History.

The official name of the city during the colonial Dutch East Indies period was Bandoeng. The earliest reference to the area dates back to 1488, although archaeological findings suggest a type of "Homo erectus" species had long previously lived on the banks of the Cikapundung River and around the old lake of Bandung. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) established plantations in the Bandung area. In 1786, a supply road connecting Batavia (now Jakarta), Bogor, Cianjur, Bandung, Sumedang and Cirebon was constructed. In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte, French Emperor and conqueror of much of Europe including the Netherlands and its colonies, ordered the Dutch Indies Governor H.W. Daendels to improve the defensive systems of Java to protect against the British in India. Daendels built a road, stretching approximately from the west to the east coast of Java, passing through Bandung. In 1810, the road was laid down in Bandung and was named "De Groote Postweg" (or the 'Great Post Road'), the present-day location of Jalan Asia-Afrika. Under Daendels' orders, R. A. Wiranatakusumah II, the Chief Administrator of the Bandung regency at that time, moved the office from Krapyak, in the south, to a place near a pair of holy city wells ("sumur Bandung"), the present-day site of the city square ("alun-alun"). He built his "dalem" (palace), "masjid agung" (the grand mosque) and "pendopo" (public-official meeting place) in the classical Sundanese orientation, with the pendopo facing Tangkuban Perahu mountain, which was believed to have a mystical ambience.  In 1880, the first major railroad between Batavia and Bandung was completed, boosting light industry in Bandung. Chinese flocked into the city to help run facilities, services and as vendors. The area adjacent to the train station is still recognisable as the old Chinatown district. In 1906, Bandung was given the status of "gemeente" (municipality), and then twenty years later, "stadsgemeente" (city municipality).  Beginning of time the early 1920s, the Dutch East Indies government made plans to move their capital from Batavia to Bandung. Accordingly, during this decade, the Dutch colonial government commenced construction of military barracks, the central government building ("Gouvernments Bedrijven", the present-day Gedung Sate) and other government buildings. However, this plan was cut short by World War II, after which the Dutch were not able to re-establish their colony due to the Indonesian Declaration of Independence.  The fertile area of the Parahyangan Mountains surrounding Bandung supports productive tea plantations. In the nineteenth century, Franz Junghuhn introduced the cinchona ("kina") plant. With its cooler elevated landscape, surrounded by major plantations, Bandung became an exclusive European resort area. Wealthy plantation owners visited the city on weekends, attracting ladies and business people from the capital, Batavia. Jalan Braga grew into a promenade street with cafés, restaurants and boutique shops. Two art-deco style hotels, Savoy Homann and Preanger, were built in the vicinity of the Concordia Society, a clubhouse for the wealthy with a large ballroom and a theatre.  After Indonesian independence in 1945, Bandung was designated as the capital of West Java province. During the Indonesian National Revolution, some of the most massive battles occurred in and around Bandung. Dutch troops were virtually absent in Java at the end of World War II. To assist the restoration of Dutch sovereignty, the British took a military hold on Java's major cities, and the British military commander set an ultimatum for the Indonesian combatants in Bandung to leave the city. In response, on 24 March 1946, much of the southern part of Bandung was deliberately set alight as the combatants left; an event known as "Bandung Lautan Api" or the 'Bandung Sea of Fire'.  In 1955, the first Asian-African Conference, also known as the "Bandung Conference", was hosted in Bandung by President Sukarno, and attended by the heads of states representing twenty-nine independent countries from Asia and Africa. The conference venue was at the Gedung Merdeka, the former Concordia Society building. The conference announced ten points of declaration for the promotion of world peace and opposition against colonialism and is known as the Declaration of Bandung. This was followed by a wave of nationalism and decolonisation movements around the globe which remapped world politics. The conference was also the first international conference of people of colour in history. In his book "The Color Curtain", Richard Wright claims that there was an epic meaning of the conference for people of colour around the world.  In 1987, the city boundary was expanded by the 'Greater Bandung' ("Bandung Raya") plan; with the relocation of higher concentration development zones outside the city in an attempt to dilute population density in the old city. During this development, the city core was often uprooted, with old buildings torn down, lot sizes regrouped and rezoned, changing idyllic residential areas to commercial zones with bustling chain supermarkets, malls, banks and upscale developments.  In 2005, an Asian-African Conference was partly held in Bandung, attended by world leaders such as Indonesian President Susilo B. Yudhoyono, President of China Hu Jintao, Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh, President of South Africa Thabo Mbeki, President of Nigeria Obasanjo, and other luminaries.

Geography.

Bandung, the capital of West Java province, located about southeast of Jakarta, is the third-largest city in Indonesia. Its elevation is above sea level and is surrounded by up to high Late Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic terrain. The 400 km flat of central Bandung plain is situated in the middle of wide of the Bandung Basin; the basin comprises Bandung, the Cimahi city, part of Bandung Regency, part of West Bandung Regency, and part of Sumedang Regency. The basin's main river is the Citarum; one of its branches, the Cikapundung, divides Bandung from north to south before it merges with Citarum again in Dayeuhkolot. The Bandung Basin is an essential source of water for potable water, irrigation, and fisheries, with its of groundwater being a significant reservoir for the city. The northern section of Bandung is hillier than other parts of the city, and the unique truncated flat-peak shape of the Tangkuban Perahu volcano ("Tangkuban Perahu" literally means 'upside-down boat') can be seen from the city to the north. Long-term volcanic activity has created fertile andisol soil in the north, suitable for intensive rice, fruit, tea, tobacco, and coffee plantations. In the south and east, alluvial soils deposited by the Cikapundung river predominate.  Geological data shows that the Bandung Basin is located on an ancient volcano, known as Mount Sunda, erected up to during the Pleistocene age. Two large-scale eruptions took place; the first formed the basin and the second (est. 55,000 BCE) blocked the Citarum river, turning the basin into a lake known as "the Great Prehistoric Lake of Bandung". The lake drained away; for reasons which are the subject of ongoing debate among geologists.

Climate.

Bandung experiences tropical monsoon climate ("Am") according to Köppen climate classification as the driest month precipitation total is below, bordering with subtropical highland climate ("Cfb"). The wettest month is February with precipitation total, while the driest month is September with precipitation total. The average temperature throughout the year tends to be cooler than most cities in Indonesia due to the altitude influence. The average temperature throughout the year only has little variation due to its location near the equator.

Environmental issues.

The north of the city serves as a water reservoir for Bandung. However, the area has seen substantial residential development. Several attempts to protect this area have been made, including the creation of reserves such as the Juanda National Park and Puncrut, but development continues. Regular flooding in Bandung's south also presents a real and dangerous ongoing problem.  From mid-2005, Bandung faced another environmental disaster, when the city's landfill site was reevaluated after a garbage slide in 2005 which buried a village, Kampung Gajah, beneath it, killing over a hundred people. The accumulation of of domestic garbage piled up, causes severe air pollution by local burning, the spread of disease, and water contamination. The provincial government has so far failed in its attempts to solve the garbage issue. Nevertheless, it was awarded in 1997 and 2015 as the least polluted city in the country. Further, a regional award in 2017 was also given from ASEAN as the cleanest air among other major cities in ASEAN countries.

Administrative divisions.

The city area in 1906 was and by 1987, it had expanded to 167.2965 km. The city administration is divided into 30 districts ("kecamatan") and 153 villages ("kelurahan"). For development purposes, the 30 districts are grouped into eight sub-city regions. The sub-city regions of Bandung are Arcamanik, Cibeunying, Kerees, Kordon, Gedebage, Ujungberung, Bojonagara and Tegalega. The mayor ("walikota") - Oded Muhammad Danial since 2018 - leads the city administration. Since 2008, city residents have directly voted for a mayor; previously mayors were nominated and selected by the city council - the Regional People's Representative Council (DPRD) which has 50 members. As of 2003, the total number of city administration personnel was 20,163.  Bandung City is divided into 30 districts ("kecamatan"), listed below with their populations at the 2010 Census:  Arcamanik region  Bojonagara region  Cibeunying region  Gedebage region  Karees region  Kordon region  Tegalega region  Ujungberung region

Economy.

The city's economy is mainly built upon tourism, business, creative industry, high-tech and manufacturing industries, educational institutions, technology, retail services, financial services, pharmaceutical companies, and food production. The once quiet residential district of Dago has become an important business and entertainment centre with chic cafés and restaurants spread out along Jalan Dago. In the early 1990s, Jalan Cihampelas became a popular clothing store location, and remains so today.  Creative culture has shaped specific parts of the city's economy. Small businesses, known as "distro", sell non-trademarked products made by local designers. Books, indie label records, magazines, fashion products, and other accessories are typical distro products. Distros are popular with young people and distance themselves from factory outlets in term of philosophy. They arise from individual designers and young entrepreneurs, while factory outlet products generally come from large-scale garment factories.  The city administration has agreed to substantially develop seven industrial and trade areas for Bandung speciality products. These include Binong Jati Knitting Industrial and Trade Center, Cigondewah Textile Trade Center, Cihampelas Jeans Trade Center, Suci (T and Oblong) Shirt Industrial Center, Cibaduyut Shoes Industrial Center, Cibuntu Tofu and Tempeh Industrial Center, Sukamulya Sukajadi Doll Industrial Center.  The city is part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network which it joined in 2015.

Demographics.

In 2005, the population of Bandung was 2.2 million people with a density of. The May 2010 census enumerated 2.3 million people. Based on data from Statistics Indonesia, the population of Bandung in 2014 was 2.4 million, making Bandung the third most populous city in Indonesia.  The majority of Bandung's population are of Sundanese descent. Javanese are the largest minority and mostly come from the central and the eastern parts of Java. Other minorities include Minang, Minahasan, Chinese, Batak, Malay, Korean, Indian, and Japanese. Bandung also possesses significant international communities, compared with other Indonesian cities.

Culture.

Bandung is a significant cultural hub in Indonesia. Most people in the surrounding province of West Java are ethnically Sundanese, with Sundanese often spoken as a first language, as well as the common and informal language for communication in streets, school, work, and markets. As in the rest of the country, standard Indonesian serves as the "lingua franca" and primary language of government, business, media, and formal education.

Architecture.

