Advantages.

Motion capture offers several advantages over traditional computer animation of a 3D model:

Applications.

Video games often use motion capture to animate athletes, martial artists, and other in-game characters. This has been done since the Sega Model 2 arcade game "Virtua Fighter 2" in 1994. By mid-1995 the use of motion capture in video game development had become commonplace, and developer/publisher Acclaim Entertainment had gone so far as to have its own in-house motion capture studio built into its headquarters. Namco's 1995 arcade game "Soul Edge" used passive optical system markers for motion capture.  Movies use motion capture for CG effects, in some cases replacing traditional cel animation, and for completely computer-generated creatures, such as Gollum, The Mummy, King Kong, Davy Jones from "Pirates of the Caribbean", the Na'vi from the film "Avatar", and Clu from "". The Great Goblin, the three Stone-trolls, many of the orcs and goblins in the 2012 film "", and Smaug were created using motion capture.  ‘’’’ (1999) was the first feature-length film to include a main character created using motion capture (that character being Jar Jar Binks played by Ahmed Best), and Indian-American film "" (2000) was the first feature-length film made primarily with motion capture, although many character animators also worked on the film, which had a very limited release. 2001's "" was the first widely released movie to be made primarily with motion capture technology. Despite its poor box-office intake, supporters of motion capture technology took notice. "Total Recall" (1990 film) had already used the technique, in the scene of the x-ray scanner and the skeletons.  "" was the first feature film to utilize a real-time motion capture system. This method streamed the actions of actor Andy Serkis into the computer generated skin of Gollum / Smeagol as it was being performed.  Out of the three nominees for the 2006 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, two of the nominees ("Monster House" and the winner "Happy Feet") used motion capture, and only Disney·Pixar's "Cars" was animated without motion capture. In the ending credits of Pixar's film "Ratatouille", a stamp appears labelling the film as "100% Pure Animation – No Motion Capture!"  Since 2001, motion capture is being used extensively to simulate or approximate the look of live-action cinema, with nearly photorealistic digital character models. "The Polar Express" used motion capture to allow Tom Hanks to perform as several distinct digital characters (in which he also provided the voices). The 2007 adaptation of the saga "Beowulf" animated digital characters whose appearances were based in part on the actors who provided their motions and voices. James Cameron's highly popular "Avatar" used this technique to create the Na'vi that inhabit Pandora. The Walt Disney Company has produced Robert Zemeckis's "A Christmas Carol" using this technique. In 2007, Disney acquired Zemeckis' ImageMovers Digital (that produces motion capture films), but then closed it in 2011, after a string of failures.  Television series produced entirely with motion capture animation include "Laflaque" in Canada, "Sprookjesboom" and "" in The Netherlands, and "Headcases" in the UK.  Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality providers, such as uSens and Gestigon, allow users to interact with digital content in real time by capturing hand motions. This can be useful for training simulations, visual perception tests, or performing a virtual walk-throughs in a 3D environment. Motion capture technology is frequently used in digital puppetry systems to drive computer generated characters in real-time.  Gait analysis is one application of motion capture in clinical medicine. Techniques allow clinicians to evaluate human motion across several biomechanical factors, often while streaming this information live into analytical software.  Some physical therapy clinics utilize motion capture as an objective way to quantify patient progress.  During the filming of James Cameron's "Avatar" all of the scenes involving this process were directed in realtime using Autodesk MotionBuilder software to render a screen image which allowed the director and the actor to see what they would look like in the movie, making it easier to direct the movie as it would be seen by the viewer. This method allowed views and angles not possible from a pre-rendered animation. Cameron was so proud of his results that he invited Steven Spielberg and George Lucas on set to view the system in action.  In Marvel's "The Avengers", Mark Ruffalo used motion capture so he could play his character the Hulk, rather than have him be only CGI as in previous films, making Ruffalo the first actor to play both the human and the Hulk versions of Bruce Banner.  FaceRig software uses facial recognition technology from ULSee.Inc to map a player's facial expressions and the body tracking technology from Perception Neuron to map the body movement onto a 3D or 2D character's motion onscreen.  During "Game Developers Conference" 2016 in San Francisco "Epic Games" demonstrated full-body motion capture live in Unreal Engine. The whole scene, from the upcoming game "" about a woman warrior named Senua, was rendered in real-time. The keynote was a collaboration between "Unreal Engine", "Ninja Theory", "3Lateral", "Cubic Motion", "IKinema" and "Xsens".

Methods and systems.

Motion tracking or motion capture started as a photogrammetric analysis tool in biomechanics research in the 1970s and 1980s, and expanded into education, training, sports and recently computer animation for television, cinema, and video games as the technology matured. Since the 20th century the performer has to wear markers near each joint to identify the motion by the positions or angles between the markers. Acoustic, inertial, LED, magnetic or reflective markers, or combinations of any of these, are tracked, optimally at least two times the frequency rate of the desired motion. The resolution of the system is important in both the spatial resolution and temporal resolution as motion blur causes almost the same problems as low resolution. Since the beginning of the 21st century and because of the rapid growth of technology new methods were developed. Most modern systems can extract the silhouette of the performer from the background. Afterwards all joint angles are calculated by fitting in a mathematic model into the silhouette. For movements you can't see a change of the silhouette, there are hybrid Systems available who can do both (marker and silhouette), but with less marker. In robotics, some motion capture systems are based on simultaneous localization and mapping.

Optical systems.

"Optical systems" utilize data captured from image sensors to triangulate the 3D position of a subject between two or more cameras calibrated to provide overlapping projections. Data acquisition is traditionally implemented using special markers attached to an actor; however, more recent systems are able to generate accurate data by tracking surface features identified dynamically for each particular subject. Tracking a large number of performers or expanding the capture area is accomplished by the addition of more cameras. These systems produce data with three degrees of freedom for each marker, and rotational information must be inferred from the relative orientation of three or more markers; for instance shoulder, elbow and wrist markers providing the angle of the elbow. Newer hybrid systems are combining inertial sensors with optical sensors to reduce occlusion, increase the number of users and improve the ability to track without having to manually clean up data.

Passive markers.

"Passive optical" system use markers coated with a retroreflective material to reflect light that is generated near the cameras lens. The camera's threshold can be adjusted so only the bright reflective markers will be sampled, ignoring skin and fabric.  The centroid of the marker is estimated as a position within the two-dimensional image that is captured. The grayscale value of each pixel can be used to provide sub-pixel accuracy by finding the centroid of the Gaussian.  An object with markers attached at known positions is used to calibrate the cameras and obtain their positions and the lens distortion of each camera is measured. If two calibrated cameras see a marker, a three-dimensional fix can be obtained. Typically a system will consist of around 2 to 48 cameras. Systems of over three hundred cameras exist to try to reduce marker swap. Extra cameras are required for full coverage around the capture subject and multiple subjects.  Vendors have constraint software to reduce the problem of marker swapping since all passive markers appear identical. Unlike active marker systems and magnetic systems, passive systems do not require the user to wear wires or electronic equipment. Instead, hundreds of rubber balls are attached with reflective tape, which needs to be replaced periodically. The markers are usually attached directly to the skin (as in biomechanics), or they are velcroed to a performer wearing a full body spandex/lycra suit designed specifically for motion capture. This type of system can capture large numbers of markers at frame rates usually around 120 to 160 fps although by lowering the resolution and tracking a smaller region of interest they can track as high as 10000 fps.

Active marker.

Active optical systems triangulate positions by illuminating one LED at a time very quickly or multiple LEDs with software to identify them by their relative positions, somewhat akin to celestial navigation. Rather than reflecting light back that is generated externally, the markers themselves are powered to emit their own light. Since inverse square law provides one quarter the power at two times the distance, this can increase the distances and volume for capture. This also enables high signal-to-noise ratio, resulting in very low marker jitter and a resulting high measurement resolution (often down to 0.1 mm within the calibrated volume).  The TV series "Stargate SG1" produced episodes using an active optical system for the VFX allowing the actor to walk around props that would make motion capture difficult for other non-active optical systems.  ILM used active markers in "Van Helsing" to allow capture of Dracula's flying brides on very large sets similar to Weta's use of active markers in "Rise of the Planet of the Apes". The power to each marker can be provided sequentially in phase with the capture system providing a unique identification of each marker for a given capture frame at a cost to the resultant frame rate. The ability to identify each marker in this manner is useful in realtime applications. The alternative method of identifying markers is to do it algorithmically requiring extra processing of the data.  There are also possibilities to find the position by using coloured LED markers. In these systems, each colour is assigned to a specific point of the body.  One of the earliest active marker systems in the 1980s was a hybrid passive-active mocap system with rotating mirrors and colored glass reflective markers and which used masked linear array detectors.

Time modulated active marker.

Active marker systems can further be refined by strobing one marker on at a time, or tracking multiple markers over time and modulating the amplitude or pulse width to provide marker ID. 12 megapixel spatial resolution modulated systems show more subtle movements than 4 megapixel optical systems by having both higher spatial and temporal resolution. Directors can see the actors performance in real time, and watch the results on the motion capture driven CG character. The unique marker IDs reduce the turnaround, by eliminating marker swapping and providing much cleaner data than other technologies. LEDs with onboard processing and a radio synchronization allow motion capture outdoors in direct sunlight, while capturing at 120 to 960 frames per second due to a high speed electronic shutter. Computer processing of modulated IDs allows less hand cleanup or filtered results for lower operational costs. This higher accuracy and resolution requires more processing than passive technologies, but the additional processing is done at the camera to improve resolution via a subpixel or centroid processing, providing both high resolution and high speed. These motion capture systems are typically $20,000 for an eight camera, 12 megapixel spatial resolution 120 hertz system with one actor.

Semi-passive imperceptible marker.

