History.

A late tradition claims that Aldrich, a young fisherman on the River Thames, had a vision of Saint Peter near the site. This seems to have been quoted as the origin of the salmon that Thames fishermen offered to the abbey in later years – a custom still observed annually by the Fishmongers' Company. The recorded origins of the Abbey date to the 960s or early 970s, when Saint Dunstan and King Edgar installed a community of Benedictine monks on the site.

1042: Edward the Confessor starts rebuilding St Peter's Abbey.

Between 1042 and 1052, King Edward the Confessor began rebuilding St Peter's Abbey to provide himself with a royal burial church. It was the first church in England built in the Romanesque style. The building was completed around 1060 and was consecrated on 28 December 1065, only a week before Edward's death on 5 January 1066. A week later, he was buried in the church; and, nine years later, his wife Edith was buried alongside him. His successor, Harold II, was probably crowned in the abbey, although the first documented coronation is that of William the Conqueror later the same year.  The only extant depiction of Edward's abbey, together with the adjacent Palace of Westminster, is in the Bayeux Tapestry. Some of the lower parts of the monastic dormitory, an extension of the South Transept, survive in the Norman Undercroft of the Great School, including a door said to come from the previous Saxon abbey. Increased endowments supported a community that increased from a dozen monks in Dunstan's original foundation, up to a maximum of about eighty monks.

Construction of the present church.

The abbot and monks, in proximity to the royal Palace of Westminster, the seat of government from the later 13th century, became a powerful force in the centuries after the Norman Conquest. The Abbot of Westminster often was employed on royal service and in due course took his place in the House of Lords as of right. Released from the burdens of spiritual leadership, which passed to the reformed Cluniac movement after the mid-10th century, and occupied with the administration of great landed properties, some of which lay far from Westminster, "the Benedictines achieved a remarkable degree of identification with the secular life of their times, and particularly with upper-class life", Barbara Harvey concludes, to the extent that her depiction of daily life provides a wider view of the concerns of the English gentry in the High and Late Middle Ages.  The proximity of the Palace of Westminster did not extend to providing monks or abbots with high royal connections; in social origin the Benedictines of Westminster were as modest as most of the order. The abbot remained Lord of the Manor of Westminster as a town of two to three thousand persons grew around it: as a consumer and employer on a grand scale the monastery helped fuel the town economy, and relations with the town remained unusually cordial, but no enfranchising charter was issued during the Middle Ages.  The abbey became the coronation site of Norman kings. None were buried there until Henry III, intensely devoted to the cult of the Confessor, rebuilt the abbey in Anglo-French Gothic style as a shrine to venerate King Edward the Confessor and as a suitably regal setting for Henry's own tomb, under the highest Gothic nave in England. The Confessor's shrine subsequently played a great part in his canonization.  Construction of the present church began in 1245 by Henry III who selected the site for his burial. The first building stage included the entire eastern end, the transepts, and the easternmost bay of the nave. The Lady chapel built from around 1220 at the extreme eastern end was incorporated into the chevet of the new building, but was later replaced. This work must have been largely completed by 1258–60, when the second stage was begun. This carried the nave on an additional five bays, bringing it to one bay beyond the ritual choir. Here construction stopped in about 1269, a consecration ceremony being held on 13 October of that year, and because of Henry's death did not resume. The old Romanesque nave remained attached to the new building for over a century, until it was pulled down in the late 14th century and rebuilt from 1376, closely following the original (and by now outdated) design. Construction was largely finished by the architect Henry Yevele in the reign of Richard II.  Henry III also commissioned the unique Cosmati pavement in front of the High Altar (the pavement has recently undergone a major cleaning and conservation programme and was re-dedicated by the Dean at a service on 21 May 2010).  Henry VII added a Perpendicular style chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1503 (known as the "Henry VII Chapel" or the "Lady Chapel"). Much of the stone came from Caen, in France (Caen stone), the Isle of Portland (Portland stone) and the Loire Valley region of France (tuffeau limestone). The chapel was finished circa 1519.

16th and 17th centuries: dissolution and restoration.

In 1535 during the assessment attendant on the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the abbey's annual income was £3,000 (equivalent to £ as of ).

1540–1550: 10 years as a cathedral.

Henry VIII assumed direct royal control in 1539 and granted the abbey the status of a cathedral by charter in 1540, simultaneously issuing letters patent establishing the Diocese of Westminster. By granting the abbey cathedral status, Henry VIII gained an excuse to spare it from the destruction or dissolution which he inflicted on most English abbeys during this period.

After 1550: turbulent times.

Westminster diocese was dissolved in 1550, but the abbey was recognised (in 1552, retroactively to 1550) as a second cathedral of the Diocese of London until 1556. The already-old expression "robbing Peter to pay Paul" may have been given a new lease of life when money meant for the abbey, which is dedicated to Saint Peter, was diverted to the treasury of St Paul's Cathedral.  The abbey was restored to the Benedictines under the Catholic Mary I of England, but they were again ejected under Elizabeth I in 1559. In 1560, Elizabeth re-established Westminster as a "Royal Peculiar" – a church of the Church of England responsible directly to the Sovereign, rather than to a diocesan bishop – and made it the Collegiate Church of St Peter (that is, a non-cathedral church with an attached chapter of canons, headed by a dean).  It suffered damage during the turbulent 1640s, when it was attacked by Puritan iconoclasts, but was again protected by its close ties to the state during the Commonwealth period. Oliver Cromwell was given an elaborate funeral there in 1658, only to be disinterred in January 1661 and posthumously hanged from a gibbet at Tyburn.

1722–1745: Western towers constructed.

The abbey's two western towers were built between 1722 and 1745 by Nicholas Hawksmoor, constructed from Portland stone to an early example of a Gothic Revival design. Purbeck marble was used for the walls and the floors of Westminster Abbey, although the various tombstones are made of different types of marble. Further rebuilding and restoration occurred in the 19th century under Sir George Gilbert Scott.  A narthex (a portico or entrance hall) for the west front was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens in the mid-20th century but was not built. Images of the abbey prior to the construction of the towers are scarce, though the abbey's official website states that the building had "towers which had been left unfinished in the medieval period".  In 1750 the top of one of the piers on the north side of the Abbey fell down, by earthquake, with the iron and lead that had fastened it. Several houses fell in, and many chimneys were damaged. Another shock had been felt during the preceding month.

Second World War.

Westminster suffered minor damage during the Blitz on 15 November 1940. Then on 10/11 May 1941, the Westminster Abbey precincts and roof were hit by incendiary bombs. All the bombs were extinguished by ARP wardens, except for one bomb which ignited out of reach among the wooden beams and plaster vault of the lantern roof (of 1802) over the North Transept. Flames rapidly spread and burning beams and molten lead began to fall on the wooden stalls, pews and other ecclesiastical fixtures 130 feet below. Despite the falling debris, the staff dragged away as much furniture as possible before withdrawing. Finally the Lantern roof crashed down into the crossing, preventing the fires from spreading further.

Post-war.

It was at Westminster Abbey that six companies of eminent churchmen led by Lancelot Andrewes, Dean of Westminster, newly translated the Bible into English, so creating the King James Version in the early 17th century. The Joint Committee responsible for assembling the New English Bible also met twice a year at Westminster Abbey in the 1950s and 1960s.  In the 1990s, two icons by the Russian icon painter Sergei Fyodorov were hung in the abbey. In 1997, the abbey, which was then receiving approximately 1.75 million visitors each year, began charging admission fees to visitors.  On 6 September 1997, the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales, was held at the abbey. On 17 September 2010, Pope Benedict XVI became the first pope to set foot in the abbey.  In June 2009 the first major building work at the abbey for 250 years was proposed. A corona – a crown-like architectural feature – was suggested to be built around the lantern over the central crossing, replacing an existing pyramidal structure dating from the 1950s. This was part of a wider £23m development of the abbey completed in 2013.  On 4 August 2010 the Dean and Chapter announced that, "[a]fter a considerable amount of preliminary and exploratory work", efforts toward the construction of a corona would not be continued. In 2012, architects Panter Hudspith completed refurbishment of the 14th-century food-store originally used by the abbey's monks, converting it into a restaurant with English oak furniture by Covent Garden-based furniture makers Luke Hughes and Company. This is now the Cellarium Café and Terrace.  On 29 April 2011, the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton occurred at the abbey.  The Queen's Diamond Jubilee Galleries have been created in the medieval triforium of the abbey. This is a display area for the abbey's treasures in the galleries high up around the abbey's nave. A new Gothic access tower with lift was designed by the abbey architect and Surveyor of the Fabric, Ptolemy Dean. The new galleries opened in June 2018.

Coronations.

Since the coronation in 1066 of William the Conqueror, every English and British monarch (except Edward V and Edward VIII, who were never crowned) has been crowned in Westminster Abbey. In 1216, Henry III could not be crowned in London when he came to the throne, because the French prince Louis had taken control of the city, and so the king was crowned in Gloucester Cathedral. This coronation was deemed by Pope Honorius III to be improper, and a further coronation was held in Westminster Abbey on 17 May 1220.  King Edward's Chair (or St Edward's Chair), the throne on which English and British sovereigns have been seated at the moment of crowning, is now housed within the Abbey in St George's Chapel near the West Door, and has been used at every coronation since 1308. From 1301 to 1996 (except for a short time in 1950 when the stone was temporarily stolen by Scottish nationalists), the chair also housed the Stone of Scone upon which the kings of Scots are crowned. Although the Stone is now kept in Scotland, in Edinburgh Castle, it is intended that the Stone will be returned to St Edward's Chair for use during future coronation ceremonies.

Royal weddings.

Royal weddings have included:

Dean and Chapter.

Westminster Abbey is a collegiate church governed by the Dean and Chapter of Westminster, as established by Royal charter of Queen Elizabeth I dated 21 May 1560, which created it as the Collegiate Church of St Peter Westminster, a Royal Peculiar under the personal jurisdiction of the Sovereign. The members of the Chapter are the Dean and four canons residentiary; they are assisted by the Receiver General and Chapter Clerk. One of the canons is also Rector of St Margaret's Church, Westminster, and often also holds the post of Chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons. In addition to the Dean and canons, there are at present three full-time minor canons: the precentor, the sacrist and the chaplain. A series of Priests Vicar assist the minor canons.

