History.

First and second building.

The first station in Kolín was built according to the design of chief engineer Anton Jüngling, who in 1844 submitted for approval a construction project with a budget of 40 526 guldens. The Klein Brothers Entrepreneurship began with the construction in early 1845. Against the original budget, the Klein Brothers Entrepreneurship offered a discount of 21⁄2 percent. Kolín station was not fully appreciated at its beginnings, although its location near the Elbe was indicative of the industrial boom of the city. The station was built near the Elbe on the embankment, which was protected by a stone pavement in case of flood ranged from 2 to 3 fathoms. It was a small railway station with leight of 200 fathoms with three tracks, classified as IV. category station with order number 21.  The reception building was built of bricks, the one-storey center of which was adjacent to two ground-level wings. It was 25 fathoms long, 6 wide. The roof of the building was covered with an English slate. Towards the track area there was a ground-floor annex that was covered with sheet metal. On the ground floor of the building was an engineer's office, a post office, a shelter of the pump servicer, the dispatcher and switchman flats. In the annex there was a waiting room with a cash desk. The original reception building survived at the same place for about 85 years, though it did not serve the original purpose later. Opposite the reception building behind the rails, a water tower was built with 5 fathoms deep well. From there the hand pump pumped water into the tank in the tower. The water was then led to two water cranes, from which the steam locomotive was pumping water. A steam pump was located in Pardubice. At the station, a carriage house was also built for two backup machines with a length of 20 and a width of 6 fathoms. However, this house was soon replaced by a warehouse.  The ceremonial opening of the Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway took place on 20 August 1845. The first train arrived in the afternoon, was towed by locomotives ""Prague"" and ""Olomouc"". A locomotive ""Bohemia"" rode as a vanguard for five minutes, accompanied by the chief engineer Jan Perner. The stops of the ceremonial train at the small railway stations was shortened to the minimum. Even though battalions were flying in Kolín, the music was played in the presence of the honorary division of the Palombini Regiment. Even at the opening ceremony, the station was not fully appreciated by the locals. The Kutná Hora citizens welcomed the solemn train in Záboří nad Labem, according to the locals with the joy that the track was not run through their town. On 1 September 1845 passenger transport started, and a freight transport followed a month later.  Prior to 1855, a private siding to the Coal Company of Emperor Ferdinand I was built at the station. This company also ran the shops in the stations. In 1858, a magnificent rebuilding has changed station over time to a huge railway junction. In 1861, the original water tower was replaced by a new one. Hand water pump carrying water directly from Elbe was replaced by a steam one. Both pumps, however, did not survive a major reconstruction in 1871. In 1869, Imperial Royal Privileged Austrian State Railway Company ("StEG") and Austrian Northwestern Railway ("ÖNWB") companies agreed on two separate railway stations adjacent to each other with a newly built departure building, because of intersection of ÖNWB new line. The new building was designed by ÖNWB architect Carl Schlimp. It was a ground-level tract, ending with vertical winged wings. On both sides the covered platforms were adjacent to the building, the building was situated in an island position between the two StEG and ÖNWB stations. The southern platform was operated by StEG, the northern one by ÖNWB.  The junction of the Austrian northwest railroad between Golčův Jeníkov and Kolín was put into operation on 6 December 1869, to Mladá Boleslav on 29 October 1870. In 1871, the construction of the second railway from Pečky to Kolín took place, in 1885 railway line from Přelouč to Kolín was led. According to the timetable of the northern branch of StEG from 1868, the train Nr. 4 with regular departure from Kolín at 9:28 arrived in Pardubice at 10:38. In the opposite direction, train Nr. 3 with regular departure from Kolín at 5:48 arrived in Prague at 7:37. After the completion of the new reception building, the original building served just for residential purposes. Between 1872 and 1886 the station was named New Kolín.  In 1908, the construction of the second track of the Austrian northwest railroad from Kolín to Sedlec u Kutné Hory (current location of Kutná Hora main railway station) was launched, a year later to Velký Osek. Original IV. class railway station had suddenly become an important traffic junction. At that time there was an industrial boom and within a few decades the Kolín town was transformed into an industrial city with lots of factories, even though the railway station was not fully appreciated at first. In 1909 Austrian private railway companies ÖNWB and StEG were nationalized by the Austrian Federal Railways company, which became the sole owner of Kolín station. Before the First World War, lever frame system was installed in the station. In the stations in the direction of Prague and Záboří nad Labem was installed a gate semiautomatic block.

Third building.

In 1918, Czechoslovak State Railways were established and the station got a new again. With the independence of Czechoslovakia, the Olomouc-Prague railway became the main railway line in the country. The station was no longer able to serve the increasing traffic demand. At that time there was still the original reception building from 1845 and the newer building from 1871. The Ministry of Railways had decided that the Kolín railway station will have to be rebuilt to meet the new conditions.  A brand new building was designed by architect Vladimír Weiss in a functionalist style but it was built between 1938 and 1939, way after the previous plan, by Dr. ing. V. Mrha company at the place of the original reception building from 1845. In connection with the construction of the new reception building, a reception building from 1871 was also laid down and the platforms were built on an extra-level island. The reception building consisted of an oblong one-storey building, which was situated along the tracks. The larger part of the reception building occupied the central courtyard, which served as a departure hall. From there, the stair led to the subway to the island platforms. The symbol of the new railway station was the emblem of the winged wheel in which the clock was placed, it was located above the entrance.  In the summer of 1939, the station was used for long-distance national connections from Prague Wilson Station (central) to Havlíčkův Brod and Jihlava. Connections with regular departure from Kolín at 8:27 and at 17:15 arrived in Jihlava at 10:24 and at 19:07. On the territory of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, the state railway company Českomoravské dráhy was established during the Second World War, but changing the owner was just formal. On 18 April 1945 Kolín station was bombed by Allied air forces. The freight and marshalling yards were most damaged during the raid. Bombing also damaged adjacent factories, especially "Draslovka" (Kalliwerke A.G.), which produced Zyklon B for usage in concentration camps. The station post office was also damaged.  After the end of World War II, the administration of the station passed to Czechoslovak State Railways. In the morning of 16 May 1945 President Edvard Beneš was welcomed there, as he used a train on his return from the war exile in Great Britain. At the head of the special train No. 11.554 was locomotive 387.032, the train was accompanied by an armored train "Moscow". By special timetable, the train stopped in Kolín with a ten-minute stop. The expected train stay at the station was from 12:28 to 12:38 (the timetable was probably not met). In addition, the armored train was accompanied by a condensing locomotive Class 52. The war-damaged railway station is documented in a film that Česká televize ("Czech Television") announced on the "Hledání ztraceného času" program. At 5 o'clock in the afternoon of 15 June 1945, a freight train collided with a passenger one in the station, 27 people died. Station Kolín has not maintained its status of significance for decades. The proof may be a timetable issued one year after the end of the war. Ex 31 "Ostravan" passed the station. Also during World War II several connections from Prague to Ostrava and Brno were passing through the station. In the 1944 timetable, this was the case for express trains No. 3 and 9.  In the 1960s, the station was equipped with Soviet-type signal light. In the intermediate station section from Kolín to Pardubice, the automatic block signaling was already operating, also in the opposite section to Prague. On the other hand, a semi-automatic block with track gates was still used in the stations in direction to Havlíčkův Brod. Here the automatic block signaling appeared only in the 1980s. The symbol of the 1960s was Pannonia Express, which traveled through the station from Berlin to Sofia via Kutna Hora. In 1969/1970 it was Ex 56 "Pannonia" and Ex 57 "Pannonia". Trains were obligatory to be booked and had relatively high speeds at that time. They were already driven by electric locomotives E 499.1.  The modernization of track and station security equipment was also connected with an electrification of the station, althrough steam traction continued to take place on the line from Kolín to Havlíčkův Brod. Bratislava express train was driven by a steam locomotive of the 498.1 series, the Brno and Znojmo expresses by steam locomotive series 464.0. Trains to Golčov Jeníkov and Čáslav for the change were hauled by a steam locomotive of the 354.1 series. In the 1970s, train passengers could occasionally meet the prototype locomotive T324.001. This locomotive spent almost all of its life at the station. The wreck of this machine was shut down in Kolín depot on 28 May 1976.  In the 1980s, a "Pragotron" passenger information system was installed at the station.  After finishing the construction work on the I. Czech transit railway corridor, the station remained in a dilapidated state. Most of the stations on the track were not included in the corridor works, including Pardubice hl.n.. Revitalization of Kolín station took place several years later and was completed at the end of 2009. The most significant investment was the replacement of the original relay alarm system with the modern ESA11 computer-based interlocking. The first and second track tracks allow a speed of 120 km/h (higher speeds can be passed through tilting units). A new two-storey administrative building, called "No. 2", was also built. The platforms No. 2 and No. 3 with a total length of 400 meters were rebuilt and extended. Reconstruction also underwent the expedition building within the Czech Railways project "Živá nádraží" (Live stations). The selection process for the reconstruction of the building was won by AŽD Prague in 2006. The reconstruction was divided into several stages, where the original station security system was replaced by the modern one. On 20 April 2016 the prototype of the M 260.001 "Silver Arrow" arrived at Cologne Station. It symbolically recalled the Slovenská strela ("Slovakian Bullet") from 1936/1937, which regularly traveled (not stopping) to the station. This elegant motorcar never got into regular operation.  The railway accidents of passenger and freight trains in the station and in its immediate vicinity have also occurred in modern history. On 28 November 2009 passenger train No. 2103 from Prague to Pardubice, formed by a 471 electric unit, derailed when entering the station. The accident caused no injuries and the damage to the ramp amounted to one million crowns.  In the front of the station there is the city bus terminal.

Kolín railway station is a railway station in the city of Kolín on the Elbe river in Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic.

Kolín je železniční stanice v Kolíně na adrese Rorejcova 569. Je spojovacím uzlem tratí č. 010, 014, 230, 231, do něhož ústí celkem pět železničních tratí ze směru od Prahy, Olomouce, Ledečka, Havlíčkova Brodu a Velkého Oseku. Stanice je elektrifikovaná (3 kV ss). Budova je majetkem České republiky a provozovatelem je Správa železnic.


Design.

Ride height system.

