Overview.

The Isua Greenstone Belt, also known as the Isua supracrustal belt since it is composed of supracrustal rock deposited upon basement rock strata, is located in the southwestern portion of Greenland, in the Isukasia terrane, near the Nuuk capital region. The greenstone belt is made up of metamorphosed mafic volcanic and sedimentary rocks that are usually juxtaposed by mylonites or fault boundaries. By using uranium-lead dating on zircon and titanite, the tectonic history was dated to be approximately 3,700–3,600 million years old. The Isua Greenstone has been studied by Earth scientists due to evidence the area holds for early Earth plate tectonics, since it houses one of the oldest, best-preserved ancient plate tectonic sequences. In addition, the area is large, exposed, and there are areas that have experienced relatively low deformation and alteration to the original rock sequences. The Isua Greenstone is divided into a northern and a southern section by the Ivinnguit Fault, shown on the map below right. The northern area of the Isua Greenstone Belt is mainly composed of amphibolite rocks, volcanic rocks, upper mantle peridotite, and layered gabbros; a suite which suggests crustal shortening.  Scientists have used different methods to determine how the Isua Greenstone Belt formed. Some conclude that it formed at an ancient ocean-ocean convergent zone, where subduction-caused partial melting and metasomatism of the mantle as well as the intrusion of tonalites partially melted the overlying supracrustal rocks and created the first continental crust. However, the geological evolution of the Isua Greenstone Belt remains controversial, as scientists try to come to a consensus on how it formed: whether due to such a subduction zone or to some other former process like vertical plate tectonics. Ultimately, a specific conclusion of how the Isua Greenstone Belt formed has not been reached, but some pieces of the puzzle have been proposed.

Scientific methods.

In an attempt to understand the origin of the Isua Greenstone Belt, scientists have used several different methods. These include enlisting U-Pb zircon dating that measures the decay of uranium to lead in zircons using sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP), analysing elemental chemistry and composition, rendering three-dimensional features on paper using the stereographic projections that geologists call "stereonets", and assessing lithologic associations. In addition to information gathered directly from the rocks, scientists have also used observations of the placement of the rocks and how they are separated into units: this is a more kinematic approach to the area. In addition, zoned garnets from different areas of the Isua Greenstone Belt have been used in garnet-biotite geothermometry, which has been used to determine the timing of metamorphism. Scientists have tried to relate their findings to modern day proxies of subduction zones and other tectonic events.

Lithologies.

Efforts to depict initial lithologies and tectonic formations of the Isua Greenstone Belt have been difficult due to the immense episodes of regional metamorphism the area has experienced, which is why most efforts have been focused on the northern complex, called the Isukasia Terrane, where the rocks have experienced a lower metamorphic grade. There are several lithologies that make up the Isua Greenstone Belt and the main rock types have been located and mapped. These include the Amitsoq Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite (TTG) orthogneisses, pillow lavas and pillow breccias, banded iron formations, granodiorites, and metasedimentary rocks. In addition, the area contains other, less prevalent, lithologies such as meta-chert, and mafic volcanic rocks. Although there is still some debate on the kinematics of how each rock type was formed, the map at right shows a part of the Isua Supracrustal belt; these rock types are clues to the formation of the greenstone belt and have been extensively mapped. The map illustrates the entire greenstone belt area, with rock types and locations, found on the southwestern portion of Greenland. Below the map is a general timeline that shows when each rock was intruded into the greenstone belt.  1) Tonalitic Amitsoq orthogneisses:  2) Pillow lavas and pillow breccias:  3) Banded Iron Formations:  4) Peridotites:

Tectonics.

The Isua Greenstone Belt offers up some complications because of the tectonics that have occurred in the area. Subduction and plate tectonics overall, is a means for explaining heat transfer within the Earth, which was an important process in early Earth. The Isua Greenstone Belt is also an important area on the globe because it in particular contains the only evidence on the Earth that holds record for deformation before 3.2 billion years ago.  Some scientists have observed geometric patterns in the area and have attributed it to a certain type of tectonic event called a thrust nappe. The klippe is the isolated block of the nappe overlying material. This geologic formation is evidence of thrusting plate motion, towards the south in this particular region. A thrust suggests that this area did experience subduction in the Archean. The implications of this come from studies of the deformational behavior, rheology, and strength of the Archean crust, all of which has been proposed to be very similar to the current crust.

Metamorphism.

Evidence from zoned garnets can give insight into the metamorphic history of an area. What one scientist found was that there were three main episodes of garnet growth in the Isua Greenstone Belt, meaning there were three main metamorphic events. Specifically, the garnets were studied in terms of overgrowth patterns using iron-magnesium rich rim, manganese rich cores, then by a calcium-rich rims and cores. In addition, the presence of these overgrowths and their oscillatory zoned nature leads scientists to believe that the metamorphism occurred due to fluid-like metasomatism. Manganese is suggestive of prograde metamorphism. Overall it has been suggested that there were three metamorphic events, occurring 3.74 billion years ago, 3.69 billion years ago, and at 2.8 billion years ago.

Results of several studies.

The following table shows, in a condensed form, the efforts of many scientists and the evidence that they found, as well as their idea of what it could mean for the formation of early Archean continental crust.  Much of this evidence has been used to describe modern day plate tectonics. A problem with this is that Archean plate tectonics could have been vastly different than the processes that are occurring on Earth today.

Proposed origin of continental crust.

The easiest way to think about the Isua Greenstone Belt is in two parts: a north and a south which are broken up by a fault. The northern terrane is dominated by tonalites and is the least metamorphosed section. It also contains zircon ages of approximately 3710-3690 million years old. The southern portion of the Isua Greenstone Belt contains approximately 3900-3810 million year old zircons with an abundance of amphibolite, schist, carbonate rock, volcanics, pillow lavas, and ultramafics. The northern portion makes up the area where many scientific studies have been conducted and offers up the evidence leading scientists to propose the following hypothesis.

Formation of the Isua Greenstone Belt.

A reconstruction of the origin of continental crust, which formed the greenstone belt, using geochemical, lithological, and structural clues, is predicated upon two assumptions: first, new Hadean crust formed laterally by the expelling and lateral accretion of mafic to ultramafic lavas. Then stabilization occurred through the re-melting of the crust.  The reworked crust can be attributed to the burial, most likely through subduction, of hydrated materials, such as basalt, that were formed in the Hadean. Additionally, the source for tested rock samples came from a mantle depleted in titanium and niobium and enriched in lead, strontium, barium, rubidium, and light rare-earth elements, which, taken together, are indicative of arc-related basalts. The diorites found in the area are high in magnesium and REE (rare-earth elements), which suggest further that the rocks were formed from a mixture of the mantle and remelted basaltic crust. Overall, the presence of tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorites, as well as the iron present for the banded iron formations (BIFs), are determined to have been caused by hydrothermal alteration at high temperatures. BIFs are typically found in intra-oceanic, arc or forearc settings, which are associated with convergent boundaries. The intrusions were formed when upwelling asthenosphere partially melted thick overlying oceanic crust. It is thought that the melting and reworking of oceanic crust formed the early Archean continental crust. In addition, the eclogite residues, formed by the partial melting of the oceanic crust, subsequently became a part of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle. By using uranium-lead dating on zircons, scientists were able to determine that the process of creating the Isua Greenstone Belt took approximately 300 million years.  Many pieces of evidence are brought together to support the theory that the formation of continental crust must have started with the subduction of hot oceanic crust. This subducting slab melted, and the rising magma gravitationally differentiated into a more granitic composition, characteristic of continental crust. The result of testing and putting together information has led scientists to believe that crustal growth began approximately 3.8 billion years ago. and continued building slowly, in a sequence of comparatively brief episodes. Then crust quickly stabilized about 2.975 billion years ago. The schematic image above right shows two possible flat subduction mechanisms that could create the tonalite plutons seen in the greenstone belt. However, this theory of crustal formation has been questioned by many scientists.