Burials and memorials.

Henry III rebuilt the abbey in honour of a royal saint, Edward the Confessor, whose relics were placed in a shrine in the sanctuary. Henry III himself was interred nearby, as were many of the Plantagenet kings of England, their wives and other relatives. Until the death of George II in 1760, most kings and queens were buried in the abbey, some notable exceptions being Henry VI, Edward IV, Henry VIII and Charles I who are buried in St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle. Other exceptions include Edward II buried at Gloucester Cathedral, John buried at Worcester Cathedral, Henry IV buried at Canterbury Cathedral and Richard III, now buried at Leicester Cathedral, and the "de facto" queen Lady Jane Grey, buried in the chapel of St Peter ad Vincula in the Tower of London. More recently monarchs have been buried either in St George's Chapel or at Frogmore to the east of Windsor Castle.  From the Middle Ages, aristocrats were buried inside chapels, while monks and other people associated with the abbey were buried in the cloisters and other areas. One of these was Geoffrey Chaucer, who was buried here as he had apartments in the abbey where he was employed as master of the King's Works. Other poets, writers and musicians were buried or memorialised around Chaucer in what became known as Poets' Corner. Abbey musicians such as Henry Purcell were also buried in their place of work.  Subsequently, it became one of Britain's most significant honours to be buried or commemorated in the abbey. The practice of burying national figures in the abbey began under Oliver Cromwell with the burial of Admiral Robert Blake in 1657. The practice spread to include generals, admirals, politicians, doctors and scientists such as Isaac Newton, buried on 4 April 1727, Charles Darwin, buried on 26 April 1882, and Stephen Hawking, ashes interred on 15 June 2018. Another was William Wilberforce who led the movement to abolish slavery in the United Kingdom and the Plantations, buried on 3 August 1833. Wilberforce was buried in the north transept, close to his friend, the former Prime Minister, William Pitt.  During the early 20th century it became increasingly common to bury cremated remains rather than coffins in the abbey. In 1905 the actor Sir Henry Irving was cremated and his ashes buried in Westminster Abbey, thereby becoming the first person ever to be cremated prior to interment at the abbey. The majority of interments at the Abbey are of cremated remains, but some burials still take place – Frances Challen, wife of Sebastian Charles, Canon of Westminster, was buried alongside her husband in the south choir aisle in 2014. Members of the Percy family have a family vault, The Northumberland Vault, in St Nicholas's chapel within the abbey.  In the floor, just inside the Great West Door, in the centre of the nave, is the tomb of The Unknown Warrior, an unidentified British soldier killed on a European battlefield during the First World War. He was buried in the abbey on 11 November 1920. This grave is the only one in the abbey on which it is forbidden to walk.  At the east end of the Lady Chapel is a memorial chapel to the airmen of the Royal Air Force who were killed in the Second World War. It incorporates a memorial window to the Battle of Britain, which replaces an earlier Tudor stained glass window destroyed in the war. On 6 September 1997 the formal, though not "state" funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales, was held. It was a royal ceremonial funeral including royal pageantry and Anglican funeral liturgy. A second public service was held on Sunday at the demand of the people. The burial occurred privately later the same day. Diana's former husband, sons, mother, siblings, a close friend, and a clergyman were present. Diana's body was clothed in a black long-sleeved dress designed by Catherine Walker, which she had chosen some weeks before. A set of rosary beads was placed in her hands, a gift she had received from Mother Teresa, who died a day before Diana's funeral. Her grave is on the grounds of her family estate, Althorp, on a private island.  In 1998 ten vacant statue niches on the façade above the Great West Door were filled with representative 20th-century Christian martyrs of various denominations. Those commemorated are Maximilian Kolbe, Manche Masemola, Janani Luwum, Grand Duchess Elizabeth of Russia, Martin Luther King Jr., Óscar Romero, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Esther John, Lucian Tapiedi, and Wang Zhiming.  On 9 April 2002 the ceremonial funeral of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother was held in the abbey. She was interred later the same day in the King George VI Memorial Chapel at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle next to her husband, King George VI, who had died 50 years previously. At the same time, the ashes of the Queen Mother's daughter, Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, who had died on 9 February 2002, were also interred in a private family service.

Schools.

Westminster School and Westminster Abbey Choir School are also in the precincts of the abbey. The Choir School educates and trains the choirboys who sing for services in the Abbey.

Music.

Westminster Abbey is renowned for its choral tradition, and the repertoire of Anglican church music is heard in daily worship, particularly at the service of Choral Evensong.

Organ.

The organ was built by Harrison & Harrison in 1937, then with four manuals and 84 speaking stops, and was used for the first time at the coronation of King George VI. Some pipework from the previous Hill organ of 1848 was revoiced and incorporated in the new scheme. The two organ cases, designed and built in the late 19th century by John Loughborough Pearson, were re-instated and coloured in 1959.  In 1982 and 1987, Harrison and Harrison enlarged the organ under the direction of the then abbey organist Simon Preston to include an additional Lower Choir Organ and a Bombarde Organ: the current instrument now has five manuals and 109 speaking stops. In 2006, the console of the organ was refurbished by Harrison and Harrison, and space was prepared for two additional 16 ft stops on the Lower Choir Organ and the Bombarde Organ.  The current Organist and Master of the Choristers, James O'Donnell, has been in post since 2000.

Bells.

The bells at the abbey were overhauled in 1971. The ring is now made up of ten bells, hung for change ringing, cast in 1971 by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, tuned to the notes: F#, E, D, C#, B, A, G, F#, E and D. The Tenor bell in D (588.5 Hz) has a weight of 30 cwt, 1 qtr, 15 lb (3403 lb or 1544 kg).  In addition there are two service bells, cast by Robert Mot, in 1585 and 1598 respectively, a Sanctus bell cast in 1738 by Richard Phelps and Thomas Lester and two unused bells – one cast about 1320, by the successor to R de Wymbish, and a second cast in 1742, by Thomas Lester. The two service bells and the 1320 bell, along with a fourth small silver "dish bell", kept in the refectory, have been noted as being of historical importance by the Church Buildings Council of the Church of England.

Chapter house.

The chapter house was built concurrently with the east parts of the abbey under Henry III, between about 1245 and 1253. It was restored by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1872. The entrance is approached from the east cloister walk and includes a double doorway with a large tympanum above.  Inner and outer vestibules lead to the octagonal chapter house, which is of exceptional architectural purity. It is built in a Geometrical Gothic style with an octagonal crypt below. A pier of eight shafts carries the vaulted ceiling. To the sides are blind arcading, remains of 14th-century paintings and numerous stone benches above which are innovatory large 4-light quatre-foiled windows. These are virtually contemporary with the Sainte-Chapelle, Paris.  The chapter house has an original mid-13th-century tiled pavement. A door within the vestibule dates from around 1050 and is believed to be the oldest in England. The exterior includes flying buttresses added in the 14th century and a leaded tent-lantern roof on an iron frame designed by Scott. The Chapter house was originally used in the 13th century by Benedictine monks for daily meetings. It later became a meeting place of the King's Great Council and the Commons, predecessors of Parliament.  The Pyx Chamber formed the undercroft of the monks' dormitory. It dates to the late 11th century and was used as a monastic and royal treasury. The outer walls and circular piers are of 11th-century date, several of the capitals were enriched in the 12th century and the stone altar added in the 13th century. The term "pyx" refers to the boxwood chest in which coins were held and presented to a jury during the Trial of the Pyx, in which newly minted coins were presented to ensure they conformed to the required standards.  The chapter house and Pyx Chamber at Westminster Abbey are in the guardianship of English Heritage, but under the care and management of the Dean and Chapter of Westminster.

Museum.

The Westminster Abbey Museum was located in the 11th-century vaulted undercroft beneath the former monks' dormitory in Westminster Abbey. This was one of the oldest areas of the abbey, dating back almost to the foundation of the church by Edward the Confessor in 1065. This space had been used as a museum since 1908 but was closed to the public in June 2018, when it was replaced as a museum by the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Galleries, high up in the Abbey triforium.

Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, is a large, mainly Gothic abbey church in the City of Westminster, London, England, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is one of the United Kingdom's most notable religious buildings and the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English and, later, British monarchs. The building itself was a Benedictine monastic church until the monastery was dissolved in 1539. Between 1540 and 1556, the abbey had the status of a cathedral. Since 1560, the building is no longer an abbey or a cathedral, having instead the status of a Church of England "Royal Peculiar"—a church responsible directly to the sovereign.

Westminsterské opatství ("Westminster Abbey") – oficiální označení Kolegiátní chrám svatého Petra ve Westminsteru ("The Collegiate Church of St Peter, Westminster") je chrám Anglikánské církve ve stavebním tvaru katedrály, postavený převážně v gotickém slohu, nacházející se v londýnském obvodu Westminster, nedaleko od Westminsterského paláce. Je tradičním místem korunovací, svateb a místem posledního odpočinku anglických panovníků.


Biography.

Standing 188 cm (6 foot 2 inch) and 100 kg (220 lb), Arellano Félix was allegedly one of the most ruthless members of the cartel and was a suspect in various murders. Arellano Félix had been linked by Mexican police to the 1997 massacre of twelve members of a family outside of Ensenada, Baja California. The family was related to a drug dealer that had an unpaid debt to the Arellano Félix Cartel.  On September 18, 1997, Ramon Arellano Félix became the 451st fugitive to be placed on the Ten Most Wanted list. Leading to his Most Wanted Fugitive listing in the United States, he had been charged in a sealed indictment in the United States District Court for the Southern District of California, with Conspiracy to Import Cocaine and Marijuana in drug trafficking.

Kingpin Act sanction.

On 1 June 2000, the United States Department of the Treasury sanctioned Ramón under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act (sometimes referred to simply as the "Kingpin Act"), for his involvement in drug trafficking, along with eleven other international criminals. The act prohibited U.S. citizens and companies from doing any kind of business activity with him, and virtually froze all his assets in the U.S.

