Title and translation.

The English translation by Arthur Wesley Wheen gives the title as " All Quiet on the Western Front". The literal translation of "Im Westen nichts Neues" is "Nothing New In the West," with "West" being the Western Front; the phrase refers to the content of an official communiqué at the end of the novel.  Brian Murdoch's 1993 translation rendered the phrase as "there was nothing new to report on the Western Front" within the narrative. Explaining his retention of the original book-title, he says: Although it does not match the German exactly, Wheen's title has justly become part of the English language and is retained here with gratitude. The phrase "all quiet on the Western Front" has become a colloquial expression meaning stagnation, or lack of visible change, in any context.

Plot summary.

The book tells the story of Paul Bäumer, who belongs to a group of German soldiers on the Western Front during World War I. The patriotic speeches of his teacher Kantorek had led the whole class to volunteer for military service shortly after the start of World War I. He didn't have any experience when going into the war but he still went in with an open mind and a kind heart. Paul lived with his father, mother, and sister in a charming German village, and attended school. His class was "scattered over the platoons amongst Frisian fishermen, peasants, and labourers." Bäumer arrives at the Western Front with his friends and schoolmates (Leer, Müller, Kropp and a number of other characters). There they meet Stanislaus Katczinsky, an older soldier, nicknamed Kat, who becomes Paul's mentor. While fighting at the front, Bäumer and his comrades have to engage in frequent battles and endure the treacherous and filthy conditions of trench warfare.  At the beginning of the book, Remarque writes, "This book is to be neither an accusation nor a confession, and least of all an adventure, for death is not an adventure to those who stand face to face with it. It will try simply to tell of a generation of men who, even though they may have escaped (its) shells, were destroyed by the war." The book does not focus on heroic stories of bravery, but rather gives a view of the conditions in which the soldiers find themselves. The monotony between battles, the constant threat of artillery fire and bombardments, the struggle to find food, the lack of training of young recruits (meaning lower chances of survival), and the overarching role of random chance in the lives and deaths of the soldiers are described in detail.  The battles fought here have no names and seem to have little overall significance, except for the impending possibility of injury or death for Bäumer and his comrades. Only pitifully small pieces of land are gained, about the size of a football field, which are often lost again later. Remarque often refers to the living soldiers as old and dead, emotionally drained and shaken. "We are not youth any longer. We don't want to take the world by storm. We are fleeing from ourselves, from our life. We were eighteen and had begun to love life and the world; and we had to shoot it to pieces."  Paul's visiting his home highlights the cost of the war on his psyche. The town has not changed since he went off to war; however, he finds that he does "not belong here anymore, it is a foreign world." He feels disconnected from most of the townspeople. His father asks him "stupid and distressing" questions about his war experiences, not understanding "that a man cannot talk of such things." An old schoolmaster lectures him about strategy and advancing to Paris while insisting that Paul and his friends know only their "own little sector" of the war but nothing of the big picture.  Indeed, the only person he remains connected to is his dying mother, with whom he shares a tender, yet restrained relationship. The night before he is to return from leave, he stays up with her, exchanging small expressions of love and concern for each other. He thinks to himself, "Ah! Mother, Mother! How can it be that I must part from you? Here I sit and there you are lying; we have so much to say, and we shall never say it." In the end, he concludes that he "ought never to have come [home] on leave."  Paul feels glad to be reunited with his comrades. Soon after, he volunteers to go on a patrol and kills a man for the first time in hand-to-hand combat. He watches the man die, in pain for hours. He feels remorse and asks forgiveness from the man's corpse. He is devastated and later confesses to Kat and Albert, who try to comfort him and reassure him that it is only part of the war. They are then sent on what Paul calls a "good job." They must guard a supply depot in a village that was evacuated due to being shelled too heavily. During this time, the men are able to adequately feed themselves, unlike the near-starvation conditions in the German trenches. In addition, the men enjoy themselves while living off the spoils from the village and officers' luxuries from the supply depot (such as fine cigars). While evacuating the villagers (enemy civilians), Paul and Albert are taken by surprise by artillery fired at the civilian convoy and wounded by a shell. On the train back home, Albert takes a turn for the worse and cannot complete the journey, instead being sent off the train to recuperate in a Catholic hospital. Paul uses a combination of bartering and manipulation to stay by Albert's side. Albert eventually has his leg amputated, while Paul is deemed fit for service and returned to the front.  By now, the war is nearing its end and the German Army is retreating. In despair, Paul watches as his friends fall one by one. It is the death of Kat that eventually makes Paul careless about living. In the final chapter, he comments that peace is coming soon, but he does not see the future as bright and shining with hope. Paul feels that he has no aims or goals left in life and that their generation will be different and misunderstood.  In October 1918, Paul is finally killed on a remarkably peaceful day. The situation report from the frontline states a simple phrase: "All quiet on the Western Front." Paul's corpse displays a calm expression on its face, "as though almost glad the end had come."

Themes.

One of the major themes of the novel is the difficulty of soldiers to revert to civilian life after having experienced extreme combat situations. Remarque comments in the preface that "[This book] will try simply to tell of a generation of men who, even though they may have escaped its shells, were destroyed by the war." This internal destruction can be found as early as the first chapter as Paul comments that, although all the boys are young, their youth has left them. In addition, the massive loss of life and negligible gains from the fighting are constantly emphasized. Soldiers' lives are thrown away by their commanding officers who are stationed comfortably away from the front, ignorant of the daily terrors of the front line.

Main characters.

Albert Kropp.

Kropp was in Paul's class at school and is described as the clearest thinker of the group as well as the smallest. Kropp is wounded towards the end of the novel and undergoes a leg amputation. Both he and Bäumer end up spending time in a Catholic hospital together, Bäumer suffering from shrapnel wounds to the leg and arm. Though Kropp initially plans to commit suicide if he requires an amputation, the book suggests he postponed suicide because of the strength of military camaraderie and a lack of a revolver. Kropp and Bäumer part ways when Bäumer is recalled to his regiment after recovering. Paul comments that saying farewell was "very hard, but it is something a soldier learns to deal with."

Haie Westhus.

Haie is described as being tall and strong, and a peat-digger by profession. Overall, his size and behavior make him seem older than Paul, yet he is the same age as Paul and his school-friends (roughly 19 at the start of the book). Haie, in addition, has a good sense of humour. During combat, he is injured in his back, fatally (Chapter 6)—the resulting wound is large enough for Paul to see Haie's breathing lung when Himmelstoß (Himmelstoss) carries him to safety.

Friedrich Müller.

Müller is 19 and one of Bäumer's classmates, when he also joins the German army as a volunteer to go to the war. Carrying his old school books with him to the battlefield, he constantly reminds himself of the importance of learning and education. Even while under enemy fire, he "mutters propositions in physics". He became interested in Kemmerich's boots and inherits them when Kemmerich dies early in the novel. He is killed later in the book after being shot point-blank in the stomach with a "light pistol" (flare gun). As he was dying "quite conscious and in terrible pain", he gave his boots which he inherited from Kemmerich to Paul.

Stanislaus "Kat" Katczinsky.

Kat has the most positive influence on Paul and his comrades on the battlefield. Katczinsky was a cobbler (shoemaker) in civilian life; he is older than Paul Bäumer and his comrades, about 40 years old, and serves as their leadership figure. He also represents a literary model highlighting the differences between the younger and older soldiers. While the older men have already had a life of professional and personal experience before the war, Bäumer and the men of his age have had little life experience or time for personal growth.  Kat is also well known for his ability to scavenge nearly any item needed, especially food. At one point he secures four boxes of lobster. Bäumer describes Kat as possessing a sixth sense. One night, Bäumer along with a group of other soldiers are holed up in a factory with neither rations nor comfortable bedding. Katczinsky leaves for a short while, returning with straw to put over the bare wires of the beds. Later, to feed the hungry men, Kat brings bread, a bag of horse flesh, a lump of fat, a pinch of salt and a pan in which to cook the food.  Kat is hit by shrapnel at the end of the story, leaving him with a smashed shin. Paul carries him back to camp on his back, only to discover upon their arrival that a stray splinter had hit Kat in the back of the head and killed him on the way. He is thus the last of Paul's close friends to die in battle. It is Kat's death that eventually makes Bäumer indifferent as to whether he survives the war or not, yet certain that he can face the rest of his life without fear. "Let the months and the years come, they can take nothing from me, they can take nothing more. I am so alone, and so without hope that I can confront them without fear."

Tjaden.

One of Bäumer's non-schoolmate friends. Before the war, Tjaden was a locksmith. A big eater with a grudge against the former postman-turned corporal Himmelstoß (thanks to his strict "disciplinary actions"), he manages to forgive Himmelstoß later in the book. Throughout the book, Paul frequently remarks on how much of an eater he is, yet somehow manages to stay as "thin as a rake". He appears in the sequel, "The Road Back".

Secondary characters.

Kantorek.

Kantorek was the schoolmaster of Paul and his friends, including Kropp, Leer, Müller, and Behm. Behaving "in a way that cost [him] nothing," Kantorek is a strong supporter of the war and encourages Bäumer and other students in his class to join the war effort. Among twenty enlistees was Joseph Behm, the first of the class to die in battle. In an example of tragic irony, Behm was the only one who did not want to enter the war.  Kantorek is a hypocrite, urging the young men he teaches to fight in the name of patriotism, while not voluntarily enlisting himself. In a twist of fate, Kantorek is later called up as a soldier as well. He very reluctantly joins the ranks of his former students, only to be drilled and taunted by Mittelstädt, one of the students he had earlier persuaded to enlist.

Peter Leer.

