Early life.

Bingham was born in Hobbs, New Mexico. His family relocated to the Midland–Odessa area of West Texas, before eventually moving to Houston, Texas. He attended high school primarily in Houston at Westfield High School.  Bingham's mother purchased his first guitar when he was 16-years-old. Although he was fascinated by music, he left his guitar dormant in his closet. Roughly a year later, Bingham hitchhiked back west to Laredo, Texas, in hopes of landing a job with his Dad, carrying the guitar with him on the trip. Bingham's father enjoyed having neighbors over on their porch to drink beer, and one of them taught him a classical Mariachi song called "La Malaguena" in segments. Though he loved playing the song, it was the only one he would learn during his time in Laredo.  He relocated to Stephenville, Texas. There, he began learning more music while also riding on the rodeo team at Tarleton State University. It was in Stephenville that he would write arguably his most well-known hit "Southside Of Heaven" in a trailer house. He also began to play local gigs there, namely a local golf course and a few small bars.  While in Stephenville, Bingham had a friend that caught wind of a job in Paris, France, with the "Wild West Show" at the Disney Resort. He bought a one-way ticket with $100 in his pocket. Upon arrival, he was informed that the manager he had a mutual friend with was no longer with the company, and he found himself stranded with his guitar and old riggin' bag from his rodeo days. Luckily, he found some friends-of-friends within the Disney programs and began playing music in local parks for tips.  Eventually, he saved enough money to get back to Texas and moved in with a rodeo buddy near Fort Worth, Texas. His friend had a brother (Matthew "Papa" Smith) that cut hair during the day and played drums as a hobby. After an introduction and impromptu gig at an empty bar in Fort Worth, he and Papa would go on to be the founding members of Ryan Bingham and the Dead Horses. Marc Ford of the Black Crowes was one of the few people in the bar that night. He approached Ryan after the gig with an offer to record an album.

Career.

After issuing self-released "Wishbone Saloon" and "Dead Horses", the latter distributed by Lone Star Music, Bingham was signed to Lost Highway Records, who issued his first major label debut with "Mescalito" on October 2, 2007, produced by former Black Crowes guitarist Marc Ford. "Texas Music Magazine" has opined that "Bingham talks and sings with a whiskey-and-cigarette throat that screams hard living. Hard in a way that can make a 29-year-old sound like a 50-year-old Tom Waits." Bingham spent several years on the rodeo circuit: He began bull riding in his late teens.  Bingham's former band, The Dead Horses, was composed of Matthew "Papa" Smith (drums), Corby Schaub (guitar and mandolin) and Marc Ford's son Elijah (bass). The bass player on "Mescalito" was Jeb Venable (a.k.a. Jeb Stuart), with Joe Allen credited as well, plus a contribution from John Bazz on upright bass. Bingham appeared with the Drive-by Truckers on the PBS show "Austin City Limits" in October 2007. The first single from "Mescalito," entitled "Southside of Heaven," was released on November 30, 2007. The second single was entitled "Bread and Water."  On June 2, 2009, Ryan Bingham and The Dead Horses released their second studio album titled "Roadhouse Sun" via Lost Highway Records. It was once again produced by Marc Ford.  Bingham performed two songs for the soundtrack of the movie "Crazy Heart", including "I Don't Know," and the theme song, "The Weary Kind." The song was co-written by Bingham and producer, T Bone Burnett. Bingham also played a small role in the film as Tony. On January 17, 2010, Bingham was awarded the Golden Globe for Best Original Song for "The Weary Kind". The song also won the 2010 Academy Award for Best Original Song, the 2010 Grammy award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media, as well as Song of the Year at the 9th Annual Americana Music Association awards.  Bingham joined back up with his band the Dead Horses to release their third studio album, "Junky Star", on August 31, 2010. The album debuted in the Top 20 on the "Billboard" 200 Chart & in the Top 10 on the Billboard Rock Album Chart, making "Junky Star" Bingham's highest charting and most successful release to date.  In 2012, Bingham parted ways with the Dead Horses and record label Lost Highway Records to release his fourth studio album, "Tomorrowland", on his own Axster Bingham Records label. Bingham co-produced the album with musician/producer Justin Stanley. The first single released from "Tomorrowland" was "Heart of Rhythm." Both the single and the official lyric video debuted on Americansongwriter.com on July 30, 2012. Bingham's second "Tomorrowland" single "Guess Who’s Knockin" debuted on Rollingstone.com on September 6, 2012. The official music video for "Guess Who’s Knocking" premiered on Pastmagazine.com October 4, 2012.  In 2013, Bingham's song "For Anyone's Sake" appeared in the closing credits of the feature film "Joe", starring Nicolas Cage. Bingham wrote the song for the film, the song was released as part of the film's original soundtrack in April 2014. In the same year, Bingham also wrote and recorded "Until I'm One With You", the theme song for FX TV drama series "The Bridge". The song is Bingham's first screen track since his Academy Award win for best theme song in 2010. "Until I'm One With You" was released as a digital single on Bingham's own Axster Bingham Records label on June 25, 2013.  In 2014 Ryan Bingham starred opposite Imogen Poots in the independent film "A Country Called Home," directed and co-written by his wife, Anna Axster. Bingham also wrote and recorded the film's title track "A Country Called Home," the song was released digitally through Bingham's own label, Axster Bingham Records, on May 6, 2016.  Bingham's fifth studio album "Fear And Saturday Night" was recorded mostly live at Plyrz Studio outside of Los Angeles, California. The album was co-produced by Jim Scott and released through Axster Bingham Records on January 20, 2015. The album's first single "Radio" was released on December 9, 2014. In a 2016 interview with Rolling Stone magazine Bingham shared, "'Radio' is a song I wrote about the thoughts, memories, and emotions that roll through my mind. The radio that's constantly playing in your head, night and day."  On August 6, 2016, Bingham recorded his first live album, "Ryan Bingham Live" (Axster Bingham Records), at Whitewater Amphitheater in New Braunfels, Texas. The album was released on October 21, 2016. The entire Whitewater Amphitheater show was also filmed and streamed live by Amazon Music.  Bingham released a song titled "Back By the River" on "The Musical Mojo of Dr. John: A Celebration of Mac and his Music," in 2016.  In 2018–2019, Bingham has a guest role in the contemporary Western television show, "Yellowstone", as Walker, the itinerant ranch hand.  In December 2018, Bingham announced that he would be releasing his sixth studio album "American Love Song" in February 2019.

Reception.

Bingham has appeared as a guest on Bob Harris's Country Show on the BBC's Radio 2. Daryl Easlea, writing for the BBC's folk and country review, said: "Bingham will be one of the names to drop in 2008, with an album that sounds as if it's been unearthed from 1972."  "Rolling Stone" magazine gave Mescalito three out of five stars and wrote that Bingham "earns his sepia-toned album cover with a dusty wood-and-steel sound, and despite being twenty-five, sings like Steve Earle's dad."  "PopMatters" review of "Tomorrowland" awarded the album with 8 out of 10 stars. Greg M. Scwartz, writing for PopMatters wrote, that “The one-time pro rodeo rider turned Texas troubadour has blues, country, and Americana influences that are certainly still there. But at his core, Bingham has always been a rock ‘n’ roller and "Tomorrowland" features him rocking at his best.”  "Tomorrowland" was also reviewed by Nico Isaac from Paste (magazine). Isaac wrote: “Tomorrowland is like a good, ol’ fashioned rock anthem of kiss-my-asschaps autonomy... One thing's for sure Tomorrowland- the album and the red-blooded, rattlesnake-eating rebellious attitude—is no place for the weary kind.”

Personal life.

Bingham currently lives in Los Angeles, California, with his wife Anna Axster, who also directed his music videos. He announced at his performance in Austin, Texas, on March 5, 2015 that he and his wife were expecting their first child in the summer of 2015. Bingham's song "Broken Heart Tattoo" from Fear And Saturday Night is a reflection about what he would like to say to his unborn child. Ryan's mother drank herself to death and his father committed suicide. Bingham's "Never Far Behind" from his "Tomorrowland" album is about his parents.

Ryan Bingham (born George Ryan Bingham on March 31, 1981) is an American singer-songwriter, whose music spans multiple genres. He is currently based in Los Angeles, California.

Ryan Bingham (* 31. března 1981, Hobbs) je americký písničkář. Své první album nazvané "Mescalito" vydal v roce 2007 a do roku 2012 následovala další tři. V roce 2009 získal Zlatý glóbus za nejlepší filmovou píseň za píseň „The Weary Kind (Theme From Crazy Heart)“ z filmu "Crazy Heart", kterou napsal spolu s T-Bone Burnettem. Je také autorem úvodní znělky ze seriálu "The Bridge" nazvané „Until I'm One with You“.


Early life and education.

Gish was born Anne Elizabeth Gish in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the daughter of Judy and Robert Gish. When she was two, her family moved to Cedar Falls, Iowa, where she grew up with her brother Tim and her sister Robin. Her father was an English professor at the University of Northern Iowa; her mother was an elementary school teacher.  Gish went to Northern University High School in Cedar Falls, Iowa, where she graduated in 1989. She attended Duke University, where she was a member of the Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority and focused her energies on the Drama program, Film Studies and Women's Studies. She received a B.A. in English in July 1993.

Career.

