Plot summary.

Maxim Kammerer is a young amateur space explorer from Earth, regarded as a failure by his friends and relatives because this occupation is not considered to be a serious pursuit. The novel starts when he accidentally discovers an unexplored planet Saraksh inhabited by a humanoid race. The atmospheric conditions on Saraksh are such that the inhabitants believe that they live inside a sphere. The level of technological development on the planet is similar to mid-20th century Earth. The planet recently came through big nuclear and conventional war and the predicament of the population is dire. When Maxim lands, the natives mistake his small spaceship for a weapon and destroy it.  At first he doesn't take his situation seriously, imagining himself a Robinson Crusoe stranded on an island inhabited by primitive but friendly natives. He is looking forward to establishing contact and befriending the population of the planet. However, the reality turns out to be far from glamorous. After being captured by armed natives and initially taken to what appears to be a concentration camp, Kammerer is sent to some governmental research institute which treats him as a mental patient. He escapes and finds himself in the capital of a totalitarian state, perpetually at war with its neighbors. The city is grim and polluted, with police and military omnipresent.  He makes friends among the ordinary people that lead the life of privation and misery, while twice daily everyone is overcome by sudden an unexplained bouts of ecstatic enthusiasm, proclaiming their total allegiance and undying gratitude to the country's hidden rulers, known as the "Unknown Fathers" (in the censored versions "Fire-bearing Creators"), who are said to have the best interests of the people at heart, serving as bulwark against threats foreign and domestic, mainly from the so called "degens" (degenerates), the uncompromising enemies of the people, the terrorists who sometimes blow up the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) towers strewn around the country.  All this makes little sense to Maxim, since his own society is free from war, hostility, crime and material shortages. Still confused about the official ideology, Kammerer gets enlisted in the military, to serve and protect the state and its people. He is ordered to execute some captured degens, one of them a woman. When he refuses, he is shot multiple times, survives, and joins the underground which consists of the degens who suffer great headaches twice daily. Degens believe that the ABM towers are responsible for that.  Maxim participates in an attack on one such tower. Captured, tried and sent to a concentration camp in the South, the same one where he has made his landing, he is finally revealed the truth about the towers by a fellow prisoner high ranking member of the underground. They turn out to be broadcasting a mind control signal, employed by the Fathers to control the population.  The constant low-intensity broadcast suppresses the ability of most people to evaluate information critically, making the omnipresent regime propaganda much more effective. In addition, twice a day an intense signal relieves mental stresses caused by the disconnect between the propaganda and the observed reality by inducing euphoria in the susceptible majority, and intense headaches in others who are immune to the signal's coercive power. Those are the only sober-thinking people in the country, including both the underground degens and the Fathers themselves.  Astonished and appalled by this revelation, Kammerer makes it his mission to rid the planet of the mind control broadcast system. Several of his schemes fail because the cure may be worse than the disease. He escapes to the radioactive South in hopes of organizing an invasion, but the mutants dwelling there are weakly and softhearted, and the tribes further South are ruthless barbarians. He then turns to the state's neighbor — the Island Empire — but abandons this plan after finding documents on a destroyed Empire submarine that describe mass killings and other atrocities that the Empire military routinely perpetrates.  He now focuses on trying to find and destroy the Control Center where the mind control broadcasts originate. Meanwhile, the Fathers decide to start a small victorious war on the country's northern neighbor, Honti. Kammerer surrenders to local gendarmes and is assigned to a penal battalion that is supposed to lead the invasion of the North. In this abortive action, most of his friends perish while Kammerer himself barely escapes annihilation in retaliatory nuclear blasts. Having served in the war, he earns himself a rehabilitation from the state and is installed in a secret research institution at the behest of a powerful Father known as the Wanderer, who remains out of reach.  A Father known as the Smarty realizes that Kammerer is not affected by the broadcasts in "any" way and plots to use him to stage a coup and take over the state. His plan is for Kammerer to capture the Control Center and use its transmissions to incapacitate his rivals and install him as the new ruler in the minds of the population. The Center is protected by intense depression-inducing local broadcast field that makes it impossible for any native to penetrate it. The Smarty reveals the Center's location to Kammerer, who plays along; however, after penetrating the Center, he destroys it instead, thus disabling the whole system countrywide.  It is revealed that the powerful Father, the Wanderer, is in fact a human progressor named Rudolf Sikorski, carefully working in secret to gradually improve the lot of the people of Saraksh. His plans now ruined, the Wanderer finally catches up with Maxim and lambasts him for his interference. He describes the unanticipated consequences of Kammerer's rash actions: up to 20% of the people may die or go insane due to the withdrawal from the mind control signal; Saraksh faces famine, anarchy, widespread radioactive pollution, and looming invasion by the Island Empire which they planned to stop using the depression field. The Wanderer orders Kammerer to leave the planet but Maxim refuses and stays on, to help stabilize the situation. Despite the many upheavals that Saraksh has ahead of her, he is still glad he destroyed the Control Center because now the people can be in charge of their own destiny.

Sequels.

According to Boris Strugatsky's later reminiscences, the Strugatsky brothers were planning to write a sequel to "Inhabited Island". However, following the death of Arkady Strugatsky, the surviving brother felt that he could not bring himself to write the novel. The novel would have been named "White Ferz" ("Белый Ферзь"). Ferz - the Russian term for Queen in chess, which has male gender in Russian. The novel would have followed the story of the infiltration of Maxim Kammerer, now a progressor, into the heart of the Island Empire.  The Island Empire would have been shown as consisting of several social "circles". While the outer circle represents a fascist militaristic society, the middle circle is a peaceful liberal society, and the inner core is a highly developed harmonic society of intellectuals, similar to the Noon Universe Earth. A special social apparatus directs each citizen of the Empire according to his personality to the circle where he belongs.  The book would have shown that this cruel social selection of the Island Empire is the more (or even the only) realistic way for a social utopia to exist, and by contrast would doubt if the Noon Universe's Earth is realistically possible, so much so that it is actually suggested to Maxim by one of the leaders of the Inner Circle (when he finally makes contact with them) that his "Earth" is really an imaginary world, some literary invention that is impossible to have existed in the real world (serving as the authors' final judgement upon their own creation).  Two other sequels exist, "Beetle in the Anthill" and "The Time Wanderers", but their plots are almost independent from the first book: while they have the common characters, Maxim Kammerer and Rudolf Sikorski, the events of "Inhabited Island" are only briefly mentioned. The events that authors planned to describe in "White Ferz" took place at some time between the events of "Beetle in the Anthill" and "The Time Wanderers".

Adaptations.

There have been three PC games based on the novel released in 2007: adventure game "" developed by Step Creative Group, strategy "Galactic Assault" developed by Wargaming and first-person shooter "" by Orion Games.  A two-part Russian movie adaptation was released in December 2008 and April 2009.

English editions.

The first English translation, by H.S. Jacobson, is based on the censored version of the novel, as the original version was unavailable to the translator.  The second English translation, by Andrew Bromfield, reflects the original version.

Prisoners of Power, also known as Inhabited Island (, ), is a science fiction novel written by Soviet authors Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. It was written in 1969 and originally published in the same year in the literary magazine "Neva" (1969, No. 3, 4, and 5, publication of the Leningrad Division of the Union of Soviet Writers). It appeared in a book form in 1971, with great number of changes as demanded by the state censor; the English translation was released in 1977. The protagonist is a youngster from Earth, Maxim Kammerer, who gets stranded on an unknown planet named Saraksh.

Obydlený ostrov (1969, Обитаемый остров) je vědeckofantastický román ruských sovětských spisovatelů bratrů Strugackých odehrávající se ve Světě Poledne ve 22. století. Jde o první díl tzv. "Kammererovy trilogie" nazývané tak podle jejího hlavního hrdiny progresora Maxima Kammerera. Další díly trilogie tvoří "Brouk v mraveništi" (1979—1980, Жук в муравейнике) a "Vlny ztišují vítr", (1985—1986, Волны гасят ветер).


Construction.

"Healy" was built by Avondale Industries in New Orleans, Louisiana. The construction included a technology transfer agreement between Avondale Industries and the Finnish Kværner Masa-Yards Arctic Technology Centre, where the latter provided expertise for hull form development and propulsion line engineering based on the Finnish diesel-electric icebreaker "Otso".  "Healy" is named in honor of United States Revenue Cutter Service Captain Michael A. Healy. Her keel was laid on 16 September 1996. "Healy" joined the icebreakers and in their homeport of Seattle, Washington on 10 November 1999. The ship departed New Orleans on January 26, 2000, performing sea trials off of San Juan, Puerto Rico, and in Baffin Bay between Canada and Greenland. She arrived in Seattle on 9 August 2000 after transiting the famed Northwest Passage and was placed "In Commission, Active" on August 21, 2000.

Design.

USCGC "Healy" is an optimally manned vessel, meaning she has the minimum number of personnel staffed in order to safely navigate. Due to the vast array of missions conducted by "Healy", it is vital that crewmembers are fully qualified on a number of duties. "Healy" operates two A-Frames, one on the aft working deck and one on the starboard side. There are two articulated cranes on the aft working deck, with the starboard side rated to and the port side rated to. The aft working deck provides ample space to conduct science and research operations. "Healy" has a forecastle crane with a load capacity of, and two 04 level cranes with load capacities of 15 tons each. "Healy" has a Dynamic Positioning System (DPS) that uses its Bow Thruster system, which aids in navigation and station keeping during science operations. Its flight deck is capable of landing both of the Coast Guard's helicopter airframes, and attached is a hangar that can house 2 Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin helicopters. "Healy" can accommodate 8 ISO vans on the ship, which are used as science labs and workstations. "Healy" has three small boats on board. One is the Arctic Survey Boat (ASB), which is on the starboard side. "Healy" has two Cutter Boat Large (CBL) Rigid Hull Inflatable Boats (RHIB), one on each side.

Capabilities.

Designed to conduct a wide range of research activities, "Healy" provides more than of scientific laboratory space, numerous electronic sensor systems, oceanographic winches, and accommodations for up to 50 scientists. "Healy" is also designed to break of ice continuously at or ice thick when backing and ramming, and can operate in temperatures as low as.  As a Coast Guard cutter, "Healy" is also a platform for supporting other potential missions in the polar regions, including: search and rescue, ship escort, environmental protection, and law enforcement.