Bandung is home to numerous examples of Dutch colonial architecture; most notably the tropical Art Deco, dubbed New Indies Style. Henri Maclaine Pont was among the first Dutch architects to recognise the importance of combining each architectural style with local cultural traditions. He stressed that modern architecture should interact with local history and native elements. In 1920, Pont planned and designed buildings for the first technical university in the Dutch East Indies, "Technische Hogeschool te Bandung" (the present-day Bandung Institute of Technology), after which he was named as a Professor of Architecture at the university. A striking local Sundanese roof style is clearly seen adorning the top of the campus' ceremonial hall and is embedded in his artwork.  In the same year, another Dutch architect J Gerber designed "Gouverments Bedrijven" (Government Companies) in line with the colonial government plan to move the capital from Batavia to Bandung. The building is an example of a harmonious mixture between West and East architectural styles, particularly the Italian Renaissance style of arch structures in the wings and pendopo-like structures commonly found in Java in the middle section. The building is known as Gedung Sate, named after the distinguished small satay-shaped structure on the roof, and is today used as the head office of the West Java provincial government and House of Representatives.  The architectural blending of modern and native traditional was followed by several Dutch architects who shaped the city landmarks. In the 1930s, Bandung became known as an architectural laboratory due to the many Dutch architects who experimented with new architectural designs. Albert Aalbers added the streamline moderne style to the Art Deco by designing the DENIS bank (1936) and renovated the Savoy Homann Hotel (1939). Charles Prosper Wolff Schoemaker was one of the architects who strongly added native elements in his artworks, including the Villa Isola (1932), Hotel Preanger (1929), the regional military headquarter (1918), Gedung Merdeka (1921) and ITB Rectorate Building (1925). Though Bandung is known for its large number of old Dutch architecture buildings, the city is going through a high-rise building boom recently. At present, there are more than 100 high rise building in the city and many more under construction or planned. The following list includes buildings in Bandung, which are completed or topped off and which are above 300 ft 91 metres.

Tourism.

Bandung is a popular weekend destination for residents of Jakarta. The colder climate of the highland plantation area, variety of food, less expensive fashion shops located in factory outlets and distros, golf courses, and the zoo, are some of the attractions of the city. Bandung is also a popular shopping destination due to the cheap textile and fashion products, especially for Malaysian and Singaporean tourists.  In the 1990s, local designers opened denim clothing stores along Jalan Cihampelas, which was transformed into a "jeans street". The city attracts people from other big cities to buy local fashion wares, as they are cheaper than branded items. Beside Jalan Cihampelas, many factory outlets also opened at Jalan Riau, Jalan Setiabudi, and Jalan Djuanda (known as Dago). Textile factories on the outskirts of Bandung have opened factory outlets on site selling what is marketed as "sisa export" (rejected or over-produced export quality items). Trans Studio Mall,,, and are among the popular shopping centres in Bandung.  Significant tourist sites near Bandung include the Tangkuban Prahu volcano crater to the north, the Kawah Putih volcano lake, and Patenggang Lake, a lake surrounded by tea plantations about to the south of the city.  To view the Bandung Basin clearly in its mountain surroundings, visitors travel to the Bongkor protected forest area (kawasan hutan lindung), Saung Daweung and Arcamanik; to the slopes of West Manglayang Mountain in an area known as Caringin Tilu, with entry from Padasuka and Cicaheum to the north. The forest is located in above sea level and is covered with pine trees managed by a government corporation and can be accessed with 30 minutes drive from downtown. Visitors going to the north of the city also find Taman Hutan Raya Ir. H. Djuanda. The Cicaheum area also hosts "Bukit Moko", a tourist spot famous for its views and its steel statue of a giant star called "Puncak Bintang". Bandung has several museums that should be visited by tourists, such as the Geological Museum of Bandung, the, Sri Baduga Museum, and the Asian-African Conference Museum.

Sports.

Bandung is the home of Persib Bandung, a professional football club currently competing in the highest tier of Indonesian football, the "Liga 1". The JNE Bandung Utama competes in the Indonesian Basketball League, with its home games in the "GOR Citra Arena". The roads leading up to Lembang and Dago are popular routes for mountain cycling on weekends, as Jalan Ir. H. Djuanda is zoned as car-free on Sunday mornings.  Other popular sports in Bandung include badminton and golf, with several golf courses surrounding the city.

Media.

Bandung has several local daily newspapers, including "Pikiran Rakyat", "Galamedia", and "Tribun Jabar". Several national and local television stations operate in Bandung, including Trans 7, Trans TV, NET., tvOne, RCTI, SCTV, Indosiar, ANTV, MNCTV, GTV, Metro TV, RTV Bandung, Kompas TV Jawa Barat, and TVRI. Many radio stations, such as INTV Bandung, also broadcast from Bandung.  The city of Bandung was featured in the 9th and 10th leg of the American reality series "The Amazing Race 23".

Transport.

Road.

Bandung can be accessed by highways from Jakarta. An intercity toll highway called Cipularang Toll Road, connecting Jakarta, Karawang, Purwakarta, Padalarang and Bandung, was completed in May 2005 and is the fastest way to reach Bandung from the capital by road. Driving time is about 1.5 hours on average. There are three other options: the Puncak route (Jakarta-Cianjur/Sukabumi-Bandung), Purwakarta route (Jakarta-Cikampek-Purwakarta-Cikalong Wetan-Padalarang-Cimahi-Bandung) and the Subang route (Jakarta-Cikampek-Subang-Lembang-Bandung). From cities further east (Cirebon, Tasikmalaya and Central Java province), Bandung can be accessed through the main provincial road. Indonesian National Route 3 links Bandung with the rest of Java towards Cilegon and Ketapang (Banyuwangi).  The Pasupati Bridge was built to relieve traffic congestion in the city for east-west transport. The cable-stayed bridge lies through the Cikapundung Valley. It is wide and, after extensive delays, it was finally completed in June 2005, following financial investment from Kuwait. The bridge is part of Bandung's comprehensive inner-city highways plan.  Taxis and mobile apps transport are widely available. The primary means of public transportation is by "angkot" minibuses (from "angkutan", "transportation" and "kota", "city"); "angkot" are privately operated and serve multiple routes throughout the city, and although cheap, they are considered basic and uncomfortable. To find exact angkot routes, passengers may look for information available through the drivers or at terminals. "DAMRI" buses operate on longer high capacity routes.  Bandung has two intercity bus terminals: Leuwipanjang, serving buses from the west, and Cicaheum, serving buses from the east. Both are at full capacity and are to be replaced by a new terminal at Gedebage on land, after which the old terminals will function as inner-city terminals. The new terminal will be located next to the Gedebage railway station near Gedebage container dry port.

Air.

Bandung Husein Sastranegara International Airport serves direct domestic flights to Batam, Pekanbaru, Medan, Bandar Lampung, Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Semarang, Banjarmasin, Makassar, and also international services to/from Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. The airport is located near the Dirgantara aerospace complex and Dirgantara Fairground. The Kertajati International Airport in Majalengka Regency is built to replace the Husein Sastranegara Airport.

Railway.

Bandung has two large railway stations, Bandung and Kiaracondong Stations. Other smaller stations are Cimindi, Andir, Ciroyom, Cikudapateuh, and Gedebage Stations (only for freight service). Railway lines connect Bandung to Cianjur, Jakarta, Purwakarta, Bekasi, Karawang, and Cikampek to the west, and Surabaya, Malang, Yogyakarta, and Solo to the east. It is also a major means of transportation for people living in the suburban areas of Cimahi, Padalarang, Rancaekek, Cicalengka, and Cileunyi. In 2012, Bandung Commuter Train phase-1 was scheduled to be built to connect Padalarang, Cimahi, Bandung, and Cicalengka with 13 Trans Metro Bandung bus corridors to serve as feeders. Phase-2 will connect Cicalengka to Jatinangor.

Current and future development.

Thirty-two bus shelters for Trans Metro Bandung (similar to TransJakarta) along Jalan Soekarno-Hatta were finished in August 2011 at the cost of Rp 13.1 billion ($1.54 million). Thirty additional buses joined the existing operation of ten buses after all the shelters were finished.  On 21 June 2011, Perum DAMRI launched two buses on the Cibiru-Kebon Kelapa especially for female passengers only with female drivers.  On 5 August 2011, Jusuf Kalla announced that he would like to build a monorail in Bandung with a value of Rp 4 trillion ($470 million). , a cable car project 'Bandung Skybridge' to connect Pasteur (Cihampelas) to Sabuga (Taman Sari) was said to be 90% complete and awaiting legal authorisation to operate. However,, the project has still to be realised. To ease Cihampelas traffic congestion, the city mayor, Ridwan Kamil inaugurated a skywalk for pedestrians only from Cihampelas to Tamansari on 4 February 2017. The skywalk, named Teras Cihampelas, was built with a budget of Rp 45 billion. Vehicles will be able to be parked at Tamansari. The city has also announced an intention to build LRT (Light Rail Transit).

Education.

Bandung has nearly 50 higher educational institutions and is among the most popular destinations for education in Indonesia. There are hundreds of public and private schools in the city and several state-funded and administered Junior High Schools (SMP Negeri) and State High Schools (SMA Negeri). At least sixteen universities—three of which are state-owned—and 45 professional schools are scattered across the city. Education from social sciences and technology to tourism education can be found at one of these universities.  Among the universities located in Bandung include Bandung Institute of Technology ("Institut Teknologi Bandung", ITB), Universitas Padjadjaran (Padjadjaran University), National Institute of Technology (Indonesia) (Institut Teknologi Nasional), Parahyangan Catholic University, Universitas Islam Bandung, (Bandung Islamic University), Universitas Kristen Maranatha (Maranatha Christian University), Universitas Islam Nusantara (Nusantara Islamic University), Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (Indonesia University of Education), Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Gunung Djati (Sunan Gunung Djati Islamic State University), Universitas Pasundan (Pasundan University), Institut Teknologi Telkom (Telkom Institute of Technology), Politeknik Negeri Bandung (Bandung State Polytechnic), and Sekolah Tinggi Pariwisata Bandung (Bandung Institute of Tourism), all being considered among the best universities in their respective fields of speciality in Indonesia. Established in 1920, ITB is Indonesia's oldest and most prestigious technical university. Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (formerly IKIP Bandung, established in 1954) Universitas Komputer Indonesia (UNIKOM) is one of the first institutions of higher education established after Indonesian independence and is currently a leading education university in the country. Universitas Padjadjaran (established in 1956) is considered to be one of the best universities in the country in the fields of medicine, law, communication, and economics.  International schools are also available in the city. They include the Bandung Alliance Intercultural School, Bandung Independent School, Bandung Japanese School, Bina Bangsa School Bandung, Bina Persada School, and Stamford School. In the north of Bandung, Bosscha Observatory is the only observatory in Indonesia. Construction of the observatory began in 1923 and was completed in 1928. In 1922, the first international publication from Bosscha Observatory was published, and in 1959, the observatory was absorbed as a part of the Department of Astronomy at the Bandung Institute of Technology).