Gish's first starring role was in the 1986 teen film "Desert Bloom". In 1987, she starred in the film "Hiding Out" with Jon Cryer. She played "Kat", the sister of Julia Roberts' character, in 1988's "Mystic Pizza". In 1989, Gish’s first major TV film role was in "When He's Not a Stranger" as rape victim Lyn McKenna. Gish portrayed Anne Hampton, the doomed second wife of Rhett Butler, in 1994 in the TV mini series "Scarlett".  Gish also had a major part in the 1989 comedy "Shag" starring Bridget Fonda, Phoebe Cates, Page Hannah, Jeff Yagher and Scott Coffey. The film's title refers to 1960s Carolina shag dancing and beach life in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina.  In 1994's "Wyatt Earp", starring Kevin Costner, she played Urilla Sutherland, Wyatt's childhood sweetheart and eventual wife. The next year, she appeared in Oliver Stone's "Nixon" as Julie Nixon. In 1996, Gish played the girlfriend Tracey in "Beautiful Girls". In 1997, Gish received her first starring role in a movie, portraying Susan Sparks opposite Shaquille O'Neal in the movie adaptation of DC Comics superhero "Steel". In 1997, she starred in the TV movie "True Women" as Euphemia Ashby alongside Dana Delany and Angelina Jolie. In 1998, Gish starred in "SLC Punk!" as a head shop owner named Trish.  In 2001, Gish joined the cast of "The X-Files" as Special Agent Monica Reyes after series star David Duchovny announced his intention to leave the show. During the eighth and ninth seasons, Gish and fellow newcomer Robert Patrick became the show's principal characters and it was presumed that the two could carry on the show even after Gillian Anderson left. While it is generally agreed their performances were good, ratings continued to drop with the departure of Duchovny and his dynamic partnership with Gillian Anderson; the ninth season of "The X-Files" became the show's last until 2016.  In 2003, Gish guest-starred on "The West Wing" playing Elizabeth Bartlet Westin, eldest daughter of President Josiah Bartlet (Martin Sheen). She appeared several times over the following seasons.  In 2006, Gish played the role of Julia in the independent movie "The Celestine Prophecy" and costarred in "Candles on Bay Street" alongside Eion Bailey and Alicia Silverstone.  Also in 2006, Gish began a major role in the Showtime drama "Brotherhood" as Eileen Caffee. She appeared in 29 of the 33 episodes in the series's three-season run.  Gish played Jo Noonan in the A&E TV miniseries "Stephen King's Bag of Bones" in 2011. Also in 2011, she played the role of Anne Sullivan, a mysterious therapist in "Pretty Little Liars".  In 2012, Gish made a guest appearance in 12th season of the CBS crime drama "".  In 2012, Gish co-starred on the ABC drama pilot "Americana" as the mother of Ashley Greene's character. However, the pilot was not picked up.  From 2013 to 2014, Gish was part of the main cast in the FX series "The Bridge", in which she played Charlotte Millwright, a widow who discovers that her recently deceased husband had secrets on both sides of the US-Mexican border.  In 2014, she had a guest-starring role on "Sons of Anarchy" as Lt. Althea Jarry of the San Joaquin County Sheriff's Department. In summer 2015, it was announced Gish would return as Monica Reyes in the upcoming "The X Files" revival. She appeared in episode 6 of season 10. She reprised her role as Agent Reyes for the 11th season of the show for the 2017-2018 TV season. She co-starred with Kate Bosworth, Thomas Jane and Dash Mihok in the 2016 thriller film "Before I Wake".

Humanitarian efforts.

Gish is a supporter of CARE International and, more recently, of Students Rebuild and One Million Bones. On behalf of these organizations, she filmed a short public service announcement video in April 2012. She is on the board of non-profit organization The Unusual Suspects Theatre Company.

Personal life.

Gish is not, as has been frequently reported, related to the early silent film actress sisters Lillian Gish and Dorothy Gish. When Gish first became interested in acting, she wrote a letter to Lillian Gish, who replied by encouraging Annabeth to stay away from the business. Lillian wrote, "There's too much talent and not enough work in the movies!"  Gish started dating "The X-Files" stunt man Wade Allen in December 2001. They married in October 2003. Their first son, Cash Alexander Allen, was born January 12, 2007, and their second son, Enzo Edward Allen, was born October 25, 2008.

Annabeth Gish (born March 13, 1971) is an American actress. She has played roles in films "Shag", "Hiding Out", "Mystic Pizza", "SLC Punk!", "The Last Supper" and "Double Jeopardy". On television, she played Special Agent Monica Reyes on "The X-Files", Elizabeth Bartlet Westin on "The West Wing", Diane Gould on "Halt and Catch Fire", Eileen Caffee on "Brotherhood", Charlotte Millwright on "The Bridge" and Sheriff Althea Jarry on the final season of "Sons of Anarchy".

Annabeth Gish, rodným jménem Anne Elizabeth Gish (* 13. března 1971, Albuquerque) je americká herečka. Její první role byla ve filmu "Květ pouště" z roku 1986. Později hrála v mnoha dalších filmech, mezi které patří například "Mystic Pizza" (1988), "Supersvůdníci 2" (2002) a "Celestinské proroctví" (2006). V letech 2013 až 2014 hrála v televizním seriálu "The Bridge" postavu jménem Charlotte Millwright.


Childhood.

Issai Schur was born into a Jewish family, the son of the businessman Moses Schur and his wife Golde Schur (née Landau). He was born in Mogilev on the Dnieper River in what was then the Russian Empire. Schur used the name "Schaia "rather than "Issai" up in his middle twenties. Schur's father may have been a wholesale merchant.  In 1888, at the age of 13, Schur went to Liepāja (Courland, now in Latvia), where his married sister and his brother lived, 640 km north-west of Mogilev. Kurland was one of the three Baltic governorates of Tsarist Russia, and since the Middle Ages the Baltic Germans were the trend-setting social class. The local Jewish community spoke mostly German and not Yiddish.  Schur attended the German-speaking Nicolai Gymnasium in Libau from 1888–1894 and reached the top grade in his final examination, and received a gold medal. Here he became fluent in German.

Education.

In October 1894, Schur attended the University of Berlin, with concentration in mathematics and physics. In 1901, he graduated "summa cum laude" under Frobenius and Lazarus Immanuel Fuchs with his dissertation "On a class of matrices that can be assigned to a given matrix", which contains a general theory of the representation of linear groups. According to Vogt, he began to use the name "Issai" at this time. Schur thought that his chance of success in the Russian Empire was rather poor, and because he spoke German so perfectly, he remained in Berlin. He graduated in 1903 and was a lecturer at the University of Berlin. Schur held a position as professor at the Berlin University for the ten years from 1903 to 1913.  In 1913 he accepted an appointment as associate professor and successor of Felix Hausdorff at the University of Bonn. In the following years Frobenius tried various ways to get Schur back to Berlin. Among other things, Schur's name was mentioned in a letter dated June 27, 1913 from Frobenius to Robert Gnehm (the School Board President of the ETH) as a possible successor to Carl Friedrich Geiser. Frobenius complained that they had never followed his advice before and then said: "That is why I can't even recommend Prof. J. Schur (now in Bonn) to you. He's too good for Zurich, and should be my successor in Berlin". Hermann Weyl got the job in Zurich. The efforts of Frobenius were finally successful in 1916, when Schur succeeded Johannes Knoblauch as adjunct professor. Frobenius died a year later, on August 3, 1917. Schur and Carathéodory were both named as the frontrunners for his successor. But they chose Constantin Carathéodory in the end. In 1919 Schur finally received a personal professorship, and in 1921 he took over the chair of the retired Friedrich Hermann Schottky. In 1922, he was also added to the Prussian Academy of Sciences.

During the time of Nazism.

After the takeover by the Nazists and the elimination of the parliamentary opposition, the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service on 7 April 1933, prescribed the release of all distinguished public servants that held unpopular political opinions or who were "Jewish" in origin; a subsequent regulation extended this to professors and therefore also to Schur. Schur was suspended and excluded from the university system. His colleague Erhard Schmidt fought for his reinstatement, and since Schur had been a Prussian official before the First World War, he was allowed to participate in certain special lectures on teaching in the winter semester of 1933/1934 again. Schur withdrew his application for leave from the Science Minister and passed up the offer of a visiting professorship at the University of Wisconsin–Madison for the academic year 1933–34. One element that likely played a role in the rejection of the offer was that Schur no longer felt he could cope with the requirements that would have come with a new beginning in an English-speaking environment.  Already in 1932, Schur's daughter Hilde had married the doctor Chaim Abelin in Bern. As a result, Issai Schur visited his daughter in Bern several times. In Zurich he met often with George Pólya, with whom he was on friendly terms since before the First World War.  On such a trip to Switzerland in the summer of 1935, a letter reached Schur from Ludwig Bieberbach signed on behalf of the Rector's, stating that Schur should urgently seek him out in the University of Berlin. They needed to discuss an important matter with him. It involved Schur's dismissal on September 30, 1935.  Schur remained a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences after his release as a professor, but a little later he lost this last remnant of his official position. Due to an intervention from Bieberbach in the spring of 1938 he was forced to explain his resignation from the commission of the Academy. His membership in the Advisory Board of the Mathematical Journal was ended in early 1939.

Emigration.

Schur found himself lonely after the flight of many of his students and the expulsion of renowned scientists from his previous place of work. Only Dr. Helmut Grunsky had been friendly to him, as Schur reported in the late thirties to his expatriate student Max Menachem Schiffer. The Gestapo was everywhere. Since Schur had announced to his wife his intentions to commit suicide in case of a summons to the Gestapo, in the summer of 1938 his wife took his letters, and with them a summons from the Gestapo, sent Issai Schur to a relaxing stay in a home outside of Berlin and went with medical certificate allowing her to meet the Gestapo in place of her husband. There they flatly asked why they were still staying in Germany. But there were economic obstacles to the planned emigration: emigrating Germans had a pre-departure Reich Flight Tax to pay, which was a quarter of their assets. Now Schur's wife had inherited a mortgage on a house in Lithuania, which because of the Lithuanian foreign exchange determination could not be repaid. On the other hand, Schur was forbidden to default or leave the mortgage to the German Reich. Thus the Schurs lacked cash and cash equivalents. Finally, the missing sum of money was somehow supplied, and to this day it does not seem to be clear who were the donors.  Schur was able to leave Germany in early 1939. His health, however, was already severely compromised. He traveled in the company of a nurse to his daughter in Bern, where his wife also followed a few days later. There they remained for several weeks and then emigrated to Palestine. Two years later, on his 66th birthday, on January 10, 1941, he died in Tel Aviv of a heart attack.

Work.

Schur continued the work of his teacher Frobenius with many important works for group theory and representation theory. In addition, he published important results and elegant proofs of known results in almost all branches of classical algebra and number theory. His collected works are an impressive proof of this. There, his work on the theory of integral equations and infinite series can be found.

Linear groups.

