Composition.

Carnauba consists mostly of aliphatic esters (40 wt%), diesters of 4-hydroxycinnamic acid (21.0 wt%), ω-hydroxycarboxylic acids (13.0 wt%), and fatty alcohols (12 wt%). The compounds are predominantly derived from acids and alcohols in the C26-C30 range. Distinctive for carnauba wax is the high content of diesters as well as methoxycinnamic acid.  Carnauba wax is sold in several grades, labeled T1, T3, and T4, depending on the purity level. Purification is accomplished by filtration, centrifugation, and bleaching.

Properties.

Carnauba wax can produce a glossy finish and as such is used in automobile waxes, shoe polishes, dental floss, food products such as sweets, instrument polishes, and floor and furniture waxes and polishes, especially when mixed with beeswax and with turpentine. Use for paper coatings is the most common application in the United States. It was commonly used in its purest form as a coating on speedboat hulls in the early 1960s to enhance speed and aid in handling in salt water environments. It is also the main ingredient in surfboard wax, combined with coconut oil.  Because of its hypoallergenic and emollient properties as well as its gloss, carnauba wax appears as an ingredient in many cosmetics formulas where it is used to thicken lipstick, eyeliner, mascara, eye shadow, foundation, deodorant, various skin care preparations, sun care preparations, etc. It is also used to make cutler's resin.  It is the finish of choice for most briar tobacco or smoking pipes. It produces a high gloss finish when buffed that dulls with time rather than flaking off (as is the case with most other finishes used).  Although too brittle to be used by itself, carnauba wax is often combined with other waxes (principally beeswax) to treat and waterproof many leather products where it provides a high-gloss finish and increases leather's hardness and durability.  It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as a tablet-coating agent. Adding the carnauba wax aids in the swallowing of tablets for patients. A very small amount (less than a hundredth of one percent by weight, i.e., 30 grams for a 300 kg batch) is sprinkled onto a batch of tablets after they have been sprayed and dried. The wax and tablets are then tumbled together for a few minutes before being discharged from the tablet-coating machine.  In 1890, Charles Tainter patented the use of carnauba wax on phonograph cylinders as a replacement for a mixture of paraffin and beeswax.  Carnauba wax may be used as a mold release agent for manufacture of fibre-reinforced plastics. An aerosol mold release agent is formed by dissolving carnauba wax in a solvent. Unlike silicone or PTFE, carnauba is suitable for use with liquid epoxy, epoxy molding compounds (EMC), and some other plastic types and generally enhances their properties. Carnauba wax is not very soluble in chlorinated or aromatic hydrocarbons. Carnauba is used in melt/castable explosives to produce an insensitive explosive formula such as Composition B, which is a blend of RDX and TNT.

Production and export.

In 2006, Brazil produced 22,409 tons of carnauba wax, of which 14% was solid wax, and 86% was in powder form.  There are 20-25 exporters of carnauba wax in Brazil who buy the carnauba wax from middlemen or directly from farmers. The exporters refine the wax before exporting it to the rest of the world. The four largest exporters of carnauba wax are Pontes, Brasil Ceras, Foncepi, and Carnauba do Brasil, who together account for around €25 million of the export market. According to the German television program, conditions for many carnauba production workers are quite poor; one Brazilian Labor Ministry official found conditions "that could be described as slavery."  According to the Brazilian Ministry of Development, Industry and Foreign Trade, the major destinations for exported carnauba wax are:

Carnauba (; ), also called Brazil wax and palm wax, is a wax of the leaves of the palm "Copernicia prunifera" (Synonym: "Copernicia cerifera"), a plant native to and grown only in the northeastern Brazilian states of Piauí, Ceará, Maranhão, Bahia, and Rio Grande do Norte. It is known as "queen of waxes" and in its pure state, usually comes in the form of hard yellow-brown flakes. It is obtained from the leaves of the carnauba palm by collecting and drying them, beating them to loosen the wax, then refining and bleaching the wax. As a food additive, its E number is E903.

Karnaubský vosk je vosk získávaný z listů brazilské palmy "Copernicia prunifera". Název podle INCI je "Copernicia Cerifera (carnauba) wax", v potravinářství se značí E 903.


Property history.

The property was originally part of the Paradise Island Hotel and Casino, which opened in 1968. It was owned by Resorts International, a Merv Griffin company. Donald Trump at one point owned a majority stake in Resorts International. He spun off ownership of the Trump Taj Mahal property from the company and sold Resorts in full, including outstanding debts from the Taj Mahal construction, to Griffin. Paradise Island was purchased by South African hotel magnate Sol Kerzner and Kerzner International Limited in 1994, and Kerzner's new resort, comprising the Coral Towers and previously built The Beach Tower, opened officially in 1998. The property's name was changed to Atlantis when The Royal Towers was built. The Coral Towers and The Beach Tower were later refurbished to match the theme of the Royal Towers. On March 28, 2007, a 600-suite luxury hotel named "The Cove Atlantis" opened on Paradise Island. Another tower, the 497-room The Reef, opened 19 December 2007.  Currently, the property is owned and operated by Brookfield Hospitality. In October 2014, Atlantis, Paradise Island became a member of Marriott International's Autograph Collection Hotels, which includes a marketing partnership with the brand in order for guests to earn or redeem Marriott Rewards at Atlantis.

Accommodations.

Accommodations at the resort include:

Attractions.

Mayan Temple Slides.

The Mayan Temple is the grand icon of Aquaventure, with a height of over six stories. The structure features a series of water rides, including the Leap of Faith, a near-perpendicular plunge that sends riders through a clear acrylic tunnel submerged in a shark-filled lagoon.

The Rapid River.

The Rapid River is a water ride complete with waves, artificial tidal surges, rapids, and environmental effects such as steam, special lighting, and waterfalls. The Falls and the Drop water coasters are accessible from The Rapid River without the guest needing to leave their inner-tube. The Rapid River has changed only slightly since its 2007 opening, with an optional rapids waterway closing.

Power Tower.

The Power Tower is the tallest feature of Aquaventure, at 120 feet tall. The tower is home to four water slides.

The Dig.

Atlantis is home to 14 lagoons and more than 50,000 aquatic animals representing over 250 marine species. The Dig simulates the 11,000-year-old lost continent and provides a look at the civilization, home to sea creatures. The goal of The Dig is to provide guests with a taste of life in the fabled city of Atlantis.  A Predator Lagoon is full of sawfishes, barracudas, stingrays, and sharks. A clear acrylic tunnel runs underwater, allowing visitors unobstructed views of the marine environment.

Golf.

The Ocean Club Golf is a private 18-hole, par 72 championship golf course that stretches for over 7,100 yards. The course features a restaurant and bar located at the clubhouse. Many professional golf events are hosted at the Ocean Club Golf including the LPGA Pure Silk Bahamas Classic.

Piece of 8 Tours.

Atlantis guests can experience the new nearby island excursions on charter boats. Guests can swim with the pigs, relax for the day on the private Rose-Island, or snorkel the shallows. Discover Paradise Island and Nassau Harbour onboard of Atlantis's customized luxury boats. Pieces of 8 tours have Fountain powerboats that cruise up to.

The Marina and Marina Village.

The resort features a marina designed to dock large yachts. The eastern side of the marina features the Marina Village, which is a small shopping centre.

Dolphin Cay.

The Dolphin Cay was the first rehabilitation centre in the Bahamas. It is the home to a marine habitat for rescued bottlenose dolphins, sea lions and manta rays. Care is provided by over 100 professional specialists in marine wildlife. The first mammals found were 17 stranded bottlenose dolphins and 10 sea lions. All these were rescued from Gulfport, Mississippi where Hurricane Katrina hit. After years of rehabilitation and care training started and the dolphins learned commands with trainers. This allows Atlantis guests to get first-hand interactions and experiences with each animal this includes hands-on and communicating with the dolphins. Many interactions are offered which include shallow water experiences, swimming deep, and paddle boarding or kayaking across the lagoon.

The Blue Project Foundation.

The Blue Project Foundation is a nonprofit organization working to save species and their habitats located all throughout the Bahamas and the Caribbean sea. The community fundraising is used for a sanctuary for all species from rare to commonly found sea creatures. The funding is received from the Atlantis guests who engage in the hands-on interactions and experiences with the animals. These donations go into the health and nourishment for all the rescued animals. Along with that, team members work to restore coral reefs and clean up pollution.

Marine Habitat.

The marine habitat is an “open-air” habitat that includes 14 lagoons with over 50,000 animals. The Ruins Lagoon contains lobster, snapper, a colorful reef, and the opportunity for Atlantis guests to snorkel with the many different species. The Predator Lagoon accommodates sharks, rays, and barracudas. Many sharks are also located in the Mayan Temple Shark Lagoon where guests slide through an inclosed waterslide through the aquarium. In the shallows of the Reef Lagoon, it is home to the nurse sharks that spend their time resting across the bottom. The Stingray Lagoon is a shallow and sandy lagoon with many rays and a chance for guests to be able to touch and feed them.