Sister cities.

Bandung has sister relationships with a number of towns worldwide:

Bandung () is the capital of West Java province in Indonesia. Based on the 2015 estimate, it is Indonesia's fourth most populous city after Jakarta, Surabaya, and Bekasi with over 2.5 million inhabitants. Greater Bandung is the country's third-largest metropolitan area with over 8.5 million inhabitants. Located above sea level, approximately southeast of Jakarta, Bandung has cooler year-round temperatures than most other Indonesian cities. The city lies on a river basin surrounded by volcanic mountains that provides a natural defence system, which was the primary reason for the Dutch East Indies government's plan to move the capital from Batavia (modern-day Jakarta) to Bandung.

Bandung je jedno z největších měst Indonésie a hlavní město provincie Západní Jáva. Žije zde asi 2,4 mil. obyvatel, metropolitní oblast obývá přes 7 milionů lidí, převážně Sundánců, významnou menšinu tvoří Javánci. Většina obyvatel se hlásí k islámu.


Vertebrates.

Birds.

Most male birds (e.g., roosters and turkeys) have a cloaca (also present on the female), but not a penis. Among bird species with a penis are paleognathes (tinamous and ratites) and Anatidae (ducks, geese and swans). A bird penis is different in structure from mammal penises, being an erectile expansion of the cloacal wall and being erected by lymph, not blood. It is usually partially feathered and in some species features spines and brush-like filaments, and in flaccid state curls up inside the cloaca. The lake duck (also called Argentine blue-bill) has the largest penis in relation to body size of all vertebrates; while usually about half the body size (20 cm), a specimen with a penis 42.5 cm long is documented.  While most male birds have no external genitalia, male waterfowl (Anatidae) have a phallus. Most birds mate with the males balancing on top of the females and touching cloacas in a "cloacal kiss"; this makes forceful insemination very difficult. The phallus that male waterfowl have evolved everts out of their bodies (in a clockwise coil) and aids in inseminating females without their cooperation. The male waterfowl evolution of a phallus to forcefully copulate with females has led to counteradaptations in females in the form of vaginal structures called dead end sacs and clockwise coils. These structures make it harder for males to achieve intromission. The clockwise coils are significant because the male phallus everts out of their body in a counter-clockwise spiral; therefore, a clockwise vaginal structure would impede forceful copulation. Studies have shown that the longer a male's phallus is, the more elaborate the vaginal structures were.  The lake duck is notable for possessing, in relation to body length, the longest penis of all vertebrates; the penis, which is typically coiled up in flaccid state, can reach about the same length as the animal himself when fully erect, but is more commonly about half the bird's length. It is theorized that the remarkable size of their spiny penises with bristled tips may have evolved in response to competitive pressure in these highly promiscuous birds, removing sperm from previous matings in the manner of a bottle brush. The lake duck has a corkscrew shaped penis.  Male and female emus are similar in appearance, although the male's penis can become visible when it defecates.  The male tinamou has a corkscrew shaped penis, similar to those of the ratites and to the hemipenis of some reptiles. Females have a small phallic organ in the cloaca which becomes larger during the breeding season.

Mammals.

As with any other bodily attribute, the length and girth of the penis can be highly variable between mammals of different species. In many mammals, the size of a flaccid penis is smaller than its erect size.  A bone called the baculum or "os penis" is present in most mammals but absent in humans, cattle and horses.  In mammals the penis is divided into three parts:  The internal structures of the penis consist mainly of cavernous, erectile tissue, which is a collection of blood sinusoids separated by sheets of connective tissue (trabeculae). Some mammals have a lot of erectile tissue relative to connective tissue, for example horses. Because of this a horse's penis can enlarge more than a bull's penis. The urethra is on the ventral side of the body of the penis. As a general rule, a mammal's penis is proportional to its body size, but this varies greatly between specieseven between closely related ones. For example, an adult gorilla's erect penis is about in length; an adult chimpanzee, significantly smaller (in body size) than a gorilla, has a penis size about double that of the gorilla. In comparison, the human penis is larger than that of any other primate, both in proportion to body size and in absolute terms.

Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla).

The penises of even-toed ungulates are curved in an S-shape when not erect. In bulls, rams and boars, the sigmoid flexure of the penis straightens out during erection.  When mating, the tip of a male pronghorn's penis is often the first part to touch the female pronghorn. The pronghorn's penis is about long, and is shaped like an ice pick. The front of a pronghorn's glans penis is relatively flat, while the back is relatively thick. The male pronghorn usually ejaculates immediately after intromission.  The penis of a dromedary camel is covered by a triangular penile sheath opening backwards, and is about long. The camelmen often aid the male to enter his penis into the female's vulva, though the male is considered able to do it on his own. Copulation time ranges from 7 to 35 minutes, averaging 11–15 minutes.  Bulls have a fibro-elastic penis. Given the small amount of erectile tissue, there is little enlargement after erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection. Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure.  The male genitalia of mouse deer are similar to those of pigs. A boar's penis, which rotates rhythmically during copulation, is about long, and ejaculates about a pint of semen. Wild boars have a roughly egg-sized sack near the opening of the penis, which collects urine and emits a sharp odour. The purpose of this is not fully understood.

Deer.

A stag's penis forms an S-shaped curve when it is not erect, and is retracted into its sheath by the retractor penis muscle. Some deer species spray urine on their bodies by urinating from an erect penis. One type of scent-marking behavior in elk is known as "thrash-urination, which typically involves palpitation of the erect penis. A male elk's urethra points upward so that urine is sprayed almost at a right angle to the penis. A sambar stag will mark himself by spraying urine directly in the face with a highly mobile penis, which is often erect during its rutting activities. Red deer stags often have erect penises during combat.

Cetaceans.

Cetaceans' reproductive organs are located inside the body. Male cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) have two slits, the genital groove concealing the penis and one further behind for the anus. Cetaceans have fibroelastic penises, similar to those of Artiodactyla. The tapering tip of the cetacean penis is called the "pars intrapraeputialis" or "terminal cone". The blue whale has the largest penis of any organism on the planet, typically measuring. Accurate measurements are difficult to take because its erect length can only be observed during mating, which occurs underwater. The penis on a right whale can be up to – the testes, at up to in length, in diameter, and weighing up to, are also by far the largest of any animal on Earth. On at least one occasion, a dolphin towed bathers through the water by hooking his erect penis around them. Between male bottlenose dolphins, homosexual behaviour includes rubbing of genitals against each other, which sometimes leads to the males swimming belly to belly, inserting the penis in the other's genital slit and sometimes anus.

Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla).

Stallions (male horses) have a vascular penis. When non-erect, it is quite flaccid and contained within the prepuce (foreskin, or sheath).  Tapirs have exceptionally long penises relative to their body size. The glans of the Malayan tapir resembles a mushroom, and is similar to the glans of the horse. The penis of the Sumatran rhinoceros contains two lateral lobes and a structure called the "processus glandis".

Carnivorans.

All members of Carnivora (except hyenas) have a baculum. Canine penises have a structure at the base called the bulbus glandis.  During copulation, the spotted hyena inserts his penis through the female's pseudo-penis instead of directly through the vagina, which is blocked by the false scrotum and testes. Once the female retracts her clitoris, the male enters the female by sliding beneath her, an operation facilitated by the penis's upward angle. The pseudo-penis closely resembles the male hyena's penis, but can be distinguished from the male's genitalia by its greater thickness and more rounded glans. In male spotted hyenas, as well as females, the base of the glans is covered with penile spines.  Domestic cats have barbed penises, with about 120–150 one millimeter long backwards-pointing spines. Upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which is a trigger for ovulation. Lions also have barbed penises. Male felids urinate backwards by curving the tip of the glans penis backward. When male cheetahs urine-mark their territories, they stand one meter away from a tree or rock surface with the tail raised, pointing the penis either horizontally backward or 60° upward.  The male fossa has an unusually long penis and baculum (penis bone), reaching to between his front legs when erect with backwards-pointing spines along most of its length. The male fossa has scent glands near the penis, with the penile glands emitting a strong odor.  The beech marten's penis is larger than the pine marten's, with the bacula of young beech martens often outsizing those of old pine martens.  Raccoons have penis bones which bend at a 90 degree angle at the tip. The extrusibility of a raccoon's penis can be used to distinguish mature males from immature males.  Male walruses possess the largest penis bones of any land mammal, both in absolute size and relative to body size.  The adult male American mink's penis is long, and is covered by a sheath. The baculum is well-developed, being triangular in cross section and curved at the tip.

Bats.

Males of Racey's pipistrelle bat have a long, straight penis with a notch between the shaft and the narrow, egg-shaped glans penis. Near the top, the penis is haired, but the base is almost naked. In the baculum (penis bone), the shaft is long and narrow and slightly curved. The length of the penis and baculum distinguish "P. raceyi" from all comparably sized African and Malagasy vespertilionids. In males, penis length is and baculum length is.  Copulation by male greater short-nosed fruit bats is dorsoventral and the females lick the shaft or the base of the male's penis, but not the glans which has already penetrated the vagina. While the females do this, the penis is not withdrawn and research has shown a positive relationship between length of the time that the penis is licked and the duration of copulation. Post copulation genital grooming has also been observed.

Rodents.