In his doctoral thesis "Über eine Klasse von Matrizen, die sich einer gegebenen Matrix zuordnen lassen" Issai Schur determined the polynomial representations of the general linear group formula_1 on the field formula_2 of complex numbers. The results and methods of this work are still relevant today. In his book, J.A. Green determined the polynomial representations of formula_3 over infinite fields formula_4 with arbitrary characteristic. It is mainly based on Schur's dissertation. Green writes, "This remarkable work (of Schur) contained many very original ideas, developed with superb algebraic skill. Schur showed that these (polynomial) representations are completely reducible, that each one is "homogeneous" of some degree formula_5, and that es equivalence types of irreducible polynomial representations of formula_6, of fixed homogeneous degree formula_7, are in one-to-one correspondence with the partitions formula_8 of formula_7 into not more than formula_10 parts. Moreover, Schur showed that the character of an irreducible representation of type formula_11 is given by a certain symmetric function formula_12 in formula_10 variables, since described as a Schur function." According to Green, the methods of Schur's dissertation today are important for the theory of algebraic groups.  In 1927 Schur, in his work "On the rational representations of the general linear group", gave new proofs for the main results of his dissertation. If formula_14 is the natural formula_10-dimensional formula_2 vector space on which formula_1 operates, and if formula_7 is a natural number, then the formula_7-fold tensor product formula_20 over formula_2 is a formula_22-module, on which the symmetric group formula_23 of degree formula_7 also operates by permutation of the tensor factors of each generator formula_25 of formula_20. By exploiting these formula_27-bimodule actions on formula_20, Schur manages to find elegant proofs of his sentences. This work of Schur was once very well known.

Professorship in Berlin.

Schur lived in Berlin as a highly respected member of the academic world, an apolitical scholar. A leading mathematician and outstanding and very successful teacher, he held a prestigious chair at the University of Berlin for 16 years. Until 1933, his research group had an excellent reputation at the University of Berlin in Germany and beyond. With Schur in the center, his faculty worked with representation theory, which was extended by his students in different directions (including solvable groups, combinatorics, matrix theory). Schur made fundamental contributions to algebra and group theory which, according to Hermann Weyl, were comparable in scope and depth to those of Emmy Amalie Noether (1882–1935).  When Schur's lectures were canceled in 1933, there was an outcry among the students and professors who appreciated him and liked him. By the efforts of his colleagues Erhard Schmidt Schur was allowed to continue lecturing until the end of September 1935 for the time being. Schur was the last Jewish professor who lost his job at this time.

Zurich lecture.

In Switzerland, Schur's colleagues Heinz Hopf and George Pólya were informed of the dismissal of Issai Schur in 1935. They tried to help as best they could. On behalf of the Mathematical Seminars chief Michel Plancherel, on December 12, 1935 the school board president Arthur Rohn invited Isay Schur to "une série de conférences sur la théorie de la représentation des groupes finis". At the same time he asked that the formal invitation should come from President Rohn, "comme le prof. Schur doit obtenir l'autorisation du ministère compétent de donner ces conférences". George Pólya arranged from this invitation of the Mathematical Seminars the Conference of the Department of Mathematics and Physics on December 16. Meanwhile, on 14 December the official invitation letter from President Rohn had already been dispatched to Issai Schur. Schur was promised for his guest lecture a fee of CHF 500.  Schur did not reply until January 28, 1936, on which day he was first in the possession of the required approval of the local authority. He declared himself willing to accept the invitation. He envisaged beginning the lecture on 4 February. Schur spent most of the month of February in Switzerland. Before his return to Germany he visited his daughter in Bern for a few days, and on 27 February he returned via Karlsruhe, where his sister lived, to Berlin. In a letter to Pólya from Berne, he concludes with the words: "From Switzerland I take farewell with a heavy heart".  In Berlin, meanwhile, Ludwig Bieberbach, in a letter dated February 20, 1936, informed the Reich Minister for Science, Art, and Education on the journey of Schur, and announced that he wanted to find out what was the content of the lecture in Zurich.

Significant students.

Schur had a total of 26 graduate students, some of whom reached mathematical reputation. Among them are

Legacy.

Concepts named after Schur.

Among others, the following concepts are named after Issai Schur:

Quotes.

In his commemorative speech, Alfred Brauer (PhD candidate of Schur) spoke about Issai Schur as follows: "As a teacher, Schur was excellent. His lectures were very clear, but not always easy and required cooperation – During the winter semester of 1930, the number of students who wanted to attend Schur's theory of numbers lecture, was such that the second largest university lecture hall with about 500 seats was too small. His most human characteristics were probably his great modesty, his helpfulness and his human interest in his students."  Heinz Hopf, who had been in Berlin before his appointment to Zurich at the ETH Privatdozent, held – as is clear from oral statements and also from letters – Issai Schur as a mathematician and greatly appreciated man. Here, this appreciation was based entirely on reciprocity: in a letter of 1930 to George Pólya on the occasion of the re-appointment of Hermann Weyl, Schur says of Hopf: "Hopf is a very excellent teacher, a mathematician of strong temperament and strong effect, a master's discipline, trained excellent in other areas. – If I have to characterize him as a man, it may suffice if I say that I sincerely look forward to each time I meet with him".  Schur was, however, known for putting a correct distance in personal affairs. The testimony of Hopf is in accordance with statements of Schur's former students in Berlin, by Walter Ledermann and Bernhard Neumann.

Issai Schur (January 10, 1875 – January 10, 1941) was a Russian mathematician who worked in Germany for most of his life. He studied at the University of Berlin. He obtained his doctorate in 1901, became lecturer in 1903 and, after a stay at the University of Bonn, professor in 1919.

Issai Schur (10. ledna 1875 Mogilev, Ruské impérium – 10. ledna 1941 Tel Aviv, Britský mandát Palestina) byl německý matematik židovského původu.


Background.

Land-grant laws similar to the Homestead Acts had been proposed by northern Republicans before the Civil War, but had been repeatedly blocked in Congress by southern Democrats who wanted western lands open for purchase by slave-owners. The Homestead Act of 1860 did pass in Congress, but it was vetoed by President James Buchanan, a Democrat. After the Southern states seceded from the Union in 1861 (and their representatives had left Congress), the bill passed and was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln (May 20, 1862). Daniel Freeman became the first person to file a claim under the new act.  Between 1862 and 1934, the federal government granted 1.6 million homesteads and distributed of federal land for private ownership. This was a total of 10% of all land in the United States. Homesteading was discontinued in 1976, except in Alaska, where it continued until 1986. About 40% of the applicants who started the process were able to complete it and obtain title to their homesteaded land after paying a small fee in cash.

History.

Donation Land Claim Act of 1850.

The Donation Land Claim Act allowed settlers to claim land in the Oregon Territory, then including the modern states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho and parts of Wyoming. Settlers were able to claim 320 or 640 acres (130 to 260 ha) of land for free between 1850 and 1854, and then at a cost of $1.25 per acre until the law expired in 1855.

Homestead Act of 1862.

The "yeoman farmer" ideal of Jeffersonian democracy was still a powerful influence in American politics during the 1840–1850s, with many politicians believing a homestead act would help increase the number of "virtuous yeomen". The Free Soil Party of 1848–52, and the new Republican Party after 1854, demanded that the new lands opening up in the west be made available to independent farmers, rather than wealthy planters who would develop it with the use of slaves forcing the yeomen farmers onto marginal lands. Southern Democrats had continually fought (and defeated) previous homestead law proposals, as they feared free land would attract European immigrants and poor Southern whites to the west. After the South seceded and their delegates left Congress in 1861, the Republicans and other supporters from the upper South passed a homestead act.  The intent of the first Homestead Act, passed in 1862, was to liberalize the homesteading requirements of the Preemption Act of 1841. It was signed by Abraham Lincoln on May 20th 1862, as following the Secession in the United States, the most vocal opposition in Congress, the Southern States, had been removed.  Its leading advocates were Andrew Johnson, George Henry Evans and Horace Greeley. George Henry Evans famously coined the phrase "Vote Yourself a Farm" in a bid to garner support for the movement.  The homestead was an area of public land in the West (usually ) granted to any US citizen willing to settle on and farm the land. The law (and those following it) required a three-step procedure: file an application, improve the land, and file for the patent (deed). Any citizen who had never taken up arms against the U.S. government (including freed slaves after the fourteenth amendment) and was at least 21 years old or the head of a household, could file an application to claim a federal land grant. Women were eligible. The occupant had to reside on the land for five years, and show evidence of having made improvements. The process had to be complete within seven years. The act depleted the Native Americans in the United States of much of their land and natural resources as a result of it being allocated and sold to mostly white settlers.

Southern Homestead Act of 1866.

Enacted to allow poor tenant farmers and sharecroppers in the south become land owners in the southern United States during Reconstruction. It was not very successful, as even the low prices and fees were often too much for the applicants to afford.

Timber Culture Act of 1873.

The Timber Culture Act granted up to 160 acres of land to a homesteader who would plant at least 40 acres (revised to 10) of trees over a period of several years. This quarter-section could be added to an existing homestead claim, offering a total of 320 acres to a settler. This offered a cheap plot of land to homesteaders.

Kinkaid Amendment of 1904.

Recognizing that the Sandhills (Nebraska) of north-central Nebraska, required more than 160 acres for a claimant to support a family, Congress passed the Kinkaid Act which granted larger homestead tracts, up to 640 acres, to homesteaders in Nebraska.

Enlarged Homestead Act of 1909.

Because by the early 1900s much of the prime low-lying alluvial land along rivers had been homesteaded, the "Enlarged Homestead Act" was passed in 1909. To enable dryland farming, it increased the number of acres for a homestead to given to farmers who accepted more marginal lands (especially in the Great Plains), which could not be easily irrigated.  A massive influx of these new farmers, combined with inappropriate cultivation techniques and misunderstanding of the ecology, led to immense land erosion and eventually the Dust Bowl of the 1930s.

Stock-Raising Homestead Act of 1916.

In 1916, the "Stock-Raising Homestead Act" was passed for settlers seeking of public land for ranching purposes.

Subsistence Homesteads provisions under the New Deal – 1930.

Renewed interest in homesteading was brought about by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's program of Subsistence Homesteading implemented in the 1930s under the New Deal.  In 1938 Congress passed a law, called the Small Tract Act (STA) of 1938, by which it is possible for any citizen to obtain certain lands from the Federal Government for residence, recreation, or business purposes. These tracts may not usually be larger than 5 acres. A 5-acre tract would be one which is 660 feet long and 330 feet wide, or its equivalent. The property was to be improved with a building. Starting July 1955, improvement was required to be minimum of 400 sq. feet of space. 4,000 previously classified Small Tracts were offered at public auction at fair market value, circa 1958, by the Los Angeles Office of BLM.