Leer is an intelligent soldier in Bäumer's company, and one of his classmates. He is very popular with women; when he and his comrades meet three French women, he is the first to seduce one of them. Bäumer describes Leer's ability to attract women by saying "Leer is an old hand at the game". In chapter 11, Leer is hit by a shell fragment, which also hits Bertinck. The shrapnel tears open Leer's hip, causing him to bleed to death quickly. His death causes Paul to ask himself, "What use is it to him now that he was such a good mathematician in school?"

Bertinck.

Lieutenant Bertinck is the leader of Bäumer's company. His men have a great respect for him, and Bertinck has great respect for his men. In the beginning of the book, he permits them to eat the rations of the men that had been killed in action, standing up to the chef Ginger who allowed them only their allotted share. Bertinck is genuinely despondent when he learns that few of his men had survived an engagement.  When he and the other characters are trapped in a trench under heavy attack, Bertinck, who has been injured in the firefight, spots a flamethrower team advancing on them. He gets out of cover and takes aim on the flamethrower but misses, and gets hit by enemy fire. With his next shot he kills the flamethrower, and immediately afterwards an enemy shell explodes on his position blowing off his chin. The same explosion also fatally wounds Leer.

Himmelstoss.

Corporal Himmelstoss (spelled Himmelstoß in some editions) was a postman before enlisting in the war. He is a power-hungry corporal with special contempt for Paul and his friends, taking sadistic pleasure in punishing the minor infractions of his trainees during their basic training in preparation for their deployment. Paul later figures that the training taught by Himmelstoss made them "hard, suspicious, pitiless, and tough" but most importantly it taught them comradeship. However, Bäumer and his comrades have a chance to get back at Himmelstoss because of his punishments, mercilessly whipping him on the night before they board trains to go to the front.  Himmelstoss later joins them at the front, revealing himself as a coward who shirks his duties for fear of getting hurt or killed, and pretends to be wounded because of a scratch on his face. Paul Bäumer beats him because of it and when a lieutenant comes along looking for men for a trench charge, Himmelstoss joins and leads the charge. He carries Haie Westhus's body to Bäumer after he is fatally wounded. Matured and repentant through his experiences Himmelstoß later asks for forgiveness from his previous charges. As he becomes the new staff cook, to prove his friendship he secures two pounds of sugar for Bäumer and half a pound of butter for Tjaden.

Detering.

Detering is a farmer who constantly longs to return to his wife and farm. He is also fond of horses and is angered when he sees them used in combat. He says, "It is of the vilest baseness to use horses in the war," when the group hears several wounded horses writhe and scream for a long time before dying during a bombardment. He tries to shoot them to put them out of their misery, but is stopped by Kat to keep their current position hidden. He is driven to desert when he sees a cherry tree in blossom, which reminds him of home too much and inspires him to leave. He is found by military police and court-martialed, and is never heard from again.

Josef Hamacher.

Hamacher is a patient at the Catholic hospital where Paul and Albert Kropp are temporarily stationed. He has an intimate knowledge of the workings of the hospital. He also has a "Special Permit," certifying him as sporadically not responsible for his actions due to a head wound, though he is clearly quite sane and exploiting his permit so he can stay in the hospital and away from the war as long as possible.

Franz Kemmerich.

A young boy of only 19 years. Franz Kemmerich had enlisted in the army for World War I along with his best friend and classmate, Bäumer. Kemmerich is shot in the leg early in the story; his injured leg has to be amputated, and he dies shortly after. In anticipation of Kemmerich's imminent death, Müller was eager to get his boots. While in the hospital, someone steals Kemmerich's watch that he intended to give to his mother, causing him great distress and prompting him to ask about his watch every time his friends visit him in the hospital. Paul later finds the watch and hands it over to Kemmerich's mother, only to lie and say Franz died instantly and painlessly when questioned.

Joseph Behm.

A student in Paul's class who is described as youthful and overweight. Behm was the only student that was not quickly influenced by Kantorek's patriotism to join the war, but eventually, due to pressure from friends and Kantorek, he joins the war. He is the first of Paul's friends to die. He is blinded in no man's land and believed to be dead by his friends. The next day, when he is seen walking blindly around no man's land, it is discovered that he was only unconscious. However, he is killed before he can be rescued.

Publication and reception.

From November 10 to December 9, 1928, "All Quiet on the Western Front" was published in serial form in "Vossische Zeitung" magazine. It was released in book form the following year to smashing success, selling one and a half million copies that same year. Although publishers had worried that interest in World War I had waned more than 10 years after the armistice, Remarque's realistic depiction of trench warfare from the perspective of young soldiers struck a chord with the war's survivors—soldiers and civilians alike—and provoked strong reactions, both positive and negative, around the world.  With "All Quiet on the Western Front", Remarque emerged as an eloquent spokesman for a generation that had been, in his own words, "destroyed by war, even though it might have escaped its shells." Remarque's harshest critics, in turn, were his countrymen, many of whom felt the book denigrated the German war effort, and that Remarque had exaggerated the horrors of war to further his pacifist agenda. The strongest voices against Remarque came from the emerging Nazi Party and its ideological allies. In 1933, when the Nazis rose to power, "All Quiet on the Western Front" became one of the first degenerate books to be publicly burnt; in 1930, screenings of the Academy Award-winning film based on the book were met with Nazi-organized protests and mob attacks on both movie theatres and audience members.  However, objections to Remarque's portrayal of the World War I German army personnel were not limited to those of the Nazis in 1933. Dr. Karl Kroner () was concerned about Remarque's depiction of the medical personnel as being inattentive, uncaring, or absent from frontline action. Dr. Kroner was specifically worried that the book would perpetuate German stereotypes abroad that had subsided since the First World War. He offered the following clarification: “People abroad will draw the following conclusions: if German doctors deal with their own fellow countrymen in this manner, what acts of inhumanity will they not perpetuate against helpless prisoners delivered up into their hands or against the populations of occupied territory?”  A fellow patient of Remarque's in the military hospital in Duisburg objected to the negative depictions of the nuns and patients, and of the general portrayal of soldiers: “There were soldiers to whom the protection of homeland, protection of house and homestead, protection of family were the highest objective, and to whom this will to protect their homeland gave the strength to endure any extremities.”  These criticisms suggest that perhaps experiences of the war and the personal reactions of individual soldiers to their experiences may be more diverse than Remarque portrays them; however, it is beyond question that Remarque gives voice to a side of the war and its experience that was overlooked or suppressed at the time. This perspective is crucial to understanding the true effects of World War I. The evidence can be seen in the lingering depression that Remarque and many of his friends and acquaintances were suffering a decade later.  In contrast, "All Quiet on the Western Front" was trumpeted by pacifists as an anti-war book. Remarque makes a point in the opening statement that the novel does not advocate any political position, but is merely an attempt to describe the experiences of the soldier.  The main artistic criticism was that it was a mediocre attempt to cash in on public sentiment. The enormous popularity the work received was a point of contention for some literary critics, who scoffed at the fact that such a simple work could be so earth-shattering. Much of this literary criticism came from Salomo Friedlaender, who wrote a book "Hat Erich Maria Remarque wirklich gelebt?" "Did Erich Maria Remarque really live?" (under pen name Mynona), which was, in its turn, criticized in: "Hat Mynona wirklich gelebt?" "Did Mynona really live?" by Kurt Tucholsky. Friedlaender's criticism was mainly personal in nature—he attacked Remarque as being ego-centric and greedy. Remarque publicly stated that he wrote "All Quiet on the Western Front" for personal reasons, not for profit, as Friedlaender had charged. wrote a parody titled "Vor Troja nichts Neues" ("All quiet before the gates of Troy") under the pseudonym "Emil Marius Requark".

Adaptations.

Film.

In 1930, an American film of the novel was made, directed by Lewis Milestone; with a screenplay by Maxwell Anderson, George Abbott, Del Andrews, C. Gardner Sullivan; and with uncredited work by Walter Anthony and Milestone. It stars Louis Wolheim, Lew Ayres, John Wray, Arnold Lucy, and Ben Alexander.  The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture in 1930 for Universal, the Academy Award for Directing for Lewis Milestone, and the Academy Award for Outstanding Production. It was the first all-talking non-musical film to win the Best Picture Oscar. It also received two further nominations: Best Cinematography, for Arthur Edeson, and Best Writing Achievement for Abbott, Anderson, and Andrews.  In 2016, it was confirmed that Roger Donaldson will direct a remake of "All Quiet on the Western Front" starring Travis Fimmel as Katczinsky.

Television film.

In 1979, the film was remade for CBS television by Delbert Mann, starring Richard Thomas of "The Waltons" as Paul Bäumer and Ernest Borgnine as Kat. The movie was filmed in Czechoslovakia.

Music.

Elton John's album "Jump Up!" (1982) features the song "All Quiet on the Western Front" (written by Elton and Bernie Taupin). The song is a sorrowful rendition of the novel's story ("It's gone all quiet on the Western Front / Male Angels sigh / ghosts in a flooded trench / As Germany dies").  Bob Dylan, during his Nobel Laureate lecture, cited this book as one that had a profound effect on his songwriting.

Radio.

On November 9, 2008, a radio adaptation of the novel was broadcast on BBC Radio 3, starring Robert Lonsdale as Paul Bäumer and Shannon Graney as Katczinsky. Its screenplay was written by Dave Sheasby, and the show was directed by David Hunter.

Audiobooks.

In 2000, Recorded Books released an audiobook of the text, read by Frank Muller.  In 2010, Hachette Audio UK published an audiobook adaptation of the novel, narrated by Tom Lawrence. It was well received by critics and listeners.

Comics.

In 1952, the novel was adapted into comic book form as part of the "Classics Illustrated" series.

All Quiet on the Western Front () is a novel by Erich Maria Remarque, a German veteran of World War I. The book describes the German soldiers' extreme physical and mental stress during the war, and the detachment from civilian life felt by many of these soldiers upon returning home from the front.

