Early life.

Connor was born in 1897 in Selma, Alabama, the son of Molly (Godwin) and Hugh King Connor, a train dispatcher and telegraph operator. He entered politics as a Democrat in 1934 winning a seat in the Alabama House of Representatives. As a legislator, he supported populist measures and pro-union issues for white people. He voted for extending the poll tax, which served as a barrier to voter registration by poor blacks and whites, and against an anti-sedition bill intended to stifle union activity. He did not stand for a second term in 1936, instead running for Commissioner of Public Safety for the City of Birmingham. Concurrently during this period, Connor served as the radio play-by-play broadcaster of the minor league Birmingham Barons baseball club spanning the 1932 through 1936 seasons. Willie Mays remembered listening to him call games: "Pretty good announcer, too, although I think he used to get too excited."

Commissioner of Public Safety (1936–1954, 1957–1963).

In 1936, Connor was elected to the office of Commissioner of Public Safety of Birmingham, beginning the first of two stretches that spanned a total of 26 years. His first term ended in 1952, but he was re-elected in 1956, serving to 1963.  In 1938, Connor ran as a candidate for Governor of Alabama. He announced he would be campaigning on a platform of "protecting employment practices, law enforcement, segregation and other problems that have been historically classified as states' rights by the Democratic party".  In 1948, Connor's officers arrested the U.S. Senator from Idaho, Glen H. Taylor. He was the running mate of Progressive Party presidential candidate Henry Wallace, former Democratic Vice President. Taylor, who had attempted to speak to the Southern Negro Youth Congress, was arrested for violating Birmingham's racial segregation laws. Connor's effort to enforce the law was caused by the group's reported communist philosophy, with Connor noting at the time, "There's not enough room in town for Bull and the Commies."  During the 1948 Democratic National Convention, Connor led the Alabama delegation in a walkout when the national party included a civil rights plank in its platform. The offshoot States' Rights Democratic Party (Dixiecrats) nominated Strom Thurmond for president at its convention in Birmingham's Municipal Auditorium.  Connor's second run for governor fell flat in 1954. He was the center of controversy that year by pushing through a city ordinance in Birmingham that outlawed "communism."

Civil rights era.

Before returning to office in 1956, Connor quickly resumed his brutal approach to dealing with perceived threats to the social order. His forces raided a meeting at the house of African-American activist Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth, where three Montgomery ministers were attending. He feared that the Montgomery Bus Boycott that was under way would spread to Birmingham, in an effort to integrate city buses. He had the ministers arrested on charges of vagrancy, which did not allow a prisoner bail, nor any visitors during the first three days of their incarceration. A federal investigation followed, but Connor refused to cooperate.  Shuttlesworth had led civil rights activities despite being threatened with violence. His church was bombed twice. He, his wife, and a white minister were attacked by a racist mob after attempting to use "white" restrooms at the local bus station, which had segregated facilities.  In 1960, Connor was elected Democratic National Committeeman for Alabama, soon after filing a civil lawsuit against "The New York Times" for $1.5 million. He objected to what he claimed was their insinuation that he had promoted racial hatred. He dropped his claim for damages to $400,000; the case dragged on for six years until Connor lost a $40,000 judgment on appeal.

Freedom Riders.

In the spring of 1961, integrated teams of civil rights activists mounted what they called "Freedom Rides" to highlight the illegal imposition of racial segregation on interstate buses, whose operations came under federal law and the constitution. They had teams on Greyhound and Trailways buses to travel through southern capitals, with the final stop intended as New Orleans. The teams encountered increasing hostility and violence as they made their way deeper into the South.  On May 2, 1961, Connor had won a landslide election for his sixth term as Commissioner of Public Safety in Birmingham. As Commissioner, he had administrative authority over the police and fire departments, schools, public health service, and libraries, all of which were segregated by state law. Tom King, a candidate running for mayor of Birmingham, met with Connor on May 8, 1961, to pay his respects. In addition, he asked him to refrain from announcing support for the other leading mayoral candidate, Art Hanes, so that King's chances would be greater. At the end of the meeting, Connor noted that he was expecting the Freedom Riders to reach Birmingham the following Sunday, Mother's Day. He stated, "We'll be ready for them, too," and King responded, "I bet you will, Commissioner," as he walked out.  After a stop in Anniston, Alabama, the Greyhound bus of the Freedom Riders was attacked. They were offered no police protection. After they left the town, they were forced to stop by a violent mob that firebombed and burned the bus, but no activists were fatally hurt. A new Greyhound bus was placed into service and departed for Birmingham. The activists on the earlier Trailways bus had been accosted by KKK members who got on the bus in Atlanta and beat up the activists, pushing them all to the back of the bus.  The Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham on May 14, 1961. As the Trailways bus reached the terminal in Birmingham, a large mob of white Klansmen and news reporters was waiting for them. The Riders were viciously attacked soon after they disembarked from the bus and attempted to gain service at the all-white lunch counter. Some were taken to the loading dock area, away from reporters, but some reporters were also beaten with metal bars, pipes, and bats and one's camera was destroyed. After fifteen minutes, the police finally arrived, but by then most Klansmen had left.  Connor had intentionally let the Klansmen beat the Riders for fifteen minutes with no police interference. He publicly blamed the violence on many factors, saying that "No policemen were in sight as the buses arrived, because they were visiting their mothers on Mother's Day". He insisted that the violence came from out-of-town meddlers and that police had rushed to the scene "as quickly as possible." The violence was covered by national media.  He said: As I have said on numerous occasions, we are not going to stand for this in Birmingham. And if necessary we will fill the jail full and we don't care whose toes we step on. I am saying now to these meddlers from out of our city the best thing for them to do is stay out if they don't want to get slapped in jail. Our people of Birmingham are a peaceful people and we never have any trouble here unless some people come into our city looking for trouble. And I've never seen anyone yet look for trouble who wasn't able to find it.  In 1962, Connor ordered the closing of 60 Birmingham parks rather than follow a federal court order to desegregate public facilities.  In November 1962, Birmingham voters changed the city's form of government. Rather than an at-large election of three commissioners, who had specific oversight of certain city departments, there would be a mayor-council form of government. Members of the city council were to be elected from nine single-member districts. Blacks were still largely disenfranchised. The city had changed its government in response to the extremely negative perception of the city. It had been derisively nicknamed "Bombingham" by outsiders for the numerous attacks on the homes and churches of black civil rights activists. For instance, in 1961 when the president of the city's Chamber of Commerce was visiting Japan, he saw a newspaper photo of a bus engulfed in flames, which occurred during the Freedom Rides. Bull Connor arranged for opponents to have time to attack civil rights activists when their bus reached Birmingham.  Endorsed by Governor George C. Wallace, Connor attempted to run for mayor, but lost on April 2, 1963. Connor and his fellow commissioners filed suit to block the change in power, but on May 23, 1963, the Supreme Court of Alabama ruled against them. Connor ended his 23-year tenure in the post. Citing a general law, he had argued that the change could not take effect until the October 1 following the date of the election, but the Supreme Court of Alabama held that the general law was preempted by a special law applicable to only the City of Birmingham.

Birmingham campaign.

Local civil rights activists had been unable to negotiate much change with the city or business leaders, in their efforts to gain integration of facilities and hiring of blacks by local businesses. They invited Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and his team to help mount a more concerted campaign. The day after the April election, he and local civil rights leaders began "Project 'C'" (for "confrontation") in Birmingham against the business community. They used economic boycotts and demonstrations to seek integration of stores and job opportunities. Throughout April 1963 Martin Luther King led smaller demonstrations, which resulted in his arrest along with many others.  King wanted to have massive arrests to highlight the brutal police tactics used by Connor and his subordinates. (By extension, the campaign was intended to demonstrate the general suppression by other Southern police officials as well). After King was arrested and jailed, he wrote his "Letter from Birmingham Jail," which became noted as an expression of moral argument for civil rights activism. The goal of the campaign was to gain mass arrests of non-violent protesters and overwhelm the judicial and penal systems. It would also demonstrate to national media and local residents the strong desire of African Americans to exercise their constitutional rights as citizens.

Children's Crusade.

In the final phase of Project C, James Bevel, SCLC's Director of Direct Action, introduced a revolutionary and controversial new tactic to use young people in the demonstrations. Most adults were working and could not afford to keep losing time at work. On May 2, 1963, the first youths and students walked out of the 16th Street Baptist Church and attempted to march to Birmingham's City Hall to talk to the Mayor. By the end of the day, 959 children, ranging from ages 6–18, had been arrested.  The next day, even more students joined the marches. Connor ordered the use of fire hoses and attack dogs against them. This did not stop the demonstrators, but generated bad publicity for Connor through the news media. The use of fire hoses continued and by May 7, Connor and the police department had jailed more than 3,000 demonstrators.  The blacks' economic boycott of businesses that refused to hire them and downtown stores that kept segregated facilities helped gain negotiation by the city's business leaders. The SCLC and the Senior Citizens Committee, who represented a majority of Birmingham businesses, came to an agreement. On May 10, they agreed on desegregation of lunch counters, restrooms, fitting rooms and drinking fountains at department stores, the upgrading in position and hiring of blacks, cooperation with SCLC legal representatives in releasing all jailed persons, and the establishment of formal communication between black and whites through the Senior Citizens Committee.

Later life and death.

On June 3, 1964, Connor resumed a place in government when he was elected as President of the Alabama Public Service Commission. He suffered a stroke on December 7, 1966, and he used a wheelchair for the rest of his life. He was present on February 16, 1968, when the Haleyville, Alabama police station made the first use of 9-1-1 as an emergency telephone number in the United States. Months later, Connor won another term, but he was defeated in 1972.  He suffered another stroke on February 26, 1973, which left him unconscious. He died a few weeks later, in March of that year. Survivors included his widow, Beara, a daughter and a brother, Edward King Connor.

Legacy.

Connor's brutality and tolerance for violence against civil rights activists contributed to Ku Klux Klan and other violence against blacks in the city of Birmingham. On a Sunday in September 1963, the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing destroyed a portion of the church basement causing the death of four African-American girls. The church was known as the center of civil rights activities in Birmingham. The city and movement leaders had just reached a negotiated agreement on integration of facilities and jobs. The deaths of the children prompted the Attorney General Robert Kennedy to call Governor George Wallace and threaten to send in federal troops to control violence and bombings in Birmingham.

