Features.

The degenerative tissue damage caused by human prion diseases (CJD, GSS, and kuru) is characterised by four features: spongiform change, neuronal loss, astrocytosis, and amyloid plaque formation. These features are shared with prion diseases in animals, and the recognition of these similarities prompted the first attempts to transmit a human prion disease (kuru) to a primate in 1966, followed by CJD in 1968 and GSS in 1981. These neuropathological features have formed the basis of the histological diagnosis of human prion diseases for many years, although it was recognized that these changes are enormously variable both from case to case and within the central nervous system in individual cases.  The clinical signs in humans vary, but commonly include personality changes, psychiatric problems such as depression, lack of coordination, and/or an unsteady gait (ataxia). Patients also may experience involuntary jerking movements called myoclonus, unusual sensations, insomnia, confusion, or memory problems. In the later stages of the disease, patients have severe mental impairment (dementia) and lose the ability to move or speak.  Early neuropathological reports on human prion diseases suffered from a confusion of nomenclature, in which the significance of the diagnostic feature of spongiform change was occasionally overlooked. The subsequent demonstration that human prion diseases were transmissible reinforced the importance of spongiform change as a diagnostic feature, reflected in the use of the term "spongiform encephalopathy" for this group of disorders.  Prions appear to be most infectious when in direct contact with affected tissues. For example, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease has been transmitted to patients taking injections of growth hormone harvested from human pituitary glands, from cadaver dura allografts and from instruments used for brain surgery (Brown, 2000) (prions can survive the "autoclave" sterilization process used for most surgical instruments). It is also believed that dietary consumption of affected animals can cause prions to accumulate slowly, especially when cannibalism or similar practices allow the proteins to accumulate over more than one generation. An example is kuru, which reached epidemic proportions in the mid-20th century in the Fore people of Papua New Guinea, who used to consume their dead as a funerary ritual. Laws in developed countries now ban the use of rendered ruminant proteins in ruminant feed as a precaution against the spread of prion infection in cattle and other ruminants.  There exists evidence that prion diseases may be transmissible by the airborne route.  Note that not all encephalopathies are caused by prions, as in the cases of PML (caused by the JC virus), CADASIL (caused by abnormal NOTCH3 protein activity), and Krabbe disease (caused by a deficiency of the enzyme galactosylceramidase). Progressive Spongiform Leukoencephalopathy (PSL)—which is a spongiform encephalopathy—is also probably not caused by a prion, although the adulterant that causes it among heroin smokers has not yet been identified. This, combined with the highly variable nature of prion disease pathology, is why a prion disease cannot be diagnosed based solely on a patient's symptoms.

Cause.

Genetics.

Mutations in the PRNP gene cause prion disease. Familial forms of prion disease are caused by inherited mutations in the PRNP gene. Only a small percentage of all cases of prion disease run in families, however. Most cases of prion disease are sporadic, which means they occur in people without any known risk factors or gene mutations. In rare circumstances, prion diseases also can be transmitted by exposure to prion-contaminated tissues or other biological materials obtained from individuals with prion disease.  The PRNP gene provides the instructions to make a protein called the prion protein (PrP). Under normal circumstances, this protein may be involved in transporting copper into cells. It may also be involved in protecting brain cells and helping them communicate. 24 Point-Mutations in this gene cause cells to produce an abnormal form of the prion protein, known as PrP. This abnormal protein builds up in the brain and destroys nerve cells, resulting in the signs and symptoms of prion disease.  Familial forms of prion disease are inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. In most cases, an affected person inherits the altered gene from one affected parent.  In some people, familial forms of prion disease are caused by a new mutation in the PRNP gene. Although such people most likely do not have an affected parent, they can pass the genetic change to their children.

Protein-only hypothesis.

Protein could be the infectious agent, inducing its own replication by causing conformational change of normal cellular PrP into PrP. Evidence for this theory:

Multi-component hypothesis.

While not containing a nucleic acid genome, prions may be composed of more than just a protein. Purified PrP appears unable to convert to the infectious PrP form, unless other components are added, such as RNA and lipids. These other components, termed cofactors, may form part of the infectious prion, or they may serve as catalysts for the replication of a protein-only prion.

"Spiroplasma" hypothesis.

There is some disputed evidence for the role of bacteria of the "Spiroplasma" genus in the etiology of TSEs, primarily due to the work of Frank Bastian. The fact that PrP cannot be detected in about 10% of cases of CWD, while Bastian claims to have successfully cultured "Spiroplasma spp." from the brains of 100% of deer with CWD and sheep with scrapie, which were able to spread the disease to other ruminants in the absence of PrP, has led him and others to suspect that "Spiroplasma" infection may be the genuine cause of TSEs. Under this hypothesis PrP would merely be an imperfect marker of infection (with both sensitivity and NPV <1) either induced by "Spiroplasma" directly or by a defence mechanism of the host.  Other researchers have found no evidence for the "Spiroplasma" hypothesis of TSE causation. Bastian however attributes the inability to find "Spiroplasma" in 100% of cases to genetic variability. Bastian also stated that the authors of the hamster study used different primers for their PCR than he did, which could result in a false negative.

Viral hypothesis.

This hypothesis postulates that an as of yet undiscovered infectious viral agent is the cause of the disease. Evidence for this hypothesis is as follows:

Diagnosis.

There continues to be a very practical problem with diagnosis of prion diseases, including BSE and CJD. They have an incubation period of months to decades during which there are no symptoms, even though the pathway of converting the normal brain PrP protein into the toxic, disease-related PrP form has started. At present, there is virtually no way to detect PrP reliably except by examining the brain using neuropathological and immunohistochemical methods after death. Accumulation of the abnormally folded PrP form of the PrP protein is a characteristic of the disease, but it is present at very low levels in easily accessible body fluids like blood or urine. Researchers have tried to develop methods to measure PrP, but there are still no fully accepted methods for use in materials such as blood.  In 2010, a team from New York described detection of PrP even when initially present at only one part in a hundred billion (10) in brain tissue. The method combines amplification with a novel technology called Surround Optical Fiber Immunoassay (SOFIA) and some specific antibodies against PrP. After amplifying and then concentrating any PrP, the samples are labelled with a fluorescent dye using an antibody for specificity and then finally loaded into a micro-capillary tube. This tube is placed in a specially constructed apparatus so that it is totally surrounded by optical fibres to capture all light emitted once the dye is excited using a laser. The technique allowed detection of PrP after many fewer cycles of conversion than others have achieved, substantially reducing the possibility of artefacts, as well as speeding up the assay. The researchers also tested their method on blood samples from apparently healthy sheep that went on to develop scrapie. The animals’ brains were analysed once any symptoms became apparent. The researchers could therefore compare results from brain tissue and blood taken once the animals exhibited symptoms of the diseases, with blood obtained earlier in the animals’ lives, and from uninfected animals. The results showed very clearly that PrP could be detected in the blood of animals long before the symptoms appeared.

Epidemiology.

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) are very rare but can reach epidemic proportions. It is very hard to map the spread of the disease due to the difficulty of identifying individual strains of the prions. This means that, if animals at one farm begin to show the disease after an outbreak on a nearby farm, it is very difficult to determine whether it is the same strain affecting both herds—suggesting transmission—or if the second outbreak came from a completely different source.  Classic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) was discovered in 1920. It occurs sporadically over the world but is very rare. It affects about one person per million each year. Typically, the cause is unknown for these cases. It has been found to be passed on genetically in some cases. 250 patients contracted the disease through iatrogenic transmission (from use of contaminated surgical equipment). This was before equipment sterilization was required in 1976, and there have been no other iatrogenic cases since then. In order to prevent the spread of infection, the World Health Organization created a guide to tell health care workers what to do when CJD appears and how to dispose of contaminated equipment. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have been keeping surveillance on CJD cases, particularly by looking at death certificate information.  Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a prion disease found in North America in deer and elk. The first case was identified as a fatal wasting syndrome in the 1960s. It was then recognized as a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy in 1978. Surveillance studies showed the endemic of CWD in free-ranging deer and elk spread in northeastern Colorado, southeastern Wyoming and western Nebraska. It was also discovered that CWD may have been present in a proportion of free-ranging animals decades before the initial recognition. In the United States, the discovery of CWD raised concerns about the transmission of this prion disease to humans. Many apparent cases of CJD were suspected transmission of CWD, however the evidence was lacking and not convincing.  In the 1980s and 1990s, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or "mad cow disease") spread in cattle at an epidemic rate. The total estimated number of cattle infected was approximately 750,000 between 1980 and 1996. This occurred because the cattle were fed processed remains of other cattle. Then human consumption of these infected cattle caused an outbreak of the human form CJD. There was a dramatic decline in BSE when feeding bans were put in place. On May 20, 2003, the first case of BSE was confirmed in North America. The source could not be clearly identified, but researchers suspect it came from imported BSE-infected cow meat. In the United States, the USDA created safeguards to minimize the risk of BSE exposure to humans.  Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) was discovered in 1996 in England. There is strong evidence to suggest that vCJD was caused by the same prion as bovine spongiform encephalopathy. A total of 231 cases of vCJD have been reported since it was first discovered. These cases have been found in a total of 12 countries with 178 in the United Kingdom, 27 in France, five in Spain, four in Ireland, four in the United States, three in the Netherlands, three in Italy, two in Portugal, two in Canada, and one each in Japan, Saudi Arabia, and Taiwan.

History.