Na západní frontě klid ("Im Westen nichts Neues") je román Ericha Marii Remarqua, německého veterána první světové války. Kniha se často zařazuje do realistického proudu meziválečné prózy.


Concept and design.

Rick Sternbach, who designed the Borg cube for "The Next Generation", and Richard James collaborated over several months to design the USS "Voyager". Sternbach started work on the new design in the fall of 1993 when the new series was announced. By the spring of 1994, the design had started to mature, and was smaller than "The Next Generation" "Enterprise"-D with features like the ability to land on a planet's surface. The interior design focused on the bridge, which set the tone for the rest of ship. Throughout the design process, the main goal was to make it new and appealing while still holding in part to the same familiar design.  "Voyager" special effect shots were done with both miniatures and CGI. The miniature shots of the "Voyager" model were used as a benchmark to improve the CGI shots. Two different computer models were developed from the physical model by two different companies that scanned it, Amblin Imaging and Foundation Imaging. Amblin won an Emmy for "Voyager" opening CGI title visuals featuring USS "Voyager" passing through space, but the weekly episode exteriors were captured with hand-built miniatures of "Voyager". By late 1996 (midway through season three), certain exterior shots were fully CGI. Another challenge of the design was coordinating the interior set design with exterior shots, in particular the location of key rooms and the design of windows. These were important, for example, in shots that crossed over from outside the spacecraft to inside the spacecraft in one filming shot.  The principal model of "Voyager" used for filming sold at a Christie's auction in 2006 for USD $132,000.

Mission.

"Voyager" was launched in 2371. The crew's first orders were to track down a Maquis ship in the Badlands. An alien force called the transported both "Voyager" and the Maquis vessel across 70,000 light-years to the Delta Quadrant, damaging "Voyager" and killing several crewmembers (including the medical staff, helm officer Stadi, first officer Cavit and the chief engineer). "Voyager" and the Maquis ship are ultimately stranded in the Delta Quadrant to prevent a genocide of the Ocampans, a species on a nearby planet under the Caretaker's protection from the Kazon, an antagonistic race native to the Delta Quadrant who seek the resources of the Ocampa. Captain Janeway orders the destruction of the device that could transport "Voyager" and the Maquis vessel home, thereby protecting the Ocampa. Stranded, and with the Maquis ship also destroyed, both crews integrate and work together for the anticipated 75-year journey home.  The intended crew complement was 141 Starfleet personnel, though it held 153 for its inaugural mission. This figure fluctuated during its time in the Delta Quadrant, gaining or losing count due to mishaps, adopted crew, births, and voluntary departures; they start the second year of their journey with 152 people onboard, at one point during the fifth year of its journey, there were 150 people on board.  Starfleet Command eventually becomes aware of the ship's presence in the Delta Quadrant and is later able to establish regular communication. After a seven-year journey, during which the acquisition of new technologies and assistance from various allies had already enabled the ship to travel a distance that otherwise would have taken 23 years, the ship returned to the Alpha Quadrant via a Borg transwarp conduit.

Design and capabilities.

The 15-deck (257 rooms), 700,000-metric-ton "Voyager" was built at the Utopia Planitia Fleet Yards and launched from Earth Station McKinley.  "Voyager" was equipped with 47 bio-neural gel packs and two holodecks. It was the first ship with a class-9 warp drive, allowing for a maximum sustainable speed of Warp 9.975. Variable geometry pylons allowed "Voyager" and other "Intrepid"-class ships to exceed warp 5 without damaging subspace. Like the Galaxy Class, "Voyager" warp nacelles were below the primary hull. The ship also was capable of planetary landings. Unlike the Galaxy Class, the ship could not separate the saucer during an emergency. It instead would eject the warp core (as seen in the season 4 episode "" and the season 7 episode "").  "Voyager" also had an Emergency Medical Hologram (EMH) programmed with a library of more than five million different medical treatments from 2,000 medical references and 47 physicians. The EMH gained the capability to leave the sickbay during the mission's third year, thanks to a 29th-century "mobile emitter".  The ship was initially equipped with 40 photon torpedoes with type VI warheads, two of which were equipped with tricobalt devices. Both tricobalt devices were used to destroy the Caretaker's array. Quantum torpedoes were also compatible with "Voyager" launchers, with some modifications. "Voyager" housed five standard torpedo launchers (two fore, two aft, one ventral) and was able to fire up to four torpedoes per launcher at once. In the final episode, an alternate future Kathryn Janeway equipped the ship with transphasic torpedoes and ablative hull armor.  During the years in the Delta Quadrant, the ship is augmented with custom, non-spec upgrades and modifications, some of which are modified from technology of other cultures, an example being Seven of Nine's alcoves and the Delta Flyer which both utilize modified Borg technology. Several pieces of technology from the future were also installed in the final episode, courtesy of Admiral Janeway who went back in time to bring "Voyager" home. Some of the adaptive solutions are to compensate for the disadvantages of being 70,000 light-years from port, such as the airponics bay and the transformation of the Captain's dining room to a galley, and the acquisition of enhancements from aliens in the Void that massively increases replicator efficiency.  The Borg are a major source of technological upgrades conducted on "Voyager". Cargo bay 2 is equipped with several Borg alcoves when Captain Janeway forms an alliance with the Borg and several Borg are forced to work aboard "Voyager" during the alliance. Seven of Nine and Harry Kim build an astrometrics lab from scratch with Borg-enhanced sensors, knowledge of which Seven of Nine retained from the Borg. Additionally, the crew designed and built the "Delta Flyer" support craft at the behest of the character Tom Paris later in the series.

Shuttlecraft.

An important shuttlecraft in many episodes, and operated from the USS "Voyager", was a spacecraft called the "Delta Flyer". The "Delta Flyer" was introduced in the episode "", and was designed and constructed by the crew in the context of the show. The design of the fictional spacecraft by the production staff and how it was presented in special effects has been written about in books about the franchise.  One of "Voyager"s shuttles, the "Aeroshuttle", was integrated with the hull in the saucer section and although it was never used in an episode, the production team did develop special effects test footage of it disembarking. "Voyager" "Aeroshuttle" was intended as a warp-capable vessel that could also fly in atmospheres; the footage was made by CGI team leaders Rob Bonchune and Adam Lebowitz, along with the VFX producer Dan Curry. Two other craft, the "Manta" and "Cochrane" were also developed but the Manta was not used. "Cochrane" was used in for the purpose of reaching warp 10.

Design uses.

In computer gaming.

The "Voyager" design appeared in "Star Trek: Voyager" which originally aired on UPN network from 1995 to 2001, but was also used in a number of computer and video games in that period in various capacities. One was "" which came out in 2000. This was a computer game style known as a first-person shooter and received a positive reception by the gaming community at that time. "Voyager Elite Force" was ranked second out of ten of the best "Star Trek" games up to 2015. was published in 2003. One game based on the show, "Voyager" (circa 1995), was cancelled but has been an influence on other games since.

Merchandise.

The model-making company Revell released a plastic model of USS "Voyager". Another pre-built offering was made of metal, and a reviewer praised the "swooshy" 'arrowhead' style of the design. The form of the design commonly appears in relation to "Voyager" merchandise, or elsewhere in places that make use of "Star Trek" franchise content; for example, a view of USS "Voyager" was shown as album art for a 4-CD music collection from the show released in 2017.

Production.

The main sets for the interior of the spacecraft were located at Stage 8 and Stage 9 at Paramount Studios.  One of the more complex sets for the spacecraft was the bridge of "Voyager". The bridge of "Voyager" had 11 different monitors of three different sizes, that had custom graphics displayed depending on what was being shot for each scene. For a scene with the "red alert" setting, the appropriate video graphics would have to be displayed on cue. These graphics were created a by a team of people, with a need for both static and video graphics. Depending on the episode, custom graphics or video sequences would have to be made by a creative team. The videos were recorded to videocassette to be played at the right time, such as when an actor (e.g. "Voyager" crew) was looking at a monitor.  The ship's design and sets were also used in the "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine" episode "", this time as the USS "Bellerophon", "Voyager"'s sister ship.

Reception.

USS "Voyager" was rated as the 7th-best spacecraft design of "Star Trek" by Space.com in 2017. In 2018, CBR rated "Voyager" the 5th-most-powerful spacecraft in the "Star Trek" universe, noting its victories over the Borg. In 2015, Geek.com ranked the upgraded future version of the starship's attack on the Borg in the finale, as the 17th-greatest scene in the "Star Trek" franchise.

USS "Voyager" is the fictional "Intrepid"-class starship which is the primary setting of the science fiction television series "". It is commanded by Captain Kathryn Janeway. "Voyager" was designed by "Star Trek: Voyager" production designer Richard D. James and illustrator Rick Sternbach. Most of the ship's on-screen appearances are computer-generated imagery (CGI), although models were also sometimes used. The ship's motto, as engraved on its dedication plaque, is a quote from the poem "Locksley Hall" by Alfred, Lord Tennyson: "For I dipt in to the future, far as human eye could see; Saw the vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be."

USS Voyager je mateřská kosmická loď kultovního sci-fi seriálu. Pojmenována byla podle sond, které zkoumaly Sluneční soustavu v II. polovině 20. století.


Name and biography.