Homesteading requirements.

The Homestead Acts had few qualifying requirements. A "homesteader" had to be the head of the household or at least twenty-one years old. They had to live on the designated land, build a home, make improvements, and farm it for a minimum of five years. The filing fee was eighteen dollars (or ten to temporarily hold a claim to the land).  Immigrants, farmers without their own land, single women, and former slaves could all qualify. The fundamental racial qualification was that one had to be a citizen, or have filed a declaration of intention to become a citizen, and so the qualification changed over the years with the varying legal qualifications for citizenship. African-Americans became qualified with the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. South Asians and East Asians who had been born in the United States became qualified with the decision of "United States v. Wong Kim Ark" in 1898, but little high-quality land remained available by that time. For immigrants the fundamental qualification was that they had to be permitted to enter the country (which was usually co-extensive with being allowed to file a declaration of intention to become a citizen). During the 1800s, the bulk of immigrants were from Europe, with immigrants from South Asia and East Asia being largely excluded, and (voluntary) immigrants from Africa were permitted but uncommon.

In practice.

Settlers found land and filed their claims at the regional land office, usually in individual family units, although others formed closer knit communities. Often, the homestead consisted of several buildings or structures besides the main house.  The Homestead Act of 1862 gave rise later to a new phenomenon, large land rushes, such as the Oklahoma Land Runs of the 1880s and 90s.

End of homesteading.

The Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 ended homesteading; by that time, federal government policy had shifted to retaining control of western public lands. The only exception to this new policy was in Alaska, for which the law allowed homesteading until 1986.  The last claim under this Act was made by Ken Deardorff for of land on the Stony River in southwestern Alaska. He fulfilled all requirements of the homestead act in 1979 but did not receive his deed until May 1988. He is the last person to receive title to land claimed under the Homestead Acts.

Criticism.

The homestead acts were much abused. Although the intent was to grant land for agriculture, in the arid areas east of the Rocky Mountains, was generally too little land for a viable farm (at least prior to major federal public investments in irrigation projects). In these areas, people manipulated the provisions of the act to gain control of resources, especially water. A common scheme was for an individual, acting as a front for a large cattle operation, to file for a homestead surrounding a water source, under the pretense that the land was to be used as a farm. Once the land was granted, other cattle ranchers would be denied the use of that water source, effectively closing off the adjacent public land to competition. That method was also used by large businesses and speculators to gain ownership of timber and oil-producing land. The federal government charged royalties for extraction of these resources from public lands. On the other hand, homesteading schemes were generally pointless for land containing "locatable minerals," such as gold and silver, which could be controlled through mining claims under the Mining Act of 1872, for which the federal government did not charge royalties.  The government developed no systematic method to evaluate claims under the homestead acts. Land offices relied on affidavits from witnesses that the claimant had lived on the land for the required period of time and made the required improvements. In practice, some of these witnesses were bribed or otherwise colluded with the claimant.  Although not necessarily fraud, it was common practice for the eligible children of a large family to claim nearby land as soon as possible. After a few generations, a family could build up a sizable estate.  The homesteads were criticized as too small for the environmental conditions on the Great Plains; a homesteader using 19th-century animal-powered tilling and harvesting could not have cultivated the 1500 acres later recommended for dry land farming. Some scholars believe the acreage limits were reasonable when the act was written, but reveal that no one understood the physical conditions of the plains.  According to Hugh Nibley, much of the rain forest west of Portland, Oregon was acquired by the Oregon Lumber Company by illegal claims under the Act.  Nonetheless, in 1995, a random survey of 178 members of the Economic History Association found that 70 percent of economists and 84 percent of economic historians disagreed that "Nineteenth-century U.S. land policy, which attempted to give away free land, probably represented a net drain on the productive capacity of the country."  Robert Higgs argues that the Homestead Act induced no long-term misallocation of resources.

Related acts in other countries.

Canada.

Similar laws were passed in Canada:  The Legislative Assembly of Ontario passed "The Free Grants and Homestead Act" in 1868, which introduced a conditional scheme to an existing free grant plan previously authorized by the Province of Canada in "The Public Lands Act" of 1860. It was extended to include settlement in the Rainy River District under "The Rainy River Free Grants and Homestead Act, 1886", These Acts were consolidated in 1913 in "The Public Lands Act", which was further extended in 1948 to provide for free grants to former members of the Canadian Forces. The original free grant provisions for settlers were repealed in 1951, and the remaining provisions were repealed in 1961.  The Parliament of Canada passed the "Dominion Lands Act" in 1872 in order to encourage settlement in the Northwest Territories. Its application was restricted after the passage of the Natural Resources Acts in 1930, and it was finally repealed in 1950.  The Legislative Assembly of Quebec did not expand the scope of the 1860 Province of Canada Act (which modern day Quebec was part of in 1860), but did provide in 1868 that such lands were exempt from seizure, and chattels thereon were also exempt for the first ten years of occupation. Later known as the "Settlers Protection Act", it was repealed in 1984.  Newfoundland and Labrador provided for free grants of land upon proof of possession for twenty years prior to 1977, with continuous use for agricultural, business or residential purposes during that time. Similar programs continued to operate in Alberta and British Columbia until 1970. In the early 21st century, some land is still being granted in the Yukon Territory under its Agricultural Lands Program.

New Zealand.

Despite the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi provisions for sale of land, the Māori Land Court decided that all land not cultivated by Māori was 'waste land' and belonged to the Crown without purchase. Most New Zealand provinces had Waste Lands Acts enacted between 1854 and 1877. The 1877 Land Act in Auckland Province used the term Homestead, with allocation administered by a Crown Lands Board. There was similar legislation in Westland. It gave up to, with settlers just paying the cost of a survey. They had to live there for five years, build a house and cultivate a third of the land, if already open, or a fifth if bush had to be cleared. The land was forfeited if they didn't clear enough bush. This contributed to rapid deforestation.

Elsewhere in the British Empire.

Similar in intent, the British Crown Lands Acts were extended to several of the Empire's territories, and many are still in effect, to some extent, today. For instance, the Australian selection acts were passed in the various Australian colonies following the first, in 1861, in New South Wales.

The Homestead Acts were several laws in the United States by which an applicant could acquire ownership of government land or the public domain, typically called a homestead. In all, more than of public land, or nearly 10 percent of the total area of the United States, was given away free to 1.6 million homesteaders; most of the homesteads were west of the Mississippi River.

Homestead Act, zákon o usedlících, byl v USA důležitý federální zákon, podepsaný roku 1862 presidentem Abrahamem Lincolnem. Umožňoval všem občanům USA i přistěhovalcům, aby bezplatně získali 60 ha (později až 2,6 km) federální zemědělské půdy.


Etymology.

"Condominium" is an invented Latin word formed by adding the prefix "con-" ‘together’ to the word "dominium" ‘dominion, ownership’. Its meaning is therefore ‘joint dominion’ or ‘co-ownership’.  "Condominia" (the Latin plural of "condominium") originally referred to territories over which two or more sovereign powers shared joint sovereignty. This technique was frequently used to settle border disputes when multiple claimants could not agree on how to partition the disputed territory. For example, from 1818 to 1846, Oregon Country was a condominium over which both the United States and Great Britain shared joint sovereignty until the Oregon Treaty resolved the issue by splitting the territory along the 49th parallel and each country gaining sole sovereignty of one side.

Overview.

The difference between an "apartment" complex and condominium is purely legal. There is no way to differentiate a condominium from an apartment simply by looking at or visiting the building. What defines a condominium is the form of ownership. A building developed as a condominium (and "sold" in individual units to different "owners") could actually be built at another location as an apartment building (the developers would retain ownership and "rent" individual units to different "tenants").  As a practical matter, builders tend to build condominiums to higher quality standards than apartment complexes because of the differences between the rental and sale markets. They are typically slightly larger than apartments, and are often constructed in a townhouse style in regions where single-family detached homes are common.  Technically, a condominium is a collection of individual home units and common areas along with the land upon which they sit. Individual home ownership within a condominium is construed as ownership of only the air space confining the boundaries of the home. The boundaries of that space are specified by a legal document known as a Declaration, filed on record with the local governing authority. Typically, these boundaries will include the wall surrounding a condo, allowing the homeowner to make some interior modifications without impacting the common area. Anything outside this boundary is held in an undivided ownership interest by a corporation established at the time of the condominium's creation. The corporation holds this property in trust on behalf of the homeowners as a group—it may not have ownership itself.  Condominiums have conditions, covenants, and restrictions, and often additional rules that govern how the individual unit owners are to share the space.  It is also possible for a condominium to consist of single-family dwellings. There are also "detached condominiums" where homeowners do not maintain the exteriors of the dwellings, yards, etc. and "site condominiums" where the owner has more control and possibly ownership (as in a "whole lot" or "lot line" condominium) over the exterior appearance. These structures are preferred by some planned neighborhoods and gated communities.

Homeowners association.

A homeowners association (HOA), whose members are the unit owners, manages the condominium through a board of directors elected by the membership. This exists under various names depending on the jurisdiction, such as "unit title", "sectional title", "commonhold", "strata council", or "tenant-owner's association", "body corporate", "Owners Corporation", "condominium corporation" or "condominium association". Another variation of this concept is the "time share", although not all time shares are condominiums, and not all time shares involve actual ownership of (i.e., deeded title to) real property. Condominiums may be found in both civil law and common law legal systems as it is purely a creation of statute. Among other things, the HOA assesses unit owners for the costs of maintaining the common areas, etc. That is, the HOA decides how much each owner should pay and has the legal power to collect that.

Unit description.