The glans penis of the marsh rice rat is long and robust, averaging long and broad, and the baculum (penis bone) is long. As is characteristic of Sigmodontinae, the marsh rice rat has a complex penis, with the distal (far) end of the baculum ending in three digits. The central digit is notably larger than those at the sides. The outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines, but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue. The papilla (nipple-like projection) on the dorsal (upper) side of the penis is covered with small spines, a character the marsh rice rat shares only with "Oligoryzomys" and "Oryzomys couesi" among oryzomyines examined. On the urethral process, located in the crater at the end of the penis, a fleshy process (the subapical lobule) is present; it is absent in all other oryzomyines with studied penes except "O. couesi" and "Holochilus brasiliensis". The baculum is deeper than it is wide.  In "Transandinomys talamancae", the outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines, but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue.  Some features of the accessory glands in the male genital region vary among oryzomyines. In "Transandinomys talamancae", a single pair of preputial glands is present at the penis. As is usual for sigmodontines, there are two pairs of ventral prostate glands and a single pair of anterior and dorsal prostate glands. Part of the end of the vesicular gland is irregularly folded, not smooth as in most oryzomyines.  In Pseudorhyzomys, the baculum (penis bone) displays large protuberances at the sides. In the cartilaginous part of the baculum, the central digit is smaller than those at the sides.  In Drymoreomys, there are three digits at the tip of the penis, of which the central one is the largest.  In "Thomasomys ucucha" the glans penis is rounded, short, and small and is superficially divided into left and right halves by a trough at the top and a ridge at the bottom.  The glans penis of a male cape ground squirrel is large with a prominent baculum.  Unlike other squirrel species, red squirrels have long, thin, and narrow penises, without a prominent baculum.  Winkelmann's mouse can easily be distinguished from its close relatives by the shape of its penis, which has a partially corrugated glans.  The foreskin of a capybara is attached to the anus in an unusual way, forming an anogenital invagination.

Primates.

It has been postulated that the shape of the human penis may have been selected by sperm competition. The shape could have favored displacement of seminal fluids implanted within the female reproductive tract by rival males: the thrusting action which occurs during sexual intercourse can mechanically remove seminal fluid out of the cervix area from a previous mating.  The penile morphology of some types of strepsirrhine primates has provided information about their taxonomy. Male galago species possess very distinctive penile morphology that can be used to classify species.  The northern greater galago penis is on average in length, with doubled headed or even tridentate spines pointing towards the body. They are less densely packed than in "Otolemur crassicaudatus". The penis of the ring-tailed lemur is nearly cylindrical in shape and is covered in small spines, as well as having two pairs of larger spines on both sides.  The adult male of each vervet monkey species has a pale blue scrotum and a red penis, and male proboscis monkeys have a red penis with a black scrotum.  Male baboons and squirrel monkeys sometimes gesture with an erect penis as both a warning of impending danger and a threat to predators. In male squirrel monkeys, this gesture is used for social communication.

Humans.

The human penis is an external sex organ of male humans. It is a reproductive, intromittent organ that additionally serves as the urinal duct. The main parts are the root of the penis (radix): It is the attached part, consisting of the bulb of penis in the middle and the crus of penis, one on either side of the bulb; the body of the penis (corpus); and the epithelium of the penis consists of the shaft skin, the foreskin, and the preputial mucosa on the inside of the foreskin and covering the glans penis.  The human penis is made up of three columns of tissue: two corpora cavernosa lie next to each other on the dorsal side and one corpus spongiosum lies between them on the ventral side. The urethra, which is the last part of the urinary tract, traverses the corpus spongiosum, and its opening, known as the meatus, lies on the tip of the glans penis. It is a passage both for urine and for the ejaculation of semen.  In males, the expulsion of urine from the body is done through the penis. The urethra drains the bladder through the prostate gland where it is joined by the ejaculatory duct, and then onward to the penis.  An erection is the stiffening and rising of the penis, which occurs during sexual arousal, though it can also happen in non-sexual situations. Ejaculation is the ejecting of semen from the penis and is usually accompanied by orgasm. A series of muscular contractions delivers semen, containing male gametes known as sperm cells or spermatozoa, from the penis.  The most common form of genital alteration is circumcision, the removal of part or all of the foreskin for various cultural, religious, and more rarely medical reasons. There is controversy surrounding circumcision. , a systematic review of 15,521 men, and the best research to date on the topic, as the subjects were measured by health professionals, rather than self-measured, has concluded that the average length of an erect human penis is 13.12 cm (5.17 inches) long, while the average circumference of an erect human penis is 11.66 cm (4.59 inches).

Marsupials.

Most marsupials, except for the two largest species of kangaroos and marsupial moles (assuming the latter are true marsupials), have a bifurcated penis, separated into two columns, so that the penis has two ends corresponding to the females' two vaginas.

Monotremes.

Monotremes and marsupial moles are the only mammals in which the penis is located inside the cloaca.  Male echidnas have a bilaterally symmetrical, rosette-like, four-headed penis. During mating, the heads on one side "shut down" and do not grow in size; the other two are used to release semen into the female's two-branched reproductive tract. The heads used are swapped each time the mammal copulates. When not in use, the penis is retracted inside a preputial sac in the cloaca. The male echidna's penis is long when erect, and its shaft is covered with penile spines. The penis is nearly a quarter of his body length when erect.

Other mammals.

The penis of the bush hyrax is complex and distinct from that of the other hyrax genera. It has a short, thin appendage within a cup-like glans penis and measures greater than when erect. Additionally, it has been observed that the bush hyrax also has a greater distance between the anus and preputial opening in comparison to other hyraxes.  An adult elephant has the largest penis of any land animal. An elephant's penis can reach a length of and a diameter of at the base. It is S-shaped when fully erect and has a Y-shaped orifice. During musth, a male elephant may urinate with his penis still in the sheath, which causes the urine to spray on the hind legs. An elephant's penis is very mobile, being able to move independently of the male's pelvis, and the penis curves forward and upward prior to mounting another elephant.  In giant anteaters, the (retracted) penis and testes are located internally between the rectum and urinary bladder.  When the male armadillo "Chaetophractus villosus" is sexually aroused, species determination is easier. Its penis can be as long as, and usually remains completely withdrawn inside a skin receptacle. Scientists conducting studies on the "C. villosus" penis muscles revealed this species' very long penis exhibits variability. During its waking hours, it remains hidden beneath a skin receptacle, until it becomes erect and it projects outside in a rostral direction.

Other vertebrates.

Male turtles and crocodiles have a penis, while male specimens of the reptile order Squamata have two paired organs called hemipenes. Tuataras must use their cloacae for reproduction. Due to evolutionary convergence, turtle and mammal penises have a similar structure.  In some fish, the gonopodium, andropodium, and claspers are intromittent organs (to introduce sperm into the female) developed from modified fins.

Invertebrates.

Arthropods.

The record for the largest penis size to body size ratio is held by the barnacle. The barnacle's penis can grow to up to forty times its own body length. This enables them to reach the nearest female for fertilization.  A number of invertebrate species have independently evolved the mating technique of traumatic insemination where the penis penetrates the female's abdomen, thereby creating a womb into which it deposits sperm. This has been most fully studied in bed bugs.  Some millipedes have penises. In these species, the penis is simply one or two projections on underneath the third body segment that produce a spermatophore or sperm packet. The act of insemination, however, occurs through specialized legs called gonopods which collect the spermatophore and insert it into the female.

Insects.

In male insects, the structure analogous to a penis is known as aedeagus. The male copulatory organ of various lower invertebrate animals is often called the "cirrus".  The lesser water boatman's mating call, generated by rubbing the penis against the abdomen, is the loudest sound, relative to body size, in the animal kingdom.  In 2010, entomologist Charles Linehard described "Neotrogla", a new genus of barkflies. Species of this genus have sex-reversed genitalia. Females have penis-like organs called gynosomes that are inserted into vagina-like openings of males during mating. In 2014, a detailed study of the insects reproductive habits led by Kazunori Yoshizawae confirmed that the organ functions similar to a penis – for example, it swells during sexual intercourse – and is used to extract sperm from the male.

Mollusks.

The penis in most male Coleoid cephalopods is a long and muscular end of the gonoduct used to transfer spermatophores to a modified arm called a hectocotylus. That, in turn, is used to transfer the spermatophores to the female. In species where the hectocotylus is missing, the penis is long and able to extend beyond the mantle cavity and transfers the spermatophores directly to the female. Deepwater squid have the greatest known penis length relative to body size of all mobile animals, second in the entire animal kingdom only to certain sessile barnacles Penis elongation in "Onykia ingens" may result in a penis that is as long as the mantle, head and arms combined. Giant squid of the genus "Architeuthis" are unusual in that they possess both a large penis and modified arm tips, although it is uncertain whether the latter are used for spermatophore transfer.

Etymology.

The word "penis" is taken from the Latin word for "tail". Some derive that from Indo-European "*pesnis", and the Greek word πέος = "penis" from Indo-European "*pesos". Prior to the adoption of the Latin word in English the penis was referred to as a "yard". The Oxford English Dictionary cites an example of the word "yard" used in this sense from 1379, and notes that in his "Physical Dictionary" of 1684, Steven Blankaart defined the word "penis" as "the Yard, made up of two nervous Bodies, the Channel, Nut, Skin, and Fore-skin, etc."  As with nearly any aspect of the body involved in sexual or excretory functions, the penis is the subject of many slang words and euphemisms for it, a particularly common and enduring one being "cock". See for a list of alternative words for penis.  The Latin word ""phallus"" (from Greek φαλλος) is sometimes used to describe the penis, although "phallus" originally was used to describe "representations", pictorial or carved, of the penis.

Human use of animal penises.

Pizzles are represented in heraldry, where the adjective "pizzled" (or "vilené") indicates that part of an animate charge's anatomy, especially if coloured differently.

A penis (plural "penises" or "penes" ) is the primary sexual organ that male animals use to inseminate females (or hermaphrodites) during copulation. Such organs occur in many animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, but males do not bear a penis in every animal species, and in those species in which the male does bear a so-called penis, the penises in the various species are not necessarily homologous.

Penis neboli pyj či falus je kopulační orgán samců či součást samčí rozmnožovací soustavy u hermafroditů. Vyskytuje se u obratlovců a např. u měkkýšů. Všeobecně jsou jím vybaveni savci, penis má mnoho druhů hadů i někteří ptáci (např. pštros dvouprstý).