The name "Semonides" (, "Sēmōnídes") is attested by an entry transmitted in two ancient lexica—the "Etymologicum Genuinum" and "Etymologicum Magnum"—which apparently had Choeroboscus as its immediate source:  Simonides: in the case of the iambic poet is written with an eta, as in "sign" ("sēma"); the name of the lyric poet is written with an iota, as in "snub-nosed" ("sīmos"). — Choeroboscus The lyric poet mentioned herein is Simonides of Ceos (6th–5th centuries BC). Despite the testimony of the etymologica, every source that quotes the iambic poet spells his name identically with that of his more famous namesake, and the only other author who uses the form "Semonides" is Philodemus. Whatever the poet's name actually was, modern scholarship has adopted Choeroboscus' distinction between the two forms as a means of distinguishing the two poets. Still, the homophony of their names in ancient quotations leaves open the possibility that some fragments attributed to Simonides might actually belong to Semonides.  Two notices in the tenth-century encyclopedia known as the "Suda" provide most of the extant details of Semonides' life. His primary lemma reads: "Simonides [sic], son of Crines, of Amorgos, iambic writer. He wrote elegiac poetry in two books and iambics. He was born (or 'flourished': ) 490 years after the Trojan War [i.e. 693 BC]. He was the first to write iambics according to some." Further information has been conflated with the entry on Simmias of Rhodes; the relevant portion is:  Other contradictory dates for Semonides' birth or floruit are found in the chronographic tradition relying upon Eusebius' "Chronicon" (Olympiad 29.1 = 664 BC), Cyril of Alexandria (29th Olympiad = 664–661), and Clement of Alexandria (20th Olympiad = 700–697). Semonides' role in the colonisation of Amorgos and his identification as a contemporary of Archilochus in the ancient testimonia recommend accepting the later dates of Eusebius and Cyril, and today he is almost universally considered to have lived in the middle and latter half of the seventh century. Based upon a perceived allusion to Archilochus at Semonides 7.51–2 some have refined the chronology further, arguing that Semonides either lived after Archilochus or was his younger contemporary. If the "Suda"s testimony that Semonides participated in the colonization of Amorgos is true, he likely had a political career similar to that of Archilochus, who was among the colonists of Thasos.

Poetry.

Although the "Suda" states that Semonides composed elegy as well iambus, none of his elegiac poetry has survived. If the encyclopedia's information is to be trusted, it is probable that the first entry's "elegiac poetry in two books" refers to the "Early History of Samos" in the second. This work would belong to the genre of "ktisis" ("foundation") poetry which Mimnermus' elegiac "Smyrneis" might also have represented.  Semonides' poetry, as is the case with archaic elegy and iambus in general, is composed in a literary Ionic dialect largely reminiscent of Homeric Greek and occasionally includes echoes of Homeric and Hesiodic poetry. The extant fragments are written in iambic trimeters, a stichic verse form also employed by Archilochus which would later be the primary meter of dialogue in tragedy. To judge from the admittedly small sample of his work, Semonides was a conservative metrician: in 180 lines there is not a single certain instance of resolution.

Semonides of Amorgos (;, variantly ; fl. 7th century BC) was a Greek iambic and elegiac poet who is believed to have lived during the seventh century BC. Fragments of his poetry survive as quotations in other ancient authors, the most extensive and well known of which is a satiric account of different types of women which is often cited in discussions of misogyny in Archaic Greece. The poem takes the form of a catalogue, with each type of woman represented by an animal whose characteristics—in the poet's scheme—are also characteristic of a large body of the female population. Other fragments belong to the registers of gnomic poetry and wisdom literature in which the Hesiodic "Works and Days" and the "Theognidea" are classed, and reflect a similarly pessimistic view of the human experience. There is also evidence that Semonides composed the sort of personal invective found in the work of his near contemporary iambographer Archilochus and the later Hipponax, but no surviving fragment can be securely attributed to such a poem.

Sémónidés z Amorgu byl antický řecký básník archaického období. Tvořil v polovině 7. století př. n. l. Sémónidés se narodil na Samu. Své jméno odvozoval od ostrova Amorgos, jehož kolonizace se zúčastnil.


Geography.

Microregion Horňácko is located in the northwest foothills of the southern part of the White Carpathians, close to the border with Slovakia. The highest peak of the region is Velká Javorina (970 m. above sea level), a traditional place of meetings between Czechs and Slovaks. Horňácko consists of nine municipalities: Lipov, Louka, Malá Vrbka, Hrubá Vrbka, Javorník, Kuželov, Suchov and Nová Lhota (the village of Vápenky, a part of Nová Lhota, is sometimes considered as the tenth village of Horňácko); the centre of the area is the village Velká nad Veličkou. The highest located village is Nová Lhota, 467 m. above sea level; the lowest is Lipov, located at 240 m. above sea level. The climatic conditions are different from the nearby region of Slovácko, Hornacko is a subregion of Slovacko. the hilly and somewhat isolated landscape has influenced crafts, folk costume, arts, traditions, the development and distinctive regional character of the area. The extraordinarily well-preserved historical landscape of the Horňácko region was shaped by traditional ways of farming, by the natural diversity and historical development of the area, and by remoteness from industrial centers.

History.

The Horňácko region was already inhabited during the Neolithic era. There are no archaeological remains from the time, such as pottery, that indicate permanent settlement in the area, however, some stone tools and weapons have been discovered nearby Velká nad Veličkou. The 9th century is marked by the beginnings of a Slavic settlement in the area. The Slavs apparently settled in the valley between Lipov and Velká nad Veličkou, but the lack of findings and evidence precludes accurate dating of their arrival. The first written record about the area dates back to 1228. A part of the estates nearby Velká nad Veličkou was attributed to the monastery in Velehrad in a document confirmed by the Bohemian king Ottokar I.  In the early 15th century, some villages in the Horňácko region were heavily damaged or destroyed during the Hussite wars. The 16th century is marked by the emergence of new protestant churches, such as Lutherans. The colonization of the area in the late 16th century caused significant cultural and economic growth, however, conflicts and wars of the 17th century interrupted the promising development. The religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics during the Thirty Years' War influenced the composition and density of the population, as many followers of the protestant religions were forced to flee to neighboring countries to escape recatholization. After the Thirty Years' War, 216 of 253 houses in Velká nad Veličkou were abandoned and empty.  Another disaster came in the second half of the 17th century, during a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and European powers. Turkish armies captured and burned the town of Velká nad Veličkou; the inhabitants were killed and raped; young boys were kidnapped as future Turkish spies. The bad situation in the area in the late 17th and 18th century worsened by epidemics of plague, military conflicts, and continuing counter-reformation. Moreover, the Napoleonic wars and subsequent epidemic of cholera (1831) negatively affected further development of the region in the early 19th century. The 19th century is generally characterized by strong influence of the Slovak population on the opposite side of the border. In Horňácko, it is particularly apparent in dialects, folk customs, music and songs.  In the 20th century, during the Second World War, the Horňácko region became an important strategic area in the fight against the German invaders. At the end of the war, the border region around the White Carpathians became a place where many partisan groups were formed. Bishop Gorazd of Prague, executed by Nazis for his participation in the assassination of SS-Obergruppenfuhrer Reinhard Heydrich, was a native from Hrubá Vrbka.

Traditional folk culture.

Music.

Horňácko is the only region in Moravia where the development of traditional music remained uninterrupted. The culture of the region is considered ""to be among the purest and most well-preserved in the Czech Republic"". Composer Leoš Janáček regarded Horňácko ""the most important center of traditional folk music in Moravian Slovakia"". The early bagpipe music of Horňácko, an unusual element in the Moravian traditional music, was replaced by the string instruments in the second half of the 19th century. The initial line-up of a traditional band consisted only of violins (it was called ""hudecká""). Other instruments, such as viola, clarinet, double bass and occasionally even brass instruments joined in the late 19th century. Cimbalom, a traditional part of today's Moravian folk ensemble, appeared in Horňácko only in the 1930s. Traditional music of Horňácko is formed by several distinctive stylistic elements. The ornamentation of the melody varies by instrument and musician. The first violinist (called ""primáš"", usually a leader of an ensemble) plays the most complicated variations. The other musicians accompany the primáš with their own ornamentations, following only the basic structure of a song. Folk musicians from Horňácko often use unusual combinations of tones and harsh harmonies, seemingly omitting the standard procedures of musical theory. The structure is, however, firmly anchored by rhythmic and harmonic plan.  An important feature of Horňácko folk songs is the communicative function. The lyrics of the songs serve as the means of expression for various opinions and feelings: love, joy, sadness, powerty, unfulfilled expectations etc. The most important form of musical setting of the songs was dance music.  A significant type of folk song in Horňácko is called "„táhlé“" (in slow tempo). The style of this music varies for males and females due to their respective roles in traditional society. The male repertoire consists largely of military and dance songs, but also contains songs with explicit sexual content (called ""ščeglivé"" in the local dialect). On the other hand, the female repertoire often makes use of balladic type songs.  The role of a folk musician, called ""hudec"", is still prestigiously regarded in Horňácko. The most famous violinists and their way of playing sometimes become subject of "cultish adoration". Jan Ňorek, Jožka Kubík and Martin Hrbáč rank among the legendary violinists of Horňácko.  "Horňácko Folk Festival" (in Czech: "Horňácké slavnosti") is the most important event in the region. The festival, focused solely on the authentic folklore of the region, is held annually from 1957. It features local musicians and artists and attracts visitors from the every corner of the Czech Republic. The festival is traditionally held around the feast day of St. Mary Magdalene (on 22 July).

Costume.

Traditional costume of Horňácko represents an important and characteristic part of local folk culture. The folk costume is classified as a "mountain-type", similarly as the folk clothing at Moravian Wallachia or Kopanice. The oldest influences may perhaps come from the pagan eras. The white color is considered funerial, which is similar to the customs of the old Slavs. The characteristic embroidery of Horňácko has its roots in the Renaissance period.

Horňácko (, "Upper Moravian-Slovakia") is an ethnographic microregion situated in the Hodonín District, South Eastern Moravia, Czech Republic. The region is home to approximately 10,000 people. It is significant for its traditional folk culture, especially the folk music. The region hosts annually the "Horňácko Folk Festival".