Death and aftermath.

On February 10, 2002, Arellano Félix was killed in a gunfight in Mazatlán, Sinaloa, where he was stopped due to a traffic infraction by a Mexican police officer who did not know at the time who Arellano Félix really was. Arellano Félix drew his gun and shot the police officer, who shot him back while falling to the ground.  According to Jesús Zambada García (alias "El Rey"), Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán ordered his execution. Arellano's older brother, Benjamín Arellano Félix, the cartel's mastermind, was arrested weeks later on March 9.  On August 14, 2006, the youngest of the Arellano brothers, Francisco Javier Arellano Félix, was arrested with some associates at sea, by the United States Coast Guard. They were in international waters off the coast of Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur. Francisco was extradited to the U.S. on September 16, 2006.  The only brother of the Arellano Félix cartel then at large, Eduardo Arellano Félix, was captured by the Mexican Army on October 26, 2008. At the time, the US State Department had been offering a reward of up to US$5 million for information leading to his arrest. According to a Mexican official, at the time of Eduardo Arellano Félix's capture, control of the cartel passed to Luis Fernando Sánchez Arellano, a son of Eduardo Arellano Félix's sister Alicia.

In popular culture.

In the 2017 Netflix and Univision series, "El Chapo", Rolf Petersen plays Ramón Avendaño (a fictionalized portrayal of Ramón Arellano Félix).  Arellano Félix is portrayed by Manuel Masalva in the 2018 crime drama, "".

Ramon Arellano Félix (August 31, 1964 – February 10, 2002) was a Mexican drug trafficker whom authorities linked to the Tijuana drug cartel (a.k.a. the Arellano-Félix Organization).

Ramón Eduardo Arellano-Félix (31. srpna 1964 – 10. února 2002) byl Mexičan, kterého vládní autority řadily k členům Tijuanského drogového kartelu. 18. listopadu 1997 se Arellano-Félix dostal jako 451. osoba na seznam FBI nejhledanějších osob.


Plot.

The story begins outside Cairo where Okra (Akim Tamiroff), using a bikini-clad accomplice (Maria Grazia Buccella) as a distraction, hijacks $3 million in gold bullion. The thieves need a way to smuggle the two tons of gold bars into Europe. There are only four master criminals considered capable of smuggling the gold but each is ruled out: a Frenchman is so crippled he can barely move his wheelchair; an Irishman is so nearsighted he is arrested trying to hold up a police station instead of a bank; a German is so fat he can barely get through a door to escape; and an Italian, Aldo Vanucci (Peter Sellers), a master of disguise known as The Fox, is in prison.  Vanucci knows about the smuggling contract but is reluctant to accept it because he does not want to disgrace his mother and young sister, Gina (Britt Ekland). When his three sidekicks inform him that Gina has grown up and does not always come home after school, an enraged, over-protective Vanucci vows to escape. He impersonates the prison doctor and convinces the guards that Vanucci has tied him up in his cell and escaped. The guards capture the doctor and bring him face to face with Vanucci, who flees with the aid of his gang. Vanucci returns home where his mother tells him that Gina is working the Via Veneto. He takes this to mean that Gina is a prostitute. Disguised as a priest, Aldo watches Gina, provocatively dressed, flirt with and kiss a fat, middle-aged man. Aldo attacks the man, but it turns out that Gina, who aspires to be a movie star, is merely acting in a low-budget film. Aldo's actions cost her the job. Aldo realizes that the smuggling operation will improve his family's life. He makes contact with Okra and agrees to smuggle the gold into Italy for half of the take. Two policemen are constantly on Vanucci's trail and he uses disguises and tricks to throw them off. After seeing a crowd mob the over-the-hill American matinee idol Tony Powell (Victor Mature), it strikes Vanucci that movie stars and film crews are idolized and have free rein in society. This insight forms the basis of his master plan.  Vanucci poses as an Italian neo-realist director named Federico Fabrizi. He plans to bring the gold ashore in broad daylight as part of a scene in an avant-garde film. To give the picture an air of legitimacy, he cons Powell to star in the film, which is blatantly titled "The Gold of Cairo" (a play on The Gold of Naples, a film De Sica directed in 1954). Powell's agent, Harry (Martin Balsam), is suspicious of Fabrizi but his vain client wants to do the film. Fabrizi enlists the starstruck population of Sevalio, a tiny fishing village, to unload the shipment. But when the boat carrying the gold is delayed, Fabrizi must actually shoot scenes for his faux film to keep up the ruse. The ship finally arrives and the townspeople unload the gold, but Okra double-crosses Vanucci and, using a movie smoke machine for cover, drives off with the gold. A slapstick car chase ensues, ending with Okra, Vanucci and the police crashing into each other. Vanucci, Tony Powell, Gina, Okra, and the villagers are accused of being co-conspirators and Vanucci's "film" is shown as evidence in court. An Italian film critic leaps to his feet and proclaims the disjointed footage to be a masterpiece. Vanucci suffers a crisis of conscience and confesses his guilt in court, thereby exonerating the villagers, but vows to escape from prison once again.  Vanucci escapes from prison by impersonating the prison doctor again. This time he ties the doctor up in his cell and walks out of the prison in his place. When he attempts to remove the fake beard which is part of his disguise, he discovers the beard is "real" and exclaims, "Ze wrong man has escaped!"

Production.

This was Neil Simon's first screenplay; at that time, he had three hit shows running on Broadway — "Little Me", "Barefoot in the Park" and "The Odd Couple". Simon said he originally wanted to write a spoof of art house films such as "Last Year at Marienbad" and the Michelangelo Antonioni films but the story evolved into the idea of a film-within-a-film. Aldo Vanucci brings to mind the fast-talking cons of Phil Silvers and the brilliant dialects of Sid Caesar. This is probably no coincidence since Simon wrote for both on television. In his 1996 memoir "Rewrites", Simon recalled that an agent suggested Peter Sellers for the lead, while Simon preferred casting "an authentic Italian," such as Marcello Mastroianni or Vittorio Gassman. Sellers loved the script and asked Vittorio De Sica to direct.  De Sica's interest in the project surprised Simon, who at first dismissed it as a way for the director to support his gambling habit. De Sica said he saw a social statement to be made, namely how the pursuit of money corrupts even the arts. Simon believed De Sica also relished the opportunity to take potshots at the Italian film industry. De Sica insisted that Simon collaborate with Cesare Zavattini. Since neither spoke the other's language, the two writers worked through interpreters. Simon wrote, "He had very clear, concise, and intelligent comments that I could readily understand and agree with". Still, Simon worried that inserting social statements into what he considered a broad farce would not do justice to either. Yet, "After The Fox" does touch on themes found in De Sica's earlier work, namely disillusion and dignity.  Sellers told the press his main reason for doing the film was the chance to work with De Sica. "After the Fox" was the first film produced by Sellers' new Brookfield production company, which he formed in partnership with John Bryan, a former production designer. It was also their last production, as Sellers and Bryan had a rift over De Sica. Sellers complained the director "thinks in Italian; I think in English" and wanted De Sica replaced; Bryan resisted for financial and artistic reasons. De Sica grew impatient with his petulant star; indeed, he cared for neither Sellers' performance nor Simon's screenplay.  Victor Mature, who had retired from films five years earlier, was lured back to the screen by the prospect of parodying himself as Tony Powell. Mature was always a self-effacing star who had no illusions about his work. At the height of his fame he applied for membership in the Los Angeles Country Club but was told the club did not accept actors. He replied, "I'm not an actor, and I've got 64 films to prove it!" A clip from Mature's 1949 film "Easy Living" (in which he plays an aging football star) appears in the film. He agreed to make "After The Fox" after a personal call from Sellers. Mature also revealed that he based Tony Powell partially on De Sica, "Plus a lot of egotism, and DeMille, too — that bit with the fellow following him around with the chair all the time." Mature told the "Chicago Tribune," "I not only enjoyed doing the film, but it gave me the urge to get back into pictures. They were an exciting group of people to work with."  According to Neil Simon, Sellers demanded that his wife, Britt Ekland, be cast as Gina, the Fox's sister. Ekland's looks and accent were wrong for the role, but to keep Sellers happy De Sica acquiesced. Still, Simon recalled, Ekland worked hard on the film. Sellers and Ekland made one other film together, "The Bobo" (1967).  Also featured are Akim Tamiroff as Okra, the mastermind of the heist in Cairo; Martin Balsam as Tony's dyspeptic agent, Harry; Maria Grazia Buccella as Okra's voluptuous accomplice; Lydia Brazzi as Mama Vanucci; and Lando Buzzanca as the chief of police in Sevalio. Simon recalled the Italian supporting cast learned their English lines phonetically. Tamiroff had been working on and off for Orson Welles playing Sancho Panza in "Don Quixote", a film Welles never finished. Buccella was a former Miss Italy (1959) and placed third in the Miss Europe pageant. She had been considered for the role of Domino in "Thunderball". Lydia Brazzi, the wife of actor Rossano Brazzi, was hand-picked by De Sica for the role of the Fox's mother, despite her protests that she was not an actress.  The budget for the film was $3 million, which included the construction of a replica of Rome's most famous street, the Via Veneto, on the Cinecittà lot, and location filming in the village of Sant' Angelo on Ischia in the Bay of Naples. The Sevalio sequences were shot during the height of the tourist season. Reportedly the villagers of Sant' Angelo were so busy accommodating tourists they had no time to appear in the film; extras were brought in from a neighboring village.  Simon lamented that De Sica insisted on using his own film editors—two individuals who did not speak English and thus did not understand the jokes. The film was later re-cut in Rome by one of John Huston's favorite film editors, Russell Lloyd, but Simon believes more funny bits "are lying in a cutting room in Italy". (Apparently there was a deleted scene where Vanucci impersonated one of the Beatles.) The voices and accents of the Italian comic actors were dubbed in London, mainly by Robert Rieti and edited in Rome by Malcolm Cooke, who had been a post-sync dialogue editor on "Lawrence of Arabia".  Simon summed up his opinion of the film: "to give the picture its due, it was funny in spots, innovative in its plot, and was well-intentioned. But a hit picture? Uh-uh... Still today, "After the Fox" remains a cult favorite."  Burt Bacharach composed the score and with lyricist Hal David wrote the title song for the film. For the Italian release, the score was composed by Piero Piccioni. The title song "After the Fox" was recorded by The Hollies with Sellers in August 1966 and released by United Artists as a single (b/w "The Fox-Trot").