Family and early life.

Archelaus was a Cappadocian Greek nobleman, possibly of Macedonian descent, from unknown parents. Perhaps his ancestors descended from those Greeks who arrived in Anatolia after the expedition of Alexander the Great. He had a brother called Neoptolemus and his family were active in the Pontic Court. As he was a friend of Mithridates VI, the Pontic King gave Archelaus the court title of "philos".  Along with Neoptolemus they both rose to prominence during the wars of Mithridates VI on the northern shores of the Black Sea. Archelaus was a prominent Pontic general during the First Mithridatic War (89 BC-85 BC). In 88 BC as a part of the First Mithridatic War, Archelaus and his brother were involved in a military campaign with the Pontic army against King Nicomedes IV of Bithynia. On the Amnias River the brothers had the command of the advance guard and won their first victory of the war. Neoptolemus then went on to defeat a Roman-led army at Protopachium, probably without his brother. Archelaus was next involved in Mithridates VI’s successful military campaign in conquering most of the Roman Province of Asia. Archelaus had attacked a city called Magnesia ad Sipylum or Magnesia on the Maeander. This attack failed and Archelaus was wounded in the fighting.  In the late summer or autumn of 88 BC or perhaps in 87 BC, Mithridates VI had given Archelaus the command of his large fleet and army to conquer Athens. Archelaus and the Pontic army were sent to Greece, in response to the Athenians wanting to break free from Roman rule and Mithridates VI wanting to conquer them. On their way to Athens, Archelaus captured the Cyclades Islands and the Greek island of Delos. When Archelaus and the Pontic army arrived in Athens, they occupied Piraeus. After occupying Athens the Pontic army spent three days fighting with Quintus Bruttius Sura, a legate to the propraetor of Macedonia, with his small detachment of Roman soldiers. The presence of the Pontic army under the command of Archelaus encouraged citizens from Southern Greece to revolt against Roman rule. When the Roman general Sulla in command of a large Roman army finally arrived, Archelaus and the Pontic army withdrew from Boeotia and pulled back to Athens. They fortified themselves in Piraeus and left Athens to Aristion the Athenian tyrant. Mithridates VI had sent his son Arcathius and a much larger Pontic army to Greece to assist Archelaus. As Arcathius was advancing through Northern Greece, Archelaus made several failed attempts to get supplies into Athens. On March 1, 86 BC, Sulla and his legions finally broke into Athens. By that time, Arcathius had died on his way to Athens. His army however was still intact and pursuing the remnants of the legions of Macedonia. Archelaus’ ally the Athenian tyrant Aristion had escaped into the Acropolis of Athens. Archelaus and his Athenian allies lost control of Piraeus and Athens; they were pushed back to the peninsula of Munichia. Archelaus took the Pontic army and joined the remaining forces in Thessaly, taking command at Thermopylae.  Sulla moved to Boeotia to face Archelaus. Their two armies clashed at Battle of Chaeronea in 86 BC, where Archelaus was completely defeated. Archelaus escaped to Chalcis where he received 80,000 reinforcements from Mithridates VI. As Sulla lacked a Roman fleet, Archelaus carried out raids around the Greek coast, even destroying some of Sulla’s transports carrying the advance guard of Sulla’s replacement. Eventually Sulla faced Archelaus at Orchomenus in 86/85 BC. After a two-day battle, Archelaus was decisively defeated by the Romans. After the defeat, he was forced to hide two days in the swamps of Lake Copais, before once again managing to escape to Chalcis.  When Mithridates VI heard the news of the disastrous defeats, he ordered Archelaus to make peace with Sulla. On the conclusion of the peace conference between Mithridates VI and Sulla in late 86 BC, Archelaus suggested that Sulla recognise the status quo in Asia and in return Mithridates VI would ally with him against his enemies in Rome. Sulla, who was adept at such negotiations, responded to Archelaus by inviting him to surrender his fleet and become an ally of Rome.  The final terms of Sulla were that Mithridates VI should surrender part of the Pontic fleet and all conquered territory in Asia and pay an indemnity of 2,000 talents, in return for becoming a friend and ally of Rome. Archelaus remained with Sulla while these terms were sent to Mithridates VI. Archelaus was beginning to worry about his reputation in Pontus as he was getting closer to Sulla and accompanied him on a campaign against the Thracians. Archelaus received from Sulla large estates in Greece, including 6,600 acres of land in Boeotia, and was referred to as a "friend and ally" of the Roman people. At some point he visited Rome, where he was honored by the Roman Senate. His Pontic fleet withdrew and left Greece. Archelaus was able to persuade Mithridates VI to meet Sulla. Mithridates VI met Sulla and agreed to the Sulla's terms, except for the surrender of his fleet and evacuation of Paphlagonia. Sometime afterwards, Archelaus fell out of favor with Mithridates VI, who believed that Archelaus had made too many concessions to Sulla. Archelaus assisted the Romans in the Second Mithridatic War and Lucius Licinius Lucullus in the Third Mithridatic War.  Archelaus had married an unnamed Greek woman, possibly a Pontic princess, one of the daughters of Mithridates VI. His wife bore Archelaus two sons:

Archelaus (; fl. during the latter half of the second century BC and first half of first century BC, died by 63 BC) was the greatest general that served under King Mithridates VI of Pontus in northern Anatolia and was also his favorite general.

Archelaos (žil v 2. a 1. století př. n. l.) byl generálem Mithridata Eupatora z Pontu v První válce s Mithridatem. V roce 87 př. n. l. byl poslán s velkou armádou do Řecka, kde se mu podařilo dobýt Pireus. Zde byl obklíčen Luciem Corneliem Sullou, načež se stáhl do Bojótie, kde byl definitivně poražen u Chaironeie. Archelaos dostal od Mithridata posily, ale byl znovu poražen v Bitvě u Orchomena (85 př. n. l.). Nakonec Archelaos dezertoval k Římanům, kterým pomáhal ve Třetí válce s Mithridatem.


Biography.

Playing career.

After a stellar junior hockey career with the Ottawa 67s, Potvin was drafted first overall in the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft by the struggling expansion New York Islanders, a team which had recorded the worst record in modern NHL history the previous season. Right after Bill Torrey drafted Potvin, Montreal Canadiens general manager Sam Pollock approached Torrey, hoping to trade for Potvin. Pollock's strategy was to offer a "quick-fix" package of mature players to exchange for the top draft pick. Torrey ultimately turned down the offer since he felt Potvin would be a long-term asset to his team.  Upon joining the Islanders, Potvin wanted to wear number 7 on his uniform but was forced to take number 5, as forward Germain Gagnon was wearing number 7. Potvin entered the NHL with high expectations; he was regarded by some as the savior of the Islanders' franchise, and by others as potentially the next Bobby Orr. While he did not dominate the game in the same way as Orr, Potvin became an immediate star, winning the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year in 1973–74 and the James Norris Memorial Trophy as league's top defenceman in 1975–76 ending Orr's eight year reign, at age 22, when he scored 31 goals and 98 points, the highest totals by a defenceman other than Orr. That year he finished second to Bobby Clarke in the voting for the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player.  Upon Orr's decline and retirement in the late 1970s, Potvin became widely acknowledged (along with Larry Robinson) as the premier defencemen in the game. He also won the Norris Trophy in 1977–78 and 1978–79. The latter was his best offensive season, when he scored 31 goals and 70 assists in only 73 games, becoming the second defenceman (Orr being the first) to score 100 points in a season. He had an impressive +71 plus-minus rating that season and finished fourth in the balloting for the Hart Trophy. Between 1974–75 and 1980–81, Potvin was named to the NHL's first all-star team five times and the second all-star team once; the only season he missed the all-star teams was 1979–80, when he was only able to play 31 games due to injury.  In Potvin's best season, 1978–79, the talented but young Islanders ultimately lost in semi-finals of the 1979 Stanley Cup playoffs to the New York Rangers in six games, despite being heavily favoured to win the series. Clark Gillies stepped down as captain during the off-season and Potvin became the team's third captain, a position he held until relinquishing it in 1987. In 1979–80, Potvin's first year as captain, the Islanders won their first of four Stanley Cups. Potvin was a key part of the Islanders during the team's early 1980s glory years: in addition to the four consecutive Stanley Cup championships and five straight finals appearances, in the eight seasons he served as captain, the Islanders never failed to reach the Stanley Cup playoffs. Potvin was very productive offensively in the playoffs, with his best year being 1980–81 when he scored 8 goals and 17 assists for 25 points in 18 games. However, he was never able to win the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoff's most valuable player. In the 1983–84 season, Potvin made a comeback of sorts, scoring 85 points and making the NHL's second all-star team.  Potvin was known for being intelligent, articulate, and outspoken off the ice. Throughout the 1970s, these traits often alienated his Islander teammates, as they made Potvin appear arrogant. He offended many hockey fans by stating publicly he had played better in the 1976 Canada Cup than Bobby Orr, and that Orr's selection as tournament MVP was for sentimental reasons. However, as Potvin matured, he became seen as a great leader as he learned to use these same qualities to positively affect his teammates.  Potvin was a more traditional defender than Orr and an extremely physical player. He averaged just under one point per game over his career (0.992), while Orr averaged 1.39 points per game. Late in his career, Potvin suffered a series of injuries that impeded his performance, leading to his retirement following the 1987–88 season. He retired as the NHL's leader in goals and points by a defenceman. His career totals were later surpassed by Ray Bourque, Paul Coffey, and others, and as of 2014, he sits fifth in career goals and seventh in career points amongst defencemen.  Potvin claimed to have received an offer from Mike Keenan to come out of retirement and play for the New York Rangers in 1993. Keenan has yet to substantiate these claims. Potvin admitted that although he believed it was a joke, he did contemplate a comeback. After a brief skate, he decided his body could no longer handle the rigours of the game.

Broadcasting.