Horňácko je etnografický subregion Slovácka. Nachází se na úpatí Bílých Karpat pod Velkou Javořinou na moravsko-slovenském pomezí. Tvoří jej devět obcí: Lipov, Louka, Malá Vrbka, Hrubá Vrbka, Javorník, Kuželov, Nová Lhota, Suchov, centrum oblasti Velká nad Veličkou a řada samot zvaných Mlýny, roztroušených podél říčky Veličky mezi Javorníkem, Vápenkami a Suchovem.


Early life.

Ibn Sa'd basing his claim on al-Waqidi states that Hamzah was reportedly four years older than Muhammad. This is disputed by Ibn Sayyid, who argues: "Zubayr narrated that Hamza was four years older than the Prophet. But this does not seem correct, because reliable hadith state that Thuwayba nursed both Hamza and the Prophet". Ibn Sayyid concludes that Hamza was only two years older than Muhammad, though he adds the traditional expression of doubt, "Only God knows". Ibn Hajar writes as a conclusion of Ibn Sayyid's hadiths: "Hamza was born two to four years before Muhammad".  Ibn Kathir in "Al-Sira Al-Nabawiyya" cites Abu Nu`aym who traces a hadith to Ibn Abbas, that after Abdul Mutallib went to Yemen, he stayed with a Jewish priest. A monk prophesised that he will have both power and prophethood and advised him to marry a woman of the Banu Zuhrah. After returning to Mecca, he did so by marrying Hala, a woman of the tribe, and shave birthed Hamza. Later, Abdullah married Aminah and the Quraysh said he had won out in terms of marriage.  Hamza was skilled in wrestling, archery and fighting. He was fond of hunting lions,and he is described as "the strongest man of the Quraysh, and the most unyielding".

Family.

Parents.

Hamzah's father was Abdul Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy from the Qurayshi tribe of Mecca. His mother was Hala bint Uhayb from the Zuhra clan of Quraysh. Tabari cites two different traditions. In one, Al-Waqidi states that his parents met when Abdul Muttalib went with his son Abdullah to the house of Wahb ibn 'Abd Manaf to seek the hand of Wahb's daughter Aminah. While they were there, Abdul-Muttalib noticed Wahb's niece, Hala bint Uhayb, and he asked for her hand as well. Wahb agreed, and Muhammad's father Abdullah and his grandfather Abdul-Muttalib were both married on the same day, in a double-marriage ceremony. However, this in response to a hadith by Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri which doesn't mention any such double marriage. Hence, Hamzah was the younger brother of Muhammad's father.

Marriages and Children.

Hazrat Hamza married three times and had six children. It’s believed that the Baloch people are his descendants.

Conversion to Islam.

Hamza took little notice of Islam for the first few years. He did not respond to Muhammad's first appeal to the Hashimite clan in 613.. He converted in late 612. Upon returning to Mecca after a hunting trip in the desert, he heard that Abu Jahl had "attacked the Prophet and abused and insulted him," "speaking spitefully of his religion and trying to bring him into disrepute". Muhammad had not replied to him. "Filled with rage," Hamza "went out at a run... meaning to punish Abu Jahl when he met him". He entered the Kaaba, where Abu Jahl was sitting with the elders, stood over him and "struck him a violent blow" with his bow. He said, "Will you insult him, when I am of his religion and say what he says? Hit me back if you can!" He "struck Abu Jahl's head with a blow that cut open his head". Some of Abu Jahl's relatives approached to help him, but he told them, "Leave Abu Umara [Hamza] alone, for, by God, I insulted his nephew deeply".  After that incident, Hamza entered the House of Al-Arqam and declared Islam. "Hamza’s Islam was complete, and he followed the Apostle's commands. When he became a Muslim, the Quraysh recognised that the Apostle had become strong, and had found a protector in Hamza, and so they abandoned some of their ways of harassing him". Instead, they tried to strike bargains with him; but he did not accept their offers.  Hamza once asked Muhammad to show him the angel Jibreel "in his true form". Muhammad told Hamza that he would not be able to see him. Hamza retorted that he would see the angel, so Muhammad told him to sit where he was. They claimed that Jibreel descended before them and that Hamza saw that Jibreel's feet were like emeralds, before falling down unconscious.  Hamza joined the emigration to Medina in 622 and lodged with Kulthum ibn al-Hidm or Saad ibn Khaythama. Muhammad made him the brother in Islam of Zayd ibn Harithah.

Military expeditions.

First expedition.

Muhammad sent Hamza on his first raid against Quraysh. Hamza led an expedition of thirty riders to the coast in Juhayna territory to intercept a merchant-caravan returning from Syria. Hamza met Abu Jahl at the head of the caravan with three hundred riders at the seashore. Majdi ibn Amr al-Juhani intervened between them, "for he was at peace with both parties," and the two parties separated without any fighting.  There is dispute as to whether Hamza or his second cousin Ubaydah ibn al-Harith was the first Muslim to whom Muhammad gave a flag.

Battle of Badr.

Hamza fought at the Battle of Badr, where he shared a camel with Zayd ibn Harithah and where his distinctive ostrich feather made him highly visible. The Muslims blocked the wells at Badr. Al-Aaswad ibn Abdalasad al-Makhzumi, who was a quarrelsome ill-natured man, stepped forth and said, "I swear to God that I will drink from their cistern or destroy it or die before reaching it". Hamza came forth against him, and when the two met, Hamza smote him and sent his foot and half his shank flying as he was near the cistern. He fell on his back and lay there, blood streaming from his foot towards his comrades. Then he crawled to the cistern and threw himself into it with the purpose of fulfilling his oath, but Hamza followed him and smote him and killed him in the cistern". He then killed Utbah ibn Rabi'ah in single combat and helped Ali to kill Utbah's brother Shayba. It is disputed whether it was Hamza or Ali who killed Tuwayma ibn Adiy.  Later Hamza carried Muhammad's banner in the expedition against the Banu Qaynuqa.

Death.

Hamza was killed in the Battle of Uhud on 22 March 625 (3 Shawwal 3 hijri) when he was 59 (lunar) years old. He was standing in front of Muhammad, fighting with two swords and then Abyssinian slave Wahshi ibn Harb with a promise of manumission from Hind bint Utbah, if he killed Hamza. This was to avenge her father, Utbah ibn Rabi'ah, whom Hamza had killed in Badr. Hamza, running back and forth, stumbled and fell on his back; and Wahshi said, "who could throw a javelin as the Abyssinians do and seldom missed the mark," threw it into Hamza's abdomen and martyred him.  Wahshi then slit open his stomach and brought his liver to Hind bint Utbah, whose father Hamza had killed at Badr (see above). Hind chewed Hamza's liver then spat it out. "Then she went and mutilated Hamza and made anklets, necklaces and pendants from his body, and brought them and his liver to Mecca".  Hamza was buried in the same grave (, "") as his nephew Abdullah ibn Jahsh. Muhammad later said, "I saw the angels washing Hamza because he was in Paradise on that day". Fatima used to go to Hamza's grave and tend it. Hamza ibn Abdul Muttalib was killed by Wahshi Ibnu Harb.

Ḥamzah ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib (; 570 – 625) was a foster brother, companion and paternal uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He was martyred in the Battle of Uhud on 22 March 625 (3 Shawwal 3 hijri). His "kunyas" were "Abū ʿUmārah" () and "Abū Yaʿlā" (). He had the by-names "Asad Allāh" (, "Lion of God") and "Asad al-Jannah" (, "Lion of Heaven"), and Muhammad gave him the posthumous title "Sayyid ash-Shuhadāʾ" ().

Hamza ibn 'Abdul Muttalib byl strýc Mohameda. Zpočátku nebyl muslim, ale zastával se Mohameda jako člena své rodiny a často ho chránil proti fyzickým útokům pohanů. Časem přistoupil na islám a díky své síle a odvaze získal přezdívku "Assadu" l-láh = Lev Alláha. Zúčastnil se bitvy u Badru, kde muslimové i přes menší počet vyhráli. Hamza zemřel v bitvě u Uhudu v roce 625.


History.

There has been a rich history of urban rail service in Alicante. The tram service began on 13 July 1893 and the network was rapidly expanding to Mutxamel (1902), Elche and Crevillent (1905) and San Vicente del Raspeig (1906). Initially, the streetcars were horse-drawn. Since 1903 the trams were carried as well by the power of steam engine, leading to the disappearance of the horse-drawn trams by 1924. The electrification of tram lines began in 1923. In 1920s and 30s the network was further expanded throughout the city and was extensively used in 1940s. In 1950s, due to high costs of electricity, trams were gradually losing the competition against growing automobile services and by 14 November 1969 they completely disappeared from the streets. Thirty years later, on 13 March 1999 the trams were back with the inauguration of an experimental route between Plaza del Mar and Albufereta that was extended to El Campello in 2003.

Lines.

The network comprises the following lines:  Notes: What is now L3 was opened initially in 1999 as an experimental service between Porta de Mar and Albufereta, and was extended to El Campello in 2003. L9 was originally taken over by FGV in 1986, and was incorporated into the tram network upon its opening.  L1 is a limited-stop service from Alicante city centre to Benidorm taking 70 minutes journey time. In Benidorm it connects with line L9 to Dénia.  L2 starts from the city centre to the General Hospital of Alicante, the University of Alicante and San Vicente del Raspeig, with a journey time of 15 minutes.  L3 is a stopping service from Alicante to El Campello.  L4 runs from the city centre to a loop in "Playa de San Juan" district.  L5 starts at Porta del Mar to Sangueta, then following the L4 loop in "Playa de San Juan" district, and was opened in 2019, using former alignment from Porta del Mar and Sangueta that was used prior to the opening of the city centre tunnel to Luceros.  L9 is diesel powered commuter rail service from Benidorm along the coast to Dénia, stopping at other important tourist towns like Altea and Calp. Services are subject to disruption due to engineering works as the line is prepared for electrification.  Lines L1, L2, L3 and L4 share the city centre underground section between MARQ and the city centre Luceros station. The Mercado (Valencian: "Mercat") station on the segment was opened on 10 May 2007 and the Luceros was opened on 18 June 2010.  In 2019, the network served 12 million passengers. The busiest stations were "Luceros" (1,894,496 passengers), "Mercado" (1,226,471), "Benidorm" (717,385), "Sant Vicent del Raspeig" (658,642) and "El Campello" (558,354).