Atlantis Paradise Island is an ocean-themed resort on Paradise Island in the Bahamas. It features a variety of accommodations built around Aquaventure, a waterscape, which includes fresh and saltwater lagoons, pools, marine habitats, water slides, and river rides.

Atlantis Paradise Island je rozsáhlé letovisko s aquaparkem nacházející se na Paradise Island, Bahamy. Letovisko vlastní jihoafrický hotelový magnát Sol Kerzner se svou společností Kerzner International Limited. Společnost vlastní i velmi podobný hotel s názvem "Atlantis, The Palm" ležící na uměle vytvořeném poloostrově v Dubaji, Spojené arabské emiráty.


Features.

A Virtual Hard Disk allows multiple operating systems to reside on a single host machine. This method enables developers to test software on different operating systems without the cost or hassle of installing a second hard disk or partitioning a single hard disk into multiple volumes. The ability to directly modify a virtual machine's hard disk from a host server supports many applications, including:  VHDX was added in Hyper-V in Windows Server 2012 to add larger storage capacity, data corruption protection, and optimizations to prevent performance degradation on large/./-sector physical disks.

Supported formats.

VHDs are implemented as files that reside on the native host file system. The following types of VHD formats are supported by Microsoft Virtual PC and Virtual Server:

Advantages.

Significant benefits result from the ability to boot a physical computer from a virtual hard drive:

Native VHD Boot.

"Native VHD Boot" refers to the ability of a physical computer to mount and boot from an operating system contained within a VHD. Windows 7 Enterprise and Ultimate editions support this ability, both with and without a host operating system present. Windows Server 2008 R2 is also compatible with this feature.

Limitations.

The VHD format has a built-in limitation of just under 2 TiB (2040 GiB) for the size of any dynamic or differencing VHDs. This is due to a sector offset table that only allows for the maximum of a 32-bit quantity. It is calculated by multiplying 2 by 512 bytes for each sector.  The formula in the VHD specification allows a maximum of sectors. About 127 GiB is also the limit for VHDs in Windows Virtual PC. For fewer than sectors (about 31 GiB) the CHS-value in the VHD footer uses a minimum of and a maximum of heads with sectors per track. The CHS algorithm then determines. The specification does not discuss cases where the CHS value in the VHD footer does not match the (virtual) CHS geometry in the Master Boot Record of the disk image in the VHD. Microsoft Virtual Server (also Connectix derived) has this limitation using virtual IDE drivers but 2 TiB if virtual RAID or virtual SCSI drivers are used.

Software support.

Virtual Hard Disk format was initially used only by Microsoft Virtual PC (and Microsoft Virtual Server). Later however, Microsoft used the VHD format in Hyper-V, the hypervisor-based virtualization technology of Windows Server 2008. Microsoft also used the format in Complete PC Backup, a backup software component included with Windows Vista and Windows 7. In addition, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 include support for creating, mounting, and booting from VHD files.  The Vista (or later) "drive manager" GUI supports a subset of the functions in the "diskpart" command line tool. VHDs known as "vdisk" in "diskpart" can be created, formatted, attached (mounted), detached (unmounted), merged (for differencing VHDs), and compacted (for VHDs on an NTFS host file system). Compacting is typically a two step procedure, first unused sectors in the VHD are filled with zeros,. The "virtual machine additions" in older VPC versions and the "virtual machine integration features" in Windows Virtual PC contain "precompact" ISO images for the first step in supported guest systems.  Third-party products also use VHD file format. Oracle VirtualBox, part of Sun xVM line of Sun Microsystems supports VHD in versions 2 and later. In 2017 Red Gate Software and Windocks introduced VHD based support for SQL Server database cloning.

Offline modification.

It is sometimes useful to modify a VHD file without booting an operating system. Hyper-V features offline VHD manipulation, providing administrators with the ability to securely access files within a VHD without having to instantiate a virtual machine. This provides administrators with granular access to VHDs and the ability to perform some management tasks offline. The Windows Disk Management MMC plugin can directly mount a VHD file as a drive letter in Windows 7/Server 2008 and newer.  For situations where mounting a VHD within the operating system is undesirable, several programs enable software developers to inspect and modify VHD files, including.NET DiscUtils, WinImage, and R1soft Hyper-V VHD Explorer. 7-Zip supports extraction and inspection of VHD files.

Virtual Floppy Disk (VFD).

"Virtual Floppy Disk" (VFD) is a related file format used by Microsoft Virtual PC, Microsoft Automated Deployment Services and Microsoft Virtual Server 2005. A VFD that contains an image of a 720 KB low-density, 1.44 MB high-density or 1.68 MB DMF 3.5-inch floppy disk can be mounted by Virtual PC. Other virtual machine software such as VMWare Workstation and VMware Player can mount raw floppy images in the same way.  Windows Virtual PC for Windows 7 (version 6.1) does not offer a user interface for manipulating virtual floppy disks; however, it still supports physical and virtual floppy disks via scripting. Under Hyper-V, VFD files are usable through the VM settings for Generation 1 virtual machines. Generation 2 virtual machines do not emulate a floppy controller and do not support floppy disk images.

Virtual Hard Disk (VHDX).

VHDX (Virtual Hard Disk v2) is the successor format to VHD. Where VHD has a capacity limit of 2040 GB, VHDX has a capacity limit of 64 TB. For disk images with this newer format the filename extension codice_1 is used instead of codice_2. VHDX protects against power failures and is used by Hyper-V. VHDX can be mounted like VHD.

VHD (Virtual Hard Disk) is a file format representing a virtual hard disk drive (HDD). It may contain what is found on a physical HDD, such as disk partitions and a file system, which in turn can contain files and folders. It is typically used as the hard disk of a virtual machine.

Virtual Hard Disk, zkráceně VHD je soubor s vnitřní strukturou identickou jako má fyzický pevný disk. Typické je jeho užití v podobě virtualizačních řešeních a balíčcích (Virtual appliance). Pro tento formát souborů se používá v systémech Windows přípona souboru.VHD.


Description and use.

The Carte Orange itself is composed of a subway pass and an identity card, both of which are stored in a small, transparent, flexible plastic folder.  The subway pass — a small, rectangular ticket composed mainly of stiff paper — lists the period of time and the zones for which it is valid, as well as its price. At the top of the front side of the ticket, there is a thin, holographic strip, to prevent counterfeiting. On the reverse side, there is a brown, magnetic strip on which the card's data (zones and dates) are stored. The user feeds the Carte orange ticket into a turnstile upon entering a metro station, and the machine, after reading the ticket, returns it to the user. A weekly Carte Orange is valid only for one seven-day period, always starting on Monday and ending on Sunday.  The identity card is an attempt on the part of the public transit authorities to link each Carte Orange to one person, preventing multiple people from sharing one Carte Orange. The identity card features a space in which the user must print his or her full name and, in the lower left-hand corner, a space to which the user must affix a small, colour photograph of him or herself. On the back of the card, the user is required to fill out his or her full address. You must present a passport-size photo when purchasing the Carte Orange, and the ticket office worker affixes the photo to the ID card. Photo booths are often located near ticket offices.  As an additional security measure, many Paris Métro turnstiles will not accept the same Carte orange ticket more than once in a short lapse of time. In the event that one accidentally exits a station prematurely (by following the wrong signs, for instance), it may be necessary to wait (usually only a few minutes) before re-using the ticket. The intention of this mechanism is to prevent multiple passengers from using a single Carte orange to enter an unmonitored metro entrance.  When using the bus or tramway, the user does not validate his or her ticket electronically; rather, he or she shows the driver the identity card and the ticket, who then determines whether or not the Carte Orange is valid for the route.  It is not possible to travel with a Carte Orange beyond the zones that the card is valid, and the transportation authority requires the travelers to purchase a ticket valid for the entire trip, regardless of the zones already covered by the carte orange. While some stations have special ticket windows that sell extensions for arriving passengers who need them (notably for tourists the Versailles station in Zone 4), others do not. This sometimes results in a traveller being stuck in the station until they can attract the attention of a metro employee, or jump the turnstile. The Charles de Gaulle Airport RER stop (located in Zone 5) is, unfortunately for tourists, one of those stations that does not have an accessible ticket window on the incoming side.

Security features.

The Carte orange has several features intended to make fraud more difficult; the date of each carte's validity is printed in large characters, in 1997 the holographic strip was added, and a new kind of ink was introduced. Before the introduction of these new security features, it was estimated that 2.5% of all Cartes oranges were counterfeit.

History.