The description of the condominium units and the common areas and any restrictions on their use is established in a document commonly called a "Master Deed" (also known as the "Enabling Declaration", the "Declaration of Conditions", or the "Condominium Document"). Among other things, this document provides for the creation of the HOA. Rules of governance for the association are usually covered under a separate set of bylaws which generally govern the internal affairs of the condominium. Condominium bylaws usually establish the responsibilities of the owners' association; the voting procedures to be used at association meetings; the qualifications, powers, and duties of the board of directors; the powers and duties of the officers; and the obligations of the owners with regard to assessments, maintenance, and use of the units and common areas. Finally, a set of rules and regulations providing specific details of restrictions on conduct of unit owners and residents are established by the HOA. These are more readily amendable than the declaration or association bylaws, typically requiring only a vote of the HOA board. Typical rules include mandatory maintenance fees (perhaps collected monthly), pet restrictions, and color/design choices visible from the exterior of the units. Generally, these sets of rules and regulations are made available to residents and or as a matter of public record via a condominium or homeowners association website or through public files, depending on the state and its applicable laws. Condominiums are usually owned in fee simple title, but can be owned in ways that other real estate can be owned, such as title held in trust. In some jurisdictions, such as Ontario, Canada or Hawaii USA, there are "leasehold condominiums" where the development is built on leased land.  In general, condominium unit owners can rent their home to tenants, similar to renting out other real estate, although leasing rights may be subject to conditions or restrictions set forth in the declaration (such as a rental cap for the total number of units in a community that can be leased at one time) or otherwise as permitted by local law.

Non-residential uses.

Condominium ownership is also used, albeit less frequently, for non-residential land uses: offices, hotel rooms, retail shops, private airports, marinas, group housing facilities (retirement homes or dormitories), bare land (in British Columbia) and storage. The legal structure is the same, and many of the benefits are similar; for instance, a nonprofit corporation may face a lower tax liability in an office condominium than in an office rented from a taxable, for-profit company. However, the frequent turnover of commercial land uses in particular can make the inflexibility of condominium arrangements problematic.

Similar concepts.

There are many forms of real estate ownership that are similar to condominiums but not identical.  Classic privately owned detached houses on privately owned lots may be part of a community that has a homeowner's association. Such an association may administer a common park area, for example, or an access road, or architectural standards for the houses.  In a townhouse complex, multiple physical houses are combined into a single architectural building. Each unit owner owns an identified plot of land and the building affixed to it, but that building is physically part of a larger building that spans lots. There is a continuous roof and foundation and a single wall divides adjacent townhouses. If there is an apartment below not owned by owner of townhouse, then it is not a townhouse, just a bi-level apartment/condominium. Legally, this is very similar to detached houses, but because of the intertwining of interests in the single architectural building, a homeowner's association is required. It would be impractical, for example to replace the roof of just one townhouse. But unlike the condominium, the townhouse complex's HOA owns none of the building or the land under it. It is essentially under contract to the townhouse owners to maintain the parts of the building that are hard to divide. Even the walls between townhouses are usually outside the purview of the HOA, being jointly owned and maintained by the owners of the townhouses on either side. Like the condominium, the townhouse complex often has common areas for roads, parking, clubhouses, and such.  A rowhouse is like a townhouse except that the houses are not physically connected. They are independent structures that simply have no space between them. Technically, they are detached.  A building with multiple residential units may simply be owned in common by multiple people, with each having specific rights to a particular unit and undivided interest in the rest. This is like a condominium, but there is no HOA with legal powers. It is much harder to govern, as the individual unit owners often have to agree unanimously or court intervention is required.  California statutes recognize three kinds of "common interest developments": condominium, townhouse, and community apartment, with the latter being the owned-in-common concept described above.

By country.

Australia.

In Australia, condominiums are known as "strata title schemes" or "community title schemes".

Canada.

One in eight Canadian households lived in condominium dwellings, colloquially known as "condos", mostly located in a few census metropolitan areas according to Statistics Canada Condominiums exist in most parts of Canada though more common in larger cities. They are regulated under provincial or territorial legislation and specific legal details vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In most parts of Canada, they are referred to as Condominiums, except in British Columbia where they are referred to as a "strata" and in Quebec where they are referred to as "syndicates of co-ownership". The townhouse complex of Brentwood Village in Edmonton, Alberta, was the first condominium development in Canada (registered in 1967). With regular condominiums, the unit owner usually owns the internal unit space and a share of the corporation; the corporation owns the exterior of the building land and common area; in the case of a "freehold condominium" the owner owns the land and building and the corporation owns common shared roadways and amenities. The "Canadian Condominium Institute" is a non-profit association of condominium owners and corporations with chapters in each province and territory. The "Condo Owners Association" COA Ontario is a non-profit association representing condominium owners with divisions across the province and districts within the various municipalities.

Denmark.

Apartments (Danish "ejerlejlighed", literally "owner-apartment") comprise some 5% of Danish homes. They are traded and mortgaged on the same markets as free-standing houses, and are treated legally much like other forms of real estate. Each owner-tenant directly owns his own apartment; the rest of the building and the ground on which it stands is owned jointly by the apartment owners who execute their joint ownership through an "owner's association". The expenses of maintaining the joint property is shared "pro rata" among the owners.  Another 5% of Danish homes are in housing cooperatives (Danish "andelsbolig"), which occupy a legal position intermediate between condominiums and housing associations. The entire property is legally owned by a non-profit corporation in which the tenants own shares; each share carries the right and duty to lease an apartment from the cooperative. Shares can be bought and sold, but often the cooperative's rules strictly limit the price for which they may change hand. (In contrast, condominiums are traded on a free market). Because the official share prices are often lower than the market value and sellers often retain freedom to select whom to sell to, under-the-table payments are common.  Current public policy favors condominiums over housing cooperatives, and recent legislation have aimed at making the latter more condominium-like. For example, since 2005, cooperative shares may be used to secure bank loans. (However, Danish mortgage banks still may not mortgage individual housing cooperative apartments).

England and Wales, UK.

In England and Wales, the equivalent of condominium is commonhold, a form of ownership introduced in September 2004. As of 3 June 2009, there were 12 commonhold residential developments comprising 97 units in England and one commonhold residential development, comprising 30 units, in Wales. "Condominium" is not a term that is widely used in England and Wales, as commonhold is a creature of statute and comparatively rare, and condominiums are more likely to be found in the form of leaseholds.  In English law it is not possible to enforce a positive covenant on successive owners of freehold land, other than to maintain a boundary fence, without creating an elaborate trust. A positive covenant is, broadly, one which involves the expenditure of money to perform.  This did not create a significant problem until the 1950s, when "flats" (where ownership is divided horizontally) first began to appear on the market as more affordable particularly for first-time buyers. Until then flats had been confined to short-term unsaleable tenancies, with varying degrees of statutory rent protection and security of tenure.  It was soon learned that freehold flats were an unsatisfactory form of ownership because it was not possible to impose essential maintenance requirements. As such, flats became virtually unmarketable because they were an unacceptable form of security to lenders. Thus solicitors, the principal property lawyers in England and Wales in those days, began to use leases instead, where such limitations did not apply.  Progress was haphazard and piecemeal, but over time things became more standard. Improvements became universal as institutional lenders refused to advance money on the security of flats unless certain basic provisions were included. This benefited owners whether or not they borrowed money since purchase was invariably conducted through a solicitor or licensed conveyancer trained to reject leases failing to meet the necessary standards.  Despite these standards, the actual form of leasehold systems is variable. Highly favoured are arrangements where the leases are granted out of a freehold owned by a corporation, itself owned by individual leaseholders. This provides an opportunity for them to participate in the proper management of the block. Again, quality of management is very variable.  The statute creating commonholds was motivated by a desire to eliminate some of the problems and perceived injustices, such as the commercial exploitation of "lessees" by freeholders as their leases began to have too little time left to satisfy lenders. Since most leasehold developments are undertaken by commercial entities, commonholds did not become widespread. There are, however, other statutes in place that give some degree of protection for leaseholders. It is, nevertheless, essential to consider proper legal advice whenever engaged in the purchase of a flat, for the requirements for a fully marketable flat remain complex.  Law of Property Act 1925, s.153, contains provisions for the "enlargement" of leases into freeholds, one of the effects of which is to preserve the enforceability of positive covenants contained in the lease against the resulting freehold. There are clear, but stringent, requirements. Artificial schemes using the provisions to create enforceable positive covenants in freehold blocks of flats were occasionally mooted but never gained currency.  Scotland has a separate legal system from England and Wales and is a separate consideration.

Finland.

In Finland, a condominium-like arrangement where the ownership of the real estate is assigned to specific apartments (, ) is usually used only with detached or semi-detached houses.  A housing cooperative is a common form of home ownership in Finland. Owning shares that correspond to one apartment in a housing company is generally considered as much "owning your own home" as actually directly owning a (single family) house. However, shares are not considered as real estate but as personal property and the co-op can take the possession of the apartment for a term time and evict the tenant or owner because of disturbance or unpaid maintenance fees.  Finnish housing cooperatives are incorporated as (non-profit) limited-liability companies (, ), where one share usually represents one square meter (sometimes ten) of the apartment.  Membership of a condo is obtained by buying the shares on the open market, most often through a real estate agent. No board approval is needed to buy shares. There is usually no requirement for the owner(s) to live in the condo. Owning of apartments for rent is a common form of saving and private investment in Finland.

Germany.

In Germany, Condominiums are known as "Eigentumswohnung" and the most important law considering condominiums is the German Condominium Act (WEG). It's the basis for all legal regulations involving individual freehold ownership, the rights, duties of home owner associations and the management of condominiums. The Act dates back to 1951, but it was re-enacted in 2007. Now home owners are invested with partial legal capacity, which means that the home owner association represents an entity with rights and duties that may include contracts. The right of ownership is divided in the first article of the German Condominium Act into homeownership, individual freehold ownership, part ownership and commonhold ownership.

Hong Kong.

Condominiums are known as "private housing estates" (as opposed to "public housing estates") in Hong Kong.

Hungary.

Condominiums (Hungarian: "társasház") were formally introduced in 1924. Condominium properties are traded and mortgaged on the same markets as free standing houses, and treated much like other forms of real estate. The condominium acts as a non-profit legal entity maintaining the common areas of the property, and is managed by a representative elected by the owners' convention.  Decisions that involve changes to the terms and conditions, or larger common expenses need to be approved by the convention, where voting power is based on the percentage of property owned.  Actually, condominium is a frequent legal form of housing in Hungarian cities where privatization of state or municipality-owned flats were effected mainly in the 1990s.