Potvin was a studio analyst for SportsChannel America television broadcasts from 1988–92, paired with host Bob Papa. Potvin was a color commentator for Florida Panthers television broadcasts from 1993, paired with play-by-play announcers Jeff Rimer, Dave Strader, and Steve Goldstein for over 16 seasons before being replaced by former Panthers player Bill Lindsay in 2009.  In September 2010, Potvin was hired as the Ottawa Senators' television colour commentator, working with Dean Brown on Rogers Sportsnet. In August 2014, he was rehired as colour commentator by the Florida Panthers, working with Steve Goldstein on Fox Sports Florida. As a colour commentator, he is known for his bizarre and inflammatory comments, such as claiming that Daniel and Henrik Sedin "...only use [their] fingers to lick the peanut butter off their bread". On July 29th, 2019 he retired from broadcasting.

Personal life.

Potvin's brother, Jean Potvin, was also an NHL defenceman and the brothers were teammates for a number of years with the Islanders. Both are cousins of former NHL player Marc Potvin.

Denis Charles Potvin (born October 29, 1953) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman and team captain for the New York Islanders of the National Hockey League (NHL). He is a four-time Stanley Cup winner as a member of the early 1980s New York Islanders. He is also a three-time James Norris Memorial Trophy winner as the NHL's top defenceman. He was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1991 and served as a commentator for Ottawa Senators' television broadcasts on Sportsnet. He is the former color commentator for the Florida Panthers. In 2017, he was named one of the "100 Greatest NHL Players" in history.

Denis Charles Potvin (* 29. října 1953 Vanier, Ontario) je bývalý kanadský hokejový obránce. Jeho kariéra je spojena s týmem New York Islanders v NHL, se nímž vybojoval čtyřikrát Stanley Cup. U příležitosti 100. výročí NHL byl v lednu 2017 vybrán jako jeden ze sta nejlepších hráčů historie ligy. Jeho bratr Jean Potvin je také bývalý hokejový obránce, po řadu let byli spoluhráči v New York Islanders.


Biography.

Born in Bulgaria to a family of Samokov goldsmiths, Shem-Tov mostly lived in the capital Sofia and was a member of the Maccabi youth movement. He migrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1939, the same year in which he joined Hashomer Hatzair. He became a member of the Jerusalem Workers' Council in 1946, and was chairman of the Bulgarian Immigrants Association between 1949 and 1950.  In 1961 he served on the Histadrut's actions committee. In the same year he was elected to the Knesset on Mapam's list. He retained his seat in the 1965 elections, and was also voted onto Jerusalem's City Council. During the Knesset term Mapam joined the Alignment alliance.  Despite losing his seat in the 1969 elections, Shem-Tov was appointed Minister without Portfolio in Golda Meir's government in December 1969. In July 1970 he became Minister of Health. He also failed to win a seat in the 1973 elections, but retained his place in the cabinet. When Yitzhak Rabin formed a new government in June 1974 following Meir's resignation, he was also appointed Minister of Welfare, though he held the post only until October that year.  After Likud won the 1977 elections, Shem-Tov lost his place in the cabinet, and also failed to win a Knesset seat. However, he did win a seat in the 1981 elections, voted back into the Knesset on the Alignment's list. After being re-elected in 1984, Mapam broke away from the Alignment to sit as an independent party. Shem-Tov resigned from the Knesset on 15 March 1988, and was replaced by Gadi Yatziv.  Shem-Tov died on 8 March 2014 in Jerusalem, aged 99.

Victor Shem-Tov (; ; 1 February 1915 – 8 March 2014) was an Israeli politician who held several ministerial portfolios in the late 1960s and 1970s.

Viktor Šem-Tov (: ויקטור שם-טוב, : Виктор Шемтов, Viktor Šemtov; 1. února 1915 − 8. března 2014) byl izraelský politik a poslanec Knesetu, který v 60. a 70. letech zastával post řadu postů v izraelských vládách (např. ministra zdravotnictví či ministra sociální péče).


Classification.

"Triops longicaudatus" is a member of the crustacean class Branchiopoda, which primarily contains freshwater animals with gills on their legs. The class Branchiopoda is divided into the subclasses Sarsostraca, containing fairy shrimp, and Phyllopoda, containing all other members (cladocerans, clam shrimps, and the tadpole shrimp). The subclass name, literally meaning "leaf-footed", is derived from their flat, leaflike appendages. Notostracans are placed in the infraclass Calamanostraca, which also contains the extinct Kazacharthra.

Structure.

"Triops longicaudatus" is usually greyish yellow or brown in color, and differs from many other species by the absence of the second maxilla. Apart from "Triops cancriformis", it is the only tadpole shrimp species whose individuals display as many as three reproductive strategies: bisexual, unisexual (parthenogenetic), and hermaphroditic; see below. "Triops cancriformis" is easily recognizable by its yellow carapace with dark spots, whilst "T. longicaudatus" individuals have a uniform carapace. The species also appeared about 50 million years later, and, as its name suggests, its elongated tail structures (cercopods) are often nearly as long as the rest of the body; including the cercopods, the body may reach in length. The head of "Triops longicaudatus" is typical of crustaceans and consists of five segments, but there is a tendency toward reduction of cephalic appendages. The "trunk" is not distinctly divided into thorax and abdomen. Most trunk segments bear appendages. Zoologists find it difficult to decide where the thorax stops and the abdomen begins; the debate is seemingly endless. The first eleven trunk segments each bear a single pair of limbs. They are followed by segments that are fused similarly to those of millipedes, and as a result, each segment bears up to six pairs of limbs. The trunk ends with a region of limbless segments. Some zoologists consider the thorax to consist of the two regions with appendages, and the abdomen the region without appendages. Others believe the region of fused segments to be part of the abdomen. For clarity, this article uses "thorax" to mean the two body regions with limbs.

Carapace.

There is a carapace present, but no cephalothorax, since no thoracic segment is fused with the head. The terms "carapace" and "cephalothorax" often are confused, but should not be. The carapace of crustaceans is a fold of the body wall of the fifth head segment.

Head.

The head bears a pair of dorsal compound eyes that lie close to each other and are nearly fused together. The compound eyes are generally sessile (not stalked). In addition, there is a naupliar ocellus (the "third eye") between them. The compound eyes are on the surface of the head, but the ocellus is deep within the head. All the eyes, however, are easily visible through the shell covering of the head. A distinct horizontal groove, known as the mandibular groove, marks the division between the anterior three head segments and the posterior two. Posterior to it is the cervical groove, marking the division between the head and the thorax.  On the ventral side of the head is a lenslike window, admitting light to the naupliar eye, which is aimed both dorsally and ventrally. The first antennae (antennules) are small, slender filaments on the ventral surface of the head, at about the same level as the eyes. The second antennae are similar and lie laterally to the first. They are nonfunctioning. The large, well-developed mandibles oppose each other across the ventral midline. The opposing surfaces bear strong brownish teeth. As the crustacean periodically opens and closes the mandibles the teeth move apart and close together. Of the usual crustacean head appendages, only the mandibles are well developed. In "Triops longicaudatus", the larger second maxillae are absent, only maxillules being present.

Thorax.

The anterior thorax consists of eleven segments, each bearing a pair of appendages, called thoracopods or pereiopods. None of the thoracopods are modified into maxillipeds for feeding. The posterior thorax consists of 16–25 segments, incompletely separated to form "rings". Each ring may consist of as many as six fused segments and bear up to six pairs of appendages (there are 54–66 limbs altogether).  Most of the thoracic appendages resemble each other, but the first eleven pairs are best developed. There is a slight tendency to regional specialization and the first pair of legs is unlike the rest. It is an elongated, cheliped-like structure with a sensory function, while all the other appendages aid in feeding, respiration, and locomotion. In females, the eleventh pair of legs is modified into brood pouches. The many legs posterior to the eleventh pair move the spent feeding and respiratory currents away.

Abdomen.

The posterior 5–14 rings at the end of the body do not bear appendages. At the end of the body is a pleotelson (fusion of the last abdominal segment and the telson) connected to long, multisegmented uropods.

Feeding behavior.

The feeding method of tadpole shrimps is similar to that proposed for the ancestral crustacean. The anterior appendages (second pair to tenth pair) stir sediments and swirl muddy water into the wide, midventral food groove. The "gnathobases" (inward-facing lobes at the base of the leg) guide food anteriorly to the mouth. The large flat exopods (outward-facing lobes at the end of the leg) stir and lift the sediments. Fine silt particles and water escape easily, but large, coarse food particles are torn into smaller pieces by the blade-like, inward-facing lobes called "endopods" at the end of the leg.

Internal anatomy.

The heart of tadpole shrimps is a long dorsal tube in the anterior eleven trunk segments. It has a pair of ostia in each of these segments. Sometimes hemoglobin is present in its blood and the crustacean may be pink as a result. The excretory organs are the paired maxillary glands, located on the segment of the second maxilla. The long looped ducts of these glands can be seen in the carapace. The role of the maxillary glands is primarily osmoregulatory. Nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, is lost by diffusion across the gill surfaces.

Reproduction and development.

Reproduction.

"Triops" "longicaudatus" displays several reproductive strategies. Individuals may reproduce sexually, but this is rare, as most populations are highly male- or female-biased. Parthenogenesis (development from unfertilized eggs) is the most common reproductive strategy. Some populations, however, consist of hermaphrodites who fertilize each other. Different populations display different strategies or combinations of strategies, and may therefore, be considered separate species or subspecies in the future.  In females, the eleventh pair of legs is modified into egg sacs, where the eggs are carried for several hours. The eggs are released in batches, have a thick shell, and can stand freezing temperatures as well as drought, enabling the population to survive from one season to the next. The eggs have to dry out completely before being submerged in water again in order to hatch successfully; they may remain in a state of diapause for up to 20 years. These eggs may have helped "Triops longicaudatus", as well as other notostracans, to survive the various natural disasters and mass extinctions to date.

Life cycle.

To complete their lives, tadpole shrimps depend on the changing nature of the temporary waters they inhabit. During the dry season (summer and fall), their offspring stay inside the eggs. As the pool fills with rainwater during the winter and spring, they hatch and feed on fairy shrimps and other invertebrates. The first larval stage (the metanauplius) is orange in color. It has a single eye, six legs, and develops through instars (growth stages). Each instar ends with shedding the exoskeleton. The number of segments and appendages increases as "Triops " grow, and they slowly change to greyish brown. In approximately eight days, they reach maturity and lay eggs. Adult "Triops" die as the pools dry up. "Triops" generally live for about 20–90 days if the pool does not dry up.