Future expansion.

The underground section is planned to continue westward to "Estació Multimodal" serving the Adif station (and a possible relocation of the bus station). This was originally delayed, but in March 2019 President of the Valencian Government Ximo Puig committed funds to progress this extension for a 2022-2023 opening.  There are plans to extend the tram-train service southwards to Alicante Airport, El Altet, Elche, Gran Alacant, Santa Pola, Guardamar and Torrevieja. According to the local press it seems unlikely that any of these extensions will be built in the near future due to lack of funds.

Gallery.

Underground Stations  Ground Stations  Overpasses and Viaducts

The Alicante Tram, trademarked as Alicante Metropolitan TRAM (, ), operates in the Spanish city of Alicante (Valencia) and its surrounding area. Like other narrow gauge railways in the Valencian Community, it is run by Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat Valenciana (FGV). It was inaugurated on 15 August 2003 replacing narrow-gauge diesel trains between Alicante and El Campello.

Španělské město Alicante má vlastní síť tramvajové dopravy, kterou tvoří jedna trať o rozchodu 1000 mm a délce 93 km. Jedná se o tramvajový provoz rychlodrážního typu, který provozuje společnost FGV Alicante.


Types.

A basic distinction is between sculpture in the round, free-standing sculpture, such as statues, not attached (except possibly at the base) to any other surface, and the various types of relief, which are at least partly attached to a background surface. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, and sometimes an intermediate mid-relief. Sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief is the usual sculptural medium for large figure groups and narrative subjects, which are difficult to accomplish in the round, and is the typical technique used both for architectural sculpture, which is attached to buildings, and for small-scale sculpture decorating other objects, as in much pottery, metalwork and jewellery. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, often also containing inscriptions.  Another basic distinction is between subtractive carving techniques, which remove material from an existing block or lump, for example of stone or wood, and modelling techniques which shape or build up the

Purposes and subjects.

One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in some form of association with religion. Cult images are common in many cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art, like the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were evidently rather small, even in the largest temples. The same is often true in Hinduism, where the very simple and ancient form of the lingam is the most common. Buddhism brought the sculpture of religious figures to East Asia, where there seems to have been no earlier equivalent tradition, though again simple shapes like the "bi" and "cong" probably had religious significance.  Small sculptures as personal possessions go back to the earliest prehistoric art, and the use of very large sculpture as public art, especially to impress the viewer with the power of a ruler, goes back at least to the Great Sphinx of some 4,500 years ago. In archaeology and art history the appearance, and sometimes disappearance, of large or monumental sculpture in a culture is regarded as of great significance, though tracing the emergence is often complicated by the presumed existence of sculpture in wood and other perishable materials of which no record remains;  The totem pole is an example of a tradition of monumental sculpture in wood that would leave no traces for archaeology. The ability to summon the resources to create monumental sculpture, by transporting usually very heavy materials and arranging for the payment of what are usually regarded as full-time sculptors, is considered a mark of a relatively advanced culture in terms of social organization. Recent unexpected discoveries of ancient Chinese Bronze Age figures at Sanxingdui, some more than twice human size, have disturbed many ideas held about early Chinese civilization, since only much smaller bronzes were previously known.  Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines and seals. The Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it

Materials and techniques.

The materials used in sculpture are diverse, changing throughout history. The classic materials, with outstanding durability, are metal, especially bronze, stone and pottery, with wood, bone and antler less durable but cheaper options. Precious materials such as gold, silver, jade, and ivory are often used for small luxury works, and sometimes in larger ones, as in chryselephantine statues. More common and less expensive materials were used for sculpture for wider consumption, including hardwoods (such as oak, box/boxwood, and lime/linden); terracotta and other ceramics, wax (a very common material for models for casting, and receiving the impressions of cylinder seals and engraved gems), and cast metals such as pewter and zinc (spelter). But a vast number of other materials have been used as part of sculptures, in ethnographic and ancient works as much as modern ones.  Sculptures are often painted, but commonly lose their paint to time, or restorers. Many different painting techniques have been used in making sculpture, including tempera, oil painting, gilding, house paint, aerosol, enamel and sandblasting.  Many sculptors seek new ways and materials to make art. One of Pablo Picasso's most famous sculptures included bicycle parts. Alexander Calder and other modernists made spectacular use of painted steel. Since the 1960s, acrylics and other plastics have been used as well. Andy Goldsworthy makes his unusually ephemeral sculptures from almost entirely natural materials in natural settings. Some sculpture, such as ice sculpture, sand sculpture, and gas sculpture, is deliberately short-lived. Recent sculptors have used stained glass, tools, machine parts, hardware and consumer packaging to fashion their works. Sculptors sometimes use found objects, and Chinese scholar's rocks have been appreciated for many centuries.

Stone.

Stone sculpture is an ancient activity where pieces of rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal of stone. Owing to the permanence of the material, evidence can be found that even the earliest societies indulged in some form of stone work, though not all areas of the world have such abundance of good stone for carving as Egypt, Greece, India and most of Europe. Petroglyphs (also called rock engravings) are perhaps the earliest form: images created by removing part of a rock surface which remains "in situ", by incising, pecking, carving, and abrading. Monumental sculpture covers large works, and architectural sculpture, which

Metal.

Bronze and related copper alloys are the oldest and still the most popular metals for cast metal sculptures; a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply a "bronze". Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Their strength and lack of brittleness (ductility) is an advantage when figures in action are to be created, especially when compared to various ceramic or stone materials (see marble sculpture for several examples). Gold is the softest and most precious metal, and very important in jewellery; with silver it is soft enough to be worked with hammers and other tools as well as cast; repoussé and chasing are among the techniques used in gold and silversmithing.  Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron) is (usually) poured into a mould, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete the process, although a final stage of "cold work" may follow on the finished cast. Casting may be used to

Glass.

Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range of working techniques, though the use of it for large works is a recent development. It can be carved, with considerable difficulty; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but unique. Hot casting can be done by ladling molten glass into moulds that

Pottery.

Pottery is one of the oldest materials for sculpture, as well as clay being the medium in which many sculptures cast in metal are originally modelled for casting. Sculptors often build small preliminary works called maquettes of ephemeral

Wood carving.

Wood carving has been extremely widely practiced, but survives much less well than the other main materials, being vulnerable to decay, insect damage, and fire. It therefore forms an important hidden element in the art history of many cultures. Outdoor wood sculpture does not last long in most parts of the world, so that we have little idea how the totem pole tradition developed. Many of the most important sculptures of

Social status of sculptors.

Worldwide, sculptors have usually been tradesmen whose work is unsigned; in some traditions, for example China, where sculpture did not share the prestige of literati painting, this has affected the status of sculpture itself. Even in ancient Greece, where sculptors such as Phidias became famous, they appear to have retained much the same social status as other artisans, and perhaps not much greater financial rewards, although some signed their works. In the Middle Ages artists such as the 12th-century Gislebertus sometimes signed their work, and were sought after by different cities, especially from the Trecento onwards in Italy, with figures such as Arnolfo di Cambio, and Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni. Goldsmiths and jewellers, dealing with precious materials

Anti-sculpture movements.

Aniconism remained restricted to Judaism, which did not accept figurative sculpture until the 19th century, before expanding to Early Christianity, which initially accepted large sculptures. In Christianity and Buddhism, sculpture became very significant. Christian Eastern Orthodoxy has never accepted monumental sculpture, and Islam has consistently rejected nearly all

History.

Prehistoric periods.

Europe.

The earliest undisputed examples of sculpture belong to the Aurignacian culture, which was located in Europe and southwest Asia and active at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. As well as producing some of the earliest known cave art, the people of this culture developed finely-crafted stone tools, manufacturing pendants, bracelets, ivory beads, and bone-flutes, as well as three-dimensional figurines.  The 30 cm tall Löwenmensch found in the Hohlenstein Stadel area of Germany is an anthropomorphic lion-man figure carved from woolly mammoth ivory. It has been dated to about 35–40,000BP, making it, along with the Venus of Hohle Fels, the oldest known uncontested example of figurative art.  Much

Ancient Near East.

From the ancient Near East, the over-life sized stone Urfa Man from modern Turkey comes from about 9,000 BCE, and the 'Ain Ghazal Statues from around 7200 and 6500 BCE. These are from modern Jordan, made of lime plaster and reeds, and about half life-size; there are 15 statues, some with two heads side by side, and 15 busts. Small clay figures of people and animals are found at many sites across the Near East from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, and represent the start of a more-or-less continuous tradition in the region.

Ancient Near East.

The Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia, dominated by Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BCE, part human and part lioness. A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity, but very few of these have survived. Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BCE), including the two figures of a "Ram in a Thicket", the "Copper Bull" and a bull's head on one of the Lyres of Ur.  From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century BCE Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not. The Burney Relief

Ancient Egypt.