India.

In India, condominiums are known as "Apartments" or "Apartment Buildings/Complexes" or "Societies" or "Flats". Each building consists of multiple floors and flats/living units with different configurations. The most common configurations are "1-BHK", "2-BHK" and "3-BHK" (BHK stands for bedroom-hall-kitchen).  The association of home owners is usually called a Co-operative Housing Society (CHS) or Co-operative Group Housing Society (CGHS), which needs to be registered with the municipal authorities.

Israel.

In Israel, condominiums (known ""בתים משותפים"", "shared houses" or "cooperative houses") are a common form of home ownership. Public housing has historically been organized as subsidized purchase and mortgages in government-constructed condominiums.

Italy.

In Italy, the condominium (""Condominio"") is governed by law, last reformed in 2012. Co-ownership of the common parts of the buildings (such as the stairs, main walls, facades, roof, courtyards) is mandatory: a landlord can not give up the right on common parts for not paying the costs. Each owner's quota in the condominium is expressed in thousandths (""millesimi"") of the whole; these are used to determine majorities in owners' assemblies (""assemblee condominiali"").

The Netherlands.

See housing cooperative under "owners association".

Norway.

Condominiums (Norwegian "Eierseksjon") were formally introduced in 1983. Approximately 19% of Norwegian homes are condominiums, as approximately 50% of the owner-occupied flats and duplexes, approximately 30% of the rowhouses and 2.5% of the detached houses are organised as condominiums.

Pakistan.

Title "Condominiums" is not used in Pakistan rather they are called "Flats" for average style building while "Complexes" for sophisticated and larger buildings. Minimum floors for a building to be classified as "Flats" is four, with a requirement for having at least one elevator or lift for buildings upwards of four floors. Almost all have a separate room called the "Drawing Room", used for guest entertainment purposes. However, its use as TV room and dining room is common. Another unique feature is the balcony or "terrace", which are standard for all flats.

Philippines.

In the Philippines, condominiums are classified into three types: low-rise, mid-rise, and high-rise. Condos have a special type of ownership title called a CCT - condominium certificate of transfer. Condominiums usually have amenities, like swimming pools, owned parking, a clubhouse and a building for administration.

Singapore.

In Singapore and Malaysia, "Condo" or "Condominium" are terms used for housing buildings with some special luxury features like security guards, swimming pools or tennis courts.  In Singapore, most housings without such features are built by the governmental Housing Development Board (HDB), and such HDB units can be possessed for rent or individually bought from the government. Condominiums and HDB flats make up the overwhelming majority of available residential housing in the country.

South Africa.

In South Africa, condominiums are known as "Sectional Title" properties, and are governed by the Sectional Titles Act No. 95 of 1986. Town-house complexes and many apartment blocks typically have this form of title. The owners of the complex constitute the Body Corporate, and the Body Corporate elects a group of Trustees to manage the day-to-day management of the complex, who often hire a company specialising in complex management, known as a Managing Agent.

Spain.

In Spain, condominiums are known as "comunidad de propietarios" (legal term) and "comunidad de vecinos" (popular term), and are governed by the Ley de Propiedad Horizontal (L.P.H.) which significantly extends the Spanish Civil Code. L.P.H. became the law in 1960 and more than half of the Spanish population lives in condominiums. According to INE, there are almost 840,000 condominiums in Spain which comprise around 9 million habitat buildings.

Sweden.

On 1 May 2009, condominiums ("ägarlägenheter") became available for the first time under Swedish law. Of the 14,447 newly built apartments completed in 2009, only six were condominiums. A majority of production, 7,723 units, were apartments in housing cooperatives ("bostadsrättslägenheter"), the traditional form of owner occupied apartment housing. As of late 2014, there were 955 condominiums total throughout all of Sweden.

Thailand.

Nationwide, as of February 2018, Bangkok represented 58% of Thailand's new construction condominium market while the other provinces accounted for the remaining 42%. The unit type has seen steady growth in the Thai market over the previous decades, in contrast to the declining percentage in the traditional detached house. The condo development trend continues nationwide as dozens of projects are in progress in Bangkok, several others are underway in the Eastern Economic Corridor provinces of Chon Buri and Rayong, and to the west in Phetchaburi and Prachuap Khiri Khan.

United States of America.

The first condominium law passed in the United States of America was in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in 1958. In 1960, the first condominium in the continental U.S. was built in Salt Lake City, Utah. The legal concept had spread to the U.S. from Europe via the Caribbean (Puerto Rico and Cuba) but throughout the 1960s it was widely and erroneously reported that the concept had arisen in the U.S. directly based on a Roman model. In fact, the concept of an estate in the air was antithetical to Roman law, and there is no evidence of an ancient Roman "condominio".  Section 234 of the Housing Act of 1961 allowed the Federal Housing Administration to insure mortgages on condominiums, leading to a vast increase in the funds available for condominiums, and to condominium laws in every state by 1969. Since then, the term ‘condominium’, or ‘condo’ for short, has become a household word in the U.S.. Many Americans' first widespread awareness of condominium life came not from its largest cities but from South Florida, where developers had imported the condominium concept from Puerto Rico and used it to sell thousands of inexpensive homes to retirees arriving flush with cash from the urban northern U.S.  The primary attraction to this type of ownership is the ability to obtain affordable housing in a highly desirable area that typically is beyond economic reach. Additionally, such properties benefit from having restrictions that maintain and enhance value, providing control over blight that plagues some neighborhoods.  Over the past several decades, the residential condominium industry has been booming in some metropolitan areas, such as Miami, San Francisco, Seattle, Boston, Chicago, Austin, Los Angeles and New York City. However, in recent years, supply within the condo industry has caught up with demand, and sales have slowed. It is now in a slowdown phase.  An alternative form of ownership, popular in parts of the U.S. but found also in other common law jurisdictions, is housing cooperative, also known as "company share" or "co-op". A Housing Cooperative is where the building has an associated legal company and ownership of shares gives the right to a lease for the residence of a unit. Another form is ground rent ("solarium") in which a single landlord retains ownership of the land ("solum") but leases the surface rights ("superficies") which renew in perpetuity or over a very long term. This is comparable to a civil-law emphyteusis, except that emphyteusis shifts the duties of up-keep and making improvements onto the renter.  In the U.S., there are several different styles of condominium complexes. For example, a garden condominium complex consists of low-rise buildings built with landscaped grounds surrounding them. A townhouse condominium complex consists of multi-floor semi-detached homes. In condominium townhouses, the purchaser owns only the interior, while the building itself is owned by a condominium corporation. The corporation is jointly owned by all the owners and charges them fees for general maintenance and major repairs. Freehold townhouses are exclusively owned, without any condominium aspects. In the U.S., this type of ownership is called fee simple.  New York’s Condominium Act was passed in 1964. The first condominium building was the St. Tropez Condominium in Manhattan built in 1965.

A condominium, often shortened to condo in the United States and in most Canadian provinces, is a type of living space similar to an apartment but independently sellable and therefore regarded as real estate. The condominium building structure is divided into several units that are each separately owned, surrounded by common areas that are jointly owned. Condominiums are a type of common-interest development (CID). Similar concepts in other English-speaking countries include strata title in Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, and the Canadian province of British Columbia; commonhold in the United Kingdom; and sectional title in South Africa.

Kondominium, condominium nebo zřídka kondominát (angl. a lat. "condominium", angl. zkráceně "condo") je v USA a většině Kanady (přeneseně i v jiných státech včetně České republiky) forma spoluvlastnictví nemovitosti. Jde o takové vlastnické právo k nemovitosti, které je vlastně spojením dvou právních titulů v jeden – a to jednak individuálního vlastnického práva k jednotlivému bytu a jednak společného vlastnictví společných prostor téže nemovitosti. Vlastník bytu tedy vlastní obytnou jednotku, ale zázemí, příslušející půda, komunikace a všechny společné prostory vlastní všichni obyvatelé nemovitosti současně. Jednotlivec svým způsobem vlastní jen vzdušný prostor ("airspace") své obytné jednotky.


Plot.

Larry Daley is a divorced man who has been unable to keep a stable job and has failed at many business ventures. His former wife Erica believes that he is a bad example to their ten-year-old son Nick, and Larry fears that Nick respects his future stepfather, bond trader Don, more than him.  Cecil Fredricks, an elderly night security guard about to retire from the American Museum of Natural History, hires Larry despite his unpromising résumé. The museum, which is rapidly losing money, plans to replace Cecil and his two colleagues Gus and Reginald with one guard. Cecil gives Larry an instruction booklet on how to handle museum security, advises Larry to leave some of the lights on, and warns him not to let anything "in...or out".  Once night falls, Larry discovers that the exhibits come to life, including a playful Tyrannosaurus skeleton nicknamed "Rexy" who behaves like a dog, a mischievous capuchin monkey named Dexter, rival miniature civilizations led by Old West cowboy Jedediah and Roman general Octavius, abusive, limb-ripping Attila the Hun, an Easter Island Moai obsessed with "gum-gum", and a wax model of Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt explains that since an Egyptian artifact—the Golden Tablet of Pharaoh Ahkmenrah—came to the museum in 1952, all of the exhibits come to life each night. If the exhibits are outside the museum during sunrise, they turn to dust. Roosevelt helps Larry by restoring order, but only for one night.  Larry quits the next morning, saying to the three guards he doesn't want a job that is life-threatening. However, he sees Nick coming to see him at work the next morning, where he offers Nick a tour of the museum. After seeing Nick's interest in his job, Larry decides to remain as a night guard. When Larry tells Cecil about how Dexter tore up his instructions, Cecil advises him to study history to prepare himself for his nightly duties. He also learns more from a museum docent Rebecca Hutman, who is writing a dissertation on Sacagawea, but does not feel she knows enough about her subject.  The next night, Larry uses what he has learned to better control the exhibits. However, things go wrong anyway and four Neanderthals set fire to a display and some other things. One of the Neanderthals turns into dust after escaping from the museum at dawn, leading to a street sweeper truck to clean up his remains. The next morning, museum director Dr. McPhee almost tries to fires Larry after what had happened to the Neanderthal exhibit. Larry offers Rebecca a meeting with Sacagawea, but she believes that he is mocking her and the museum.  Larry brings Nick to the museum to show him the exhibits, but strangely none of them are coming to life. They find Cecil, Gus, and Reginald stealing the tablet and other valuable objects. Like the exhibits, the guards receive enhanced vitality from the artifact; wishing to retain their youth, health and to fund their retirements, the three plan to frame Larry for the thefts. They have also disabled the tablet to stop the exhibits from interfering. With his father's encouragement, Nick reactivates the tablet, and runs away with the artifact in tow. After a chase ensues throughout the museum, Cecil locks up Nick and his father in the Egyptian room and steals back the tablet. Larry releases Ahkmenrah's mummy from his sarcophagus. The pharaoh speaks English from many years as an exhibit at Cambridge, and helps Larry and Nick escape. The three find the other exhibits fighting; Larry confronts Attila, realizing his behavior came from being hurt a long time ago when he was very young, resulting in Larry comforting a sobbing Attila while singing a lullaby to him and convinces the exhibits to work together.  The exhibits capture Gus and Reginald without difficulty, but Cecil escapes by stagecoach. In doing so, he almost runs Sacagawea over, but instead slices Teddy in half when he shoves her out of the way. Cecil continues to escape with Larry, Nick, Ahkmenrah, Jed, Octavius, Rexy, and Atilla the Hun in pursuit in Central Park, where they stop him and regain the tablet. Jed and Octavius are presumably killed when their remote-controlled Hummer crashes, but they somehow survive. Rebecca sees the exhibits return to the museum before sunrise and realizes that Larry was telling the truth; he introduces her to Sacagawea. Dr. McPhee fires Larry again after seeing news reports of the strange events around the museum – such as cave paintings in the museum's subway station, dinosaur footprints in Central Park, and cavemen sightings. However, upon seeing how much these events raised attendance, he thinks better of it and gives Larry his job back. Larry, Nick, and the exhibits celebrate the following night and throw a huge party for everyone.  During the credits, it was shown that Cecil, Gus and Reginald weren't handed over to the authorities and are now working as janitors at the museum, cleaning up after the party.