Theophilus Eugene “Bull” Connor (July 11, 1897 – March 10, 1973) was an American politician who served as Commissioner of Public Safety for the city of Birmingham, Alabama, for more than two decades. He strongly opposed the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. Under the city commission government, Connor had responsibility for administrative oversight of the Birmingham Fire Department and the Birmingham Police Department, which also had their own chiefs. Connor was a Southern Democrat.

Theophilius Eugene Connor (11. července 1897 – 10. března 1973), známý spíše jako Bull Connor, byl americký politik, který negativně proslul především svým působením na pozici komisaře veřejné bezpečnosti ve městě Birmingham v Alabamě a také bojem proti aktivitám Afroamerického hnutí za občanská práva v 60. letech 20. století. Connor byl pověřen dohledem nad birminghamským požárním sborem a také nad birminghamskou policií. Byl členem Demokratické strany.


Synopsis.

Working like genetic scissors, the Cas9 nuclease opens both strands of the targeted sequence of DNA to introduce the modification by one of two methods. Knock-in mutations, facilitated via homology directed repair (HDR), is the traditional pathway of targeted genomic editing approaches. This allows for the introduction of targeted DNA damage and repair. HDR employs the use of similar DNA sequences to drive the repair of the break via the incorporation of exogenous DNA to function as the repair template. This method relies on the periodic and isolated occurrence of DNA damage at the target site in order for the repair to commence. Knock-out mutations caused by CRISPR-Cas9 result in the repair of the double-stranded break by means of non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). NHEJ can often result in random deletions or insertions at the repair site, which may disrupt or alter gene functionality. Therefore, genomic engineering by CRISPR-Cas9 gives researchers the ability to generate

History.

Predecessors.

In the early 2000s, researchers developed zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), synthetic proteins whose DNA-binding domains enable them to create double-stranded breaks in DNA at specific points. In 2010, synthetic nucleases called transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) provided an easier way to target a double-stranded break to a specific location on the DNA strand. Both zinc finger nucleases and TALENs require the design and creation of a custom

Patents and commercialization.

, SAGE Labs (part of Horizon Discovery group) had exclusive rights from one of those companies to produce and sell genetically engineered rats and non-exclusive rights for mouse and rabbit models., Thermo Fisher Scientific had licensed intellectual property from ToolGen to develop CRISPR reagent kits. , patent rights to CRISPR were contested. Several companies formed to

Recent events.

In March 2017, the European Patent Office (EPO) announced its intention to allow broad claims for editing all kinds of cells to Max-Planck Institute in Berlin, University of California, and University of Vienna, and in August 2017, the EPO announced its intention to allow CRISPR claims in a patent application that MilliporeSigma had

Genome engineering.

CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing is carried out with a Type II CRISPR system. When utilized for genome editing, this system includes Cas9, crRNA, and tracrRNA along with an optional section of DNA repair template that is utilized in either non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homology directed repair (HDR).

Major components.

CRISPR-Cas9 often employs a plasmid to transfect the target cells. The main components of this plasmid are displayed in the image and listed in the table. The crRNA is uniquely designed for each application, as this is the sequence that Cas9 uses to identify and directly bind to specific sequences within the host cell's DNA. The crRNA must bind only where editing

Structure.

CRISPR-Cas9 offers a high degree of fidelity and relatively simple construction. It depends on two factors for its specificity: the target sequence and the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence. The target sequence is 20 bases long as part of each CRISPR locus in the crRNA array. A typical crRNA array has multiple unique target sequences. Cas9 proteins select the correct location on the host's genome by utilizing the sequence to bond with base pairs on the host DNA. The sequence is not part of the Cas9 protein and as a result is customizable and can be independently synthesized.  The PAM sequence on the host genome is recognized by Cas9. Cas9 cannot be easily modified to recognize a different PAM sequence. However, this is ultimately not too limiting, as it is

Delivery.

Delivery of Cas9, sgRNA, and associated complexes into cells can occur via viral and non-viral systems. Electroporation of DNA, RNA, or ribonucleocomplexes is a common technique, though it can result in harmful effects on the target

Controlled genome editing.

Several variants of CRISPR-Cas9 allow gene activation or genome editing with an external trigger such as light or small molecules. These include photoactivatable CRISPR systems developed by fusing light-responsive protein partners with an activator domain and a dCas9 for gene activation, or by fusing similar light-responsive domains with two constructs of split-Cas9, or by incorporating caged unnatural amino acids into Cas9, or by modifying the guide RNAs with photocleavable complements for genome editing.  Methods to control

CRISPR screening.

The clustered regularly interspaced short palindrome repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 system is a new gene-editing technology that can induce double-strand breaks (DSBs), single-strand nicks, or anywhere guide ribonucleic acids (RNAs) can bind with the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence. By simple changing sequence of gRNA, Cas9-endonuclease can be delivered to a gene of interest and induce DSBs. The efficiency of Cas9-endonuclease and the ease by which genes can be targeted led to the development of CRISPR-knockout (KO) libraries both for mouse and human cells, which can cover either specific gene sets of interest or the whole-genome. CRISPR screening helps scientist to create a systematic and high-throughput genetic perturbation within live model organisms. This genetic perturbation is necessary for fully understanding gene function and epigenetic regulation. The advantage of pooled CRISPR libraries is that more genes can be targeted at once.  Knock-out libraries are created in a way to achieve equal representation and performance across all expressed gRNAs and carry an antibiotic or fluorescent selection marker that can be used to recover transduced cells. There are two plasmid systems in CRISPR/Cas9 libraries. First, is all in one plasmid, where sgRNA and Cas9 are produced simultaneously in a transfected cell. Second, is a two-vector system: sgRNA and Cas9 plasmids are delivered separetly.

Applications.

Disease models.

Cas9 genomic modification has allowed for the quick and efficient generation of transgenic models within the field of genetics. Cas9 can be easily introduced into the target cells along with sgRNA via plasmid transfection in order to model the spread of diseases and the cell's response to and defense against infection. The ability of Cas9 to be introduced "in vivo" allows for the creation of more accurate models of gene function and mutation effects, all while avoiding the off-target mutations typically observed with older methods of genetic engineering.  The CRISPR and Cas9 revolution in genomic modeling does not extend only to mammals.

Biomedicine.

CRISPR-Cas technology has been proposed as a treatment for multiple human diseases, especially those with a genetic cause. Its ability to modify specific DNA sequences makes it a tool with potential to fix disease-causing mutations. Early research in animal models suggest that therapies based on CRISPR technology have potential to treat a wide range of diseases, including cancer, beta-thalassemia, sickle cell disease, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, Huntington's disease, and heart disease. CRISPR may also have applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, such as by creating human blood vessels that lack expression of MHC class II proteins, which often cause transplant rejection.

CRISPR in the treatment of infection.

CRISPR-Cas-based "RNA-guided nucleases" can be used to target virulence factors, genes encoding antibiotic resistance, and other medically relevant sequences of interest. This technology thus represents a novel form of antimicrobial therapy and a strategy by which to manipulate bacterial populations. Recent studies suggest a correlation between the interfering of the CRISPR-Cas locus and acquisition of antibiotic resistance. This system provides protection of bacteria against invading foreign DNA, such as transposons, bacteriophages, and plasmids. This system was shown to be a strong selective pressure for the acquisition of antibiotic resistance and virulence factor in bacterial pathogens.  Therapies based on CRISPR–Cas3 gene editing technology delivered

CRISPR and cancer.

CRISPR had been studied in animal models and cancer cell lines, to learn if it can be used to repair or thwart mutated genes that cause cancer.  The first clinical trial involving CRISPR started in 2016. It involved removing immune cells from people with lung cancer, using CRISPR to edit out the gene expressed PD-1, then administrating the altered cells back to the same person. 20 other trials were under way or nearly ready, mostly in China,.  In 2016, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a clinical trial in which CRISPR would be used to alter T cells extracted from people with different kinds of cancer and then administer those engineered T cells back to the same people.

Knockdown/activation.

Using "dead" versions of Cas9 (dCas9) eliminates CRISPR's DNA-cutting ability, while preserving its ability to target desirable sequences. Multiple groups added various regulatory factors to dCas9s, enabling them to turn almost any gene on or off or adjust its level of activity. Like RNAi, CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) turns off genes in a reversible fashion by targeting, but not cutting a site. The targeted site is methylated, epigenetically modifying the gene. This modification inhibits transcription. These precisely placed modifications may then be used to regulate the effects on gene expressions and DNA

RNA editing.

In 2016, researchers demonstrated that CRISPR from an ordinary mouth bacterium could be used to edit RNA. The researchers searched databases containing hundreds of millions of genetic sequences for those that resembled CRISPR genes. They considered the fusobacteria "Leptotrichia shahii". It had a group of genes that resembled CRISPR genes, but with important differences. When the researchers equipped other bacteria with these

Gene drive.

Gene drives may provide a powerful tool to restore balance of ecosystems by eliminating invasive species. Concerns regarding efficacy, unintended consequences in the target species as well as non-target species have been raised particularly in the potential for accidental release from laboratories into the wild. Scientists have

"In vitro" genetic depletion.

Unenriched sequencing libraries often have abundant undesired sequences. Cas9 can specifically deplete the undesired sequences with double strand breakage

Prime editing.

Prime editing (or base editing) is a CRISPR refinement to accurately insert or delete sections of DNA. The CRISPR edits are not always perfect and the cuts can end up in the wrong place. Both issues are a problem for using the technology in medicine. Prime editing does not cut the double-stranded DNA but instead uses the CRISPR targeting apparatus to shuttle an additional enzyme to a desired sequence, where it

Society and culture.

Human germline modification.

As of March 2015, multiple groups had announced ongoing research with the intention of laying the foundations for applying CRISPR to human embryos for human germline engineering, including labs in the US, China, and the UK, as well as US biotechnology company OvaScience. Scientists, including a CRISPR co-discoverer, urged a worldwide moratorium on applying CRISPR to the human germline, especially for clinical use. They said "scientists should avoid even attempting, in lax jurisdictions, germline genome modification for clinical application in humans" until the full implications "are discussed among scientific and governmental organizations". These scientists support further low-level research on CRISPR and do not see CRISPR as developed enough for any clinical use in making heritable changes to humans.  In April 2015, Chinese scientists reported results of an attempt to alter the DNA of non-viable human embryos using CRISPR to correct a mutation that causes beta thalassemia, a lethal heritable disorder. The study had previously been rejected by both "Nature" and "Science" in part because of ethical concerns. The experiments resulted in successfully changing only some of the intended genes, and had off-target effects on other genes. The researchers stated that CRISPR is not ready for clinical application in reproductive medicine. In April 2016, Chinese scientists were reported to have made a second unsuccessful

Policy barriers to genetic engineering.