The Lotus E20 was planned to feature a "reactive ride height" suspension system — a mechanical device designed to maintain ride height under braking — at the start of the 2012 season. Lotus (and formerly both their immediate predecessors, Lotus Renault GP and Renault F1 Team) had been developing the system since January 2010. The system used hydraulic cylinders located in the brake calipers and suspension push-rods to make minute adjustments to the ride height of the car, thereby keeping the ride height at an optimal level throughout the race and providing stability during braking. This initially had the approval of the FIA, who reversed their position one week later ruling that such systems were in breach of their regulations, on the grounds that the primary function of such a device was improve the aerodynamic performance of cars, and was therefore in violation of Article 3.15 of the technical regulations, which states that "any device that influences the car's aerodynamics must remain immobile in relation to the sprung part of the car". The teams were notified of the FIA's decision on 20 January 2012, and as a consequence, the reactive ride height system did not feature on 2012 cars.

Testing problems.

The team was forced to withdraw from the second pre-season test in Barcelona when Romain Grosjean complained about a "strange" feeling in the chassis while driving on the opening morning of the test. The team gave no official diagnosis of the problem at the time, but speculation within the media suggested the problem was related to the front suspension and that the problem presented itself at the Circuit de Catalunya because of the higher lateral loads placed on the chassis at the circuit than those experienced at Jerez. James Allison, the team's technical director, later confirmed that the team had identified the problem as being the mounting of the upper front wishbone on the rear suspension arm. Grosjean had been testing the chassis designated E20-02 at the time; the chassis E20-01 was returned to the team's Enstone facility following completion of testing at Jerez. Upon discovering the problem, Lotus initially prepared chassis E20-01 to be transported to Barcelona to complete the test, but simulations revealed that the problem was also present on E20-01, and so the team decided to withdraw from the remainder of the test with immediate effect. The problem was then corrected in time for the team to start the season.

"The Device".

The Lotus E20 was one of the only cars on the 2012 grid to use a version of the "double-DRS" system used by Mercedes on the rear wing of the W03 chassis. The wing used the F-duct concept developed by McLaren in 2010, which blew air across the surface of the wing to "stall" it, thereby cancelling out all downforce and drag running over the wing, allowing the car to achieve a higher top speed. The system developed by Mercedes was reported to create an F-duct effect over the front wing when the Drag Reduction System (DRS) flap in the rear wing opened. Opening the flap would expose two vents, which channeled air back through the car and over the front wing, cancelling out the downforce generated by the front wing with the intention of increasing stability in high-speed corners. Lotus initially opposed the system, and filed a formal protest as they believed it to be a moveable aerodynamic device and therefore in violation of Article 3.15 of the sport's technical regulations, the same Article under which the E20's reactive ride-height system had been challenged. The FIA ultimately rejected Lotus's protest, allowing Mercedes to continue using the double-DRS device and paving the way for Lotus to introduce their own version of it.  Two days after the 2012 Hungarian Grand Prix, the teams unanimously agreed to ban the use of double-DRS systems for the 2013 season. Nevertheless, Lotus continued their development of a double-DRS system, which they referred to as "The Device", and anticipated its introduction at the Belgian Grand Prix, one month later. However, heavy rain in the first two practice sessions at the Spa-Francorchamps circuit delayed The Device's introduction. The team's plans were further put on hold after Romain Grosjean was banned from taking part in the Italian Grand Prix for his role in a multi-car pile-up at the start of the Belgian Grand Prix. Grosjean was replaced by the team's testing and reserve driver, Jérôme d'Ambrosio, but d'Ambrosio's inexperience with the 2012-specification of cars and the low-downforce nature of the Monza circuit — which meant that any gain a double-DRS system had to offer would be negated — prompted the team to delay The Device's introduction even further, naming the Japanese Grand Prix in early October as their planned point of introduction. The team used the double-DRS system as planned during Friday practice, but shelved it until the third round of Young Driver Tests in November after being unhappy with their progress. Kimi Räikkönen admitted that using the system made finding the proper setup for the car much more difficult than without it. By comparison, Red Bull Racing introduced their own variant on the system at the Singapore and Japanese Grands Prix, which was credited with aiding Sebastian Vettel in securing two race wins.  By the end of the season and in spite its extensive development programme, "The Device" was never raced. However, the concept was carried over to the Lotus E20's successor, the E21, with the team pledging to continue development throughout the 2013 season. The system was finally raced for the first time at the 2013 British Grand Prix, when it was fitted on Kimi Räikkönen's car; the team opted not to use it on the sister car of Romain Grosjean so as to evaluate its performance relative to the older specification of car.

Coandă-effect exhaust.

With the double-DRS "Device" shelved for the foreseeable future, the team instead turned their attention to the exhaust, introducing a Coandă-effect system for the Korean Grand Prix. The system, also used by McLaren and Ferrari, used the curved shape of the bodywork at the rear of the car to guide the flow of exhaust gases, creating a low-pressure area over the car's diffuser. The team had previously considered launching the car with a Coandă-effect system, but opted to start the season with a conventional exhaust layout as they felt it was more important to start the season with a car that they knew was competitive rather than attempt to understand both the car and the complex properties of the Coandă effect at the same time.

Season review.

The Lotus E20 showed its potential early in the season when Romain Grosjean qualified third for the Australian Grand Prix. However, the team would go on to experience a difficult season in which they never quite made the most of the car's potential, let down by poor race management and frequent entanglements in on-track incidents. Despite predictions that the team would be competing for race wins — if not the Drivers' and Constructors' Championships' — as early as April, the team would remain winless by October.  Grosjean's strong performance in qualifying for the race in Australia came to nothing when he made contact with Pastor Maldonado on the second lap and retired on the spot. Kimi Räikkönen, who had struggled in qualifying an started the race from seventeenth place, made the best of a bad situation to finish the race seventh. The team fared little better in the next race in Malaysia; both Grosjean and Räikkönen qualified comfortably inside the top ten, but Grosjean made contact with Michael Schumacher on the first lap and slipped down the order before spinning off, while Räikkönen was given a grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change and had to fight to recover to fifth. The team's troubles continued in China; once again, both drivers qualified inside the top ten, but Räikkönen's race was compromised by poor tyre management and he lost eleven positions in a single lap. Grosjean, on the other hand, managed a clean race and was rewarded with his first points in Formula One. The Bahrain Grand Prix represented a breakthrough for the team, with both Räikkönen and Grosjean finishing the race on the podium behind race winner Sebastian Vettel. Both drivers had challenged Vettel for the lead over the course of the race, and while neither managed to catch the reigning World Champion, it was an encouraging sign for team, and one that they would back up at the next race in Spain, with Räikkönen scoring his second consecutive podium after attempting a daring strategy in which he tried to force race winner Pastor Maldonado and Fernando Alonso to drive beyond the life expectancy of their tyres. Räikkönen ran out of laps before Maldonado and Alonso ran out of grip, and the 2007 World Champion finished third, with Grosjean fourth.  The team's fortunes came crashing back down to earth in Monaco when Grosjean was at the centre of a first-lap accident that put himself, Maldonado, Kamui Kobayashi and Pedro de la Rosa out of the race. Räikkönen, meanwhile, struggled after losing valuable track time during Friday practice, as he was unhappy with parts introduced onto the car for the race. He qualified eighth and went on to finish the race ninth. The team's poor form in Monaco proved to be an exception, rather than the rule, as Grosjean went on to finish the Canadian Grand Prix in second place after race leaders Alonso and Vettel fell victim to the ultra-sensitive Pirelli tyres; Grosjean later admitted that he had not thought a podium was possible until he found himself running second with three laps left to run. Räikkönen, on the other hand, missed out on a spot in the top ten on the grid, and so had to work his way up from twelfth to eighth. Grosjean was in contention for his maiden race win in Valencia after an alternator failure forced race leader Sebastian Vettel to retire. Grosjean kept pace with new race leader Fernando Alonso, only to fall victim to the same alternator failure seven laps later. Räikkönen, meanwhile, took advantage of this to finish the race second behind Alonso. The British Grand Prix proved disappointing for Lotus, with Grosjean spinning off during qualifying and Räikkönen struggling with the wet conditions. In the race, Grosjean made contact with Paul di Resta on the first lap; di Resta retired, while Grosjean was forced to pit for a new front wing, shuffling him back down the order to twenty-third. He later recovered to finish sixth behind Räikkönen, both drivers having struggled to match the leaders for pace all race long. Both drivers struggled in qualifying for the German Grand Prix, with Räikkönen starting tenth after being caught out by heavy rain in the middle of the session, and Grosjean managing no better than fifteenth. Räikkönen, however, recovered in the race to finish fourth, inheriting a podium when Sebastian Vettel was given a twenty-second post-race penalty for passing Jenson Button off the circuit. Grosjean, meanwhile, finished eighteenth, a lap behind race winner Alonso. The team bounced back once again in Hungary, with Grosjean qualifying on the front row and finishing third after the team managed to find a strategy for Räikkönen that saw him steal second place away from his team-mate.  Disaster struck in Belgium. Romain Grosjean was once again involved in a first-lap incident when he cut across the circuit at the start, clipping Lewis Hamilton and being launched into Alonso and Sergio Pérez. The violent nature of the accident led to the stewards handing down a one-race ban for Grosjean. Räikkönen salvaged what he could to finish third, but expressed disappointment with the result given his previous achievements at the circuit, including four wins in five starts. With Grosjean forced to miss the Italian Grand Prix, the team drafted their testing and reserve driver, Jérôme d'Ambrosio, to drive car #10 for the race. D'Ambrosio qualified sixteenth and took advantage of high-profile retirements for Sebastian Vettel and Jenson Button to finish thirteenth, the last car to be classified on the lead lap. Räikkönen had a quiet race, starting fifth and finishing seventh. Grosjean returned to the car in Singapore, and once again out-qualified Räikkönen, starting eighth while his team-mate could do no better than twelfth. In the race it was Räikkönen who performed better, finishing sixth, a second ahead of Grosjean. Despite not having won a race by this point, Räikkönen remained in championship contention, sitting in third place, forty-five points behind championship leader Fernando Alonso. While Alonso's nearest rival, Sebastian Vettel, would make significant in-roads into Alonso's championship lead in Japan, Räikkönen went on to finish sixth after making contact with Alonso during the start that forced the Ferrari driver out of the race. Grosjean, on the other hand, was once again caught up in a first-corner melee, making contact with Mark Webber and earning a ten-second stop-go penalty for his troubles, the harshest in-race penalty available to the race stewards. With eight first-lap incidents from fourteen starts to his name in 2012 alone, Red Bull Racing team principal opined that Lotus "needed to control" Grosjean, describing the Frenchman as dangerous to himself and others.  Both cars finished in the points once more at the Korean Grand Prix, with Räikkönen and Grosjean finishing where they started in fifth and seventh place, but the team lost further ground to Red Bull Racing and Ferrari in the World Constructors' Championship. The team scored another double points finish two weeks later in India, with Räikkönen finishing seventh — having spent much of the race stuck behind Felipe Massa — and Grosjean climbing from eleventh to finish ninth overall. Räikkönen would later claim that a podium finish was possible, but mistakes made during the final free practice session and qualifying cost him dearly. One week later in Abu Dhabi, Räikkönen picked up two positions off the start line to be second as the cars began their first lap, inheriting the lead when Lewis Hamilton's McLaren developed a terminal electrical fault that forced him out of the race. Räikkönen held onto the position for the remainder of the race despite a late challenge from Fernando Alonso, finally winning Lotus' first race in 2012 six months after it had been predicted. Romain Grosjean, on the other hand, was involved in early contact that forced him to pit to repair damage. He recovered to fifth, but retired when Sergio Pérez veered sharply onto the circuit after being forced off by Paul di Resta. Pérez and Grosjean made contact, pushing Grosjean into the path of Mark Webber, and the two retired with collision damage.  The team were unable to continue their winning form in the United States; despite Räikkönen's surprise at a strong qualifying performance when both he and Grosjean had struggled for grip throughout free practice, any potential for a podium finish was lost when Grosjean spun early in the race and a clutch problem held Räikkönen during his one and only pit stop. Räikkönen and Grosjean went on to finish in sixth and seventh places respectively, while Lewis Hamilton's race win put third place in the World Constructors' Championship out of Lotus's reach. The team scored just a single point at the final race of the season in Brazil, when Räikkönen finished tenth. Grosjean spun out and crashed heavily early on in difficult conditions, while Räikkönen made a poor tyre choice and fell down the order. He was later running as high as sixth, but lost a considerable amount of time in a bizarre incident where he left the circuit and attempted to re-join using the support paddock pit lane, only to find that the way was blocked, which forced him to turn around and re-join the circuit another way. He recovered to eleventh, which became tenth when Paul di Resta crashed out two laps from the end of the race.