Release.

"After the Fox" was released in Great Britain, Italy and the United States in December 1966. As part of a publicity barrage, United Artists announced that it had signed Federico Fabrizi to direct three films. The story was to be planted in the trade papers and then appear in general newspapers, with Sellers available for telephone interviews in character as Fabrizi. The editors of "Daily Variety" recognized the fictional name immediately, however, and spoiled the gag.  The film received mixed reviews. "The New York Times" critic Bosley Crowther summed up his review, "It's pretty much of a mess, this picture. Yes, you'd think it was done by amateurs".  The "Variety" reviewer thought "Peter Sellers is in nimble, lively form in this whacky comedy which, though sometimes strained, has a good comic idea and gives the star plenty of scope for his usual range of impersonations".  The "Boston Globe" termed the film "funny, fast and wholly ridiculous," and thought Sellers' portrayal of Fabrizi "hilarious."  "Billboard" called the film "a series of fun-filled satires...guaranteed for laughs," and thought Sellers was "at his droll best" and Mature "hilarious."  "Monthy Film Bulletin," however, wrote, "Continuing the De Sica's decline of recent years, this witless comedy of incompetent crooks and excitable Italians never even begins to get off the ground," and called Seller's performance "self-indulgent," but singled out Mature as "amusing and touching."  Opinion continues to be divided. "After the Fox" is rated 6.5/10 on IMDB, an average of more than 2,500 user ratings. The review aggregator Web site Rotten Tomatoes reported a 71% approval rating with an average rating of 5.6/10, based on seven reviews.  The film has some kinship with "What's New Pussycat?", which was released the previous year and also starred Sellers. That film was the first written by Woody Allen who, like Neil Simon, had been a staff writer for Sid Caesar. Even the advertising tagline on the posters and trailer for "After The Fox" proclaimed, "You Caught The Pussycat... Now Chase The Fox!". The poster art for both films was illustrated by Frank Frazetta.

Influence.

The device in which robbers use a movie set to cover a robbery is also in Woody Allen's "Take the Money and Run" (1969). In the television series "Batman", it is used in the 1968 episode titled "The Great Train Robbery".  The scene in the film where Aldo speaks to Okra through the beautiful Maria Grazia Buccella inspired a similar scene in "Austin Powers in Goldmember" (2002), in which Austin Powers talks to Foxxy Cleopatra through the Nathan Lane character.  The 2010 Bollywood film "Tees Maar Khan" is an official remake of "After the Fox".

After the Fox () is a 1966 British–Italian heist comedy film directed by Vittorio De Sica and starring Peter Sellers, Victor Mature and Britt Ekland. The English-language screenplay is by Neil Simon and De Sica's longtime collaborator Cesare Zavattini.

Hon na lišku je filmová komedie s kriminální zápletkou italského režiséra Vittoria De Sicy z roku 1966. Snímek byl natočen v italsko-americko-britské koprodukci a v hlavní roli se objevil komik Peter Sellers. Scénář filmu byl napsán v angličtině a jeho autory jsou Neil Simon a De Sicův dlouholetý spolupracovník Cesare Zavattini. Filmu se nedostalo příliš nadšeného přijetí, ale postupně zkultovněl, a to především četnými narážkami na díla známých režisérů (Cecil B. DeMille, John Huston, Federico Fellini, Michelangelo Antonioni i sám De Sica).


Definitions.

Let "S" be a partially ordered set. Two elements "a" and "b" of a partially ordered set are called comparable if "a" ≤ "b" or "b" ≤ "a". If two elements are not comparable, they are called incomparable; that is, "x" and "y" are incomparable if neither "x" ≤ "y" nor "y" ≤ "x".  A chain in "S" is a subset "C" of "S" in which each pair of elements is comparable; that is, "C" is totally ordered. An antichain in "S" is a subset "A" of "S" in which each pair of different elements is incomparable; that is, there is no order relation between any two different elements in "A".

Height and width.

A maximal antichain is an antichain that is not a proper subset of any other antichain. A maximum antichain is an antichain that has cardinality at least as large as every other antichain. The "width" of a partially ordered set is the cardinality of a maximum antichain. Any antichain can intersect any chain in at most one element, so, if we can partition the elements of an order into "k" chains then the width of the order must be at most "k" (if the antichain has more than "k" elements, by the pigeonhole principle, there would be 2 of its elements belonging to the same chain, contradiction). Dilworth's theorem states that this bound can always be reached: there always exists an antichain, and a partition of the elements into chains, such that the number of chains equals the number of elements in the antichain, which must therefore also equal the width. Similarly, one can define the "height" of a partial order to be the maximum cardinality of a chain. Mirsky's theorem states that in any partial order of finite height, the height equals the smallest number of antichains into which the order may be partitioned.

Sperner families.

An antichain in the inclusion ordering of subsets of an "n"-element set is known as a Sperner family. The number of different Sperner families is counted by the Dedekind numbers, the first few of which numbers are Even the empty set has two antichains in its power set: one containing a single set (the empty set itself) and one containing no sets.

Join and meet operations.

Any antichain "A" corresponds to a lower set In a finite partial order (or more generally a partial order satisfying the ascending chain condition) all lower sets have this form. The union of any two lower sets is another lower set, and the union operation corresponds in this way to a join operation on antichains: Similarly, we can define a meet operation on antichains, corresponding to the intersection of lower sets: The join and meet operations on all finite antichains of finite subsets of a set "X" define a distributive lattice, the free distributive lattice generated by "X". Birkhoff's representation theorem for distributive lattices states that every finite distributive lattice can be represented via join and meet operations on antichains of a finite partial order, or equivalently as union and intersection operations on the lower sets of the partial order.

Computational complexity.

A maximum antichain (and its size, the width of a given partially ordered set) can be found in polynomial time. Counting the number of antichains in a given partially ordered set is #P-complete.

In mathematics, in the area of order theory, an antichain is a subset of a partially ordered set such that any two distinct elements in the subset are incomparable.

Protiřetězec (někdy také označovaný jako antiřetězec) je matematický termín z oboru algebry a teorie uspořádání, který se používá pro označení množin vzájemně neporovnatelných prvků.


Etymology.

The etymology of "Selene" is uncertain, but if the name is of Greek origin, it is likely connected to the word "selas" (σέλας), meaning "light".  Just as Helios, from his identification with Apollo, is called "Phoebus" ("bright"), Selene, from her identification with Artemis, is also commonly referred to by the epithet "Phoebe" (feminine form). The original Phoebe of Greek mythology is Selene's aunt, the Titaness mother of Leto and Asteria, and grandmother of Apollo, Artemis, and Hecate. Also from Artemis, Selene was sometimes called "Cynthia".  Selene was also called "Mene". The word "men" (feminine "mene"), meant the moon, and the lunar month. It was also the name of the Phrygian moon-god Men.  Philologist Max Müller's interpretation of solar mythology as it related to Selene and Endymion concluded that the myth was a narrativized version of linguistic terminology. Because the Greek "endyein" meant "to dive," the name Endymion ("Diver") at first simply described the process of the setting sun "diving" into the sea. In this case, the story of Selene embracing Endymion, or Moon embraces Diver, refers to the sun setting and the moon rising.

Origin.

The usual account of Selene's origin is given by Hesiod. In the "Theogony", the sun-god Hyperion espoused his sister Theia, who gave birth to "great Helios and clear Selene and Eos who shines upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless Gods who live in the wide heaven". The "Homeric Hymn to Helios" follows this tradition: "Hyperion wedded glorious Euryphaëssa, his own sister, who bare him lovely children, rosy-armed Eos and rich-tressed Selene and tireless Helios." Here "Euryphaëssa" ("wide-shining") is probably an epithet of Theia.  Other accounts make Selene the daughter of Pallas, the son of Megamedes (possibly identified with Titan Pallas) or of Helios.

Lovers and offspring.

Lovers.

Selene is best known for her affair with the beautiful mortal Endymion.  The late 7th-century – early 6th-century BC poet Sappho apparently mentioned Selene and Endymion.  However, the first direct account comes from the third-century BC "Argonautica" of Apollonius of Rhodes, which tells of Selene's "mad passion" and her visiting the "fair Endymion" in a cave on Mount Latmus:  Quintus Smyrnaeus' "The Fall of Troy" tells that, while Endymion slept in his cave beside his cattle, "Selene watched him from on high, and slid from heaven to earth; for passionate love drew down the immortal stainless Queen of Night." The eternally sleeping Endymion was proverbial, but exactly how this eternal sleep came about and what role, if any, Selene may have had in it is unclear.  According to the "Catalogue of Women", Endymion was the son of Aethlius (a son of Zeus), and Zeus granted him the right to choose when he would die.  A scholiast on Apollonius says that, according to Epimenides, Endymion, having fallen in love with Hera, asked Zeus to grant him eternal sleep.  However, Apollodorus says that because of Endymion's "surpassing beauty, the Moon fell in love with him, and Zeus allowed him to choose what he would, and he chose to sleep for ever, remaining deathless and ageless".  Cicero seems to make Selene responsible for Endymion's sleep, so that "she might kiss him while sleeping".  From Pausanias we hear that Selene was supposed to have had by Endymion fifty daughters, who possibly represented the fifty lunar months of the Olympiad.  Nonnus has Selene and Endymion as the parents of the beautiful Narcissus, but in other accounts, including Ovid's "Metamorphoses", Narcissus was the son of Cephissus and Liriope.

Offspring.