Policy regulations for the CRISPR-Cas9 system vary around the globe. In February 2016, British scientists were given permission by regulators to genetically modify human embryos by using CRISPR-Cas9 and related techniques. However, researchers were forbidden from implanting the embryos and the embryos were to be destroyed after seven days.  The US has an elaborate, interdepartmental regulatory system to evaluate new genetically modified foods and crops. For example, the Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000 gives the United States Department of Agriculture the authority to oversee the detection, control, eradication, suppression, prevention, or retardation of the spread of plant pests or noxious weeds to protect the agriculture, environment, and economy of the US. The act regulates any genetically modified organism that utilizes the genome of a predefined "plant pest" or any plant not

Recognition.

In 2012 and 2013, CRISPR was a runner-up in "Science Magazine"'s Breakthrough of the Year award. In 2015, it was the winner of that award. CRISPR was named as one of "MIT Technology Review"s 10 breakthrough technologies

CRISPR gene editing is a genetic engineering technique in molecular biology by which the genomes of living organisms may be modified. It is based on a simplified version of the bacterial CRISPR-Cas9 antiviral defense system. By delivering the Cas9 nuclease complexed with a synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) into a cell, the cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, allowing existing genes to be removed and/or new ones added "in vivo".

Editace genu CRISPR je technika genetického inženýrství v molekulární biologii, kterou lze modifikovat genomy živých organismů. Je založen na zjednodušené verzi bakteriální CRISPR - Cas9 antivirovém obranným systému. Dodáním nukleasy Cas9 spojenou se syntetickou vodicí RNA (gRNA) do buňky je možné genom buňky štěpit na požadovaném místě, což umožňuje odstranit stávající geny a / nebo přidat nové geny "in vivo".


Early life.

Helmut Kleinicke was born on 19 November 1907 in Wildemann, in Lower Saxony, to a family of foresters. In his youth he studied civil engineering. He joined the Nazi Party in 1933. Although some survivors claimed that he had been an SS officer with the rank of "Obersturmbannführer", there is no documentary evidence that Kleinicke served in the SS, and his niece denied it. In 1941, Kleinicke was recruited into the team who started the planning and construction of Auschwitz concentration camp. Having just married a woman named Cilly, eleven years his junior, he moved to Chrzanów, close to the camp.

Rescue activities.

In Chrzanów, Kleinicke had to pick the Jewish inhabitants who were young and able-bodied to work in the camp. Kleinicke treated his workers relatively well and made efforts to prevent transports to the death camps in the later years of the war. He did not allow SS members to harm his employees. On some occasions, he warned Jews about upcoming roundups, rescued them from being deported, hid them in his attic and his shed, or helped them flee across the border. In late 1943, his supervisors suspected that he was helping Jews escape after noticing a trend of Jews in his care disappearing, and he was removed from his position and drafted into a Wehrmacht artillery unit to fight on the northern front. Many of his former employees who stayed after his departure survived the Holocaust and provided evidence for his deeds.

Postwar.

After the capitulation of Germany, Kleinicke was imprisoned by the British, and released in July 1945. In an affidavit from July 1948, Holocaust survivor Siegmund Engländer wrote that Kleinicke had saved Jews "without regard to his person", and that many of the survivors from Chrzanów owed their lives to his efforts. This and two similar letters convinced Kleinicke's denazification panel that he had not been a "convinced National Socialist". Kleinicke was exonerated in March 1949. He lived with his wife and only daughter (who was born after the war) in Clausthal-Zellerfeld. According to his daughter, he felt guilty that he had not saved more lives; he did not answer letters from the Jews that he had rescued. In January 1979, the American miniseries "Holocaust" was broadcast in Germany. Kleinicke watched it and was deeply affected. Three days later, he suffered a stroke, and died a few months afterwards.  At Beth Lohamei Haguetatot, Jews from Chrzanów meet annually for a reunion. Several of them survived the Holocaust because of Kleinicke's efforts. In a September 2015 documentary, Holocaust survivor Josef Königsberg testified that Kleinicke saved his life by removing him from a queue of men who were going to be deported. Spiegel Online then searched through Deutsche Dienststelle archives to corroborate the story. Yad Vashem recognized Kleinicke as Righteous Among the Nations in May 2018. The ceremony was held on 14 January 2020 at Yad Vashem, making Kleinicke the 628th German to be honoured by the organisation.

Helmut Kleinicke (; 19 November 1907 – 1979) was a German engineer who supervised construction projects at Auschwitz concentration camp and saved Jews during the Holocaust. Kleinicke was named Righteous Among the Nations in 2018; he, along with Oskar Schindler, Karl Plagge and Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz, is one of the few Nazi Party members to be given this award.

Helmut Kleinicke (19. listopadu 1907 Wildemann – 1979) byl německý stavební inženýr. Byl členem NSDAP, za druhé světové války však zachránil několik set Židů. Izrael mu proto v lednu 2020 udělil titul Spravedlivý mezi národy.


Design.

The Austro-Hungarian "Marinekommandant" (Navy Commander), "Vizeadmiral" (Vice Admiral) Maximilian Daublebsky von Sterneck, argued in a memorandum of 8 September 1884 addressed to Kaiser Franz Joseph I the fleet was too weak and must be expanded. The core of the fleet, ten ironclad warships were weak and out of date by international standards, the torpedo vessels were too few in number and too slow to be of use, and the wooden frigates and corvettes were useless as warships. He acknowledged that the government had failed to meet the fleet plan that had been outlined by "VAdm" Wilhelm von Tegetthoff in the early 1870s, owing to the chronically short naval budgets approved by the Imperial Council of Austria and the Diet of Hungary. Since new, more powerful, and thus more expensive ironclads could not be built, Sterneck made the argument that cheaper defensive weapons should be acquired; these included naval mines and more effective torpedo-armed ships. In the memorandum, he outlined requirements for a so-called "torpedo ram cruiser". Such a vessel should have a reinforced bow for ramming as well as torpedoes for attacks on larger warships. The cruisers would also be small and fast enough to undertake patrol and reconnaissance duties. Sterneck suggested a ship of about, with a speed of ; he also predicted that the type would lead to the development of larger vessels around, armed with large-caliber guns and protected only with deck armor. These latter ships would be capable of engaging ironclads directly, and would be much cheaper than traditional ironclads. Sterneck called for three of the 1,500-ton cruisers to be built, along with several other recommendations to strengthen the fleet. On 18 September, Franz Joseph replied to Sterneck, authorizing him to proceed with his plans. Since the fleet had no vessels of the type, and thus no experience designing cruisers to fit his requirements, offers were extended to five British shipyards, with the only design requirements being a speed of at least, an armament of guns, on the smallest possible displacement. The Austro-Hungarian Navy established a commission to examine the designs submitted by the British firms; Armstrong received the contract in part because they could build the ships more cheaply. The commission requested the ventilation for the boilers be improved, and requested that the armament consist of four deck-mounted torpedo tubes, two 12 cm guns, and ten Hotchkiss revolver cannon.  Naval architect Siegfried Popper was sent to Britain to supervise the construction of the ships. While the vessels were under construction, Popper discovered that the designers had made a serious error distributing the weight of the ships, such that the difference between the forward and aft draft was. To rectify the problem, Armstrong made a series of proposals, from simply adding of ballast to the bow, extending the forecastle deck, or replacing the 12 cm guns with heavier guns. All of these were rejected. Instead, a series of smaller changes were made to correct the trim, which included adding of iron ballast, increasing coal storage, increasing the thickness of the conning tower walls, lengthening the forecastle slightly, and shifting the storage for the pinnace and cutter forward.  By acquiring foreign built ships, the Austro-Hungarian Navy would also gain experience building modern small cruisers. In fact, "Panther" and "Leopard" provided the basis for the follow-on design,, which was a slightly enlarged version of the earlier ships. They were originally classified as "torpedo ships" ("Torpedoschiff"), equivalent of a torpedo cruiser in other navies. In 1903 they were reclassified as 3rd class cruisers, then in 1909 as small cruisers ("Kleine Kreuzer").

Characteristics.

The "Panther"-class cruisers were long between perpendiculars, long at the waterline, and long overall. They had a beam of and a draft of normally and when fully loaded. They displaced normally and up to at full load. Their crew numbered 13 officers and 165 men, though this later increased to 198.  The ships' propulsion system consisted of a pair of two-cylinder vertical compound steam engines. Steam was provided by six cylindrical fire-tube boilers that were trunked into two funnels. The engines were rated at for a top speed of. On trials, "Panther" reached a speed of from, slightly slower than her sister ship, which made from. These speeds were achieved using forced draft; running the machinery normally resulted in a speed of. During the speed trials, Armstrong experimented with using smaller screws with lower pitch in an attempt to exceed, but the tests proved unsuccessful. The ships had a cruising radius of at a more economical speed of. Unlike earlier cruising ships of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, "Panther" and "Lussin" did not carry a sailing rig to supplement their steam engines.  "Panther" and "Leopard" were armed with two 35-caliber (cal.) guns manufactured by Krupp in single mounts, which were sponsoned abreast of the funnels. These were supported by a battery of four 47 mm quick-firing guns and six 47 mm Hotchkiss revolver cannon. They were also armed with four torpedo tubes. The torpedo tubes were located singly, in the bow, stern, and at either beam. In June 1909, "Panther" was rearmed with four 45-cal. guns and ten 47 mm QF guns, along with her original torpedo tubes. "Leopard" was similarly reequipped the following year. The "Panther"-class ships were protected with a thin armored deck. The hatches above the engine room were thick.

Service history.

After their crews arrived to take them back to Austria-Hungary in early 1886, both vessels were taken into the navy's shipyard in Pola, where their armament was installed over the course of 1887, to include their torpedo tubes. Both ships took part in the Barcelona Universal Exposition, which saw a squadron of ironclads and cruisers sent to represent Austria-Hungary at the opening ceremonies. Coincidentally, both ships ran aground during training operations in late June 1888. The two cruisers spent much of the early 1890s laid up, with "Panther" being reactivated in 1896 for a major training cruise in the Pacific Ocean from May 1896 to February 1898, and "Leopard" returning to service in 1897 to participate in an international naval demonstration off the island of Crete during the Greco-Turkish War. "Leopard" went on a training cruise in the Pacific in 1900–1901 for naval cadets, while "Panther" spent those years in reserve. The latter went on a cruise to Morocco in 1902, and to eastern Africa in 1905 to arrange a trade treaty with Ethiopia before embarking on another cruise in the Pacific. In the meantime, "Leopard" served with the main Austro-Hungarian fleet in home waters in the mid-1900s.  "Leopard" went on another tour of the Pacific in 1907–1909, and she was relieved in East Asian waters by "Panther" in April 1909, the latter remaining there until November 1910. "Leopard" was laid up from 1910 to 1913, during which time "Panther" served as a station ship in Trieste. At the outbreak of World War I in July 1914, both ships were assigned to the Coastal Defense Special Group. "Panther" shelled Montenegrin forces on Mount Lovcen overlooking the naval base in Cattaro Bay in January 1916, supporting an offensive by the Austro-Hungarian army to take the heights; the action ultimately forced Montenegro out of the war. "Leopard" was stationed in Pola for the duration of the war. After Austria-Hungary's defeat in November 1918, both ships were ceded as war prizes to the victorious Allies, and Britain received both vessels under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Both were sold to Italian ship breakers in 1920.