Notable Operations.

October 29, 2015: USCGC "Healy" received the Coast Guard Unit Commendation award for exceptionally meritorious service from 24 June to 29 October 2015 during their Arctic West Summer 2015 deployment. "Healy" traveled over 16,000 miles, took over 25,000 water and ice samples from 72 science stations, and became the first unaccompanied U.S. surface vessel to reach the North Pole. She also engaged with the crew of the German icebreaker Polarstern while at the North Pole in support of the international scientific mission Geotraces. Finally, "Healy" became the first vessel to broadcast a live feed from ice-bound Arctic waters, streaming video of a search and rescue exercise to shore-based coordinators. April 10, 2012: USCGC "Healy" received the Coast Guard Unit Commendation award for exceptionally meritorious service from 3 January to 5 February 2012 after she escorted a tanker carrying a critical load of fuel through tremendously difficult winter ice conditions to Nome, AK. In November 2011, a strong winter storm struck western Alaska, which prevented a vital fuel delivery to Nome. "Healy" delayed her return home from a six-month Arctic deployment in order to escort the Russian-flagged tanker MT Renda to Nome, AK. "Healy" escorted the MT Renda through over 300 miles of extremely difficult ice conditions and broke out the beset ship time after time. After many days of great exertion, MT Renda transferred the fuel to Nome over the course of three days. On 20 January, "Healy" began the break out for herself and the MT Renda. They emerged from the ice on 29 January 2012 after successful completion of the mission. This was the first-ever winter fuel delivery from the water in Western Alaska.  January 20, 2010: USCGC "Healy" received the Coast Guard Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendation award for meritorious service from 6 August to 16 September 2009 while conducting the Joint U.S.—Canada United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Extended Continental Shelf Mapping Expedition. In collaboration with CCGS "Louis S. St-Laurent", "Healy" pushed 150 nautical miles further north than planned and avoided $2.4 million in future expedition mapping costs. "Healy" also acquired over 1,000 pounds of valuable geological samples by conducting dredging operations at depths of up to 3 miles. The rare samples were essential in establishing the origin of the targeted extended continental shelf.  July 16, 2008: USCGC "Healy" received the Coast Guard Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendation award for meritorious service from April 2007 to July 2008 while conducting science operations in support of national scientific, economic, and political interests. "Healy" conducted a multi-year project in order to evaluate the entire ecosystem of the Bering Sea. Data collected during these missions helped improve the understanding of food webs and biological communities in the Arctic. Through superior mission execution in adverse weather, "Healy" exceeded expectations significantly.  May 7, 2003: USCGC "Healy" received the Coast Guard Unit Commendation award for exceptionally meritorious service from January 2003 to April 2003 while conducting Operation Deep Freeze in support of the U.S. Antarctic Program. With less than three weeks' notice, "Healy" was deployed to Antarctica in support of the critical annual re-supply of McMurdo Station. "Healy" played an instrumental role in coordination with USCGC Polar Sea in resupplying the ice station. "Healy" successfully escorted the freighter American Tern and the tanker Richard G. Matthieson. "Healy" successfully escorted both ships in and out of the ice, and facilitated the delivery of resources to McMurdo Station  January 23, 2002: USCGC "Healy" received the Coast Guard Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendation award for meritorious service from 12 June 2001 to 21 December 2001 during the Arctic East 2001 Science Mission. "Healy" mapped 1,100 miles of the Gakkel Ridge, previously the only unmapped undersea ridge in the world. Twelve previously unknown volcanoes and numerous undersea hydrothermal vents were discovered. Eight tons of rock samples were taken from over 100 deep sea dredges.

Recent Operations.

2016: On October 15, 2016, USCGC "Healy" returned to her home port in Seattle, Washington after a 127-day summer deployment in the Arctic Ocean. The crew of the USCGC "Healy" and her accompanying scientists participated in three scientific studies. Highlights of this deployment include the discovery of new species of jellyfish in the Chukchi Sea, observations of the continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea, and data collection on climate change.  2015: On September 5, USCGC "Healy" became the first unaccompanied United States surface vessel to reach the North Pole. "Healy" travelled over 16,000 nautical miles during Arctic West Summer 2015 (AWS15). During this expedition, more than 25,000 water and ice samples from 72 science stations were collected through Conductivity, Temperature, Depth (CTD) casts and on-ice science stations. USCGC "Healy" worked with both the United States Coast Guard Research & Development Center and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to test and develop Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV's), and became the first vessel to broadcast a live feed from Arctic waters. "Healy" also conducted a professional international engagement with the German Icebreaker Polarstern at the North Pole. It was a historic Arctic deployment that displayed the Coast Guard's unique polar capabilities to the public and the world. Between May and October 2015, "Healy" also tested the Mobile User Objective System (MUOS) high frequency satellite communication system throughout its Arctic Summer West 2015 mission. Successful tests were completed throughout the expedition during the transit to the North Pole.  2014: A main area of focus during Arctic West Summer 2014 (AWS14) was the study of phytoplankton blooms along the Chukchi Sea. "Healy" also worked in conjunction with the United States Coast Guard Research and Development Center to test Aerostat balloons, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV's), Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV), Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV), and oil tracking buoys.  2013: Arctic West Summer 2013 (AWS13) consisted of four different missions for "Healy", over which more than 19,000 miles were covered. The first mission utilized "Healy"'s unique over-the-side science capabilities in order to collect organisms and create an ecological picture of the Hanna Shoal region. The second mission yielded sediment samples from the Mackenzie River Basin through the use of coring devices. For the third mission the Coast Guard Research Development Center, in coordination with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, deployed numerous equipment for testing and development. The fourth and final mission deployed subsurface moorings and conducted numerous Conductivity, Temperature, Depth (CTD) tests to study the Alaskan Boundary Current. A group of researchers from the Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory tested their Submarine Team Behaviors Tool with the "Healy" crew in September 2013. They were part of the 50 person science team from the USCG Research and Development Center that evaluated technology for the recovery of "simulated oil trapped in or under ice at the polar ice edge".  2012: In January 2012, "Healy" escorted the Russian-flagged freighter "Renda" through pack ice to deliver an emergency supply of fuel to Nome, Alaska. Such a winter delivery had never been attempted before because the ice floes are thick during the winter season. The resupply was vital to the city, and was the first-ever winter fuel delivery from the water in Western Alaska. Over the course of Arctic West Summer 2012 (AWS12), "Healy" travelled over 18,000 nautical miles and conducted 687 science casts. "Healy" also added 25% more data to the bathymetric mapping project of the extended continental shelf through multibeam sonar bottom-mapping. This data was collected in support of the delineation of the American and Canadian continental shelves.  2011: During Arctic West Summer 2011 (AWS11), "Healy" collaborated with researchers from NASA to study the refractive properties of sunlight in the Arctic. USCGC "Healy" spent the summer mapping the Extended Continental Shelf in collaboration with the CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent. A third mission of this patrol studied organic carbon and its levels in the Arctic water column. This data was used to explain bacteria distribution in the water column as well as carbon dioxide and biomass cycles.

Dive Mishap.

On August 17, 2006, Lieutenant Jessica Hill and PO2 Stephen Duque died of unspecified causes during diving operations in the Arctic Ocean. The Coast Guard conducted simultaneous safety and administrative investigations the results of which were made public in January 2007 along with a Final Decision Letter dated August 23, 2007.  Initial press reports indicated that the divers were conducting an inspection of the rudder - a routine operation - at the time of the accident, but later reports stated that the two were doing a cold-water training dive near the bow of the ship. The dive was reported to have been planned for a maximum depth of. Lieutenant Hill's father, citing autopsy reports, has indicated that his daughter actually reached a depth of near in what he described as an out of control descent. The divers were tended by unqualified and poorly-instructed personnel on the surface, none of whom were familiar with cold water diving or scuba diving in general. It is not clear why they extended so much line to the divers. By the time the two could be pulled to the surface, gas reserves were empty and neither diver could be revived.  On August 30, Commanding Officer Captain Douglas G. Russell was temporarily relieved of command by Vice Admiral Charles Wuster citing a "loss of confidence" in Russell's ability to command. The relief was later made permanent by Coast Guard Commandant Admiral Thad Allen.

Awards and honors.

US Coast Guard E Ribbon for the period of 4 February 2012 to 19 November 2014, at Afloat Training Organization (ATO) Everett, Washington.

USCGC "Healy" (WAGB-20) is the United States' largest and most technologically advanced icebreaker as well as the US Coast Guard's largest vessel. She is classified as a medium icebreaker by the U.S. Coast Guard. She is homeported in Seattle, Washington and was commissioned in 1999. On September 5, 2015, USCGC "Healy" became the first unaccompanied United States surface vessel to reach the North Pole.

USCGC "Healy" (WAGB-20) je střední ledoborec Pobřežní stráže Spojených států amerických, jediná jednotka své třídy. Jedná se o nejnovější námořní ledoborec americké pobřežní stráže, do služby byl zařazen v roce 1999.


History.

1995–2000: Early years and formation.

The first incarnation of what would eventually become Biffy Clyro was formed in 1995, when fifteen-year-old Ayr-based guitarist Simon Neil started playing his songs with friend Kilmarnock-born Ben Johnston. Soon brought in was Ben's twin brother, James Johnston, and the three spent the next two years rehearsing, writing and covering songs. On 31 January 1995, they played their first gig under the name "Skrewfish" as the support for a band called Pink Kross at the Key Youth Centre in East Kilbride, now known as Universal Connections East Kilbride. In 1997, the trio moved to Glasgow, where Neil went to the University of Glasgow, and the Johnston twins went to Stow College, studying Electronics with Music and Audio Engineering, respectively.  After playing gigs around Glasgow and receiving positive and enthusiastic reactions from audiences, the band were spotted by Dee Bahl, who soon became their manager. Bahl offered them a chance to release an independent single on Aereogramme's Babi Yaga record label: "Iname" was released on 28 June 1999, with Northsound Radio's Jim Gellatly (later of Beat 106 & Xfm Scotland) giving the band their first radio play. This first release led to the band being chosen by Stow College's Electric Honey record label to release a record: "thekidswhopoptodaywillrocktomorrow" was released on Nerosa on 13 June 2000, receiving airplay from BBC Radio Scotland DJ Vic Galloway. A few days prior to the release of "thekidswhopoptodaywillrocktomorrow", the band were spotted at the Unsigned Bands stage at T in the Park 2000 by a Beggars Banquet representative, and were signed to the independent Beggar's Banquet soon thereafter.