The monumental sculpture of ancient Egypt is world-famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. The main figures in reliefs adhere to the same figure convention as in painting, with parted legs (where not seated) and head shown from the side, but the torso from the front, and a standard set of proportions making up the figure, using 18 "fists" to go from the ground to the hair-line on the forehead. This appears as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I. However, there as elsewhere the convention is not used for minor figures shown engaged in some activity, such as the captives and corpses. Other conventions make statues of males darker than females ones. Very conventionalized portrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II, before 2,780 BCE, and with the exception of the art

Europe.

Ancient Greece.

The first distinctive style of ancient Greek sculpture developed in the Early Bronze Age Cycladic period (3rd millennium BCE), where marble figures, usually female and small, are represented in an elegantly simplified geometrical style. Most typical is a standing pose with arms crossed in front, but other figures are shown in different poses, including a complicated figure of a harpist seated on a chair.  The subsequent Minoan and Mycenaean cultures developed sculpture further, under influence from Syria and elsewhere, but it is in the later Archaic period from around 650 BCE that the kouros developed. These are large standing statues of naked youths, found in temples and tombs, with the kore as the clothed female equivalent, with elaborately dressed hair; both

Europe after the Greeks.

Renaissance.

Renaissance sculpture proper is often taken to begin with the famous competition for the doors of the Florence Baptistry in 1403, from which the trial models submitted by the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Filippo Brunelleschi survive. Ghiberti's doors are still in place, but were undoubtedly eclipsed by his second pair for the other entrance, the so-called "Gates of Paradise", which took him from 1425 to 1452, and are dazzlingly confident classicizing compositions with varied depths of relief allowing extensive backgrounds. The intervening years had seen Ghiberti's early assistant Donatello develop with seminal statues including his "Davids" in marble (1408–09) and bronze (1440s), and his Equestrian statue of Gattamelata, as well as reliefs. A leading figure in the later period was Andrea del Verrocchio, best known for his equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice; his pupil Leonardo da Vinci designed an equine sculpture in 1482 "The Horse" for Milan-but only succeeded in

Mannerist.

As in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was very largely an attempt to find an original style that would top the achievement of the High Renaissance, which in sculpture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of the struggle to achieve this was played out in commissions to fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to Michelangelo's "David". Baccio Bandinelli took over the project of "Hercules and Cacus" from the master himself, but it was little more popular than it is now, and maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to "a sack of melons", though it had a long-lasting effect in apparently introducing relief panels on the pedestal of statues. Like other works of his

Baroque and Rococo.

In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms— they spiralled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles, and reflected a general continuation of the Renaissance move away from the relief to sculpture created in the round, and designed to be placed in the middle of a large space—elaborate fountains such as Bernini's Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Rome, 1651), or those in the Gardens of Versailles were a Baroque speciality. The Baroque style was perfectly suited to sculpture, with Gian Lorenzo Bernini the dominating figure of the age in works such as "The Ecstasy of St

Neo-Classical.

The Neoclassical style that arrived in the late 18th century gave great emphasis to sculpture. Jean-Antoine Houdon exemplifies the penetrating portrait sculpture the style could produce, and Antonio Canova's nudes the idealist aspect of the movement. The Neoclassical period was one of the great ages of public sculpture, though its "classical" prototypes were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. In sculpture, the most familiar representatives are the Italian Antonio Canova, the Englishman John Flaxman and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen. The European neoclassical manner also took hold in the United States, where its pinnacle occurred somewhat later and is exemplified in the sculptures of Hiram Powers.

Asia.

Greco-Buddhist sculpture and Asia.

Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE. Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealistic realism of Hellenistic art and the first representations of the Buddha in human form, which have helped define the artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Buddhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present. Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hellenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuries after they had declined around the Mediterranean, as late as the 5th

China.

Chinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties come from a period of over a thousand years from c. 1500 BCE, and have exerted a continuing influence over Chinese art. They are cast with complex patterned and zoomorphic decoration, but avoid the human figure, unlike the huge figures only recently discovered at Sanxingdui. The spectacular Terracotta Army was assembled for the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a unified China from 221–210 BCE, as a grand imperial version of the figures long placed in tombs to enable the deceased to enjoy the same lifestyle in the afterlife as when alive, replacing actual sacrifices of very early periods. Smaller figures in pottery or wood were placed in tombs for many centuries afterwards, reaching a peak of quality in Tang dynasty tomb figures. The tradition of unusually large pottery figures persisted in China, through Tang sancai tomb figures to later

Japan.

Towards the end of the long Neolithic Jōmon period, some pottery vessels were "flame-rimmed" with extravagant extensions to the rim that can only be called sculptural, and very stylized pottery dogū figures were produced, many with the characteristic "snow-goggle" eyes. During the Kofun period of the 3rd to 6th century CE, haniwa terracotta figures of humans and animals in a simplistic style were erected outside important tombs. The arrival of Buddhism in the 6th century brought with it sophisticated traditions in sculpture, Chinese styles mediated via Korea. The 7th-century Hōryū-ji and its contents have survived more intact than any East Asian Buddhist temple of its date, with works including a "Shaka Trinity" of 623 in bronze, showing the

India.

The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BCE), found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-day Pakistan. These include the famous small bronze female dancer. However, such figures in bronze and stone are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery figurines and stone seals, often of animals or deities very finely depicted. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there is little record of sculpture until the Buddhist era, apart from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat controversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad. Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone appears to begin, relative to other cultures, and the development of Indian civilization, relatively late, with the reign of Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts and topped

South-East Asia.

The sculpture of the region tends to be characterised by a high degree of ornamentation, as seen in the great monuments of Hindu and Buddhist Khmer sculpture (9th to 13th centuries) at Angkor Wat and elsewhere, the enormous 9th-century Buddhist complex at Borobudur in Java, and the Hindu monuments of Bali. Both of these include many reliefs as well as figures in the round; Borobudur has 2,672 relief panels, 504 Buddha statues, many semi-concealed in openwork stupas, and many large guardian figures.

Islam.

Islam is famously aniconic, so the vast majority of sculpture is arabesque decoration in relief or openwork, based on vegetable motifs, but tending to geometrical abstract forms. In the very early Mshatta Facade (740s), now mostly in Berlin, there are animals within the dense arabesques in high relief, and figures of animals and men in mostly low relief are found in conjunction with decoration on many later pieces in various materials, including metalwork, ivory and ceramics.

Africa.

Historically, with the exception of some monumental Egyptian sculpture, most African sculpture was created in wood and other organic materials that have not survived from earlier than a few centuries ago; older pottery figures are found from a number of areas. Masks are important elements in the art of many peoples, along with human figures, often highly stylized. There is a vast variety of styles, often varying within the same context of origin depending on the use of the object, but wide regional trends are apparent; sculpture is most common among "groups of settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger and Congo rivers" in West Africa. Direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for religious ceremonies; today many are made for tourists as "airport art". African masks were an influence on European Modernist art, which was inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depiction.  The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in close and often hostile contact with Egypt, and produced monumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles to the north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are from

The Americas.

Sculpture in what is now Latin America developed in two separate and distinct areas, Mesoamerica in the north and Peru in the south. In both areas, sculpture was initially of stone, and later of terracotta and

Moving toward modern art.

North America.

In North America, wood was sculpted for totem poles, masks, utensils, War canoes and a variety of other uses, with distinct variation between different cultures and regions. The most developed styles are those of the Pacific Northwest Coast, where a group of elaborate and highly stylized formal styles developed forming the basis of a tradition that continues today. In addition to the famous totem poles, painted and carved house fronts were complemented by carved posts inside and out, as well as mortuary figures and other items. Among the Inuit of the far north, traditional carving styles in ivory and soapstone are still continued.  The arrival of European Catholic culture readily adapted local skills to the prevailing Baroque style, producing enormously elaborate retablos and other mostly church sculptures in a variety of hybrid styles. The most famous of such examples in Canada is the altar area of the Notre Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec, which was carved by peasant "habitant" labourers. Later, artists trained in the Western academic tradition followed European styles until in the late 19th century

19th–early 20th century, early Modernism and continuing realism.

Modern classicism contrasted in many ways with the classical sculpture of the 19th century which was characterized by commitments to naturalism (Antoine-Louis Barye)—the melodramatic (François Rude) sentimentality (Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux)—or a kind of stately grandiosity (Lord Leighton). Several different directions in the classical tradition were taken as the century turned, but the study of the live model and the post-Renaissance tradition was still fundamental to them. Auguste Rodin was the most renowned European sculptor of the early 20th century. He is often considered a sculptural Impressionist, as are his students including Camille Claudel, and Hugo Rheinhold, attempting to model of a fleeting moment of ordinary life. Modern classicism showed a lesser interest in naturalism and a greater interest in formal stylization. Greater attention was paid to the rhythms of volumes and spaces—as well as greater attention to the contrasting qualities of surface (open, closed, planar, broken etc.) while less attention was paid to story-telling and convincing details of anatomy or costume. Greater attention was given to psychological effect than to

Modernism.