Ecology.

"T. longicaudatus" is the most widespread notostracan species, and may be found in western North America, South America, Japan, South Korea, and several Pacific Islands. It is most active at a temperature of approximately, and is usually found scratching the mud at the bottom of pools, searching for benthic food. Triops collect food particles by straining the water with hairs on their limbs. Loose food particles are collected in a groove running down the underside of the body lengthwise, and held together by a sticky secretion until they are swallowed by their very small (2 mm wide) mouth. The tiny mouth is deep in its underbelly, and while the animal is capable of breaking up plant roots or dead fish, it is incapable of chasing down and eating prey larger than it is.

Diet.

Tadpole shrimps are omnivorous and may eat algae, insects, and other organic debris; they are known to chase very small fry, tadpoles, and oligochaete worms. In general, they eat anything organic that is smaller than they are, which even may include their siblings (they are cannibalistic). In turn, "Triops longicaudatus" are eaten by frogs and birds.

Interaction with humans.

The species is considered a human ally against the West Nile virus, as the individuals consume "Culex" mosquito larvae. They also are used as a biological agent in Japan, eating weeds in rice paddies. In Wyoming, the presence of "Triops longicaudatus" usually indicates a good chance of the hatching of spadefoot frogs.  Dried eggs of "Triops" "longicaudatus" are sold in kits to be raised as aquarium pets, sold under the name of "aquasaurs", "trigons" or "triops". These are most often of the greenish-brown variety, but the red variant is fairly common among enthusiasts. Captive "Triops" are frequently kept in aquariums and fed a diet consisting mainly of carrots, shrimp pellets and dried shrimp. Often they are also given living shrimp and daphnia as live prey. Because they can feed on just about anything, they are also fed lunch meat, potatoes, crackers, etc. They will often feed themselves by grazing on algae and other grunge from the bottom and sides of the tank and on small particles clinging to sponge filters or to Marimo moss balls, which are often cultured alongside Triops.

Distribution.

"Triops longicaudatus" is widespread in North America. In Canada, it is found only in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. It is widespread throughout the contiguous United States, Mexico, and Hawaii, but not Alaska. Tadpole shrimps may be found in parts of South America, in (Argentina and Galápagos Islands), the West Indies, and the Pacific Islands, including Japan and New Caledonia.

Triops longicaudatus (commonly called American tadpole shrimp or tadpole shrimp) is a freshwater crustacean of the order Notostraca, resembling a miniature horseshoe crab. It is characterized by an elongated, segmented body, a flattened shield-like brownish carapace covering two thirds of the thorax, and two long filaments on the abdomen. "Triops" refers to its three eyes, and "longicaudatus" refers to the elongated tail structures. "Triops longicaudatus" is found in freshwater ponds and pools, often in places where few higher forms of life can exist. Like its relative "Triops cancriformis", the longtail tadpole shrimp is considered a living fossil because its basic prehistoric morphology has changed little in the last 70 million years, exactly matching their ancient fossils. "Triops longicaudatus" is one of the oldest animal species still in existence.

Listonoh americký ("Triops longicaudatus") je až 50 mm dlouhý korýš s tělem chráněným hnědým až hnědožlutě zbarveným krunýřem (někdy vybarvený i pestřeji), tvarem poněkud připomínající trilobita. Kůži, kterou je opatřen, musí v prvních týdnech svého života velmi často a později už jen občas svlékat, kvůli růstu těla. Pokud listonoha chováte, budete proto takovéto zbytky na dně nacházet. Na hlavě má tři oči, z nichž jedno reaguje na světlo a pomáhá listonohovi pohybovat se za světlem. Listonoh se pohybuje pomocí 142 nohou (také jimi dýchá) a dlouhého ocasu rozděleného do vidlice. Listonohové jsou blízce příbuzní krabů a krevet (přibližně i podle tvaru těla). Je všežravec. Pokud ho chováte v akváriu, můžete ho krmit krmením pro rybičky nebo jemně nastrouhanou mrkví či jablky. Všechno jídlo ale musí být řádně rozdrceno! Listonoh se chová pro užitek jako návnada pro ryby.


Former rank in the German ground forces.

General of the Infantry was a former rank of General of the branch OF8 in the German land forces (Imperial Army, "Reichswehr" and "Wehrmacht") and also in the Prussian Army and the Austro-Hungarian Army. It was the third-highest general officer rank, subordinate only to Colonel General and Field Marshal. It is equivalent to a three-star rank today. The same rank was adopted by the Finnish Army () between the world wars.  German cavalry officers of equivalent rank were called "General der Kavallerie" and those in the artillery corps were "General der Artillerie". In 1935 the Wehrmacht added the ranks of "General der Panzertruppe" (tank troops), "General der Gebirgstruppen" (mountain troops), "General der Fallschirmtruppen" (parachute troops), and "General der Nachrichtentruppen" (communications troops). In the "Luftwaffe", the equivalent rank was "General der Flieger". The rank was generally referred to only in the form of "General", without specifying the specific forces the bearer commanded.  In the modern German armed forces, the Bundeswehr, the rank of Generalleutnant (Lieutenant General) corresponds to the traditional rank of "General der Infanterie". There was no equivalent rank in the army of East Germany, where it was merged into that of Generaloberst.

General der Infanterie in the Bundeswehr.

In the Bundeswehr, the position of an infantry officer responsible for certain questions of troop training and equipment, usually with the rank of Brigadier Generals. The position of general of the infantry is connected with that of commander of the infantry school. Corresponding service positions also exist for other branches of the army. Since in this usage it refers to a position not a rank, an Oberst is sometimes "General of" his respective type of troops. The form of address is usually Herr General and/or Herr Oberst; the form of address Herr General der Infanterie is unorthodox, since it does not refer to a rank.

List of officers who were "".

Note that a number of these officers may also have gone on to higher ranks during their careers.

General of the Infantry () is a former rank of German Ground forces (de: Heer). Present it is an appointment or position to an OF-8 rank officer, responsible for particular affairs of training and equipment of the Bundeswehr infantry.

Generál pěchoty (německy "General der Infanterie") byla vojenská hodnost v armádách Německa a Rakousko-Uherska. Dnes jde o označení důstojníka německé armády, který má na starosti určité otázky výcviku a vyzbrojení německé pěchoty. Současným generálem pěchoty v německé armádě je od září 2016 brigádní generál Andreas Hannemann.


Production.

After the completion of "That's So Raven", propositions were made for a spin-off including "That's So Raven Too!" which was accompanied by a soundtrack of the same name, and would have been about Raven going off to college. Raven-Symoné was offered the spin-off, but she declined it, therefore Disney Channel decided to give it to Kyle Massey. Raven-Symoné would later return for the "Raven's Home" spin-off in 2017.  The first episode on January 12, 2007, was a sneak peek. The show was created by Marc Warren and Dennis Rinsler, who produced "Full House" and "That's So Raven". "Cory in the House" began filming on July 18, 2006, at Hollywood Center Studios (where "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" and "That's So Raven" were filmed) and uses a studio audience in some scenes.  Similar to "Hannah Montana", many of the episode titles are parodies of popular songs. For example, "We Built This Kitty on Rock and Roll" comes from "We Built This City", "Mall of Confusion" from "Ball of Confusion", "Smells Like School Spirit" from "Smells Like Teen Spirit", and "Ain't Miss Bahavian" from "Ain't Misbehavin'".

Theme song and opening sequence.

The theme song to "Cory in the House", was written and produced by Matthew Gerrard and Robbie Nevil, and performed by Kyle Massey, Maiara Walsh, and Jason Dolley (though the closing credits of the show credit the performance of the theme song only to Massey). An alternate theme song, "Rollin' to D.C.", is also sung by Massey and Walsh and was used in the music video to promote the series.

Merchandise.

Video game.

The "Cory in the House" franchise has spawned one video game, of which it shares the same name. The game was released in 2008 for the Nintendo DS.

Broadcast.

The series originally aired from January 12, 2007, to September 12, 2008, on Disney Channel. The show returned to Disney Channel on August 14, 2014, as part of Disney Replay. It premiered on the same date on Family Channel and on June 1, 2011, on Disney XD (Canada). In the United Kingdom and Ireland it premiered on January 28, 2007, on Disney Channel and on September 5, 2009, on Disney XD. It premiered on February 2, 2007, on Disney Channel (Australia and New Zealand), on April 27, 2007, on Disney Channel (Southeast Asia), and on June 9, 2007, on Disney Channel (India).

Cory in the House is an American television series which aired on the Disney Channel from January 12, 2007, to September 12, 2008, and was a spin-off from the Disney show "That's So Raven". The show focuses on Cory Baxter, who moves from San Francisco, California to Washington, D.C. with his father, after Victor Baxter gets a new job in the White House as the official head chef. The series marks a Disney Channel first, as it is the channel's first spin-off. This is also the only Disney Channel spin-off series to be broadcast in standard definition for the entire length of the show. Reruns of the series have not been aired on Disney Channel, or on Disney XD; however, they continue to air on the Family channel in Canada. Raven-Symoné guest-starred, reprising her role as Raven Baxter in only one episode. In 2014, Disney Channel started airing a weekly block called "Disney Replay" on Wednesdays nights, during which episodes of "Cory in the House" air alongside "That's So Raven" and "Kim Possible", among others.

Cory in the House je americký sitcom, zatím nevysílaný v Česku. Premiérově byl vysílán na Disney Channel od 12. ledna 2007 do 12. září 2008.. Seriál je pokračováním seriálu "That's So Raven". Odehrává se v Bílém domě.


Facts, circumstances, and the "balance of probabilities".