Complete Formula One results.

Driver failed to finish the race, but was classified as they had completed greater than 90% of the race distance.

Other appearances.

This car was also featured in the music video for 'Dangerous' by Sam Martin and David Guetta.

The Lotus E20 is a Formula One racing car designed and produced by the Enstone-based Lotus F1 Team for the 2012 Formula One season. The chassis was designed by James Allison, Martin Tolliday and Dirk de Beer with Renault continuing to supply engines. The E20 was the twentieth Formula One car to be designed at Enstone since 1992, and was named in tribute to the contribution made by the facility and its personnel in their twenty-year history. The car was also the first from Enstone to carry the Lotus name, since the team ceased using the Renault name following their renaming from Lotus Renault GP at the end of 2011. The car, which was launched by the team on its website on 5 February 2012, was driven by 2007 World Drivers' Champion Kimi Räikkönen and 2011 GP2 Series champion Romain Grosjean, both of whom returned to Formula One after a two-year absence.

Lotus E20 je vůz formule 1 týmu Lotus F1 nasazený pro rok 2012. Jezdili v něm Fin Kimi Räikkönen, Francouz Romain Grosjean a Belgičan Jérôme d'Ambrosio. Monopost byl představen 5. února 2012.


Life.

Genealogy.

Josyf Slipyj's father, Joannes (Ivan) Slipy, was born 19 May, 1846 in Zazdrist (Pol: Zazdrosc) into a family of local Ukrainian farmers. His mother was Anastasia Dychkovska (born 27 January 1850), the daughter of Roman Dychkovski and Barbara Janisiewicz, also from Zazdrist. Both clans were well rooted in the village and can be traced there as far back as existing records allow. Interestingly, but not uncommon, one of Cardinal Josyf's great grandfathers, Adalberti Slominski, was of the Roman Catholic (Latin) rite.

Early Years.

Josyf Slipyj was born in the village of Zazdrist (Terebovlia povit), Galicia (in modern Ternopil Oblast), then a crownland of Austria-Hungary. Unlike most Ukrainian Catholic priests at the time, Josyf Slipy did not come from a sacerdotal family, which was considered an elite, educated caste among Ukrainians, but had common roots instead. As a teen Josyf studied at the gymnasium in Ternopil and then at the Lviv Greek-Catholic Seminary and Innsbruck University in Austria, before being ordained a priest on 30 June 1917. From 1920 to 1922, he studied in Rome at the Pontifical Oriental Institute, the "Collegio Angelico" (Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, "Angelicum"), and the Pontifical Gregorian University. He returned to Lwów ("Lviv"), by then part of Second Polish Republic.  After a short pastoral assignment, in 1922 Slipyi became a professor of dogmatic theology at the Lviv Holy Spirit Seminary. In 1926 he became the rector of the seminary and actively participated in its development. In 1923 he established the Theological Academic Society, for which he wrote the articles of association and enrolled scholars. In the same year, he became an editor of the quarterly "Bohosloviia" (Theology). On April 14, 1929, Slipyi became the first rector of the Lviv Theological Academy (the predecessor to the Ukrainian Catholic University).  In 1926, Slipyj became a member of the supervisory board of the Lviv National Museum, and in 1931 Deputy Chairman of the Ukrainian Catholic Union. Due to his scholarly merits and active development of Ukrainian cultural and religious life, Slipyi became a member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. At this time he made numerous research trips to Western Europe, Holy Land, took part in union congresses in Velegrad, Prague, Pinsk and 1936 he organized a union congress in Lviv.

Soviet and Fascist Occupation.

On 22 December 1939, with the blessing of Pope Pius XII, Slipyj was ordained archbishop of Serrae and Coadjutor Archbishop of Lviv with the right of succession. The ordination was conducted by Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky in secrecy due to the Soviet presence and the political situation.  On 30 June 1941, Josyf Slipyj supported the Act of Declaration of Ukrainian State. Slipyj became the head of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church on 1 November 1944, following Sheptytsky's death.  After Soviet troops captured Lviv, Slipyj was arrested along with other bishops in 1945 by the NKVD, convicted to penal servitude, allegedly for collaboration with the Nazi regime. This was the first step in the planned liquidation of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church by Soviet authorities. After being jailed in Lviv, Kiev, and Moscow, a Soviet court sentenced him to eight years of hard labor in the Siberian Gulag.  At this time Soviet authorities forcibly convened an assembly of 216 priests, and on 9 March 1946 and the following day, the so-called "Synod of Lviv" was held in St. George's Cathedral. The Union of Brest, the council at which the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church formally entered into ecclesiastic communion with the Holy See, was revoked. The Church was forcibly "rejoined" to the Russian Orthodox Church.  Slipyj rejected any offers of conversion into Orthodoxy and was continuously sentenced in 1953, 1957, 1962, thus totally imprisoned for 18 years in camps in Siberia and Mordovia (Dubravlag in Potma). Slipyj spent five years in Maklakovo (Krasnoyarsk region), where he wrote a multi-volume history of the Universal Church in Ukraine.  According to Mykola Posivnych, Josyf Slipyj saw his imprisonment years as lost years. He was devastated since the best years of his life in terms of productivity, Slipyj had to spend among criminals, investigators, and jailers. Numerous times he went through illnesses as well as having his legs and hands broken and frostbitten.  Slipyj's prison writings managed to circulate. In 1957 Pope Pius XII sent him a congratulatory letter on the 40th anniversary of his ordination to the priesthood. It was confiscated, and also on account of his circulating writings, he was sentenced to seven more years in prison.

Release to Rome and honors from the Vatican.

On 23 January 1963, he was freed by Nikita Khrushchev's administration after political pressure from Pope John XXIII and United States President John F. Kennedy. He arrived in Rome on 9 February 1963 in time to participate in the Second Vatican Council.  Beginning in 1963 many Ukrainian bishops lobbied for Slipyj to be named patriarch, but Pope Paul VI refused, instead creating the new office of major archbishop and appointing Slipyj as its first incumbent on 23 December 1963.  On 25 January 1965 Pope Paul VI named Slipyj a cardinal and appointed him Cardinal-Priest of Sant'Atanasio. At the time he was the 4th cardinal in Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church history. In 1949 he had been secretly ("in pectore") named a cardinal by Pope Pius XII, but this would have expired in 1958 when that pope died.  Because, as already noted above, he was major archbishop (not patriarch), he was cardinal priest instead of being in the then-new rank of cardinal patriarch. His successors in Ukraine, whether cardinals or not, have used the title of major archbishop.  He did not participate in the 1978 papal conclaves in August and October being past the age of 80 then.  On the first occasion of an audience with Pope John Paul II, the Pope showed respect by greeting Cardinal Slipyj first, which was contrary to protocol.

Reorganization of UGCC life.

From the start of his arrival in Rome the Major Archbishop strove to organize the self-management of the local Ukrainian Catholic Church, headed by the patriarch. This idea was not supported by the Apostolic See.  In 1968, 1970, 1973 and 1976 Cardinal Slipyj visited countries in Europe, America, Asia and Australia in order to strengthen the ties with the Ukrainian diaspora overseas, and to reinvigorate the religious life of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church abroad. During these years he also took part in three international Eucharistic Congresses (Bombay, Bogota, Melbourne).  In 1977, Slipyj consecrated Ivan Choma, Stefan Czmil and Lubomyr Husar as bishops without approval of the pope in an act of exposition of patriarchal aspirations. These consecrations caused much annoyance to the Roman Curia as episcopal consecrations without papal permission are considered illicit in Roman Canon Law but not Eastern Canon Law.  As a Major Archbishop with Patriarchal rights, Slipyj gathered a number of synods of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. The most significant ones took place in 1969, 1971 and 1973. During the last Synod, the constitution of the UGCC patriarchal arrangement was adopted. Slipyj published his ordinances in “Evangelicum of the Major Archbishop of the Byzantine-Ukrainian rite” starting from 1964.  In Rome, he bought and rebuilt church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus for Ukrainian Catholics. On the territory of church both museum and hospice were founded. In 1967-1968, the cathedral of Santa Sofia on Via Boccea was built in Rome at his orders.  In 1960 he revitalized the Ukrainian Theological Scientific Society in exile and restored the publishing of “Bohoslovia” (Theology) in 1963 and the journal “Dzvony” (Bells) in 1976.  In 1963 Slipyj organized the Ukrainian Catholic University of St. Clement with an academic publishing house.