2001–2005: "Blackened Sky", "The Vertigo of Bliss" and "Infinity Land".

On 9 April 2001, the previously unreleased "27" was released as a single. On 1 October 2001, a song from "thekidswho..." was re-recorded and released as a single, "Justboy"; this was repeated again on 4 February 2002, when the song "57" was released. On 11 March, the band's debut album, "Blackened Sky", was released to generally positive reviews. It was around this time that the band began touring extensively, including supporting Weezer on 20 March at the Barrowlands in Glasgow. On 15 July, the fourth single from the album, "Joy.Discovery.Invention", was released as a double A-side with a newly recorded song called "Toys, Toys, Toys, Choke, Toys, Toys, Toys" (which would later also appear on their next album "The Vertigo of Bliss").  The toured as part of the Kerrang tour in 2001 alongside Sunna and Hell is For Heroes; followed by a their first UK wide headline tour later on in the year.  In 2003, the band retreated to the Linford Manor recording studio in Great Linford, Milton Keynes, England, to record the follow-up to "Blackened Sky". On 24 March, a new single was released called "The Ideal Height", followed by a further new single "Questions and Answers" on 26 May. The band's second album, "The Vertigo of Bliss" was released on 16 June, to positive reviews which focused on the more experimental style of the album in comparison to "Blackened Sky", as well as the introduction of string sections.  After touring relentlessly for "The Vertigo of Bliss", the band retreated to Monnow Valley Studio in Monmouth, Wales to record a follow-up album. As with the previous album, two singles were released before the actual album: "Glitter and Trauma" and "My Recovery Injection" on 9 August and 20 September respectively. An additional digital download was also released on 31 May, called "There's No Such Thing as a Jaggy Snake". On 4 October, the band's third album, "Infinity Land" was released, followed by the final single from the album, "Only One Word Comes To Mind", on 14 February 2005. On 16 February, the band performed a cover of Franz Ferdinand's "Take Me Out" live from Maida Vale on Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show.  Simon Neil's side project Marmaduke Duke also released an album in 2005, known as "The Magnificent Duke". He toured the UK together with the Johnston twins accompanying on bass and drums.

2006–2008: "Puzzle" and mainstream success.

In 2006, Biffy Clyro left Beggars Banquet and signed a deal with 14th Floor, an offshoot of Warner Bros. In September, the band went to Canada to record their fourth album at The Warehouse Studio in Vancouver (where it was engineered by Mike Fraser), and The Farm Studio in Gibsons. From these sessions the song "Semi-Mental" was released as a digital download on 25 December. On 5 March 2007 "Saturday Superhouse" was released, reaching No. 13 on the UK Singles Chart, the band's highest single chart position to date.  "Puzzle" was released in June and helped the band to reach their highest UK Albums Chart position ever, hitting No. 2 in the first week of release, also reaching No. 17 in Ireland, and No. 39 in the overall world charts. The album is certified Gold in the UK, having sold over 220,000 copies, and as of February 2009 has sold over 300,000 worldwide. This album is notable for having somewhat more straightforward song structures and a more melodic overall sound than their previous work, while still retaining some more unusual elements. "Puzzle" was voted the best album of 2007 by Kerrang! and Rock Sound. On 25 August, it was announced that "Machines" would be the next single from "Puzzle", which was released on 8 October.  Support slots for acts such as Muse (at the new Wembley Stadium), The Who, Red Hot Chili Peppers and The Rolling Stones were significant in expanding Biffy's fan base. The band also played the Download 2007, Glastonbury 2007, Reading and Leeds Festival and T in the Park for a record seventh time. The band opened for Linkin Park during January on their European tour. In 2008, the band toured with Queens Of The Stone Age on their European and North American tours for Era Vulgaris, and opened for New Jersey rockers Bon Jovi at Twickenham during the Lost Highway Tour. In December 2008 the band played their biggest headline shows, including a date at Glasgow's 10,000 capacity SECC.

2008–2010: "Only Revolutions".

The band released a new single entitled "Mountains" in July 2008, which reached No. 5 in the UK Singles Chart – the band's first song to reach the top 10, and their highest charting single to date. "Mountains" would later be included on their new album.  In an interview with the "NME", the band stated that they had started work on a follow up to "Puzzle", with Simon Neil saying that the album would include some of the band's "heaviest riffs to date". In an interview with XFM, Ben Johnston revealed that the forthcoming album would be "Oli Coates", and that they already had 16 demos laid down. Simon Neil told Kerrang magazine about the new album on 8 December, playfully saying "The soft bits are softer, and the hard bits are harder...", mocking how bands always label their new albums the most heavy and yet melodic so far. The band worked with "Puzzle" producer Garth Richardson once again at Ocean Way studios. Many videos were shown on the internet of them playing along to Shania Twain's "You're Still the One". A "Kerrang!" article, published in March 2009, stated that they planned to enter the studio in April, revealing a working title for the upcoming album: "Boom, Blast and Ruin". A series of weekly updates on their official site slowly revealed letters of the new album title, and, after "Rock Sound" mistakenly revealed the album's name as "Only Exceptions", it was officially announced that the album would be titled "Only Revolutions".  In July 2009, "Kerrang!" reported that they were filming the video for the first single from the album, "That Golden Rule". It was filmed on 1 July in London, with the band saying that the song is "like Kyuss and Tool playing with some Scottish freaks screaming over the top of it." "That Golden Rule" got its first play on Zane Lowe's Radio 1 show on 8 July, playing the song twice in a row; it was then announced that the single would be released on 23 August 2009. It went on to reach No. 10 on the UK Singles Chart. Just before the official release of "That Golden Rule", Biffy Clyro performed on the main stage at V Festival, their second appearance at the festival (the first time being in 2006, in a much earlier slot; during their set on the Chelmsford leg, the band experienced power failures twice during the opening song "Glitter and Trauma").  "The Captain" was released as a single on 26 October 2009, following its first radio play on Zane Lowe's Radio 1 show on 8 September. "Only Revolutions" was released on 9 November 2009. On 24 February 2010, "The Captain" won an NME Award for Best Video.  Biffy Clyro were confirmed to be supporting Muse for 14 dates on their European tour, including Wembley Stadium on 11 September, performing after I Am Arrows and White Lies. Biffy Clyro performed on the Main Stage at the T in the Park, Oxegen and Reading and Leeds music festivals in 2010. The band were also slated to perform at New Zealand's largest music festival Rhythm & Vines at Waiohika Estate Vineyard in Gisborne on 29 December, but had to pull out due to "minor medical procedures" required by two band members.

2011–2014: "Opposites".

On 2 and 3 July 2011 Biffy Clyro supported Foo Fighters in front of 130,000 fans (65,000 each night) at the Milton Keynes Bowl in the U.K. On Saturday 9 July 2011, Biffy Clyro headlined the main stage (Apollo Stage) at Sonisphere Festival at Knebworth House. The following day, they headlined the main stage (West Stage) at Wakestock in Cardigan Bay, North Wales. Biffy Clyro opened for Metallica in Bangalore, India in 2011.  The band revealed via the NME that they would release two studio albums in 2012, "The Land at the End of Our Toes", and "The Sand at the Core of Our Bones". From 17 May 2012, the band allowed fans to watch the recording process of "The Land at the End of Our Toes" and "The Sand at the Core of Our Bones" via a webcam link-up on their official website. The official Biffy Clyro website | biffyclyro.com The live feed has confirmed the involvement of frequent Biffy Clyro producer Garth Richardson, who also produced "Puzzle" and "Only Revolutions".  On 30 July 2012, the band announced on Twitter that a new track titled "Stingin' Belle" would be given its official premiere in the UK on Zane Lowe's Radio 1 show the following evening, and that the music video for the song would be available from 9pm for 12 hours to members of the band's official fan club. At 19:37 BST on Tuesday 31 July, Simon Neil confirmed on Zane Lowe's show on BBC Radio 1 that the new album title would be "Opposites". Their new single titled Black Chandelier premièred on BBC Radio 1 on 19 November 2012. The band announced they would be playing a large arena tour through March/April 2013, including London's The O2 Arena, with City and Colour in support.  On Sunday 3 February 2013, "Opposites" topped the UK Albums Charts, giving Biffy Clyro their first number one album. The next day, it was announced on BBC Radio 1 by Zane Lowe that they were the second headliner for Reading & Leeds Festivals. Biffy Clyro also headlined the second day of the annual Radio 1 Big Weekend festival on 25 May 2013 in Derry, as well as the Cape Town and Johannesburg legs of RAMfest 2014.  It was reported on the NME website on 6 January 2014 that Biffy Clyro were to release an "Opposites" b-side compilation album, entitled Similarities, sometime later in the year. Being interviewed for the article, lead singer Simon Neil stated that the band had come up with "six or seven" riffs for new material, although he did point out that their next album would not be recorded until at least 2015.

2016–2018: "Ellipsis".