In the 5th century BCE, Hippocrates described a disease like TSE in cattle and sheep, which he believed also occurred in man. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus records cases of a disease with similar characteristics in the 4th and 5th centuries AD. In 1755, an outbreak of scrapie was discussed in the British House of Commons and may have been present in Britain for some time before that. Although there were unsupported claims in 1759 that the disease was contagious, in general it was thought to be due to inbreeding and countermeasures appeared to be successful. Early-20th-century experiments failed to show transmission of scrapie between animals, until extraordinary measures were taken such as the intra-ocular injection of infected nervous tissue. No direct link between scrapie and disease in man was suspected then or has been found since. TSE was first described in man by Alfons Maria Jakob in the 1921. Daniel Carleton Gajdusek's discovery that Kuru was transmitted by cannibalism accompanied by the finding of scrapie-like lesions in the brains of Kuru victims strongly suggested an infectious basis to TSE. A paradigm shift to a non-nucleic infectious entity was required when the results were validated with an explanation of how a prion protein might transmit spongiform encephalopathy. Not until 1988 was the neuropathology of spongiform encephalopathy properly described in cows. The alarming amplification of BSE in the British cattle herd heightened fear of transmission to humans and reinforced the belief in the infectious nature of TSE. This was confirmed with the identification of a Kuru-like disease, called new variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, in humans exposed to BSE. Although the infectious disease model of TSE has been questioned in favour of a prion transplantation model that explains why cannibalism favours transmission, the search for a viral agent is being continued in some laboratories.

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are a group of progressive, invariably fatal, conditions that are associated with prions and affect the brain (encephalopathies) and nervous system of many animals, including humans, cattle, and sheep. According to the most widespread hypothesis, they are transmitted by prions, though some other data suggest an involvement of a "Spiroplasma" infection. Mental and physical abilities deteriorate and many tiny holes appear in the cortex causing it to appear like a sponge when brain tissue obtained at autopsy is examined under a microscope. The disorders cause impairment of brain function, including memory changes, personality changes and problems with movement that worsen chronically.

Transmisivní spongiformní encefalopatie (TSE), neboli prionové choroby, jsou vzácná neurodegenerativní onemocnění lidí i zvířat, způsobená nahromaděním patologicky změněného, proti účinkům proteolytických enzymů odolného proteinu, tzv. prionu, v mozkové tkáni. Mají velmi dlouhou inkubační dobu, pak se projevují progresivními poruchami CNS a vždy končí smrtí postiženého jedince.


History.

Sumy was founded by Cossack Herasym Kondratyev from Stavyshche, Bila Tserkva Regiment on the bank of the Psel River, a tributary of the Dnieper. The date of its foundation is a subject of discussion (in 1652 or 1655). In 1656–58 at the site of Sumyn early settlement under leadership of Muscovite voivode K. Arsenyev, there was built a city-fort that consisted of a fort and a grad (town). In the 1670s it was expanded by adding a fortified posad (craftsmen town), after which Sumy became the biggest fortress of Sloboda Ukraine. Since 1658 Sumy was a center of the Sumy Cossack Regiment (military unit and local administrative division). In the 1680s around Sumy started to form unfortified suburbs.  At the end of 17th century, Sumy played a role of collection point of Muscovite troops during the Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689. During the Great Northern War, from December 1708 to January 1709 the city was the Stavka (headquarters) of Muscovite Chief of Commander headed by Tsar Peter the Great. Established under the leadership of Prince A.Shakhovskoy, in 1734–43 in Sumy was located the Commission on streamlining the Sloboda Cossack regiments. From its establishment and until the liquidation of Cossackdom in Sloboda Ukraine in 1765, the Cossack officer family of Kondratyevs had a great influence over the city.  Following the liquidation of Cossack community in 1765, Sumy Cossack Regiment as an administrative division was turned into Sumy Province of the newly created Sloboda Ukraine Governorate and the city of Sumy became its center. In 1780 Sumy was turned into a centre of Sumy uyezd. In 1786-89 the city was reformed by removing its city fort vallums. After a period of stagnation (1765–1860s), Sumy began to transform into a big industrial and trade center with the Paul's Sugar-Refining Factory (est. 1869 by I.Kharytonenko) and the Sumy Engineering Workshops (est. 1896, producing equipment for sugar refineries). With the construction of a railroad Vorozhba – Merefa, in January 1877 in the city was built the Sumy train station. A great contribution in development of Sumy made various families of philanthropists industrialists, the most famous of which are Kharytonenkos.  During the Revolution of 1905, Sumy was one of several areas which became famous throughout Russia for in effect having established an independent peasant republic; the Sumy Republic was established by a peasant union.  During the German occupation of Ukraine during World War II (1941–1944), Sumy sustained heavy damage and was occupied from October 10, 1941 to September 2, 1943. After the war, the destroyed parts of the city were rebuilt. Sumy has been a twin town of Celle, Germany since January 17, 1990.

Geography.

Sumy is located in the northeastern part of Ukraine within the Central Russian Upland and in the historical region of Sloboda Ukraine. It is located on the banks of Psel River.  Due to its relatively close location, the city's weather is similar to Kharkiv. Sumy's climate is a humid continental one: cold and snowy winters, and hot summers. The seasonal average temperatures are not too cold in winter, not too hot in summer: in January, and in July. The average rainfall totals per year, with the most in June and July.

Government.

Sumy is a city of oblast significance which makes a separate subdivision within the Sumy Oblast. Sumy is also an administrative center of Sumy Raion which surrounds the city.  The city used to be divided into two urban "raions" (districts), Zarichny and Kovpakovsky, and 13 "micro-raions". Since 2006, the subdivision into urban districts is not in effect.  The city municipality also includes several adjacent villages including Verkhnie Pishchane, Zhyteiske, Zahirske, Kyryiakivshchyna, Pishchane, and Trokhymenkove.

Demographics.

The majority of residents are Christians (Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholics and Protestant or Evangelical Christians). There is also a Jewish minority.  From the beginning of the twentieth century, Sumy was the center of Roman Catholicism in northeastern Ukraine. The Blessed Virgin Mary Annunciation Church was established in the city in 1901 and consecrated in 1911, but closed by governmental authorities two decades later; the churchhouse was thereafter used for non-religious purposes (e.g., it was used as a gym for Oleksandrivska Gymnasia) until its restoration as a Roman Catholic parish in May 1994, after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. It was reconsecrated in the Spring of 1998.

Population.

According to the census held in 1660 year the population of Sumy was 2740 people. In 1732 year it was 7700 people, in 1773 year — 9380 people, in 1850 year — 10,256 people, in 1898 year — 26,355 people.  During the soviet times the population grew significantly. In 1939 it reached 63,9 thousand people. In 1959 year it was 98 015 people, in 1970 year — 159 thousand people, in 1975 year — 194 thousand people, in 1989 year — 291,264 people, in 1991 year — 303,3 thousand people.  According to the Ukrainian Census held in 2001 year the population of Sumy was 292,139 people. By January 1, 2013 it decreased to 269,177 people. At January 1, 2016 the population was 267,633 people.

Arts and culture.

Museums.

The Sumy Regional Art Museum was opened in 1920. It was started from nationalized private collections of the town and district. Paintings of Taras Shevchenko, Vladimir Borovikovsky, I. Shyskin, Arkhip Kuindzhi and Tetyana Yablonska are on display, including a Dutch landscape by a painter of Jan van Goyen's circle. Today the museum contains unique paintings and works of applied art. The building of the early 20th century originally belonged to the State Bank.  The Museum of Local Lore was opened in 1920. In the years of fascist occupation, the most important items of its collections were lost. Today it contains unique collections covering archeology and natural history of the Sumy region. It is located in the building of the 19th century which originally was the seat of the district government. In 1905 it was given to the printing house and publishing house of the first Sumy newspapers. In different years the building was visited by A. Kuprin and V. Korolenko, the famous Russian writers.  The Chekhov Museum, located in Chekhov street is an architectural complex representing Lintvarev's country estate of the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1888 and 1889 a great writer and dramatist Anton Chekhov was dreaming to settle in Luka forever but his dream did not come true. “Abbacia and the Adriatic Sea are wonderful, but Luka and Psiol are better” – he wrote in his letter from Italy to his friends in Sumy in 1894. This is also a place where Anton Chekhov's brother, Nikolai Chekhov, died in 1889.  The Museum of Banking history in the Sumy oblast and the History of Ukrainian Money was founded in 2006 to commemorate the 10th anniversary of the Ukrainian Academy of Banking on the basis of a unique collection of Ukrainian bonds – the paper money out of circulation, which were given to the academy by the National Bank of Ukraine. The exposition of the bonds is arranged in the thematic-chronological order - from the first appearance of money to the present day. In addition to the numerous historical documents, photographs, metal money (coins, souvenir bars), and commemorative medals of the National Bank of Ukraine, there is an exhibition presenting technical appliances used in the banking industry in the late 20th century.

Sports.

The field hockey club Sumchanka is 12 times a champion of Ukraine and a champion of Europe.  Sumy is home to the Ukrainian First League football team FC Sumy.  The Ukrainian Premier League football club FC Kharkiv were leasing the city's state-of-the-art Yuvileiny Stadium.  The Yuvileiny Stadium, formerly known as Spartak, was planned to be renovated just before dissolution of the Soviet Union and in 1989 was demolished to be built anew. It was not until 1998 when the actual construction was resumed and finally finished in 2002.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Sumy is twinned with:

Sumy ( ; ) is a city in north-eastern Ukraine, and the capital of Sumy Oblast (region). Sumy also serves as the administrative center of Sumy Raion of Sumy oblast. Sumy is administratively incorporated as a city of oblast significance and does not belong to the raion. As of 2019 its population is estimated at 265,140.