Death and burial.

Although Slipyj was banned from entering Ukraine by the leaders of the USSR, including Nikita Khrushchev, nevertheless he refused to give up his Soviet passport.  He died in Rome on 7 September 1984. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, his relics were returned to St. George's Cathedral in Lviv, and were reburied there August 27–29, 1992.  His cause for canonisation has been introduced at Rome.

Intellectual interests.

In his research work he concentrated on approximating the scholasticism of Saint Thomas Aquinas to the requirements of Eastern Theology. Slipyj wrote a number of dogmatic works on the importance of the Holy Trinity, the origin of the Holy Spirit and Holy Sacraments, among which are:  · "«Die Trinitatslehre des byzantinischen Patriarchen Photios»", 1921  · "«De principo spirationis in SS. Trinitate»", 1926  · «On the Holy Sacraments», 1953  · "«Die Auffassung des „Lebens“ nach dem Evangelium und I.Briefe des Hl. Johannes»", 1965  He also covered historical and ecumenical topics.  In 1968-1976 all of the Josyf Slipyj works were gathered and published as a work of the Ukrainian Catholic University in Rome (Volume I-VIII).

Honors, Commemoration and Monuments.

Honors  Honorable member of Shevchenko Scientific Society (1964)  Member of Tiberian Academy in Rome (1965)  Honorary doctorate of Ukrainian Free University in Munich (1969)  Commemorative coin with denomination of 2 UAH of the National Bank of Ukraine, dedicated to Josyf Slipyj  Monuments and Commemorative tablets Museums  · A museum dedicated to Josyf Slipyj was opened on the premises of Lviv Theological Academy (now UCU) in 1997.  · Patriarch Josyf Slipyj “Hometown” memorial museum complex was opened in 1998 in the place of his birth, the village Zazdrist.  Institutions  Both Ternopil Seminary in the town of Velyka Berezovytsia and Ternopil municipal Collegium were named after Patriarch Josyf Slipyj.  Toronto Catholic District School Board has elementary school, named after him. Opened in September 1985.  Streets  A number of Ukrainian cities’ streets hold the name of Patriarch Josyf Slipyj (Lviv, Ternopil, Ivano-Frankivsk, Kolomyia).  Commemorative events  The year 2002 was dedicated by the UGCC to the commemoration of the 110th anniversary of Josyf Slipyj birth. On this occasion in July a pilgrimage to Zarvanytsia took place, with pilgrims coming from various parts of Ukraine, Canada, the US, altogether more than 200.000.  On 22 March 2012, the Ukrainian parliament issued an order to commemorate the 120th anniversary of Josyf Slipyj’s birth. The parliament suggested that the government establish an organizational committee that would develop a program of events to honor the anniversary on the state-wide level. The parliament also proposed to republish Josyf Slipyj’s works, organize a conference in Kyiv on the topic “Patriarch Josyf Slipyj’s role in Ukrainian state creation and the formation of national identity of Ukrainian people”, and initiate measures to preserve and restore objects related to Slipyj activities. The National Bank of Ukraine was ordered to issue a commemorative coin from the series “Prominent Ukrainians” with Slipyj’s depiction. The Ukrainian Postal Service “Ukrposhta” was ordered to print envelops and postage stamps with Slipyj’s portrait.  To commemorate the 125th anniversary of birth of Major Archbishop of Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and long-sentenced political prisoner of Soviet concentration camps, Lviv regional council dedicated the year 2017 to Josyf Slipyj.

"The Shoes of the Fisherman".

It seems likely that Slipyj's life story was known to the Australian writer Morris West's 1963 novel "The Shoes of the Fisherman". West's protagonist is Kiril Pavlovich Lakota, the Metropolitan Archbishop of Lviv, who is freed by the Soviet Premier after 17 years in a Siberian labor camp. He is sent to Rome, where an elderly pope makes him a cardinal. The Pontiff dies, and Lakota finds himself elected Pope, taking the name Kiril I (a rare modern use of a baptismal name as a papal name).  Despite the similarities, it is not clear to what extent West used Slipyj or Bishop Hryhorij Lakota (who died in 1950 in the gulag) as a particular model for his character. The book begins with a disclaimer: “This is a book set in a fictional time, peopled with fictional characters, and no reference is intended to any living person, whether in the Church or out of it.” According to the publisher, "The Shoes of the Fisherman" was written between March 1961 and August 1962, which is before Slipyj's release.  The novelty of a Ukrainian pope in a post-Cuban Missile Crisis, Cold War world led to the book being featured on "The New York Times Best Seller list". It was the number 1 bestseller of the entire year on the "Publishers Weekly" fiction list, and the parallels led to increased fame for Slipyj.  Hollywood's film version appeared in 1968, starring Anthony Quinn as Lakota/Kiril I and Laurence Olivier as the (fictional) USSR Premier Piotr Ilyich Kamenev (and Lakota's jailer). It was nominated for two Academy Awards.  Some today regard "The Shoes of the Fisherman" as prophetic because it preceded by 15 years the election of Karol Józef Wojtyła as Pope John Paul II, the first Slavic pope as well as one from a Communist nation, noting even the Kiril/Karol similarity of names.

Josyf Slipyi (, born as ; 17 February 1893 – 7 September 1984) was a Major Archbishop of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and a Cardinal of the Catholic Church.

Josip kardinál Slipyj (17. února 1892, v. Zazdrisť, dnes Terebovljanský rajón, Ternopilská oblast – 7. září 1984, Řím) byl ukrajinský řeckokatolický arcibiskup a kardinál.


Education and personal life.

Eagleburger was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the son of Helen (née Van Ornum), an elementary school teacher, and Leon Sidney Eagleburger, a medical doctor. He graduated from P J Jacobs High School in Stevens Point, Wisconsin, then attended Stevens Point State College (now the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point), before earning his bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Wisconsin. During his time at Wisconsin, he joined Alpha Sigma Phi fraternity.  He was also a member of the Board of Visitors at the College of William and Mary from 1996 to 2000 and from 2002 to 2006.  Eagleburger also served in the United States Army (1952–1954), attaining the rank of first lieutenant.  He had three sons, all of whom are named Lawrence Eagleburger, though they have different middle names (Scott, Andrew and Jason). The eldest is from his first marriage, which ended in divorce. The other two are from his second marriage, which was to Marlene Ann Heinemann from 1966 until her death in 2010.

Governmental career.

In 1957, Eagleburger joined the United States Foreign Service, and served in various posts in embassies, consulates, and the Department of State. From 1961 to 1965 he served as a staffer at the U.S. Embassy in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He was known as the person who handled the Skopje 1963 earthquake crisis, and managed the first US-Soviet humanitarian cooperation, after which he was nicknamed Lawrence of Macedonia.  Starting in 1969, he served in the Nixon administration as an assistant to National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger. He stayed in this appointment until 1971; thereafter he took on several positions, including advisor to the U.S. Mission to NATO in Brussels, and, following Kissinger's appointment as Secretary of State, a number of additional posts in the State Department and Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (1971–73).  Following Nixon's resignation, he briefly left government service. He was then named the Executive Secretary to the Secretary of State from 1975 to 1977, and subsequently was appointed as ambassador to Yugoslavia by President Jimmy Carter, a post he held from 1977 to 1980. While working as Executive Secretary to Kissinger in 1975 he carried out secret talks with the Cubans in New York City.  From May 14, 1981, to January 26, 1982, Eagleburger was Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs. In 1982, Reagan appointed him as Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs (the State Department's third-ranking position), a position he held for several years. He then became president of Kissinger Associates, a consultancy firm which provided firms with advice on international politics. In 1989, President George H. W. Bush appointed him Deputy Secretary of State (the Department's second-ranking position); he also served as the President's primary advisor for affairs relating to the quickly disintegrating Yugoslavia. On August 23, 1992, James Baker resigned as Secretary of State (to manage Bush's unsuccessful re-election campaign), and Eagleburger served as Acting Secretary of State until Bush gave him a recess appointment for the remainder of the Bush administration.  His period as advisor for Yugoslavian affairs from 1989 to 1992 was highly controversial. He gained a reputation for being a strong Serbian partisan, most controversially denying that Serbian paramilitaries and the Yugoslav National Army had committed atrocities in the breakaway republic of Croatia. This perceived partisanship led the European press to dub him "Lawrence of Serbia" (a reference to Lawrence of Arabia). Eagleburger had controversial ties to Yugoslavia both in promoting loans to Yugoslavia as a government official and later serving on the board of a yugoslav bank as well as with Yugo Motors, USA.  In 1991, President Bush awarded him the Presidential Citizens Medal. He was a member of the board of directors of the International Republican Institute.

International Commission on Holocaust-Era Insurance Claims.

Eagleburger became chairman of the International Commission on Holocaust Era Insurance Claims, or ICHEIC, which was set up in 1998. The purpose of the Commission was to resolve unpaid Nazi-era insurance claims for survivors of the Holocaust. In 2005, Eagleburger announced that the ICHEIC was offering approximately 16 million dollars to Holocaust victims and their heirs, noting as he did so the research ability of the ICHEIC staff which allowed them to evaluate claims from companies which no longer existed. In the years prior to this there had been some controversy about the Commission, including reports that it was over-budgeted and too slow, and that insurance companies which had previously agreed to work with the ICHEIC had failed to disclose policyholder lists. Eagleburger responded to these accusations by saying, among other things, that it was difficult to work quickly when many of the claimants lacked basic information such as the name of the insurance company involved.

Stance on Middle Eastern conflict.

After serving in the Foreign Service for 27 years, Eagleburger retained an interest in foreign policy and was a familiar figure on current events talk shows. He caused some discussion with public comments about President George W. Bush's foreign policy. In August 2002, Eagleburger questioned the timing of possible military action in Iraq, saying, "I am not at all convinced now that this is something we have to do this very moment." He did indicate he believed that Iraqi regime change could be a legitimate U.S. endeavor at some point, but that at that time he did not believe the administration was fully prepared for such a conflict. In April 2003, following warnings by the Bush administration to the government of Syria, Eagleburger condemned the possibility of military action in Syria or Iran, saying that public opinion would not support such a move and that "If President Bush were to try it now, even I would feel he should be skinned alive."  On January 5, 2006, he participated in a meeting at the White House of former Secretaries of Defense and State to discuss United States foreign policy with Bush administration officials. On November 10, 2006 it was announced that he would replace Secretary of Defense designate Robert Gates in the Iraq Study Group.  After the election of Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, Eagleburger seemed to think that Iran was moving in a direction which may at some point call for military action, saying in an interview that while "we should try everything else we can first", at some point it would probably be necessary to use force to ensure that Iran did not obtain or use nuclear weapons.  He was Chairman of the Board of Trustees for The Forum for International Policy, and a member of the Washington Institute for Near East Policy (WINEP) Board of Advisors.