The "Panther"-class was a group of two torpedo cruisers, and, built for the Austro-Hungarian Navy in the 1880s. The ships' primary armament was their four torpedo tubes, though they also carried a battery of medium and light-caliber guns. The ships were ordered in an effort to strengthen the defensive capabilities of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, during a period where funding for more expensive ironclad warships could not be secured from parliament. Since Austro-Hungarian naval designers did not have sufficient experience designing vessels of the type, the navy ordered the ships from the British Armstrong shipyard; work took from late 1884 to early 1886. After arriving in Austria-Hungary in 1886, the two ships served in a variety of roles. These included active duty with the main fleet in home waters, overseas training cruises, and showing the flag abroad. During World War I, the cruisers were mobilized for coastal defense duties, but saw no major action, apart from "Panther" shelling Montenegrin forces in 1916. After the war, both vessels were surrendered to Britain as war prizes and were broken up for scrap in 1920.

Třída Panther byla třída torpédových křižníků Rakousko-uherského námořnictva. Celkem byly postaveny dvě jednotky této třídy. Za první světové války již byly zastaralé. Po válce je získala Velká Británie. Roku 1920 byly sešrotovány.


Plot.

In Washington State in 1964, Selma Ježková, a Czech immigrant, has moved to the United States with her son, Gene Ježek. They live a life of poverty as Selma works at a factory with her good friend Kathy, whom she nicknames Cvalda. She rents a trailer home on the property of town policeman Bill Houston and his wife, Linda. She is also pursued by the shy but persistent Jeff, who also works at the factory.  Selma has a degenerative eye condition and is losing her vision. She has been saving up to pay for an operation which will prevent her young son from losing his vision. She also takes part in rehearsals for a production of "The Sound of Music" and accompanies Kathy to the local cinema, where together they watch fabulous Hollywood musicals, as Cvalda describes them to her.  In her day-to-day life, Selma slips into daydreams. Soon Jeff and Cvalda begin to realize that Selma can barely see at all. Additionally, Bill reveals to Selma that his materialistic wife spends more than his salary, and the bank is going to take his house. To comfort Bill, Selma reveals her eye condition, hoping that together they can keep each other's secret. Bill then hides in the corner of Selma's home, knowing she can't see him, and watches as she puts some money in her kitchen tin.  The next day, after having broken her machine the night before through careless error, Selma is fired from her job. When she comes home to put her final wages away she finds the tin is empty; she goes next door to report the theft to Bill and Linda, only to hear Linda discussing how Bill has brought home their safe deposit box to count their savings. Knowing that Bill was broke and that the money he is counting must be hers, she confronts him and attempts to take the money back. He draws a gun on her, and in a struggle he is wounded. Linda runs off to tell the police at Bill's command. Bill then begs Selma to take his life, telling her that this will be the only way she will ever reclaim the money that he stole from her. Selma shoots at him several times, but out of blindness manages to only maim Bill further. In the end, she performs a coup de grâce with the safe deposit box. Selma slips into a trance and imagines that Bill's corpse stands up and slow dances with her, urging her to run to freedom. She does, and takes the money to the Institute for the Blind to pay for her son's operation before the police can take it from her.  Selma is caught and eventually put on trial. It is here that she is pegged as a Communist sympathizer and murderer. Although she tells as much truth about the situation as she can, she refuses to reveal Bill's secret, saying that she had promised not to. Additionally, when her claim that the reason she did not have any money was because she had been sending it to her father in Czechoslovakia is proven false, she is convicted and given the death penalty. Cvalda and Jeff eventually put the pieces of the puzzle together and get back Selma's money, using it instead to pay for a trial lawyer who can free her. Selma becomes furious and refuses the lawyer, opting to face the death penalty rather than let her son go blind, but she is deeply distraught as she awaits her death. Although a sympathetic female prison guard named Brenda tries to comfort her, the other state officials are eager to see her executed. Brenda encourages Selma to walk. On the gallows, she becomes terrified, so that she must be strapped to a collapse board. Her hysteria when the hood is placed over her face delays the execution. Selma begins crying hysterically and Brenda cries with her, but Cvalda rushes to inform her that the operation was successful and that Gene will see. Relieved, Selma sings the final song on the gallows with no musical accompaniment, although she is hanged before she finishes.

Style.

Much of the film has a similar look to von Trier's earlier Dogme 95-influenced films: it is filmed on low-end, hand-held digital cameras to create a documentary-style appearance. It is not a true Dogme 95 film, however, because the Dogme rules stipulate that violence, non-diegetic music, and period pieces are not permitted. Trier differentiates the musical sequences from the rest of the film by using static cameras and by brightening the colours.

Production.

The film's title suggests the Fred Astaire/Cyd Charisse duet "Dancing in the Dark" from the 1953 film "The Band Wagon", which ties in with the film's musical theatre theme.  Actress Björk, who is known primarily as a contemporary composer, had rarely acted before, and has described the process of making this film as so emotionally taxing that she would not act in any film ever again (although in 2005, she appeared in Matthew Barney's "Drawing Restraint 9"). Deneuve and others have described her performance as feeling rather than acting. Björk has said that it is a misunderstanding that she was put off acting by this film; rather, she never wanted to act but made an exception for Lars von Trier.  The musical sequences were filmed simultaneously with over 100 digital cameras so that multiple angles of the performance could be captured and cut together later, thus shortening the filming schedule.  Björk lies down on a stack of birch logs during the "Scatterheart" sequence. In Icelandic and Swedish, "björk" means "birch".  A Danish MY class locomotive (owned by Swedish train operator TÅGAB) was painted in the American Great Northern scheme for the movie, and not repainted afterward. A T43 class locomotive was repainted too, though never used in the film.

Controversy.

In October 2017, Björk posted on her Facebook page that she had been sexually harassed by a "Danish film director she worked with". She commented:  The "Los Angeles Times" found evidence identifying him as Lars von Trier. Von Trier has rejected Björk's allegation that he sexually harassed her during the making of the film "Dancer in the Dark", and said "That was not the case. But that we were definitely not friends, that’s a fact," to Danish daily "Jyllands-Posten" in its online edition. Peter Aalbaek Jensen, the producer of "Dancer in the Dark", told "Jyllands-Posten" that "As far as I remember we [Lars von Trier and I] were the victims. That woman was stronger than both Lars von Trier and me and our company put together. She dictated everything and was about to close a movie of 100m kroner [$16m]." After von Trier's statement, Björk explained the details about this incident, saying: Björk's manager, Derek Birkett, has also accused von Trier's actions in the past, stating:

Reception.

Critical response.

Reaction to "Dancer in the Dark" was polarized. For example, on "The Movie Show", Margaret Pomeranz gave it five stars while David Stratton gave it a zero, a score shared only by Geoffrey Wright's "Romper Stomper" (1992). Stratton later described it as his "favourite horror film". Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" dubbed "Dancer in the Dark" the “most shallow and crudely manipulative” film of 2000, and later slammed it as "one of the worst films, one of the worst artworks and perhaps one of the worst things in the history of the world." The response is reflected in the film's official website, which posts both positive and negative reviews on its main page. The diverse reviews result in an overall 69% "Fresh" rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 6.73/10, based on 118 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Dancer in Dark" can be grim, dull, and difficult to watch, but even so, it has a powerful and moving performance from Björk and is something quite new and visionary." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".  The film was praised for its stylistic innovations. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" stated: "It smashes down the walls of habit that surround so many movies. It returns to the wellsprings. It is a bold, reckless gesture." Edward Guthmann from the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote, "It's great to see a movie so courageous and affecting, so committed to its own differentness." However, criticism was directed at its storyline. Jonathan Foreman of the "New York Post" described the film as "meretricious fakery" and called it "so unrelenting in its manipulative sentimentality that, if it had been made by an American and shot in a more conventional manner, it would be seen as a bad joke."  In 2016, David Ehrlich ranked "Dancer in the Dark" as one of the best films of the 21st century, hailing Björk's performance as the "single greatest feat of film acting" since 2000. Björk's performance is also ranked in the "25 Best Performances Not Nominated for an Oscar of the 21st Century" list.

Accolades.

"Dancer in the Dark" premiered at the 2000 Cannes Film Festival and was awarded the Palme d'Or, along with the Best Actress award for Björk. The song "I've Seen It All" was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, at the performance of which Björk wore her famous swan dress.  "Sight & Sound" magazine conducts a poll every ten years of the world's finest film directors to find out the Ten Greatest Films of All Time. This poll has been going since 1952, and has become the most recognised poll of its kind in the world. In 2012, Cyrus Frisch was one of the four directors who voted for "Dancer in the Dark". Frisch commented: "A superbly imaginative film that leaves conformity in shambles." Director Oliver Schmitz also lauded the work as "relentless, claustrophobic, the best movie about capital punishment as far as I’m concerned".

Dancer in the Dark () is a 2000 English-language Danish musical melodrama film written and directed by Lars von Trier. It stars Icelandic musician Björk as a daydreaming immigrant factory worker who suffers from a degenerative eye condition and is saving up to pay for an operation to prevent her young son from suffering the same fate. Catherine Deneuve, David Morse, Peter Stormare, Cara Seymour and Joel Grey also star.

Tanec v temnotách (v dánském originále Danser i mørket) je muzikálový melodramatický film režiséra Larse von Trier z roku 2000.


Etymology.

The name "Huoshen" () named after Zhurong, an important personage in Chinese mythology and Chinese folk religion who was known as ancestors of the Chu people, and Yan Emperor, a legendary ancient Chinese ruler in pre-dynastic times who was known as ancestors of the Chinese people.  The name "Huo" () is also related to the concept of fire () in "wuxing" (). In traditional Chinese medicine, the metal element () governs the lung (). As fire overcomes metal (), the name conveys the hope that the hospital will overcome the respiratory infection caused by SARS-CoV-2 that troubles the lung.