The band announced that 2015 would be their 'year off.' In an interview with 3FM in June 2014, Neil stated that "[the band] will take a quiet year next year and disappear so people don't get sick of the lovely Biffy." In the same interview he stated that they were working on about 19 new songs, but felt it was too early to play them live. He confirmed that a new album was coming, most likely towards the end of 2015. The new album would feature tracks including "Wolves Of Winter", "Friends and Enemies", "Animal Style", "Re-arrange", "Herex", "Medicine", "Flammable", "On a Bang", "Small Wishes", "Howl", "People", "Don't, Won't, Can't" (deluxe release only), "In the Name of the Wee Man" (deluxe release only), and a film documenting the recording of Ellipsis (deluxe release only).  The first single "Wolves of Winter" was exclusively played as Hottest Record on Monday 21 March 2016 on Radio 1. On Monday 21 March 2016, during the live premiere of "Wolves of Winter" on Hottest Record on Beats 1, Zane Lowe, Neil announced that the band's new album would be titled "Ellipsis". The album, due for release on 8 July 2016, was made available to pre-order in a limited edition box set on the Biffy Clyro web store.  "Ellipsis" was released on 8 July 2016, entering the UK charts at No. 1. Following the successful launch of "Ellipsis", the band performed co-headline slots (co-headlining with Fall Out Boy) at the Reading & Leeds festival. The new "Ellipsis" songs featured prominently in the set list. Between the two headline slots, Biffy Clyro also performed a huge outdoor show in Glasgow, with Fall Out Boy filling in as the support act. In November 2016, Biffy Clyro were announced as the Saturday headliners of the Download Festival 2017. This marks their sixth appearance at the festival and their first headline performance on the main stage.  To coincide with these headline performances, a U.K. arena tour was announced with Brand New announced as the support act. The tour culminated in a performance at London's O2 arena, in December 2016. In February 2017, Biffy Clyro performed at the Shepherd's Bush Empire as part of Brit's Week to raise money for charity War Child. To celebrate such an intimate performance at this point in their career, the band performed as their own support act with Simon Neil announcing "we are Biffy Clyro, circa 2003 to 2005", and they played an hour long set of material from their first three albums.  On 27 May 2017, Biffy Clyro performed to 25,000 people at the Radio 1's Big Weekend Hull 2017. They performed the songs "Wolves of Winter", "Animal Style", "Biblical", "That Golden Rule", "Friends & Enemies", "Many of Horror", "Bubbles", "Rearrange", and "Mountains".  The band also performed at Glastonbury on Sunday 25 June 2017.  Autumn of 2018 saw the release of the "" show on DVD and album. Soon to follow was a European tour of the show plus a few other pieces that translated well acoustically.

2018-2019: "Balance, Not Symmetry".

In spring of 2018, Biffy Clyro announced that they were working with Welsh director Jamie Adams producing a movie to go along with a soundtrack album of new, original music. The film, called Balance, Not Symmetry debuted at the Edinburgh Film Festival on 23 June 2019. The 17-song soundtrack album, also named "Balance, Not Symmetry" was released digitally on 17 May 2019 with a vinyl pre-order made available for release on 26 July. The film stars Laura Harrier, Bria Vinaite, Tasmin Egerton, Freya Mavor, Kate Dickie, Scott Miller, and Lily Newmark.

2020: "A Celebration of Endings".

On the 20 February 2020, Biffy Clyro released the single "Instant History". The track is taken from their upcoming ninth studio album "A Celebration of Endings". The artwork was released on the 3 March 2020 in the form of a puzzle. The second single "End Of" was released on the 5 March alongside the announcement of the album's title and the release date of 15 May. The release date had to be postponed to 14 August, due to the coronavirus pandemic. The third single from the album "Tiny Indoor Fireworks" was released on the 14th May.

Artistry.

Name.

"'Mon the Biffy!" or, in more recent times, "'Mon the Biff!", are well known chants among Clyro fans, usually shouted in between songs at gigs, or before the band comes on stage.  The band have never disclosed where the name 'Biffy Clyro' originated, giving a series of stories as to how the name came about. Whilst being interviewed on Soccer AM, the band stated that they named themselves after a footballer named Biffy Clyro who played for South Ayrshire football club Ayr United, whilst admitting at the same time that they also make up stories about how they are named because they are bored with being asked the same question. Another story is that the band members were thinking about manufacturing Cliff Richard merchandise and they thought about the Laszlo Biro pen and thought of "Cliffy Biro" that was then accidentally spoonerised on a drunken night out to 'Biffy Clyro'. Simon Neil appeared to confirm this as the real reason in a 2010 interview with Eve Jackson on France 24, and said that it was "a stupid name" that was often "awkward" to explain its origins when the band started and when not many had heard their music. Another interview claims that the name Biffy Clyro comes from an acronym for "Big Imagination For Feeling Young 'Cos Life Yearns Real Optimism". The band also state in an interview for BalconyTV that the band name was that of a Finnish footballer from the 17th century. On Off the Ball in August 2011, Ben Johnston said "Well it's a marriage of two words: Biffy is in fact the nickname of the spy who the James Bond novels were based on and Clyro is a village in Wales where both our families... used to go on holiday...". In an episode of Music Choice's "Pop Quiz", Simon Neil explained that Biffy Clyro is the name of a Scotsman that built his own rocket and was the first man in space.

Musical influences.

The band cite influences ranging from heavy metal bands such as Metallica to progressive rock band Rush, while reviewers are often quick to link their sound to Nirvana and Foo Fighters – particularly in their use of shifting dynamics, which they adapted from Pixies and Fugazi.  Mark Z. Danielewski's second novel "Only Revolutions" was influential for the album "Only Revolutions"; the band have since met Danielewski, discovering that he was a fan when he attended one of their shows.  | style="text-align:center;"| 2007 || Biffy Clyro ||New Sounds of Europe, Regional Competition||  |-  | style="text-align:center;"| 2010 || Biffy Clyro || Best British Band || | style="text-align:center;"| 2010 || The Captain || Best Music Video ||  | style="text-align:center;"| 2010 || Only Revolutions || Album of the Year ||  | style="text-align:center;"| 2010 || Bubbles ||Best Song||  | style="text-align:center;"| 2010 || The Captain ||Best Track||  | style="text-align:center;"| 2011 || Biffy Clyro ||Best British Group||

Biffy Clyro are a Scottish rock band that formed in Kilmarnock, East Ayrshire, composed of Simon Neil (guitar, lead vocals), James Johnston (bass, vocals), and Ben Johnston (drums, vocals). Currently signed to 14th Floor Records, they have released eight studio albums, four of which ("Puzzle", "Only Revolutions", "Opposites," and "Ellipsis)" reached the top five in the UK Albums Chart, with their sixth studio album, "Opposites" claiming their first UK No. 1 album.

Biffy Clyro je skotská rocková skupina, založená v roce 1995. Původní sestavu tvořil zpěvák a kytarista Simon Neil, bubeník Ben Johnston a baskytarista James Johnston. Své první EP nazvané "Thekidswhopoptodaywillrocktomorrow" skupina vydala v roce 2000 a o dva roky později vyšlo první řadové album "Blackened Sky". Do roku 2013 skupina vydala dalších pět studiových a jedno koncertní album.


Plot summary.

The novel tells the story of Gack, a teenage boy from Giganda. Gack is a cadet commando in "Fighting Cats": an elite army unit of "the Alai Duchy". In the first chapter of the novel, Gack is mortally wounded in a dogfight with an attacking tank unit of the army of "the Empire". Kornei Yashmaa, a progressor finds him and takes him to Earth where the doctors practically resurrect Gack. Yashmaa tries to help Gack adjust to life on Earth.  However, Gack does not want to cooperate, neither he believes that Earth is real. At first, he thinks that everything Yashmaa and other Earthlings tell him is a part of his psychological training as an officer of the Alai Army. Even after Yashmaa proves to him that he is indeed on a different planet, Gack still thinks that he was sent to Earth with an unknown secret mission by the Alai military.  His next idea is that the Earth wants to conquer Giganda and wants to use him as a test subject or a future propaganda agent. As he learns more about the technology and lifestyle on Earth (he is even given an android servant), he becomes more and more confused. Accidentally, Gack discovers that other Gigandians have been taken to Earth as well, but they have integrated into the society and do not want to deal with him.  After a month since Gack's arrival on Earth, Yashmaa tells him that the war on Giganda was stopped by progressors and that the Alai Duchy as well as the Empire is no more. Gack is shocked by the news so much that he demands to go back to Giganda immediately. When Yashmaa refuses, Gack tries to escape by force. With the help of his android servant, he manages to construct an assault rifle and ammunition to it. Gack threatens to shoot Yashmaa if he does not send him back. Yashmaa can easily disarm Gack, but, persuaded by Gack's actions, decides to let him go.  In the last chapter Gack is back on Giganda and helps local doctors cure a plague ravaging a nearby city. He is home.

The Kid from Hell () is a 1974 science fiction novel by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky set in the Noon Universe. The English translation was included in a single volume entitled "Escape Attempt" with the other Noon universe stories "Escape Attempt" and "Space Mowgli".

Chlapík z pekla (1974. Парень из преисподней) je vědeckofantastická novela ruských sovětských spisovatelů bratrů Strugackých odehrávající se ve Světě Poledne ve 22. století. Autoři v ní opět řeší otázku práva zasahovat do historie případných civilizací na nižší úrovni i v případě, že by byla vedena snahou přispět k rychlejšímu vývoji takovéto civilizace směrem k dokonalejšímu společenskému zřízení. Zároveň se autoři v novele snaží zkoumat podstatu zla v člověku.


Teams.

Twenty-two teams participated in the 2014 edition of the Tour de France. The race was the 18th of the 29 events in the UCI World Tour, and all of its eighteen UCI ProTeams were automatically invited, and obliged, to attend the race. On 14 January 2015, the organiser of the Tour, Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), announced the four second-tier UCI Professional Continental teams given wildcard invitations:,, and. The team presentation – where the members of each team's roster are introduced in front of the media and local dignitaries – took place at the First Direct Arena in Leeds, United Kingdom, on 3 July, two days before the opening stage held in the city. The riders arrived at the arena by a ceremonial ride from the University of Leeds. The event included performances from Embrace and Opera North, in front of an audience of 10,000.  Each squad was allowed a maximum of nine riders, therefore the start list contained a total of 198 riders. Of these, 47 were riding the Tour de France for the first time. The riders came from 34 countries; France, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, Germany, Australia and Belgium all had 10 or more riders in the race.'s Ji Cheng was the first Chinese rider to participate in the Tour. Riders from eight countries won stages during the race; German riders won the largest number of stages, with seven. The average age of riders in the race was 29.88 years, ranging from the 20-year-old Danny van Poppel to the 42-year-old Jens Voigt, both riders. Voigt, riding in his final year as a professional, equalled Stuart O'Grady's record for most appearances in the Tour with 17. had the highest average age, while had the lowest.  The teams entering the race were:

Pre-race favourites.