Sumy (, ) je hlavní město Sumské oblasti na severovýchodní Ukrajině. Leží na řece Psel, levém přítoku Dněpru, nedaleko od hranic s Ruskem. Prochází tudy železniční magistrála Konotop – Charkov. Žije zde 280 000 obyvatel (2006).


Development.

Rowling came up with the sport in a Manchester hotel room after a row with her then-boyfriend. She explained: "I had been pondering the things that hold a society together, cause it to congregate and signify its particular character and knew I needed a sport." Rowling claims that the word "Quidditch" is not derived from any particular etymological root, but was the result of filling five pages of a notebook with different words beginning with "Q".  Despite the sport's popularity with fans, Rowling grew to dislike describing the matches. She commented in an interview:  The final Quidditch scene in the books appears in "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince". Rowling experienced "fiendish glee" writing this scene, which features memorable commentary by Luna Lovegood.  In 2014 Rowling started publishing a series of match reports from the Quidditch World Cup on Pottermore, culminating in a short story about the final featuring the return of Harry, Ron, Hermione and their friends as adults. This generated interest from several media outlets, as it was the first new writing about the "Harry Potter" characters since the end of the series in 2007.  Quidditch is introduced in "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", and is a regularly recurring feature throughout the first six books. It is depicted as being played by both professionals (as in tournaments like the Quidditch World Cup) and amateurs. A major motif of five of the "Harry Potter" books is the competition among the four Hogwarts houses for the Quidditch Cup each school year; in particular, the rivalry between Gryffindor and Slytherin.

Game progression.

Quidditch matches are played over an oval-shaped pitch, with a scoring area at each end consisting of three hooped goal posts, each at a different height. Each team is made up of seven players, consisting of three Chasers, two Beaters, one Keeper and one Seeker. The job of the Chasers is to keep possession of the scarlet Quaffle, a leather ball passed between players. They must attempt to score goals (worth 10 points) by throwing it through one of the opponents' three hoops. These hoops are defended by the opposing team's Keeper, who ideally tries to block their goals. Meanwhile, players of both teams are attacked indiscriminately by the two Bludgers. These are round, jet-black balls made of iron that fly around violently trying to knock players off their brooms. It is the Beaters' job to defend their teammates from the Bludgers; they carry short wooden clubs, which they use to knock the Bludgers away from their teammates and/or toward the opposing team. Finally, the role of the Seeker is to catch the Golden Snitch. This is a small golden ball the approximate size of a walnut. The winged Snitch is enchanted to hover, dart, and fly around the pitch, avoiding capture while remaining within the boundaries of the playing area. Catching the Snitch ends the game and scores the successful Seeker's team 150 points. As the team with the most points wins, this often guarantees victory for the successful Seeker's team. A notable exception is when Bulgaria Seeker Viktor Krum catches the Snitch for Bulgaria during the World Cup Final in "Goblet of Fire", while his team are still 160 points behind Ireland (their opponents), thus making his own team lose by only 10 points.

Broomsticks.

Magical flying broomsticks are one of the forms of transportation for wizards and witches, as well as being used for playing Quidditch. The three most prominent broomsticks in the books are the Nimbus 2000, Nimbus 2001, and the Firebolt, both of which have been produced as merchandise by Warner Bros.  The Nimbus is introduced as one of the best broomsticks in the wizarding world. Harry receives a Nimbus 2000 in "Philosopher's Stone" so that he can play for Gryffindor house. Lucius Malfoy buys a full set of the more advanced Nimbus 2001s for the Slytherin team as a bribe, so they would choose his son Draco as Seeker the following year.  The Firebolt later supersedes the Nimbus as the fastest and one of the most expensive racing brooms in existence. Harry receives a Firebolt model from his godfather, Sirius Black, after his Nimbus 2000 is destroyed during a Quidditch match in "Prisoner of Azkaban". In "Goblet of Fire", Harry uses his Firebolt to escape the Hungarian Horntail (a dragon) during the Triwizard Tournament.

Films and video games.

Quidditch appears in five of the eight "Harry Potter" films. Some Quidditch subplots, such as Ron's Keeper storyline in "Order of the Phoenix", were cut to save time in the films. Video games that feature Quidditch include:  In the Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey attraction in the Wizarding World of Harry Potter at the Islands of Adventure theme park, Quidditch is featured near the end where riders are flown through the Quidditch pitch. A storefront near Ollivanders Wand Shop is themed as a Quidditch supply with a Golden Snitch on the sign and a case containing animated Quaffle and Bludgers surrounded by Beaters' bats.

Reception.

According to David K. Steege, the books "follow very closely the school story tradition of making games and sports central to the boarding school experience; some of the most vivid and popular scenes in the series take place on the playing field." However, some critics have claimed that Rowling's presentation of Quidditch reinforces gender inequality. For example, Heilman and Donaldson argue that the female players ultimately have little impact on the outcome of the game, and it has also been noted that the female players on the Gryffindor Quidditch team have very few lines. This view has been disputed by Mimi R. Gladstein, who points to the presence of female players on the victorious Irish team at the Quidditch World Cup. She argues: "The inclusion of female Quidditch players at the highest level of the sport is done without a trace of self-consciousness and their inclusion isn't an issue within the minds of the characters." On the other hand, D. Bruno Starrs notes Quidditch's rarity as a sport in which males and females compete against each other, and describes it as "levelling" the genders. Quidditch has been criticised for its emphasis on catching the Snitch. Rowling claims that Quidditch is a sport that "infuriates" men in particular, who are bothered by the unrealistic scoring system.

Non-fictional Quidditch.

In the real world, the word "Quidditch", long predating "Harry Potter", occurs in some English placenames, and seems to come from Anglo-Saxon "cwǣð-dīc" = "mud-ditch".  A street in Lower Cambourne, Cambridgeshire, England is named Quidditch Lane, supposedly after a type of nearby dry ditch called a Quidditch. Fans have been known to visit the area.  In November 2014, a plaque appeared outside the entrance of Bristol Children's Hospital attesting that the famous hooped sculptures which stand in front of the paediatric institution are, in fact, not a interactive installation inaugurated in 2001, but instead the goalposts used in the 1998 Quidditch World Cup.  In 2017, "Quidditch" was defined by Oxford Dictionaries, following the inclusion of "Muggle" in the Third (2003) Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford Dictionaries associate editor Charlotte Buxton explained that Quidditch had gained recognition beyond the books, pointing to its existence as a real-life sport.

As a real-life sport.

In 2007 the United States Quidditch Association, back then named the Intercollegiate Quidditch Association or (I.Q.A), was founded to regulate quidditch in the United States and abroad, a very popular sport amongst college students. According to the International Quidditch Association, the current international governing body of the sport, the original rules and regulation of the popular collegiate sport known as quidditch were formed ".... on a sunny Sunday afternoon in 2005 by Xander Manshel and Alex Benepe, students at Middlebury College in Vermont, US". In contrast to the fictional sport, the game is played on foot while using one hand to hold a broom between the legs.  Since 2005, many American schools, such as UC Berkeley, have added Quidditch to their list of team sports. In the United States, college teams compete in their respective regions and compete in an annual national tournament, last year held in Texas and won by The University of Texas over runner-ups, The University of California, Berkeley (Cal Quidditch). The sport has since then spread across more than 25 countries and includes multiple international tournaments, including a World Cup. In 2012, the International Quidditch Association held the IQA World Cup, then named the IQA Summer Games, as the torch was passing through Oxford, UK for the Summer Olympics.  Gameplay is based on the description in the books, films, and game adaptations, though the sport has been adapted to suit real-world constraints. Quidditch is still evolving to suit safe play for the members of the teams, male and female. Apart from joining teams registered with their national governing body, individuals are also able to become an official certified referee to officiate tournaments and games throughout the year as teams compete to take part in various national and international tournaments. As the oldest national governing body, USQ has hosted a grand total of ten US Quidditch Cups as of 2017.  In the United Kingdom, the Quidditch Premier League is played between 10 teams, split between the North and South divisions. In 2017, West Midlands Revolution won the QPL.  Real life Quidditch is featured in the movie "The Internship".

Quidditch is a fictional sport invented by author J. K. Rowling for her fantasy book series "Harry Potter". It is a dangerous but popular sport played by witches and wizards riding flying broomsticks.

Famfrpál, v originále Quidditch, je kouzelnický sport z knih o Harry Potterovi od J. K. Rowlingové. Hraje se na létajících košťatech. Každý tým má sedm hráčů: 3 střelci, 2 odrážeči, 1 brankář a 1 chytač.


Characteristics.