Controversies.

In the scientific community, studies are still being conducted that hope to solve the big question of the Isua Greenstone Belt: What processes caused its formation? This area remains under controversy in the scientific community because it is arguable that there were different tectonic processes, or styles, occurring in Archean times that would have affected the outcome of what we see today: a mass of very old rocks surrounded by younger rocks that have been heavily altered in some areas and are separated by tectonic and depositional contacts. The Isua Greenstone Belt is the only place in the world that does not conform entirely to the idea of vertical plate tectonics (an idea that is still debated).  Some of the problems are:

Alternative hypothesis.

Vertical plate tectonics.

There is an alternate idea that early Earth plate tectonics began by vertical movement of the lithosphere, rather than the modern horizontal tectonics. This theory rejects the idea of subduction and arc accretion in the formation of greenstone belts. It suggests that convective overturn due to density differences between the overlying mafic sequence (greenstone) and partially molten granitic middle crust is responsible for the observed formations.

Similar evidence.

The Isua Greenstone Belt is an anomaly in terms of the other greenstone belts in the world. It is the only greenstone belt that has preserved deformational events from greater than 3.2 Ga and contains peridotites (indicating an obducted ophiolite sequence). However, as compared to the Pilbara Craton and the Barberton Greenstone Belts, which have alternate evolution theories, there are a few similarities.

Discovery of early life.

Because of its age, the Isua Greenbelt has long been the focus of studies seeking to identify signs of early terrestrial life. In 1996, geologist Steve Mojzsis and colleagues hypothesized that isotopically light carbon in the structure's carbon-rich layers was suggestive of biological activity having occurred there. "Unless some unknown abiotic process exists which is able both to create such isotopically light carbon and then selectively incorporate it into apatite grains, our results provide evidence for the emergence of life on Earth by at least 3,800 Myr before present."  In August 2016, an Australia-based research team presented evidence that the Isua Greenstone Belt contains the remains of stromatolite microbial colonies that formed approximately 3.7 billion years ago. However, their interpretations are controversial. If these structures are stromatolites, they predate the oldest previously known stromatolites, found in the Dresser Formation in western Australia, by 220 million years.  The complexity of the stromatolites found at Isua, if they are indeed stromatolites, suggest that life on Earth was already sophisticated and robust by the time of their formation, and that the earliest life on Earth likely evolved over 4 billion years ago. This conclusion is supported in part by the instability of Earth's surface conditions 3.7 billion years ago, which included intense asteroid bombardment. The possible formation and preservation of fossils from this period indicate that life may have evolved early and prolifically in Earth's history.  The stromatolite fossils appear wavy and dome-shaped, are typically high, and were found in iron- and magnesium-rich dolomites that had recently been exposed by melting snow. The surrounding rocks suggest that the stromatolites may have been deposited in a shallow marine environment. While most rocks in the Isua Greenstone Belt are too metamorphically altered to preserve fossils, the area of stromatolite discovery may have preserved original sedimentary rocks and the fossils inside them. However, some geologists interpret the structures as the result of deformation and alteration of the original rock.  The ISB sedimentary layers containing the possible stromatolites overlay volcanic rocks that are dated to 3.709 billion years old and are capped by dolomite and banded iron formations with thorium-uranium zircons dated to years old. All layers, including those bordering the stromatolites, experienced metamorphism and deformation after deposition, and temperatures not exceeding.  The identity of the ISB features as stromatolites is controversial, because similar features may form through non-biological processes. Some geologists interpret the textures above the putative stromatolites as sand accumulation against their sides during their formation, suggesting that the features arose during the sedimentary process, and not through later, metamorphic deformation. However, others suggest that the rocks are so altered that any sedimentary interpretations are inappropriate.  In 2016, geologist and areologist Abigail Allwood stated that the discovery of Isua stromatolites makes the emergence of life on other planets, including Mars early after its formation, more probable. However in 2018, she and a team of additional geologists published a paper that raises significant questions as to the origin of the structures, interpreting them as arising from deformation. Thus, the ISB stromatolites remain a subject of ongoing investigation.

The Isua Greenstone Belt is an Archean greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland. The belt is aged between 3.7 and 3.8 billion years. The belt contains variably metamorphosed mafic volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The occurrence of boninitic geochemical signatures, characterized by extreme depletion in trace elements that are not fluid mobile, offers evidence that plate tectonic processes in which lithic crust is melted may have been responsible for the creation of the belt. Another theory posits that the belt formed via a process known as vertical plate tectonics.

Isua Greenstone Belt je zelenokamový pás v provincii Nuuk na západním pobřeží Grónska. Jedná se o dosud nejucelenější a nejlépe prostudovaný úsek hornin z období eoarchaika, tedy o jedny z nejstarších hornin na Zemi. Jejich stáří je udáváno mezi 3700 a 3800 miliony let. Tento zelenokamový pás byl zároveň prvním objeveným pozůstatkem z eoarchaika.


Career.

Martin started learning the piano at the age of six, and joined his first professional band, Killing Floor, in April or May 1968. In 1969 Martin and Stuart McDonald were recruited by 17-year-old Darryl Read who formed a band for Emperor Rosko's brother (Jeff Pasternak) called Crayon Angels, which Read put together and played drums, while Rosko acted as manager. Martin later left Killing Floor to play alongside Gallagher, and is featured on several of Gallagher's albums, including "Blueprint", "Tattoo", "Irish Tour '74", "Against the Grain", "Calling Card", "Defender" and "Fresh Evidence". He also played rhythm guitar on one track, "Race the Breeze" from "Blueprint".  After leaving Gallagher's band, Martin and drummer Rod de'Ath formed Ramrod, after which Martin played with Downliners Sect and Screaming Lord Sutch, and also toured with Chuck Berry and Albert Collins.  Martin played in the Nickey Barclay band in London in the 1980s, alongside Barclay (ex-Fanny) on keyboards, with John Conroy (ex-Sam Mitchell Band) and Dave Ball on lead guitar (ex-Procol Harum). The band played across London on the blues rock circuit during the 1980s at venues such as The White Lion, Putney; The Star and Garter on Lower Richmond Road; The Golden Lion, Fulham and the Cartoon, Croydon.  Killing Floor released an album in 2004 named "Zero Tolerance", on which Martin participated.