The Carte orange was launched in 1975, at a time when fare collection for public transit in Paris and the surrounding region was very complicated — in fact, someone wanting to traverse Paris at the time might have had to buy five separate tickets. There had been several attempts to simplify ticketing in the Parisian public transport system in the past. Notably in 1968 a ticket valid for use in the bus and metro, the "Ticket ivoire commun" (common ivory ticket) was introduced and three years later a ticket valid in the SNCF, buses, metro and "cars de banlieue" was launched. Nevertheless, the Carte orange was novel in that it was the first ticket that gave the passenger unlimited access to all of the region's public transports for a flat rate, and during a specific period of time. a one-use ticket can be used in any form of the Paris public transit system.  Initially, the Carte orange was only available to workers, who had to supply proof of employment in order to purchase it. This restriction was soon removed, however, and the Carte became very popular: while transit authorities had estimated that 650,000 Cartes oranges would be sold, within 6 months of its introduction 900,000 were in use. According to Michel Margairaz, a historian of Parisian transports, the gap between these figures can be explained due to a problem in the transit authorities' methodology — they assumed that only those public transit users who would save money with the Carte orange would buy one, but this was not to be the case. Many people were attracted to the idea of using Parisian public transports without worrying about tickets or fares, even if it proved to be more expensive.  Public transit revenues, not only passenger convenience, were central concerns for the Carte's architects: according to Paul Josse, an official involved in the creation of the Carte orange, the new pass "couldn't cost the state or municipal governments a sou." Furthermore, the RATP and the SNCF, respectively responsible for Île de France and national public transit, had to work out a revenue-sharing scheme, but this proved to be relatively easy.  The Carte orange was also intended to boost the use of public transit, then in rapid decline, due to increasing use of cars. In fact, at the end of the 1960s, the transport ministry was actually considering abolishing bus service in Paris. However, within a year of the Carte's introduction, bus usage went up 40%, and more generally, it has been estimated that during the first ten years of its existence, the Carte led to an increase of 20% in the use of Parisian public transport.  Finally, the Carte was intended to make fares more equitable; before the Carte's introduction, those who lived further from the city centre paid much more than more centrally located residents. While it seemed reasonable that those who wanted to travel further should pay more, many people who lived far from downtown Paris had to make many more connections as they travelled compared to others who travelled no further, connections for which they had to pay. The flat-rate system introduced by the Carte changed this.

Phaseout.

The Carte orange has been phased out and replaced by the Navigo card. This new card contains a chip and is scanned at turnstiles, carries a photo of the user on the card itself, and may be linked to an account that the user has with the RATP. Thus, unlike the Carte orange, when a Navigo card is lost or stolen, it may be replaced (for a fee). The Carte orange was officially replaced by the Navigo card on May 20, 2008.  The consequence of the phase out of the Carte orange is that it is more expensive for short-term visitors and tourists to take advantage of the maximum discounts available from advance bulk purchase of trips. This is because the Navigo card must either be linked to a French account (available to residents only) or purchased for a €5 fee ("Carte Navigo Découverte").

The carte orange (Orange Card) was a pass for the public transportation system in Paris and the surrounding Île-de-France region. A holder of the pass was entitled to unlimited use of the public transit system within a given period of time, with "Cartes oranges" being available for durations of one week or one month. The carte orange was discontinued in February 2009, and replaced by Navigo semaine (one-week pass) and Navigo mois (one-month pass) on a Navigo card.

Carte Orange (česky: "oranžová karta") je název týdenní nebo měsíční jízdenky v pařížské MHD. Tyto časové jízdenky jsou platné pro všechny typy přepravy řízené organizací Syndicat des transports d'Île-de-France (STIF) na území regionu Île-de-France. Její název je odvozen z oranžové barvy jízdenky, která využívá magnetického pásku se záznamem o době platnosti. Tyto jízdenky budou existovat do konce února 2010, poté budou nahrazeny novým typem jízdenky zvané passe Navigo, která má fialovou barvu.


Career.

Mössbauer was born in Munich, where he also studied physics at the Technical University of Munich. He prepared his Diplom thesis in the Laboratory of Applied Physics of Heinz Maier-Leibnitz and graduated in 1955. He then went to the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg. Since this institute, not being part of a university, had no right to award a doctorate, Mössbauer remained under the auspices of Maier-Leibnitz, who was his official thesis advisor when he passed his PhD exam in Munich in 1958.  In his PhD work, he discovered "recoilless nuclear fluorescence of gamma rays in 191 iridium," the Mössbauer effect. His fame grew immensely in 1960 when Robert Pound and Glen Rebka used this effect to prove the red shift of gamma radiation in the gravitational field of the Earth; this Pound–Rebka experiment was one of the first experimental precision tests of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. The long-term importance of the Mössbauer effect, however, is its use in Mössbauer spectroscopy. Along with Robert Hofstadter, Rudolf Mössbauer was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics.  On the suggestion of Richard Feynman, Mössbauer was invited in 1960 to Caltech in USA, where he advanced rapidly from Research Fellow to Senior Research Fellow; he was appointed a full professor of physics in early 1962. In 1964, his alma mater, the Technical University of Munich (TUM), convinced him to go back as a full professor. He retained this position until he became professor emeritus in 1997. As a condition for his return, the faculty of physics introduced a "department" system. This system, strongly influenced by Mössbauer's American experience, was in radical contrast to the traditional, hierarchical "faculty" system of German universities, and it gave the TUM an eminent position in German physics.  In 1972, Rudolf Mössbauer went to Grenoble to succeed Heinz Maier-Leibnitz as the director of the Institut Laue-Langevin just when its newly built high-flux research reactor went into operation. After serving a 5-year term, Mössbauer returned to Munich, where he found his institutional reforms reversed by overarching legislation. Until the end of his career, he often expressed bitterness over this "destruction of the department." Meanwhile, his research interests shifted to neutrino physics.  Rudolf Mössbauer was an excellent teacher. He gave highly specialized lectures on numerous courses, including "Neutrino Physics," "Neutrino Oscillations," "The Unification of the Electromagnetic and Weak Interactions" and "The Interaction of Photons and Neutrons With Matter." In 1984, he gave undergraduate lectures to 350 people taking the physics course. He told his students: “Explain it! The most important thing is, that you are able to explain it! You will have exams, there you have to explain it. Eventually, you pass them, you get your diploma and you think, that's it! – No, the whole life is an exam, you'll have to write applications, you'll have to discuss with peers... So learn to explain it! You can train this by explaining to another student, a colleague. If they are not available, explain it to your mother – or to your cat!”

Personal life.

Mössbauer married Elizabeth Pritz in 1957. They had a son, Peter and two daughters Regine and Susi. His second wife was Christel Braun.

Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer (German spelling: "Mößbauer"; 31 January 1929 – 14 September 2011) was a German physicist best known for his 1957 discovery of "recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence" for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics. This effect, called the Mössbauer effect, is the basis for Mössbauer spectroscopy.

Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer (31. ledna 1929, Mnichov – 14. září 2011, Mnichov) byl německý fyzik, který studoval gama záření. Za výzkum rezonanční absorpce gama záření a s tím spojený objev po něm pojmenovaného jevu (1957) získal v roce 1961 společně s Robertem Hofstadterem Nobelovu cenu na fyziku.


Under Ettore Bugatti.

Founder Ettore Bugatti was born in Milan, Italy, and the automobile company that bears his name was founded in 1909 in Molsheim located in the Alsace region which was part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1919. The company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic manner in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettore's family (his father, Carlo Bugatti (1856–1940), was an important Art Nouveau furniture and jewelry designer).

World War I and its aftermath.

During the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris, but as soon as hostilities had been concluded he returned to his factory at Molsheim. Less than four months after the Versailles Treaty formalised the transfer of Alsace from Germany to France, Bugatti was able to obtain, at the last minute, a stand at the 15th Paris motor show in October 1919. He exhibited three light cars, all of them closely based on their pre-war equivalents, and each fitted with the same overhead camshaft 4-cylinder 1,368cc engine with four valves per cylinder. Smallest of the three was a "Type 13" with a racing body (constructed by Bugatti themselves) and using a chassis with a wheelbase. The others were a "Type 22" and a "Type 23" with wheelbases of respectively.

Racing successes.

The company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing: in 1929 a privately entered Bugatti won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix. Racing success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice (in 1937 with Robert Benoist and 1939 with Pierre Veyron).  Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing. The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race. The 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is one of the most successful racing cars. The Type 35 was developed by Bugatti with master engineer and racing driver Jean Chassagne who also drove it in the car's first ever Grand Prix in 1924 Lyon. Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour. But it was the final racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car and meagre resources.

Aeroplane racing.

In the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane, hoping to beat the Germans in the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. This would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew. It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his "Type 7.5" lifting body.

Railcar.

Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the "" (Autorail Bugatti).

Family tragedy.

The death of Ettore Bugatti's son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a turning point in the company's fortunes. Jean died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory.

After World War II.

World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property. During the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois, a northwestern suburb of Paris. After the war, Bugatti designed and planned to build a series of new cars, including the Type 73 road car and Type 73C single seat racing car, but in all Bugatti built only five Type 73 cars.  Development of a 375 cc supercharged car was stopped when Ettore Bugatti died on 21 August 1947. Following Ettore Bugatti's death, the business declined further and made its last appearance as a business in its own right at a Paris Motor Show in October 1952.  After a long decline, the original incarnation of Bugatti ceased operations in 1952.

Design.