History.

Construction of the hospital began on the evening of 23 January 2020 for a scheduled completion of construction on 3 February. In the initial stage dozens of excavators, bulldozers and other earth-moving equipment prepared the ground. This was followed by the laying down of several layers of matting and concrete. The omnibus construction team was understaffed at the beginning, with many workers having to work two shifts, 12 hours per day. More workers were added, however, culminating with up to 7,000 people working around the clock in three shifts.  A worker states that they started to work at 7 a.m. and usually finished working in the night, sometimes they have to work overtime until 12 a.m. The meals were delivered to the gate of the site by construction managers, then distributed to workers by their supervisors, workers usually immediately returned to work after finishing the meals in the site. In terms of income, most of the workers earned over 10,000 Yuan RMB for their 8-day work on the site. However, since they were quarantined for 14 days after they returned home, plus the time cost to Wuhan and back, the average monthly income isn't much higher than the normal construction workers, who usually get 8–9,000 RMB per month.  The last brick was placed on 2 February 2020. That day the People's Liberation Army (PLA) Air Force began airlifting medical personnel and supplies to Wuhan for the hospital opening, and the hospital proper was handed over to the PLA. Vice Premier Sun Chunlan inspected the facility and equipment of the hospital on that day. The very next day, 3 February 2020, the hospital began accepting patients. The first person entered at 10:00 a.m.  However, according to workers on the site, only Zone 1 was open for accepting patients on February 3, while Zone 2, Zone 3 and Zone 4 were not opened until February 7.  State broadcaster China Media Group has hosted the streams from the construction of Huoshenshan and Leishenshan Hospital, which together had an average of around 18 million concurrent views on 28 January.

Design.

The hospital is modeled after the, which was built in the suburbs of Beijing in six days for the 2003 SARS epidemic. Huoshenshan Hospital is built nearby Zhiyin Lake. It accommodates 1,000 beds which spans over an area of around 60,000 m and consists of 2 floors. It has 30 intensive care units, medical equipment rooms, and quarantine wards.  The hospital was built with prefabrication units for fast construction and installation works. The units were laid on pillars to keep them off the ground. Each unit is about 10 m and fitted with two beds. Each room is negatively pressurized to prevent airborne microorganisms from spreading out of the hospital. It also has specialized ventilation systems and double-sided cabinets that connect each patient room to hallways, which allows the hospital staff to deliver supplies without the need to enter each patient room. The hospital is linked by a video system to PLA General Hospital in Beijing.

Operation.

The hospital is manned by 1,400 medical personnel sent by the People's Liberation Army, which consists of 950 people from hospitals affiliated to Joint Logistics Support Force of Central Military Commission and 450 people from medical universities of PLA who were sent to Wuhan earlier. The hospital also uses medical robots in its daily operation to deliver medicines and carry test samples.  According to the reports by Caixin, there were 63 workers from Xiangtan, Hunan, who came to help with the construction. They all returned to Xiangtan and were being quarantined by the local authorities on February 7 after the construction was completed. Two people were confirmed to have COVID-19 among those workers as of February 14. Although the source of their infection is not confirmed yet, they believed they were being infected on the construction site, especially after February 3 when Zone 1 was opened while there was a shortage in supply of masks for construction workers. Those two workers also claimed that some workers had coughs while working.

Huoshenshan Hospital () is an emergency specialty field hospital, built between 23 January and 2 February 2020, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The facility is located near Zhiyin Lake () in the Caidian District, Wuhan, Hubei, China, next to the Wuhan Workers' Sanatorium (), and is designed to treat people with COVID-19. The hospital has run under the jurisdiction and management of the People's Liberation Army since its completion. A second field hospital, Leishenshan Hospital, using the same design, opened on 8 February.

Nemocnice Chuo-šen-šan () je nouzová polní nemocnice vystavěná v městském obvodě Cchaj-tien města Wu-chan v Čínské lidové republice. Vznikla kvůli silnému vytížení nemocnic v okolí Wu-chanu kvůli probíhající epidemii koronaviru SARS-CoV-2. Postavena byla během deseti dní od 23. ledna do 2. února 2020 a od 3. února 2020 je v provozu. V nemocnici se nachází přes 1 000 lůžek a zaměstnáno zde je přibližně 1 400 vojenských lékařů z Čínské lidově osvobozenecké armády.


Early career.

Born the second son of William Rowley and his wife, Elizabeth Rowley (née Baldwin), Rowley joined the Royal Navy as a volunteer in 1704. He was assigned to the third-rate HMS "Orford", commanded by Captain John Norris, and saw action in the Mediterranean during the War of the Spanish Succession. Having passed his exams for lieutenant on 15 September 1708, he transferred to the third-rate HMS "Somerset" in December 1708. After carrying out diplomatic duties for King George I in Paris in early 1716, he was promoted to captain on 26 June 1716 and given command of HMS "Bideford" at Gibraltar and was involved in naval action against pirates. He transferred to the command of the sixth-rate HMS "Lively" in the Irish Sea in September 1719 and then went on half-pay in June 1728.

Senior command.

Rowley was recalled and appointed to command second-rate HMS "Barfleur" in 1741. Promoted to rear-admiral on 7 December 1743, he hoisted his flag in HMS "Barfleur" and distinguished himself by his determination as commander of the vanguard at the Battle of Toulon in February 1744 during the War of the Austrian Succession. Promoted to vice-admiral on 23 June 1744, he became Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet in August 1744 and successfully kept the Spanish and French fleets out of the Mediterranean area.  Rowley was asked to preside over a court-martial of Captain Richard Norris (son of Admiral Sir John Norris) on the second-rate HMS "Torbay" in relation to Norris's conduct at the Battle of Toulon. Rowley found the court incompetent to try the case and Norris escaped censure. Rowley was suspected of showing favour to the son of an old colleague and relieved of his command in May 1745.  Promoted to full admiral on 15 July 1747, Rowley became Rear-Admiral of Great Britain on 4 July 1749. He entered Parliament as Whig member for Taunton in 1750. He also bought Tendring Hall in Stoke-by-Nayland in Suffolk in 1750: the house was subsequently rebuilt to a design by Sir John Soane and remained in the Rowley family until it was demolished in 1955.  Rowley joined the Board of Admiralty led by Lord Anson as Senior Naval Lord in June 1751. He was appointed a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath on 12 December 1753 and was elected as Member of Parliament for Portsmouth in May 1754. When the First Newcastle Ministry fell in November 1756 he left office but then returned, briefly, as Senior Naval Lord again, during the caretaker ministry which lasted from April to July 1757.  Promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 17 December 1762, Rowley died on 1 January 1768 and is presumed to have been buried at St Mary's Church in Stoke-by-Nayland in Suffolk.

Family.

William Rowley married Arabella Dawson and had five children: four sons and one daughter. Several of his descendants reached high positions in the Navy including his son Vice Admiral Sir Joshua Rowley, his grandson Admiral Sir Josias Rowley, his grandson Admiral Sir Charles Rowley and his grandson Admiral of the Fleet Sir George Martin.

Admiral of the Fleet Sir William Rowley KB (c. 1690 – 1 January 1768) was a Royal Navy officer. He distinguished himself by his determination as commander of the vanguard at the Battle of Toulon in February 1744 during the War of the Austrian Succession. He went on to be Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet in August 1744 and successfully kept the Spanish and French fleets out of the Mediterranean area but was relieved of his command following criticism of his decision as presiding officer at a court-martial.

Sir William Rowley (1690 – 1. ledna 1768) byl britský admirál. U královského námořnictva sloužil od dětství a zúčastnil se bojů v Evropě i v koloniích. Za války o rakouské dědictví byl vrchním velitelem ve Středomoří (1744–1747), v roce 1747 dosáhl hodnosti admirála. Mimo aktivní službu byl dlouholetým poslancem Dolní sněmovny a zastával nižší úřady ve vládě. Byl povýšen do šlechtického stavu a v roce 1762 obdržel hodnost velkoadmirála. Vysokých hodností v námořnictvu dosáhli v několika generacích také jeho potomci.


Early life and education.

Al Mansouri was born on December 13, 1983 in the Abu Dhabi suburb of Al Wathba. In his childhood, Hazza loved exploring and watching stars and meteors on dark nights in the desert of Liwa where he spent most of his childhood. He dreamed of being a pilot and loved to read about airplanes and space trips.  After graduating from Al Seddique High School in Liwa, Al Dhafra Region (previously known as the Western Region), Al Mansouri studied at Khalifa bin Zayed Air College, graduating in 2004 with a bachelor's degree in aviation.

Military career.

He joined the UAE Armed Forces and later became a military pilot. The UAE sent him to train on F-16 fighter jets in Arizona, USA. He went through advanced training courses in Water Survival, GYRO LAP Course up to 9G's, and RED Flag Exercise. After his return, he worked as an F-16 pilot.  In 2016, he was selected to train to be an air-show pilot. In 2017, he took part in the Dubai Airshow 2017 and participated in different shows in a number of cities in the UAE to mark the UAE National Day on December 2 (The National Day of the UAE) 2017.

Astronaut career.

On December 6, 2017, UAE Vice-President and Prime Minister Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum wrote on his Twitter account, "I invite young Emiratis to register for the UAE Astronaut Programme through the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre." Al Mansoori was one of two people selected from 4,022 candidates, following a series of tests in the UAE and Russia. His military background helped him pass the tests.  On September 3, 2018, Sheikh Mohammed tweeted: “We announced today our first astronauts to the International Space Station: Hazza Al Mansoori and Sultan Al Nayadi. Hazza and Sultan represent all young Arabs and represent the pinnacle of the UAE's ambitions.”  As part of the agreement between Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) and Russian space agency Roscosmos to train Emirati astronauts, Al Mansouri went through training at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre in Star City, Russia in preparation for the ISS mission.

Soyuz MS-15/MS-12.