According to the "Homeric Hymn to Selene", the goddess bore Zeus a daughter, Pandia ("all-brightness"), "exceeding lovely amongst the deathless gods". The 7th century BC Greek poet Alcman makes Ersa ("dew") the daughter of Selene and Zeus. Selene and Zeus were also supposed by some to be the parents of Nemea, the eponymous nymph of Nemea, where Heracles slew the Nemean Lion, and where the Nemean Games were held. Some accounts also make Selene and Zeus the parents of Dionysus, but this may be the result of confusing Semele, the usual mother of Dionysus, with Selene because of the similarity of their names.  Whereas for Hesiod, the Nemean Lion was born to Echidna and raised by Hera, other accounts have Selene involved in some way in its birth or rearing. Aelian, "On Animals" 12.7, states: "They say that the Lion of Nemea fell from the moon", and quotes Epimenides as saying: "For I am sprung from fair-tressed Selene the Moon, who in a fearful shudder shook off the savage lion in Nemea, and brought him forth at the bidding of Queen Hera."  Quintus Smyrnaeus makes Helios and Selene (the Sun and Moon) the parents of the Horae, goddesses of the seasons. Smyrnaeus describes them as the four handmaidens of Hera, but in most accounts their number is three, and their parents are Zeus and Themis.  According to Virgil, Selene also had a tryst with the great god Pan, who seduced her with a "snowy bribe of wool". Scholia on Virgil add that the god wrapped himself in a sheepskin.  Selene was also said to be the mother of the legendary Greek poet Musaeus.

Moon chariot.

Like her brother Helios, the Sun god, who drives his sun chariot across the sky each day, Selene is also said to drive a chariot across the heavens. The "Hymn to Selene", provides a description:  The earliest known depiction of Selene driving a chariot is inside an early 5th century BC red-figure cup attributed to the Brygos Painter, showing Selene plunging her chariot, drawn by two winged horses, into the sea. Though the moon chariot is often described as being silver, for Pindar it was golden. While the sun chariot has four horses, Selene's usually has two, described as "snow-white" by Ovid. In some cases the chariot was drawn by oxen or bulls.

Descriptions.

Surviving descriptions of Selene's physical appearance and character, apart from those which would apply to the moon itself, are scant. Three early sources mention Selene's hair. Both the "Hymn to Helios" and the "Hymn to Selene" use the word εὐπλόκαμος, variously translated as "rich", "bright", or "beautiful haired", and Epimenides uses the epithet "lovely-haired". The "Hymn to Selene" describes the goddess as very beautiful, with long wings and a golden diadem, calling her "white-armed" and "benevolent". Aeschylus calls Selene "the eye of night". The "Orphic Hymns" give Selene horns and a torch, describing her as "all-seeing", "all-wise", a lover of horses and of vigilance, and a "foe of strife" who "giv'st to Nature's works their destin'd end".

Iconography.

In antiquity, artistic representations of Selene included sculptural reliefs, vase paintings, coins, and gems. In red-figure pottery before the early 5th century BC, she is depicted only as a bust, or in profile against a lunar disk. In later art, like other celestial divinities such as Helios, Eos, and Nyx ("night"), Selene rides across the heavens. She is usually portrayed either driving a chariot or riding sidesaddle on horseback (sometimes riding an ox, a mule or a ram).  Paired with her brother Helios, Selene adorned the east pediment of the Parthenon, where the two framed a scene depicting the birth of Athena, with Helios driving his chariot rising from the ocean on the left, and Selene and her chariot descending into the sea on the right. From Pausanias, we learn that Selene and Helios also framed the birth of Aphrodite on the base of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. There are indications of a similar framing by Selene and Helios of the birth of Pandora on the base of the Athena Parthenos. Selene also appears on horseback as part of the Gigantomachy frieze of the Pergamon Altar.  Selene is commonly depicted with a crescent moon, often accompanied by stars; sometimes, instead of a crescent, a lunar disc is used. Often a crescent moon rests on her brow, or the cusps of a crescent moon protrude, horn-like, from her head, or from behind her head or shoulders. Selene's head is sometimes surrounded by a nimbus, and from the Hellenistic period onwards, she is sometimes pictured with a torch.  In later second and third century AD Roman funerary art, the love of Selene for Endymion and his eternal sleep was a popular subject for artists. As frequently depicted on Roman sarcophagi, Selene, holding a billowing veil forming a crescent over her head, descends from her chariot to join her lover, who slumbers at her feet.  In post-Renaissance art, Selene is generally depicted as a beautiful woman with a pale face and long, lustrous black hair, driving a silver chariot pulled either by a yoke of oxen or a pair of horses.

Cult.

Moon figures are found on Cretan rings and gems (perhaps indicating a Minoan moon cult), but apart from the role played by the moon itself in magic, folklore, and poetry, and despite the later worship of the Phrygian moon-god Men, there was relatively little worship of Selene. An oracular sanctuary existed near Thalamai in Laconia. Described by Pausanias, it contained statues of Pasiphaë and Helios. Here "Pasiphaë" is used as an epithet of Selene, instead of referring to the daughter of Helios and wife of Minos. Pausanias also described seeing two stone images in the market-place of Elis, one of the sun and the other of the moon, from the heads of which projected the rays of the sun and the horns of the crescent moon.  Originally Pandia may have been an epithet of Selene, but by at least the time of the late "Homeric Hymn", Pandia had become a daughter of Zeus and Selene. Pandia (or Pandia Selene) may have personified the full moon, and an Athenian festival, called the Pandia, usually considered to be a festival for Zeus, was perhaps celebrated on the full moon and may have been associated with Selene.

Orphic literature.

According to a certain Epigenes, the three Moirai, or Fates, were regarded in the Orphic tradition as representing the three divisions of Selene, "the thirtieth and the fifteenth and the first" (i.e. the crescent moon, full moon, and dark moon, as delinted by the divisions of the calendar month).

In Greek mythology, Selene (; "Moon") is the goddess of the Moon. She is the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia and sister of the sun god Helios and Eos, goddess of the dawn. She drives her moon chariot across the heavens. Several lovers are attributed to her in various myths, including Zeus, Pan, and the mortal Endymion. In classical times, Selene was often identified with Artemis, much as her brother, Helios, was identified with Apollo. Selene and Artemis were also associated with Hecate and all three were regarded as lunar goddesses, but only Selene was regarded as the personification of the Moon itself. Her Roman equivalent is Luna.

Seléné, Seléna nebo Selene, řecky "Seléné" (, měsíc) (ještě se jí také říká Fébé nebo Méné podle fáze Měsíce) je řecká bohyně a zosobnění Měsíce. V Římě to byla bohyně Luna (latinsky měsíc); tento název se vžil i v češtině jako básnický výraz pro Měsíc.


Cartridge naming conventions.

Makers of early cartridge arms had to invent methods of naming cartridges since no established convention existed then. One of the early established cartridge arms was the Spencer repeating rifle, which Union forces used in the American Civil War. It was named based on the chamber dimensions, rather than the bore diameter, with the earliest cartridge called the "No. 56 cartridge", indicating a chamber diameter of.56 in; the bore diameter varied considerably, from.52 to.54 in. Later various derivatives were created using the same basic cartridge, but with smaller-diameter bullets; these were named by the cartridge diameter at the base and mouth. The original No. 56 became the.56-56, and the smaller versions,.56-52,.56-50, and.56-46. The.56-52, the most common of the new calibers, used a 50-cal bullet.  Other black powder-era cartridges used naming schemes that appeared similar, but measured entirely different characteristics;.45-70,.44-40, and.32-20 were designated by bullet diameter to hundredths of an inch and standard black powder charge in grains. Optionally, the bullet weight in grains was designated, e.g..45-70-405. This scheme was far more popular and was carried over after the advent of early smokeless powder cartridges such as the.30-30 Winchester and.22 Long. Later developments used terms to indicate relative power, such as.44 Special and.44 Magnum. Variations on these methods persist today, with new cartridges such as the.204 Ruger and.17 HMR (Hornady Magnum Rimfire).  Metric diameters for small arms refer to cartridge dimensions and are expressed with an "×" between the bore diameter and the length of the cartridge case; for example, the 6.5×55mm Swedish cartridge has a bore diameter of 6.5 mm and a case length of 55 mm.  The means of measuring a rifled bore varies, and may refer to the diameter of the lands or the grooves of the rifling. For example, the.257 Roberts and.250 Savage both use a.250 inch projectile; both.250 and 257 rifle bores have the a.250 inch land diameter and.257 inch groove diameter. The.308 Winchester is measured across the grooves and uses a.308-in diameter (7.82-mm) bullet; the military-specification version is known as 7.62×51mm NATO, so called because the bore diameter measured between the lands is 7.62 mm, and the cartridge has a case 51 mm long.

Metric and US customary.

The following table lists some of the commonly used calibers where both metric and US customary are used as equivalents. Due to variations in naming conventions, and the whims of the cartridge manufacturers, bullet diameters can vary widely from the diameter implied by the name. For example, a difference of 0.045 in (1.15 mm) occurs between the smallest and largest of the several cartridges designated as ".38 caliber".

Shotguns.

Shotguns are classed according to gauge, a related expression. The gauge of a shotgun refers to how many lead spheres, each with a diameter equal to that of the bore, amount to one pound (approximately 454 grams) in weight. In the case of a 12-gauge shotgun, it would take 12 spheres the size of the shotgun's bore to equal a pound. A numerically larger gauge indicates a smaller barrel: a 20-gauge shotgun requires more spheres to equal a pound; therefore, its barrel is smaller than the 12-gauge. This metric is used in Russia as "caliber number": e.g., "shotgun of the 12 caliber." The 16th caliber is known as "lordly" (). While shotgun bores can be expressed in calibers (the.410 bore shotgun is in fact a caliber measure of.41 caliber [10.4 mm]), unlike with rifles the actual bore diameter of a smoothbore shotgun varies significantly down the length of the barrel due to various chokes (and sometimes back-boring).

Caliber as measurement of length.

The length of artillery barrels has often been described in terms of multiples of the bore diameter e.g. a 4-inch gun of 50 calibers would have a barrel 4 in × 50 = 200 in long. A 50 caliber 16 inch gun (16 inch diameter shell), has a barrel length (muzzle to breech) of 50 × 16 = 800 in (66 ft 8 in). Both 14-in and 16-in navy guns were common in World War II. The British Royal Navy insisted on 50-cal guns on ships as it would allow shells to travel at an initial velocity of up to 1,800 mph (2,897 km/h) to a distance of 26 mi (42 km).