Bugattis are noticeably focused on design. Engine blocks were hand scraped to ensure that the surfaces were so flat that gaskets were not required for sealing, many of the exposed surfaces of the engine compartment featured "guilloché" (engine turned) finishes on them, and safety wires had been threaded through almost every fastener in intricately laced patterns. Rather than bolt the springs to the axles as most manufacturers did, Bugatti's axles were forged such that the spring passed through a carefully sized opening in the axle, a much more elegant solution requiring fewer parts. He famously described his arch competitor Bentley's cars as "the world's fastest lorries" for focusing on durability. According to Bugatti, "weight was the enemy".

Gallery.

Notable finds in the modern era.

Relatives of Harold Carr found a rare 1937 Bugatti Type 57S Atalante when cataloguing the doctor's belongings after his death in 2009. Carr's Type 57S is notable because it was originally owned by British race car driver Earl Howe. Because much of the car's original equipment is intact, it can be restored without relying on replacement parts.  On 10 July 2009, a 1925 Bugatti Brescia Type 22 which had lain at the bottom of Lake Maggiore on the border of Switzerland and Italy for 75 years was recovered from the lake. The Mullin Museum in Oxnard, California bought it at auction for $351,343 at Bonham's Rétromobile sale in Paris in 2010.

Attempts at revival.

The company attempted a comeback under Roland Bugatti in the mid-1950s with the mid-engined Type 251 race car. Designed with help from Gioacchino Colombo, the car failed to perform to expectations and the company's attempts at automobile production were halted.  In the 1960s, Virgil Exner designed a Bugatti as part of his "Revival Cars" project. A show version of this car was actually built by Ghia using the last Bugatti Type 101 chassis, and was shown at the 1965 Turin Motor Show. Finance was not forthcoming, and Exner then turned his attention to a revival of Stutz.  Bugatti continued manufacturing airplane parts and was sold to Hispano-Suiza, also a former auto maker turned aircraft supplier, in 1963. Snecma took over Hispano-Suiza in 1968. After acquiring Messier, Snecma merged Messier and Bugatti into Messier-Bugatti in 1977.

Modern revivals.

Bugatti Automobili S.p.A. (1987–1995).

Italian entrepreneur Romano Artioli acquired the Bugatti brand in 1987, and established Bugatti Automobili S.p.A.. Artioli commissioned architect Giampaolo Benedini to design the factory which was built in Campogalliano, Modena, Italy. Construction of the plant began in 1988, alongside the development of the first model, and it was inaugurated two years later—in 1990. By 1989, the plans for the new Bugatti revival were presented by Paolo Stanzani and Marcello Gandini, designers of the Lamborghini Miura and Lamborghini Countach.  The first production vehicle was the Bugatti EB110 GT which featured a 3.5-litre, 5-valve per cylinder, quad-turbocharged 60° V12 engine, a six-speed gearbox, and four-wheel drive. Stanzani proposed an aluminium honeycomb chassis, which was used for all early prototypes. He and president Artioli clashed over engineering decisions so Stanzani left the project and Artioli sought Nicola Materazzi to replace him in June 1990. Materazzi, who had been the chief designer for the Ferrari 288 GTO and Ferrari F40 replaced the aluminium chassis with a carbon fibre one manufactured by Aerospatiale and also altered the torque distribution of the car from 40:60 to 27:73. He remained Director until late 1992. Racing car designer Mauro Forghieri served as Bugatti's technical director from 1993 through 1994. On 27 August 1993, through his holding company, ACBN Holdings S.A. of Luxembourg, Romano Artioli purchased Lotus Cars from General Motors. Plans were made to list Bugatti shares on international stock exchanges.  Bugatti presented a prototype large saloon called the EB112 in 1993.  Perhaps the most famous Bugatti EB110 owner was seven-time Formula One World Champion racing driver Michael Schumacher who purchased an EB110 in 1994. Schumacher sold his EB110, which had been repaired after a severe 1994 crash, to Modena Motorsport, a Ferrari service and race preparation garage in Germany.  By the time the EB110 came to market, the North American and European economies were in recession. Poor economic conditions forced the company to fail and operations ceased in September 1995. A model specific to the US market called the "Bugatti America" was in the preparatory stages when the company ceased operations.  Bugatti's liquidators sold Lotus Cars to Proton of Malaysia. German firm Dauer Racing purchased the EB110 licence and remaining parts stock in 1997 in order to produce five more EB110 SS vehicles. These five SS versions of the EB110 were greatly refined by Dauer. The Campogalliano factory was sold to a furniture-making company, which became defunct prior to moving in, leaving the building unoccupied. After Dauer stopped producing cars in 2011, Toscana-Motors GmbH of Germany purchased the remaining parts stock from Dauer.  Ex vice-president Jean-Marc Borel and ex employees Federico Trombi, Gianni Sighinolfi and Nicola Materazzi established the B Engineering company and designed and built the Edonis using the chassis and engine from the Bugatti EB110 SS, but simplifying the turbocharging system and driveline (from 4WD to 2WD).

Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. (1998–present).

Pre-Veyron.

Volkswagen Group acquired the Bugatti brand in 1998. Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. commissioned Giorgetto Giugiaro of ItalDesign to produce Bugatti Automobiles's first concept vehicle, the EB118, a coupé that debuted at the 1998 Paris Auto Show. The EB118 concept featured a, W-18 engine. After its Paris debut, the EB118 concept was shown again in 1999 at the Geneva Auto Show and the Tokyo Motor Show. Bugatti introduced its next concepts, the EB 218 at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show and the 18/3 Chiron at the 1999 Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA).

Veyron era (2005–2015).

Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. began assembling its first regular-production vehicle, the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 (the 1001 PS super car with an 8-litre W-16 engine with four turbochargers) in September 2005 at the Bugatti Molsheim, France assembly "studio". On 23 February 2015, Bugatti sold its last Veyron Grand Sport Vitesse, which was named La Finale.

Chiron era (2016–present).

The Bugatti Chiron is a mid-engined, two-seated sports car, designed by Achim Anscheidt, developed as the successor to the Bugatti Veyron. The Chiron was first revealed at the Geneva Motor Show on March 1, 2016.

Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a French car manufacturer of high-performance automobiles, founded in 1909 in the then-German city of Molsheim, Alsace by the Italian-born industrial designer Ettore Bugatti. The cars were known for their design beauty and for their many race victories. Famous Bugattis include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 "Royale", the Type 57 "Atlantic" and the Type 55 sports car.

Bugatti je francouzská firma, která vyrábí luxusní automobily. Byla založena v alsaském Molsheimu v roce 1909. Toto město tehdy patřilo do Německého císařství a jeho říšské země Alsasko-Lotrinsko. Jejím zakladatelem byl italský automobilový konstruktér Ettore Bugatti. Původní výrobna vznikla v někdejší barvírně v Molsheimu. Firma je od roku 1998 ve vlastnictví německého koncernu Volkswagen.


History.

Kokhav Ya'ir was established in 1981 by 15 families living in temporary quarters. Two years later, work began on infrastructure for a permanent town. In 1986, 550 families moved into permanent housing and the town was officially founded. Tzur Yig'al was founded in 1991, with the first families moving into permanent homes in the summer of 1994.

Naming origin.

Kokhav Ya'ir (literally "Ya'ir's star") was named for Avraham Stern, who went by the alias Ya'ir. He was the founder and leader of the Lehi group, a militant Jewish underground active during the British Mandate of Palestine. "Stern" is also German for "star." Tzur Yig'al (literally "Yig'al's rock") was named for Israeli Knesset member Yigal Cohen.

Demography.

Kokhav Ya'ir is exclusively Jewish, with a high income level. Kokhav Yair is a secular community with a religious minority. Religious tensions are virtually non-existent. Residents from English speaking countries comprise approximately 20% of the population.

Geography.

Kokhav Ya'ir is located at lat. 32° 00' N, long. 35° 00' E, approximately north-north-east of the city of Kfar Saba and 95 meters above sea level. Neighboring the municipality on its south-west border is kibbutz Eyal, approximately north-west is the Israeli Arab city of Tira and approximately south is the Palestinian Authority governed city of Qalqilyah.  The Sapir Lookout in Kokhav Ya'ir attracts bird watchers who come to observe the semi-annual migration of many species of birds.

Education and sports.

Kokhav Ya'ir currently has four schools, two secular elementary schools ('Keshet' and 'Nof Tzurim'), one religious elementary school ('Dekel') and one middle school ('Ramon', named after the Astronaut Ilan Ramon). After finishing middle school students are usually directed to highschools in Ra'anana and Kfar Saba and Herzliya.  Kokhav Ya'ir's local basketball team, Elitzur Kokhav Ya'ir, has been a member of the Israel National Basketball League since 2008.

Inclusion Controversy.

Kokhav Ya'ir's country club from 2010 to 2017 refused membership to “Israeli Arabs” (i.e. Palestinians with Israeli citizenship). After a petition from Tira, an Arab village nearby, the club decided to “sanitize” its racist policy by restricting membership to Kochav Yair–Tzur Yig'al's residents. A member of the local council said: “What drives people from the club isn’t the price, but the Arabs. We came to live in a community. Whether we’re racist or not, it doesn’t matter. The fact is that residents are leaving the community center because of the Arab children. It’s not clear why we can’t express our opinion.” The club is partially funded by the Israeli government.