On April 12, 2019, the Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) announced that it had selected Al Mansouri as the prime astronaut for an eight-day mission to the International Space Station (ISS). Al Mansouri was assigned to Soyuz MS-15, alongside Russian commander Oleg Skripochka and American flight engineer Jessica Meir, both of whom would remain aboard the ISS for 204 days as part of Expedition 61/62. Unlike Skripochka and Meir, Al Mansouri would land eight days after launch aboard Soyuz MS-12, alongside Russian commander Aleksey Ovchinin and American flight engineer Nick Hague, who would be returning following a 203-day stay on the ISS as part of Expedition 59/Expedition 60.  Al Mansouri, Skripocka and Meir launched on 25 September from the Baikonur Cosmodrome; the trio spent under six hours free flying in space before docking to the Zvezda module on the ISS. Originally the spacecraft was scheduled to dock to the Poisk module but Soyuz MS-13 had moved there a month earlier to allow for the uncrewed Soyuz MS-14 spacecraft to dock to the Zvezda module for a short period of time. Following docking the hatches between Soyuz MS-15 and Zvezda were opened, allowing Al Mansouri, Skripochka and Meir to travel inside and meet their six crew mates.  Due to the "direct handover" that was needed to facilitate Al Mansouri's short duration mission, his mission occurred during an unusual time when nine people were aboard the ISS, the three crew members who had launched on Soyuz MS-12, Aleksey Ovchinin, Nick Hague and Christina Koch, the three who had launched on Soyuz MS-13, Aleksandr Skvortsov, Luca Parmitano and Andrew Morgan, and the three who had launched aboard Soyuz MS-15. During his short stay aboard the ISS, Al Mansouri conducted 15 experiments created by UAE school students and selected under an MBRSC "Science in space" competition, conducted Earth observation experiments, filmed the first ever tour of the ISS in Arabic and became the first Middle eastern person to be studied following time in microgravity.  On 3 October 2019, Al Mansouri, Ovchinin and Hague boarded the Soyuz MS-12 spacecraft, and undocked from the ISS, ended Expedition 60 and officially beginning Expedition 61, the three spent around five hours free flying in space before de-orbiting and touching down on the Kazakh Steppe, following which Ovchinin and Al Mansouri were flown to Star City, Russia, before Al Mansouri began his journey back to the UAE

Terminology.

Flying through an agreement between the UAE and Russian governments, Hazza's role aboard the Soyuz and the ISS is referred to as a spaceflight participant "()" in Russian Federal Space Agency and NASA documents and press briefings. NASA has updated the terminology post the return of the mission to earth on October 3, 2019, and referred to as a visiting astronaut. The Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre refers to his mission as "UAE Astronaut Mission 1" or "Zayed's Ambition".

Personal life.

Al Mansouri married in July 2007 and has four children: Mariam, Ali, Abdullah, and Mansour. He took a United Arab Emirates flag and a photo of his family with him to space.

Hazza Al Mansouri (, surname also spelled "Al Mansoori", full name Hazza Ali Abdan Khalfan Al Mansouri () is an astronaut and the first person from the United Arab Emirates in space. On September 25, 2019 he launched aboard the Soyuz MS-15 spacecraft to the International Space Station. He landed safely in Kazakhstan after eight days, on October 3, 2019 aboard Soyuz MS-12. Al Mansouri stated that he proudly returned with Zayed's ambition achieved.

Hazzá al-Mansúrí (; * 13. prosince 1983 Al Wathba, Spojené arabské emiráty) je vojenský pilot a první kosmonaut Spojených arabských emirátů, který roku 2019 absolvoval týdenní kosmický let do vesmíru na Mezinárodní vesmírnou stanici.


i.MX 1 series.

Launched in 2001/2002, the i.MX / MX-1 series is based on the ARM920T architecture.

i.MX 2 series.

The i.MX2x series is a family of processors based on the ARM9 architecture (ARM926EJ-S), designed in CMOS 90 nm process.

i.MX 21 family.

The i.MX21 family is designed for low power handheld devices. It was launched in 2003.

i.MX 27 family.

The i.MX27 family is designed for videotelephony and video surveillance. It was launched in 2007.

i.MX 25 family.

The i.MX25 family was launched in 2009. It especially integrates key security features in hardware. The high-end member of the family, i.MX258, integrates a 400 MHz ARM9 CPU platform + LCDC (LCD controller) + security block and supports mDDR-SDRAM at 133 MHz.

i.MX 23 family.

The i.MX233 processor (formerly known as SigmaTel STMP3780 of the STMP37xx family), launched in 2009, integrates a Power Management Unit (PMU) and a stereo audio codec within the silicon. This unique integration removes the need for external power management chip and audio codec chip.

i.MX 28 family.

The i.MX28 family was launched in 2010. It especially integrates key security features in hardware, an ADC and the power management unit. It supports mDDR, LV-DDR2, DDR2-SDRAM at 200 MHz.

i.MX 3 series.

The i.MX3x series is a family of processors based on the ARM11 architecture (ARM1136J(F)-S mainly), designed in CMOS 90 nm process.

i.MX 31 family.

The i.MX31 was launched in 2005. It integrates a 532 MHz ARM1136JF-S CPU platform (with vector floating point unit, L1 caches and 128KB L2 caches) + Video Processing Unit (VPU) + 3D GPU (OpenGL ES 1.1) + IPU + security block. It supports mDDR-SDRAM at 133 MHz. The 3D and VPU acceleration is provided by the PowerVR MBX Lite.

i.MX 37 family.

The i.MX37 processor is designed for Portable Media Players. It was launched in 2008.  It supports mDDR-SDRAM at 133 MHz.

i.MX 35 family.

The i.MX35 family is the replacement of i.MX31. It was launched in 2009. The high-end member of the family, i.MX357, integrates a 532 MHz ARM1136J(F)-S CPU platform (with Vector Floating Point unit, L1 caches and 128KB L2 cache) + 2.5D GPU (OpenVG 1.1) + IPU + security block. It supports DDR2-SDRAM at 133 MHz.

i.MX 5 series.

The i.MX5x series is based on the ARM Cortex A8 core. It comprises two families: the i.MX51 family (high-end multimedia devices like smartbook or automotive infotainment) and the i.MX50 family (eReaders). It is designed in CMOS 65 nm process. Freescale licensed ATI's Imageon technology in 2007, and some i.MX5 models include an Imageon z460 GPU.

i.MX 51 family.

The high-end member of the family, i.MX515, integrates an 800 MHz ARM Cortex A8 CPU platform (with NEON co-processor, Vector Floating Point Unit, L1 caches and 256KB L2 cache) + multi-format HD 720p decode / D1 encode hardware video codecs (VPU, Video Processing Unit) + Imageon 3D GPU (OpenGL ES 2.0) + 2.5D GPU (OpenVG 1.1) + IPU + security block. It especially supports DDR2 SDRAM at 200 MHz. The imx51 family was launched in 2009.

i.MX 50 family.

The i.MX508 processor is the result of Freescale collaboration with E Ink. It is dedicated for eReaders. Launched in 2010, it integrates the E Ink display controller within the silicon to save both BOM cost and space on the PCB. It especially supports LP-DDR2 SDRAM at 400 MHz.

i.MX 53 family.

i.MX535 was announced in June 2010. Shipped since the first quarter of 2011.

i.MX 6 series.

The i.MX 6 series are based on the ARM Cortex A9 solo, dual or quad cores (in some cases Cortex A7) and typically comes with one or more Vivante GPUs. It is designed in CMOS 40 nm process. i.MX 6 Solo, Dual and Quad were announced in January 2011, during Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas.

i.MX 7 series.

The i.MX 7 series is based on the low-power ARM Cortex A7 CPU core with a secondary ARM Cortex M4 real-time co-processor. It is designed 28 nm fully depleted silicon-on-insulator (FDSOI) process. So far only low-powered single and dual-core models, designed for IoT applications have been released. i.MX 7Solo and i.MX 7Dual were announced in September 2013.

i.MX 8 series.

There are three major different series of the i.MX 8:  Each series differs significantly from each other and are not pin compatible. Within each series some versions are pin compatible.  Each series also has a suffix such as Quad, Dual, Plus, Max or a combination thereof, for example: QuadMax or DualPlus. The i.MX 8 series has many variants but it is not clear how the name corresponds to a feature set. In previous CPU series the naming convention clearly corresponds to a function or feature set, but this is not the case with i.MX 8.  The i.MX 8 series was announced in September 2013 and is based on the ARMv8-A 64-bit CPU architecture. NXP have written that the i.MX 8 series is designed for Driver Information Systems (car computers) and applications have been released.  In May 2016 the i.MX 8 became available as a multisensory enablement kit (MEK) based on i.MX 8. Slides from NXP FTF found on the web indicated an initial total of 5 variants (with a main level of categorization into "Dual" and "Quad") with varying the CPU and GPU capabilities. The CPU was suggested to include varying counts of Cortex-A72, Cortex-A53 and Cortex-M4, while the GPU is either 1 or 2 units of the Vivante GC7000VX. Other publications supported this general image, some even including photos of an evaluation kit that is named "Multisensory Enablement Kit" (MEK) that got later promoted as a development support product by NXP.  The i.MX 8 was announced Q1 2017, based around 3 products. Two variants include four Cortex-A53. All versions includes one or two Cortex-A72 CPU cores and all versions includes two Cortex-M4F CPU cores.  All i.MX 8 SoCs include Vivante GC7000 Series GPUs. The QuadPlus is using GC7000Lite cores, while the 'QuadMax' includes two full GC7000 GPUs.  Standard Key Features: Advanced Security, Ethernet with AVB, USB 3.0 with PHY, MMC/SDIO, UART, SPI, I2C, I2S, Timers, Secure RTC, Media Processor Engine (NeonTM), Integrated Power Management.  <nowiki>*</nowiki>pre-production

i.MX 8.

Main features

i.MX 8M.

The i.MX 8M series were announced on January 4 at CES 2017. Main features:

i.MX 8M Mini.

The i.MX 8M Mini is NXP's first embedded multi-core heterogeneous applications processors built using advanced 14LPC FinFET process technology. The i.MX 8M Mini family of processors brings together high-performance computing, power efficiency, enhanced system reliability and embedded security needed to drive the growth of fast-growing edge node computing, streaming multimedia, and machine learning applications.  At the heart is a scalable core complex of up to four Arm Cortex-A53 cores running up to 2 GHz plus Cortex-M4 based real-time processing domain at 400+MHz. i.MX 8M Mini core options are optimized for low-power but offer the breadth of processing power necessary for consumer, audio, industrial, machine learning training and inferencing across a range of cloud providers. The i.MX 8M Mini also packs-in hardware 1080p video acceleration to enable two-way video applications, 2D and 3D graphics to provide a rich visual HMI experience, and advanced audio capabilities to enable audio-rich applications. An extensive selection of high-speed interfaces enabling broader system connectivity, and targeting industrial level qualification, the i.MX 8M Mini family may be used in any general embedded consumer and industrial application.  Features

i.MX 8X.