Death.

After a period of illness including cancer and a number of strokes, Martin died peacefully in a hospital in Bournemouth, Dorset on 17 August 2012, aged 63.

Louis Michael "Lou" Martin (12 August 1949 – 17 August 2012) was a piano and organ player from Belfast, Northern Ireland, most famous for his work with the London-based band Killing Floor, and with fellow Irish musician Rory Gallagher.

Lou Martin (12. srpna 1949 Belfast, Severní Irsko, UK − 17. srpna 2012 Bournemouth, Anglie, UK) byl britský varhaník a klavírista.


Early life.

Dafni was born on November 11, 1913 in Zagreb, in what was then the largely-autonomous region of Croatia-Slavonia in Austria-Hungary. He came from an educated family that was Croatian and Jewish; he had two siblings. At the end the Great War, the region was united with the Serbia, to form the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.  In the early 1930s, Dafni was studying in Vienna, where his father was a diplomat: he was an keen athlete, a member of the student union and an activist in the Zionist youth movement.  In 1936, Dafni emigrated to Mandatory Palestine, then under British administration, and became one of the founders of kibbutz Ein Gev.

War service.

In 1940, he took up arms against the Nazis and joined the British Army. He served in the Greek Campaign and in the Battle of Crete, as well as in the North African Campaign.  In 1942, a new Palestine Regiment, was created and Dafni was one of its soldiers. He also volunteered for training for special operations.  In mid-March 1944, along with several other agents, Dafni was parachuted behind enemy lines into occupied Yugoslavia. He met up with the Partisans and kept the in contact with the Western Allies; he spent six months in Croatia.  For his war-service, Warrant Officer (Company Sergeant-Major) Dafni was recognised with a Mention in Despatches (MiD). He was also commissioned as an officer.  After the war he returned to his kibbutz, but in 1946, as a member of the Haganah, Dafni went to the United States to raise funds and purchase weapons for the defence of the Yishuv; one of his contributors was Bugsy Siegel. Dafni returned to the United States in 1948, now helping to raise funds for the newly established State of Israel.  In 1948, he was also appointed as the first Israeli consul in Los Angeles. From 1953 to 1956, he served as consul general of Israel in New York City. Later, he also served as consul general in Bombay, India, and also served as ambassador to Kenya (1969 to 1973) and Thailand.  For 13 years, from 1983–1996, Dafni served as assistant director, in Jerusalem, of Yad Vashem: Israel's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust.

Family life.

Dafni was married to Rina (née Grossman) with whom he had two children, a son, Yoram, and a daughter, Avital. The couple later divorced and Dafni remarried twice.

Reuven Dafni (; born Ruben Kandt; Zagreb, 19132005, Israel) was a wartime British officer and special forces soldier and a soldier and diplomat for Israel. He was also one of founders of kibbutz Ein Gev and a longtime assistant director of the Yad Vashem memorial center.

Re'uven Dafni (: ראובן דפני, rodným jménem: Ruben Kandt; 11. listopadu 1913 – 15. června 2005) byl židovský partyzán a účastník protinacistického odboje, izraelský voják a diplomat, jeden ze zakladatelů kibucu Ejn Gev a dlouholetý náměstek ředitele památníku Jad Vašem.


Plot dilemma.

As in many of Asimov's "Robot" stories, conflicts in the application of the Three Laws of Robotics is the subject of the plot. In contrast to the majority of such stories, in which the lexical ambiguities of the Laws are employed to fashion a dilemma, the robot featured in "Runaround" is actually following the Laws as they were intended.  The plot revolves around the Three Laws of Robotics: The robot finds it impossible to obey both the Second Law and the Third Law at the same time, and this freezes it in a loop of repetitive behavior.

Plot summary.

In 2015, Powell, Donovan, and Robot SPD-13, also known as "Speedy" are sent to Mercury to restart operations at a mining station which was abandoned ten years before.  They discover that the photo-cell banks that provide life support to the base are short on selenium and will soon fail. The nearest selenium pool is seventeen miles away, and since Speedy can withstand Mercury’s high temperatures, Donovan sends him to get it. Powell and Donovan become worried when they realize that Speedy has not returned after five hours. They use a more primitive robot to find Speedy and try to analyze what happened to it.  When they eventually find Speedy, they discover he is running in a huge circle around a selenium pool. Further, they notice that "Speedy’s gait [includes] a peculiar rolling stagger, a noticeable side-to-side lurch". When Speedy is asked to return with the selenium, he begins talking oddly, quoting Gilbert and Sullivan and showing symptoms that, if he were human, would be interpreted as drunkenness.  Powell eventually realizes that the selenium source contains unforeseen danger to the robot. Under normal circumstances, Speedy would observe the Second Law, but because Speedy was so expensive to manufacture, and "not a thing to be lightly destroyed", the Third Law had been strengthened "so that his allergy to danger is unusually high". As the order to retrieve the selenium was casually worded with no particular emphasis, Speedy cannot decide whether to obey it, following the Second Law, or protect himself from danger, following the strengthened Third Law. He then oscillates between positions: farther from the selenium, in which the order "outweighs" the need for self-preservation, and nearer the selenium, in which the compulsion of the third law is bigger and pushes him back. The conflicting Laws cause what is basically a feedback loop which confuses him to oscillate around the point where the two compulsions are of equal strength, which makes Speedy appear inebriated.  Under the Second Law Speedy should obey Powell's order to return to base, but that fails, as the conflicted positronic brain cannot accept new orders. An attempt to increase the compulsion of the Third Law fails. They place oxalic acid, which can destroy Speedy, in his path, but it merely causes Speedy to change his route until he finds a new equilibrium between the avoid-danger law and the follow-order law.  The only thing that trumps "both" the Second Law and Third Law is the First Law of Robotics which states that "a robot may not...allow a human being to come to harm." Therefore, Powell decides to risk his life by going out in the heat, hoping that the First Law will force Speedy to overcome his cognitive dissonance to save Powell's life. The plan works, and the team is able to repair the photocell banks.

"Runaround" is a science fiction short story by American writer Isaac Asimov, featuring his recurring characters Powell and Donovan. It was written in October 1941 and first published in the March 1942 issue of "Astounding Science Fiction". It appears in the collections "I, Robot" (1950), "The Complete Robot" (1982), and "Robot Visions" (1990). "Runaround" features the first explicit appearance of the Three Laws of Robotics, which had previously only been implied in Asimov's robot stories.

Hra na honěnou ( „Runaround“) je vědeckofantastická povídka spisovatele Isaaca Asimova. Autor ji napsal v říjnu 1941 a poprvé vyšla v březnu 1942 v časopise "Astounding Science Fiction". Byla následně zařazena do sbírek " I, Robot" (1950), "The Complete Robot" (1982) a "Robot Visions" (1990). Česky vyšla ve sbírkách "Já, robot" a "Robohistorie I."


Nomenclature.