Typically, Ponzi schemes require an initial investment and promise above average returns. They use vague verbal guises such as "hedge futures trading", "high-yield investment programs", or "offshore investment" to describe their income strategy. It is common for the operator to take advantage of a lack of investor knowledge or competence, or sometimes claim to use a proprietary, secret investment strategy to avoid giving information about the scheme.  The basic premise of a Ponzi scheme is "to rob Peter to pay Paul". Initially, the operator pays high returns to attract investors and entice current investors to invest more money. When other investors begin to participate, a cascade effect begins. The schemer pays a "return" to initial investors from the investments of new participants, rather than from genuine profits.  Often, high returns encourage investors to leave their money in the scheme, so that the operator does not actually have to pay very much to investors. The operator simply sends statements showing how much they have earned, which maintains the deception that the scheme is an investment with high returns. Investors within a Ponzi scheme may even face difficulties when trying to get their money out of the investment.  Operators also try to minimize withdrawals by offering new plans to investors where money cannot be withdrawn for a certain period of time in exchange for higher returns. The operator sees new cash flows as investors cannot transfer money. If a few investors do wish to withdraw their money in accordance with the terms allowed, their requests are usually promptly processed, which gives the illusion to all other investors that the fund is solvent and financially sound.  Ponzi schemes sometimes begin as legitimate investment vehicles, such as hedge funds that can easily degenerate into a Ponzi-type scheme if they unexpectedly lose money or fail to legitimately earn the returns expected. The operators fabricate false returns or produce fraudulent audit reports instead of admitting their failure to meet expectations, and the operation is then considered a Ponzi scheme.  A wide variety of investment vehicles and strategies, typically legitimate, have become the basis of Ponzi schemes. For instance, Allen Stanford used bank certificates of deposit to defraud tens of thousands of people. Certificates of deposit are usually low-risk and insured instruments, but the Stanford certificates of deposit were fraudulent.

Red flags.

According to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), many Ponzi schemes share similar characteristics that should be "red flags" for investors. The warning signs include:

Unraveling of a Ponzi scheme.

Individuals can halt a Ponzi scheme before its collapse by reporting to the SEC. Under the SEC Whistleblower Program, individuals can receive monetary awards for reporting violations of the federal securities laws, including information about Ponzi schemes, if their information leads to a successful SEC enforcement action in which over $1,000,000 in sanctions is ordered. To report a Ponzi scheme and qualify for an award under the program, the SEC requires that whistleblowers or their attorneys report the tip online through the SEC’s Tip, Complaint or Referral Portal or mail/fax a Form TCR to the SEC Office of the Whistleblower.  Theoretically it is not impossible at least for certain entities operating as Ponzi scheme to ultimately "succeed" financially, at least so long as a Ponzi scheme was not what the promoters were initially intending to operate. For example, a failing hedge fund reporting fraudulent returns could conceivably "make good" its reported numbers, for example by making a successful high-risk investment. Moreover if the operators of such a scheme are facing the likelihood of imminent collapse accompanied by criminal charges, they may see little additional "risk" to themselves in attempting cover their tracks by engaging in further illegal acts to try and make good the shortfall (for example, by engaging in insider trading). Especially with lightly-regulated and monitored investment vehicles like hedge funds, in the absence of a whistleblower and/or accompanying illegal acts any fraudulent content in reports is often difficult to detect unless and until the investment vehicles ultimately collapses.  Typically, however, if a Ponzi scheme is not stopped by authorities it usually falls apart for one or more of the following reasons:  Actual losses are extremely difficult to calculate. The amounts that investors thought they had were never attainable in the first place. The wide gap between "money in" and "fictitious gains" make it virtually impossible to know how much was lost in any Ponzi scheme.

Similar schemes.

A pyramid scheme is a form of fraud similar in some ways to a Ponzi scheme, relying as it does on a mistaken belief in a nonexistent financial reality, including the hope of an extremely high rate of return. However, several characteristics distinguish these schemes from Ponzi schemes:  Cryptocurrencies have been employed by scammers attempting a new generation of Ponzi schemes. For example, misuse of initial coin offerings, or "ICOs," on the Ethereum blockchain platform have been one such method, known as ""smart Ponzis"" per the "Financial Times". The novelty of ICOs means that there is currently a lack of regulatory clarity on the classification of these financial devices, allowing scammers wide leeway to develop Ponzi schemes using these assets.  Economic bubbles are also similar to a Ponzi scheme in that one participant gets paid by contributions from a subsequent participant until inevitable collapse. A bubble involves ever-rising prices in an open market (for example stock, housing, cryptocurrency, or tulip bulbs) where prices rise because buyers bid more, and buyers bid more because prices are rising. Bubbles are often said to be based on the "greater fool" theory. As with the Ponzi scheme, the price exceeds the intrinsic value of the item, but unlike the Ponzi scheme:  A Ponzi scheme which ultimately terminates with the operator absconding is similar to an exit scam. The main difference is that an exit scam does not involve any sort of investment vehicle with the accompanying promised returns. Instead, exit scammers either accept payment for product which they never ship (usually after gaining a reputation for reliably shipping product) or steal funds held in escrow on behalf of third parties (the latter often involves the operators of illegal darknet markets that facilitate the sale of illicit goods and/or services).

Society and culture.

Weightlifters frequently use the term "Ponzi" in reference to a scheme of strength training in which athletes perform exercises with progressively less weight (also known as drop-sets) to maximize muscle tension. Such exercises are intended to invoke imagery of a pyramid, as the weightlifter gradually reduces the size of their weight stack in the same way that a pyramid grows upwards. This usage of Ponzi conflates the term with a pyramid scheme, a related form of fraud.

A Ponzi scheme (, ; also a Ponzi game) is a form of fraud that lures investors and pays profits to earlier investors with funds from more recent investors. The scheme leads victims to believe that profits are coming from product sales or other means, and they remain unaware that other investors are the source of funds. A Ponzi scheme can maintain the illusion of a sustainable business as long as new investors contribute new funds, and as long as most of the investors do not demand full repayment and still believe in the non-existent assets they are purported to own.

Výraz Ponziho schéma vznikl podle Charlese Ponziho. Je to označení pro podvodné investiční operace, kde investoři svěřují provozovateli fondu peníze za účelem jejich zúročení, avšak provozovatel tyto peníze dále neinvestuje, a namísto toho pouze vyplácí prostředky fondu jen některým investorům. A to většinou těm, kteří investovali dříve. Tento systém může omezeně fungovat dokud přicházejí noví investoři a prostředky se dají vyplácet ostatním. Když už ve fondu nezbudou žádné peníze na vyplácení, fond zkrachuje a vyplaceni tak jsou jen někteří investoři, zatímco ostatní nedostanou nic.


History and development.

Foundation.

The service derived from the Secret Service Bureau, which was founded on 1 October 1909. The Bureau was a joint initiative of the Admiralty and the War Office to control secret intelligence operations in the UK and overseas, particularly concentrating on the activities of the Imperial German government. The bureau was split into naval and army sections which, over time, specialised in foreign espionage and internal counter-espionage activities, respectively.

First World War.

The service's performance during the First World War was mixed, because it was unable to establish

Inter-War period.

After the war, resources were significantly reduced but during the 1920s, SIS established a close operational relationship with the diplomatic service. In August 1919, Cumming created the new passport control department, providing diplomatic cover for agents abroad. The post of "Passport Control Officer" provided operatives with diplomatic immunity.  Circulating Sections established intelligence requirements and passed the intelligence back to its consumer departments, mainly the War Office and Admiralty.  The debate over the future structure of British Intelligence continued at

Second World War.

During the Second World War the human intelligence work of the service was complemented by several other initiatives:  GC&CS was the source of Ultra intelligence, which was very useful.  The chief of SIS, Stewart Menzies, insisted on wartime control of codebreaking, and this gave him immense power and influence, which he used judiciously. By distributing the Ultra material collected by the Government Code & Cypher School, for the first time, MI6 became an important branch of the government. Extensive breaches of Nazi Enigma signals gave Menzies and his team enormous insight into Adolf Hitler's strategy, and this was kept a closely held secret.  The British intelligence services signed a special agreement

Cold War.

In August 1945 Soviet intelligence officer Konstantin Volkov tried to defect to the UK, offering the names of all Soviet agents working inside British intelligence. Philby received the memo on Volkov's offer and alerted the Soviets, so they could arrest him. In 1946, SIS absorbed the "rump" remnant of the Special Operations Executive (SOE), dispersing the latter's personnel and equipment between its operational divisions or "controllerates" and new Directorates for Training and Development and for War Planning. The 1921 arrangement was streamlined with the geographical, operational units redesignated "Production Sections", sorted regionally under Controllers, all under a Director of Production. The Circulating Sections were renamed "Requirements Sections" and placed under a Directorate of Requirements. SIS operations

After the Cold War.

The end of the Cold War led to a reshuffle of existing priorities. The Soviet Bloc ceased to swallow the lion's share of operational priorities, although the stability and intentions of a weakened but still nuclear-capable Federal Russia constituted a significant concern. Instead, functional rather than geographical intelligence requirements came to the fore such as counter-proliferation (via the agency's Production and Targeting, Counter-Proliferation Section) which had been a sphere of activity since the discovery of Pakistani physics students studying nuclear-weapons related subjects in 1974; counter-terrorism (via two joint sections run in collaboration with the Security Service, one for Irish republicanism and one

War on Terror.

During the Global War on Terror, SIS accepted information from the CIA that was obtained through torture, including the extraordinary rendition programme. Craig Murray, a UK ambassador to Uzbekistan, had written several memos critical of the UK's acceptance of this information; he was then sacked from his job.  Following the September 11 attacks, on 28 September the British Foreign Secretary approved the deployment of MI6 officers to Afghanistan and the wider region, utilising people involved with the mujahadeen in the 1980s and who had language skills and regional expertise. At the end of the month, a handful of MI6 officers with a budget of $7 million landed in northeast Afghanistan, where they met with General Mohammed Fahim of the Northern Alliance and began working with other contacts in the north and south to build alliances, secure support, and to bribe as many Taliban commanders as they could to change sides or leave the fight.  During the United States invasion of Afghanistan, the SIS established a presence in Kabul following its fall to the coalition. MI6 members and the British Special Boat Service took part in the Battle of Tora Bora. After members of the 22nd Special Air Service

Other activities.