The i.MX 8X series were announced on March 14, 2017. Main features:

Related series.

For the automotive market a very similar series currently using ARM Cortex-A53 and/or ARM Cortex-M4 cores got presented in mid-2015 using the prefix S32.

Software support.

Freescale proposes a layered approach of software with selection of software components optimized for its chips. The i.MX board support packages (BSP), common across all i.MX nodes, consists of kernel optimization, hardware drivers and unit tests. The company also provides a portfolio of multimedia Codecs (ARM and Video processing unit accelerated). The i.MX solution also includes middleware with reuse of open source frameworks like multimedia framework plugins, power management, security/DRM or graphics (OpenGL/OpenVG).  All software solutions for i.MX are publicly available on the company website.

Linux.

Freescale i.MX development kits include a Linux software stack with a GNOME Mobile environment.  On the i.MX51 family, the reference user interface is Ubuntu. The last Ubuntu version supported is 10.04.1 (still available on mirrors). Ubuntu dropped the "official" i.MX51 family support since version 10.10. Since Ubuntu 11.10 support for the i.MX53 Quickstart board is available as a preinstalled desktop or server SD card.  The OpenEmbedded Linux distribution supports several i.MX platforms.  Commercial Linux support is available from companies like Lanedo, TimeSys, MontaVista, Wind River Systems and Mentor Graphics.

FreeBSD.

Support for the Freescale i.MX51 was added to FreeBSD on 2013-03-20. Support for other members of the i.MX5 family has been added since.  Support for the Freescale i.MX 6 family was added to FreeBSD on 2013-10-31.

NetBSD.

NetBSD 6.0 comes with support for the Freescale i.MX51. In version 7.0, support for i.MX 6 based boards was added.

OpenBSD.

Support for the FreeScale's i.MX 6 series SoC was added to OpenBSD's head on the 2013-09-06.

RISC-OS.

i.MX support in RISC-OS has been available since 2019.

Windows CE.

Freescale i.MX development kits include WinCE.

Android.

In February 2010, Freescale launched an Android platform for the i.MX5x family.

Chromium.

In early 2010 Freescale demoed Chromium OS running on the i.MX515 processor. The company has not disclosed any further plans about Chromium or Chrome.

Real-time OS.

Freescale has a range of partners providing real-time operating systems and software solutions running on the i.MX processors, such as Trinity Convergence, Adeneo, Thundersoft, Intrinsyc, Wind River Systems, QNX, Green Hills and Mentor Graphics.

wolfSSL.

wolfSSL includes support for i.MX6 following all versions after (and including) wolfSSL v3.14.0. wolfSSL also provides additional support for using the Cryptographic Assistance and Assurance Module (CAAM) on the i.MX6.

Reference designs.

In January 2010, Freescale announced the first platform of its Smart Application Blueprint for Rapid Engineering (SABRE) series. It is a smartbook (tablet form factor with 7" touch screen resistive), running on i.MX515.  In February 2010, Freescale demoed the SABRE platform for eReaders, based on i.MX515.  Many more reference boards are mentioned and supported through the Freescale i.MX community website. These include:

The i.MX range is a family of Freescale Semiconductor (now part of NXP) proprietary microcontrollers for multimedia applications based on the ARM architecture and focused on low-power consumption. The i.MX application processors are SoCs (System-on-Chip), that integrate many processing units into one die, like the main CPU, a video processing unit and a graphics processing unit for instance. The i.MX products are qualified for automotive, industrial and consumer markets. Most of them are guaranteed for a production lifetime of 10 to 15 years.Many devices use i.MX processors, such as Ford Sync, Kobo eReader, Amazon Kindle, Zune (except for Zune HD), Sony Reader, Onyx Boox readers/tablets, SolidRun SOM's (including CuBox), some Logitech Harmony remote controls and Squeezebox radio, some Toshiba Gigabeat mp4 players. The i.MX range was previously known as the "DragonBall MX" family, the fifth generation of DragonBall microcontrollers. i.MX originally stood for "innovative Multimedia eXtension".

i.MX je rodina proprietárních systémů na čipu (SoC) původně od společnosti Freescale Semiconductor koupené v roce 2015 společností NXP Semiconductors (obě ze Spojených států amerických). Všechny systémy z této rodiny jsou postaveny na platformě ARM. Nejstarší série i.MX 1 uvedená v roce 2001 měla taktování procesoru 150 nebo 200 MHz, nejnovější série i.MX 8 v prodeji od roku 2016 počítá s taktováním 1,2 GHz nebo 1,5 GHz.


Taxonomy and phylogeny.

The taxon has long been considered a nomen dubium, owing to its fragmentary nature and some doubt as to its precise geographic and stratigraphic origins (see Tykoski et Rowe, 2004, p. 50). However, a recent redescription of the type material by Rauhut (2004) has shed some light on these questions and seems to establish the taxonomic validity of "Genyodectes serus", the only species referred to the genus. English paleontologist Sir Arthur S. Woodward described "Genyodectes" in 1901, and, after "Loncosaurus" (Ameghino, 1899; "nomen dubium"), it is the second non-avian dinosaur described from the South American continent, and it remained the most completely known South American theropod until the 1970s. Over the last decade, the holotype has been variously referred to as a megalosaurid, a tyrannosaurid, Theropoda "incertae sedis", and a possible abelisaurid (perhaps even a senior synonym of "Abelisaurus"). However, the recent removal of the holotype from the "artificial matrix" in which it had long been displayed has permitted a reevaluation of the specimen. Rauhut (2004, p. 900) concluded that the specimen lacks important abelisaurid and tyrannosaurid synapomorphies, but found many neoceratosaurian traits. This would seem to imply "Genyodectes" was closer to "Ceratosaurus" than the more derived abelisaurs (that also descended from animals like "Ceratosaurus"). Also, by studying historical records and preservation of the bones, Rauhut (2004, p. 894) concluded that the specimen was likely collected from the Cerro Castaño Member of the Cerro Barcino Formation (Aptian-Albian).

Diagnosis.

Rauhut diagnoses "Genyodectes serus" as follows: "Differs from all theropods with the possible exception of "Ceratosaurus" in that the premaxillary teeth are arranged in an overlapping "en-echelon" pattern and the longest maxillary tooth crowns are longer apicobasally than the minimal dorsoventral depth of the mandible. Differs from "Ceratosaurus" in the presence of four, as opposed to three, premaxillary teeth."

Genyodectes ("jaw bite", from the Greek words "genys" ("jaw") and "dektes" ("bite")) is a genus of ceratosaurian theropod dinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous (Aptian) of South America. The holotype material (MLP 26-39, Museo de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina) was collected from the Cerro Barcino Formation, Cañadón Grande, Departamento Paso de Indios in the Chubut Province of Argentina and consists of an incomplete snout, including the premaxillae, portions of both maxillas, the right and left dentary, many teeth, a fragment of the left splenial, and parts of the supradentaries. These elements are generally poorly preserved and some are in articulation. The premaxilla of "Genyodectes" possesses relatively large and protruding teeth, similar to those of "Ceratosaurus". The specific name, "serus", means "late". In 2016 it was estimated to be 6.25 meters in length and 790 kg in weight.

Genyodectes („kousající čelist“) byl rod teropodního ceratosaurního dinosaura, žijícího v období spodní křídy (asi před 112 miliony let) na území dnešní Argentiny (provincie Chubut).


Classification.

Othniel Charles Marsh named the family Ceratosauridae in 1884 to contain the type species, "Ceratosaurus nasicornis". Since then, a number of other species have been referred to this family, mainly from the genus "Ceratosaurus". Currently recognized ceratosaurid species include "C. dentisulcatus", "C. magnicornis", and "Genyodectes serus". "C. stechowi" is an undiagnostic ceratosaur. Delcourt (2018) defined Ceratosauridae as "the most inclusive clade containing "Ceratosaurus nasicornis" but not "Carnotaurus sastrei"".

Features.

Due to the paucity of remains of "Genyodectes", it is difficult to discern possible synapomorphies of the group from autapomorphies of "Ceratosaurus"; e.g. "Ceratosaurus" is different from other ceratosaurians by the very prominent horn on its snout; "Genyodectes", however, was not found with a complete skull; whether it had a horn is unknown, so it cannot establish that the horn was a shared derived feature of the group.  There are two known types of "Ceratosaurus" teeth: one with longitudinal ridges and the other with smooth enamel. Both types of teeth have crowns with a teardrop-shaped cross section and carinae running up the middle. The cross section of the tooth's base depends on the position of the tooth in the mouth with front teeth having less symmetric cross sections.

Environment.

Being found in the Morrison and Tendaguru put the family Ceratosauridae in the presence of other large predators. In North America, it is likely that members of the family such as "C. nasicornis" competed with allosaurs ("A. fragilis") for food, such as sauropods common to the region at the time. In Africa and Europe members also competed with other large predators for similar food sources. The presence of "C. nasicornis" at the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry along with the remains of several allosaurids is a good indication of just how close members of this family and other predators coexisted.

Ceratosauridae is a family of theropod dinosaurs belonging to the infraorder Ceratosauria. The family's type genus, "Ceratosaurus", was first found in Jurassic rocks from North America. Ceratosauridae is made up of the genera "Ceratosaurus", found in North America, Tanzania, and Portugal, and "Genyodectes", from the Early Cretaceous of Argentina. Unnamed probable ceratosaurids are known from limited material in the Middle Jurassic of Madagascar, the Late Jurassic of Switzerland, and the Late Jurassic or possibly Early Cretaceous of Uruguay.

Ceratosauridae („rohatí ještěři“) je čeleď teropodních ceratosaurních dinosaurů, žijících v období svrchní jury až spodní křídy (asi před 155 až 112 miliony let) na území dnešní Severní Ameriky, Argentiny (provincie Chubut) a pravděpodobně i Evropy a východní Afriky. Jeden objev pochází také ze svrchní jury nebo spodní křídy státu Uruguay.


Career.