Aminoglycosides that are derived from bacteria of the "Streptomyces" genus are named with the suffix "-mycin", whereas those that are derived from "Micromonospora" are named with the suffix "-micin". However, this nomenclature system is not specific for aminoglycosides, and so appearance of this set of suffixes does not imply common mechanism of action. (For instance, vancomycin, a glycopeptide antibiotic, and erythromycin, a macrolide antibiotic produced by "Saccharopolyspora erythraea", along with its synthetic derivatives clarithromycin and azithromycin, all share the suffixes but have notably different mechanisms of action.)  In the following gallery, kanamycin A through netilmicin are examples of the 4,6-disubstituted deoxystreptamine sub-class of aminoglycosides, the neomycins are examples of the 4,"5"-disubstituted sub-class, and streptomycin is an example of a non-deoxystreptamine aminoglycoside.

Mechanisms of action.

Aminoglycosides display concentration-dependent bactericidal activity against "most gram-negative aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacilli" but not against gram-negative anaerobes and most gram-positive bacteria. They require only short contact time, and are most effective against susceptible bacterial populations that are rapidly multiplying. These activities are attributed to a primary mode of action as protein synthesis inhibitors, though additional mechanisms are implicated for some specific agents, and/or thorough mechanistic descriptions are as yet unavailable.  The inhibition of protein synthesis is mediated through aminoglycosides' energy-dependent, sometimes irreversible binding, to the cytosolic, membrane-associated bacterial ribosome (image at right). (Aminoglycosides first cross bacterial cell walls—lipopolysaccharide in gram-negative bacteria—and cell membranes, where they are actively transported.) While specific steps in protein synthesis affected may vary somewhat between specific aminoglycoside agents, as can their affinity and degree of binding, aminoglycoside presence in the cytosol generally disturbs peptide elongation at the 30S ribosomal subunit, giving rise to inaccurate mRNA translation and therefore biosynthesis of proteins that are truncated, or bear altered amino acid compositions at particular points. Specifically, binding impairs translational proofreading leading to misreading of the RNA message, premature termination, or both, and so to inaccuracy of the translated protein product. The subset of aberrant proteins that are incorporated into the bacterial cell membrane may then lead to changes in its permeability and then to "further stimulation of aminoglycoside transport". The amino sugar portion of this class of molecules (e.g., the 2-deoxystreptamine in kanamycins, gentamicins, and tobramycin, see above) are implicated in the association of the small molecule with ribosomal structures that lead to the infidelities in translation (ibid.). Inhibition of ribosomal translocation—i.e., movement of the peptidyl-tRNA from the A- to the P-site—has also been suggested. (Spectinomycin, a related but distinct chemical structure class often discussed with aminoglycosides, does not induce mRNA misreading and is generally not bactericidal.)  Finally, a further "cell-membrane effect" also occurs with aminoglycosides; "functional integrity of the bacterial cell membrane" can be lost, later in time courses of aminoglycoside exposure and transport.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.

There is a significant variability in the relationship between the dose administered and the resultant plasma level in blood. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is necessary to obtain the correct dose. These agents exhibit a post-antibiotic effect in which there is no or very little drug level detectable in blood, but there still seems to be inhibition of bacterial re-growth. This is due to strong, irreversible binding to the ribosome, and remains intracellular long after plasma levels drop, and allows a prolonged dosage interval. Depending on their concentration, they act as bacteriostatic or bactericidal agents.

Indications.

Aminoglycosides are useful primarily in infections involving aerobic, Gram-negative bacteria, such as "Pseudomonas", "Acinetobacter", and "Enterobacter". In addition, some "Mycobacteria", including the bacteria that cause tuberculosis, are susceptible to aminoglycosides. Streptomycin was the first effective drug in the treatment of tuberculosis, though the role of aminoglycosides such as streptomycin and amikacin has been eclipsed (because of their toxicity and inconvenient route of administration) except for multiple-drug-resistant strains. The most frequent use of aminoglycosides is empiric therapy for serious infections such as sepsis, complicated intra-abdominal infections, complicated urinary tract infections, and nosocomial respiratory tract infections. Usually, once cultures of the causal organism are grown and their susceptibilities tested, aminoglycosides are discontinued in favor of less toxic antibiotics.  As noted, aminoglycosides are mostly ineffective against anaerobic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria can also be treated with aminoglycosides, but other types of antibiotics are more potent and less damaging to the host. In the past, the aminoglycosides have been used in conjunction with beta-lactam antibiotics in streptococcal infections for their synergistic effects, in particular in endocarditis. One of the most frequent combinations is ampicillin (a beta-lactam, or penicillin-related antibiotic) and gentamicin. Often, hospital staff refer to this combination as "amp and gent" or more recently called "pen and gent" for penicillin and gentamicin.

Nonsense suppression.

The interference with mRNA proofreading has been exploited to treat genetic diseases that result from premature stop codons (leading to early termination of protein synthesis and truncated proteins). Aminoglycosides can cause the cell to overcome the stop codons, insert a random amino acid, and express a full-length protein. The aminoglycoside gentamicin has been used to treat cystic fibrosis (CF) cells in the laboratory to induce them to grow full-length proteins. CF is caused by a mutation in the gene coding for the "cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator" ("CFTR") protein. In approximately 10% of CF cases, the mutation in this gene causes its early termination during translation, leading to the formation of is truncated and non-functional CFTR protein. It is believed that gentamicin distorts the structure of the ribosome-RNA complex, leading to a mis-reading of the termination codon, causing the ribosome to "skip" over the stop sequence and to continue with the normal elongation and production of the CFTR protein.

Routes of administration.

Since they are not absorbed from the gut, they are administered intravenously and intramuscularly. Some are used in topical preparations for wounds. Oral administration can be used for gut decontamination (e.g., in hepatic encephalopathy). Tobramycin may be administered in a nebulized form.

Clinical use.

The recent emergence of infections due to Gram-negative bacterial strains with advanced patterns of antimicrobial resistance has prompted physicians to reevaluate the use of these antibacterial agents. This revived interest in the use of aminoglycosides has brought back to light the debate on the two major issues related to these compounds, namely the spectrum of antimicrobial susceptibility and toxicity. Current evidence shows that aminoglycosides do retain activity against the majority of Gram-negative clinical bacterial isolates in many parts of the world. Still, the relatively frequent occurrence of nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity during aminoglycoside treatment makes physicians reluctant to use these compounds in everyday practice. Recent advances in the understanding of the effect of various dosage schedules of aminoglycosides on toxicity have provided a partial solution to this problem, although more research still needs to be done in order to overcome this problem entirely.  Aminoglycosides are in pregnancy category D, that is, there is positive evidence of human fetal risk based on adverse reaction data from investigational or marketing experience or studies in humans, but potential benefits may warrant use of the drug in pregnant women despite potential risks.

Adverse effects.

Aminoglycoside can cause inner ear toxicity which can result in sensorineural hearing loss. The incidence of inner ear toxicity varies from 7 to 90%, depending on the types of antibiotics used, susceptibility of the patient to such antibiotics, and the duration of antibiotic administration.  Another serious and disabling side effect of aminoglycoside use is vestibular ototoxicity. This leads to oscillopsia (gaze instability) and balance impairments that impact all aspects of an individual's antigravity function. This loss is permanent and can happen at any dose.