On 6 May 2004 it was announced that Sir Richard Dearlove was to be replaced as head of SIS by John Scarlett, former chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee. Scarlett was an unusually high-profile appointment to the job, and gave evidence at the Hutton Inquiry.  SIS has been active in the Balkans, playing a vital role in hunting down people wanted by the International War Crimes Tribunal in The Hague. British intelligence operations in the Balkans are thought to have played a vital role in the handover of the former Yugoslav president Slobodan Milošević to The Hague; SIS has also been heavily involved in the hunt for Radovan Karadžić and General Ratko Mladic, who are linked to a vast range of war crimes including the murder of Srebrenica's surrendering male population and organising the Siege of Sarajevo.  On 27 September 2004, it was reported that British spies across the Balkans, including a SIS was chief officer in Belgrade and another spy in Sarajevo, were moved or forced to withdraw after they were publicly identified in a number of media reports planted by disgruntled local intelligence services – particularly in Croatia and Serbia. A third individual was branded a British spy in the Balkans and left the office of the High Representative in Bosnia, whilst a further two British intelligence officers

Buildings.

SIS headquarters.

Since 1995, SIS headquarters has been at 85 Vauxhall Cross, along the Albert Embankment in Vauxhall on the south bank of the River Thames by Vauxhall Bridge, London. Previous headquarters have been Century House, 100 Westminster Bridge Road, Lambeth (1966–1995), 54 Broadway, off Victoria Street, London (1924–1966) and 2 Whitehall Court (1911–1922). Although SIS operated from Broadway, it made considerable use of the adjoining St. Ermin's Hotel.  The building was designed by Sir Terry Farrell and built by John Laing. The developer Regalian Properties approached the government in 1987 to see if they had any interest in the proposed building. At the same time, MI5 was seeking alternative accommodation and co-location of the two services was studied. In the end this proposal was abandoned due to the lack of buildings of adequate size (existing or proposed) and the security considerations of providing a single target for attacks. In December 1987, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's government approved the purchase of the new building for SIS.  The building design was reviewed to incorporate the necessary protection for the UK's foreign intelligence gathering agency. This includes overall increased security, extensive computer suites, technical areas, bomb blast protection, emergency back-up systems and protection against electronic eavesdropping. While the details and cost of

Other buildings.

Most other buildings are held or

The Circus.

MI6 is nicknamed "The Circus". Some say this was coined by John le Carré (former SIS officer David Cornwell) in his espionage novels and named after a fictional building on Cambridge

The Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), commonly known as MI6, is the foreign intelligence service of the government of the United Kingdom, tasked mainly with the covert overseas collection and analysis of human intelligence (HUMINT) in support of the UK's national security. SIS is a member of the country's intelligence community and its Chief is accountable to the country's Foreign Secretary.

Secret Intelligence Service (SIS, neoficiálně také MI6, Military Intelligence, Section 6) je britská tajná služba (rozvědka). Byla založena v roce 1909 a jejím úkolem je provádět zahraniční špionáž.


Details of design.

The turbine consists of a cylindrical water wheel or runner with a horizontal shaft, composed of numerous blades (up to 37), arranged radially and tangentially. The blade's edges are sharpened to reduce resistance to the flow of water. A blade is made in a part-circular cross-section (pipe cut over its whole length). The ends of the blades are welded to disks to form a cage like a hamster cage and are sometimes called "squirrel cage turbines"; instead of the bars, the turbine has the trough-shaped steel blades.  The water flows first from the outside of the turbine to its inside. The regulating unit, shaped like a vane or tongue, varies the cross-section of the flow. The water jet is directed towards the cylindrical runner by nozzle. The water enters the runner at an angle of about 45/120 degrees,transmitting some of the water's kinetic energy to the active cylindrical blades. The regulating device controls the flow based on the power needed, and the available water. The ratio is that (0–100%) of the water is admitted to 0-100%×30/4 blades. Water admission to the two nozzles is throttled by two shaped guide vanes. These divide and direct the flow so that the water enters the runner smoothly for any width of opening. The guide vanes should seal to the edges of the turbine casing so that when the water is low, they can shut off the water supply. The guide vanes therefore act as the valves between the penstock and turbine. Both guide vanes can be set by control levers, to which an automatic or manual control may be connected.  The turbine geometry (nozzle-runner-shaft) assures that the water jet is effective. The water acts on the runner twice, but most of the power is transferred on the first pass, when the water enters the runner. Only 1⁄3 of the power is transferred to the runner when the water is leaving the turbine.  The water flows through the blade channels in two directions: outside to inside, and inside to outside. Most turbines are run with two jets, arranged so two water jets in the runner will not affect each other. It is, however, essential that the turbine, head and turbine speed are harmonised.  The cross-flow turbine is of the impulse type, so the pressure remains constant at the runner.

Advantages.

The peak efficiency of a cross-flow turbine is somewhat less than a Kaplan, Francis or Pelton turbine. However, the cross-flow turbine has a flat efficiency curve under varying load. With a split runner and turbine chamber, the turbine maintains its efficiency while the flow and load vary from 1/6 to the maximum.  Since it has a low price, and good regulation, cross-flow turbines are mostly used in mini and micro hydropower units of less than two thousand kW and with heads less than 200 m.  Particularly with small run-of-the-river plants, the flat efficiency curve yields better annual performance than other turbine systems, as small rivers' water is usually lower in some months. The efficiency of a turbine determines whether electricity is produced during the periods when rivers have low flows. If the turbines used have high peak efficiencies, but behave poorly at partial load, less annual performance is obtained than with turbines that have a flat efficiency curve.  Due to its excellent behaviour with partial loads, the cross-flow turbine is well-suited to unattended electricity production. Its simple construction makes it easier to maintain than other turbine types; only two bearings must be maintained, and there are only three rotating elements. The mechanical system is simple, so repairs can be performed by local mechanics.  Another advantage is that it can often clean itself. As the water leaves the runner, leaves, grass etc. will not remain in the runner, preventing losses. Therefore, although the turbine's efficiency is somewhat lower, it is more reliable than other types. No runner cleaning is normally necessary, e.g. by flow inversion or variations of the speed. Other turbine types are clogged more easily, and consequently face power losses despite higher nominal efficiencies.

A cross-flow turbine, Bánki-Michell turbine, or Ossberger turbine is a water turbine developed by the Australian Anthony Michell, the Hungarian Donát Bánki and the German Fritz Ossberger. Michell obtained patents for his turbine design in 1903, and the manufacturing company Weymouth made it for many years. Ossberger's first patent was granted in 1933 ("Free Jet Turbine" 1922, Imperial Patent No. 361593 and the "Cross Flow Turbine" 1933, Imperial Patent No. 615445), and he manufactured this turbine as a standard product. Today, the company founded by Ossberger is the leading manufacturer of this type of turbine.

Bánkiho turbína je jednoduchá rovnotlaká vodní turbína. Zvláštností je, že lopatky oběžného kola jsou obtékány ve dvou směrech. Vynalezl ji Donát Bánki v roce 1917. Používá se v malých vodních elektrárnách.


Plot.

Neo and Bane lie unconscious in the medical bay of the ship "Hammer". Inside the Matrix, Neo is trapped in a subway station named Mobil Ave (an anagram for limbo), a transition zone between the Matrix and the Machine City. He meets a "family" of programs, including a girl named Sati. The "father" tells Neo the subway is controlled by the Trainman, a program loyal to the Merovingian. When Neo tries to board a train with the family, the Trainman refuses and overpowers him.  Seraph contacts Morpheus and Trinity on behalf of the Oracle, who informs them of Neo's confinement. Seraph, Morpheus and Trinity enter Club Hel, where they confront the Merovingian and force him to release Neo. Troubled by visions of the Machine City, Neo visits the Oracle, who reveals that Smith intends to destroy both the Matrix and the real world. She states that "everything that has a beginning has an end," and that the war will conclude. After Neo leaves, a large group of Smiths assimilates Sati and Seraph. The Oracle accepts her assimilation & the Smiths gain her powers of precognition, but it is not clear if she has actually been lost forever in the process.  In the real world, the crews of the "Nebuchadnezzar" and the "Hammer" find and reactivate Niobe's ship, the "Logos". They interrogate Bane, who says that he has no recollection of the earlier massacre. As the captains plan their defense of Zion, Neo requests a ship to travel to the Machine City. Motivated by her encounter with the Oracle, Niobe offers him the "Logos". Neo departs, accompanied by Trinity. Bane, who has stowed away on the "Logos", takes Trinity hostage. Neo realizes that Bane has been assimilated by Smith and a fight ensues. Bane burns Neo's eyes with a power cable, permanently blinding him. Neo, discovering an ability to perceive anything part of the machine source code in the real world as wreathed in golden light, sees and kills Bane. Trinity pilots them to the Machine City.  Niobe and Morpheus rush toward Zion in the "Hammer" to aid the human defenses. Zion's shipyard is overwhelmed by a horde of Sentinels, and the fatally wounded Captain Mifune instructs Kid to open the gate for the "Hammer". When it arrives, it discharges its EMP, disabling all the Sentinels present but also Zion's remaining defenses. The humans are forced to retreat and wait for the next attack, thinking it will be their last stand.  Near the Machine City, the "Logos" is bombarded by thousands of missiles, causing it to crash, fatally wounding Trinity. Neo enters the Machine City and encounters "Deus Ex Machina," the machine leader. Neo warns that Smith plans to conquer both the Matrix and the real world and offers to stop Smith in exchange for peace with Zion. The machine leader agrees, and the Sentinels stop attacking Zion.  The Machines provide a connection for Neo to enter the Matrix. Inside, the Smith with the Oracle's powers steps forth, saying that he has foreseen his victory against Neo. After a protracted battle, Neo realizes there is no other way to win and allows himself to be assimilated. The machine leader sends a surge of energy into Neo's body in the real world. Because Neo is connected to the Source, the energy surge causes the Neo-Smith clone and all other Smith clones in the Matrix to be destroyed, deleting Smith once and for all. The Sentinels withdraw from Zion, Morpheus and Niobe embrace, and Neo sees a final vision of the machine city while succumbing to his injuries, as his body is carried away by the machines.  The Matrix is rebooted, and the Architect encounters the Oracle in a park. They agree that the peace will last "as long as it can" and that those humans who desire it will be offered the opportunity to leave the Matrix. When questioned about Neo's fate, the Oracle tells Sati that she thinks they will see Neo again as Sati reveals she created a beautiful sunrise over the horizon in Neo's honor. Seraph asks the Oracle if she knew this would happen. She replies that she did not know, but she believed.