Kokhav Ya'ir–Tzur Yig'al (, also Kochav Yair–Tzur Yigal) is a town (local council) in the Central District of Israel. Kokhav Ya'ir and the neighboring town of Tzur Yig'al () merged in November 2003. In it had a population of.

Kochav Ja'ir ( כּוֹכַב יָאִיר, doslova „"Ja'irova hvězda"“, v oficiálním přepisu do angličtiny Kokhav Ya'ir) je místní rada (menší město) v Izraeli, v Centrálním distriktu. Starostou je Ja'akov Maman.


Composition.

A "Likert scale" is the sum of responses on several "Likert item"s. Because many Likert scales pair each constituent Likert item with its own instance of a visual analogue scale (e.g., a horizontal line, on which the subject indicates a response by circling or checking tick-marks), an individual item is itself sometimes erroneously referred to as being or having a scale, with this error creating pervasive confusion in the literature and parlance of the field.  A Likert item is simply a statement that the respondent is asked to evaluate by giving it a quantitative value on any kind of subjective or objective dimension, with level of agreement/disagreement being the dimension most commonly used. Well-designed Likert items exhibit both "symmetry" and "balance". Symmetry means that they contain equal numbers of positive and negative positions whose respective distances apart are bilaterally symmetric about the "neutral"/zero value (whether or not that value is presented as a candidate). Balance means that the distance between each candidate value is the same, allowing for quantitative comparisons such as averaging to be valid across items containing more than two candidate values.  The format of a typical five-level Likert item, for example, could be:  Likert scaling is a bipolar scaling method, measuring either positive or negative response to a statement. Sometimes an even-point scale is used, where the middle option of "Neither agree nor disagree" is not available. This is sometimes called a "forced choice" method, since the neutral option is removed. The neutral option can be seen as an easy option to take when a respondent is unsure, and so whether it is a true neutral option is questionable. A 1987 study found negligible differences between the use of "undecided" and "neutral" as the middle option in a 5-point Likert scale.  Designing a scale with balanced keying (an equal number of positive and negative statements and, especially, an equal number of positive and negative statements regarding each position or issue in question) can obviate the problem of acquiescence bias, since acquiescence on positively keyed items will balance acquiescence on negatively keyed items, but defensive, central tendency, and social desirability biases are somewhat more problematic.

Scoring and analysis.

After the questionnaire is completed, each item may be analyzed separately or in some cases item responses may be summed to create a score for a group of items. Hence, Likert scales are often called summative scales.  Whether individual Likert items can be considered as interval-level data, or whether they should be treated as ordered-categorical data is the subject of considerable disagreement in the literature, with strong convictions on what are the most applicable methods. This disagreement can be traced back, in many respects, to the extent to which Likert items are interpreted as being ordinal data.  There are two primary considerations in this discussion. First, Likert scales are arbitrary. The value assigned to a Likert item has no objective numerical basis, either in terms of measure theory or scale (from which a distance metric can be determined). The value assigned to each Likert item is simply determined by the researcher designing the survey, who makes the decision based on a desired level of detail. However, by convention Likert items tend to be assigned progressive positive integer values. Likert scales typically range from 2 to 10 – with 3 or 5 being the most common. Further, this progressive structure of the scale is such that each successive Likert item is treated as indicating a ‘better’ response than the preceding value. (This may differ in cases where reverse ordering of the Likert Scale is needed).  The second, and possibly more important point, is whether the "distance" between each successive item category is equivalent, which is inferred traditionally. For example, in the above five-point Likert item, the inference is that the ‘distance’ between category 1 and 2 is the same as between category 3 and 4. In terms of good research practice, an equidistant presentation by the researcher is important; otherwise a bias in the analysis may result. For example, a four-point Likert item with categories "Poor", "Average", "Good", and "Very Good" is unlikely to have all equidistant categories since there is only one category that can receive a below average rating. This would arguably bias any result in favor of a positive outcome. On the other hand, even if a researcher presents what he or she believes are equidistant categories, it may not be interpreted as such by the respondent.  A good Likert scale, as above, will present a "symmetry" of categories about a midpoint with clearly defined linguistic qualifiers. In such symmetric scaling, equidistant attributes will typically be more clearly observed or, at least, inferred. It is when a Likert scale is symmetric and equidistant that it will behave more like an interval-level measurement. So while a Likert scale is indeed ordinal, if well presented it may nevertheless approximate an interval-level measurement. This can be beneficial since, if it was treated just as an ordinal scale, then some valuable information could be lost if the ‘distance’ between Likert items were not available for consideration. The important idea here is that the appropriate type of analysis is dependent on how the Likert scale has been presented.  Notions of central tendency are often applicable at the item level - that is responses often show a quasi-normal distribution. The validity of such measures depends on the underlying interval nature of the scale. If interval nature is assumed for a comparison of two groups, the paired samples t-test is not inappropriate. If non-parametric tests are to be performed the Pratt (1959) modification to the Wilcoxon signed-rank test is recommended over the standard Wilcoxon signed-rank test.  Responses to several Likert questions may be summed providing that all questions use the same Likert scale and that the scale is a defensible approximation to an interval scale, in which case the central limit theorem allows treatment of the data as interval data measuring a latent variable. If the summed responses fulfill these assumptions, parametric statistical tests such as the analysis of variance can be applied. Typical cutoffs for thinking that this approximation will be acceptable is a minimum of 4 and preferably 8 items in the sum.  To model binary Likert responses directly, they may be represented in a binomial form by summing agree and disagree responses separately. The chi-squared, Cochran's Q test, or McNemar test are common statistical procedures used after this transformation. Non-parametric tests such as chi-squared test, Mann–Whitney test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, or Kruskal–Wallis test. are often used in the analysis of Likert scale data.  Alternatively, Likert scale responses can be analyzed with an ordered probit model, preserving the ordering of responses without the assumption of an interval scale. The use of an ordered probit model can prevent errors that arise when treating ordered ratings as interval-level measurements.  Consensus based assessment (CBA) can be used to create an objective standard for Likert scales in domains where no generally accepted or objective standard exists. Consensus based assessment (CBA) can be used to refine or even validate generally accepted standards.

Visual presentation of Likert-type data.

An important part of data analysis and presentation is the visualization (or plotting) of data. The subject of plotting Likert (and other) rating data is discussed at length in two papers by Robbins and Heiberger. In the first they recommend the use of what they call diverging stacked bar charts and compare them to other plotting styles. The second paper describes the use of the likert function in the HH package for R, and gives many examples of its use.

Level of measurement.

The five response categories are often believed to represent an Interval level of measurement. But this can only be the case if the intervals between the scale points correspond to empirical observations in a metric sense. Reips and Funke (2008) show that this criterion is much better met by a visual analogue scale. In fact, there may also appear phenomena which even question the ordinal scale level in Likert scales. For example, in a set of items A,B,C rated with a Likert scale circular relations like A > B, B > C and C > A can appear. This violates the axiom of transitivity for the ordinal scale.  Research by Labovitz and Traylor provide evidence that, even with rather large distortions of perceived distances between scale points, Likert-type items perform closely to scales that are perceived as equal intervals. So these items and other equal-appearing scales in questionnaires are robust to violations of the equal distance assumption many researchers believe are required for parametric statistical procedures and tests.

Rasch model.

Likert scale data can, in principle, be used as a basis for obtaining interval level estimates on a continuum by applying the polytomous Rasch model, when data can be obtained that fit this model. In addition, the polytomous Rasch model permits testing of the hypothesis that the statements reflect increasing levels of an attitude or trait, as intended. For example, application of the model often indicates that the neutral category does not represent a level of attitude or trait between the disagree and agree categories.  Again, not every set of Likert scaled items can be used for Rasch measurement. The data has to be thoroughly checked to fulfill the strict formal axioms of the model.

Pronunciation.

Rensis Likert, the developer of the scale, pronounced his name '. Some have claimed that Likert's name "is among the most mispronounced in [the] field", because many people pronounce the name of the scale as.

A Likert scale ( but commonly mispronounced ) is a psychometric scale commonly involved in research that employs questionnaires. It is the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey research, such that the term (or more accurately the Likert-type scale) is often used interchangeably with "rating scale", although there are other types of rating scales.

Likertova škála, vytvořena v roce 1932 americkým psychologem Rensisem Likertem, je původně technikou pro měření postojů v dotaznících, později však bývá používána i k měření jiných proměnných například v psychologických testech.


Current programs.

As of 2019, the Jewish Agency sponsors dozens of programs that connect Jews to Israel and to each other. The Agency organizes the programs into four different categories: 1. Connecting young Jews to Israel and their Jewish identity (Jewish and Zionist education in the Jewish diaspora), 2. Connecting young Israelis to the Jewish people and their Jewish identity, 3. Aliyah and absorption, 4. Supporting vulnerable populations in Israel.  Some programs:

Connecting young Jews to Israel and their Jewish identity.