One can reverse the traditional approach based on high speed cameras. Systems such as Prakash use inexpensive multi-LED high speed projectors. The specially built multi-LED IR projectors optically encode the space. Instead of retro-reflective or active light emitting diode (LED) markers, the system uses photosensitive marker tags to decode the optical signals. By attaching tags with photo sensors to scene points, the tags can compute not only their own locations of each point, but also their own orientation, incident illumination, and reflectance.  These tracking tags work in natural lighting conditions and can be imperceptibly embedded in attire or other objects. The system supports an unlimited number of tags in a scene, with each tag uniquely identified to eliminate marker reacquisition issues. Since the system eliminates a high speed camera and the corresponding high-speed image stream, it requires significantly lower data bandwidth. The tags also provide incident illumination data which can be used to match scene lighting when inserting synthetic elements. The technique appears ideal for on-set motion capture or real-time broadcasting of virtual sets but has yet to be proven.

Underwater motion capture system.

Motion capture technology has been available for researchers and scientists for a few decades, which has given new insight into many fields.

Underwater cameras.

The vital part of the system, the underwater camera, has a waterproof housing. The housing has a finish that withstands corrosion and chlorine which makes it perfect for use in basins and swimming pools. There are two types of cameras. Industrial high-speed-cameras can also be used as infrared cameras. The infrared underwater cameras comes with a cyan light strobe instead of the typical IR light—for minimum falloff under water and the high-speed-cameras cone with an LED light or with the option of using image processing.

Measurement volume.

An underwater camera is typically able to measure 15–20 meters depending on the water quality, the camera and the type of marker used. Unsurprisingly, the best range is achieved when the water is clear, and like always, the measurement volume is also dependent on the number of cameras. A range of underwater markers are available for different circumstances.

Tailored.

Different pools require different mountings and fixtures. Therefore, all underwater motion capture systems are uniquely tailored to suit each specific pool installment. For cameras placed in the center of the pool, specially designed tripods, using suction cups, are provided.

Markerless.

Emerging techniques and research in computer vision are leading to the rapid development of the markerless approach to motion capture. Markerless systems such as those developed at Stanford University, the University of Maryland, MIT, and the Max Planck Institute, do not require subjects to wear special equipment for tracking. Special computer algorithms are designed to allow the system to analyze multiple streams of optical input and identify human forms, breaking them down into constituent parts for tracking. ESC entertainment, a subsidiary of Warner Brothers Pictures created specially to enable virtual cinematography, including photorealistic digital look-alikes for filming "The Matrix Reloaded" and "The Matrix Revolutions" movies, used a technique called Universal Capture that utilized 7 camera setup and the tracking the optical flow of all pixels over all the 2-D planes of the cameras for motion, gesture and facial expression capture leading to photorealistic results.

Traditional systems.

Traditionally markerless optical motion tracking is used to keep track on various objects, including airplanes, launch vehicles, missiles and satellites. Many of such optical motion tracking applications occur outdoors, requiring differing lens and camera configurations. High resolution images of the target being tracked can thereby provide more information than just motion data. The image obtained from NASA's long-range tracking system on space shuttle Challenger's fatal launch provided crucial evidence about the cause of the accident. Optical tracking systems are also used to identify known spacecraft and space debris despite the fact that it has a disadvantage compared to radar in that the objects must be reflecting or emitting sufficient light.  An optical tracking system typically consists of three subsystems: the optical imaging system, the mechanical tracking platform and the tracking computer.  The optical imaging system is responsible for converting the light from the target area into digital image that the tracking computer can process. Depending on the design of the optical tracking system, the optical imaging system can vary from as simple as a standard digital camera to as specialized as an astronomical telescope on the top of a mountain. The specification of the optical imaging system determines the upper-limit of the effective range of the tracking system.  The mechanical tracking platform holds the optical imaging system and is responsible for manipulating the optical imaging system in such a way that it always points to the target being tracked. The dynamics of the mechanical tracking platform combined with the optical imaging system determines the tracking system's ability to keep the lock on a target that changes speed rapidly.  The tracking computer is responsible for capturing the images from the optical imaging system, analyzing the image to extract target position and controlling the mechanical tracking platform to follow the target. There are several challenges. First the tracking computer has to be able to capture the image at a relatively high frame rate. This posts a requirement on the bandwidth of the image capturing hardware. The second challenge is that the image processing software has to be able to extract the target image from its background and calculate its position. Several textbook image processing algorithms are designed for this task. This problem can be simplified if the tracking system can expect certain characteristics that is common in all the targets it will track. The next problem down the line is to control the tracking platform to follow the target. This is a typical control system design problem rather than a challenge, which involves modeling the system dynamics and designing controllers to control it. This will however become a challenge if the tracking platform the system has to work with is not designed for real-time.  The software that runs such systems are also customized for the corresponding hardware components. One example of such software is OpticTracker, which controls computerized telescopes to track moving objects at great distances, such as planes and satellites. Another option is the software SimiShape, which can also be used hybrid in combination with markers.

Non-optical systems.

Inertial systems.

Inertial motion capture technology is based on miniature inertial sensors, biomechanical models and sensor fusion algorithms. The motion data of the inertial sensors (inertial guidance system) is often transmitted wirelessly to a computer, where the motion is recorded or viewed. Most inertial systems use inertial measurement units (IMUs) containing a combination of gyroscope, magnetometer, and accelerometer, to measure rotational rates. These rotations are translated to a skeleton in the software. Much like optical markers, the more IMU sensors the more natural the data. No external cameras, emitters or markers are needed for relative motions, although they are required to give the absolute position of the user if desired. Inertial motion capture systems capture the full six degrees of freedom body motion of a human in real-time and can give limited direction information if they include a magnetic bearing sensor, although these are much lower resolution and susceptible to electromagnetic noise. Benefits of using Inertial systems include: capturing in a variety of environments including tight spaces, no solving, portability, and large capture areas. Disadvantages include lower positional accuracy and positional drift which can compound over time. These systems are similar to the Wii controllers but are more sensitive and have greater resolution and update rates. They can accurately measure the direction to the ground to within a degree. The popularity of inertial systems is rising amongst game developers, mainly because of the quick and easy set up resulting in a fast pipeline. A range of suits are now available from various manufacturers and base prices range from $1,000 to US$80,000.

Mechanical motion.

Mechanical motion capture systems directly track body joint angles and are often referred to as exoskeleton motion capture systems, due to the way the sensors are attached to the body. A performer attaches the skeletal-like structure to their body and as they move so do the articulated mechanical parts, measuring the performer's relative motion. Mechanical motion capture systems are real-time, relatively low-cost, free-of-occlusion, and wireless (untethered) systems that have unlimited capture volume. Typically, they are rigid structures of jointed, straight metal or plastic rods linked together with potentiometers that articulate at the joints of the body. These suits tend to be in the $25,000 to $75,000 range plus an external absolute positioning system. Some suits provide limited force feedback or haptic input.

Magnetic systems.

Magnetic systems calculate position and orientation by the relative magnetic flux of three orthogonal coils on both the transmitter and each receiver. The relative intensity of the voltage or current of the three coils allows these systems to calculate both range and orientation by meticulously mapping the tracking volume. The sensor output is 6DOF, which provides useful results obtained with two-thirds the number of markers required in optical systems; one on upper arm and one on lower arm for elbow position and angle. The markers are not occluded by nonmetallic objects but are susceptible to magnetic and electrical interference from metal objects in the environment, like rebar (steel reinforcing bars in concrete) or wiring, which affect the magnetic field, and electrical sources such as monitors, lights, cables and computers. The sensor response is nonlinear, especially toward edges of the capture area. The wiring from the sensors tends to preclude extreme performance movements. With magnetic systems, it is possible to monitor the results of a motion capture session in real time. The capture volumes for magnetic systems are dramatically smaller than they are for optical systems. With the magnetic systems, there is a distinction between alternating-current(AC) and direct-current(DC) systems: DC system uses square pulses, AC systems uses sine wave pulse.

Related techniques.

Facial motion capture.

Most traditional motion capture hardware vendors provide for some type of low resolution facial capture utilizing anywhere from 32 to 300 markers with either an active or passive marker system. All of these solutions are limited by the time it takes to apply the markers, calibrate the positions and process the data. Ultimately the technology also limits their resolution and raw output quality levels.  High fidelity facial motion capture, also known as performance capture, is the next generation of fidelity and is utilized to record the more complex movements in a human face in order to capture higher degrees of emotion. Facial capture is currently arranging itself in several distinct camps, including traditional motion capture data, blend shaped based solutions, capturing the actual topology of an actor's face, and proprietary systems.  The two main techniques are stationary systems with an array of cameras capturing the facial expressions from multiple angles and using software such as the stereo mesh solver from OpenCV to create a 3D surface mesh, or to use light arrays as well to calculate the surface normals from the variance in brightness as the light source, camera position or both are changed. These techniques tend to be only limited in feature resolution by the camera resolution, apparent object size and number of cameras. If the users face is 50 percent of the working area of the camera and a camera has megapixel resolution, then sub millimeter facial motions can be detected by comparing frames. Recent work is focusing on increasing the frame rates and doing optical flow to allow the motions to be retargeted to other computer generated faces, rather than just making a 3D Mesh of the actor and their expressions.

RF positioning.

RF (radio frequency) positioning systems are becoming more viable as higher frequency RF devices allow greater precision than older RF technologies such as traditional radar. The speed of light is 30 centimeters per nanosecond (billionth of a second), so a 10 gigahertz (billion cycles per second) RF signal enables an accuracy of about 3 centimeters. By measuring amplitude to a quarter wavelength, it is possible to improve the resolution down to about 8 mm. To achieve the resolution of optical systems, frequencies of 50 gigahertz or higher are needed, which are almost as dependant on line of sight and as easy to block as optical systems. Multipath and reradiation of the signal are likely to cause additional problems, but these technologies will be ideal for tracking larger volumes with reasonable accuracy, since the required resolution at 100 meter distances is not likely to be as high. Many RF scientists believe that radio frequency will never produce the accuracy required for motion capture.  Researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Tehcnology researchers said in 2015 that they had made a system that tracks motion by RF signals, called RF Tracking.

Non-traditional systems.