Cast.

Actress Gloria Foster, who played the Oracle in the first and second films, died before the completion of her filming for the third. She was replaced by actress Mary Alice. Her changed appearance is addressed in the film's plot.

Production.

The film's budget was estimated between US$110 million and $150 million.  Filming occurred concurrently with its predecessor, "The Matrix Reloaded", and live-action sequences for the video game "Enter the Matrix". This took place primarily at Fox Studios in Sydney, Australia. Most notably, the subway scenes were filmed at the disused tunnels of St James railway station, and the end sequence with the Oracle and the Architect was filmed in the Royal Botanic Garden. Carrie-Anne Moss broke her leg during the shooting in Australia.

Sound design.

Sound editing on "The Matrix" trilogy was completed by Danetracks in West Hollywood, California.

Soundtrack.

In contrast to its predecessors, very few "source" tracks are used in the film. Aside from Don Davis' score, again collaborating with Juno Reactor, only one external track (by Pale 3) is used. Although Davis rarely focuses on strong melodies, familiar leitmotifs from earlier in the series reappear. For example, Neo and Trinity's love theme—which briefly surfaces in the two preceding films—is finally fully expanded into "Trinity Definitely"; the theme from the Zion docks in "Reloaded" returns as "Men in Metal", and the energetic drumming from the "Reloaded" tea house fight between Neo and Seraph opens "Tetsujin", as Seraph, Trinity and Morpheus fight off Club Hel's three doormen. The climactic battle theme, named "Neodämmerung" (in reference to Wagner's "Götterdämmerung"), features a choir singing extracts (shlokas) from the Pavamana Mantra, introduced in the Upanishads. The chorus can be roughly translated from Sanskrit as follows: "lead us from untruth to truth, lead us from darkness to light, lead us from death to immortality, peace peace peace". The extracts were brought to Davis by the Wachowskis when he informed them that it would be wasteful for such a large choir to be singing simple "ooh"s and "aah"s (according to the DVD commentary, Davis felt that the dramatic impact of the piece would be lost if the choir was to sing 'This is the one, see what he can do' in plain English). These extracts return in the film's denouement, and in "Navras", the track that plays over the closing credits (which may be considered a loose remix of "Neodämmerung").

Release.

The film had the widest release ever opening simultaneously in 108 territories at 1400 Greenwich Mean Time on November 5, 2003.

Reception.

Box office.

The film grossed over $139 million in North America and approximately $427 million worldwide, roughly half of "The Matrix Reloaded" box-office total. In its first five days of release, the film grossed $83.8 million in the United States and Canada from 3,502 theaters, but dropped 66% during the second week. Internationally, it grossed $119 million in its first 5 days from 10,013 prints in 107 territories, with the third-biggest opening ever in Japan and Spain and the fourth biggest in the United Kingdom, Italy and Mexico. Combined, it grossed $203 million in its first five days.

Home media.

"The Matrix Revolutions" was released on DVD and VHS on April 6, 2004. The film grossed $116 million in DVD sales. Additionally, it was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-Ray on October 30, 2018.

Critical response.

On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 35% based on 225 reviews, with an average rating of 5.28/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A disappointing conclusion to the "Matrix" trilogy as characters and ideas take a back seat to the special effects." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 47 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, the lowest of the series.  Some critics criticized the film for being anticlimactic. Additionally, some critics regard the film as less philosophically ambiguous than its predecessor, "The Matrix Reloaded". Critics had difficulty finding closure pertaining to events from "The Matrix Reloaded", and were generally dissatisfied.  Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film three stars out of four, despite offering criticisms of his own, on the grounds that it at least provided closure to the story well enough so that fans following the series would prefer seeing it as to not.

Sequel.

While making the "Matrix" films, the Wachowskis told their close collaborators that at that time they had no intention of making another installment after "The Matrix Revolutions". Instead, they gave their blessing to the notion of gamers "inherit[ing] the storyline", and "The Matrix Online" video game was billed as the official continuation. In February 2015, in interviews promoting "Jupiter Ascending", Lilly Wachowski called a return to "The Matrix" a "particularly repelling idea in these times", noting the studios' tendency to green-light sequels, reboots, and adaptations over original material, while Lana Wachowski, addressing rumors about a potential reboot, said that they had not heard anything, but she believed that the studio might be looking to replace them. At various times, Keanu Reeves and Hugo Weaving have stated that they would be willing to reprise their roles in potential "Matrix" films, but only if the Wachowskis were involved.  In March 2017, "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote that Warner Bros. was in early stages of developing a relaunch of the franchise, with Zak Penn in talks to write a treatment, and interest in getting Michael B. Jordan attached to star. According to the article neither the Wachowskis nor Joel Silver were involved at that stage, although the studio would like to get at minimum the blessing of the Wachowskis.  Warner Bros. officially announced the development on a fourth film in August 2019, with Lana Wachowski serving as director and producer on it. Lana will write the screenplay with David Mitchell and Aleksander Hemon. Grant Hill will act as producer alongside Lana. The production will be a joint-venture between Warner Bros. Pictures and Village Roadshow Pictures, similar to the original films. Keanu Reeves and Carrie-Anne Moss will reprise their roles from the previous films. Production began in February 2020 in San Francisco, and will also take place in Studio Babelsberg and Chicago.

The Matrix Revolutions is a 2003 American science fiction action film written and directed by the Wachowskis. It was the third installment of "The Matrix" film franchise, released six months following "The Matrix Reloaded". The film was released simultaneously in 108 territories on November 5, 2003. While being the final entry in the original trilogy of the series, the "Matrix" storyline is continued in "The Matrix Online". It was the first live-action feature film to be released in both regular and IMAX theaters at the same time. Despite having a mixed reception from critics, the film grossed $427.3 million worldwide. A fourth "Matrix" film began production in February 2020, and it is set to be released on April 1, 2022.

Matrix Revolutions je poslední díl trilogie Matrix. Jeho premiéra proběhla zároveň v šedesáti zemích (včetně České republiky) 5. listopadu 2003. Sourozenci Wachowští, scenáristé a režiséři trilogie, se zúčastnili premiéry v Tokiu.


History and design.

Prang Besar (Jawi: ڤراڠ بسر, alternately "Perang Besar" (Malayan for "Great War"), was founded in 1921 on land that was jungle, as a rubber plantation by British veterans of World War 1, hence the name. Its land area of expanded to, and it was merged with surrounding estates, including Estet Raja Alang, Estet Galloway and Estet Bukit Prang.  Until 1975, what is today Putrajaya, along with adjacent Cyberjaya, were under the administration of Hulu Langat (Kajang) district.  The vision of a new Federal Government Administrative Centre to replace Kuala Lumpur as the administrative capital emerged in the late 1980s, during the tenure of Malaysia's fourth prime minister, Mahathir bin Mohamad. The new city was proposed to be located between Kuala Lumpur and the new Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA). Two areas were proposed: Prang Besar and Janda Baik of Pahang. The new name Putrajaya was chosen for the site.  The Federal government negotiated with the state of Selangor on the prospect of another Federal Territory. In the mid-1990s the Federal government paid a substantial amount of money to Selangor for approximately of land in Prang Besar, Selangor. As a result of this land purchase, the state of Selangor now completely surrounds two Federal territories within its borders, namely Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya.  Planned as a garden city and intelligent city, 38% of the area is reserved for green spaces in which the natural landscape is enhanced. The plan incorporated a network of open spaces and wide boulevards. Construction began in August 1995; it was Malaysia's biggest project and one of Southeast Asia's largest, with an estimated final cost of US$8.1 billion. The entire project was designed and constructed by Malaysian companies with only 10% of the materials imported.  The Asian Financial Crisis of 1997/1998 somewhat slowed the development of Putrajaya. 300 members of the Prime Minister's office staff moved there in 1999, and the remaining government servants moved in 2005. On 1 February 2001 Prime Minister Mahathir declared Putrajaya as a Federal Territory in a ceremony by which the Putrajaya township was handed over to the Federal Government from the Selangor state authorities.  In 2002, a rail line called KLIA Transit was opened, linking Putrajaya to KLIA in Sepang. The construction of the Putrajaya Monorail, which was intended to be the city's metro system, was suspended owing to high costs. One of the monorail suspension bridges in Putrajaya remains unused.  In April 2013, the Putrajaya government signed a letter of intent (LOI) with the government of Sejong City in South Korea to mark co-operation between the two cities.