Pounds as a measure of cannon bore.

Smoothbore cannon and carronade bores are designated by the weight in imperial pounds of spherical solid iron shot of diameter to fit the bore. Standard sizes are 6, 12, 18, 24, 32, and 42 pounds, with some 68-pound weapons, and other nonstandard weapons using the same scheme. See Carronade#Ordnance.  From about the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century, measurement of the bore of large gunpowder weapons was usually expressed as the weight of its iron shot in pounds. Iron shot was used as the standard reference because iron was the most common material used for artillery ammunition during that period, and solid spherical shot the most common form encountered. Artillery was classified thereby into standard categories, with 3-pdr., 4-pdr., 6-pdr., 8-pdr., 9-pdr., 12-pdr., 18-pdr., 24-pdr., and 32-pdr. being the most common sizes encountered, although larger, smaller and intermediate sizes existed.  In practice, though, significant variation occurred in the actual mass of the projectile for a given nominal shot weight. The country of manufacture is a significant consideration when determining bore diameters. For example, the French livre, until 1812, had a mass of 489.5 g whilst the contemporary English (avoirdupois) pound massed approximately 454 g. Thus, a French 32-pdr at the Battle of Trafalgar threw a shot with more mass than an English 32-pdr.  Complicating matters further, muzzle-loaded weapons require a significant gap between the sides of the tube bore and the surface of the shot. This is necessary so the projectile may be inserted from the mouth to the base of the tube and seated securely adjacent the propellant charge with relative ease. The gap, called windage, increases the size of the bore with respect to the diameter of the shot somewhere between 10% and 20% depending upon the year the tube was cast and the foundry responsible.  The relationship between bore diameter and projectile weight was severed following the widespread adoption of rifled weapons during the latter part of the 19th century. Guns continued to be classed by projectile weight into the mid-20th century, particularly in British service. However, this value no longer definitively related to bore diameter, since projectiles were no longer simple spheres—and in any case were more often hollow shells filled with explosives rather than solid iron shot.

In guns, particularly firearms, caliber (or calibre in British English) is the specified nominal internal diameter of the gun barrel bore regardless of how or where the bore is measured and whether or not the finished bore matches that specification. It is measured in inches to an accuracy of hundredths or thousandths of an inch or in millimeters. For example, a ".45 caliber" firearm has a barrel diameter of roughly. Barrel diameters can also be expressed using metric dimensions. For example, a "9 mm pistol" has a barrel diameter of about 9 millimeters. Due to the inaccuracy and imprecision of imperial dimensions "converted" to metric units, metric designations are typically far out of specifications published in decimal inches. True "caliber" specifications require imperial measure, and even when cartridge designations (often mistakenly referred to as "caliber") only specify caliber to even tenths or hundredths of an inch, actual barrel/chamber/projectile dimensions are published to at least thousandths of an inch and frequently tolerances extend into ten-thousandths of an inch.

Kalibr je zpravidla vnitřní průměr hlavně, někdy však také jen průměr střely, jenž může být větší než průměr hlavně (typicky pancéřovka). Rozměr (nepřímo a částečně) udává jaký projektil (náboj) lze použít pro danou hlaveň. Udává se v dohodnutých jednotkách délky a jejich násobcích. Těmito jednotkami jsou nejčastěji milimetr (např. 9 mm) nebo setiny palce (např..45 či bez úvodní tečky pouze 45). Kalibr se udává i pro některé zbraně, které nemají charakter palné zbraně buď vůbec – například torpédomet – nebo patří mezi specifické palné zbraně – raketomet.


History.

Sushi originates in a Southeast Asian dish, known as "narezushi" ( – "salted fish"), stored in fermented rice for possibly months at a time. The lacto-fermentation of the rice prevented the fish from spoiling; the rice would be discarded before consumption of the fish. This early type of sushi became an important source of protein for its Japanese consumers. The term "sushi" literally means "sour-tasting" and comes from an antiquated し ("shi") terminal-form conjugation, 酸し "sushi", no longer used in other contexts, of the adjectival verb 酸い "sui" "to be sour"; the overall dish has a sour and umami or savoury taste. Narezushi still exists as a regional specialty, notably as "funa-zushi" from Shiga Prefecture.  Vinegar began to be added to the preparation of narezushi in the Muromachi period (1336–1573) for the sake of enhancing both taste and preservation. In addition to increasing the sourness of the rice, the vinegar significantly increased the dish's longevity, causing the fermentation process to be shortened and eventually abandoned. The primitive sushi would be further developed in Osaka, where over several centuries it became "oshi-zushi" or "hako-zushi"; in this preparation, the seafood and rice were pressed into shape with wooden (typically bamboo) molds.  It was not until the Edo period (1603–1868) that fresh fish was served over vinegared rice and nori. The particular style of today's "nigirizushi" became popular in Edo (contemporary Tokyo) in the 1820s or 1830s. One common story of "nigirizushi"'s origins is of the chef Hanaya Yohei (1799–1858), who invented or perfected the technique in 1824 at his shop in Ryōgoku. The dish was originally termed "Edomae zushi" as it used freshly caught fish from the "Edo-mae" (Edo or Tokyo Bay); the term "Edomae nigirizushi" is still used today as a by-word for quality sushi, regardless of its ingredients' origins.  The earliest written mention of "sushi" in English described in the "Oxford English Dictionary" is in an 1893 book, "A Japanese Interior", where it mentions sushi as "a roll of cold rice with fish, sea-weed, or some other flavoring". There is an earlier mention of sushi in James Hepburn's Japanese-English dictionary from 1873, and an 1879 article on Japanese cookery in the journal "Notes and Queries".

Types.

The common ingredient in all types of "sushi" is vinegared "sushi" rice. Fillings, toppings, condiments, and preparation vary widely.  Due to "rendaku" consonant mutation, "sushi" is spelled with "zu" instead of "su" when a prefix is attached, as in "nigirizushi".

"Chirashizushi".

"Chirashizushi" (, "scattered sushi", also referred to as "barazushi") serves the rice in a bowl and tops it with a variety of raw fish and vegetable garnishes. It is commonly eaten because it is filling, fast and easy to make. It is eaten annually on Hinamatsuri in March.

"Inarizushi".

"Inarizushi" () is a pouch of fried tofu typically filled with "sushi" rice alone. Tales tell that "inarizushi" is named after the Shinto god "Inari". Foxes, messengers of Inari, are believed to have a fondness for fried tofu, and an "Inari-zushi" roll has pointed corners that resemble fox ears.  Regional variations include pouches made of a thin omelette (, "fukusa-zushi", or, "chakin-zushi") instead of tofu. It should not be confused with "inari maki", which is a roll filled with flavored fried tofu.  "Cone sushi" is a variant of "inarizushi" originating in Hawaii that may include green beans, carrots, or gobo along with rice, wrapped in a triangular "abura-age" piece. It is often sold in "okazu-ya" (Japanese delis) and as a component of bento boxes.

"Makizushi".

"Makizushi" (, "rolled sushi"), "norimaki" (, "Nori roll") or "makimono" (, "variety of rolls") is a cylindrical piece, formed with the help of a bamboo mat known as a "makisu" (). "Makizushi" is generally wrapped in nori (seaweed), but is occasionally wrapped in a thin omelette, soy paper, cucumber, or shiso (perilla) leaves. "Makizushi" is usually cut into six or eight pieces, which constitutes a single roll order. Below are some common types of "makizushi", but many other kinds exist. "Futomaki" (, "thick, large or fat rolls") is a large cylindrical piece, usually with "nori" on the outside. A typical "futomaki" is in diameter. They are often made with two, three, or more fillings that are chosen for their complementary tastes and colors. During the evening of the Setsubun festival, it is traditional in the Kansai region to eat uncut futomaki in its cylindrical form, where it is called "ehō-maki" (, lit. happy direction rolls). By 2000 the custom had spread to all of Japan. Futomaki are often vegetarian, and may utilize strips of cucumber, "kampyō" gourd, "takenoko" bamboo shoots, or lotus root. Strips of "tamagoyaki" omelette, tiny fish roe, chopped tuna, and "oboro (food)" whitefish flakes are typical non-vegetarian fillings. Traditionally, the vinegared rice is lightly seasoned with salt and sugar. Popular protein ingredients are fish cakes, imitation crab meat, eggs, tunas, or shrimps. Vegetables usually include cucumbers, lettuces, and (pickled radish).  Short grain white rice is usually used, although short-grain brown rice, like olive oil on "nori", is now becoming more widespread among the health-conscious. Rarely, sweet rice is mixed in "makizushi" rice. Nowadays, the rice in "makizushi" can be many kinds of black rice, boiled rice and cereals etc. Besides the common ingredients listed above, some varieties may include cheese, spicy cooked squid, "yakiniku", "kamaboko", lunch meat, sausage, bacon or spicy tuna. The "nori" may be brushed with sesame oil or sprinkled with sesame seeds. In a variation, sliced pieces of "makizushi" may be lightly fried with egg coating. "Tamago makizushi" (玉子巻き寿司) is "makizushi" is rolled out by a thin egg. "Tempura Makizushi" (天ぷら 巻き寿司) or "Agezushi" (揚げ寿司ロール) is a fried version of the dish.  "Hosomaki" (, "thin rolls") is a small cylindrical piece, with "nori" on the outside. A typical "hosomaki" has a diameter of about. They generally contain only one filling, often tuna, cucumber, "kanpyō", nattō, umeboshi paste, squid with shiso (Japanese herb). "Kappamaki", () a kind of "Hosomaki" filled with cucumber, is named after the Japanese legendary water imp fond of cucumbers called the kappa. Traditionally, "kappamaki" is consumed to clear the palate between eating raw fish and other kinds of food, so that the flavors of the fish are distinct from the tastes of other foods.  "Tekkamaki" () is a kind of "hosomaki" filled with raw tuna. Although it is believed that the word "tekka", meaning "red hot iron", alludes to the color of the tuna flesh or salmon flesh, it actually originated as a quick snack to eat in gambling dens called "tekkaba" (), much like the sandwich. "Negitoromaki" () is a kind of "hosomaki" filled with scallion ("negi") and chopped tuna ("toro"). Fatty tuna is often used in this style. "Tsunamayomaki" () is a kind of "hosomaki" filled with canned tuna tossed with mayonnaise. "Ehōmaki" (, "lucky direction roll") is a roll composed of seven ingredients considered to be lucky. Ehōmaki are often eaten on setsubun in Japan. The typical ingredients include "kanpyō", egg, eel, and "shiitake" mushrooms. "Ehōmaki" often include other ingredients too. People usually eat the ehōmaki while facing the direction considered to be auspicious that year.  "Temaki" (, "hand roll") is a large cone-shaped piece of "nori" on the outside and the ingredients spilling out the wide end. A typical "temaki" is about long, and is eaten with fingers because it is too awkward to pick it up with chopsticks. For optimal taste and texture, "temaki" must be eaten quickly after being made because the "nori" cone soon absorbs moisture from the filling and loses its crispness, making it somewhat difficult to bite through. For this reason, the "nori" in pre-made or take-out temaki is sealed in plastic film which is removed immediately before eating.