According to many observers before the race the top two favourites for the general classification were Chris Froome () and Alberto Contador (). Their closest rivals were thought to have been Vincenzo Nibali () and Alejandro Valverde (). A possible contender was the 2013 Tour runner-up, Nairo Quintana, who had chosen not to ride the Tour after his 2014 Giro d'Italia win that took place during May. Andy Schleck (), who was retroactively awarded the 2010 Tour title, was selected by his team as a domestique, and was not considered a possible favourite. The other riders considered contenders for the general classification were Andrew Talansky (), Rui Costa (), Thibaut Pinot (), Tejay van Garderen (), Jurgen Van den Broeck ().  Defending champion and runner-up in the 2012 Tour, Froome, had shown his form so far in the 2014 season by winning the general classification of two stage races, the Tour of Oman and the Tour de Romandie. Contador, winner of the 2007 and 2009 Tours, also won two stage races, the Tirreno–Adriatico and the Tour of the Basque Country in the lead-up to the Tour, placing second overall in the Volta ao Algarve, Volta a Catalunya and Critérium du Dauphiné. Nibali had missed the 2013 Tour as he had focused on the 2013 Giro, which he won. His highest Tour result was third in 2012. His best results so far in the 2014 season were fifth in the Tour de Romandie and seventh in the Dauphiné. Valverde, who placed eighth in the 2013 Tour and won the 2009 Vuelta a España, had a number of wins in the 2014 season prior to the Tour, most notably, the Vuelta a Andalucía stage race and the La Flèche Wallonne one-day race.  The sprinters considered favourites for the points classification and wins on the flat or hilly bunch sprint finishes were Peter Sagan (), Mark Cavendish (), André Greipel (), Alexander Kristoff () and riders Marcel Kittel and John Degenkolb. Winner of the points classification in the two previous Tours, Sagan, had won the E3 Harelbeke one-day race and won the points classifications in three stage races, the Tirreno–Adriatico, the Tour of California and the Tour de Suisse, during the 2014 season up until the Tour. Cavendish, who won the points classification in 2011, had nine wins so far in the season and had the full backing of his team. Greipel had amassed a total of twelve wins during the season prior to the Tour, but his team would have to share support for him and Van den Broeck. Kristoff had won the Milan–San Remo, and was considered a dark horse for the points classification. Kittel was seen as a top contender for the bunch sprints, as he won the most stages in the 2013 Tour, a total of four. He had an amassed seven wins so far in the season, two of which were in the Giro. It was thought that Degenkolb would be used by for the more challenging sprints. His major results of the season were first place in Gent–Wevelgem and second place in Paris–Roubaix, both one-day races.

Route and stages.

On 14 December 2012, the ASO announced that the English historic county of Yorkshire would host the 2014 edition's early stages (known as the "Grand Départ"). Further details of the first three stages held in the United Kingdom were released on 17 January 2014. This was the fourth Tour to contain stages in the United Kingdom, after 1974, 1994 and 2007. The entire route was announced by the ASO on 23 October 2013 at the official presentation at the Palais des Congrès in Paris. At the event, Stephen Roche, winner of the 1987 Tour, described the route as "fairly soft". Notable features of the route were fifth stage's sections of sett paving, the five high altitude stage finishes and the lack time trialling, with only stage twenty's individual time trial.  The first of the two stages held in Yorkshire started in Leeds and finished in Harrogate, with stage two held between York and Sheffield. After a transfer to the East Anglian city of Cambridge, the race went south to the finish in London. The Tour transferred across the English Channel to the start of stage four Le Touquet-Paris-Plage, with the finish in Lille. Stage five began in Ypres, Belgium, and finished back in France. The following three stages crossed the north-east to the Vosges Mountains for stages nine and ten. The eleventh stage took place between Besançon and Oyonnax through the Jura Mountains. Stage twelve headed west to Saint-Étienne, with the next stage moving back east into the Chartreuse Mountains, with the finish at the Apline ski resort of Chamrousse. The fourteenth stage ended in the town of Risoul. The following stage took the race south to Nîmes. After a transfer to Carcassonne, the route moved into the Pyrenees for the next two stages. The nineteenth stage took a northerly direction to the department of Dordogne and the location of stage twenty. A long transfer took the Tour back to the north-east to finish with the Champs-Élysées stage in Paris.  There were 21 stages in the race, covering a total distance of. The longest mass-start stage was the seventh at, and stage 17 was the shortest at. Nine stages were officially classified as flat, five as medium mountain and six as high mountain. Stage five, although classified as medium mountain, was flat with sett paving sections. There were five summit finishes: stage 10, to La Planche des Belles Filles; stage 13, to Chamrousse; stage 14, to Risoul; stage 17, to Saint-Lary Pla d’Adet; and stage 18, to Hautacam. The highest point of elevation in the race was the -high Col d'Izoard mountain pass on stage fourteen. It was among six "hors catégorie" (English: beyond category) rated climbs in the race. There were nine new stage start or finish locations. The rest days were after stage 10, in the Besançon, and after 15, in Carcassonne.

Race overview.

Opening week and Vosges.

The first stage's bunch sprint finish was won by Marcel Kittel. A crash in the sprint caused Mark Cavendish, a favourite for the win, to fall; he did not start stage two. Kittel gained the race leader's yellow jersey and the green jersey as the leader of the points classification, with Jens Voigt taking the polka dot jersey as the leader of the mountains classification. In the following stage, likened to a "mini Liège-Bastogne-Liège", Vincenzo Nibali took the stage win and yellow jersey, attacking on Sheffield's hilly terrain with remaining. Peter Sagan took the green jersey and Cyril Lemoine () took the polka dot jersey. Stages three and four, finishing in London and Lille respectively, ended in bunch sprints and were both won by Kittel. Crashes in stages four and five forced pre-race favourite Chris Froome to abandon the race; his injuries were later revealed to be fractures to his left wrist and right hand. The weather was wet throughout the fifth stage, with the sett paving causing many crashes (although not Froome's). The fractured ending was won by an attack in the final by Lars Boom of. Nibali, who placed third, extended his overall lead over his rivals, with Alberto Contador 2 min 37 s down. André Greipel won stage six's bunch sprint in Reims. Another bunch sprint took place at the end of the next stage, with the hilly finish decided by a photo finish between Sagan and the winner Matteo Trentin ().  Stage eight, the first at altitude, was taken by's Blel Kadri, who attacked from a breakaway group with to go; he managed to hold his lead over the chasing group of overall favourites, who came in over two minutes behind. His win put Kadri into the polka dot jersey. Another solo victory came the following day, when Tony Martin of dropped fellow breakaway rider Alessandro De Marchi () with remaining. A large group that formed in pursuit of the duo finished 2 min 45 s behind, with the unconcerned general classification contenders coming together in at 7 min 46 s down. The yellow jersey went to a rider from the first group,'s Tony Gallopin. Martin now led the mountains classification. Stage ten was the Tour's first high mountain stage. On the final climb to the finish at La Planche des Belles Filles, Nibali attacked from the group of overall contenders with remaining, passed two surviving riders from the day's early breakaway, and claimed his second stage win, which put him back in the yellow jersey. Joaquim Rodríguez (), one of the two breakaway riders, took the polka dot jersey. Contador crashed during the descent of the Petit Ballon, into the stage, forcing him to quit the race; it was later revealed that he had fractured his right tibia. The next day was the first rest day of the Tour.

Jura and Alps.

Stage eleven's rolling terrain resulted in a final peloton that included mainly puncheurs; Gallopin won the stage after an attack from the finish in Oyonnax split the peloton and a second with remaining that successfully held off the chasers. The twelfth stage was won by Alexander Kristoff from a bunch sprint. Nibali took the stage win the following stage, making his move from the leading group in the final on the "hors catégorie" climb to Chamrousse. He extended his lead over the second-placed overall rider Alejandro Valverde to 3 min 37 s. Richie Porte, who was second overall before the stage and the new leader of, lost around nine minutes and dropped to sixteenth. Nibali took the lead of the mountains classification. In stage fourteen, Rafał Majka () attacked from a reduced breakaway on the climb to the finish in Risoul with remaining and managed to hold off chasing the group of overall favourites and soloed to victory. Nibali, second in the stage, extended his lead further by one minute as Valverde lost time and Rodríguez regained the polka dot jersey. Kristoff won the bunch sprint in the transitional stage fifteen.  In the first of the three stages in the Pyrenees, the sixteenth, a breakaway group of 21 riders formed in. The group reduced to five after the final climb, the "hors catégorie" Port de Balès with remaining, out of which came the winner, Michael Rogers of (), who attacked from finish in Bagnères-de-Luchon. The group of general classification favourites came in over eight minutes down. Majka led the mountains classification. The Tour's queen stage, the seventeenth, featured three first-category climbs and the "hors catégorie" climb to the finish at Saint-Lary Pla d’Adet. An early nine-strong breakaway was pulled back before the first climb by for their rider Rodríguez to take the mountains classification points and the temporary lead of the competition. This led to the formation of a large lead group which gradually split across the middle climbs. Rodriguez and Majka led the lead group race over the penultimate climb, with the former first. On the final climb, a group of four that had escaped were caught by Majka, who had dropped Rodríguez, and he soloed to claim his second stage win and the large number of points for the summit finish. Nibali had split apart the group of chasing overall favourites and came in third. Second-placed overall Valverde lost a minute to Thibaut Pinot in third.

Pyrenees and finale.

The Tour's final mountain stage, the eighteenth, saw Nibali take his fourth victory of the race at Hautacam; his stage winning move came from the finish, on the climb to Hautacam. He finished 1 min 10 s ahead of a group which were four of his nearest general classification rivals, with the exception of Valverde, who lost further time and dropped to fourth overall, displaced by Thibaut Pinot and Jean-Christophe Péraud, respectively. Majka finished third in the stage and secured the mountains classification. In stage nineteen, Ramūnas Navardauskas of attacked a peloton fractured by rain from the finish to win the stage. Martin claimed his second stage of the Tour in the penultimate stage's individual time trial. His time of 1h 6 min 21 s over the course was 1 min 39 s faster than second-placed Tom Dumoulin (). Nibali finished fourth, increasing his advantage.  In the final stage, Kittel secured a second successive victory on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, his fourth stage win of the race. Nibali finished the race to win the general classification by a margin of 7 min 39 s, the largest winning margin since Jan Ullrich in the 1997 Tour. Second and third respectively were Péraud and Pinot, with the latter 8 min 15 s down on Nibali. The points classification was won by Sagan with 431 points; Kristoff came second with 282 points. Majka finished with 181 points in the mountains classification, 13 ahead of second-placed Nibali. Pinot was the best young rider, with Romain Bardet () second. The team classification was won by, 34 min 46 s ahead of second-placed. Of the 198 starters, 164 reached the finish of the last stage in Paris.