Cook was born Kathy Smallwood in Winchester, Hampshire, England. She attended the Hurst Community School, Baughurst and later Queen Marys Sixth form college (QMC), Basingstoke. She was a member of the Reading Athletic Club and later the Wolverhampton & Bilston Athletics Club. She was coached throughout her career by Jim Spooner. She also spent time working at the Tadley branch of Lloyds Bank.  Her first major competition was the 1977 European Junior Championships in Donetsk, where she won three medals, bronze in the 100 & 200 metres and a silver in the sprint relay. In 1978, she competed at the Commonwealth Games in Edmonton and the European Championships in Prague. In Edmonton, representing England, she finished fifth in the 200 metres final in 22.95, narrowly missing a medal, before winning gold in the 4 × 100 m relay with Sharon Colyear, Beverley Goddard and Sonia Lannaman. In Prague, representing Great Britain, the same quartet won a silver medal in the sprint relay. In 1979, at the World Student Games (Universiade) she won three silver medals. In the 100 metres she finished second behind Marlies Gohr in 11.27, while in the 200 metres she was second to another East German great, Marita Koch, in a PB of 22.70. She also won a silver medal in the 4 × 100 m relay. Smallwood competed at her first Olympic Games in Moscow 1980, reaching the finals of both the 100 and 200 metres. In the 100 metres, she was sixth in 11.28 secs, while in the 200 metres, she finished fifth in 22.61. She then teamed up with Heather Hunte, who had also reached the 100 m final and Beverley Goddard and Sonia Lannaman, who had both also reached the 200 m final, to win the bronze medal in the 4 × 100 m relay, in a UK record time of 42.43. A record that stood until 2014. Only one week after the Olympics, she broke the UK record for the 200 metres, with 22.31 in London.  Smallwood won her biggest individual title in 1981, winning the 200 metres at the World Student Games in Bucharest, in 22.78 secs. She also won a silver medal in the 4 x 100 relay. Later that year, at the IAAF World Cup, she came in as a late replacement for Sweden's Linda Haglund, to run for Europe in the 100 metres. She finished second to Evelyn Ashford in a UK record time of 11.10, defeating Marlies Gohr, who was third. This would stand as the UK record for 27 years, until Montell Douglas ran 11.05 in 2008. Also in 1981, Smallwood had her first attempt at the 400 m distance. At a meeting in London, she finished second to the world number one that year, Jarmila Kratochvilova, running 51.08.  In August 1982, at the European Championships in Athens, Smallwood broke her own UK 200 m record with 22.13 secs, to finish a close second to Olympic Champion Bärbel Wöckel, who ran 22.04. She won another silver in the sprint relay, along with Wendy Hoyte, Bev Callender (Goddard) and Shirley Thomas. In September, she added the UK 400 m record to her 100 & 200 m records, running 50.46 in London. Then in October, at the Commonwealth Games in Brisbane, she won another silver medal in the 200 metres, in a wind assisted 22.21, being edged out of victory by Jamaica'a Merlene Ottey, who ran 22.19. She did win a gold medal in the sprint relay with Hoyte, Callender and Sonia Lannamann. In 1983, now competing as Kathy Cook, she won two medals at the inaugural World Championships in Helsinki. On day one of the championships, she won a silver medal in the sprint relay, alongside Joan Baptiste, Bev Callender and Shirley Thomas. She then won the bronze medal in the 200 metres in 22.37, behind Marita Koch and Merlene Ottey and ahead of Florence Griffith.  In 1984, probably Cook's finest season, she won a further two bronze medals at the Los Angeles Olympics. In the 400 metres, she smashed the UK and Commonwealth record with 49.43 secs, behind the American pair of Valerie Brisco-Hooks and Chandra Cheeseborough. This would remain the UK record for almost 30 years, until Christine Ohuruogu ran 49.41 to win at the 2013 World Championships. Cook then narrowly missed winning a medal in the 200 metres final, where she improved her own national record to 22.10. With a strong late surge, she closed rapidly on Florence Griffith and Merlene Ottey-Page, who won silver and bronze in 22.04 and 22.09 respectively. The race was won by 400m champion, Valerie Brisco-Hooks. Cook's 22.10, stood as the UK record for over 30 years, until Dina Asher-Smith ran 22.07 for fifth at the 2015 World Championships. In the sprint relay, drawn in lane one, she collected another bronze medal, along with Simmone Jacobs and two of her Moscow teammates, Bev Callender (Goddard) and Heather Oakes (Hunte). They ran 43.11 At the end of the 1984 season, Cook ranked 10th on the world all-time lists for both the 200m and 400m and would remain in the all-time top ten until 1986 (200) and 1988 (400).  Shortly after the Los Angeles Olympics, Cook won in London over 300 metres, edging out Chandra Cheeseborough. Both were given the time of 35.46 secs, which broke the world best for the rarely contested distance. The mark would remain a world outdoor best until 2003, when Ana Guevara ran 35.30, although it is worth noting that Marita Koch ran a sub 35 sec 300 m split, on her way to her 47.60 world 400 m record in 1985. 1984 would prove to be the peak of Cook's career.  In 1985, her 200 metres season's best was 22.87 for fifth in the European Cup, while in 1986, she failed to run below 23 seconds. She did still manage to win four medals at that years Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh. She won bronze in the 400 metres, behind Australia's Debbie Flintoff and Jillian Richardson of Canada, silver in the 200 metres, behind Canadian Angella Issajenko, gold in the 4 × 100 m relay, with Paula Dunn, Joan Baptiste and Heather Oakes and ended the games with a silver medal in the 4 × 400 metres relay, with Jane Parry, Linda Keough and Angela Piggford.  The Great Britain and England Women's 4 × 100 m relay teams won a medal at eight consecutive Olympic (1980, 1984), World (1983), European (1978, 1982), and Commonwealth Championships (1978, 1982, 1986). Cook was the only woman to be a member of every squad. The run ended at the 1986 Europeans, when the British quartet (again, including Cook) was fifth. She always ran the second 'leg', her rangy gait (she is 5'11' tall) and speed endurance being ideal for this position. She also occasionally competed in the 4 × 400 metres relay. She won a total of sixteen senior national titles during her career.  Cook remains the only British athlete (male or female) to have reached Olympic finals at 100 metres, 200 metres and 400 metres. Her accomplishments are all the more significant because many of her rivals after the fall of the "Iron Curtain" were found to have been performing illegally. She retired in 1987, after competing at the UK Championships.

Later career.

Cook is currently a PE teacher at Mayfield Preparatory School, in Walsall, England. Married since 1982 to Garry Cook, they have three children, a daughter and two sons.  In 2011, she was inducted into the England Athletics Hall of Fame.

Kathryn Jane Cook (née Smallwood; born 3 May 1960) is a former elite athlete, specialising in sprint and sprint relays. She is regarded as one of the most successful female sprinters in British athletics history. She is three-times an Olympic bronze medallist, including at 400 metres in Los Angeles 1984. Her other individual achievements include winning the 200m at the 1981 Universiade, finishing second in the 100m at the 1981 World Cup, and winning a bronze medal in the 200m at the 1983 World Championships. She is also three-times a winner of the British Athletics Writers' Association Female Athlete of the Year Award (1980–82).

Kathryn Jane Cooková, rozená Smallwoodová (* 3. května 1960 Winchester), je bývalá elitní atletka se specializací na sprinty. Je považována za jednu z nejúspěšnějších ženských sprinterek v britské atletické historii. Je trojnásobnou olympijskou bronzovou medailistkou. Mezi její další individuální úspěchy patří vítězství na 200 m na univerzitě 1981, druhé místo na 100 m na Světovém poháru 1981 a bronzová medaile na 200 m na MS 1983 v Helsinkách.


Origins of New Zealand photography.

New Zealand photography began in the mid-19th century when photographers first documented the country's natural beauty and people. The first photographs of the world-famous Pink and White Terraces were taken in 1859 by Bruno Hamel on Ferdinand Hochstetter's expedition. Local photographers embellished, staged and sometimes faked early tourist prints to ensure sales. Alfred Burton, of the Dunedin Burton Brothers, also travelled through many of the Pacific islands near New Zealand with the P&O Shipping line, in the early days of tourism through the region. The photographic collections at Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, the national museum, hold many of the surviving images from this era, including images by Thomas Andrew, Leslie Adkin, James Bragge, Leslie Hinge and Spencer Digby in addition to archives of the Burton Brothers, Alfred John Tattersall and John McGarrigle's American Photographic Company. The Alexander Turnbull Library in Wellington also hosts a significant catalogue of historic images, many of which can be viewed online and browsed by location, name, and more. The seminal development history of New Zealand photography was written by medical photographer and historian Hardwicke Knight in 1971. Archives New Zealand hold photos from government departments such as the National Publicity Studios and some individuals employed by government such as Leslie Hinge.  George D. Valentine was a Scottish photographer, who relocated to New Zealand due to his health, and documented much of the country at a time of great transition – his images of the Pink and White Terraces, taken in 1885, show scenes of incredible beauty that were until recently thought destroyed less than a year later by 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera. An exhibition of his work was mounted by the Christchurch Art Gallery in 2004, and continues to tour. However, in 2017 researchers rediscovered the Pink and White Terrace locations and rather than being destroyed, the terraces may prove to lie buried under 10–15m of volcanic ash.

Contemporary photography.

Contemporary New Zealand photographers include Laurence Aberhart, Mark Adams, Andris Apse, Brian Brake, Melanie Burford,Ben Cauchi, Marti Friedlander, Anne Geddes, Anne Noble, Fiona Pardington, Patrick Reynolds, Haru Sameshima, Yvonne Todd, Christine Webster, and Ans Westra. Luit Bieringa has curated a number of influential New Zealand photography exhibitions.

Photography associations.

The New Zealand Institute of Professional Photography has a membership of 250 professional photographers, and the Advertising & Illustrative Photographers Association comprises another hundred or more.  Many amateur and professional New Zealand photographers are members of PhotoForum NZ, a non-profit society that publishes "PhotoForum" magazine, organises exhibitions, workshops and lectures, and maintains a website.  The Photographic Society of New Zealand is also a popular group for amateurs, representing camera clubs throughout the country.  New Zealand has two locally produced publications for the photographic community: "The Photographer's Mail" (focuses on the professional and industry) and "D-Photo" (focuses on the consumer and enthusiast).

New Zealand photography first emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, and over time has become an important part of New Zealand art. A number of photography associations exist to support photographers in New Zealand.

Fotografie na Novém Zélandu se poprvé objevila v polovině devatenáctého století a postupem času se stala důležitou součástí novozélandského umění. V počátečních letech fotografie chyběly na Novém Zélandu, vzhledem k jeho geografické odlehlosti, fotografické materiály, ale průkopníci fotografického umění i tak pořídili mnoho obrázků, zejména značné množství maorských fotografií. V první polovině 20. století dominoval fotografii v zemi piktorialismus a sociální realismus. Ve 21. století se díky velkému používání kompaktních fotoaparátů fotografické umění demokratizovalo a stalo se dostupným pro všechny segmenty populace. Na Novém Zélandu existuje řada fotografických sdružení na podporu fotografů.