Modern "Narezushi".

"Narezushi" (, "matured "sushi"") is a traditional form of fermented "sushi". Skinned and gutted fish are stuffed with salt, placed in a wooden barrel, doused with salt again, then weighed down with a heavy tsukemonoishi (pickling stone). As days pass, water seeps out and is removed. After six months, this "sushi" can be eaten, remaining edible for another six months or more.  The most famous variety of "narezushi" are the ones offered as a specialty dish of Shiga Prefecture, particularly the "funa-zushi" made from fish of the crucian carp genus, the authentic version of which calls for the use "nigorobuna", a particular locally differentiated variety of wild goldfish endemic to Lake Biwa.

"Nigirizushi".

"Nigirizushi" (, "hand-pressed sushi") consists of an oblong mound of sushi rice that the chef presses between the palms of the hands to form an oval-shaped ball, and a topping (the "neta") draped over the ball. It is usually served with a bit of "wasabi"; "neta" are typically fish such as salmon, tuna or other seafood. Certain toppings are typically bound to the rice with a thin strip of "nori", most commonly octopus ("tako"), freshwater eel ("unagi"), sea eel ("anago"), squid ("ika"), and sweet egg ("tamago"). One order of a given type of fish typically results in two pieces, while a sushi set (sampler dish) may contain only one piece of each topping.  "Gunkanmaki" (, "warship roll") is a special type of "nigirizushi": an oval, hand-formed clump of sushi rice that has a strip of "nori" wrapped around its perimeter to form a vessel that is filled with some soft, loose or fine-chopped ingredient that requires the confinement of "nori" such as roe, "nattō", oysters, "uni" (sea urchin roe), corn with mayonnaise, scallops, and quail eggs. "Gunkan-maki" was invented at the "Ginza Kyubey" restaurant in 1941; its invention significantly expanded the repertoire of soft toppings used in sushi.  "Temarizushi" (, "ball sushi") is a sushi made by pressing rice and fish into a ball-shaped form by hand using a plastic wrap.

"Oshizushi".

, also known as, is a pressed sushi from the Kansai region, a favorite and specialty of Osaka. A block-shaped piece is formed using a wooden mold, called an "oshibako". The chef lines the bottom of the "oshibako" with the toppings, covers them with sushi rice, and then presses the lid of the mold down to create a compact, rectilinear block. The block is removed from the mold and then cut into bite-sized pieces. Particularly famous is ("battera", pressed mackerel sushi) or ("saba zushi"). In "oshizushi", all the ingredients are either cooked or cured and raw fish is never used.

Western-style "sushi".

The increasing popularity of "sushi" around the world has resulted in variations typically found in the Western world, but rarely in Japan. A notable exception to this is the use of salmon, which was introduced by a Norwegian businessman tasked with helping the Norwegian salmon industry in the 1980s. Such creations to suit the Western palate were initially fueled by the invention of the California roll (a "norimaki" with crab (later, imitation crab), cucumber, and avocado). A wide variety of popular rolls ("norimaki" and "uramaki") has evolved since. Norway roll is another variant of "uramakizushi" filled with "tamago" (omelette), imitation crab and cucumber, rolled with "shiso" leaf and "nori", topped with slices of Norwegian salmon, garnished with lemon and mayonnaise.

"Uramaki".

Uramaki (, "inside-out roll") is a medium-sized cylindrical piece with two or more fillings, and was developed as a result of the creation of the California roll, as a method originally meant to hide the nori. "Uramaki" differs from other "makimono" because the rice is on the outside and the "nori" inside. The filling is in the center surrounded by "nori", then a layer of rice, and optionally an outer coating of some other ingredients such as roe or toasted sesame seeds. It can be made with different fillings, such as tuna, crab meat, avocado, mayonnaise, cucumber or carrots.  Examples of variations include the rainbow roll (an inside-out topped with thinly sliced "maguro, hamachi, ebi, sake" and avocado) and the caterpillar roll (an inside-out topped with thinly sliced avocado). Also commonly found is the "rock and roll" (an inside-out roll with barbecued freshwater eel and avocado with toasted sesame seeds on the outside).  In Japan, "uramaki" is an uncommon type of "makimono"; because sushi is traditionally eaten by hand in Japan, the outer layer of rice can be quite difficult to handle with fingers.

American-style "makizushi".

"Futomaki" is a more popular variation of sushi within the United States, and comes in variations that take their names from their places of origin. Other rolls may include a variety of ingredients, including chopped scallops, spicy tuna, beef or chicken teriyaki roll, okra, and assorted vegetables such as cucumber and avocado, and the tempura roll, where shrimp tempura is inside the roll or the entire roll is battered and fried tempura-style. In the Southern United States, many sushi restaurants prepare rolls using crawfish. Sometimes, rolls are made with brown rice or black rice, which appear in Japanese cuisine as well.  Per Food and Drug Administration regulations, raw fish served in the United States must be frozen prior to serving in order to kill parasites. Because of this and the relative difficulty of acquiring fresh seafood compared to Japan, raw seafood (e.g., sashimi) is not as prevalent a component in American-style sushi.  Since rolls are often made to-order it is not unusual for the customer to specify the exact ingredients desired (e.g. salmon roll, cucumber roll, avocado roll, tuna roll, shrimp or tuna tempura roll, etc.). Though the menu names of dishes often vary by restaurant, some examples include:

Ingredients.

All "sushi" has a base of specially prepared rice, complemented with other ingredients.

"Sushi-meshi".

"Sushi-meshi" (also known as "Su-meshi", "shari", or "gohan" ) is a preparation of white, short-grained, Japanese rice mixed with a dressing consisting of rice vinegar, sugar, salt, and occasionally kombu and "sake". It has to be cooled to room temperature before being used for a filling in a "sushi" or else it will get too sticky while being seasoned. Traditionally, the mixing is done with a hangiri, which is a round, flat-bottom wooden tub or barrel, and a wooden paddle (shamoji).  Sushi rice is prepared with short-grain Japanese rice, which has a consistency that differs from long-grain strains such as those from India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Vietnam. The essential quality is its stickiness or glutinousness, although the type of rice used for sushi is different from glutinous rice. Freshly harvested rice ("shinmai") typically contains too much water, and requires extra time to drain the rice cooker after washing. In some fusion cuisine restaurants, short-grain brown rice and wild rice are also used.  There are regional variations in sushi rice and individual chefs have their individual methods. Most of the variations are in the rice vinegar dressing: the Kantō region (or East Japan) version of the dressing commonly uses more salt; in Kansai region (or West Japan), the dressing has more sugar.

"Nori".

The black seaweed wrappers used in "makimono" are called "nori" (海苔). "Nori" is a type of algae, traditionally cultivated in the harbors of Japan. Originally, algae was scraped from dock pilings, rolled out into thin, edible sheets, and dried in the sun, in a process similar to making rice paper. Today, the commercial product is farmed, processed, toasted, packaged, and sold in sheets.  The size of a "nori" sheet influences the size of "makimono". A full-size sheet produces "futomaki", and a half produces "hosomaki" and "temaki". To produce "gunkan" and some other "makimono", an appropriately-sized piece of "nori" is cut from a whole sheet.  "Nori" by itself is an edible snack and is available with salt or flavored with teriyaki sauce. The flavored variety, however, tends to be of lesser quality and is not suitable for sushi.  When making "fukusazushi", a paper-thin omelette may replace a sheet of "nori" as the wrapping. The omelette is traditionally made on a rectangular omelette pan, known as a "makiyakinabe", and used to form the pouch for the rice and fillings.

"Gu".

The ingredients used inside sushi are called "gu", and are, typically, varieties of fish. For culinary, sanitary, and aesthetic reasons, the minimum quality and freshness of fish to be eaten raw must be superior to that of fish which is to be cooked. Sushi chefs are trained to recognize important attributes, including smell, color, firmness, and freedom from parasites that may go undetected in commercial inspection. Commonly used fish are tuna ("maguro, shiro-maguro"), Japanese amberjack, yellowtail ("hamachi"), snapper ("kurodai"), mackerel ("saba"), and salmon ("sake"). The most valued sushi ingredient is "toro," the fatty cut of the fish. This comes in a variety of "ōtoro" (often from the bluefin species of tuna) and "chūtoro", meaning "middle toro", implying that it is halfway into the fattiness between "toro" and the regular cut. "Aburi" style refers to "nigiri" sushi where the fish is partially grilled (topside) and partially raw. Most nigiri sushi will have completely raw toppings, called "neta".  Other seafoods such as squid ("ika"), eel ("anago" and "unagi"), pike conger ("hamo"), octopus ("tako"), shrimp ("ebi" and "amaebi"), clam ("mirugai", "aoyagi" and "akagai"), fish roe ("ikura", "masago", "kazunoko" and "tobiko"), sea urchin ("uni"), crab ("kani"), and various kinds of shellfish (abalone, prawn, scallop) are the most popular seafoods in sushi. Oysters, however, are less common, as the taste is not thought to go well with the rice. "Kani kama", or imitation crab stick, is commonly substituted for real crab, most notably in California rolls.  Pickled daikon radish ("takuan") in "shinko maki", pickled vegetables ("tsukemono"), fermented soybeans ("nattō") in "nattō maki", avocado, cucumber in "kappa maki", asparagus, yam, pickled ume ("umeboshi"), gourd ("kanpyō"), burdock ("gobo"), and sweet corn (possibly mixed with mayonnaise) are also used in sushi.  Tofu and eggs (in the form of slightly sweet, layered omelette called "tamagoyaki" and raw quail eggs ride as a "gunkan-maki" topping) are common.