An alternative approach was developed where the actor is given an unlimited walking area through the use of a rotating sphere, similar to a hamster ball, which contains internal sensors recording the angular movements, removing the need for external cameras and other equipment. Even though this technology could potentially lead to much lower costs for motion capture, the basic sphere is only capable of recording a single continuous direction. Additional sensors worn on the person would be needed to record anything more.  Another alternative is using a 6DOF (Degrees of freedom) motion platform with an integrated omni-directional treadmill with high resolution optical motion capture to achieve the same effect. The captured person can walk in an unlimited area, negotiating different uneven terrains. Applications include medical rehabilitation for balance training, bio-mechanical research and virtual reality.

3D pose estimation.

In 3D pose estimation, an actor's pose can be reconstructed from an image or depth map.

Motion capture (sometimes referred as mo-cap or mocap, for short) is the process of recording the movement of objects or people. It is used in military, entertainment, sports, medical applications, and for validation of computer vision and robotics. In filmmaking and video game development, it refers to recording actions of human actors, and using that information to animate digital character models in 2D or 3D computer animation. When it includes face and fingers or captures subtle expressions, it is often referred to as performance capture. In many fields, motion capture is sometimes called motion tracking, but in filmmaking and games, motion tracking usually refers more to match moving.

Motion capture (zkracováno na MoCap nebo mocap, česky „snímání pohybu“) je termín, kterým se označuje proces nahrávání pohybu skutečného objektu a jeho převedení na digitální model. Využívá se zejména v zábavním průmyslu, tj. počítačových hrách, filmu, reklamě, pro medicínské a sportovní účely (analýza pohybu, hodnocení vývoje rehabilitace pacientů s těžkým poškozením nervového nebo motorického ústrojí), v zoologii (analýza pohybu různých zvířat a její vývoj se stářím jednotlivce), dále ve vojenství, trenažérech a také pro vyhodnocování funkčnosti designu různých výrobků (např. interiéru automobilů).


History.

Brzozów was founded in 1359, Brzozów took on the name of an earlier, adjacent settlement of the 14th century, which gradually over time came to be known as Stara Wieś (Old Village). A large Jesuit Basilica and Monastery, built in 1760, is found in Stara Wieś. Queen Mary donated Brzozów and four other villages to the Bishops of Przemyśl in 1384. From the middle 14th to the early 19th centuries, the Bishops of Przemyśl resided principally at Brzozów.  Tatar attacks took place in 1525, 1623–25, 1629 and with heavy losses in 1674. Afterwards, Brzozów declined commercially until the 19th century.  From the first partition of Poland in 1772 until 1918, the town was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), head of the district with the same name, one of the 78 "Bezirkshauptmannschaften" in Austrian Galicia province (Crownland).  Before World War II there was a Jewish community of about 1300 in Brzozów. A large part was massacred on 10 August 1942 by the German SS. The remainder were sent to death camps or murdered by the Nazis during the war. Since then, there has been no Jewish presence in the town.

Economy.

In 1550–1650, nineteen trades were practiced here including cloth-making, food processing, and leather-making as well as wood, metal, and ceramic trades. The first hospital of record is mentioned in 1518. A parish school was in existence in the early 16th century, and annual elections of mayors and judges, subject to approval of the bishop, commenced in 1410. The town for hundreds of years had been known for the manufacture of combs, but the industry disappeared by the 1960s. Manufacture of oils was another industry in Brzozów; walnut oil was a famous product reportedly supplied to the royal table in Kraków in the 16th century. Oils were also produced from plum core.  A post-office was opened in 1851  Families

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Brzozów is twinned with:

Brzozów (, "Bereziv"; "Brezhov"; lat. "Brozovia", or "Prozzow") is a town in south-eastern Poland, with 7,677 inhabitants It is situated in Subcarpathian Voivodeship (since 1999) and is the seat of both Brzozów County and the smaller administrative district of Gmina Brzozów. It lies south of the city of Rzeszów.

Brzozów je město v polském Podkarpatském vojvodství. Podle sčítání lidu v roce 2001 mělo 7 677 obyvatel. Je správním sídlem powiatu (okresu). Založeno bylo v roce 1359, v průběhu let se zde usídlila četná židovská populace, jejíž konec přišel až během druhé světové války. Během existence PLR byly ve městě a v okolí budovány průmyslové podniky.


Music career.

Per Gessle was a founding member of Gyllene Tider, in 1976. They quickly became a popular group in Sweden, but after their fourth album, "The Heartland Café" (1984), sold poorly compared to their previous albums, the group disbanded. Gessle wrote. "We decided to put Gyllene Tider to rest... until further notice." In 1982, Gessle released his first solo album, "Per Gessle" and after Gyllene Tider split-up his second album, "Scener", quickly appeared in 1985.  Gessle and Marie Fredriksson had been friends for a few years before they came together as Roxette in 1986. After the success of their first hit "Neverending Love", which was written by Gessle, they quickly recorded "Pearls of Passion" using material which was originally intended for Per's third solo album. Roxette went on to achieve four U.S. #1's and two #2's, with their albums "Look Sharp!" and "Joyride" attaining platinum status in a number of countries. After Roxette's early nineties success, Per released a demo compilation album in 1992, "På väg, 1982–86". After the release of "Crash! Boom! Bang!" and subsequent world tour, Roxette took a break.  In 1996, after a reunion and subsequent tour of Gyllene Tider, Gessle recorded his first English solo album, using Brainpool and Gyllene Tider as backing musicians. Christoffer Lundquist from Brainpool would also come to collaborate with Gessle on later releases. "The World According to Gessle", released in 1997, produced three singles, "Do You Wanna Be My Baby?", "Kix" and "I Want You to Know". The videos to all three songs were directed by Jonas Åkerlund. The album was re-released in 2008, with extra bonus material and demos. In 1997 "Hjärtats trakt – en samling" was released as a best-of album. After Roxette released "Have a Nice Day" (1999) and "Room Service" (2001) to moderate success, Fredriksson collapsed and was diagnosed with a brain tumour in 2002. While Fredriksson received treatment for her illness, Gessle continued with his solo work. The subsequent album "Mazarin" (2003), was a critical and commercial success in Sweden and started the beginning of a long term collaboration with the backing vocalist Helena Josefsson. Lundquist, now Gessle's producer was looking for a female singer and picked Josefsson. She first came to the attention of Lundquist after she and her band Sandy Mouche wanted to record at Lundquist's Aerosol Grey Machine (AGM) studio. "I remember driving a car between Lund and Lomma when Christoffer called and wondered if I was interested in starting singing with Per who wanted a girl for his solo projects.", recalled Josefsson. "Mazarin" topped the charts in June that year, going five times platinum in 2004. The lead single from the album "Här kommer alla känslorna (på en och samma gång)" ("Here comes all the emotions (at the same time)"), is Gessle's most successful song in his home country, spending two months at No. 1 and was certified platinum.  Following the success of the album, Gessle won numerous awards; four Grammis awards: Best Artist, Best Male Pop Performer, Best Composer and Best Song, three Rockbjörnen awards: Best Swedish Male Artist, Best Swedish Album and Best Swedish Song, and a Guldälgen (The Golden Moose) Award for Best Song.  Also in 2004, saw Gessle and Gyllene Tider reunite for a 25th-anniversary celebration that included the band's first album in 20 years, "Finn 5 fel!", and another very successful tour in Sweden. They beat the Ullevi stadium attendance record, which was later broken by fellow Swede Håkan Hellström in 2016 (70,144), and the band played to almost half a million fans. As a result, the group was honoured with four awards in Sweden.  With "Son of a Plumber", he continued his association with other Swedish artists. Jens Jansson along with previous collaborators Josefsson and Lundquist, helped Gessle create his second English album. Released in November 2005, the album contains a song dedicated to Gessle's father who was a plumber, "Kurt – The Fastest Plumber in the West". The album which was certified platinum, was also released in several other European countries in April 2006. In June 2007, he released another solo album in Swedish with the name "En händig man", which shipped three times platinum. A single of the same name was released; "En händig man". Later on October a book of "Att vara Per Gessle" was published, telling some of the unknown facts about Gessle and his 30-year career. "Party Crasher" his seventh solo album and third in English was released in late 2008. The first single "Silly Really" gave him his fourth No. 1 hit. After that, Gessle started his "Party Crasher Tour", where Fredriksson joined him on stage twice, in Amsterdam and Stockholm. This was eight years after their last live performance together during Roxette's "Room Service Tour" in 2001. Following Fredriksson's guest appearance in Amsterdam, Roxette started to perform live again. Initially this was during the Night of the Proms concert series in Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany in 2009, later followed by extensive concert tours in 2010, 2011 and 2012, performing over 100 shows on all 6 continents. In the summer of 2013, Gessle reunited with Gyllene Tider once more, performing some 20 shows in Sweden.  After Roxette's Neverending World Tour finished in 2015 he produced another set of solo efforts, "En vacker natt" (2017), "En vacker dag" (2017) and "Small Town Talk" (2018). All three albums were recorded in Nashville after Gessle felt the need to do sessions abroad. The albums featured the use of local musicians, Dan Dugmore, Stuart Duncan and Mickey Raphael.  In 2016 he started using the pseudonym Mono Mind, first releasing a few singles before delivering a full album, "Mind Control", in 2019.

Collaborations.

In 1990 Gessle wrote a single, "The Sweet Hello, The Sad Goodbye", for Thomas Anders (of Modern Talking fame); Roxette would release their version as the B-side of their single "Spending My Time". The song was also used by Laura Branigan featuring on her "Over My Heart" album. He has also participated with the Swedish singer Nisse Hellberg in the project The Lonely Boys. In 1996 he worked with Belinda Carlisle and wrote two songs for her album, "A Woman and a Man"; "Always Breaking My Heart" and "Love Doesn't Live Here". The former was released as a single, becoming a UK top 10 hit.  He sung duet with Nick Lowe on the title track for the "Small Town Talk" album.

Business life.

Gessle is one of three people (also including Björn Ulvaeus) who own NoteHeads, a Swedish company which publishes the music notation program Igor Engraver. Along with Björn Nordstrand he also owns a hotel in Tylösand.

Personal life.