Israel experiences.

The Israel Experience programs bring young Jews from around the

Jewish and Zionist education outside Israel.

In its mission to strengthen the ties between Israel and worldwide Jewry and to promote Jewish culture and identity, the Jewish Agency sends out "shlichim", or emissaries, to Jewish communities across the globe; partners with Israel and Diaspora communities, and operates and/or funds Jewish educational programs. It also supports Jewish inclusion and diversity programs.

Aliyah.

The Jewish Agency still brings thousands of Jews to move to Israel each year. In 2014, The Agency helped a total of nearly

The Jewish Agency also helps

Services for Israeli Arabs and minorities.

As part of its efforts to strengthen Israeli society and to support vulnerable populations in Israel, the Jewish Agency has, for many

Emergency projects.

Responses to military crises in Israel.

During times of military crisis, the Jewish Agency for Israel provides a comprehensive range of services that, for the sake of efficiency and to avoid duplicating resources, are coordinated fully with the Government of Israel and other major organizations. Among them are:  Respite camping for children in the line of fire: For example, During the 2006 Lebanon War, the Jewish Agency moved 50,000 children from northern Israel to 50 residential camps out of the rocket range. 12,000 children went to Jewish Agency-equipped camp-style day care held in community centers. During the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict (Operation Protective Edge) the Jewish Agency arranged for children from Israeli areas in the line of fire to enjoy "days of respite" for fun activities in regions less likely to experience air raids. According to the organization's Annual Report for 2014-15, they provided 73,500 such experiences.  Special services for

Sderot.

The Jewish Agency has played an important role in supporting the residents of Sderot and the surrounding area, which has been the target of many rockets launched from Gaza. More than 12,000 children have enjoyed respite activities in the center and north of the country (during Operation Protective Edge); 300 educators have been trained to work with children

Israel Fires Emergency Fund.

In November 2016, Israel experienced eight days of devastating fires. At least 75,000 people were evacuated from their residences, as 1,773 blazes razed over 600 homes and damaged hundreds more. The Government of Israel determined that while most were caused by weather conditions and negligence, many had been acts of terror.  Within days, the Jewish Agency created the Israel Fires Emergency Fund,

History.

Name.

Established as the Palestine Office (of the Zionist Organization) in 1908, the organization became the Zionist Commission, later Palestine Zionist Executive, which was designated in 1929

1908–1928: Beginnings as an arm of the World Zionist Organization.

The Jewish Agency began as the Palestine Office (Hebrew: המשרד הארץ-ישראלי, "HaMisrad HaEretz Yisraeli", lit. "Office for the Land of Israel"), founded in Jaffa in 1908, as the operational branch of the Zionist Organization (ZO) in Ottoman-controlled Palestine under the leadership of Arthur Ruppin. The main tasks of the Palestine Office were to represent the Jews of Palestine in dealings with the Turkish sultan and other foreign dignitaries, to aid Jewish immigration, and to buy land for Jews to settle. The Palestine Office was established under the inspiration of Theodore Herzl's vision for a solution to "the Jewish question": the issue of anti-Semitism and the place of Jews in the world.

Jewish Agency for Palestine 1929–1948.

Non-Zionists representation.

In 1929, the Palestine Zionist Executive was renamed, restructured and officially inaugurated as The Jewish Agency for Palestine by the 16th Zionist Congress, held in Zurich, Switzerland. The new body was larger and included a number of Jewish non-Zionist individuals and organizations, who were interested in Jewish settlement in Palestine. They were philanthropic rather than political, and many opposed talk of a Jewish State. With this broader Jewish representation, the Jewish Agency for Palestine was recognized by the British in 1930, in lieu of the Zionist Organization,

Organization.

From 1929 to 1948, the Jewish Agency was organized into four departments: the Government Department (performing foreign relations on behalf of the Jewish community of Palestine); the Security Department; the Aliyah Department, and the Education Department. The Jewish Agency Executive included David Ben-Gurion as chairman, and Rabbi Yehuda Leib Maimon and Yitzhak Gruenbaum, among others. The Jewish Agency was (and is still) housed in a fortress-like building in the Rehavia neighborhood of Jerusalem. The land for the Rehavia neighborhood had been purchased in 1922 by

Pre-state immigration and settlement 1934–1948.

Throughout the years 1934–1948, in a phenomenon known as the "Ha'apala ("ascension), the Jewish Agency facilitated clandestine immigration beyond the British quotas. In 1938 it established "HaMosad LeAliyah Bet"(, lit. "Institution for Immigration B")", "which took charge of the effort. Overall, in these years, The Agency, in partnership with other organizations, helped over 150,000 people in their attempt to enter Palestine, organizing a total of 141 voyages on 116 ships. The potential immigrants were Jews fleeing Nazi atrocities in Europe and, after the war, refugees from DP camps who sought a home in Palestine. Most of the Ma'apilim ships (of the Ha'apala movement) were intercepted by the British, but a few thousand Jews did manage to slip past the authorities. The operation as a whole also helped to unify the long-standing Jewish community in Palestine as well as the newcomer Jewish refugees from Europe.In these years The Agency made use of the "tower and stockade" (Hebrew: חומה ומגדל) method to establish dozens of new Jewish settlements literally overnight, without obtaining permission from the Mandate authorities. These settlements were built on land purchased by the JNF and relied on an Ottoman law stating that any

Resistance, and formation of Israel's first government.

Frustrated with Great Britain's continued anti-Zionist stance, the Jewish Agency helped put together an agreement signed by the Hagannah, the Irgun, and the Lehi to form a United Resistance Movement against the British. In 1946 British troops raided Jewish Agency headquarters as part of Operation Agatha, a broad effort to quash Jewish resistance in Palestine. Important figures in The Agency including Moshe Sharett, head of the Agency's political department, and Dov Yosef, member of the Agency's Executive Committee, were arrested and imprisoned in Latrun.  The United Nations recommended the partition of Palestine on 29 November 1947. Meanwhile, the Jewish Agency collaborated with the Jewish National Council to set up a People's Council ("Mo'ezet Ha'am)" and National Administration ("Minhelet Ha'am)". After the declaration of independence on 14 May 1948, these two bodies formed the provisional government of the State of Israel.

The Jewish Agency for Israel.

Post-State immigration, settlement, and infrastructure.

Following the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the Jewish Agency for Israel shifted its focus to facilitating economic development and absorbing immigrants. Organizationally, it changed its structure: The Aliyah Department remained, as well as the Education Department (which promoted Jewish and Zionist education in the diaspora), but the Security and Government Departments were replaced by the Department of Agriculture and Settlement, and by the Israel Department (supporting activities that help vulnerable populations within Israel).  The Agency's budget in 1948 was IL 32

Immigration and absorption, 1967–1990s.

Jewish pride and euphoria following Israel's dramatic victory in the Six Day War of 1967 prompted a new wave of immigration. In order to aid in the absorption of this influx of immigrants, the Israeli government's Ministry for Absorption was created in June 1968, taking over some aspects of absorption from The Agency and the ZO.  In the 1980s, the Jewish Agency began to bring the Ethiopian Jewish Community to Israel. On Operation Moses and Operation Joshua more than 8,000 immigrants were airlifted out of Ethiopia. In 1991 about 14,400 Ethiopian Jews were flown to Israel in the space of 36 hours on Operation Solomon. Since then, a steady trickle of immigrants have

Program expansion, 1990s–2009.

In 1994, the Jewish Agency, together with the United Jewish Communities and Keren Hayesod-United Israel Appeal, established Partnership 2000. Now known as Partnership2Gether or P2G, the program connects 45 Israeli communities with over 500 Jewish communities around the globe in a "sister city"-style network. Diaspora participants travel to Israel and vice versa, and are hosted by their partner communities; schools are connected through the Global Twinning Network; global Jewish communities support loan funds helping entrepreneurs and small business owners in their partner cities; and young Jewish adults in Israel on long-term programs meet with their Israeli peers for dialogue and workshops.  The Jewish Agency provides Jewish communities outside Israel a continuum of programming to "bring Israel" to local worldwide Jewish communities.They do this in part through ""shlichim"," or emissaries. "Shlichim" are Israeli educators or cultural ambassadors, who spend an extended period of time (2 months to 5 years) abroad to "bring Israel" to the community. "Shlichim" are also posted at college campuses in organizations like or active in youth organizations.  Other Jewish Agency-sponsored programs

Strategic plans.

2010.

At the February 2010 Board of Governors meeting, Natan Sharansky announced a shift in the priorities of the Jewish Agency from Aliyah to strengthening Jewish identity for young adults around the world.  From 1948 until 2009, the Jewish Agency was organized into departments: the Aliyah and Absorption department, which was responsible for the immigration and integration of Jews coming to Israel; the Education department, which worked to deepen the connection of Jews worldwide to Israel; and the Israel department, which focused on improving the lives of socio-economically vulnerable Israelis. (A fourth department, for Agriculture and Settlement, had been in operation starting in 1948, but had closed long before 2009.)  In order to increase efficiency, the Jewish Agency, under the leadership of its new Chairman of the Executive, Natan Sharansky, decided to restructure the organization. The three main departments were reorganized into the following six program units:  Each program unit reports directly to the Jewish Agency's Director General. Additionally, The Agency's support units – such as human resources, marketing, and finance

2019.