2008 Presidential election.

Before the Republican primaries, Eagleburger endorsed John McCain for President. In an NPR interview on October 30, 2008, he described McCain's running-mate Sarah Palin as "not prepared" for top office. He also stated that many vice presidents have not been ready. The next day, in an interview on Fox News, he retracted his comments about Palin.  On October 30, 2008, on the Fox News Channel, Eagleburger referred to Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama as a "charlatan", citing his fundraising methods and other aspects of his presidential campaign.

Death.

Eagleburger died of pneumonia at the University of Virginia Medical Center in Charlottesville, Virginia, on June 4, 2011. He was 80 and had lived outside Charlottesville since 1990. He is survived by his three sons.  President Barack Obama described Eagleburger as a "distinguished diplomat and public servant who devoted his life to the security of our nation and to strengthening our ties with allies and partners." Former President George H. W. Bush described Eagleburger as "a tireless patriot, principled to the core, selflessly devoted to America and his duty." Vice President Joe Biden remarked "The post-Cold War world...is more stable and secure because of Eagleburger's service." "Larry believed in the strength of America's values, and he fought for them around the world," said Secretary of State Hillary Clinton.  Lawrence and his wife Marlene Ann are both interred at Arlington National Cemetery.

Lawrence Sidney Eagleburger (August 1, 1930 – June 4, 2011) was an American statesman and career diplomat, who served briefly as the Secretary of State under President George H. W. Bush. Previously, he had served in lesser capacities under Presidents Richard Nixon, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan, and as Deputy Secretary of State under George H. W. Bush.

Lawrence Eagleburger celým jménem Lawrence Sidney Eagleburger (1. srpna 1930 Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA – 4. června 2011 Charlottesville, Virginie, USA) byl americký republikánský politik. V letech 1989-1992 zastával funkci zástupce ministra zahraničních věcí Jamese Bakera ve vládě George H. W. Bushe. V letech 1992-1993 pak zastával funkci samotného ministra. V roce 1991 byl oceněn prezidentskou občanskou medailí.


Name.

The first element of the name is "not" which means "to fish using a seine" and the last element is the finite form of "odde" meaning "headland". Thus the general meaning of the name is "the fishing place".

Coat-of-arms.

The coat-of-arms is from modern times. They were granted on 11 August 1939. The arms show a silver-colored river and four lightning strikes. One of the first hydroelectric power stations in Norway was established in the late 19th century at the Tinnfoss waterfall on the Tinn River.

Twin towns.

In 2008, Notodden city council decided to end the twin city agreements with Ilisalmi, Nyköping and Stelle. At the same time Suwałki was approved as a new twin city.  The following cities are twinned with Notodden:  Former twin cities of Notodden:

Notable residents.

Notodden is the hometown of organist Kåre Nordstoga, the internationally known author Hans Herbjørnsrud who was born in Heddal, and the Hardanger fiddlemaker Olav Gunnarsson Helland (1875–1939) who many consider the finest of the twentieth century. Composer Klaus Egge, born 1906 in Gransherad, also lived in Notodden.  Olympic gold medalist Ådne Søndrål was born in Notodden.  American blues musician Seasick Steve, who is achieving fame in the United Kingdom, currently resides in Notodden. Norwegian blues musician Margit Bakken and painter and author Tor-Arne Moen also live in Notodden.  One of the most influential Norwegian black metal bands, Emperor, came from Notodden, as does Mortiis, Peccatum, Star of Ash, Leprous, and Zyklon. Emperor's singer, Ihsahn, still resides in Notodden.

Notodden () is a city and municipality in Vestfold og Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Øst-Telemark. The administrative centre of the municipality is the city of Notodden.

Notodden je norské město v kraji Vestfold og Telemark. Je součástí tradičního kraje Øst-Telemark. Notodden má obyvatel a celkovou rozlohu 914 km2. Město bylo založeno v místech, kde se do jezera Heddalsvatnet vlévá řeka Tinne. Od roku 2015 je společně s městem Rjukan a údolím mezi těmito městy zapsán na seznamu světového kulturního dědictví UNESCO.


Old church.

The construction of the church was part of a Protestant church-building programme initiated by Kaiser Wilhelm II and his consort Augusta Victoria to counter the German labour movement and socialist movement by a return to traditional religious values. Wilhelm II decided to name the church in honor of his grandfather Kaiser Wilhelm I. The competition for the design was won by Franz Schwechten, member of the Bauakademie who had distinguished himself with the design of the Anhalter Bahnhof. Schwechten, a native Rhinelander, planned for a large church to be built in a Neo-Romanesque style modelled on the Bonn Minster with a Tuff stone facade. His design included of wall mosaic, a -high spire (now 71 metres, or 233 ft) and a nave which seated over 2,000 people.  The foundation stone was laid on 22 March 1891, which was Wilhelm I's birthday. The church was dedicated on 1 September 1895, the eve of the Day of Sedan. At that time, the entrance hall in the lower section had not yet been completed; that part of the church was not opened and consecrated until 22 February 1906. Construction costs mounted to 6.8 million gold mark, raised primarily through donations. The church design, quite unfamiliar in the Brandenburg region, inspired several architectural projects in the surrounding area, like the "Romanisches Café" building, also designed by Schwechten.  In World War II, on the night of 23 November 1943, the church was extensively damaged in an air raid. Yet it was by no means beyond repair. A remnant of the spire and much of the entrance hall survived intact, as did the altar and the baptistry. After the war, in 1947, the curatorium of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche foundation (Stiftung) decided in favor of rebuilding the church, but the manner in which this should be done was contentiously debated until the late 1950s. In a two-phased design competition in 1956, the question of whether the secured remnant of the spire should be torn down or preserved was left open. The winner of the competition, architect Egon Eiermann, initially proposed, in both his submissions, for the remnant of the old spire to be torn down, in favor of a completely new construction. But that plan provoked a public outcry in which the ruined tower was characterized as the "heart of Berlin"; as a result Eiermann revised the design to preserve the tower. He had most of the remaining structure pulled down, in order to build the modern church that now occupies most of the site.

New church.

The new church was designed by Eiermann and consists of four buildings grouped around the remaining ruins of the old church. The initial design included the demolition of the spire of the old church but following pressure from the public, it was decided to incorporate it into the new design. The four buildings comprise, on the west of the ruins, the new church with a foyer to its west, and to the east of the ruins, a tower with a chapel to its northeast. The plan of the church is octagonal while the plan of the tower is hexagonal. These components are sited on a plateau measuring 100 metres long and 40 metres wide. The new buildings are constructed of concrete, steel and glass. The walls of the church are made of a concrete honeycomb containing 21,292 stained glass inlays. The glass, designed by Gabriel Loire, was inspired by the colours of the glass in Chartres Cathedral. The predominant colour is blue, with small areas of ruby red, emerald green and yellow. The church is 35 metres in diameter and 20.5 metres high with a capacity of over 1,000. Because of the distinctive appearance of the new buildings, it is sometimes nicknamed ""Lippenstift und Puderdose"" (the lipstick and the powder box) by Berliners.  Inside the church, opposite the entrance, is a figure of the Crucifix which is suspended above the altar. This is made from tombak and was designed by Karl Hemmeter. The cross on the altar, by Peter Tauchnitz, is of gilt silver with 37 rock crystals. To the left of the altar is the baptismal font on a stand filled with Carrara marble which contains a majolica bowl for the holy water. To the right of the altar is an octagonal pulpit. Opposite the altar on a gallery is an organ containing about 5,000 pipes, which was built by Schuke. Plexiglas panels have been installed over the organ gallery to improve the acoustics. By the northeast wall of the church are three works of art. The first is a bronze plaque commemorating the Protestant martyrs who died during the Nazi regime between 1933 and 1945. It incorporates a Spanish wooden crucifix dating from the 13th century. The plaque was placed in the church on 20 July 1964, the 20th anniversary of an attempt to assassinate Hitler. Next to this is the "Stalingrad Madonna", a symbol of hope and reconciliation. This is a charcoal drawing made by Kurt Reuber during the time he was trapped inside Stalingrad at Christmas 1942. Copies of this drawing have been sent to Coventry Cathedral and the Russian Orthodox Church in Stalingrad (now Volgograd). The third item of art is an icon of the Virgin Mary from Volgograd.  The tower is 12 metres in diameter and 53.5 metres high with a flat roof. Atop the tower is a pole carrying a gilded sphere above which is a gilded cross. It contains a belfry with six bronze bells cast from French cannon, booty from the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. The foundation stone of the new church was laid on 9 May 1959, its roofing ceremony was carried out on 16 December 1960, the new bells were consecrated on 19 July 1961, the new church was consecrated on 17 December 1961 and the foyer and chapel were completed in December 1963.

Bells of the new church.

Different bells are rung on different occasions:

Spire and memorial hall.

The entrance hall in the base of the damaged spire was reopened to visitors, having been consecrated on 7 January 1987. Its floor contains a mosaic of the Archangel Michael fighting the dragon. The vault shows a procession of Hohenzollern princes, early and more recent. Other mosaics show important monarchs in medieval Germany, Reformation thinkers and Reformation princes. Bas-relief sculptures illustrate scenes from biblical stories, scenes from the life of Kaiser Wilhelm I and symbolic figures representing war and peace. In the north apse are 16 display panels which tell the story of the old church and its destruction. At the opposite end of the hall are three items which symbolise the history of the church. In the middle is a damaged statue of Christ which originally stood on the altar of the old church. To its right is the Cross of Nails which was made from nails in the roof timbers of Coventry Cathedral, which had been severely damaged in a German air raid on 14 November 1940. To the left of the statue of Christ is an icon cross which was given by the Russian Orthodox Church and handed over in 1988. Outside the hall are four sandstone figures made by Stefan Kaehne.  In December 2007, Charles Jeffrey Gray, a former British pilot who carried out World War II bombing raids over Germany, joined a campaign to rescue the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church from decay. After reading about the condition of the Church, Gray contacted Wolfgang Kuhla, the chairman of the church's advisory board, urging that its tower be restored. In response, a fund was launched to help raise the costs of its repair.

The Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church (in German: Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche, but mostly just known as Gedächtniskirche ) is a Protestant church affiliated with the Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia, a regional body of the Evangelical Church in Germany. It is located in Berlin on the Kurfürstendamm in the centre of the Breitscheidplatz.

Protestantský Pamětní kostel císaře Viléma () je kostel v centru německé metropole Berlína. Nachází se na území (bývalého) Západního Berlína na náměstí Breitscheidplatz, na východním konci hlavního berlínského bulváru zvaného Kurfürstendamm. Kostel je pojmenován po pruském králi a německém císaři Vilémovi I. Byl původně vystavěn na památku Viléma I. jeho vnukem Vilémem II.


Discovery and specimens.

The type specimen was discovered between the 10th and 23 June 1965, during a joint Polish-Mongolian paleontological expedition led by Polish paleontologist Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska. The largest of a series of expeditions carried out in 1963–1971, this expedition involved 21 members, which at times were supported by additional hired Mongolian workers. The site of discovery is located in Ömnögovi Province in southern Mongolia in the "Altan Uul" area, which exposes some 100 km2 of badlands. The sediments exposed at Altan Uul belong to the Nemegt Formation, the youngest of the three geological formations of the Nemegt Basin. "Opisthocoelicaudia" was the first of several important dinosaur discoveries made by the 1965 expedition. The other finds, made at different localities, include several skeletons of the tyrannosaurid "Tarbosaurus" as well as the type specimens of the giant ornithomimosaur "Deinocheirus", the sauropod "Nemegtosaurus", and the pachycephalosaur "Homalocephale".  On the fifth day of fieldwork, Ryszard Gradziński, the geologist of the expedition, found a concretion of well-preserved bones which promised to belong to a fairly complete skeleton. Excavation started on the next day, revealing a nearly complete skeleton lacking only the head and neck. Until today, this specimen remains by far the most complete find of this dinosaur. The transport of the specimen out of rough terrain caused major technical problems. Stone blocks containing the fossils had to be moved some 580 m on improvised metal sledges made out of petrol drums before they could be loaded onto trucks. Because the skeleton was embedded in very hard sandstone layers, several blocks weighed over a ton. On the 9th of July, the packing of the skeleton into 35 crates started for transportation to Dalanzadgad; together, the crates weighed about 12 tons.  The type specimen belonged to an aged individual. Its taphonomy is unusual as it was found lying on its back – in contrast, most other nearly complete dinosaur skeletons of the Nemegt Formation usually are found lying on their sides. The specimen was found encased in cross-bedded sandstone deposited by a river. Most of the discovered vertebrae were still connected together, forming a continuous series that consisted of 8 dorsal, 6 sacral and 34 caudal vertebrae. An additional 3 vertebrae were found isolated from the series and may belong to the transitional area between back and neck. The remaining parts of the skeleton were shifted slightly out of their original anatomical position. Both the left limb and rib bones were found on the right side of the body, while conversely the right limb and rib bones were found on the left side. Bite marks have been identified on the skeleton, particularly in the pelvis and the thigh bone, showing that predators had fed on the carcass. The skull and neck are missing, indicating that the carnivores might have carried away these body parts. The completeness of the remains indicate that the individual had died near the discovery site. A flooding event might have transported the carcass a short distance and subsequently covered it with sediment, even before the soft tissue had decayed entirely. In 1977, Polish paleontologist Maria Magdalena Borsuk-Białynicka published her comprehensive description of the skeleton and named "Opisthocoelicaudia skarzynskii" as a new genus and species. The genus name, hinting at the unusual opisthocoel condition of the tail vertebrae, means "posterior cavity tail". It is derived from the Greek ὄπισθεν, "opisthen" [behind, at the back], κοῖλος, "koilos" [hollow], and Latin "cauda" [tail]. The specific name honors Wojciech Skarżyński, the person who prepared the type specimen. "Opisthocoelicaudia" was only the third sauropod from Asia known from a postcranial skeleton, after "Euhelopus" and "Mamenchisaurus". After its discovery, the holotype skeleton became part of the collection of the Institute of Paleobiology in Warsaw, but later was handed back to its country of origin, now being housed at the Institute of Geology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in Ulaanbaatar under the catalog number MPC-D100/404. Besides the type specimen, Borsuk-Białynicka described a shoulder blade and coracoid (ZPAL MgD-I/25c) from the same locality. These bones were not yet fused to each other, indicating a juvenile individual.  By 2017, sauropod fossils had been recovered from a total of 32 localities within the Nemegt Formation, and possibly belong to either "Opisthocoelicaudia" or "Nemegtosaurus". At least two finds from the Nemegt locality – a fragmentary tail (MPD 100/406) and a pair of claws – show features diagnostic for "Opisthocoelicaudia" and can be referred to the latter. Field crews led by Philip Currie attempted to relocate the "Opisthocoelicaudia" holotype quarry in 2006 and 2008, but became successful only in 2009 thanks to additional data provided by Gradziński. Although a prospection for additional bone material was not possible as the quarry had been filled by windblown sand, the quarry could be determined to fall within the lower portion of the Nemegt Formation.

Description.

Like other sauropods, "Opisthocoelicaudia" had a small head on a long neck, a barrel-shaped body on four columnar limbs, and a long tail. It was relatively small for a sauropod; the type specimen was estimated at to from the head to the tip of the tail. The body mass has been estimated at,,, and in separate studies. The skull and neck are not preserved, but the reconstruction of the nuchal ligament indicates the possession of a neck of medium length of roughly. Borsuk-Białynicka, in her 1977 description, noted the presence of 11 dorsal vertebrae. Gregory Paul, in 2019, however argued that the known part of the vertebral column actually includes the first cervical (neck vertebra), leaving only 10 dorsals, the typical count in titanosaurs. As in other titanosaurs, the back was quite flexible due to the lack of accessory vertebral joints (hyposphene-hypantrum articulations), while the pelvic region was strengthened by an additional sixth hip vertebra. The anterior vertebrae of the tail were opisthocoelous, which means they were convex on their anterior sides and concave on their back sides, forming ball-and-socket joints. These opisthocoelous tail vertebrae lend "Opisthocoelicaudia" its name and serve to distinguish the genus from all other titanosaurs. Other titanosaurs were usually characterised by strongly procoelous anterior tail vertebrae, which were concave on their anterior sides and convex on their back sides. Another unique feature can be found in the back vertebrae, which show bifurcated spinous processes, resulting in a double row of bony projections along the top of the spine. While unique in titanosaurs, this feature can be found in several other unrelated sauropods, including "Diplodocus" and "Euhelopus", where it evolved independently.  As in the hips of other titanosaurs, the ischium was relatively short, measuring only two-thirds the length of the pubis. The left and right ischium bones as well as the left and right pubis bones were ossified with each other over most of their length, closing the gap that in other sauropods is normally present between these bones. The limbs were proportionally short, as seen in other titanosaurs. The forelimbs measured in height in the nearly complete specimen, approximately two thirds the length of the hindlimbs, which were reconstructed at height. As in other titanosaurs, the limbs were slightly spread outwards rather than standing vertically under the body, while the forelimbs were more flexible and mobile compared to other sauropods.  The manus was composed merely of the five metacarpalia, which were orientated vertically and arranged in a semicircle. Carpal bones were missing, as in other titanosaurs. Finger bones and claws were also completely absent – in most other titanosaurs, these bones were still present though extremely reduced in size. In the foot, the talus bone was strongly reduced as in other titanosaurs, while the calcaneus was probably completely absent in "Opisthocoelicaudia". In contrast to the manus, the foot showed well developed digits and claws. The phalangeal formula, which states the number of phalanges (digit bones) beginning with the innermost digit, is 2-2-2-1-0. Foot skeletons of titanosaurs are rarely found, and besides "Opisthocoelicaudia", completely preserved examples are known only from "Epachthosaurus" and the unnamed La Invernada titanosaur, whose phalangeal formulas are 2-2-3-2-0 and 2-2-2-2-0, respectively. Of these three titanosaurs, "Opisthocoelicaudia" was the most derived while showing the fewest phalanges, indicating a progressive reduction in the phalangeal count during titanosaur evolution. The claw of the first digit was not larger than that of the second digit, as in other sauropods, but roughly equal in size.  Osteoderms (bony plates formed in the skin) have been found with at least 10 titanosaur genera. The lack of osteoderms in the nearly complete "Opisthocoelicaudia" skeleton might indicate that they are absent in this genus. However, the closely related "Alamosaurus" was found to have osteoderms nearly a century after its discovery, in addition to several other closely related titanosaurs, thus raising the possibility that "Opisthocoelicaudia" had them as well.

Age and paleoenvironment.

The Nemegt Formation was deposited within the Late Cretaceous, although its exact age is unknown as it has never been dated radiometrically. According to different authors, the formation is late Campanian to early Maastrichtian, early Maastrichtian, or middle Maastrichtian in age. The sediments of the Nemegt Formation were deposited in a plain crossed by rivers. The climate was warm and subhumid with seasonal droughts, and the soils were relatively dry. Nevertheless, the Nemegt Formation was more humid than the underlying (and thus older) Barun Goyot and Djadochta Formations, which show a semiarid climate.  The fauna of the Nemegt Formation includes aquatic or amphibious animals such as fish, turtles, and crocodiles as well as birds and the abundant medium to large sized dinosaurs, while smaller terrestrial vertebrates like lizards and mammals are rare. Theropod dinosaurs are very diverse in the Nemegt and include the abundant tyrannosaur "Tarbosaurus", which might have preyed upon "Opisthocoelicaudia". The only other known sauropod is "Nemegtosaurus", which is known from a single skull. Ornithischians are represented by the "duck-billed" hadrosaurids (including the very common "Saurolophus"), the thick-skulled pachycephalosaurs, and the heavily armored ankylosaurs. Neoceratopsians are absent, despite being present in the older Barun Goyot and Djadochta formations. Other important dinosaur finds from the same locality as "Opisthocoelicaudia" include the troodontid "Borogovia" and the ankylosaur "Tarchia".

Classification.