Gessle is the youngest son of plumber Kurt Gessle (1917-1978) and Elisabeth Gessle (1925-2013). He had an older brother, Bengt (-2014) and older sister Gunilla (-2016). Gessle married his long-time girlfriend Åsa Nordin (born 1961) in 1993 at Västra Strö Church, Eslöv, Sweden. The wedding reception was held in nearby Trollenäs Castle. They have a son, Gabriel Titus, born on 5 August 1997.

Discography.

Albums.

Studio albums  Live, compilation and soundtrack albums  Notes

Singles.

Other singles

Per Håkan Gessle (; born 12 January 1959) is a Swedish pop singer, songwriter and musician. He is best known as the former male half of the Swedish pop rock duo Roxette, whom he formed with Marie Fredriksson in 1986. The duo achieved international success in the late-1980s and early-1990s with their albums "Look Sharp!" (1988) and "Joyride" (1991), and topped the charts in the US four times, most notably with "It Must Have Been Love" which was featured in the film "Pretty Woman". Prior to the formation of Roxette, he had a successful career in native Sweden as the frontman for Gyllene Tider. The band released three number-one albums during the early 1980s but disbanded shortly after their fourth album, "The Heartland Café" (1984).

Per Håkan Gessle (* 12. ledna 1959, Halmstad) je švédský popový skladatel, zpěvák, kytarista, člen skupiny Gyllene Tider a dua Roxette.


Life and career.

In 1907 Binswanger received his medical degree from the University of Zurich. As a young man he worked and studied with some of the greatest psychiatrists of the era, such as Carl Jung, Eugen Bleuler and Sigmund Freud. He visited Freud (who had cited his uncle Otto's work on Neurasthenia) in 1907 alongside Jung, approvingly noting his host's "distaste for all formality and etiquette, his personal charm, his simplicity, casual openness and goodness". The two men became lifelong friends, Freud finding Binswanger's 1912 illness "particularly painful", and Binswanger offering Freud a refuge in Switzerland in 1938.  Binswanger became a member of the early 'Freud Group' Jung led in Switzerland; but nevertheless wrestled throughout his life over the place of psychoanalysis in his thinking – his 1921 article on 'Psychoanalysis and clinical Psychiatry' being only one landmark of that lifelong struggle.  Binswanger was further influenced by existential philosophy, particularly after World War I, through the works of Martin Heidegger, Edmund Husserl, and Martin Buber, eventually evolving his own distinctive brand of existential-phenomenological psychology.  From 1911 to 1956, Binswanger was medical director of the sanatorium in Kreuzlingen.

Thinking and influence.

Binswanger is considered the first physician to combine psychotherapy with existential and phenomenological ideas, a concept he expounds in his 1942 book; "Grundformen und Erkenntnis menschlichen Daseins" (Basic Forms and the Realization of Human "Being-in-the-World"). In this work, he explains existential analysis as an empirical science that involves an anthropological approach to the individual essential character of being human.  Binswanger saw Husserl's concept of lifeworld as a key to understanding the subjective experiences of his patients, considering that "in the mental diseases we face modifications of the fundamental structure and of the structural links of being-in-the-world". For Binswanger, mental illness involved the remaking of a world - including alterations in the lived experience of time, space, body sense and social relationships. Where for example the psychoanalyst might only see "an overly strong 'pre-oedipal' tie to the mother", Binswanger would point out that "such overly strong filial tie is only possible on the premise of a world-design exclusively based on connectedness, cohesiveness, continuity".  Binswanger's "Dream and Existence" — which was translated from German into French by Michel Foucault who added a substantial essay-introduction — highlighted in similar fashion the necessity of "steeping oneself in the manifest content of the dream - which, since Freud's epoch-making postulate concerning the reconstruction of latent thoughts, has in modern times receded all to[o] far into the background". Eugène Minkowski had earlier introduced Binswanger's ideas into France, influencing thereby among others the early work of Jacques Lacan.  In his study of existentialism, his most famous subject was Ellen West, a deeply troubled patient whose case-study was translated into English for the 1958 volume "Existence". Binswanger ascribed "schizophrenia" to her, and her case is included in his book "Schizophrenie". But few contemporary psychiatrists would accept this diagnosis. "Anorexia nervosa" is also misplaced. She felt an extreme urge for weight loss.  Through his adoption from Buber of the importance of the concept of dialogue, Binswanger can also be seen as an ancestor to intersubjective approaches to therapy. Binswanger emphasised the importance of mutual recognition, as opposed to the counterdependency of destructive narcissism, as described by Herbert Rosenfeld for example.

Binswanger on existence.

Ludwig Binswanger contributed much to the idea of existence in the school of existential psychology. He believed that human existence was complex in that one has control over how one exists. As he described, humans have the choice of existing as,"being a hunter, of being romantic, of being in business, and thus (we are) free to design (ourselves) toward the most different potentialities of being." He therefore believed that such an existence "transcends the being," making the being accessible to itself in numerous different outcomes in life based on the existential path one chooses. In addition to this belief, Binswanger also thought that you can only observe one's existence and/or unique personality by looking at it holistically, emphasized in this quote from Binswanger: ""It is a question of attempting to understand and to explain the human being in the totality of his/her existence. But that is possible only from the perspective of our total existence: in other words, only when we reflect on and articulate our total existence, the "essence" and "form" of being human.""

Modes of existence.

Binswanger argued that there are certain modes of existence. These modes of existence, he believed, allowed humans and non-human animals to be separated based on this concept. These modes include:  The "Umwelt" can apply to both non-human animals and humans. It is the relationship between the organism and its environment. However, according to Binswanger, non-human animal cannot possess the world as humans do. Non-human animals, "can neither design world nor open up world nor decide independently in and for a situation. As for humans, they do possess the world in the way that they can transcend their being above the level of non-human animals by, "climbing above it (the world) in care and of swinging beyond it in love."  The "Mitwelt" refers to the mode of existence involved in inter-species relations. Specifically, this mode applies mainly to humans in the sense of human interaction. It also refers to the "shared world" that we have with other people, i.e., viewing our lives according to our relationships with other humans.  The "Eigenwelt" refers to a person's own subjective experience, or the "self world." In other words, the "Eigenwelt" is the relationship that one has with themselves. This mode of existence is the most difficult to grasp because of its vague definition.  Binswanger believed that to fully understand a person, you must take into account the specificities of all three modes of existence.

Weltanschauung.

Weltanschauung (world-design) also applies to one's existence. An individual experiences the world through their own "Weltanschauung", or world-design. A person's world-design is essentially how they view and open up to the world around them. This concept also is related to the modes of existence, as Binswanger points out: ""The world-design""...""is by no means confined to the environment to the world of things, or to the universe in general, but refers equally to the world of one's fellow men (Mitwelt) and to the self world (Eigenwelt")"

Being-in-the world vs. being-beyond-the-world.

Two other concepts relate to Binswanger's view on existence, relating to the relationship between humans and the world or objects around them. "Being-in-the-world" is, "the normal and lawful interaction with the real-world environment that is considered primary to our way of existing in the world". It explains how we interact with our environment and the impact of that relationship. When "being-in-the-world," there are 3 general steps of assessment:  "Being-beyond-the-world" is the second of these concepts. This idea refers to how people can change their circumstances in the world by using free will. Similar to the concept of "being-in-the-world", a person is transcended and is able to transform their world following their own motivations. Binswanger relates this idea to love, believing that, "it (love) takes us beyond the world of one's own self to the world of we-hood".

Criticism.

R. D. Laing criticised Binswanger's phenomenology of space for insufficiently realizing the extent to which one's sense of space is structured by "others".  Fritz Perls criticized Binswanger's existential therapy for leaning too heavily upon psychoanalysis.

Ludwig Binswanger (; ; 13 April 1881 – 5 February 1966) was a Swiss psychiatrist and pioneer in the field of existential psychology. His German-Jewish grandfather (also named Ludwig Binswanger) was founder of the "Bellevue Sanatorium" in Kreuzlingen, and his uncle Otto Binswanger was a professor of psychiatry at the University of Jena.

Ludwig Binswanger (13. dubna 1881 Kreuzlingen, Švýcarsko – 5. února 1966 Kreuzlingen) byl švýcarský lékař a psychoanalytik, blízký spolupracovník Sigmuda Freuda a zakladatel odlišné, existenciální analýzy či daseinsanalýzy.


Nomenclature.

This massacre is known by different names, including "The Big Action", and the "Rumbula Action", but in Latvia it is just called "Rumbula" or "Rumbuli". It is sometimes called the Jeckeln Action after its commander Friedrich Jeckeln. The word

Location.

Rumbula was a small railroad station south of Riga, the capital and major city of Latvia, which was connected with Daugavpils, the second largest city in Latvia, by the rail line along the north side of the Daugava river. Located on a hill about from the station, the massacre site was a "rather open and accessible place". The view was blocked by vegetation, but the sound of gunfire would have been audible from the station grounds. The area lay between the rail line and the Riga-Daugavpils highway, with the rail line

The Holocaust in Latvia.

The Holocaust in Latvia began on June 22, 1941, when the German army invaded the Soviet Union, including the Baltic States of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia that had been recently occupied by Soviet forces following a period of independence after World War I. Murders of Jews, Communists, and others began almost immediately, perpetrated by German killer squads known as "Einsatzgruppen" (which can be translated as "Special Task Groups" or "Special Assignment Groups"), and also other organizations, including the German Security Police ("Sicherheitspolizei" or Sipo) and the Security Service of the SS ("Sicherheitsdienst" or SD). The first murders were on the night of June 23, 1941, in the town of Grobina, near Liepāja, where Sonderkommando 1a members murdered six Jews in the church cemetery. The Nazi occupiers were also aided by a unit of native Latvians known as the Arājs Commando, and at least to some extent by Latvian auxiliary police.

Involvement of local population.

The Nazis wished to make it appear as if the local populations of Latvians were responsible for the murders of the Jews. They attempted, without much success, to stir up local deadly riots, known as "pogroms", against the Jews.

Creation of the Riga Ghetto.

The SD's goal was to make Latvia "judenrein", a Nazi neologism which can be translated as "Jew free." By October 15, 1941, the Nazis had murdered up to 30,000 of the approximately 66,000 Jews that had not been able to flee the country before the Nazi occupation was completed. Hinrich Lohse, who reported to Alfred Rosenberg rather than the SD's boss, Heinrich Himmler, wanted not so much to exterminate the Jews but rather to steal all their property, confine

Entry of Friedrich Jeckeln.