Production.

The building featured in the film, which was constructed on a sound stage in Burnaby, British Columbia, is based on the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, external shots of which were used in the movie.  Trainers spent several weeks training Crystal, who plays the troublemaking monkey Dexter, to slap and bite Stiller in the film.  Director Shawn Levy credited Ben Stiller for the ensemble cast: "When actors hear that Ben Stiller is in a movie they want to work with him. It['s] a high-water mark and it absolutely draws actors in and I'm convinced that's a big part of why we got this cast."

Music.

Score.

Alan Silvestri replaced John Ottman as score composer. Silvestri's score was used for the teaser trailer of "Horton Hears a Who!"

Track list.

Varèse Sarabande released a soundtrack album of the score on December 19, 2006.

Release.

"Night at the Museum" had its premiere in New York City on December 17, 2006, on December 22, 2006 in the United States, December 26, 2006 in UK, January 12, 2007 in Brazil, on February 14, 2007 in China and on March 17, 2007 in Japan.

Reception.

Box office.

At the end of its box office run, "Night at the Museum" earned a gross of $250.9 million in the US and Canada and $323.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $574.5 million. It was the fifth highest-grossing film of 2006 and also the highest-grossing film worldwide of the trilogy.  It was the highest-grossing film in its opening weekend, grossing $30.8 million plating in 3,686 theaters, with a $8,258 per-theater average. For the four-day Christmas holiday weekend, it took in $42.2 million. The movie was also released in IMAX large screen format, often on site at museums of science or natural history such as the Pacific Science Center in Seattle.  In its second weekend, "Night at the Museum" expanded into 83 more theaters and took in approximately $36.7 million, out-grossing its opening weekend. It maintained the top position in its third week, with an additional $23.7 million.  During its opening weekend of December 22, 2006, the film grossed a figure of estimated $5 million, with the highest debut coming from South Korea ($5.04 million). The biggest market in the other territories were the UK, Japan, South Korea, and Germany, where it grossed $40.8 million, $30 million, $25.7 million, $22.9 million.

Critical reaction.

On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 43% based on 132 reviews and an average rating of 5.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Parents might call this either a spectacle-filled adventure or a shallow and vapid CG-fest, depending on whether they choose to embrace this on the same level as their kids". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 48 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".  James Berardinelli of Reelviews gave it 2 stars out of 4, and commented on Stiller's performance by stating "It might be fair to give Ben Stiller an 'A' for effort, but to call what he does in this movie 'acting' is a misnomer. He does a lot of running around, occasionally falling down or bumping into things." One positive review by William Arnold of the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", gave it a B-, and stated that the film was "Out to impress and delight a family audience with the pageantry of human and natural history, and that's a surprisingly worthy ambition for a Hollywood comedy." Museum officials at the American Museum of Natural History have credited the film for increasing the number of visitors during the holiday season by almost 20%. According to a museum official, between December 22, 2006, and January 2, 2007, there were 50,000 more visitors than during the same period the prior year. CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.

Home media.

The film was released on a 2-Disc DVD edition in the United Kingdom on April 2, 2007. It was released on 1-Disc and 2-Disc DVD editions and Blu-ray Disc format on April 24, 2007 elsewhere.  The film became the first non-Disney film to be reviewed by Ultimate Disney (now known as DVDizzy.com), due to the website dealing with other studios besides Disney. , the film has sold 9,191,694 DVDs and grossed $153,566,058 in DVD sales.

Sequels.

"Night at the Museum" was followed by a sequel titled "", which was released on May 22, 2009 in North America. A third film, "", was released on December 19, 2014 in North America.  In 2016, "The Hollywood Reporter" stated that the Alibaba Pictures Group intended to remake the film. On August 7, 2019, Disney stated they were to remake "Home Alone", "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" and "Night at the Museum" for their Disney+ streaming service.

Night at the Museum is a 2006 fantasy-comedy film directed by Shawn Levy and written by Robert Ben Garant and Thomas Lennon. It is based on the 1993 children's book of essentially the same name, by Croatian illustrator Milan Trenc. The film stars Ben Stiller as Larry Daley, a divorced father who applies for a job as a night watchman at New York City's American Museum of Natural History and subsequently discovers that the exhibits, animated by a magical Egyptian artifact, come to life at night. 20th Century Fox released the film on December 22, 2006, and it grossed $577 million. Two sequels were released: "" in 2009, and "" in 2014. A remake is in development for the streaming service Disney+.

Noc v muzeu (v americkém originále: Night at the Museum) je americký akční film z roku 2006. Režisérem filmu je Shawn Levy. Hlavní role ve filmu ztvárnili Ben Stiller, Carla Gugino, Robin Williams, Jake Cherry a Dick Van Dyke.


Early life.

Christopher was the third of the four sons of Stephen Báthory of Somlyó and Catherine Telegdi. His father was a supporter of John Zápolya, King of Hungary, who made him voivode of Transylvania in February 1530. Christopher was born in Báthorys' castle at Szilágysomlyó (now Șimleu Silvaniei in Romania) in the same year. His father died in 1534.  His brother, Andrew, and their kinsman, Tamás Nádasdy, took charge of Christopher's education. Christopher visited England, France, Italy, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire in his youth. He also served as a page in Emperor Charles V's court.

Career.

Christopher entered the service of John Zápolya's widow, Isabella Jagiellon, in the late 1550s. At the time, Isabella administered the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary on behalf of her son, John Sigismund Zápolya. She wanted to persuade Henry II of France to withdraw his troops from three fortresses that the Ottomans had captured in Banat, so she sent Christopher to France to start negotiations in 1557.  John Sigismund took charge of the administration of his realm after his mother died on 15 November 1559. He retained his mother's advisors, including Christopher who became one of his most influential officials. After the rebellion of Melchior Balassa, Christopher persuaded John Sigismund to fight for his realm instead of fleeing to Poland in 1562. Christopher was one of the commanders of John Sigismund's troops during the ensuing war against the Habsburg rulers of the western territories of the Kingdom of Hungary, Ferdinand and Maximilian, who tried to reunite the kingdom under their rule. Christopher defeated Maximilian's commander, Lazarus von Schwendi, forcing him to lift the siege of Huszt (now Khust in Ukraine) in 1565.  After the death of John Sigismund, the Diet of Transylvania elected Christopher's younger brother, Stephen Báthory, voivode (or ruler) on 25 May 1571. Stephen made Christopher captain of Várad (now Oradea in Romania). The following year, the Ottoman Sultan, Selim II (who was the overlord of Transylvania), acknowledged the hereditary right of the Báthory family to rule the province.

Reign.

Stephen Báthory was elected King of Poland on 15 December 1575. He adopted the title of Prince of Transylvania and made Christopher voivode on 14 January 1576. An Ottoman delegation confirmed Christopher's appointment at the Diet in Gyulafehérvár (now Alba Iulia in Romania) in July. The sultan's charter (or "ahidnâme") sent to Christopher emphasized that he should keep the peace along the frontiers. Stephen set up a separate chancellery in Kraków to keep an eye on the administration of Transylvania. The head of the new chancellery, Márton Berzeviczy, and Christopher cooperated closely.  Anti-Trinitarian preachers began to condemn the worshiping of Jesus in Partium and Székely Land in 1576, although the Diet had already forbade all doctrinal innovations. Ferenc Dávid, the most influential leader of the Unitarian Church of Transylvania, openly joined the dissenters in the autumn of 1578. Christopher invited Fausto Sozzini, a leading Anti-Trinitarian theologian, to Transylvania to convince Dávid that the new teaching was erroneous. Since Dávid refused to obey, Christopher held a Diet and the "Three Nations" (including the Unitarian delegates) ordered Dávid's imprisonment. Christopher also supported his brother's attempts to strengthen the position of the Roman Catholic Church in Transylvania. He granted estates to the Jesuits to promote the establishment of a college in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca in Romania) on 5 May 1579.  Christopher fell seriously ill after his second wife, Elisabeth Bocskai, died in early 1581. After a false rumor about Christopher's death reached Istanbul, Koca Sinan Pasha proposed Transylvania to Pál Márkházy whom Christopher had been forced into exile. Although Christopher's only surviving son Sigismund was still a minor, the Diet elected him as voivode before Christopher's death, because they wanted to prevent the appointment of Márkházy. Christopher died in Gyulafehérvár on 27 May 1581. He was buried in the Jesuits' church in Gyulafehérvár, almost two years later, on 14 March 1583.