Contraindication for specific diseases.

Aminoglycosides can exacerbate weakness in patients with myasthenia gravis, and use is therefore avoided in these patients.  Aminoglycosides are contraindicated in patients with mitochondrial diseases as they may result in impaired mtDNA translation, which can lead to irreversible hearing loss, tinnitus, cardiac toxicity, and renal toxicity. However, hearing loss and tinnitus have also been observed in some patients without mitochondrial diseases.

Aminoglycoside is a medicinal and bacteriologic category of traditional Gram-negative antibacterial medications that inhibit protein synthesis and contain as a portion of the molecule an amino-modified glycoside (sugar). The term can also refer more generally to any organic molecule that contains amino sugar substructures. Aminoglycoside antibiotics display bactericidal activity against Gram-negative aerobes and some anaerobic bacilli where resistance has not yet arisen but generally not against Gram-positive and anaerobic Gram-negative bacteria.

Aminoglykosidy jsou molekuly či části molekul nějaké sloučeniny, které mají pozměněnou cukernou (glykosidovou) část pomocí aminu. Výraz aminoglykosidy se rovněž používá pro označení antibiotik, protože některé aminoglykosidy jsou účinné v léčbě infekcí způsobených zejména aerobními gramnegativními bakteriemi. Mezi tato tzv. aminoglykosidová antibiotika řadíme zejména amikacin, arbekacin, gentamicin, kanamycin, neomycin, netilmicin, paromomycin, rhodostreptomycin, streptomycin, tobramycin a apramycin. Prvním aminoglykosidovým antibiotikem uvedeným na trh byl streptomycin (objeven v r. 1943), který byl také prvním antibiotickým léčivem účinným proti tuberkulóze. Aminoglykosidová antibiotika jsou produkty bakterií "Streptomyces" nebo "Micromonospora" (viz dále).


Signs and symptoms.

Croup is characterized by a "barking" cough, stridor, hoarseness, and difficult breathing which usually worsens at night. The "barking" cough is often described as resembling the call of a seal or sea lion. The stridor is worsened by agitation or crying, and if it can be heard at rest, it may indicate critical narrowing of the airways. As croup worsens, stridor may decrease considerably.  Other symptoms include fever, coryza (symptoms typical of the common cold), and indrawing of the chest wall–known as Hoover's sign. Drooling or a very sick appearance can indicate other medical conditions, such as epiglottitis or tracheitis.

Causes.

Croup is usually deemed to be due to a viral infection. Others use the term more broadly, to include acute laryngotracheitis (laryngitis and tracheitis together), spasmodic croup, laryngeal diphtheria, bacterial tracheitis, laryngotracheobronchitis, and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis. The first two conditions involve a viral infection and are generally milder with respect to symptomatology; the last four are due to bacterial infection and are usually of greater severity.

Viral.

Viral croup or acute laryngotracheitis is most commonly caused by parainfluenza virus (a member of the paramyxovirus family), primarily types 1 and 2, in 75% of cases. Other viral causes include influenza A and B, measles, adenovirus and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Spasmodic croup is caused by the same group of viruses as acute laryngotracheitis, but lacks the usual signs of infection (such as fever, sore throat, and increased white blood cell count). Treatment, and response to treatment, are also similar.

Bacterial.

Bacterial croup may be divided into laryngeal diphtheria, bacterial tracheitis, laryngotracheobronchitis, and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis. Laryngeal diphtheria is due to "Corynebacterium diphtheriae" while bacterial tracheitis, laryngotracheobronchitis, and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis are usually due to a primary viral infection with secondary bacterial growth. The most common bacteria implicated are "Staphylococcus aureus", "Streptococcus pneumoniae", "Haemophilus influenzae", and "Moraxella catarrhalis".

Pathophysiology.

The viral infection that causes croup leads to swelling of the larynx, trachea, and large bronchi due to infiltration of white blood cells (especially histiocytes, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and neutrophils). Swelling produces airway obstruction which, when significant, leads to dramatically increased work of breathing and the characteristic turbulent, noisy airflow known as stridor.

Diagnosis.

Croup is typically diagnosed based on signs and symptoms. The first step is to exclude other obstructive conditions of the upper airway, especially epiglottitis, an airway foreign body, subglottic stenosis, angioedema, retropharyngeal abscess, and bacterial tracheitis.  A frontal X-ray of the neck is not routinely performed, but if it is done, it may show a characteristic narrowing of the trachea, called the steeple sign, because of the subglottic stenosis, which resembles a steeple in shape. The steeple sign is suggestive of the diagnosis, but is absent in half of cases.  Other investigations (such as blood tests and viral culture) are discouraged, as they may cause unnecessary agitation and thus worsen the stress on the compromised airway. While viral cultures, obtained via nasopharyngeal aspiration, can be used to confirm the exact cause, these are usually restricted to research settings. Bacterial infection should be considered if a person does not improve with standard treatment, at which point further investigations may be indicated.

Severity.

The most commonly used system for classifying the severity of croup is the Westley score. It is primarily used for research purposes rather than in clinical practice. It is the sum of points assigned for five factors: level of consciousness, cyanosis, stridor, air entry, and retractions. The points given for each factor is listed in the adjacent table, and the final score ranges from 0 to 17.  85% of children presenting to the emergency department have mild disease; severe croup is rare (<1%).

Prevention.

Many cases of croup have been prevented by immunization for influenza and diphtheria. At one time, croup referred to a diphtherial disease, but with vaccination, diphtheria is now rare in the developed world.

Treatment.

Children with croup should generally kept as calm as possible. Steroids are given routinely, with epinephrine used in severe cases. Children with oxygen saturation less than 92% should receive oxygen, and those with severe croup may be hospitalized for observation. If oxygen is needed, "blow-by" administration (holding an oxygen source near the child's face) is recommended, as it causes less agitation than use of a mask. With treatment, less than 0.2% of children require endotracheal intubation.

Steroids.

Corticosteroids, such as dexamethasone and budesonide, have been shown to improve outcomes in children with all severities of croup. Significant relief is obtained as early as two hours after administration. While effective when given by injection, or by inhalation, giving the medication by mouth is preferred. A single dose is usually all that is required, and is generally considered to be quite safe. Dexamethasone at doses of 0.15, 0.3 and 0.6 mg/kg appear to be all equally effective.

Epinephrine.

Moderate to severe croup may be improved temporarily with nebulized epinephrine. While epinephrine typically produces a reduction in croup severity within 10–30 minutes, the benefits last for only about 2 hours. If the condition remains improved for 2–4 hours after treatment and no other complications arise, the child is typically discharged from the hospital.

Other.

While other treatments for croup have been studied, none has sufficient evidence to support its use. Inhalation of hot steam or humidified air is a traditional self-care treatment, but clinical studies have failed to show effectiveness and currently it is rarely used. The use of cough medicines, which usually contain dextromethorphan or guaifenesin, are also discouraged. There is tentative evidence that breathing heliox (a mixture of helium and oxygen) to decrease the work of breathing is useful in those with severe disease. Since croup is usually a viral disease, antibiotics are not used unless secondary bacterial infection is suspected. In cases of possible secondary bacterial infection, the antibiotics vancomycin and cefotaxime are recommended. In severe cases associated with influenza A or B, the antiviral neuraminidase inhibitors may be administered.