Classification leadership and minor prizes.

There were four main individual classifications contested in the 2014 Tour de France, as well as a team competition. The most important was the general classification, which was calculated by adding each rider's finishing times on each stage. There were no time bonuses given at the end of stages for this edition of the Tour. If a crash had happened within the final of a stage, not including the time trial and summit finishes, the riders involved would have received the same time as the group they were in when the crash occurred. The rider with the lowest cumulative time was the winner of the general classification and was considered the overall winner of the Tour. The rider leading the classification wore a yellow jersey. The second classification was the points classification. Riders received points for finishing among the highest placed in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints during the stage. The points available for each stage finish were determined by the stage's type. The leader was identified by a green jersey.  The third classification was the mountains classification. Points were awarded to the riders that reached the summit of the most difficult climbs first. The climbs were categorised as fourth-, third-, second-, first-category and "hors catégorie", with the more difficult climbs rated lower. Double points were awarded on the summit finishes on stages 10, 13, 14, 17 and 18. The leader wore a white jersey with red polka dots.  The final individual classification was the young rider classification. This was calculated the same way as the general classification, but the classification was restricted to riders who were born on or after 1 January 1989. The leader wore a white jersey.  The final classification was a team classification. This was calculated using the finishing times of the best three riders per team on each stage; the leading team was the team with the lowest cumulative time. The number of stage victories and placings per team determined the outcome of a tie. The riders in the team that lead this classification were identified with yellow number bibs on the back of their jerseys and yellow helmets.  In addition, there was a combativity award given after each stage to the rider considered, by a jury, to have "made the greatest effort and who has demonstrated the best qualities of sportsmanship". No combativity awards were given for the time trial and the final stage. The winner wore a red number bib the following stage. At the conclusion of the Tour, Alessandro De Marchi won the overall super-combativity award, again, decided by a jury.  A total of €2,035,000 was awarded in cash prizes in the race. The overall winner of the general classification received €450,000, with the second and third placed riders got €200,000 and €100,000 respectively. All finishers of the race were awarded with money. The holders of the classifications benefited on each stage they led; the final winners of the points and mountains were given €25,000, while the best young rider and most combative rider got €20,000. The winners of the team classification received €50,000. There were also two special awards each with a prize of €5000, the Souvenir Henri Desgrange, given to first rider to pass the summit of the highest climb in the Tour, the Col d'Izoard in stage fourteen, and the Souvenir Jacques Goddet, given to the first rider to pass Goddet's memorial at the summit of the Col du Tourmalet in stage eighteen. Joaquim Rodríguez won the Henri Desgrange and Blel Kadri won the Jacques Goddet.

UCI World Tour rankings.

Riders from the ProTeams competing individually, as well as for their teams and nations, for points that contributed towards the World Tour rankings. Points were awarded to the top twenty finishers in the general classification and to the top five finishers in each stage. The 200 points accrued by Vincenzo Nibali moved him from fortieth position to second in the individual ranking. retained their lead of the team ranking, ahead of second-placed. Spain remained as leaders of the nation ranking, with Italy second.

The 2014 Tour de France was the 101st edition of the race, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The race included 21 stages, starting in Leeds, Yorkshire, United Kingdom, on 5 July and finishing on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 27 July. The race also visited Belgium for part of a stage. Vincenzo Nibali of the team won the overall general classification by more than seven minutes, the biggest winning margin since 1997. Jean-Christophe Péraud () placed second, with Thibaut Pinot () third.

Tour de France 2014 byl 101. ročník nejslavnějšího cyklistického závodu světa – Tour de France. První tři etapy se jely v Anglii. Závodníci projížděli skrze některá největší a historická města, včetně opevněného města York. Takzvaný Grand Départ se konal 5. července 2014 ve městě Leeds a skončil v lázeňském městě Harrogate. Poslední třetí etapu v Anglii ukončilo město Londýn.


Background.

The African liturgy was in use not only in the old Roman province of Africa of which Carthage was the capital, but also in Numidia and Mauretania -- in fact, in all of Northern Africa from the borders of Egypt west to the Atlantic Ocean, meaning the Early African church, centered around the Archdiocese of Carthage.  Christianity was introduced into proconsular Africa in the latter half of the 2nd century AD, probably by missionaries from Rome, and then spread rapidly through the other African provinces.  Although the language of the African Rite was Latin, it was modified by the introduction

Ante-Nicene period.

No liturgical codices are extant - these were all lost due to the destruction of the Islamic invasion and due to the relatively rural character of the African regions, making the reconstruction of the ancient African liturgy difficult. Quotations and references from liturgical books and ceremonies are rare in the works of the early ecclesiastical writers and councils.  However, various sources illuminate customs which were peculiar to the African Church, as well as what formularies and ceremonies were common to all the Western churches:

Prayers.

Christians' prayers were either private or liturgical. Privately they prayed every morning and evening, and many of them prayed frequently during the day—for example, at the third, sixth, and ninth hours, before meals, and before undertaking any unusual work or enterprise. The liturgical prayers were said chiefly during the reunions of the faithful to observe the vigils, or to celebrate the Agape feast and the Holy Eucharist (Mass).  These Christian assemblies in Africa seem to have been modelled on the same plans as those in other countries. To a certain degree, they imitated the Word services of the Jewish synagogue (including the solemn chanting of the readings), adding to it the Eucharistic service and some institutions specific to Christianity.  These gatherings were characterized by three elements: psalmody, the reading of passages from the Old and New Testaments, and prayer, to which a homily on the Scripture was generally added by the deacon, priest or bishop. Such meetings were sometimes distinct from the Mass, but sometimes they formed a preparation for the celebration of the divine mysteries.  The Church priests presided over the assembly, instructions and exhortations were given,

Sabbath and feast days.

The Sabbath, in the Jewish sense, was not observed by Christians during this early period. The Jewish festivals were also abandoned, as Tertullian (De idolatria, xiv) writes of the observance of festivals by Christians, "to whom Sabbaths are strange, and the new-moons and festivals formerly beloved by God". Sunday was now the Lord's day of the New Covenant, a day of rejoicing, on which it was forbidden to fast and to pray in a kneeling (penitential) posture: "We count fasting or kneeling in worship on the Lord's day to be unlawful". (Tert., De corona, iii.)

The Eucharist.

The most important liturgical function is the celebration of Mass, or the Eucharist. The African Church seems to have divided the Mass into the Mass of the catechumens, and the Mass of the faithful. Among the orthodox Christians, the catechumens were rigidly excluded from assisting at the propitiatory sacrifice of the Eucharist (Mass of the faithful).  Bread and wine were - and are - used as the matter of the sacrament, but a little water was already in early times added to the wine to signify the union of the people with Christ. St. Cyprian severely condemned bishops who used only water in the chalice, declaring that water is not the essential matter of the sacrifice and its exclusive use renders the sacrament invalid.  Both Tertullian's and St. Cyprian's writings have passages which seem to give the form of the Eucharist in the very words of Christ as quoted in Sacred Scripture. Sometimes there is great similarity between the African Rite's words and the phraseology of the still existing and still used Roman

Baptism.

Baptism, as the initiatory rite of Christianity, is mentioned frequently by the early writers; Tertullian wrote a special treatise on this sacrament, describing the preparation required for it, and the ceremonies accompanying it- "The catechumens should prepare for the reception of baptism by frequent prayers, by fasts, and vigils." Although he usually speaks of the baptism of adults, he admits the baptism of infants but seems somewhat opposed to the practice, which was commended by St. Cyprian, the latter holding baptism of children to be essential for their eternal salvation.  Easter, or any day between Easter and Pentecost, was the time set for the solemn administration of baptism, but Tertullian declares that as every day belongs to the Lord it might be conferred at any time. He holds that it should be administered by the bishop, who, however, may delegate a priest or deacon to act in his place, although in certain cases he would permit laymen to baptize.  Any kind of water may serve as the matter of the sacrament, and the water is used to baptize the catechumen

Penance.

The testimonies relating to the Sacrament of Penance describe the public penances imposed for grievous sins, and the absolution of the penitents after the public penances had been completed to the satisfaction of the Church.  Tertullian at first asserted that the Church had the power of forgiving all kinds of sins, but after becoming a Montanist he denied that this power extended to certain heinous crimes. Later, he ridiculed the practice of the Pope and the Roman Church, who did not deny absolution to any truly penitent Christian.  Though he writes sarcastically of the procedure in use in Rome in the time of Pope St. Callixtus, also describes seriously the manner in which a penitent sinner was absolved and readmitted into communion with the

Marriage.

Tertullian speaks of the nuptial blessing pronounced by the Church on the marriage of Christians, asking "how he could sufficiently extol the happiness of that marriage which is cemented by the Church, confirmed by the oblation, sealed with the benediction

Ordination.

Both Tertullian and St. Cyprian mention ordination and the various holy orders in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, but unfortunately do not give much information which is strictly liturgical. Tertullian speaks of bishops, priests, and deacons whose powers and functions are pretty well defined, who are chosen on account of their exemplary conduct by the brethren, and are then consecrated to God by regular ordination. Only those who are ordained, says St. Cyprian, may baptize and grant pardon of sins. St. Cyprian distinguishes the different orders, mentioning bishops, priests, deacons, sub-deacons, acolytes, exorcists, and lectors, and in describing the election of Pope St. Cornelius at Rome declares that Cornelius was promoted from one order to another until finally he was

Burial.