Motive.

Himmler's motive was to eliminate the Latvian Jews in Riga so that Jews from Germany and Austria could be deported to the Riga ghetto and housed in their place. Similarly motivated mass murders of eastern Jews confined to ghettos were carried out at Kovno on October 28, 1941 (10,000 dead), and at Minsk, where 13,000 were shot on November 7 and an additional 7,000 on November 20. To carry out this plan, Himmler brought Friedrich Jeckeln into Latvia from the Ukraine, where he had organized a number of mass murders, including Babi Yar (30,000 dead). Jeckeln's crew of about 50 killers and supporting personnel arrived in Riga on November 5, 1941. Jeckeln did not

Planning the massacre.

To fulfill Himmler's order to clear out the Ghetto, Jeckeln would need to kill 12,000 people per day. At that time of year, there were only about eight hours of day and twilight, so, the last column of victims would have to leave the Riga ghetto no later than 12:00 noon. Guards would be posted on both sides along the entire 10 kilometer column route. The whole process required about 1,700 personnel to carry it out.  Jeckeln's construction specialist, Ernst Hennicker, who later claimed he was shocked when he learned in advance of the number of people to be murdered, nevertheless made no objection at the time and proceeded to supervise the digging of six murder pits, sufficient to bury 25,000 people. The actual excavation of the pits was done by 200 or 300 Russian prisoners of war. The pits themselves were purpose-designed: they were excavated in levels, like an inverted pyramid, with the broader levels towards

Deciding on the site.

Jeckeln and his aide Paul Degenhart searched the Riga vicinity to find a site. Riga was located in a swampy area where the water table was close to ground level. This would interfere with the proper disposal of thousands of corpses. Jeckeln needed elevated ground. The site also had to be on

The Jeckeln system.

Jeckeln developed his "Jeckeln system" during the many murders he had organized in the Ukraine, which included among others Babi Yar and the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre. He called it "sardine packing" ("Sardinenpackung"). The Jeckeln method was noted, although not by name, in the judgment of the Einsatzgruppen commanders at Nuremberg Military Tribunal, as a means of avoiding the extra work associated with having

Arranging transport for infirm victims.

Jeckeln had at his direct disposal 10 to 12 automobiles and 6 to 8 motorcycles. This was enough to transport the killers themselves and certain official witnesses. Jeckeln needed more and heavier transport for the sick,

Final planning and instructions.

On or about Thursday, November 27, 1941, Jeckeln held a meeting of the leaders of the participating units at the Riga office of the Protective Police ("Schutzpolizei"), a branch of the German Order Police, ("Ordnungspolizei") to coordinate their actions in the forthcoming massacre. This appears consistent with the substantial role that the Order Police played in the Holocaust, as stated by Professor Browning: Jeckeln convened a second planning session of senior commanders on the afternoon of Saturday, November 29, 1941, this time at the Ritterhaus. According to later versions given by those in attendance, Jeckeln gave a speech to these officers to the effect that it was their patriotic duty to exterminate the Jews of the Riga ghetto, just as much as if they were on the front lines of the battles then currently raging far to the east. Officers also later claimed that Jeckeln told them that failure to participate in the murders would be considered the equivalent of desertion, and that all HSSPF personnel who would not be participating in the action were required

Advance knowledge by Wehrmacht.

According to his later testimony before the Nuremberg Military Tribunal at the High Command Trial, Walter Bruns, a Major General of Engineers, learned on November 28 that planned mass executions would soon take place in Riga. Bruns sent a report to his superiors, then urged a certain "administrative officer", named Walter Altemeyer to postpone the action until Bruns could receive a response. Altemeyer told

Preparation for the massacre.

Able-bodied men separated from the others.

On about November 27, 1941 a four-block area of the Riga ghetto was cordoned off with barbed wire, and this area became known as the "small ghetto". On November 28, the Nazis issued an order requiring the able-bodied men to move to the small ghetto and the rest of the population was to report at 6:00 a.m. on November 30 to a different area for "light work" with no more than a bag. The reaction among the Jews was one of horror. In July and August, it was the men of Latvia who were shot first, while the women and children were allowed to live, at least for a time. The order for the men to separate themselves from their families was thus perceived as a predicate for the murder of the men, the arrangements between Rosenberg and Himmler having been made without their knowledge. By the morning of Saturday, November 29, the Nazis had finished segregating the able-bodied men into the small ghetto.  Ghetto survivor Max Kaufmann described

First transport of German Jews arrives in Riga.

The first transport of German Jews to Riga departed Berlin on Thursday, November 27, 1941 and arrived in Riga on Saturday, November 29, 1941. Whether the Jews were to be worked and starved to death over time, or simply murdered outright had not yet been decided upon. Apparently at the last minute, Himmler decided he did not want these German Jews murdered immediately; his plan instead was to house them in the Riga Ghetto in the dwellings to be made available from the murder of the Latvian Jews.  For this reason, on Sunday, November 30, 1941, Himmler

Women, children and elderly forced out of ghetto.

When the columns were dispersed on Saturday, November 29, the ghetto inhabitants believed, to their relief, that there would be no evacuation. This proved wrong. The first action in the ghetto began at 4:00 a.m., well before dawn, on Sunday, November 30, 1941. Working from west to east (that is, towards Rumbula), squads of the SD, the Protective Police, the Araji commando, and about 80 Jewish ghetto police rousted people from their sleep and told them to report for assembly in half an hour. Max Kaufmann describes the raid as beginning in the middle of the night on the 29th. He describes "thousands" of "absolutely drunk" Germans and Latvians invading the ghettos, bursting into apartments, and hunting down the occupants while shouting wildly. He states that children were thrown from third floor windows. Detachments cut special openings in the fence to allow more rapid access to the highway south to the forest site. (Detailed

Ten kilometer march to the killing pits.

The first column of people, accompanied by about 50 guards, left the ghetto at 06:00 hours. On November 30, 1941, the air temperatures recorded at Riga were at 07:00 hours, at 09:00, and at 21:00. The previous evening there had been a snowfall of, but no snow fell on

Arrival at Rumbula and murder.

The first column of people arrived at Rumbula at about 9:00 am on November 30. The people were ordered to disrobe and deposit their clothing and valuables in designated locations and collection boxes, shoes in one, overcoats in another, and so forth. Luggage was deposited before the Jews entered the wood. They were then marched towards the murder pits. If there were too many people arriving to be readily murdered immediately, they were held in the nearby forest until their turn came. As the piles of clothing became huge, members of the Arajs Commando loaded the articles on trucks to be transported back to Riga. The disrobing point was watched carefully by the killers, because it was here that there was a pause in the conveyor-like system, where resistance or rebellion might arise.  The people were then marched down the ramps into the pits, in single file ten at time, on top of previously shot victims, many of whom were still alive. Some people wept, others prayed and recited the Torah. Handicapped and elderly people were helped into the pit by other sturdier victims.  The shooting continued past sundown into the twilight, probably ending at about 5:00 p.m., when darkness fell. (The evidence is in conflict about when the shooting ended. One source says the shooting went on well into the evening.) Their aim may have been worsened by the twilight, as Nazi police Major Karl Heise, who had gone back and forth between Riga and the killing site that day, suffered the misfortune of having been hit in the eye by a ricochet bullet. Jeckeln himself described Rumbula at his trial in early 1946.  The shooters fired from the brink of the smaller pits. For the larger pits, they walked down in the graves among the dead and dying to shoot additional victims. Captain Otto Schulz-Du Bois, of the Engineer Reserves of the German Army, was in the area on bridge and road inspection duties, when he heard "intermittent but persistent reports of gunfire". Schulz-Du Bois stopped to investigate, and because security was weak, was able to observe the murders. A few months later he described what he saw to friends in Germany, who in 1980 reported what Schulz-Du Bois had told them:

Official witnesses.

Jeckeln required high-ranking Nazis to witness the Rumbula murders. Jeckeln himself stood at the top of the pits personally directing the shooters. National Commissioner ("Reichskommissar") for the Ostland Hinrich Lohse was there, at least for a while. Dr.

Later murders and body disposal in the ghetto.

Karl Heise returned from Rumbula to the Riga ghetto by about 1:00 p.m. There he discovered that about 20 Jews too sick to be moved had been taken not to the murder site but rather to the hospital. Heise ordered they be taken out of the hospital, placed on the street on straw mattresses and shot in the head. Killers of the patients in the street included

Aftermath at the pits on the first day.

By the end of the first day about 13,000 people had been shot but not all were dead. Kaufman reported that "the earth still heaved for a long time

Reaction among the survivors.

The ghetto itself was a scene of mass murder after the departure of the columns on November 30, as Kaufmann described: The blood literally ran in the gutters. Frida Michelson, an eyewitness, recorded that the next day, December 1, there were still puddles of blood in the street, frozen by then.  The men in the newly created small ghetto were sent out to their work stations that Sunday, as they had been the day before. On the way, they saw the columns formed up for the march to Rumbula, and they heard weeping, screaming, and shooting, but they

The December 8 murders.

Jeckeln seems to have wanted to continue the murders on December 1, but did not. Professor Ezergailis proposed that Jeckeln may have been bothered by problems such as the resistance of the Jews in Riga. In any case, the killing did not resume until Monday, December 8, 1941. According to Professor Ezergailis, this time 300 Jews were murdered in forcing people out of the ghetto. (Another source reports that the brutality in the Ghetto was worse on December 8 than on November 30.). It was snowing that Monday, and the people may have believed that the worst had past. Even so, the columns were formed up and marched out of the city just as on Sunday, November 30, but with some differences. The 20 kilogram packs were not carried to the site, as they had been on November 30, but were left in the ghetto. Their owners were told that their luggage would be carried on by truck to the fictitious point of departure for resettlement. Mothers with small children and older people were told they could ride by sleigh, and sleighs were in fact available. At least two policemen who had played some role in the November 30 massacre refused to participate again on December 8. These were the German Zimmermann and the Latvian Vilnis. The march itself was fast-paced and brutal. Many people were trampled to death.  Max Kaufmann, one of the men among the work crews in the small ghetto, was anxious to know what was happening to the people marched out on December 8. He organized, through bribery, an expedition by truck ostensibly to gather wood, but actually to follow the columns and learn their destination. Kaufmann later described what he saw from the truck as it moved south along the highway from Riga towards Daugavpils: Kaufmann noticed machine guns set closely together in the snow near the woods, and sixty to eighty

December 9 massacre.