Originally, "Opisthocoelicaudia" was classified as a member of the family Camarasauridae, together with "Camarasaurus" and "Euhelopus". This classification was based on several shared features of the skeleton, most importantly the forked neural spines of the back vertebrae. In 1977, Borsuk-Białynicka considered "Opisthocoelicaudia" closer to "Euhelopus" than to "Camarasaurus", placing it in the subfamily Euhelopodinae. A 1981 study by Walter Coombs and Ralph Molnar, on the other hand, considered it a member of the subfamily Camarasaurinae and therefore a close relative of "Camarasaurus". Today, both "Euhelopus" and "Opisthocoelicaudia" are classified outside the Camarasauridae. In 1993, Leonardo Salgado and Rodolfo Coria showed "Opisthocoelicaudia" to represent a titanosaur and classified it within the family Titanosauridae. The name Titanosauridae is currently considered invalid by many scientists; instead, the name Lithostrotia is often used as an equivalent. Within the Lithostrotia, "Opisthocoelicaudia" has been found to be closely related to the genera "Alamosaurus", "Neuquensaurus", "Rocasaurus" and "Saltasaurus", together forming the family Saltasauridae. Interrelationships of these genera are contested. Many scientists considered "Opisthocoelicaudia" to be most closely related to "Alamosaurus", with both genera forming a monophyletic group, the Opisthocoelicaudiinae. Other scientists came to the conclusion that the Opisthocoelicaudiinae is paraphyletic (not forming a natural group). Contradicting most other studies, Upchurch and colleagues in 2004 argued that "Alamosaurus" has to be placed outside the Saltasauridae as a close relative of "Pellegrinisaurus", and therefore is not related to "Opisthocoelicaudia" at al.  The following cladogram is based on Calvo and colleagues (2007), showing a monophyletic "Opisthocoelicaudiinae":

Relationship to "Nemegtosaurus".

Another sauropod of the Nemegt-Formation, "Nemegtosaurus", is known only from a skull. "Opisthocoelicaudia", on the other hand, lacks both the skull and neck, precluding a direct comparison and leading to suspicions that it may represent a synonym of "Nemegtosaurus". According to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), the oldest name has priority over younger synonyms – if "Opisthocoelicaudia" would be shown to be a synonym of "Nemegtosaurus", the name "Nemegtosaurus" would remain valid while "Opisthocoelicaudia" would become invalid.  Both "Opisthocoelicaudia" and "Nemegtosaurus" where discovered during the 1965 joint Polish-Mongolian expedition. Before the remains were prepared and described, the expedition crew believed both finds to belong to the same species of sauropod. In 1977, Borsuk-Białynicka deemed "Opisthocoelicaudia" and "Nemegtosaurus" to represent separate genera because "Nemegtosaurus" was at this time considered to be a member of the Dicraeosauridae, while "Opisthocoelicaudia" seemed to be a representative of a different group, the Camarasauridae.  Currently, both "Opisthocoelicaudia" and "Nemegtosaurus" are classified within the Titanosauria, and Jeffrey Wilson stated in 2005 that synonymy cannot be ruled out. Currie and colleagues, in 2003 and 2017, argued that a synonymy is very probable in the light of new fossil discoveries in the Nemegt Formation. After relocating the original "Nemegtosaurus" quarry, these researchers excavated postcranial bones of the "Nemegtosaurus" holotype including the centrum of a caudal vertebra and hind limb bones, which allowed, for the first time, a direct comparison between the "Nemegtosaurus" and "Opisthocoelicaudia" type specimens based on overlapping elements. These postcranial elements were found to be very similar to the corresponding parts of the "Opisthocoelicaudia" holotype. Most importantly, the discovered caudal centrum is opisthocoelous – a diagnostic feature of "Opisthocoelicaudia" – suggesting that both genera were either closely related or synonymous. Furthermore, these authors noted that none of the 32 known sauropod localities of the Nemegt Formation revealed evidence for the presence of more than one species of sauropod. In her first description, Borsuk-Białynicka (1977) argued that different sauropod genera sharing the same habitat is nothing unusual, as is evident in the North American Morrison Formation. Currie and colleagues, however, stressed that the dinosaur fauna of the Nemegt Formation was fundamentally different, as larger dinosaurs were present with only few species per clade, indicating a harsh and geographically restricted habitat. Definitive proof for the suggested synonymy is, however, still missing, and additional overlapping elements would be required before "Opisthocoelicaudia" and "Nemegtosaurus" can be formally declared synonyms.

Paleobiology.

Posture.

Originally, Borsuk-Białynicka assumed that in standard position the neck was horizontal or slanted slightly downward. This was based on the reconstruction of the nuchal ligament, which runs atop of the cervical and dorsal vertebrae and serves to support the weight of the head and neck. Although an S-curved, swan-like ascending neck was envisaged in several subsequent reconstructions following similar depictions of better known sauropods, recent studies argue that sauropod necks were relatively straight and were carried more horizontally.  The back was also reconstructed in a more or less horizontal orientation by Borsuk-Białynicka, which was followed by most subsequent depictions. In a 2007 study, Daniela Schwarz and colleagues suggested that the back dipped towards the rear. According to these researchers, the shoulder blade would have been inclined at a horizontal angle of 55–65°, much steeper than previously thought, resulting in an elevated shoulder region. With the vertebral column of the trunk and neck held in a relatively straight line, this would result in an elevated position of the head.

Rearing stance.

"Opisthocoelicaudia" may have been able to rear up on its hindlimbs for foraging, using its tail as a third leg. In 1977, Borsuk-Białynicka cited several skeletal features that might have been related to rearing, including the opisthocoelous vertebrae of the anterior part of the tail, which, according to this author, would have made the tail more flexible than in other sauropods. Features of the pelvis, such as the thickened shelf of the acetabulum, the flaring ilia, and the fused pubic symphysis, may have allowed the pelvis to withstand the stress of rearing.  Heinrich Mallison in 2011 argued that "Opisthocoelicaudia" may have been able to angle the anterior part of the tail against the posterior part, producing a buckle in midsection. Thus, the anterior part would have been more straight during rearing than in other sauropods. In 2005, Wilson assumed that rearing was an innovation not only of "Opisthocoelicaudia" but also of related genera within the subfamily Saltasaurinae. Common features of these genera, such as the shortened tail, may have evolved as adaptations to rearing.

Footprints.

Footprints from the Nemegt Formation were unknown until 2003, when several examples had been described from the Nemegt locality by Currie and colleagues. Most of these footprints belonged to hadrosaurids (probably "Saurolophus"), while two have been left by a large theropod (probably "Tarbosaurus") and yet another two by the hindfoot of a sauropod. The sauropod tracks were assigned to "Opisthocoelicaudia", which, according to these authors, showed a matching hind foot morphology and was probably the only known sauropod (and, thus, the only potential trackmaker species) from the Nemegt Formation when "Nemegtosaurus" is regarded a synonym. The tracks were left in the soft and wet mud of shallow or freshly dried up points along a river and subsequently filled up with sand. Today only the sand infill remains, with the encasing mudstone having been eroded away. The best-preserved footprint measures across, so it was probably created by an individual larger than the type specimen. Although the surface of the underside is hard to obtain, the vertical surfaces are very well preserved, making this track one of the best preserved sauropod tracks known. Four digital impressions can be distinguished, with two or three showing claw impressions. The toes were almost perpendicular. Even a skin impression has been preserved above the impression of the first toe, which shows the non-overlapping scales, each with an average diameter of. The foot of the track creator was probably a little longer than wide. The second track is much shallower than the first, but shows well-preserved digit impressions with a high degree of detail, including at least two deep claw impressions that are rotated outwards, and a well-preserved impression of a fleshy toe pad behind the middle claw.  Although number of additional sauropod tracks were reported in subsequent accounts, they continued to be rare in relation to the much more common hadrosaurid and theropod tracks. Brennan Stettner and colleagues, in 2017, reported on footprints discovered during a 2007 expedition to the Nemegt locality. The best preserved of these, a very large, long impression of a hindfoot, features a very well preserved underside showing digital pads and four outwards directed digits, the first three of which showing claws. Also in 2017, Judai Nakajima and colleagues described a kidney-shaped impression as the first sauropod manus (forefoot) impression discovered in the formation.

Opisthocoelicaudia is a genus of sauropod dinosaur of the Late Cretaceous Period discovered in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. The type species is Opisthocoelicaudia skarzynskii. A well-preserved skeleton lacking only the head and neck was unearthed in 1965 by Polish and Mongolian scientists, making "Opisthocoelicaudia" one of the best known sauropods from the Late Cretaceous. Tooth marks on this skeleton indicate that large carnivorous dinosaurs had fed on the carcass and possibly had carried away the now-missing parts. To date, only two additional, much less complete specimens are known, including a part of a shoulder and a fragmentary tail. A relatively small sauropod, "Opisthocoelicaudia" measured about in length. Like other sauropods, it would have been characterised by a small head sitting on a very long neck and a barrel shaped trunk carried by four column-like legs. The name "Opisthocoelicaudia" means "posterior cavity tail", alluding to the unusual, opisthocoel condition of the anterior tail vertebrae that were concave on their posterior sides. This and other skeletal features lead researchers to propose that "Opisthocoelicaudia" was able to rear on its hindlegs.

Opisthocoelicaudia ("duté ocasní obratle") byl rod středně velkého sauropodního dinosaura, vědecky popsaného polskou paleontoložkou Marií Magdalenou Borsuk-Białynickou v roce 1977 z území dnešního Mongolska. Fosilie dinosaura byly objeveny v poušti Gobi již roku 1965 a sestávají z nekompletní kostry. Nebyla ovšem objevena zkamenělina krční páteře a lebky. Fosilie pocházejí z vrstev svrchní křídy (stupeň kampán, stáří asi 75 milionů let).


History.

1950s–1960s.

Eni was founded in 1953 from an existing company, Agip, which was created in 1926 with the aim to explore for oilfields, acquire and commercialize oil and derivatives. In March 1953, Enrico Mattei was nominated Eni's chairman.  Eni originally was an acronym for the company's full title Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi (National Hydrocarbons Authority). After 1995, the meaning ceased to be relevant but the name was maintained. In 1952, the logo of the then nascent Eni was selected. The logo is a six-legged dog, an imaginary animal symbolizing the sum of a car's four wheels and the two legs of its driver.  Starting in 1954, Eni acquired extensive exploration rights in North Africa, signing an agreement with the Egyptian government led by Nasser while providing an active and equal role for the crude producing countries through the establishment of joint ventures. In 1957 Eni pushed for a similar agreement, known as the "Mattei formula", to be signed with Persian Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the National Iranian Oil Company. In 1960, during the Cold War period, Eni signed an agreement with the Soviet Union for the importation of Russian crude at low prices.  On 27 October 1962, Enrico Mattei's airplane mysteriously exploded near Bascapè, on his way to Milan from Catania. His death was initially considered an accident, but later it was confirmed to be a murder with the aim to protect and hide important economical and political interests in Italy and especially abroad, as it is clearly stated in the records of the trial on the assassination of the journalist Mauro De Mauro, who was investigating on the death of Enrico Mattei.  During the following years, Eni signed joint venture contracts with foreign companies to supply crude from Egypt to Iran and from Libya to Tunisia. In 1963, Eni acquired a majority stake in Italgas.