At the October 2019 Board of Governors meeting, which marked the 90th anniversary of the organization, the Board passed a decision to

Governance.

The Jewish Agency Executive is charged with administering the operations of the Jewish Agency, subject to the control of the Board of Governors. It has 26 members, of which 24 are chosen by the Board of Governors. The Executive is composed in the following manner: 12 members designated by WZO and 12 members designated jointly by JFNA/UIA and Keren Hayesod. In addition, the World Chairperson of Keren Hayesod and the Chairperson of the JFNA Executive are ex-officio members in the Executive. The current Chairperson of the Executive is Mr. Natan Sharansky.  Over the years the Executive board has included many prominent members of Israeli society. Some of the famous Israelis who have served on the board include: M. D. Eder – 1922; Frederick Kisch – 1922–31; Haim Arlosoroff – 1931–33; Moshe Shertok – 1933–48; Arthur Ruppin – 1933–35; David Ben-Gurion (Chairman of the Executive) – 1935–48.  Past Chairmen of the Executive  Source: The Board of Governors, which meets not less than three times a year, is the central policy-making body of the Jewish Agency. The 120 Governors play a crucial

Funding and budget.

The Jewish Agency is funded by the Jewish Federations of North America, Keren Hayesod, major Jewish communities and federations, and foundations and donors from Israel and around the world.  Due to the volatile U.S. dollar, the global economic crisis and the Madoff scandal, the Jewish Agency for Israel

Awards and recognition.

On May 8, 2008, at the Israeli government's 60th Independence Day celebration, the Jewish Agency for Israel was awarded the Israel Prize for lifetime achievement & special contribution to society and the State of Israel.

The Jewish Agency for Israel (, "HaSochnut HaYehudit L'Eretz Yisra'el") is the largest Jewish nonprofit organization in the world. It was established in 1929 as the operative branch of the World Zionist Organization (WZO). Its mission is to "ensure that every Jewish person feels an unbreakable bond to one another and to Israel no matter where they live in the world, so that they can continue to play their critical role in our ongoing Jewish story."

Židovská agentura, přesněji Židovská agentura pro Izrael (:, "ha-Sochnut ha-jehudit le-Erec Jisrael", zkráceně jen – "Sochnut", : "", též zkracováno na "JAFI") je organizace založená roku 1929, která před vznikem státu Izrael fungovala jako neoficiální vláda pro židovské obyvatelstvo v tehdejší Britské mandátní Palestině (stejně jako Židovská národní rada fungovala coby neoficiální židovský parlament). Poté, co Izrael dosáhl roku 1948 nezávislosti, se aktivity Židovské agentury posunuly směrem k podpoře židovského přistěhovalectví. Sídlí v domě národních institucí v Jeruzalémě.


No-One but You (Only the Good Die Young)

Music video.

The music video was produced by DoRo and filmed at Bray Studios, London on 29 November 1997. It was shot in black and white, and featured only the three remaining members of Queen in the studio.  A second version was also made, and is a completely different edit, featuring sepia-tinted footage of Freddie through all his years with the band. This version was featured on Queen Rocks: The Video in 1998 and on Greatest Hits III VHS in 1999.

Kerry Ellis version.

In 2002, Brian May worked with stage actress and singer, Kerry Ellis, to record an orchestral version of the song as it appears in the musical, "We Will Rock You", where Ellis played the role of Meat. In the musical, it is sung by a woman, who after the ensemble have recalled the names of a number of musicians who died young, will culminate in saying the name "Freddie" as a tribute to Freddie Mercury. This version of the song was made only available to download on the official Queen website on 19 March 2005 and failed to chart. However, it was later included on her extended play "Wicked in Rock" and subsequently featured on her debut album "Anthems".  In 2004, the Spanish stage actress and singer Eva María Cortés recorded the same orchestral version in Spanish to promote the Original Madrid Cast Recording of "We Will Rock You".  Track recorded at Sphere Studios, Olympic Studios and Allerton Hill Orchestra recorded at Air Studios, Lydhurst Hall

"No-One But You (Only the Good Die Young)" is the only song recorded by the remaining three members of the British rock band Queen in 1997 following the death of the lead singer Freddie Mercury in 1991. Guitarist Brian May—the writer of the song—and drummer Roger Taylor share lead vocals. The song was released on the album "Queen Rocks" and it was also released as a double a-side single with "Tie Your Mother Down".

"No-One But You (Only the Good Die Young)" je skladba nahraná zbývajícími třemi členy britské rockové skupiny Queen v roce 1997 šest let po smrti zpěváka Freddie Mercuryho v roce 1991. Kytarista Brian May – autor skladby – a bubeník Roger Taylor zpívají hlavní vokály. Skladba vyšla na albu album "Queen Rocks".


History.

Intergovernmental consideration of a chemical and biological weapons ban was initiated in 1968 within the 18-nation Disarmament Committee, which, after numerous changes of name and composition, became the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in 1984. On 3 September 1992 the Conference on Disarmament submitted to the U.N. General Assembly its annual report, which contained the text of the Chemical Weapons Convention. The General Assembly approved the Convention on 30 November 1992, and the U.N. Secretary-General then opened the Convention for signature in Paris on 13 January 1993. The CWC remained open for signature until its entry into force on 29 April 1997, 180 days after the deposit of the 65th instrument of ratification (by Hungary). The convention augments the Geneva Protocol of 1925 for chemical weapons and includes extensive verification measures such as on-site inspections. It does not, however, cover biological weapons.

Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW).

The convention is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which acts as the legal platform for specification of the CWC provisions. The Conference of the States Parties is mandated to change the CWC and pass regulations on implementation of CWC requirements. The Technical Secretariat of the organization conducts inspections to ensure compliance of member states. These inspections target destruction facilities (where permanent monitoring takes place during destruction), chemical weapons production facilities which have been dismantled or converted for civil use, as well as inspections of the chemical industry. The Secretariat may furthermore conduct "investigations of alleged use" of chemical weapons and give assistance after use of chemical weapons.  The 2013 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the organization because it had, with the Chemical Weapons Convention, "defined the use of chemical weapons as a taboo under international law" according to Thorbjørn Jagland, Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee.

Key points of the Convention.

Controlled substances.

The convention distinguishes three classes of controlled substance, chemicals that can either be used as weapons themselves or used in the manufacture of weapons. The classification is based on the quantities of the substance produced commercially for legitimate purposes. Each class is split into Part A, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and Part B, which are chemicals useful in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Separate from the precursors, the convention defines toxic chemicals as "[a]ny chemical which through its chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation or permanent harm to humans or animals. This includes all such chemicals, regardless of their origin or of their method of production, and regardless of whether they are produced in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere."  A treaty party may declare a "single small-scale facility" that produces up to 1 tonne of Schedule 1 chemicals for research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes each year, and also another facility may produce 10 kg per year for protective testing purposes. An unlimited number of other facilities may produce Schedule 1 chemicals, subject to a total 10 kg annual limit, for research, medical or pharmaceutical purposes, but any facility producing more than 100 grams must be declared.  The treaty also deals with carbon compounds called in the treaty "discrete organic chemicals", the majority of which exhibit moderate-high direct toxicity or can be readily converted into compounds with toxicity sufficient for practical use as a chemical weapon. These are any carbon compounds apart from long chain polymers, oxides, sulfides and metal carbonates, such as organophosphates. The OPCW must be informed of, and can inspect, any plant producing (or expecting to produce) more than 200 tonnes per year, or 30 tonnes if the chemical contains phosphorus, sulfur or fluorine, unless the plant solely produces explosives or hydrocarbons.

Member states.

Before the CWC came into force in 1997, 165 states signed the convention, allowing them to ratify the agreement after obtaining domestic approval. Following the treaty's entry into force, it was closed for signature and the only method for non-signatory states to become a party was through accession. As of May 2018, 193 states, representing over 98 percent of the world's population, are party to the CWC. Of the four United Nations member states that are not parties to the treaty, Israel has signed but not ratified the treaty, while Egypt, North Korea, and South Sudan have neither signed nor acceded to the Convention. Taiwan, though not a member state, has confirmed that it complies with the treaty.

Key organizations of member states.

Member states are represented at the OPCW by their Permanent Representative. This function is generally combined with the function of Ambassador. For the preparation of OPCW inspections and preparation of declarations, member states have to constitute a National Authority.

World stockpile of chemical weapons.

A total of 72,304 metric tonnes of chemical agent, and 97 production facilities have been declared to OPCW.

Treaty deadlines.

The treaty set up several steps with deadlines toward complete destruction of chemical weapons, with a procedure for requesting deadline extensions. No country reached total elimination by the original treaty date although several have finished under allowed extensions.

Progress of destruction.