Prognosis.

Viral croup is usually a self-limiting disease, with half of cases resolving in a day and 80% of cases in two days. It can very rarely result in death from respiratory failure and/or cardiac arrest. Symptoms usually improve within two days, but may last for up to seven days. Other uncommon complications include bacterial tracheitis, pneumonia, and pulmonary edema.

Epidemiology.

Croup affects about 15% of children, and usually presents between the ages of 6 months and 5–6 years. It accounts for about 5% of hospital admissions in this population. In rare cases, it may occur in children as young as 3 months and as old as 15 years. Males are affected 50% more frequently than are females, and there is an increased prevalence in autumn.

History.

The word "croup" comes from the Early Modern English verb "croup", meaning "to cry hoarsely." The noun describing the disease originated in southeastern Scotland and became widespread after Edinburgh physician Francis Home published the 1765 treatise "An Inquiry into the Nature, Cause, and Cure of the Croup".  Diphtheritic croup has been known since the time of Homer's ancient Greece, and it was not until 1826 that viral croup was differentiated from croup due to diphtheria by Bretonneau. Viral croup was then called "faux-croup" by the French and often called "false croup" in English, as "croup" or "true croup" then most often referred to the disease caused by the diphtheria bacterium. False croup has also been known as pseudo croup or spasmodic croup. Croup due to diphtheria has become nearly unknown in affluent countries in modern times due to the advent of effective immunization.

Croup, also known as laryngotracheobronchitis, is a type of respiratory infection that is usually caused by a virus. The infection leads to swelling inside the trachea, which interferes with normal breathing and produces the classic symptoms of "barking" cough, stridor, and a hoarse voice. Fever and runny nose may also be present. These symptoms may be mild, moderate, or severe. Often it starts or is worse at night and normally lasts one to two days. Croup can be caused by a number of viruses including parainfluenza and influenza virus. Rarely is it due to a bacterial infection. Croup is typically diagnosed based on signs and symptoms after potentially more severe causes, such as epiglottitis or an airway foreign body, have been ruled out. Further investigations—such as blood tests, X-rays, and cultures—are usually not needed. Many cases of croup are preventable by immunization for influenza and diphtheria. Croup is usually treated with a single dose of steroids by mouth. In more severe cases inhaled epinephrine may also be used. Hospitalization is required in one to five percent of cases. Croup is a relatively common condition that affects about 15% of children at some point. It most commonly occurs between 6 months and 5 years of age but may rarely be seen in children as old as fifteen. It is slightly more common in males than females. It occurs most often in autumn. Before vaccination, croup was frequently caused by diphtheria and was often fatal. This cause is now very rare in the Western world due to the success of the diphtheria vaccine.

Krup (neboli laryngotracheobronchitida) je zánětlivé onemocnění dýchacích cest, které je způsobeno virovou infekcí horních cest dýchacích. Infekce vede ke vzniku otoku uvnitř hrdla, který brání normálnímu dýchání. Příznaky krupu jsou „štěkavý“ kašel, stridor (vysoký hvízdavý zvuk při nádechu) a chrapot. Symptomy krupu mohou být mírné, středně těžké nebo těžké a v noci se často zhoršují. Ke zlepšení stavu může pomoci třeba i jen jediná dávka perorálně podávaných steroidů. V závažnějších případech se někdy používá epinefrin (adrenalin). Hospitalizace je nutná jen velmi zřídka.


SMBus/I2C Interoperability.

While SMBus is derived from I2C, there are several major differences between the specifications of the two busses in the areas of electricals, timing, protocols and operating modes.

Electrical.

Input Voltage ("V" and "V").

When mixing devices, the I2C specification defines the input levels to be 30% and 70% of the supply voltage "V", which may be 5 V, 3.3 V, or some other value. Instead of relating the bus input levels to "V", SMBus defines them to be fixed at 0.8 and 2.1 V. SMBus 2.0 supports "V" ranging from 3 to 5 V. SMBus 3.0 supports "V" ranging from 1.8 to 5 V.

Sink Current ("I").

SMBus 2.0 defines a ‘High Power’ class that includes a 4 mA sink current that cannot be driven by I2C chips unless the pull-up resistor is sized to I2C-bus levels.  NXP devices have a higher power set of electrical characteristics than SMBus 1.0. The main difference is the current sink capability with "V" = 0.4 V. SMBus ‘high power’ devices and I2C-bus devices will work together if the pull-up resistor is sized for 3 mA.

Frequency ("F" and "F").

The SMBus clock is defined from 10–100 kHz while I2C can be 0–100 kHz, 0–400 kHz, 0–1 MHz and 0–3.4 MHz, depending on the mode. This means that an I2C bus running at less than 10 kHz will not be SMBus compliant since the SMBus devices may time out. Many SMBus devices will however support lower frequencies.  SMBus 3.0 adds 400 kHz and 1 MHz bus speeds.

Protocols.

ACK and NACK usage.

There are the following differences in the use of the NACK bus signaling: In I2C, a slave receiver is allowed to not acknowledge the slave address, if for example it's unable to receive because it's performing some real time task. SMBus requires devices to acknowledge their own address always, as a mechanism to detect a removable device's presence on the bus (battery, docking station, etc.)  I2C specifies that a slave device, although it may acknowledge its own address, may decide, some time later in the transfer, that it cannot receive any more data bytes. I2C specifies that the device may indicate this by generating the not acknowledge on the first byte to follow.  Other than to indicate a slave's device-busy condition, SMBus also uses the NACK mechanism to indicate the reception of an invalid command or datum. Since such a condition may occur on the last byte of the transfer, it is required that SMBus devices have the ability to generate the not acknowledge after the transfer of each byte and before the completion of the transaction. This is important because SMBus does not provide any other resend signaling. This difference in the use of the NACK signaling has implications on the specific implementation of the SMBus port, especially in devices that handle critical system data such as the SMBus host and the SBS components.

SMBus protocols.

Each message transaction on SMBus follows the format of one of the defined SMBus protocols. The SMBus protocols are a subset of the data transfer formats defined in the I2C specifications. I2C devices that can be accessed through one of the SMBus protocols are compatible with the SMBus specifications. I2C devices that do not adhere to these protocols cannot be accessed by standard methods as defined in the SMBus and Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) specifications.

Address Resolution Protocol.

The SMBus uses I2C hardware and I2C hardware addressing, but adds second-level software for building special systems. In particular its specifications include an Address Resolution Protocol that can make dynamic address allocations. Dynamic reconfiguration of the hardware and software allow bus devices to be ‘hot-plugged’ and used immediately, without restarting the system. The devices are recognized automatically and assigned unique addresses. This advantage results in a plug-and-play user interface. In both those protocols there is a very useful distinction made between a System Host and all the other devices in the system that can have the names and functions of masters or slaves.

Time-out feature.