In most jurisdictions, it is usually necessary to obtain a court order directing the registrar to issue a death certificate in the absence of a physician's certification that an identified individual has died. However, if there is circumstantial evidence that would lead a reasonable person to believe that the individual is deceased on the balance of probabilities, jurisdictions may agree to issue death certificates without any such order. For example, passengers and crew of the RMS "Titanic" who were not rescued by the RMS "Carpathia" were declared legally dead soon after "Carpathia" arrived at New York City. More recently, death certificates for those who perished in the September 11 attacks were issued by the State of New York within days of the tragedy. The same is usually true of soldiers missing after a major battle, especially if the enemy keeps an accurate record of its prisoners of war.  If there is not sufficient evidence that death has taken place, it may take somewhat longer, as simple absence does not necessarily prove death. The requirements for declaring an individual legally dead may vary depending on numerous details including the following:  Most countries have a set period of time (seven years in many common law jurisdictions) after which an individual is presumed dead if there is no evidence to the contrary. However, if the missing individual is the owner of a significant estate, the court may delay ordering the issuing of a death certificate if there has been no real effort to locate the missing person. If the death is thought to have taken place in international waters or in a location without a centralized and reliable police force or vital statistics registration system, other laws may apply.

Legal aspects.

China.

The Chinese law treats declaratory judgment of death and disappearance differently. Relevant provisions can be found in Section 3 ("Declaration of Disappearance and Declaration of Death"), Chapter 2 ("Natural Persons") of the "General Provisions of the Civil Law of the People's Republic of China" enacted in 2017.  In terms of the declaration of disappearance, where a natural person has disappeared for two years, an interested party may apply to a people's court for a declaration of absence of the natural person. The period of disappearance of a natural person shall be counted from the day when he or she is not heard from. If a person disappears during a war, the period of disappearance shall be counted from the day when the war ends or from the date of absence as confirmed by the relevant authority.  As for the declaration of death, where a natural person falls under any of the following circumstances, an interested party may apply to a people's court for a declaration of death of the natural person:  Where a person has disappeared from an accident, and it is impossible for the person to survive the accident as certified by the relevant authority, an application for a declaration of death of the person is not subject to the two-year period.  In the event of contradictory applications for declaration, meaning that both an application for a declaration of death and an application for a declaration of absence of the same natural person are filed by the interested parties with a people's court, the people's court shall declare the death of the person if the conditions for a declaration of death as set out in this Law are met.  The Chinese law specifically talks about the return of the absentee. The validity of the previous declaratory judgment of death is not imperiled by the sheer fact of return. The absentee or interested party (or parties) must apply for the revocation of the said declaratory judgment, then can it be annulled. The legal consequence of revoking declaratory judgment is essentially about restoration, i.e. the return of property and restoration of marriage. Chinese legislator made a rather peculiar choice to restore marriage between the absentee and his or her spouse, providing that the spouse has not remarried or declared unwillingness of restoring marriage. This is quite unusual among the legal regimes around the world.

Germany.

Conditions for declaration of death according to the disappearance law ("Verschollenheitsgesetz"):

India.

Presumption of death is governed by sections 107 and 108 of the Evidence Act, which allows for presumption of death for a person missing for 7 years to be raised in appropriate proceedings before the court.

Ireland.

If there is strong evidence a missing person is dead the coroner may request an inquest under Section 23 of the Coroners Act 1962. If the Minister for Justice grants the inquest then the person may be declared legally dead if that is the outcome of the inquest. As an alternative an application may be made to the high court, normally this is after at least 7 years of going missing, but exceptionally may be earlier if there is strong implication from the circumstances the person is dead.

Italy.

It takes twenty years to declare a missing person dead. After ten years from someone's disappearance, a motion to declare the person legally dead can be filed in court. After that, another ten years must pass before the person can be declared legally dead.

Poland.

Declaration of presumed death is stipulated in articles 29–32 of the Polish Civil Code and pronounced as a court judgment. In general, a period of 10 years is required to pass for a legal declaration to be made, with the following exceptions: A court's declaration of death comes into effect retroactively and is subject to legal consequences from before the date of the declaration, going back to the assumed date of death, as declared by the court.

Russia.

According to article 45 of Civil Code of Russia, a person may be declared dead only by a court decision, on the following grounds:  A legal date of death is considered to be the date when the court decision declaring person dead was made. If a person disappeared under life-threatening circumstances, the day of his or her actual disappearance may also be considered the legal date of death.  The declaration of death by the court has the same legal consequences as if the fact of death was proven:  If such decision was a mistake and the person later returns, the decision is nullified and the person becomes eligible to request most of his assets back. However, if the husband or wife of such person married again, the marriage will not be restored. His funds and securities, taken under bona fide circumstances, also cannot be requested back.

United Kingdom.

Before 2013.

Prior to 2013, English law generally assumed a person was dead if, after seven years: This was a rebuttable presumption at common law – if the person subsequently appeared, the law no longer considered them dead.  Otherwise, courts could have granted leave to applicants to swear that a person was dead (within or after the seven-year period). For example, an executor may have made such an application so they could have been granted probate for the will. This kind of application would only have been made sooner than seven years where death was probable, but not definitive (such as an unrecovered plane crash at sea), following an inquest (see below). Such an application was specific to the court where it was made – thus separate applications had to be made at a coroner's inquest, for proceedings under the Matrimonial Causes and Civil Partnership Acts (for remarriage), for probate, and under the Social Security Act.

Presumption of Death Act 2013.

These processes were not considered satisfactory, and so in February–March 2013, the Presumption of Death Act 2013 was passed to simplify this process. The new act, which is based on the Presumption of Death (Scotland) Act 1977, allows applying to the High Court to declare a person presumed dead. This declaration is conclusive and cannot be appealed. It is recorded on a new Register of Presumed Deaths, and has the same effect as a registration of death. Death is taken to occur on (a) the last day that they could have been alive (if the court is satisfied that they are dead), or (b) the day seven years after the date they were last seen (if death is presumed by the elapse of time).  In England and Wales, if the authorities believe there should be an inquest, the local coroner files a report. This may be done to help a family receive a death certificate that may bring some closure. An inquest strives to bring any suspicious circumstances to light. The coroner then applies to the Secretary of State for Justice, under the Coroners Act 1988 section 15, for an inquest with no body. The seven years rule only applies in the High Court of Justice on the settlement of an estate. According to a spokesman for the Ministry of Justice, the number of requests received each year is fewer than ten, but few of these are refused. Without a body, an inquest relies mostly on evidence provided by the police, and whether senior officers believe the missing person is dead. One notable person presumed dead under the Act is the 7th Earl of Lucan (Lord Lucan), who was last seen alive in 1974 (although there have been numerous alleged sightings since that time), and whose death certificate was issued in February 2016.  The incidence of presumed death in England and Wales is considered low – in September 2011, it was estimated that only 1% of the 200,000 missing persons each year remained unaccounted for after 12 months, with a cumulative total of 5,500 missing persons by September 2011.

Scotland.

In Scotland, legal aspects of the presumption of death are outlined in the Presumption of Death (Scotland) Act 1977. If a person lived in Scotland on the date they were last known to be alive, authorities can use this act to declare the person legally dead after the standard period of seven years.

United States.

The declaration of a missing person as legally dead falls under the jurisdiction of the individual states unless there is a reason for the federal government to have jurisdiction (e.g. military personnel missing in combat).  People who disappear are typically called "missing", or sometimes "absent". Several criteria are evaluated to determine whether a person may be declared legally dead:  Professor Jeanne Carriere, in "The Rights of the Living Dead: Absent Persons in Civil Law" (published in the "Louisiana Law Review"), stated that as of 1990, the number of such cases in the United States was estimated at between 60,000 and 100,000.  According to Edgar Sentell, a retired senior vice-president and general counsel of Southern Farm Bureau Life Insurance Company, almost all states recognize the presumption of death, by statute or judicial recognition of the common law rule. Some states have amended their statutes to reduce the seven-year period to five consecutive years missing, and some, such as Minnesota and Georgia, have reduced the period to four years.  If someone disappears, those interested can file a petition to have them declared legally dead. They must prove by the criteria above that the person is in fact dead. There are constitutional limitations to these procedures: The presumption must arise only after a reasonable amount of time has elapsed. The absent person must be notified. Courts permit notifying claimants by publication. Adequate safeguards concerning property provisions must be made in the case that an absent person shows up.  Some states require those who receive the missing person's assets to return them if the person turned out to be alive. If a person is declared dead when only missing, their estate is distributed as if they were dead. In some cases, the presumption of death can be rebutted. According to Sentell, courts will consider evidence that the absent person was a fugitive from justice, had money troubles, had a bad relationship, or had no family ties or connection to a community as reasons not to presume death.  A person can be declared legally dead after they are exposed to "imminent peril" and fail to return—as in a plane crash, as portrayed in the movie "Cast Away". In these cases courts generally assume the person was killed, even though the usual waiting time to declare someone dead has not elapsed. Sentell also says, "The element of peril accelerates the presumption of death." This rule was enacted after the attack on the World Trade Center, so that authorities could release death certificates. Although people presumed dead sometimes turn up alive, it is not as common as it used to be. In one case where this occurred, a man named John Burney disappeared in 1976 while having financial problems, and later reappeared in December 1982. His company and wife had already received the death benefits—so, on returning, the life insurance company sued him, his wife, and his company. In the end, the court ruled Burney's actions fraudulent.

Reappearance.

Missing persons have on rare occasions been found alive after being declared legally dead (see below). Prisoners of war, people with mental illnesses who become homeless, and in extremely rare circumstances kidnapping victims may be located years after their disappearance. Some people have even faked their deaths to avoid paying taxes, debts, etc.

A presumption of death occurs when a person is legally declared dead despite the absence of direct proof of the person's death, such as the finding of remains (e.g., a corpse or skeleton) attributable to that person. Such a declaration is typically made when a person has been missing for an extended period and in the absence of any evidence that the person is still alive – or after a much shorter period but where the circumstances surrounding a person's disappearance overwhelmingly support the belief that the person has died (e.g., an airplane crash).

Prohlášení za mrtvého je jedním z českých soudních nesporných řízení, kterým se závazně určuje smrt člověka, jestliže je nezvěstný a je pravděpodobné, že již nežije, ale nelze to zjistit jiným způsobem, zejména lékařským ohledáním a vystavením úmrtního listu ("domněnka smrti"). V tomto řízení je také možné provést "důkaz smrti", když není jen pravděpodobné, ale je zcela jisté, že už nežije, ale také to nelze jiným způsobem prokázat. Hmotněprávní úprava je obsažena v § 26 odst. 2 a § 71-76 občanského zákoníku, procesní pravidla jsou dána § 54-58 zákona o zvláštních řízeních soudních.