Government and infrastructure.

almost all of Malaysia's governmental ministries had relocated to Putrajaya. The only ministries remaining in Kuala Lumpur were the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Works. Alamanda Putrajaya Shopping Centre, located near the governmental ministries in Precinct 1, was opened to serve people who work, play and live in Putrajaya.

Demographics.

Population.

In 2007 the population of Putrajaya was estimated to be over 30,000, which comprised mainly government servants. Government servants have been encouraged to relocate to the city through a variety of government subsidy and loan programs. The population had increased to 88,300 by 2015.

Religious demography.

, the population of Putrajaya is 97.4% Muslim, 1.0% Hindu, 0.9% Christian, 0.4% Buddhist, 0.2% unknown and 0.1% other religions. The Malaysian constitution strictly defines what makes a "Malay", considering Malays those who are Muslim, speak Malay regularly, practise Malay customs, and lived in or have ancestors from Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore.

Education.

Kindergarten and Pre-School  Primary & Secondary Education in Putrajaya is provided by a few schools such as:  There are also two elite fully residential schools in Putrajaya:  Perdana University has established an interim campus in Putrajaya which hosts the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (PUGSOM) and the Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (PU-RCSI) medical schools:  Other universities:  International Schools

Transport.

Putrajaya is home to the world's largest roundabout, the Persiaran Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah with a perimeter of 3.5 km. (2.7 miles)

By car.

Major highways.

Putrajaya is surrounded by federal highways 29 on the western side and 30 on the eastern side. The South Klang Valley Expressway E26, connecting Pulau Indah to Kajang, runs through the northern end of Putrajaya. ELITE E6 exit 607 serves Putrajaya and also nearby Cyberjaya. Highway 29 interchanges with Damansara–Puchong Expressway (LDP) E11 in the northwestern corner of Putrajaya, linking the city with Puchong, Subang Jaya, Kelana Jaya and all the way to Kepong.  Within Putrajaya, the following roads serve as the main thoroughfares of the city.

Public transport.

Rail.

The only direct rail connection to Putrajaya is the KLIA Transit line through the Putrajaya & Cyberjaya station within the Putrajaya Sentral transportation hub, which connects to KL Sentral, Bandar Tasik Selatan, Salak Tinggi, KLIA and klia2.  The MRT Putrajaya Line is currently being constructed and will also connect to Putrajaya Sentral. The proposed Kuala Lumpur–Singapore High Speed Rail will also connect to Putrajaya along the route from Kuala Lumpur to Singapore, but will be located near the borders of Putrajaya, in nearby Presint 14.  Around 2003, plans for a monorail in Putrajaya was under construction but was halted due to low population at that time. However, plans to revive the construction of the Putrajaya Monorail are currently underway.

Buses.

Putrajaya Corporation provides its own stage bus services through its subsidiary "Nadi Putra" using natural gas-powered buses and a few electric buses. The bus service serves the entirety of Putrajaya as well as Cyberjaya, and provides express bus routes to Kuala Lumpur through Puduraya and a few other nearby cities from its hubs at Putrajaya Sentral and P&R Presint 14. Bus stops in Putrajaya are very common too and serves Nadi Putra. Rapid KL, Causeway Link and Cityliner also provides bus services to other areas from Putrajaya Sentral such as Banting, Puchong, Bandar Utama and Petaling Jaya.  Intercity buses also serve bus routes from Putrajaya Sentral to the northern states.

Politics.

Putrajaya is represented in the Dewan Rakyat of the Malaysian Parliament by Tengku Adnan Tengku Mansor of UMNO, part of the Barisan Nasional. Tengku Adnan is formerly the Minister of Federal Territories.  Being a Federal Territory, Putrajaya does not have a state assembly, and the constituency is not divided into any state seats.

International relations.

Twin towns and sister cities.

Putrajaya is twinned with these cities:

Putrajaya (), officially the Federal Territory of Putrajaya (), is a planned city and the federal administrative centre of the Malaysian capital. The seat of government was shifted in 1999 from Kuala Lumpur to Putrajaya because of overcrowding and congestion in the former. Kuala Lumpur remains Malaysia's national capital and is the seat of the King, the Parliament, and all the foreign embassies, and the country's commercial and financial centre. Putrajaya was the idea of the then Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad. It became Malaysia's third Federal Territory, after Kuala Lumpur and Labuan, in 2001.

Putrajaya je nově budované hlavní město Malajsie a federální teritorium. Do Putrajayi se v současnosti postupně přesouvají vládní úřady. Dosavadní hlavní město Kuala Lumpur tak zůstane v budoucnosti pouze finančním a obchodním centrem země.


Life.

Born in Târlișua (; currently Bistrița-Năsăud County), Transylvania, then part of Austria-Hungary, he was the second of thirteen children born to Vasile Rebreanu, a schoolteacher, and Ludovica Diuganu, descendants of peasants. His father had been a classmate of George Coșbuc's and was an amateur folklorist. Liviu Rebreanu went to primary school in Maieru (where he was taught by his father), and then in Năsăud and Bistrița, to military school at Sopron and then to the Ludovica Military Academy in Budapest. He worked as an officer in Gyula but resigned in 1908, and in 1909 illegally crossed the Southern Carpathians into Romania, and lived in Bucharest.  He joined several literary circles, and worked as a journalist for "Ordinea", then for "Falanga literară şi artistică". At the request of the Austro-Hungarian government, he was arrested and extradited in 1910. Rebreanu was incarcerated in Gyula, being freed in August; he returned to Bucharest. In 1911–1912 he was secretary for the National Theater in Craiova, where he worked under the direction of short story writer Emil Gârleanu. He married actress Fanny Rădulescu.  His first published in 1912 with a volume of novellas gathered under the title "Frământări" ("Troublings"). During World War I Rebreanu was a reporter for "Adevărul", and he continued publishing short stories: "Golanii" ("The Hooligans") and "Mărturisire" ("Confession") in 1916 and "Răfuială" ("Resentfullness") in 1919. After the war, he became an important collaborator at the literary society "Sburătorul" led by the literary critic Eugen Lovinescu.  In 1920 Rebreanu published his novel "Ion", the first modern Romanian novel, in which he depicted the struggles over land ownership in rural Transylvania. For "Ion", Rebreanu received a Romanian Academy award – he became a full member of the institution in 1939. Between 1928 and 1930 he was chairman of the National Theatre of Bucharest, and from 1925 to 1932 he was President of the Romanian Writers' Society.  In 1944, aged 59, he died of a lung disease in his country house in Valea Mare-Podgoria, Argeș County.  The novel "Ion" introduces us in the life of the peasants and intellectuals of twentieth century Transylvania. The action takes place mostly in the village called Pripas, but also in the little town going by the name of Armadia. Ion Pop al Glanetașului, industrious son of poor parents, is consumed by his life-long passion for land owning. Despite being in love with Florica, the beautiful girl of a poor widow, he sets his eyes on Ana, the plain looking daughter of rich land owner - Vasile Baciu. The rich man, however, does not want him as his son-in-law, realising that he does not, in fact, love his only daughter, but only aims to take the easy path and marry into wealth. One night, while Vasile is drunk and asleep, Ion pays Ana a secret visit and sleeps with her in spite of her pleading with him not to, therefore dishonoring her. His plan is to thus force her father to give him both the daughter and the fortune. Unaware of this and overwhelmed with the affection Ion showers her with, Ana truly falls in love with the young man, especially after realising she is with child. After more conflicts between the two stubborn men, Vasile decides to give Ion the hand of his daughter in marriage and part of the lands he owns. Ion finally appears to be satisfied. He kisses and hugs the gained land, feeling as if this is his one true love, but meanwhile grows tired of Ana whom, despite by now being heavily pregnant, he beats up and scolds every day.

Works.

Novels on social issues.

After the birth of the child - a sickly baby boy - the young girl becomes even more depressed. Ion, now having achieved all that he has ever wished for, realizes he is still in love with Florica. Despite also being married, Florica answers to Ion's wild passion and advances and Ana finally comprehends the cruel reality. Feeling unloved and hopeless, she hangs herself. Soon after, their feeble child dies as well. Thus the quarrel between Ion and his father-in-law begins once again. Ion is unable to hide his happiness at being one of the wealthiest peasants in Pripas and, yet, no longer trapped in a loveless marriage. Thinking that now he can have beautiful Florica to himself, he pays her a visit one night when her husband is not home. The man however returns without the two lovers knowing and, catching them in the act, he kills Ion with three hoe blows to the head. Ion's last thoughts are "I'm dying like a dog".  "Pădurea spânzuraților" is the artistical transfiguration of his brother Emil's case. The hero of the novel is Apostol Bologa, son of a Romanian lawyer from Transylvania. In the Hungarian schools he gets an education contradictory to his Romanian soul. He becomes a conscientious Austrian officer, he even contributes (by his vote in court) at the sentencing to death of a Czech officer, who had deserted the Austro-Hungarian army.

Psychological novels.

Follows his soul metamorphosis, under the influence of the Czech officer Klapka, who seeded in his heart the hatred against the Austrian empire and the love for the Romanian nation. Sent on the Romanian front, in the Eastern Carpathians, the thought of desertation becomes an obsession for him. Being forced again to take part in a military tribunal, to judge a Romanian peasant for espionage, Apostol Bologa starts in the night towards the Romanian lines, to get to his blood brothers. He is caught and hanged, in much the same way as the Czech that he had helped condemn.