Some Jews who were not able-bodied working men were able to escape from the mass actions on November 30 and December 8 and hide in the new "small ghetto". On December 9, 1941, the Nazis began a third massacre, this time in the small ghetto. They

Effect of Rumbula on plans for the Holocaust.

German Jews replace Latvians in Riga ghetto.

In December 1941, the Nazis continued issuing directions to Jews in Germany that they were to report to be deported to the East. For most of these people, because of Himmler's change of plan (as shown in his "keine Liquiderung" telephone call) they would get a year or two of life in a ghetto before their turn came to be murdered. One of the first trains to arrive in Riga was called the "Bielefeld Transport." Once the German Jews arrived on the Riga transports

The Wannsee Conference.

Rudolf Lange, commander of Einsatzkommando 2 in Latvia, was invited to the infamous Wannsee Conference to give his perspective on the proposed Final Solution to the so-called Jewish question. The Nazis did not find shootings to be a feasible method of murdering millions

Later actions at the site.

In 1943, apparently concerned about leaving evidence behind, Himmler ordered that the bodies at Rumbula be dug up and burned. This work was done by a detachment of Jewish slave laborers. Persons travelling on the railway could readily

Justice.

Some of the Rumbula murderers were brought to justice. Hinrich Lohse and Friedrich Jahnke were prosecuted in West German courts and sentenced to terms of imprisonment.  Victors Arajs evaded capture for a long time in West Germany, but was finally sentenced to

Remembrance.

On 29 November 2002, a memorial, comprising memorial stones, sculpture and information panels, was unveiled in the forest at the site where the massacre took place.  The center of the memorial is an open area in the form of the Star of David. A sculpture of a menorah stands in the center surrounded by stones bearing the names of Jews murdered at the site. Some of the paving stones bear the names of streets in the former Riga Ghetto.  Concrete frames demarcate the mass graves situated in the memorial grounds.  On the road leading into the forest, a stone marker next to a large metal sculpture states that thousands of people were driven to their deaths along this road and at the entrance to the memorial grounds, stone plaques are inscribed in four languages – Latvian, Hebrew, English and German – with information about the events at Rumbula and the history of memorial.  The memorial was designed by architect Sergey Rizh. Financial contributions to build the memorial were made by individuals and organizations in Germany, Israel, Latvia and the USA.

The Rumbula massacre is a collective term for incidents on November 30 and December 8, 1941, in which about 25,000 Jews were killed in or on the way to Rumbula forest near Riga, Latvia, during the Holocaust. Except for the Babi Yar massacre in Ukraine, this was the biggest two-day Holocaust atrocity until the operation of the death camps. About 24,000 of the victims were Latvian Jews from the Riga Ghetto and approximately 1,000 were German Jews transported to the forest by train. The Rumbula massacre was carried out by the Nazi Einsatzgruppe A with the help of local collaborators of the Arajs Kommando, with support from other such Latvian auxiliaries. In charge of the operation was Höherer SS und Polizeiführer Friedrich Jeckeln, who had previously overseen similar massacres in Ukraine. Rudolf Lange, who later participated in the Wannsee Conference, also took part in organizing the massacre. Some of the accusations against Latvian Herberts Cukurs are related to the clearing of the Riga Ghetto by the Arajs Kommando. The Rumbula killings, together with many others, formed the basis of the post-World War II Einsatzgruppen trial where a number of Einsatzgruppen commanders were found guilty of crimes against humanity.

Masakr v Rumbule bylo dvoudenní (30. listopadu 1941 a 8. prosince 1941) vraždění 25 000 Židů v lese nebo na cestě do lesa v Rumbule nedaleko Rigy během holokaustu. Jednalo se o jednu z největších dvoudenních krutostí holokaustu až do akcí vyhlazovacích táborů. Asi 24 000 obětí byli lotyšští Židé z ghetta z Rigy a přibližně 1 000 obětí byli němečtí Židé, kteří byli převezeni do města vlakem. Masakr v Rumbule byl proveden nacistickou "Einsatzgruppe" A s pomocí místních spolupracovníků Arajsova komanda a s podporou od ostatních lotyšských pomocných jednotek. Operaci měl na starosti vyšší SS a policejní velitel Friedrich Jeckeln, který již před tím dohlížel na podobné masakry na Ukrajině. Rudolf Lange, který se později zúčastnil konference ve Wannsee také organizoval masakr. Některá obvinění proti Lotyši Herbertsu Cukursovi se vztahují k vyvraždění ghetta v Rize Arajsovým komandem. Zabíjení v Rumbule, společně spolu s mnoha dalšími, bylo základem soudu nad Einsatzgruppen po druhé světové válce, kde bylo mnoho velitelů "Einsatzgruppen" shledáno vinnými ze zločinů proti lidskosti.


Use.

Contingent contracts can be used in many types of settings such as work, school, home, etc. In regards to work, a common example of contingent contracts comes in the form of job negotiations. It usually involves the opportunity to discuss salary, position, promotion, etc. However, contingent contracts can often include negotiations regarding flextime, job sharing, responsibilities, etc. Although contingent contracts concerning employment packages are more the exception than the norm, these types of negotiations can be very successful, allowing both parties to walk away feeling very satisfied with the newly agreed upon arrangement.  The following examples are everyday agreements that may occur in the workplace:  The following example illustrates a behavioral contract between a teenager and parents to be used in the home:  A contingent contract can be used to create enormous benefit to both parties. One advantage would be that it limits the loss that would occur if the contract failed. Another would be that it wouldn't make one party gain more at the expense of the other. This leads to an increase in trust between both parties, which would allow them to have more beneficial negotiations in the future.

Features.

In order to be most effective, contingent contracts should possess some of the following characteristics:  A contingency contract can also be viewed as protection against a future change of plans

Value.

Necessary is because the contract is built on expected differences from each party. Each party can leverage their differences through bets that lead to both sides winning. However, contingent contracts do not increase integrative value, rather they affect distribution value. Contingency contracts can create value by causing each negotiating party to stop arguing about their different beliefs. Both parties will be better off because they are each confident in their beliefs, ideas or projections.

Risks and challenges.

Contingency contracts can be beneficial for both parties by producing value and motivating performance, however there are some situations in which contingency contracts are not the best solution. Here are some limitations:

A contingent contract is an agreement that states which actions under certain conditions will result in specific outcomes. Contingent contracts usually occur when negotiating parties fail to reach an agreement. The contract is characterized as "contingent" because the terms are not final and are based on certain events or conditions occurring.

Smlouva o smlouvě budoucí ("pactum de contrahendo") označuje smlouvu, ve které se její strany pouze předběžně dohodnou na uzavření budoucí smlouvy o nějakém konkrétním závazku. Závazkem zde je tedy jen závazek uzavřít v dohodnuté době určitou smlouvu. Právně je upravena v § 1785–1788 občanského zákoníku.


Plot.

Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester (Jane Lynch) informs glee club director Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) that New Directions must have twelve members to be eligible to compete at Regionals. Will decides to have New Directions perform in a school assembly, hoping to recruit new members. The group is opposed to his choice of song—"Le Freak" by Chic—so as a compromise, Will suggests they also learn "Gold Digger" by Kanye West. Rachel Berry's (Lea Michele) crush on Finn Hudson (Cory Monteith) leads her to join the celibacy club, which he attends with his girlfriend, Quinn Fabray (Dianna Agron), who is head of the Cheerios. Rachel soon realizes that the celibacy club is really a place where teens try to get as physically close to each other as possible without technically engaging in any kind of sexual activity, and she impresses Finn by saying celibacy club doesn't work because it is normal for teenagers to want to have sex.  Rachel also convinces the Glee club members to secretly change their performance to "Push It" by Salt-n-Pepa to give audience members what they want, "sex". The song is well received by the student body, however complaints from parents lead Principal Figgins (Iqbal Theba) to compile a list of pre-approved, sanitary songs which New Directions must choose from in future. Will is angry with Rachel for her actions, and when Quinn and fellow cheerleaders Santana (Naya Rivera) and Brittany (Heather Morris) audition for the club with a tongue-in-cheek rendition of "I Say a Little Prayer", he gives Rachel's solo on "Don't Stop Believin' to Quinn. Sue later recruits Quinn to help her bring the glee club down from the inside, angered because Figgins has cut some of her funds to finance the club.  At home, Will is being pushed by his wife, Terri (Jessalyn Gilsig), to find a second job so that they can afford to move into a new house before the birth of their child. He begins working at the school as a janitor after hours, and shares a romantic moment with guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury (Jayma Mays). Football coach Ken Tanaka (Patrick Gallagher) observes them, and warns Emma not to become Will's rebound girl. When Will asks her to meet with him after school again, Emma turns him down, having accepted a date with Ken. Terri discovers that she is actually experiencing a hysterical pregnancy, but she cannot bring herself to tell Will, so she lies to him that they are having a son. She tells him to quit working as a janitor, offering up use of her craft room as a nursery for the baby so they do not need to move.  Following a private rehearsal, Finn and Rachel kiss, and he is suddenly overwhelmed and experiences premature ejaculation. Embarrassed, he leaves, telling her to forget that their tryst happened, and goes back to Quinn. A dismayed Rachel later sings Rihanna's "Take a Bow" with Glee club members Mercedes (Amber Riley) and Tina (Jenna Ushkowitz) singing backup.

Production.

