synthesized mainly by interstitial cells in the peritubular capillary bed of the renal cortex, with additional amounts being produced in the liver, and the pericytes in the brain. Regulation is believed to rely on a feedback mechanism measuring blood oxygenation and iron availability. Constitutively synthesized transcription factors for EPO, known as hypoxia-inducible factors, are hydroxylated and proteosomally digested in the presence of oxygen and iron. During normoxia GATA2 inhibits the promoter region for EPO. GATA2 levels decrease during hypoxia and allow the promotion of EPO production.

Medical uses.

Erythropoietins available for use as therapeutic agents are produced by recombinant DNA technology in cell culture, and include Epogen/Procrit (epoetin alfa) and Aranesp (darbepoetin alfa); they are used in treating anemia resulting from chronic kidney disease, chemotherapy induced anemia in patients with cancer, inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis) and myelodysplasia from the treatment of cancer (chemotherapy and radiation). The package inserts include boxed warnings of increased risk of death, myocardial infarction, stroke, venous thromboembolism, and tumor recurrence, particularly when used to increase the hemoglobin levels to more than 11 g/dL to 12 g/dL.

History.

In 1905, Paul Carnot proposed the idea that a hormone regulates the production of red blood cells. After conducting experiments on rabbits subject to bloodletting, Carnot and his graduate student Clotilde-Camille Deflandre attributed an increase in red blood cells in rabbit subjects to a hemotropic factor called hemopoietin. Eva Bonsdorff and Eeva Jalavisto called the hemopoietic substance 'erythropoietin'. K.R. Reissman and Allan J. Erslev demonstrated that a certain substance, circulated in the blood, is able to stimulate red blood cell production and increase hematocrit. This substance was purified and confirmed as erythropoietin.  In 1977, Goldwasser and Kung purified EPO. Pure EPO allowed the amino acid sequence to be partially identified and the gene to be isolated. Synthetic EPO was first successfully used to correct anemia in 1987. In 1985, Lin "et al" isolated the human erythropoietin gene from a genomic phage library and used it to produce EPO. In 1989, the US Food and Drug Administration approved the hormone Epogen for use in certain anemias.  Gregg L. Semenza and Peter J. Ratcliffe studied the EPO gene and its oxygen-dependent regulation. Along with William Kaelin Jr., they were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF), which regulates the EPO gene, as well as other genes, in response to hypoxia.

Biosimilars.

In December 2007, Retacrit and Silapo were approved for use in the European Union.

Usage as doping product.

As a performance-enhancing drug, EPO has been banned since the early 1990s, but a first test was not available until the 2000 Summer Olympics. Before this test was available, some athletes were sanctioned after confessing to having used EPO, for example in the Festina affair, when a car with doping products for the Festina cycling team was found.  The first doping test in cycling was used in the 2001 La Flèche Wallonne. The first rider to test positive in that race was Bo Hamburger, although he was later acquitted because his B-sample was not conclusive.  The U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team, under the leadership of Lance Armstrong and Johan Bruyneel, ran a sophisticated doping program that lasted for many years during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Erythropoietin was a common substance used by the cyclists.  A 2007 study showed that EPO has a significant effect on exercise performance, but a 2017 study showed that the effects of EPO administered to amateur cyclists was not distinguishable from a placebo.  In March 2019, American mixed martial artist and former UFC Bantamweight Champion T.J. Dillashaw tested positive for EPO in a drug test administered by USADA, and he subsequently was stripped of the UFC bantamweight title and suspended for 2 years.

Erythropoietin (; EPO), also known as erythropoetin, haematopoietin, or haemopoietin, is a glycoprotein cytokine secreted mainly by the kidney in response to cellular hypoxia; it stimulates red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in the bone marrow. Low levels of EPO (around 10 mU/mL) are constantly secreted sufficient to compensate for normal red blood cell turnover. Common causes of cellular hypoxia resulting in elevated levels of EPO (up to 10 000 mU/mL) include any anemia, and hypoxemia due to chronic lung disease. Erythropoietin is produced by interstitial fibroblasts in the kidney in close association with the peritubular capillary and proximal convoluted tubule. It is also produced in perisinusoidal cells in the liver. Liver production predominates in the fetal and perinatal period; renal production predominates in adulthood. It is homologous with thrombopoietin.

Erythropoetin vzniká v ledvinách; běžně je produkován lidským tělem v přirozené míře, která zajišťuje tvorbu optimálního množství červených krvinek v kostní dřeni; ty pak slouží k přenosu kyslíku v krvi. Tvorba erytropoetinu se zvyšuje při zvýšeném uvolňování glukokortikoidů, při zvýšeném uvolňování růstového hormonu a při snížení parciálního tlaku kyslíku v krvi. EPO je také možno syntetizovat uměle a používat ve formě injekcí jako lék při závažných onemocněních, především u osob s poruchami funkce ledvin a podstupujících dialýzu. Nežádoucím vedlejším účinkem EPO je zahušťování krve, což vyžaduje vyšší výkon srdce, může vést ke vzniku krevních sraženin a v krajním případě i k selhání srdce.


History.

Studies of agriculture were established at the Czech Technical University (ČVUT) in 1906, and the first agricultural engineers graduated in 1911. In 1920 the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry was established, and in 1952 the faculty became an independent institution, University College of Agriculture in Prague (; VŠZ). In 1966 it moved to a newly built campus in Prague-Suchdol, where it has been located since.  The Faculty of Forestry, established in 1952, was part of ČVUT until 1959, then a part of the agricultural university until 1964, when it became the independent Institute of Forestry Science (). It has been a part of ČZU since 1990.  The university adopted its current name in 1995.  During communist rule in Czechoslovakia, the university was lavishly funded as part of state support of collectivised agriculture.  From 1952 to 1980 the master's degree offered by the university lasted five years. It then switched to a four-year course from 1980–90, before switching back to five years. Since 1993 three-year bachelor study has also been available.

Academics.

The university offers bachelors' programmes and Master's programmes (based on credit system) and doctoral programmes.  The university offer now includes a total of 40 programmes taught in English, approximately 15 of which are in the bachelor level and 25 in the master's level of studies.  The Secretary of the Interfaculty Committee Agraria is located at CULS. In 2005 the Czech University of Life Sciences (CULS) became a member of the Euroleague for Life Sciences (ELLS), and it is also a member of the Biofector project.

Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (CULS; (), ČZU; also Czech University of Agriculture in Prague) is a university of agricultural education and research in Prague, the Czech Republic, established in 1906.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze (ČZU) je veřejná vysoká škola univerzitního typu se sídlem v Praze–Suchdole. Založena byla v roce 1952 a skládá se ze šesti fakult a jednoho institutu. Do roku 1995 nesla název Vysoká škola zemědělská v Praze. V angličtině používá oficiální název "Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (CZU)".