Condiments.

Sushi is commonly eaten with condiments. Sushi may be dipped in "shōyu" (soy sauce), and is usually flavored with "wasabi", a piquant paste made from the grated stem of the "Wasabia japonica" plant. Japanese-style mayonnaise is a common condiment in Japan on salmon, pork and other sushi cuts.  True "wasabi" has anti-microbial properties and may reduce the risk of food poisoning. The traditional grating tool for "wasabi" is a sharkskin grater or "samegawa oroshi". An imitation "wasabi" ("seiyo-wasabi"), made from horseradish, mustard powder and green dye is common. It is found at lower-end "kaiten-zushi" restaurants, in bento box sushi and at most restaurants outside Japan. If manufactured in Japan, it may be labelled "Japanese Horseradish".  Gari (sweet, pickled ginger) is eaten in between sushi courses to both cleanse the palate and aid in digestion. In Japan, green tea ("ocha") is invariably served together with sushi. Better sushi restaurants often use a distinctive premium tea known as "mecha". In sushi vocabulary, green tea is known as "agari".  Sushi may be garnished with gobo, grated daikon, thinly sliced vegetables, carrots/radishes/cucumbers that have been shaped to look like flowers, real flowers, or seaweed salad.  When closely arranged on a tray, different pieces are often separated by green strips called "baran" or "kiri-zasa" (切り笹). These dividers prevent the flavors of neighboring pieces of sushi from mixing and help to achieve an attractive presentation. Originally, these were cut leaves from the "Aspidistra elatior" (葉蘭 "haran") and "Sasa veitchii" (熊笹 "kuma-zasa") plants, respectively. Using actual leaves had the added benefit of releasing antimicrobial phytoncides when cut thereby extending the limited shelf life of the sushi. Sushi bento boxes are a staple of Japanese supermarkets and convenience stores. As these stores began rising in prominence in the 1960s, the labor-intensive cut leaves were increasingly replaced with green plastic in order to lower costs. This coincided with the increased prevalence of refrigeration which acted to extend the shelf life of sushi without the need for the cut leaves. Today the plastic strips are commonly used in sushi bento boxes and to a lesser degree in sushi presentations found in sushi bars and restaurants. In store-sold or to-go packages of sushi, the plastic leaf strips are often used to prevent the rolls from coming into early or unwanted contact with the ginger and "wasabi" included with the dish.

Nutrition.

The main ingredients of traditional Japanese sushi, raw fish and rice, are naturally low in fat, high in protein, carbohydrates (the rice only), vitamins, and minerals, as are "gari" and "nori". Other vegetables wrapped within the sushi also offer various vitamins and minerals. Many of the seafood ingredients also contain omega-3 fatty acids, which have a variety of health benefits. The omega-3 fatty acids found in fish has certain beneficial properties, especially on cardiovascular health, natural anti-inflammatory compounds, and play a role in brain function.  Generally sushi is not a particularly fattening food. However, rice in sushi contains a fair amount of carbohydrates, plus the addition of other ingredients such as mayonnaise added into sushi rolls might increase the caloric content. Sushi also has a relatively high sodium content, especially contributed from "shoyu" soy sauce seasoning.

Health risks.

Some of the ingredients in sushi can present health risks. Large marine apex predators such as tuna (especially bluefin) can harbor high levels of methylmercury, which can lead to mercury poisoning when consumed in large quantity or when consumed by certain higher-risk groups, including women who are pregnant or may become pregnant, nursing mothers and young children.  According to recent studies, there have been about 18 million infections worldwide from eating raw fish. This serves as a great risk to expecting mothers due to the health risks that medical interventions or treatment measures may pose on the developing fetus. Parasitic infections can have a wide range of health impacts, including bowel obstruction, anemia, liver disease, and more. The impact of these illnesses alone can pose some health concerns on the expecting mother and baby, but the curative measures that may need to take place to recover, are also a concern as well.  Sashimi or other types of sushi containing raw fish present a risk of infection by three main types of parasites:  For the above reasons, EU regulations forbid the use of fresh raw fish. It must be frozen at temperatures below in all parts of the product for no less than 24 hours. As such, a number of fishing boats, suppliers and end users "super-freeze" fish for sushi to temperatures as low as −60 °C. As well as parasite destruction, super-freezing also prevents oxidation of the blood in tuna flesh, thus preventing the discoloration that happens at temperatures above −20 °C.  Some forms of sushi, notably those containing pufferfish fugu and some kinds of shellfish, can cause severe poisoning if not prepared properly. Particularly, fugu consumption can be fatal. Fugu fish has a lethal dose of tetrodotoxin in its internal organs and, by law in many countries, must be prepared by a licensed fugu chef who has passed the prefectural examination in Japan. The licensing examination process consists of a written test, a fish-identification test, and a practical test that involves preparing the fugu and separating out the poisonous organs. Only about 35 percent of the applicants pass.

Sustainable sushi.

Sustainable sushi is sushi made from fished or farmed sources that can be maintained or whose future production does not significantly jeopardize the ecosystems from which it is acquired. Concerns over the sustainability of sushi ingredients arise from greater concerns over environmental, economic and social stability and human health.

Presentation.

Traditionally, sushi is served on minimalist Japanese-style, geometric, mono- or duo-tone wood or lacquer plates, in keeping with the aesthetic qualities of this cuisine.  Many sushi restaurants offer fixed-price sets, selected by the chef from the catch of the day. These are often graded as "shō-chiku-bai" (), "shō/matsu" (, pine), "chiku/take" (, bamboo) and "bai/ume" (, plum), with "matsu" the most expensive and " ume" the cheapest. Sushi restaurants will often have private booth dining, where guests are asked to remove their shoes, leaving them outside the room; However, most sushi bars offer diners a casual experience with an open dining room concept.  Sushi may be served "kaiten zushi" (sushi train) style. Color-coded plates of sushi are placed on a conveyor belt; as the belt passes, customers choose as they please. After finishing, the bill is tallied by counting how many plates of each color have been taken. Newer "kaiten zushi" restaurants use barcodes or RFID tags embedded in the dishes to manage elapsed time after the item was prepared.

Glossary.

Some specialized or slang terms are used in the sushi culture. Most of these terms are used only in sushi bars.

Etiquette.

Unlike sashimi, which is almost always eaten with chopsticks, "nigirizushi" is traditionally eaten with the fingers, even in formal settings. Although it is commonly served on a small platter with a side dish for dipping, sushi can also be served in a "bento", a box with small compartments that hold the various dishes of the meal.  Soy sauce is the usual condiment, and sushi is normally served with a small sauce dish, or a compartment in the bento. Traditional etiquette suggests that the sushi is turned over so that only the topping is dipped; this is because the soy sauce is for flavoring the topping, not the rice, and because the rice would absorb too much soy sauce and would fall apart. If it is difficult to turn the sushi upside-down, one can baste the sushi in soy sauce using "gari" (sliced ginger) as a brush. Toppings that have their own sauce (such as eel) should not be eaten with soy sauce.  Traditionally, the sushi chef will add an appropriate amount of "wasabi" to the "sushi" while preparing it, and etiquette suggests eating the sushi as is, since the chef is supposed to know the proper amount of "wasabi" to use. However, today "wasabi" is more a matter of personal taste, and even restaurants in Japan may serve "wasabi" on the side for customers to use at their discretion, even when there is "wasabi" already in the dish.

Sushi is traditionally made with medium-grain white rice, though it can be prepared with brown rice or short-grain rice. It is very often prepared with seafood, such as squid, eel, yellowtail, salmon, tuna or imitation crab meat. Many types of sushi are vegetarian. It is often served with pickled ginger ("gari"), "wasabi", and soy sauce. Daikon radish or pickled daikon ("takuan") are popular garnishes for the dish.

Suši (v anglofonním světě sushi, japonsky 寿司) je jedno z nejznámějších jídel japonské kuchyně. Většina lidí si pod tímto pojmem představí zejména syrové rybí maso s rýží, ale suši je především vařená rýže spojená se speciální sladkokyselou omáčkou sušinoko připravenou k tomuto účelu. Také slovo suši v doslovném překladu z japonštiny znamená „kyselá chut ́“.


Theory of operation.

As the gears rotate they separate on the intake side of the pump, creating a void and suction which is filled by fluid. The fluid is carried by the gears to the discharge side of the pump, where the meshing of the gears displaces the fluid. The mechanical clearances are small— in the order of 10 μm. The tight clearances, along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid from leaking backwards.  The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for very high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids.  Many variations exist, including helical and herringbone gear sets (instead of spur gears), lobe shaped rotors similar to Roots blowers (commonly used as superchargers), and mechanical designs that allow the stacking of pumps. The most common variations are shown below (the drive gear is shown blue and the idler is shown purple). An external precision gear pump is usually limited to a maximum working pressure of and a maximum speed of 3,000 rpm. Some manufacturers produce gear pumps with higher working pressures and speeds but these types of pumps tend to be noisy and special precautions may have to be made.  Suction and pressure ports need to interface where the gears mesh (shown as dim gray lines in the internal pump images). Some internal gear pumps have an additional, crescent-shaped seal (shown above, right). This crescent functions to keep the gears separated and also reduces eddy currents.  Pump formulas:  Generally used in:

A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. The gear pump was invented around 1600 by Johannes Kepler.

Zubové čerpadlo používá k čerpání kapaliny dvou ozubených kol. Jedná se o jedno z nejběžnějších typů čerpadel používaných v hydraulických systémech.