The first public screening of "Showmance" occurred in July 2009, at the "Glee" Comic-Con panel. Scott Collins of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that turnout for the panel was standing-room only, and deemed the reception "enthusiastic". Recurring cast members who appear in the episode are Gallagher as football coach Ken Tanaka, Iqbal Theba as Principal Figgins, Jennifer Aspen as Terri's sister Kendra Giardi, Romy Rosemont as Finn's mother Carole Hudson, Ken Choi as Terri's OB/GYN Dr. Wu, and Rivera and Morris as new glee club members Santana Lopez and Brittany Pierce. Valorie Hubbard guest stars as Peggy.  It was revealed at the 2011 "Glee" Comic-Con panel that a scene had been written for this episode that featured Rachel's fathers, but it was subsequently cut from the script even though the actors had already been cast and reported for shooting.

Music.

The episode features cover versions of Kanye West's "Gold Digger", Salt-n-Pepa's "Push It", "Take a Bow" by Rihanna, "I Say a Little Prayer" by Dionne Warwick, Chic's "Le Freak", and "All by Myself" by Eric Carmen. Studio recordings of "Gold Digger", "Take a Bow" and "Push It" were released as singles, available for download. "Gold Digger" charted at number 59 in Australia, "Take a Bow" at number 38 in Australia, 73 in Canada and 46 in America, and "Push It" at number 60 in Australia. "Gold Digger" and "Take a Bow" are included on the album "", with a studio recording of "I Say a Little Prayer" included as a bonus track on discs purchased from iTunes. "Take a Bow" was offered for use in the episode at a reduced licensing rate, something which surprised Murphy, who believed he would not be able to secure the rights to the song. He stated: "Usually, people who have no. 1 hits, even if they give it to you, want hundreds of thousands of dollars, in my experience. But Rihanna gave it to us for a really good price. That's been one of the cool and surprising things about this experience, that these people that the cast and we really admire and respect have found out about the show and are supportive."

Reception.

"Showmance" averaged 7.3 million US viewers, making "Glee" the second most watched show of the evening after NBC's "America's Got Talent". It achieved a 3.5/9 rating/share in the 18-49 demographic, making it Fox's best scripted premiere in three years. However, as Scott Collins for the "Los Angeles Times" noted, the other major networks besides Fox all opened the evening by airing a speech by President Barack Obama, disrupting regular viewing patterns. Furthermore, the official fall season had yet to begin, placing "Glee" against weaker competition in the ratings than the remainder of the season would experience. "Showmance" was the third most watched show in Canada for the week of broadcast, with 1.77 million viewers. In the UK, the episode was shown straight after the pilot episode, and was watched by 1.45 million viewers (1.22 million on E4, and 227,000 on timeshift), becoming the most-watched show on E4 for the week, and the most-watched show on cable for the week.  The episode received generally positive reviews from critics. Shawna Malcom for the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that with "Showmance", "Glee": "admirably lived up to the promise of its pilot". Jarett Wieselman of the "New York Post" wrote that "Showmance" "actually trumps the pilot in terms of sheer brilliance, laugh-out-loud moments and heart", while "Entertainment Weekly"s Tim Stack called the episode "really really fun", observing that: "The quality seen in the pilot definitely does not waver. If anything, the show seems to be finding its footing and tone." David Hinckley of the "Daily News" rated the episode 4 out of 5 stars and commented: ""Glee" could have a hard time sustaining what it has set up. But the opening number gives us a rousing good show." The episode's musical numbers attracted positive reviews, particularly Will's rendition of "Gold Digger". Raymund Flandez for "The Wall Street Journal" praised this performance, also describing the group performance of "Push It" as "glorious in encapsulating every teenage horror". Discussing the performance of "Gold Digger", Dave Itzkoff for "The New York Times" wrote: "Outside of the catalog of 2 Live Crew, it's hard to imagine a song more inappropriate for a high school glee club [...] but the young misfits of the Fox comedy "Glee" somehow made it work."  Brian Lowry for "Variety", however, criticized the episode. He wrote that Lynch's performance was "fitfully funny but usually just plain annoying", calling the pregnancy subplot "credulity-straining". Lowry praised Colfer and Michele, however stated that the show's talent was squandered by its "jokey, cartoonish, wildly uneven tone". He deemed the show a "one-hit wonder", writing that: "the musical numbers—generally less infectious and buoyant than the first time out—can’t compensate for overly broad characterizations and absurdly soapy situations." Robert Bianco for "USA Today" gave a mixed review, commenting: "It would be better if "Glee" had more control and fewer abrupt tonal shifts, but that's not the "Glee" we're getting — and maybe it wouldn't be "Glee" at all. It's not perfect, but in a sea of procedural conformity, "Glee" is its own weird, often enchanting little island escape." While Hank Stuever for "The Washington Post" praised the show's inclusion of adult storylines alongside teenage drama, Robert Lloyd for the "Los Angeles Times" felt that the adult characters "tend more to caricature than character", writing of Sue that: "the writing flattens her toward a single note. She's funny from line to line, but there is little to her besides tin-pot contrariness." "The Chicago Tribune"s Maureen Ryan commented similarly: "there's one big flaw in "Glee" [...] and it may be a harbinger of bad things to come. Will's wife, Terri (Jessalyn Gilsig), manages to drain all the fun out of "Glee" every time she appears." Ryan received the younger cast more positively, stating that there were "no weak links", and praising Colfer and Michele in particular.

"Showmance" is the second episode of the American television series "Glee". The episode premiered on the Fox network on September 9, 2009. It was written by series co-creators Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan and directed by Murphy. The episode sees the glee club attempt to recruit new members by performing Salt-n-Pepa's "Push It" in a school assembly. It advances the love triangles between Rachel (Lea Michele), Finn (Cory Monteith) and Quinn (Dianna Agron) and Emma (Jayma Mays), Will (Matthew Morrison) and Terri (Jessalyn Gilsig), and sees antagonist Sue Sylvester (Jane Lynch) begin to conspire against the club.

Skandál (v anglickém originále Showmance) je druhá epizoda amerického televizního seriálu "Glee". Epizoda měla premiéru na televizním kanálu Fox dne 9. září 2009. Scénář epizody napsali tvůrci seriálu Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk a Ian Brennan a režie se ujal Murphy. V epizodě je hlavním tématem snaha o přijetí nových tváří do sboru, když členové New Directions vystupují ve školním shromáždění s písničkou „Push It“ od Salt-n-Pepa.


Name.

The name of the Lipovans is not known exactly, but it may come from the linden trees ("Lipa" or "Липа" in Russian) of the area they populate bordering the Wild Fields. However, one story claims the name derives from the name "Filipp" (1672-1742) which is alleged to have been the true name of the son of Nikita Pustosvyat (d.1683) who according to the same rather dubious legend led the group of dissenters who emigrated to what is now Romania, his adepts being named "Filippovtsy" which became "Lipovtsi" and finally "Lippovane". Another story derives it from "Filippovka", a holiday name dedicated to Saint Philip of Moscow.

History.

The Lipovans emigrated from Russia in the 18th century, as dissenters from the main Russian Orthodox Church. They settled along the Prut River in Moldavia and in the Danube Delta. They have maintained strong religious traditions which predate the reforms of the Russian Orthodox Church undertaken during the rule of Patriarch Nikon. When the Patriarch made changes to worship in 1652, some believers carried on worshipping in the "old way". In that sense, they continued to speak Old Russian, to cross themselves with two fingers instead of three, and to keep their beards. The Russian government and the Orthodox Church persecuted them, and as a result some committed suicide by burning themselves (self-burning: "soshigateli"), with many others being forced to emigrate.  In 1876, the Lipovans were joined by members of the Skoptsy sect, who also emigrated to Romania to escape persecution.  Lipovans were considered to be schismatic by the Russian Orthodox Church, although relations have improved recently. (See main article on Old Believers.)

Population.

The main centre of Lipovan community in Ukraine is the town of Vylkove, which has its own church, St Nicholas. In order to construct their homes, the Lipovans create islets of dry land by digging mud out from trenches and making a series of canals. The house walls are made of reed and mud, and thatching is standard for the roofing. Because of the characteristics of these materials, the buildings have a tendency to sink into the mud and need to be rebuilt every few years.  The population is popularly known as having red hair.  For details on the Lipovans in Bulgaria, see Russians in Bulgaria.

Lipovans or Lippovans (,,, ) are Old Believers, mostly of Russian ethnic origin, who settled in Romania in the Moldavian Principality, and in the regions of Dobruja and Eastern Muntenia. According to the Romanian census of 2002, there are a total of 35,791 Lipovans in Romania, of whom 21,623 live in Dobruja.

Lipované (také "Lipoveni" nebo "Dunaki") jsou národnostní menšina v Rumunsku. Jsou to etničtí Rusové, kteří se v 18. století vystěhovali na protest proti církevním reformám Petra Velikého do liduprázdné delty Dunaje. V současnosti jich žije asi 40 000, živí se převážně rybolovem. Název etnika se odvozuje buď od jejich prvního vůdce, kněze Filippa, nebo od lipových hájů, v nichž se skrývali před pronásledovateli.


Teams.

Real Valladolid, CD Tenerife and Xerez CD were relegated to the Segunda División after finishing the 2009–10 season in the bottom three places. Tenerife and Xerez made their immediate return to the second level after just one year in the Spanish top flight, while Valladolid ended a three-year tenure in La Liga.  The relegated teams were replaced by 2009–10 Segunda División champions Real Sociedad from San Sebastián, runners-up Hércules CF from Alicante and Levante UD from Valencia. Hércules returned to the highest Spanish football league for the first time after 13 years, while Real Sociedad and Levante terminated their second-level status after three and two years, respectively.

League table.

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Awards.

LFP Awards.

La Liga's governing body, the Liga de Fútbol Profesional, honoured the competition's best players and coach with the LFP Awards.

Top goalscorers.

La Liga Champions.

This is the list of goalscorers in accordance with the LFP as organising body.

Pichichi Trophy.

The Pichichi Trophy is awarded by newspaper "Marca" to the player who scores the most goals in a season, according to its own rules (different from the ones used by FIFA) to determine the goalscorer.

Zamora Trophy.

The Zamora Trophy is awarded by newspaper "Marca" to the goalkeeper with least goals-to-games ratio. A goalkeeper must play at least 28 games of 60 or more minutes to be eligible for the trophy.