Modernist sculpture movements include Cubism, Geometric abstraction, De Stijl, Suprematism, Constructivism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism, Formalism Abstract expressionism, Pop-Art, Minimalism, Land art, and Installation art among others.  In the early days of the 20th century, Pablo Picasso revolutionized the art of sculpture when he began creating his "constructions" fashioned by combining disparate objects and materials into one constructed piece of sculpture; the sculptural equivalent of the collage in two-dimensional art. The advent of Surrealism led to things occasionally being described as "sculpture" that would not have been so previously, such as "involuntary sculpture" in several senses, including coulage. In later years Picasso became a prolific potter, leading, with interest in historic pottery from around the world, to a revival of ceramic art, with figures such as George E. Ohr and subsequently Peter Voulkos, Kenneth Price, and Robert Arneson. Marcel Duchamp originated the use of the "found object" (French: objet trouvé) or "readymade" with pieces such as "Fountain" (1917).  Similarly, the work of Constantin Brâncuși at the beginning of the century paved the way for later abstract sculpture. In revolt against the naturalism of Rodin and his late-19th-century contemporaries, Brâncuși distilled subjects down to their essences as illustrated by the elegantly refined forms of his "Bird in Space" series (1924).  Brâncuși's impact, with his vocabulary of reduction and abstraction, is seen throughout the 1930s and 1940s, and exemplified by artists such as Gaston Lachaise, Sir Jacob Epstein, Henry Moore, Alberto Giacometti, Joan Miró, Julio González, Pablo Serrano, Jacques Lipchitz and by the 1940s abstract sculpture was impacted and expanded by Alexander Calder, Len Lye, Jean Tinguely, and Frederick Kiesler who were pioneers of Kinetic art.  Modernist sculptors largely missed out on the huge boom in public art resulting from the demand for war memorials for the two World Wars, but from the 1950s the public and commissioning bodies became more comfortable with Modernist sculpture and large public commissions both abstract and figurative became common. Picasso was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge -high public sculpture, the so-called "Chicago Picasso" (1967). His design was ambiguous and somewhat controversial, and what the figure represents is not clear; it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstract shape.  During the late 1950s and the 1960s abstract sculptors began experimenting with a wide array of new materials and different approaches to creating their work. Surrealist imagery, anthropomorphic abstraction, new materials and combinations of new energy sources and varied surfaces and objects became characteristic of much new modernist sculpture. Collaborative projects with landscape designers, architects, and landscape architects expanded the outdoor site and contextual integration. Artists such as Isamu Noguchi, David Smith, Alexander Calder, Jean Tinguely, Richard Lippold, George Rickey, Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson came to characterize the look of modern sculpture.  By the 1960s Abstract expressionism, Geometric abstraction and Minimalism, which reduces sculpture to its most essential and fundamental features, predominated. Some works of the period are: the Cubi works of David Smith, and the welded steel works of Sir Anthony Caro, as well as welded sculpture by a large variety of sculptors, the large-scale work of John Chamberlain, and environmental installation scale works by Mark di Suvero. Other Minimalists include Tony Smith, Donald Judd, Robert Morris, Anne Truitt, Giacomo Benevelli, Arnaldo Pomodoro, Richard Serra, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, and John Safer who added motion and monumentality to the theme of purity of line.  During the 1960s and 1970s figurative sculpture by modernist artists in stylized forms was made by artists such as Leonard Baskin, Ernest Trova, George Segal, Marisol Escobar, Paul Thek, Robert Graham in a classic articulated style, and Fernando Botero bringing his painting's 'oversized figures' into monumental sculptures.

Conservation.

Sculptures are sensitive to environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and exposure to light and ultraviolet light. Acid rain can also cause damage to certain building materials and historical monuments. This results when sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with the calcium compounds in the stones (limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which then flakes off.  At any time many contemporary sculptures have usually been on display in public places; theft was not a problem as pieces were instantly recognisable. In the early 21st century the value of metal rose to such an extent that theft of massive bronze sculpture for the value of the metal became a problem; sculpture worth millions being stolen and melted down for the relatively low value of the metal, a tiny fraction of the value of the artwork.

Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials but, since Modernism, there has been an almost complete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or moulded or cast.

Sochařství je specifickou částí výtvarného umění, která představuje samostatnou svébytnou oblast výtvarného projevu spojující architekturu s malířstvím. Od obou se však liší užitou látkou i metodou.


Statement of the equation.

Poisson's equation is  where formula_2 is the Laplace operator, and "formula_3" and "formula_4" are real or complex-valued functions on a manifold. Usually, "formula_3" is given and "formula_4" is sought. When the manifold is Euclidean space, the Laplace operator is often denoted as ∇ and so Poisson's equation is frequently written as  In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, it takes the form  When formula_9 identically we obtain Laplace's equation.  Poisson's equation may be solved using a Green's function: where the integral is over all of space. A general exposition of the Green's function for Poisson's equation is given in the article on the screened Poisson equation. There are various methods for numerical solution, such as the relaxation method, an iterative algorithm.

Newtonian gravity.

In the case of a gravitational field g due to an attracting massive object of density "ρ", Gauss's law for gravity in differential form can be used to obtain the corresponding Poisson equation for gravity,  Since the gravitational field is conservative (and irrotational), it can be expressed in terms of a scalar potential "Φ",  Substituting into Gauss's law yields Poisson's equation for gravity,  If the mass density is zero, Poisson's equation reduces to Laplace's equation. Using Green's Function, the potential at distance from a central point mass (i.e., the fundamental solution) is which is equivalent to Newton's law of universal gravitation.

Electrostatics.

One of the cornerstones of electrostatics is setting up and solving problems described by the Poisson equation. Solving the Poisson equation amounts to finding the electric potential for a given charge distribution "formula_16".  The mathematical details behind Poisson's equation in electrostatics are as follows (SI units are used rather than Gaussian units, which are also frequently used in electromagnetism).  Starting with Gauss's law for electricity (also one of Maxwell's equations) in differential form, one has where formula_18 is the divergence operator, D = electric displacement field, and "ρ" = free charge volume density (describing charges brought from outside).  Assuming the medium is linear, isotropic, and homogeneous (see polarization density), we have the constitutive equation, where = permittivity of the medium and E = electric field.  Substituting this into Gauss's law and assuming is spatially constant in the region of interest yields  where formula_21 is a total volume charge density. In electrostatic, we assume that there is no magnetic field (the argument that follows also holds in the presence of a constant magnetic field). Then, we have that  where ∇× is the curl operator and is the time. This equation means that we can write the electric field as the gradient of a scalar function (called the electric potential), since the curl of any gradient is zero. Thus we can write,  where the minus sign is introduced so that is identified as the potential energy per unit charge.  The derivation of Poisson's equation under these circumstances is straightforward. Substituting the potential gradient for the electric field,  directly produces Poisson's equation for electrostatics, which is  Solving Poisson's equation for the potential requires knowing the charge density distribution. If the charge density is zero, then Laplace's equation results. If the charge density follows a Boltzmann distribution, then the Poisson-Boltzmann equation results. The Poisson–Boltzmann equation plays a role in the development of the Debye–Hückel theory of dilute electrolyte solutions.  Using Green's Function, the potential at distance from a central point charge (i.e.: the Fundamental Solution) is: which is Coulomb's law of electrostatics. (For historic reasons, and unlike gravity's model above, the formula_27 factor appears here and not in Gauss's law.)  The above discussion assumes that the magnetic field is not varying in time. The same Poisson equation arises even if it does vary in time, as long as the Coulomb gauge is used. In this more general context, computing is no longer sufficient to calculate E, since E also depends on the magnetic vector potential A, which must be independently computed. See Maxwell's equation in potential formulation for more on and A in Maxwell's equations and how Poisson's equation is obtained in this case.

Potential of a Gaussian charge density.

If there is a static spherically symmetric Gaussian charge density where is the total charge, then the solution () of Poisson's equation, is given by where erf() is the error function.  This solution can be checked explicitly by evaluating ∇.  Note that, for much greater than, the erf function approaches unity and the potential () approaches the point charge potential as one would expect. Furthermore, the erf function approaches 1 extremely quickly as its argument increases; in practice for > 3 the relative error is smaller than one part in a thousand.

Surface reconstruction.

Surface reconstruction is an inverse problem. The goal is to digitally reconstruct a smooth surface based on a large number of points "p" (a point cloud) where each point also carries an estimate of the local surface normal n. Poisson's equation can be utilized to solve this problem with a technique called Poisson Surface Reconstruction first published in (Kazhdan et al., 2006)  The goal of this technique is to reconstruct an implicit function "f" whose value is zero at the points "p" and whose gradient at the points "p" equals the normal vectors n. The set of ("p", n) is thus modeled as a continuous vector field V. The implicit function "f" is found by integrating the vector field V. Since not every vector field is the gradient of a function, the problem may or may not have a solution: the necessary and sufficient condition for a smooth vector field V to be the gradient of a function "f" is that the curl of V must be identically zero. In case this condition is difficult to impose, it is still possible to perform a least-squares fit to minimize the difference between V and the gradient of "f".  In order to effectively apply Poisson's equation to the problem of surface reconstruction, it is necessary to find a good discretization of the vector field V. The basic approach is to bound the data with a finite difference grid. For a function valued at the nodes of such a grid, its gradient can be represented as valued on staggered grids, i.e. on grids whose nodes lie in between the nodes of the original grid. It is convenient to define three staggered grids, each shifted in one and only one direction corresponding to the components of the normal data. On each staggered grid we perform [trilinear interpolation] on the set of points. The interpolation weights are then used to distribute the magnitude of the associated component of "n" onto the nodes of the particular staggered grid cell containing "p". In (Kazhdan et al., 2006), the authors give a more accurate method of discretization using an adaptive finite difference grid, i.e. the cells of the grid are smaller (the grid is more finely divided) where there are more data points. They suggest implementing this technique with an adaptive octree.

Fluid dynamics.

For the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations, given by:  The equation for the pressure field formula_33 is an example of a nonlinear Poisson equation: where formula_35 is the Frobenius norm.

In mathematics, Poisson's equation is a partial differential equation of elliptic type with broad utility in mechanical engineering and theoretical physics. It arises, for instance, to describe the potential field caused by a given charge or mass density distribution; with the potential field known, one can then calculate gravitational or electrostatic field. It is a generalization of Laplace's equation, which is also frequently seen in physics. The equation is named after the French mathematician, geometer, and physicist Siméon Denis Poisson.

Poissonovou rovnicí nazýváme rovnici kde formula_2 označuje tzv. Laplaceův operátor pro formula_4. Např. Poissonova rovnice pro proměnné formula_5 má tvar