Among other liturgical ceremonies the early writers often allude to the rites accompanying the burial of the dead, and particularly the entombment of the bodies of the martyrs and confessors. From the earliest times the Christians showed great reverence to the bodies of the faithful, embalmed them with incense and spices, and buried them carefully in distinctively Christian cemeteries. Prayers were said for the repose of the souls of the dead, Masses were offered especially on the anniversary of death and their names were recited in the Memento of the Mass (to alleviate possible temporal punishments these souls still possibly endured), provided that they had lived in accordance with Christian ideals. The faithful were taught not to mourn for their dead, but to rejoice that

Ceremonial acts.

Finally, some ceremonial acts might be considered to which reference is often made by the early writers. Prayers were said sometimes kneeling, sometimes standing; for example, on Sundays, and during the fifty days following Easter, it was forbidden to kneel, while on fast days the kneeling posture was considered appropriate. The Christians prayed with the arms stretched out somewhat in the form of a cross. The sign of the cross was made very frequently, often on some object with the intention of blessing it, often on the forehead of Christians to invoke God's protection and assistance. Tertullian in his "De Corona" writes: "At every forward step and movement, at

Post-Nicene period.

After Constantine I's Edict of Milan, granting freedom of worship to the Christian religion, and especially after the Council of Nicaea, there was a great development in the liturgy of the Church. It was only natural that for some time after the foundation of the new religion, its liturgy should contain only the essentials of Christian worship, and that in the course of time it should develop and expand its ritual according to the needs of the people. Moreover, the first period was an age of persecution and hence the ceremonial was necessarily curtailed. While gold, silver, incense and precious clothes for the ministers had their origins in the earliest time of the Church, they became increasingly more expensive, like the churches and chapels became large edifices instead of home or graveyard oratories. So when persecution ceased, the Church began immediately to expand her ceremony, changing and modifying the old forms and introducing new rites according to the requirements of public liturgical worship, so that the liturgy would be more dignified, more magnificent, and more impressive. In the beginning great liberty was allowed the individual celebrant to improvise the prayers of the liturgy, provided that he adhered to the strict form in essentials and followed the theme demanded, but at a later date, the Church felt the need of a set of formularies and fixed ceremonies, lest dogmatic errors should find expression in the liturgy and thus corrupt the faith of the people. In the 4th century all these tendencies to expansion and development are very noticeable in all the liturgies. This is true, also, of the Church in what is now called North Africa in the second period of the history of the African liturgy which embraces the fourth, fifth, sixth, and 7th centuries to the beginning of the 8th century, when Christianity in (North) Africa practically disappeared with the rise of Islam in the region. No liturgical books or codices belonging to this period are extant, so the liturgy must be reconstructed from contemporary writings and monuments. Of the writers of the period St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo (354-430) is richest in allusions to ceremonies and formularies, but St. Optatus, Marius Victorinus, Arnobius, and Victor Vitensis give some useful information. The inscriptions, which are more numerous in this period, and the archaeological discoveries also furnish some liturgical data.  The beginning of a real ecclesiastical calendar, with definitely fixed feasts and fasts, now appears. The great feast of Easter, upon which all the movable feasts depended, is celebrated with even greater solemnity than in the time of Tertullian. Before Easter there was a period of forty days' preparation, devoted to fasting and other works of penance. The vigil of Easter was celebrated with the usual ritual, but the length of the offices seems to have been increased. The Paschal solemnity was followed by a season of fifty days' rejoicing until Pentecost day, which, in the 4th century, appears to have a distinctive character as the commemoration of the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the Apostles rather than as the close of the Easter season. In Holy Week, Holy Thursday commemorated the institution of the Eucharist, and according to St. Augustine, besides the morning Mass, a Mass was also celebrated in the evening in order to carry out all the circumstances of the institution at the Last Supper. Good Friday was observed by attending the long liturgical offices, while Holy Saturday was celebrated in about the same manner as in the time of Tertullian. Ascension Day seems to have been introduced in the 4th century (though possibly earlier in churches elsewhere), but in the time of St. Augustine it was already universally observed. As for the immovable feasts, Christmas and Epiphany, which were unknown or seemed unimportant to Tertullian, were celebrated already with the greatest solemnity in the early 5th century. The first of January was observed not as the feast of the Circumcision, but as a fast day which had been instituted for the purpose of turning the people away from the celebration of the pagan festivities which still took place at that time of the year by the still numerous pagans of the Roman Empire. (Only after 389 AD would the pagan 1 January festivals cease.) Feasts of other than local saints were introduced, for instance, immediately after Christmas, the feast of St. Stephen the Proto-Martyr, of the Holy Innocents of Bethlehem and of Sts. James and John, and later in the year, the feasts of St. John the Baptist, of Sts. Peter and Paul, of the holy Maccabees, of St. Lawrence, St. Vincent, etc. The festivals of the local martyrs were celebrated with even greater solemnity than in early times, and were often accompanied by luxurious secular feasting after the church services (drinking, singing and eating) which was frequently condemned in some sermons of the time, on account of abuses. When such a large number of feasts was annually observed, it was to be expected that a list or calendar would be drawn up, and, in truth, a calendar was drawn up for the use of the Church of Carthage in the beginning of the 6th century, from which very important information concerning the institution and history of the great feast days may be obtained.  When Christianity received legal recognition in the Roman Empire (313 AD), Christians began to construct churches and adorn them to serve their purpose. Most of these were built in the old basilica style, with some few differences. The churches were dedicated in honour of the holy martyrs frequently, and relics of the martyrs were placed beneath the altars. The inscriptions of the period mention the dedication to the martyrs and also the fact that the relics were placed in the church or in the altar. The altar itself, called "mensa" (table), was generally made of wood, but sometimes of stone, and was covered over with linen cloths. There was a special rite for dedicating churches and also for consecrating altars, in which blessed water and the sign of the cross were used. The blessing and consecrating took place by the bishop.  The Mass became a daily function celebrated every morning when the Christians could meet frequently without fear of persecution, and when the increased number of feasts required a more frequent celebration of the liturgical offices. Little is known with precision and certitude of the composition of the different parts of the African post-Nicene Mass, but still there are many allusions in various authors which give some valuable information. The Mass of the catechumens consisted of psalms and lessons from the Scriptures. These lessons were chosen from both the Old and New Testaments, and it would seem that there were three lessons as in some of the Oriental liturgies, one from the Old Testament, one from the Epistles in the New Testament, and one from the Gospels. The Third Council of Carthage decreed that only lessons from the canonical books of Scripture or from the acts of the martyrs on their feast days might be read in the churches. Between the Epistle and Gospel a psalm containing some idea in harmony with the feast of the day was recited, and corresponded to the gradual or tract in the Roman Mass. An alleluia was also sung, more or less solemnly, especially on Sundays and during the fifty days' prolongation of the Easter festival. The lessons from the Scriptures were generally followed by a homily, after which both the catechumens and the penitents were dismissed, and the Mass of the faithful commenced. This rule of dismissing the catechumens, etc., seems to have been strictly observed, since nearly all the Northwest African writers in their sermons or other works use expressions which indicate that their words would be intelligible only to the initiated, and that the catechumens were ignorant of the mysteries celebrated in the Mass of the faithful. The litany may have been recited after the Gospel, although its precise position cannot be determined with certainty. The litany consisted of short petitions for the various needs of the Church, resembling somewhat the petitions in the present Roman Rite Litany of the Saints, or perhaps the prayers for different classes of persons, or necessities of the Church which are now recited on Good Friday. The people probably responded with an acclamation like "Kyrie eleison", or - more logically - "Te rogamus audi nos".  In the time of St. Augustine a chant for the Offertory was introduced in the Church of Carthage; it consisted of a psalm having some reference to the oblation, and was sung while the people were making their offerings to the Church/liturgy (money, goods). Each of the faithful was supposed to bring an offering for his or her holy communion. The offerings, pure wheat bread and wine, were received by the bishop and placed upon the altar, with the appropriate prayers, and then the bishop proceeded with the Mass. Other offerings were put down before the sacred space around the altar, not inside it. The Latin-spoken Dominus vobiscum preceded the Preface. The canon of the Mass was known in Africa as the "actio", or agenda, and was mentioned but very seldom on account of the "discipline of the secret". There are, however, some passages in the African writers which show that there was a great similarity between the African actio and the Roman Eucharistic Canon, so much so that some of the texts when put in juxtaposition are almost identical. The actio contained the usual prayers, the commemoration for the living and the dead, the words of institution and sanctification of the sacrifice, the commemoration of Christ's life, the Pater Noster, and the preparation for Communion. The Pater Noster seems to have held the same position that it now has in the Roman canon, and it was said before the Communion, as St. Augustine states, because in the Lord's Prayer we beseech God to forgive our offences, and thus we may approach the communion table with better dispositions. The kiss of peace followed shortly after the Pater Noster, and was closely connected with the Communion, being regarded as a symbol of the fraternal union existing between all those who partook of the Body and Blood of Christ, being united through Him. The faithful received communion frequently, and were encouraged in the practice of receiving daily communion. At the proper time the communicants approached the altar and there partook of the Eucharist under both species, answering "Amen" to the formula pronounced by the priest in order to profess their faith in the sacrament just received. During the distribution of communion the thirty-third psalm was recited or sung, because that psalm contained some verses considered appropriate for the Communion. Prayers of thanksgiving were then said, and the people dismissed from the church with a benediction (presbyteral or episcopal blessing in the form of the cross).  The prayers accompanying the administration of the other sacraments seem to have become more fixed and to have lengthened since the time of Tertullian. For the more decorous and convenient administration of the Sacrament of Baptism, large adorned baptisteries were erected, in which the ceremony was carried out with great solemnity. The African Church seems to have followed practically the same ritual as the Roman Church during the catechumenate, which lasted for the forty days preceding Easter. St. Augustine, for instance, speaks of teaching the catechumens the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer (Our Father), and of the rites for the Vigil of Easter, as if they were in accord with those in use at Rome; but there appears to be only one unction with sacred oil, that after baptism, and the kiss of peace after baptism is still given as in the days of St. Cyprian. Victor Vitensis asserts that the African Church admitted the feast of the Epiphany as a day appointed for the solemn administration of baptism according to the custom prevailing in the Oriental churches. The neophytes were confirmed after baptism through the imposition of hands and the unction with chrism on the forehead in the form of a cross, and on the same day they seem to have received their first holy communion with about the same ceremonies as in the ante-Nicene period of persecutions. The rite for the Sacrament of Penance shows few peculiarities in Africa; public penances were imposed and the reconciliation of penitents was effected in the same manner as in the age of Tertullian. (By personal, often public, confession and absolution by the bishop, incidentally by the priest, after a long time of penitential fasting.)  Matrimony is often mentioned, especially by St. Augustine, who speaks of the nuptial blessing and the various other ceremonies, civil and religious, connected with it.  As the Sacrament of Holy Orders had a more public character like the Eucharist, it is frequently alluded to in the writings and inscriptions of the post-Nicene time. Allusions are made to the various orders and to ordination, but there is scarcely ever a description of the rite of ordination, or an explanation of the formulas. It might be noted that the archdeacon now appears and has special functions assigned to him. Clerics began their ecclesiastical career as lectors often at a tender (very young) age, and the lectors formed a "schola" (school of cantors), which sang the ecclesiastical offices in Latin chant. Later on, the lectors became chanters, and their duties were given to the other ministers. St. Augustine also speaks frequently of the ceremony of the consecration of virgins, which seems to have been reserved to the bishops. The veil might be received by female faithful at a much younger age in Africa than at Rome.  The faithful showed the same loving care and respect to the bodies of the departed as in the ante-Nicene period, but now the funeral rites were longer and more solemn. Prayers were said for the dead as before, Mass was also offered for the souls of the faithful departed, and special rites took place while the funeral procession was on the way and when the body was entombed. The names of the dead were recited in the diptychs, and special proto-Requiem Mass was offered for them on the anniversaries of death. Moreover, the inscriptions of this age contain beautiful sentiments of hope in a happy future life for those who had lived and died in the peace of the Lord, and beseech God to grant eternal rest and beatitude to those who trust in His mercy. Many of these expressions are very similar to the phrases now used in the Roman Rite during the obsequies of the dead.  The Divine Office was gradually developing, but was still in a very rudimentary state. It consisted of the recitation or chanting of psalms and canticles, of versicles and acclamations, and the reading of portions of the Scriptures. There was a special collection of canticles taken from the Old Testament in use in the African Church, and perhaps, also, a collection of hymns of St. Ambrose. Many of the versicles quoted in the writings of the time may be now found in the present Roman liturgy. St. Augustine was evidently opposed to the growing tendency to abandon the simple recitative tone and make the chant of the offices more solemn, complex and ornate as the ceremonial became more formal. Gradually the formularies became more fixed, and liberty to improvise was curtailed by the African councils. Few, however, of the prayers have been preserved, although many shorter verses and acclamations have been quoted in the writings of the period, as for example, the "Deo Gratias", "Deo Laudes", and "Amen", with which the people approved the words of the preacher, or the doxologies and conclusions of some of the prayers. The people still used the sign of the cross frequently in their private devotions as in the more difficult days of Tertullian (when the Christians were still under persecution). Other ceremonial acts in common use were striking the breast as a sign of penance, extending the arms in the form of a cross (especially clerics during the liturgy did so), kneeling during prayers, etc., all of which had been handed down from primitive times. Such are some of the most important data furnished by the early writers and inscriptions concerning the liturgy of the African Church, and they are useful to show the peculiarities of the Latin rite in Africa (now: North Africa, except originally Alexandrian Rite Egypt) as well as the similarity between the African and other liturgies.