Fair Play award.

This award is given annually since 1999 to the team with the best fair play during the season. This ranking takes into account aspects such as cards, suspension of matches, audience behaviour and other penalties. This section not only aims to know this aspect, but also serves to break the tie in teams that are tied in all the other rules: points, head-to-head, goal difference and goals scored.

Pedro Zaballa award.

Real Madrid

Season statistics.

Hat-tricks.

The 2010–11 La Liga season (known as the "Liga BBVA" for sponsorship reasons) was the 80th since its establishment. The campaign began on 28 August 2010 and ended on 21 May 2011. A total of 20 teams contested the league, 17 of which already contested in the 2009–10 season and three of which were promoted from the Segunda División. In addition, a new match ball – the Nike Total 90 Tracer – served as the official ball for all matches.

Soutěžní ročník Primera División 2010/11 (podle sponzora zvaný taktéž Liga BBVA), byl jubilejním 80. ročníkem nejvyšší španělské fotbalové ligy Primera División. Započata byla 28. srpna 2010 a poslední kolo bylo sehráno 21. května 2011. Soutěže se účastnilo celkem 20 týmů. Sedmnáct jich postoupilo z minulého ročníku a zpadnuvší týmy nahradily 3 nové ze Segunda División.


Structure.

The coronary arteries are mainly composed of the left and right coronary arteries, both of which give off several branches as shown in the 'Coronary artery flow' figure.  The left coronary artery (LCA) arises from the aorta within the left cusp of the aortic valve and feeds blood to the left side of the heart. It branches into two arteries, the left anterior descending and the left circumflex. The left anterior descending artery perfuses the interventricular septum and anterior wall of the left ventricle. The left circumflex artery perfuses the left ventricular free wall. In approximately 33% of individuals, the left coronary artery gives rise to the posterior descending artery which perfuses the posterior and inferior walls of the left ventricle. Sometimes a third branch is formed at the fork between left anterior descending and left circumflex arteries known as a "ramus" or "intermediate artery".  The right coronary artery (RCA) originates within the right cusp of the aortic valve. It travels down the right coronary sulcus, towards the crux of the heart. The RCA primarily branches into the right marginal arteries, and, in 67% of individuals, gives place to the posterior descending artery. The right marginal arteries perfuse the right ventricle and the posterior descending artery perfuses the left ventricular posterior and inferior walls.  There is also the conus artery, which is only present in about 45 percent of the human population, and which provides collateral blood flow to the heart when the left anterior descending artery is occluded.

Clinical significance.

Narrowing of the arteries can be caused by a process known as atherosclerosis (most common), arteriosclerosis, or arteriolosclerosis. This occurs when plaques (made up of deposits of cholesterol and other substances) build up over time in the walls of the arteries. Coronary artery disease (CAD) or ischemic heart disease (IHD) are the terms used to describe narrowing of the coronary arteries.  As the disease progresses, plaque buildup can partially block blood flow to the heart muscle. Without enough blood supply (ischemia), the heart is unable to work properly, especially under increased stress. Stable angina is chest pain on exertion that improves with rest. Unstable angina is chest pain that can occur at rest, feels more severe, and/or last longer than stable angina. It is caused by more severe narrowing of the arteries. A heart attack results from a sudden plaque rupture and formation of a thrombus (blood clot) that completely blocks blood flow to a portion of the heart leading to tissue death (infarct).  CAD can also result in heart failure or arrhythmias. Heart failure is caused by chronic oxygen deprivation due to reduced blood flow, which weakens the heart over time. Arrhythmias are caused by inadequate blood supply to the heart that interferes with the heart's electric impulse.  The coronary arteries can constrict as a response to various stimuli, mostly chemical. This is known as a coronary reflex.  There is also a rare condition known as spontaneous coronary artery dissection, in which the wall of one of the coronary arteries tears, causing severe pain. Unlike CAD, spontaneous coronary artery dissection is not due to plaque buildup in arteries, and tends to occur in younger individuals, including women who have recently given birth or men who do intense exercise.

Name etymology.

The word "corona" is a Latin word meaning "crown", from the Ancient Greek κορώνη (korōnè, “garland, wreath”). It was applied to the coronary arteries because of a notional resemblance (compare the photos).  The word "arterie" in Anglo-French ("artaire" in Old French, and "artērium" in Latin) means "windpipe" and "an artery." It was applied to the coronary arteries because the arteries do not contain blood after death.

The coronary arteries are the arterial blood vessels of coronary circulation, which transport oxygenated blood to the heart muscle. The heart requires a continuous supply of oxygen to function and survive, much like any other tissue or organ of the body.

Věnčité tepny (též koronární tepny) jsou tepny, které přivádí krev do srdeční svaloviny a vyživují ji. Jsou proto zcela zásadní pro srdeční činnost. Vyskytují se u většiny obratlovců, nejlépe jsou ovšem vyvinuty u příčnoústých paryb (žraloci a rejnoci), krokodýlů, ptáků a savců – včetně člověka. Naopak u většiny kostnatých ryb a u primitivních čtyřnožců není systém koronárních tepen téměř vůbec vyvinut.


Life and career.

Esther Bubley was born in Phillips, Wisconsin, the fourth of five children of Russian Jewish immigrants Louis and Ida Bubley. In 1936, while Esther was a senior at Central High School in Superior, Wisconsin, the photo magazine "Life" first hit the newsstands. Inspired by the magazine, and particularly by the pictures of the Great Depression produced by the Farm Security Administration, she developed a passion for photojournalism and documentary photography. As editor-in-chief of the yearbook, she sought to emulate the style of "Life." After high school, Bubley spent two years at Superior State Teachers College (now the University of Wisconsin–Superior) before enrolling in the one-year photography program at the Minneapolis School of Art (now the Minneapolis College of Art and Design). After college in 1941, Bubley moved to Washington, D.C. seeking work as a photographer. Failing to find a job in Washington, Bubley moved to New York City. During the 1941 Christmas season, she landed a position at "Vogue" in New York, but she didn't like the work. Early in 1942, she returned to Washington when she was offered a job as a microfilmer for the National Archives and Records Administration.  In the fall of 1942, Roy Stryker hired her as a darkroom assistant at the Office of War Information (OWI), where his photographic unit had recently been transferred from the Farm Security Administration. With the encouragement of Stryker, and some of the more senior photographers, she moved to taking pictures for the OWI historical section, documenting life on the home front during the war. Her most challenging assignment was a noted series on the bus system in the Midwest and South. In late 1943, when Stryker left the OWI to work on a public relations project for the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), she accompanied him, along with other photographers, including Gordon Parks and John Vachon. The "Bus Story" series she produced for Standard Oil, a reprise of her earlier "Bus Story" for the OWI, earned the award for Best Picture Sequence in the "Encyclopædia Britannica"/University of Missouri School of Journalism "News Pictures of the Year" in 1948. During this period, she was briefly married to Edwin Locke, Stryker's administrative chief, but they soon divorced.  By 1947, Bubley was expanding her horizons beyond Stryker and Standard Oil. She began working for the Children's Bureau, a federal child welfare agency. Over the next several years, she contributed thousands of images to their files, and her work appeared on more than thirty covers of their journal "The Child".  In 1949, Bubley's photo essay on mental illness for the "Ladies' Home Journal" was given the first place award for a feature in the "Encyclopædia Britannica"/University of Missouri School of Journalism contest, winning Bubley a second set of the Encyclopedia. She continued working for the "Ladies' Home Journal", producing a dozen photo stories for their celebrated series "How America Lives," which ran intermittently between 1948 and 1960.  In 1951, Bubley began to freelance for "Life", eventually contributing 40 photo stories, including two cover stories. Bubley was one of the first women to successfully support herself working as a freelance photographer for the major magazines.  In 1951, she also produced a series on the Pittsburgh Children's Hospital for Stryker, who was then establishing the Pittsburgh Photographic Library. Edward Steichen, Directory of Photography at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), used 13 prints from this series in the 1952 exhibition "Diogenese with a Camera". He also mounted and displayed her contact sheets to show how she used every frame. This series led to medical themes becoming a major part of her portfolio. In 1953, she was hired by UNICEF and the French government to travel to Morocco to photograph a program to treat trachoma, an infectious disease that causes blindness. Bubley entered a photo from this assignment in the international division of a contest sponsored by "Photography" magazine in 1954. She became the first woman to win first place, and she received a trophy depicting a male photographer.  In 1955, Steichen included her work in his monumental "The Family of Man" exhibition.  In 1956, Pepsi-Cola International hired Bubley to cover Latin America for their company magazine "Panorama". In the mid-1960s, Pan American World Airways sent her around the world twice to make images for their corporate photographic library.  In the late 1960s, Bubley reduced her workload as sales of photographic magazines declined, and she wearied of the grueling travel schedule. She spent more time at home in New York City where she pursued projects of personal interest, producing two children's books about animals and a book featuring macro photography of plants.  A devoted animal lover, she spent her mornings in Central Park walking her dog, taking photographs, and making notes that she hoped to turn into a book about the park. In 1991 the Minneapolis College of Art and Design awarded Bubley an honorary doctorate. She died in New York City, of cancer, on March 16, 1998.  In 2001 a retrospective exhibition of Bubley's work appeared at the UBS Art Gallery in New York City. In 2005 Aperture Foundation published a monograph about Bubley, "Esther Bubley: On Assignment" by photographic historian Bonnie Yochelson with Tracy A. Schmid, archivist for the Bubley Estate. In 2010, the Library of Congress published the monograph "Fields of Vision: The Photographs of Esther Bubley".

Esther Bubley (February 16, 1921–March 16, 1998) was an American photographer who specialized in expressive photos of ordinary people in everyday lives. She worked for several agencies of the American government and her work also featured in several news and photographic magazines.

Esther Bubley (16. února 1921 Phillips, Wisconsin – 16. března 1998 New York City) byla americká fotografka, která se specializovala na expresivní snímky obyčejných lidí v každodenním životě. Pracovala jako fotografka ve společnosti Office of War Informations, která vznikla z instituce Farm Security Administration.