1970s–1980s.

In October 1973 after the Yom Kippur War and the OPEC embargo against the United States and the Netherlands by OPEC members and Arab countries, a serious his oil crisis occurred, causing Eni to consolidate its position in the international market by signing an agreement with Sonatrach, the Algerian state oil entity for natural gas supply.  In 1974 Eni signed an agreement with the Libyan government, followed by additional agreements with Egypt, Nigeria and Tunisia.  During the mid-1970s, Eni planned a major infrastructure for transporting natural gas over long distances, by building a pipeline network of thousands of miles throughout Europe and the Mediterranean.  After the inauguration of the Trans-Mediterranean Pipeline connecting Algeria to Sicily through Tunisia, Eni signs a new agreement with Libya for the exploitation of Boùri, the biggest oilfield in the centre of the Mediterranean, and develops its international role within the oil industry.

1990s–2000s.

In 1992 Eni became a joint stock company by Law Decree, and was listed to the Italian and New York Stock Exchange in 1995.  From 1995 to 1998 Eni put four share offers fully successfully, as 70% of its capital assets were sold to private shareholders.  As the price of oil collapsed in 1998 as other major companies Eni got to turn into a race through merges, international acquisitions, new explorations and the foundation of real super-companies.

2000s–2010s.

Since 2000, Eni has been developing the Kashagan oilfield a major offshore discovery, along the Caspian Sea.  In 2005 the Blue Stream pipeline projected to supply gas from southern Russia to Turkey was inaugurated as a joint venture between Eni and Gazprom.  In 2007 Eni signed an agreement to conduct South Stream a feasibility study with Gazprom to import Russian gas into Europe across the Black Sea.  Activist asset manager Knight Vinke, who owns 1% of the outstanding shares of the company, begun pressuring Eni's management to operate a spin-off of Eni's gas activities. In its opinion this would solve the undervaluation of the company and release up to 50 billion euros ($70bn) of hidden value.  In 2010 Eni achieves key production milestone in Iraqi Zubair oil field.  After getting a licence in 2006 for the exploration of an offshore area in the north of Mozambique, known as Area 4, Eni announced several major natural gas discoveries between 2011 and 2012 such as Mamba South, Mamba North, Mamba North East, Coral 1.

2010 to present.

In February 2014, ENI discovered oil at its DRC offshore block.  Since 2012 Eni has been selling off refining and marketing assets it owned in eastern Europe to increase profitability. By 2013 Eni already reduced its refining capacity by 13 percent. In May 2014 Eni agreed to sell their 32.5% share in Česká rafinerská a.s. (CRC), a refining company in Czech Republic, to MOL Group of Hungary.  In June 2014 the company signed an agreement with Sasol to acquire a 40% interest in a permit to explore 82,000-km offshore of South Africa's east coast.  In 2014 Eni launched a new plan to convert its conventional refineries into biorefineries: the first plant was in Porto Marghera, in 2019 the second one opened in Gela.  In January 2015, Eni in collaboration with Vitol Energy signed a $7 billion contract with the government of Ghana. This agreement was reached to produce oil and gas at Cape Three Points in the Western Region of Ghana, in an attempt to enable Ghana to meet its power and energy needs.  In August 2015 Eni announced the discovery of a huge gasfield off the coast of Egypt.  In 2016 Eni launched Progetto Italia, which aims to redeveloping its industrial areas and to create new renewable sources production plants: in 2018 the first photovoltaic plant was inaugurated in Assemini, the second opened in Porto Torres, both in Sardinia.  In July 2017, the oil giant accepted responsibility for an oil spill affecting the Fylde coast of Blackpool in the United Kingdom.  In January 2018 Eni launched its new HPC4 supercomputer, one of the most powerful computing systems which allows a more effective and fast exploration of oil and gas reservoirs.Since February 2020 Eni replaced the HPC4 supercomputer with the new model HPC5, which has three times the computing ability compared to the previous one.  In March 2018, Eni reached an agreement with MIT to fund fusion research projects run out of the MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center (PSFC)’s newly created Laboratory for Innovation in Fusion Technologies (LIFT). The expected investment in these research projects will amount to about $2 million over the following years.

Operations.

Exploration and production.

As exploration and reserve replacement being major drivers for the company, Eni boosts for production additions in its core oil field areas (North and Sub-Saharan Africa, Venezuela, Barents Sea, Yamal Peninsula, Kazakhstan, Iraq and the Far East). Eni has about 130 exploration and production subsidiaries, such as Eni Norge.  In 2012 Eni reported liquids and gas production for the full year of 1,701 kboe/d, this being calculated assuming a natural gas conversion factor to barrel equivalent, updated to 5,492 cubic feet of gas equal 1 barrel of oil from 1 July 2012.  During 2012 60 new exploratory wells were drilled, as 56 were drilled in 2011 and 47 in 2010. The overall commercial success rate was 40% (40.8% net to Eni) as compared to 42% in 2011 (38.6% net to Eni) and 41% in 2010 (39% net to Eni). In 2012 351 development wells were drilled as well, as 407 in 2011 and 399 in 2010.

Gas and power.

Natural gas.

In 2012, sales of natural gas were 95.32 bcm, down 1.44 bcm compared to 2011.  Eni's power generation sites are located in Ferrera Erbognone, Ravenna, Livorno, Taranto, Mantova, Brindisi, Ferrara and Bolgiano. In 2012, Eni's power generation was 25.67 TWh. Overall Eni supplies 2,600 customers including large companies, power generation companies, wholesalers and distributors of natural gas for automotive use. Residential users are 7.45 million and include households, professionals, small and medium size enterprises, and public bodies located all over Italy and 2.09 million customers in European Countries. International sales include Iberian Peninsula, Germany, Austria, Benelux, Hungary, UK/Northern Europe, Turkey, France markets.

Power generation.

Eni's electricity generation sites in Italy, as of January 2010, are the following:

Refining and marketing.

Eni is the leader operator in refining and marketing of petroleum products in Italy. Eni is engaged in retail and wholesales activities in Central-Eastern European countries also (Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Czech Republic, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Hungary). Retail sales operations are conducted under the Eni and Agip brands. The re-branding of Eni's service stations in Italy and in the rest of Europe to Eni brand is underway.

Engineering and construction.

Eni operates in engineering, construction and drilling both offshore and onshore for the oil&gas industry through the subsidiary Saipem.  In April 2012, Eni in collaboration with ZEiTECS announced the world's first offshore rigless/wireline retrievable ESP system for Eni Congo.

Subsidiaries.

Eni's principal subsidiaries include::

Legal problems.

The Central Energy Italian Gas Holding scandal in 2005 involved Eni and Gazprom.  In 2009, the European Commission filed formal antitrust charges against Eni. The commission believes that Eni has conspired to keep competitors from using its gas pipelines.  In 2009 again, according to the WikiLeaks cables, US ambassador Lanier told Washington that bribery allegations were made in Uganda by Eni which at the time was in competition for oil assets in the country against Tullow Oil. The bribes were taken by the newly appointed Ugandan prime minister, Amama Mbabazi.  After corruption charges against the subsidiary Saipem, Eni's CFO Alessandro Bernini had to resign and the new CFO Massimo Mondazzi took over in December 2012.  Eni and Royal Dutch Shell will stand trial in Italy over allegations of corruption in the 2011 purchase of a big offshore oil field in Nigeria known as OPL 245. Eni and Shell reportedly paid $1.3 billion in bribes.

Sustainability.

Jordan Engel has listed the company among the top-100 companies killing the planet; these are the companies responsible for the 100 biggest contributions to global warming, responsible for more than 70% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions since 1988.  Eni has been included into the Dow Jones Sustainability World Index since 2007.  In 2012 Eni is confirmed on the FTSE4Good Index for the sixth consecutive year.  In 2012 Eni is also included in the Carbon Performance Leadership Index and is the only FTSE MIB company to gain the triple E for Standard Ethics.  During 2012, Eni decreased CO emission that resulted from flaring by 10% as compared to 2011.  In 2013 Eni has been confirmed in the Dow Jones Sustainability Indices and, in the half-yearly review in March 2014, also in the FTSE4 good sustainability index.  In 2013 Eni continued its commitment to integrated reporting, preparing the Annual Report 2013 in accordance with the principles and contents of the integrated reporting (IR) framework issued by the International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC).  Among the UN Sustainable Development Solution Network (SDSN), in 2013 Eni led the Energy For All in Sub-Saharan Africa initiative through international collaborations aimed at devising solutions to fight against energy poverty, in particular in Sub-Saharan Africa.  In 2013 Eni's commitment continued in ensuring access of local communities to energy, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa.  In the first half of 2014 Eni achieved the start-up of the Porto Torres green chemistry plant and the Venice biorefinery.  Eni has been ranked as the 11th best of 92 oil, gas, and mining companies on indigenous rights in the Arctic.  In 2019 Eni SpA is among the Top 10 companies by sustainability score in the WBCSD rank.

Corporate structure.

board of directors.

The board of directors is comprised as follows as of May 2020:

Eni S.p.A. () is an Italian multinational oil and gas company headquartered in Rome. Considered one of the seven "Supermajor" oil companies in the world, it has operations in 66 countries with a market capitalization of US$55.61 billion, as of 31 December 2019. The Italian government owns a 30.303% golden share in the company, 3.934% held through the state treasury and 26.369% through the Cassa Depositi e Prestiti. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index.

Eni je nadnárodní ropná společnost se sídlem v Itálii. Patří mezi největší soukromé ropné společnosti na světě. Společnost podniká v 85 státech světa. Společnost se zabývá hlavně těžbou ropy a zemního plynu, ale také zpracováním a distribucí ropných produktů nebo výrobou elektrické energie.