Family.

Christopher's first wife, Catherina Danicska, was a Polish noblewoman, but only the Hungarian form of her name is known. Their eldest son, Balthasar Báthory, moved to Kraków shortly after Stephen Báthory was crowned King of Poland; he drowned in the Vistula River in May 1577 at the age of 22. Christopher's and Catherina's second son, Nicholas, was born in 1567 and died in 1576.  Christopher's second wife, Elisabeth Bocskai, was a Calvinist noblewoman. Their first child, Cristina (or Griselda), was born in 1569. She was given in marriage to Jan Zamoyski, Chancellor of Poland, in 1583. Christopher's youngest son, Sigismund, was born in 1573.

Christopher Báthory (; 1530 – 27 May 1581) was voivode of Transylvania from 1576 to 1581. He was a younger son of Stephen Báthory of Somlyó. Christopher's career began during the reign of Queen Isabella Jagiellon, who administered the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary on behalf of her son, John Sigismund Zápolya, from 1556 to 1559. He was one of the commanders of John Sigismund's army in the early 1560s.

Kryštof Báthory (1530, Szilágysomlyó – 27. května 1581 Gyulafehérvár, dnes Alba Iulia) byl kníže (vévoda) sedmihradský a starší bratr polského krále Štěpána Báthoryho.


Plot.

Matthias "Matt" Lee Whitlock is the respected Chief of Police of the small Florida Keys town of Banyan Key. Recently separated, Whitlock is currently seeing local resident Anne Merai-Harrison, an old flame from high school whose husband Chris, a former professional quarterback seemingly oblivious to the relationship, abuses her. While attending Anne to the doctor, Whitlock finds out she has just been diagnosed with terminal cancer. Whitlock is also going through a divorce from his wife, homicide detective Alex.  Anne intends to reward Whitlock's loyalty to her by making him the sole beneficiary of her $1,000,000 life insurance policy. Whitlock suggests that she should travel to Switzerland to undergo a newly-developed, groundbreaking treatment. The problem is that Anne does not have any money. Desperate to help her, Matt takes $480,000 out of evidence and gives it to her so she can make the trip. When the $480,000 goes up in flames in a suspicious house fire that kills Anne and Chris, Whitlock is horrified to find their charred remains.  When the Drug Enforcement Administration agents call the next day to get the evidence money in order to bust a higher drug lord, Matt responds erratically. He also discovers a person who visited Anne. He finds out that the money is now with this new person and that Alex is about to bust him. He rushes to the hotel and after a brief struggle, he accidentally kills the stranger, takes the money and flees. Although Matt is seen by the police, he is thought to have come to protect Alex. The stranger is revealed to be Paul Cabot, the doctor who diagnosed Anne with cancer.  Later that evening, Alex finds that Matt is Anne's sole beneficiary and also that he has been visiting her. At the same time, Matt receives a distress call from Anne, who is still alive, and unofficially goes to save her. Chris and Matt fight, Anne shoots and kills Chris. Then Anne reveals that she had planned all of this and shoots Matt in the leg.  When Anne is about to kill Matt, Alex kills her; Alex traced Matt using a GPS tracker and asks him whether he planned to elope with the money. But Matt reveals that he has not brought the money with him. When the irritated DEA agents come to arrest Matt as he had promised the money delivery by noon and it was 7pm, he says that his man was sent to Miami, and simultaneously Chae appears with the money, explaining about a wrong address and that he could not find the DEA office. So the DEA agents leave with the money and Matt has no charges on him.  Later, when Matt is on medical leave, Chae visits him with news that Matt is the recipient of Anne's insurance policy. But Alex says that, "as his wife," she knows that Matt has to reject it, meaning that she has decided to drop the divorce and move back in with Matt. Overjoyed, Matt seemingly forgets about the life insurance money, though Chae is amusingly adamant that Matt must take it.

Awards.

2004 Black Reel Awards  2004 Image Awards

Reception.

The film received a score of 64% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 149 reviews, with an average rating of 6.33 out of 10. The critical consensus states the film is a: ""A fun and stylish thriller if you can get past the contrivances."."

Mobile phone game.

WAP and Java mobile phone games based upon this movie were released in the UK in association with O2 and Momentum Pictures by Kalador Entertainment Inc.

MPAA rating.

The film was originally rated R but was later re-rated PG-13 by the MPAA for "sexual content, violence and some language".

Home media release.

"Out of Time" was released on VHS and DVD on January 6, 2004, in widescreen-only for both formats.

Out of Time is a 2003 American mystery thriller film directed by Carl Franklin featuring Denzel Washington. Matthias "Matt" Lee Whitlock, played by Washington, is the respected Chief of Police of the fictional Florida Keys small town of Banyan Key, Florida.

Presumpce viny (v americkém originále: Out of Time) je americký kriminální film z roku 2003. Režisérem filmu je Carl Franklin. Hlavní role ve filmu ztvárnili Denzel Washington, Eva Mendes, Sanaa Lathan, Dean Cain a John Billingsley.


History.

The club was established as Farnborough Town in 1967 and joined the Surrey Senior League in 1968. Their first league match saw them beat Surbiton Byron 7–6. In 1971 they reached the top division of the Surrey Senior League, and after finishing as runners-up in 1971–72, they moved up to the Spartan League. They went on to win three consecutive league titles, losing only one league match during each of the 1973–74 and 1974–75 seasons. When the league merged with the Metropolitan–London League to form the London Spartan League in 1975, the club were placed in Division One, and were its first champions.  Following their move to Cherrywood Road, Farnborough moved up to Division Two of the Athenian League in 1976. They won the division at the first attempt, and were subsequently accepted into Division Two of the Isthmian League. During their domination of the Spartan and Athenian league divisions, the club went 87 matches unbeaten at home between 1973 and 1977. In 1978–79 they won Division Two of the Isthmian League, earning promotion to Division One. The 1980–81 season saw them reach the first round of the FA Cup for the first time, losing 2–1 at Yeovil Town. Another first round appearance in 1983–84 ended with a 2–1 defeat at Barking. They reached the first round again the following season and faced Football League opposition for the first time, losing 3–0 at Hereford United. The season also saw them win the Division One title, resulting in promotion to the Premier Division. They were Premier Division runners-up behind Leytonstone/Ilford in 1988–89 and were promoted to the Football Conference as Leytonstone/Ilford were unable to be promoted due to their ground failing to meet the necessary criteria.  Farnborough were relegated at the end of their first season in the Conference and were placed in the Premier Division of the Southern League. They won the division at the first attempt to earn promotion back to the Conference. After reaching the first round of the FA Cup in all but one of the seasons between 1983–84 and 1990–91, the club progressed beyond the first round for the first time in 1991–92; after a first round replay win over Halesowen Town, they defeated Third Division Torquay United 4–3 in a second round replay. They were drawn at home to top division West Ham. With the game switched to the Boleyn Ground, they held West Ham to a 1–1 draw before losing the replay 1–0. The season also saw them finish fifth in the Conference, but they were relegated back to the Southern League at the end of the following season.  Farnborough were Southern League champions again in 1993–94, making an immediate return to the Conference. The club spent five seasons in the Conference until being relegated at the end of the 1998–99 season, which had seen them finish bottom of the table. They were placed in the Premier Division of the Isthmian League, which they went on to win in 2000–01, resulting in promotion back to the Conference. In 2002–03 the club progressed beyond the first round of the FA Cup for a second time; after a 5–1 win against Harrogate Town in the first round, they defeated Southport 3–0 in the second round and Third Division Darlington 3–2 in the third round. They were then drawn at home to Arsenal in the fourth round, although the game was switched to Highbury. Following a 5–1 defeat, manager Graham Westley left the club, also taking seven players with him as he moved to Stevenage Borough.  Farnborough remained in the Conference (and its new top division the Conference National) until the end of the 2004–05 season, when they were relegated to the Conference South. A third-place finish in 2005–06 saw them qualify for the promotion play-offs, but they lost 3–0 to Histon in the semi-finals.  In 2006–07 Farnborough went into administration and were deducted ten points. In May 2007 the club was expelled from the Football Conference and were reformed as Farnborough Football Club. They were admitted to Division One South & West of the Southern League, which they went on to win at the first attempt, earning promotion to the Premier Division. In 2008–09 they were Premier Division runners-up, qualifying for the promotion play-offs. After beating Hemel Hempstead Town 4–3 on penalties after a 0–0 draw in the semi-finals, they lost 1–0 to Gloucester City in the final. The following season saw them win the Premier Division, earning promotion to the Conference South. They were runners-up in their first season in the division and entered the promotion play-offs. After a 2–1 aggregate win over local rivals Woking in the semi-finals (winning 1–0 away and drawing 1–1 at home), they lost the final 4–2 to Ebbsfleet United.  However, Farnborough began to suffer financial problems. In 2011–12 they were deducted five points after submitting misleading financial information to the Football Conference, and had ten points deducted the following season after going into administration again. They were relegated to the Premier Division of the Isthmian League at the end of the 2014–15 season and were subsequently demoted to Division One Central of the Southern League at the end of the 2015–16 season despite not finishing in the relegation zone due to their financial situation. They were Division One Central runners-up the following season; in the subsequent play-offs they defeated Egham Town 4–0 in the semi-finals before beating Barton Rovers 2–0 in the final to earn promotion back to level seven.

Ground.

The club initially played on a council pitch at the Queen's Road recreation ground. However, to progress in the non-League pyramid the club had to find a ground that could be enclosed. A site on Cherrywood Road was obtained and developed with support from a local company.

Farnborough Football Club is a football club based in Farnborough, Hampshire, England. Founded in 1967 as Farnborough Town, they are currently members of the and play at Cherrywood Road.

Farnborough FC (celým názvem: Farnborough Football Club) je anglický fotbalový klub, který sídlí ve městě Farnborough v nemetropolitním hrabství Hampshire. Založen byl v roce 1967 pod názvem Farnborough Town FC. Od sezóny 2018/19 hraje v Southern Football League Premier Division South (7. nejvyšší soutěž). Klubové barvy jsou modrá, žlutá a bílá.