Liviu Rebreanu (; November 27, 1885 – September 1, 1944) was a Romanian novelist, playwright, short story writer, and journalist.

Liviu Rebreanu (27. listopadu 1885, Târlișua - 1. září 1944, Valea Mare) byl rumunský romanopisec, dramaturg a akademik. Po 1. světové válce zakladatel moderního rumunského románu.


Legendary origin.

The techniques for jō were reportedly invented by Musō Gonnosuke Katsuyoshi (夢想 權之助 勝吉, fl. c.1605, date of death unknown) after he was defeated by the famous swordsman, Miyamoto Musashi (宮本 武蔵, 1584–1645). They fought each other in a duel sometime between 1608 and 1611, according to Kenji Tokitsu. The record mentioning this duel, the "Nitenki", recounts:  When Musashi was in Edo, he met an adept named Musō Gonnosuke, who asked to fight him. Gonnosuke used a wooden sword. Musashi was in the process of making a small Bo; he picked up a piece of firewood. Gonnosuke attacked him without even bowing, but he received a blow from Musashi that made him fall down. He was impressed and left.  A different text, the "Kaijo Monogatari" (dated to 1666) differs considerably from the "Nitenki" version. In it, Gonnosuke is a boastful and brash warrior who duels Musashi intending to see how Musashi compares with Musashi's father in swordsmanship. The fight occurs in Akashi, not Edo, and Gonnosuke wields a staff four "shaku" in length and reinforced with steel rings. After his defeat, he then went to Mount Hōman-zan in Chikuzen (near Fukuoka), where he practiced considerably, changing his preferred weapon to four "shaku" and two "sun" in length - 1.27 meter as compared to 1.21 meter. This school was called the Shintō Musō-ryū because of Gonnosuke's previous training under Sakurai Osuminokami Yoshikatsu of the Shintō-ryū.  The school he founded to transmit his techniques has some old records which claims that Gonnosuke, struck by his defeat, went into solitary meditation until he received divine inspiration in a dream; he then invented techniques to fight against Musashi's two swords using only a stick, and defeated Musashi on their next encounter. Assuming the records are accurate and genuine, this would be the only time Musashi was defeated, as the vast majority of documentation states that Musashi was never defeated.

Subsequent history.

Several traditional Japanese "koryū" ("old schools" of martial arts) used the jō like a sword. The added length of the jō was meant to give it an advantage over the sword. Further, its wood construction allowed a fighter to improvise a jō quickly from a tree, branch, or other pole.

A is an approximately wooden staff, used in some Japanese martial arts. The martial art of wielding the jō is called "jōjutsu" or "jōdō". Also, "aiki-jō" is a set of techniques in aikido which uses the jō to illustrate aikido's principles with a weapon. The jō staff is shorter than the "bō". Today, the jō is still used by some Japanese police forces.

Džó () je tyč z tvrdého dřeva dlouhá 128 cm. Používá se jako zbraň v některých japonských bojových uměních. Disciplína zacházení s touto tyčí se nazývá "džódžucu" nebo džódó. Také v aikido je soubor technik "aiki-džó", které využívají džó k ilustraci principů aikido se zbraní. Džó vyniká jednoduchostí, proměnnou bojovou vzdáleností ("ma-ai") a množstvím způsobů, jimiž lze protivníka napadnout. Bojovník s džó je schopen účinně čelit protivníkovi s mečem (katanou), což je také původní účel, k němuž bylo džó vytvořeno. Dodnes jej používají některé japonské policejní jednotky. Je zhruba o třetinu kratší než "rokušaku bó".


Biography.

Frištenský was born as one of six children of Kateřina and Alois Frištenský in the village of Kamhajek, today a part of Křečhoř near Kolín. When he was seven years old he already rode the horses and plowed the fields. At fourteen, his parents sent him to learn to be a blacksmith. During a dispute in the workshop, one of his fellow apprentices passed him an incandescent horseshoe, which caused him serious burns of his hand. After three months of home remedies his father decided to let him learn to be a butcher. After training, he left for Brno, where he worked in the butchery of Moritz Soffer. While in Brno, he started to attend local Sokol and Hellas sports clubs. In 1900, The Hellas athletic club sent him to Vyškov to fight with the best wrestlers from Central Moravia. He won. The same year, he also won his first international competition, which was held in Prague. Three years later, he became the amateur European champion in Greco-Roman wrestling when he won in Rotterdam.  After returning home he found out that he had lost his job as a butcher's apprentice and decided to start a career as a professional wrestler. In the following years (before World War I), he travelled and competed across the world, including Southern and Northern America (he fought with Frank Gotch, George Lurich and Gus Schoenlein ("Americus"), among others). He lost some fights, but not too many. In 1917 he resided in Litovel, along with his wife Miroslava. In 1929, when he was almost 50 years old, he became the professional European champion when he won in Prague's Lucerna. He also appeared in the title role of the film "Pražský kat" (The Hangman of Prague). Along with his brother, he also purchased a farm in Lužice near Šternberk. The town was a part of the Sudetenland and their farm was confiscated by Germans after the Munich Agreement in 1938.  In 1943, during the World War II, Frištenský joined the resistance movement in Olomouc, however, he was imprisoned and his wife had to bribe a Nazi prison commander to free him. At the end of the war, their farm was ransacked when the soldiers of the Red Army resided there. It was later collectivized by the Communist authorities. In 1947, he became a widower. Frištenský was very impoverished in his later years and had to sell his trophies to survive. In 1956, he received the title Merited Master of Sports.  He died in April 1957 in Litovel, where he is buried.

Gustav Frištenský (18 May 1879 – 6 April 1957) was a Czech strongman, Greco-Roman wrestler and professional wrestler who competed in the first half of the 20th century. During his career, he won almost 10,000 fights, the first one when he was just 19 years old and the last one when he was 72. He is considered the strongest Czech and a legendary symbol of strength for many Czechs.

Gustav Frištenský (11. května 1879, Kamhajek, součást obce Křečhoř – 4. dubna 1957, Litovel) byl za Rakouska-Uherska a první republiky českým zápasníkem v řeckořímském zápase.


Plot summary.

The Discworld part of the book begins when a new experimental power source for the Unseen University is commissioned in the university's squash court. The new "reactor" is capable of splitting the "thaum" (the basic particle of magic), in homage to the Chicago Pile-1 nuclear reactor, which was housed in a rackets court at the University of Chicago.  However, the wizards' new reactor produces vastly more magical energy than planned and threatens to explode, destroying the University, the Discworld, and the entire universe. The university's thinking engine, Hex, decides to divert all the magic into creating a space containing nothing—no matter, no energy, no reality, and, importantly, no magic. The Dean sticks his fingers in the space and "twiddles" them, inadvertently creating the universe. The wizards soon discover that they can move things around in the universe, using Hex. They call it the Roundworld (the Earth), because in it, matter seems to accrete into balls in space (instead of discs on the backs of turtles). They decide to appoint Rincewind, whom they dragged out of bed in the early hours of the morning, the Egregious Professor of Cruel and Unusual Geography, and send him down (against his will) to investigate this strange world.  The wizards create a series of balls of matter in space, and give one of them a Moon (accidentally). This stabilizes the ball enough that, over a score of millennia (the wizards can skip over vast periods of Roundworld time, allowing them to view the history of the universe in less than a month), blobs of life emerge, ready to begin evolving into more complex forms. The book also features a fictional crab civilization and the dinosaurs (both of which are wiped out by comets/asteroids colliding with the earth), before jumping ahead to when an advanced civilization (presumably humans) has evacuated the earth due to an impending natural disaster.

Ideas and themes.

The science centres on the origins of the universe, earth and the beginnings of life, the fiction on the creation of a world (the Earth) in a jar. One of the themes is that most scientific explanations are in reality a good deal more complicated than most of us realize. It is explained that this is because their teachers use Lies-To-Children or, in Ponder Stibbons' case, Lies-To-Wizards.  The even-numbered chapters are self-contained essays that discuss, among others, the following topics:

Reception.

Publishers Weekly, reviewing the 2014 edition, described it as "unique and outrageously funny", with "writing [that] is as entertaining as it is accessible." The "New England Science Fiction Association" considered it "a fine popularization of science and of the scientific method", and "most unusual and entertaining", but observed that this makes it "something of an oddity".

Origins.

Cohen reports that it was extremely difficult to find a publisher who was willing to purchase the book, saying "I spent two-and-a-half years going around editors. I must have had 80 [meetings with editors]. And they all said ‘don’t be stupid’. At last Ebury took it. The editor there was made to understand that if it sold less than 10,000 copies, he’d lose his job. (...) It sold more than 200,000 copies in the first year." He also states that the books were inspired by a "bloody awful" book on the science of "Star Trek", and noted that Pratchett was initially reluctant to write about science on the Discworld "because there isn’t any science on the Discworld".

The Science of Discworld is a 1999 book by novelist Terry Pratchett and popular science writers Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen. Three sequels, "", "", and "", have been written by the same authors. The book alternates between a typically absurd "Discworld" story and serious scientific exposition after each chapter.

Věda na Zeměploše (anglicky "The Science of Discworld") je zvláštní knihou z Pratchetovy série příběhů o Zeměploše. Děj této knihy probíhá ve dvou rovinách, Terry Pratchett rozvíjí svůj příběh o pokusu mágů na Neviditelné univerzitě v Ankh-Morporku a současně druzí dva autoři, Ian Stewart a Jack Cohen popisují pohled naší současné astrofyziky a biologie na vznik a vývoj vesmíru a života.