SMBus has a time-out feature which resets devices if a communication takes too long. This explains the minimum clock frequency of 10 kHz to prevent locking up the bus. I2C can be a ‘DC’ bus, meaning that a slave device stretches the master clock when performing some routine while the master is accessing it. This will notify to the master that the slave is busy but does not want to lose the communication. The slave device will allow continuation after its task is complete. There is no limit in the I2C-bus protocol as to how long this delay can be, whereas for an SMBus system, it would be limited to 35 ms. The SMBus protocol just assumes that if something takes too long, then it means that there is a problem on the bus and that all devices must reset in order to clear this mode. Slave devices are not then allowed to hold the clock LOW too long.

Packet Error Checking.

SMBus 1.1 and later define optional Packet Error Checking (PEC). In that mode, a PEC (packet error code) byte is appended at the end of each transaction. The byte is calculated as CRC-8 checksum, calculated over the entire message including the address and read/write bit. The polynomial used is x+x+x+1 (the CRC-8-ATM HEC algorithm, initialized to zero).

SMBALERT#.

The SMBus has an extra optional shared interrupt signal called SMBALERT#, which can be used by slaves to tell the host to ask its slaves about events of interest. SMBus also defines a less common "Host Notify Protocol", providing similar notifications but passing more data and building on the I2C multi-master mode.

Support.

SMBus devices are supported by FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, DragonFly BSD, Linux, Windows 2000 and newer and Windows CE.

The System Management Bus (abbreviated to SMBus or SMB) is a single-ended simple two-wire bus for the purpose of lightweight communication. Most commonly it is found in computer motherboards for communication with the power source for ON/OFF instructions.

System Management Bus (zkráceně SMBus nebo SMB) je jednoduchá dvouvodičová sběrnice vyvinutá za účelem snadné komunikace. Nejčastěji ji můžeme nalézt na základních deskách počítače pro komunikaci se zdrojem napájení instrukcí ON/OFF.


Overview.

WBS is a hierarchical and incremental decomposition of the project into phases, deliverables and work packages. It is a tree structure, which shows a subdivision of effort required to achieve an objective; for example a program, project, and contract. In a project or contract, the WBS is developed by starting with the end objective and successively subdividing it into manageable components in terms of size, duration, and responsibility (e.g., systems, subsystems, components, tasks, subtasks, and work packages) which include all steps necessary to achieve the objective. The work breakdown structure provides a common framework for the natural development of the overall planning and control of a contract and is the basis for dividing work into definable increments from which the statement of work can be developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be established.  A work breakdown structure permits summing of subordinate costs for tasks, materials, etc., into their successively higher level "parent" tasks, materials, etc. For each element of the work breakdown structure, a description of the task to be performed is generated. This technique (sometimes called a "system breakdown structure") is used to define and organize the total scope of a project.  The WBS is organized around the primary products of the project (or planned outcomes) instead of the work needed to produce the products (planned actions). Since the planned outcomes are the desired ends of the project, they form a relatively stable set of categories in which the costs of the planned actions needed to achieve them can be collected. A well-designed WBS makes it easy to assign each project activity to one and only one terminal element of the WBS. In addition to its function in cost accounting, the WBS also helps map requirements from one level of system specification to another, for example, a cross reference matrix mapping functional requirements to high level or low level design documents. The WBS may be displayed horizontally in outline form, or vertically as a tree structure (like an organization chart).  The development of the WBS normally occurs at the start of a project and precedes detailed project and task planning.

History.

The concept of work breakdown structure developed with the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) by the United States Department of Defense (DoD). PERT was introduced by the U.S. Navy in 1957 to support the development of its Polaris missile program. While the term "work breakdown structure" was not used, this first implementation of PERT did organize the tasks into product-oriented categories.  By June 1962, DoD, NASA and the aerospace industry published a document for the PERT/COST system which described the WBS approach. This guide was endorsed by the Secretary of Defense for adoption by all services. In 1968, the DoD issued "Work Breakdown Structures for Defense Materiel Items" (MIL-STD-881), a military standard requiring the use of work breakdown structures across the DoD.  The document has been revised several times, most recently in 2018. The current version of this document can be found in "Work Breakdown Structures for Defense Material Items" (MIL-STD-881D). It includes WBS definitions for specific defense materiel commodity systems, and addresses WBS elements that are common to all systems.  Defense Materiel Item categories from MIL-STD-881D are:  The common elements identified in MIL-STD-881D, Appendix K are: Integration, assembly, test, and checkout; Systems engineering; Program management; System test and evaluation; Data; Peculiar support equipment; Common support equipment; Operational/Site activation; Contractor Logistics Support; Industrial facilities; Initial spares and repair parts. The standard also includes additional common elements unique to Space Systems, Launch Vehicle Systems, and Strategic Missile Systems.  In 1987, the Project Management Institute (PMI) documented the expansion of these techniques across non-defense organizations. The "Project Management Body of Knowledge" (PMBOK) Guide provides an overview of the WBS concept, while the "Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structures" is comparable to the DoD standard, but is intended for more general application.

Design principles.

100% rule.

An important design principle for work breakdown structures is called the 100% rule. It has been defined as follows:

Mutually exclusive elements.

Mutually exclusive: In addition to the 100% rule, it is important that there is no overlap in scope definition between different elements of a work breakdown structure. This ambiguity could result in duplicated work or miscommunications about responsibility and authority. Such overlap could also cause confusion regarding project cost accounting. If the WBS element names are ambiguous, a WBS dictionary can help clarify the distinctions between WBS elements. The WBS Dictionary describes each component of the WBS with milestones, deliverables, activities, scope, and sometimes dates, resources, costs, quality.

Plan outcomes, not actions.

If the work breakdown structure designer attempts to capture any action-oriented details in the WBS, the designer will likely include either too many actions or too few actions. Too many actions will exceed 100% of the parent's scope and too few will fall short of 100% of the parent's scope. The best way to adhere to the 100% rule is to define WBS elements in terms of outcomes or results, not actions. This also ensures that the WBS is not overly prescriptive of methods, allowing for greater ingenuity and creative thinking on the part of the project participants. For new product development projects, the most common technique to ensure an outcome-oriented WBS is to use a product breakdown structure. Feature-driven software projects may use a similar technique which is to employ a feature breakdown structure. When a project provides professional services, a common technique is to capture all planned deliverables to create a deliverable-oriented WBS. Work breakdown structures that subdivide work by project phases (e.g. preliminary design phase, critical design phase) must ensure that phases are clearly separated by a deliverable also used in defining entry and exit criteria (e.g. an approved preliminary or critical design review).

Level of detail.

One must decide when to stop dividing work into smaller elements. For most projects a hierarchy of two to four levels will suffice. This will assist in determining the duration of activities necessary to produce a deliverable defined by the WBS. There are several heuristics or "rules of thumb" used when determining the appropriate duration of an activity or group of activities necessary to produce a specific deliverable defined by the WBS.  A work package at the activity level is a task that:

Coding scheme.