In the history of Christianity, the African Rite refers to a now defunct Christian, Western liturgical rite, and is considered a development or possibly a local use of the primitive Roman Rite. Centered around the Archdiocese of Carthage in the Early African church, it used the Latin language.

Severoafrický ritus se užíval v křesťanské liturgii v severozápadní Africe od počátku 2. století. Byl velmi podobný římskému ritu, na rozdíl od něj však po prvním nikajském koncilu užíval jako liturgický jazyk výlučně latinu (před ním se používala rovněž řečtina). Jeho podoba není známa z písemných pramenů, z nichž se dochovaly pouze fragmenty, nýbrž ze spisů afrických církevních otců, především sv. Augustina a Tertuliána. V roce 695 vpadli do severní Afriky Arabové a během několika staletí tam křesťanství zcela potlačili.


History.

The modern town of Levuka was founded around 1820 by European settlers and traders as the first modern town in the Fiji Islands, and became an important port and trading post. A disparate band of settlers made up Levuka's population – traders, missionaries, shipwrights, speculators, and vagabonds, as well as respectable businessmen.  The US Exploring Expedition visited in 1840.  Marist priests, led by Father Breheret, established a mission in Levuka in 1858. By 1870, the town had a population of more than 800. When the first modern nation state of Fiji was founded in 1871, Seru Epenisa Cakobau was crowned King at Levuka. After Fiji was annexed as a British colony in 1874, Levuka remained the capital until 1877, when the administration was moved to Suva, although the move was not made official until 1882. The move was prompted by concerns that the 600-meter high hills, many with cliffs, surrounding Levuka gave it no room for expansion.  Levuka is famous for many of Fiji's "firsts." It was the site of Fiji's first bank, post office, school, private members club, hospital, town hall, and municipal government. Fiji's first newspaper, the Fiji Times, which is still in operation today, was founded in Levuka in 1869. Levuka's Royal Hotel is the oldest hotel in the South Pacific still operating. Historians have not ascertained its exact age, but records show that it was in existence by the early 1860s. Levuka Public School, opened in 1879, was the first public school in Fiji and many of Fiji's leaders in the years leading up to and following independence in 1970 were educated there. The oldest Masonic lodge in the South Pacific, Lodge Polynesia 562 SC, is also to be found in Levuka. It was established in 1875. Levuka was also the site of Fiji's first public electricity system, which began in 1927, three days before the capital Suva was electrified.

Arson.

Much of Levuka's heritage is in its wooden architecture which is highly vulnerable to fire. The Masonic Lodge, Levuka's only Romanesque building was set on fire during the period of lawlessness and unrest following Fiji's 2000 coup. There is much controversy about the Masonic fraternity in Fiji, the dominant traditional Christian faiths consider Masons to be devil-worshipers. The Lodge contained priceless historical artefacts and records of Levuka's history dating back to 1875. The arsonists have yet to be identified and prosecuted.  In 2008, Levuka's PAFCO Cold Storage Plant which was located next the town's main road was destroyed by a fire caused during welding maintenance works. In more recent years, the old Mavida Guest house and the old General Store on Levuka's main street have also burnt down. The General Store Building housed the Westpac Bank, Air Fiji and a Supermarket and, being over 100 years old, was part of the then proposed (now established) UNESCO National Heritage Site. Rumors of arson abound in relation to the fires but no prosecutions have been made. In April 2010, Levuka's Chief Fire Authority Officer was quoted in the national paper as saying that Levuka is: ‘...a fire hazard waiting to happen...’, he points out in the article that there are no fire hydrants in the town and that virtually no buildings have fire extinguishers or fire alarm systems.

Economic activities.

Levuka's status as a stopover port for ocean vessels crossing the Pacific came to an end in the 1950s, threatening the town with economic extinction. In 1964, however, the Pacific Fishing Company (PAFCO) was founded by a Japanese firm, specialising in freezing and shipping canned tuna, mostly to markets in Europe and Canada. A cannery, a joint PAFCO-government venture, was opened in 1976, and is the largest private employer on the island of Ovalau. Owing largely to Levuka's isolation, tourism plays only a minor role in the Levuka/Ovalau economy.

Governance and politics.

Levuka has been incorporated as a Town since 1877, and is governed by a Town Council of 8 members, elected for 3-year terms. The municipal elections of 22 October 2005 resulted in a defeat for the SDL of outgoing Mayor Taniela Bulivou, with the Balance Party taking 6 of the 8 seats. The new council elected George Gibson to succeed Bulivou; the Mayoral term is for one year, but may be extended any number of times. The council has recently been suspended by the interim government of Fiji and a local administrator (Napolionio Masirewa) has been named.

Landmarks.

At the northern end of Levuka is the traditional Fijian village of Levuka. The village chief, who bears the title of "Tui Levuka", is a direct descendant of the chief who welcomed the first European settlers. In memory of his ancestor, he is also known as ""Tamana na vavalagi"" (Father of the Europeans). At the southern end of the town lies the village of Nasova, where the King Seru Epenisa Cakobau signed the Deed of Cession, ceding the islands to Great Britain on 10 October 1874.  The Levuka Community Centre, which houses a branch of the Fiji Museum, a public library, crafts centre, kindergarten, squash court and meeting hall, occupies a renovated store built in 1878 by Morris Hedstrom, a trading company established in Levuka's early days and still in business in Fiji. Morris Hedstrom gave the building to the National Trust of Fiji in 1980. Adjacent to the Levuka Community Centre stands Queens Wharf, with a maximum depth of eight meters. Upgraded in the 1990s, it is used mostly by local craft, though foreign vessels sometimes dock, Levuka being one of three official ports of entry to Fiji (Suva and Lautoka being the other two).  Other well-known landmarks include Sacred Heart Church, a legacy of the Marist Fathers, who arrived in 1858, the Ovalau Club, one of the oldest social organisations in the Pacific, and Levuka Town Hall, which houses the Levuka Town Council. It was built in 1898 in honour of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee.

Levuka is a town on the eastern coast of the Fijian island of Ovalau, in Lomaiviti Province, in the Eastern Division of Fiji. It was formerly the capital of Fiji. At the census in 2007, the last to date, Levuka town had a population of 1,131 (plus 3,266 living in the peri-urban area as defined by the Bureau of Statistics), about half of Ovalau's 8,360 inhabitants. It is the economic hub and the largest of 24 settlements on the island. Levuka and the island of Ovalau had been seeking recognition from UNESCO as a World Heritage Site for decades, finally being designated in June 2013.

Levuka je bývalé hlavní město souostroví Fidži v Tichém oceánu. Leží na východě ostrova Ovalau ve východní části souostroví, nedaleko ostrova Viti Levu a je součástí souostroví Lomaiviti. Ve městě dnes žije přibližně 4 000 obyvatel.