At the end of 2019, 70,545 of 72,304 (97.51%) metric tonnes of chemical agent have been verifiably destroyed. More than 57% (4.97 million) of chemical munitions and containers have been destroyed.  Seven State Parties, namely Albania, an unspecified state party (believed to be South Korea), India, Iraq, Libya, Russia and Syria have completed the destruction of their declared stockpiles. The United States is in the process of destruction and scheduled to complete in 2023. The destruction of Libya's Category 1 chemical weapons was completed in 2014; destruction of its chemical weapon precursors was completed in November 2017.  Japan and China in October 2010 began the destruction of World War II era chemical weapons abandoned by Japan in China by means of mobile destruction units and reported destruction of 35,203 chemical weapons (75% of the Nanjing stockpile).

Iraqi stockpile.

The U.N. Security Council ordered the dismantling of Iraq's chemical weapon stockpile in 1991. By 1998, UNSCOM inspectors had accounted for the destruction of 88,000 filled and unfilled chemical munitions, over 690 metric tons of weaponized and bulk chemical agents, approximately 4,000 tonnes of precursor chemicals, and 980 pieces of key production equipment. The UNSCOM inspectors left in 1998.  In 2009, before Iraq joined the CWC, the OPCW reported that the United States military had destroyed almost 5,000 old chemical weapons in open-air detonations since 2004. These weapons, produced before the 1991 Gulf War, contained sarin and mustard agents but were so badly corroded that they could not have been used as originally intended.  When Iraq joined the CWC in 2009, it declared "two bunkers with filled and unfilled chemical weapons munitions, some precursors, as well as five former chemical weapons production facilities" according to OPCW Director General Rogelio Pfirter. The bunker entrances were sealed with 1.5 meters of reinforced concrete in 1994 under UNSCOM supervision. As of 2012, the plan to destroy the chemical weapons was still being developed, in the face of significant difficulties. In 2014, ISIS took control of the site.  On 13 March 2018, the Director-General of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Ambassador Ahmet Üzümcü, congratulated the Government of Iraq on the completion of the destruction of the country's chemical weapons remnants.

Syrian destruction.

Following the August 2013 Ghouta chemical attack, Syria, which had long been suspected of possessing chemical weapons, acknowledged them in September 2013 and agreed to put them under international supervision. On 14 September Syria deposited its instrument of accession to the CWC with the United Nations as the depositary and agreed to its provisional application pending entry into force effective 14 October. An accelerated destruction schedule was devised by Russia and the United States on 14 September, and was endorsed by United Nations Security Council Resolution 2118 and the OPCW Executive Council Decision EC-M-33/DEC.1. Their deadline for destruction was the first half of 2014. Syria gave the OPCW an inventory of its chemical weapons arsenal and began its destruction in October 2013, 2 weeks before its formal entry into force, while applying the convention provisionally. All declared Category 1 materials were destroyed by August 2014. However, the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack in April 2017 indicated that undeclared stockpiles probably remained in the country. A chemical attack on Douma occurred on 7 April 2018 that killed at least 49 civilians with scores injured, and which has been blamed on the Assad government.  Controversy arose in November 2019 over the OPCW's finding on the Douma chemical weapons attack when Wikileaks published emails by an OPCW staff member saying a report on this incident “misrepresents the facts” and contains “unintended bias.” The OPCW staff member questioned the report's finding that OPCW's inspectors had “sufficient evidence at this time to determine that chlorine, or another reactive chlorine-containing chemical, was likely released from cylinders.” The staff member alleged this finding was “highly misleading and not supported by the facts” and said he would attach his own differing observations if this version of the report was released. On November 25, 2019, OPCW Director General Fernando Arias, in a speech to the OPCW's annual conference in The Hague, defended the Organization's report on the Douma incident, stating “While some of these diverse views continue to circulate in some public discussion forums, I would like to reiterate that I stand by the independent, professional conclusion" of the probe.

Financial support for destruction.

Financial support for the Albanian and Libyan stockpile destruction programmes was provided by the United States. Russia received support from a number of countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and Canada; with some $2 billion given by 2004. Costs for Albania's program were approximately US$48 million. The United States has spent $20 billion and expected to spend a further $40 billion.

Known chemical weapons production facilities.

Fourteen states parties have declared chemical weapons production facilities (CWPFs):  Currently all 97 declared production facilities have been deactivated and certified as either destroyed (74) or converted (23) to civilian use.

The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is an arms control treaty that outlaws the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons and their precursors. The full name of the treaty is the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction and it is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), an intergovernmental organization based in The Hague, The Netherlands. The treaty entered into force on 29 April 1997. The Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits the large-scale use, development, production, stockpiling and transfer of chemical weapons. Very limited production for research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes is still permitted. The main obligation of member states under the convention is to effect this prohibition, as well as the destruction of all current chemical weapons. All destruction activities must take place under OPCW verification.

Úmluva o chemických zbraních, celým názvem Úmluva o zákazu vývoje, výroby, hromadění zásob a použití chemických zbraní a jejich zničení, je mezinárodní smlouva, kterou se státy zavazují nevyvíjet, nevyrábět, nehromadit, nepřechovávat a nepřevádět chemické zbraně, jakož i nečinit vojenské přípravy k jejich využití a nenapomáhat nikomu k uvedeným činnostem, nevyzývat ani nepodněcovat k nim.


History.

The roots of Dobro story can be traced to the 1920s when Slovak immigrant and instrument repairman/inventor John Dopyera and musician George Beauchamp were searching for more volume for his guitars. Dopyera built an ampliphonic (or "resonator") for Beauchamp, which was patented in December 1929. In mid-1929, Dopyera left the National company to start the "Dobro Manufacturing Company" along with his brothers Rudy and Ed, and Vic Smith. National continued operating under Beauchamp, Barth et al. "Dobro" is both a contraction of "Dopyera brothers" and a word meaning 'good' in their native Slovak. An early company motto was "Dobro means good in any language." In 1930, the Dobro company name was changed to the "Dobro Corporation, Ltd.", with additional capital provided by Louis and Robert Dopyera. Dobro was, during this period, a competitor of National.  The Dobro was the third resonator guitar design by John Dopyera, the inventor of the resonator guitar, but the second to enter production. Unlike his earlier tricone design, which had three ganged inward-facing resonator cones, the Dobro had a single outward-facing cone, with its concave surface facing up. The Dobro company described this as a bowl shaped resonator.  The Dobro was louder than the tricone and cheaper to produce. In Dopyera's opinion, the cost of manufacture had priced the resonator guitar beyond the reach of many players. His failure to convince his fellow directors at the National String Instrument Corporation to produce a single-cone version was a motivating factor for leaving.  Since National had applied for a patent on an inward-facing single cone (), Dopyera developed a design that reversed its direction: Rather than having the guitar's bridge rest on the apex of the cone as the National design did, it rested on an eight legged cast aluminum spider sitting on the perimeter of the cone (). In the following years both Dobro and National built a wide variety of metal- and wood-bodied single-cone guitars, while National also continued with the Tricone for a time. Both companies sourced many components from National director Adolph Rickenbacher, and John Dopyera remained a major shareholder in National. By 1932 the Dopyera brothers had gained control of both National and Dobro, which they merged to form the "National-Dobro Company". By the 1940s, National-Dobro had been purchased by Valco. Valco ceased production of Dobro-branded guitars after World War II; however, the Dopyera brothers continued to manufacture resonator guitars under various other brand names.  In 1964, the Dopyera brothers revived the Dobro brand name. They sold the name to Semie Moseley in 1966. In 1970, the Dopyeras' Original Musical Instrument Company (OMI) yet again reacquired the Dobro name.  The Gibson Guitar Corporation acquired OMI in 1993, along with the Dobro name. The company became Gibson's Original Acoustic Instruments division, and production was moved to Nashville in 2000. Dobros are currently manufactured by Gibson subsidiary Epiphone.  The Dobro was first introduced to country music by Bashful Brother Oswald, who played dobro with Roy Acuff starting in January 1939.  The first and second prototypes of the Dobro created by the brothers reside at the invention's birthplace of Taft, California, in a museum about the town's oil production history.

Generic usage.

The term "dobro" (lower case) is widely used as a form of generic trademark to describe resonator guitars.  Gibson, however, owns the registered trademark "Dobro" (upper case), and uses it for its own product line.

Epiphone Dobros.

Current and past models resonator guitars manufactured by the Gibson Company are:

Dobro is an American brand of resonator guitars, currently owned by Gibson and manufactured by its subsidiary Epiphone. The term "dobro" is also used as a generic trademark for any wood-bodied, single-cone resonator guitar.

Dobro je specifický druh resofonické kytary. Tento hudební nástroj vymysleli bratři Dopierové či Dopyerové (Ján, Rudolf, Emil) v roce 1928 v Los Angeles, synové slovenského emigranta Jozefa Dopiery (psáno i Jozefa Dopyery), který emigroval do USA. Název nástroje pak pochází z prvních slabik sousloví "Dopiera Brothers" (klasický akronym). Tento hudební nástroj se používá především v country hudbě a v bluegrassu (americká lidová hudba)., ale také v bluesové hudbě.