It is common for work breakdown structure elements to be numbered sequentially to reveal the hierarchical structure. The purpose for the numbering is to provide a consistent approach to identifying and managing the WBS across like systems regardless of vendor or service. For example, 1.1.2 Propulsion (in the example below) identifies this item as a Level 3 WBS element, since there are three numbers separated by two decimal points. A coding scheme also helps WBS elements to be recognized in any written context and allows for mapping to the WBS Dictionary.  A practical example of the WBS coding scheme is  "1.0 Aircraft System"

Terminal element.

The lowest element in a tree structure, a terminal element is one that is not further subdivided. In a Work Breakdown Structure such elements (activity or deliverable), also known as work packages, are the items that are estimated in terms of resource requirements, budget and duration; linked by dependencies; and scheduled. At the juncture of the WBS element and organization unit, control accounts and work packages are established and performance is planned, measured, recorded and controlled. A WBS can be expressed down to any level of interest. Three levels are the minimum recommended, with additional levels for and only for items of high cost or high risk, and two levels of detail at cases such as systems engineering or program management, with the standard showing examples of WBS with varying depth such as software development at points going to 5 levels or fire-control system to 7 levels.

Consistent to norms.

The higher WBS structure should be consistent to whatever norms or template mandates exist within the organization or domain. For example, shipbuilding for the U.S. Navy must respect that the nautical terms and their hierarchy structure put into MIL-STD are embedded in Naval Architecture and that matching Navy offices and procedures have been built to match this naval architecture structure, so any significant change of WBS element numbering or naming in the hierarchy would be unacceptable.

Example.

The figure on the left shows a work breakdown structure construction technique that demonstrates the 100% rule and the "progressive elaboration" technique. At WBS Level 1 it shows 100 units of work as the total scope of a project to design and build a custom bicycle. At WBS Level 2, the 100 units are divided into seven elements. The number of units allocated to each element of work can be based on effort or cost; it is not an estimate of task duration.  The three largest elements of WBS Level 2 are further subdivided at Level 3. The two largest elements at Level 3 each represent only 17% of the total scope of the project. These larger elements could be further subdivided using the "progressive elaboration" technique described above.  WBS design can be supported by software (e.g. a spreadsheet) to allow automatic rolling up of point values. Estimates of effort or cost can be developed through discussions among project team members. This collaborative technique builds greater insight into scope definitions, underlying assumptions, and consensus regarding the level of granularity required to manage the projects.

A work-breakdown structure (WBS) in project management and systems engineering, is a deliverable-oriented breakdown of a project into smaller components. A work breakdown structure is a key project deliverable that organizes the team's work into manageable sections. The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK 5) defines the work-breakdown structure "A hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by the project team to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables."

Work breakdown structure často zkracovaný jako WBS je dokument používaný v projektovém managementu. Obsahuje hierarchický rozklad cíle projektu (předmětu plnění projektu) na jednotlivé dodávané výsledky a dále postupně na jednotlivé produkty a podprodukty až na úroveň jednotlivých pracovních balíků, které musí být vytvořeny v průběhu projektu. Pojem WBS nemá jednoznačně přijímaný český překlad. Používá se pojem "Hierarchická struktura prací" nebo "Hierarchická struktura činností", který ale může být zavádějící. Ani v anglických zdrojích není terminologie zcela ustálená. Objevuje se i pojem "Scope Breakdown structure" (zkratka SBS). Tento název z faktického pohledu popisuje princip tohoto dokumentu a techniky jeho tvorby výstižněji, ale je používán mnohem méně a jeho zkratka má mnoho dalších významů. V dalším textu je používána ustálená zkratka WBS.


Early life and World War I infantry service.

Ivan Vasilyevich Smirnov was born on 30 January 1895. He was the fourth child born into a peasant family whose farm was near Vladimir. He received little schooling; his family existed in a state of near-serfdom. The peasantry to which he belonged could not even work in a local factory without continuing to farm the community's land. It was a situation with little chance for improving one's life.  At the outbreak of World War I Smirnov enrolled as a volunteer in the 96th Omsk Infantry Regiment. After a short spell of training, the unit went into ferocious combat in the Battle of Łódź; the barely-trained regiment suffered severe casualties both from its well-schooled German foe and from the foul weather. Concerning this period, Smirnov later remarked, "We were thrown in as mere gun fodder..." He also noted that his contingent of 90 soldiers was rapidly reduced to 19 by casualties.  In late October, Ivan Smirnov carried out a series of hazardous ground reconnaissance patrols. For this, he was recommended for the Fourth Class Cross of St. George on 24 October 1914. Shortly thereafter, he was the final man standing out of the original 90 recruits.  He was seriously wounded in the leg by machine gun fire on 8 December 1914 and was medically evacuated on a hospital train to Petrograd. He would be laid up five months. During that time, he became interested in flying. As it happened, his nurse's father was a general on the staff of Grand Duke Michael, who was the Inspector-general of the Imperial Russian Air Service; the nurse's father had sufficient influence to arrange Smirnov's transition to aviation.  After healing in hospital, he was sent home on a month's convalescent leave. While on this leave, he sent an official appeal to Grand Duke Michael; in it Smirnov requested a transfer to aviation. It was granted, and he reported to pilot's training in Petrograd on 21 August 1915.

World War I aviation service.

Smirnov trained for 18 days at Petrograd, progressing to flying 3.5 hours dual instruction with an instructor on a Caudron trainer. He was then shifted to the flying school in Moscow. He arrived there on 25 October 1915, to begin mastery of the Farman IV biplane. He soloed on the Farman, and was first in his class to graduate the primary course and begin advanced training.  As the IRAS revamped its structure in 1916, Smirnov received advanced instruction on Morane-Saulnier G and Moska MBbis aircraft to fit him for flying fighters in the new fighter squadrons being formed. On 10 September 1916, Efreitor Smirnov qualified as a military pilot, on a Morane-Saulnier L.  He was then assigned to the elite 19th "Korpusnoi Aviatsionniy Otrad" (19th Corps Aviation Detachment) at Lutsk. When he reported in on 20 September 1916, he was cordially greeted by his new commander, Alexander Kazakov. As the newest pilot, Smirnov was assigned a two-seater Nieuport 10, as more experienced pilots had first call on the unit's single-seater fighters. Undeterred by his inferior aircraft; as early as 1 October, he was already in combat. However, worsening autumn weather slowed the unit's operational tempo for the winter. Smirnov would not score his first victory until 2 January 1917, when he and his observer downed an enemy machine with rifle fire.  While this was occurring, the 19th KAO was ensnarled in its logistical move to Galicia. Differing railway gauges and incompetent staff logistic work delayed the fighter unit's arrival at its new base until 6 April 1917. As a result, Smirnov did not fly combat again until 18 April, when he closed within 50 meters firing range of an enemy plane, but failed to down it. On 27 April, he won the Third Class Cross of Saint George, in an action whose details do not survive. Ivan Smirnov would not score his second confirmed victory until 2 May 1917. He was granted the Second Class Cross of Saint George for this feat.  His initial victory brought the young corporal a recommendation for commissioning. While the recommendation was in progress, he was promoted to "Starshyi Unter-Officer" (Sergeant). On 13 May 1917, the appointment as "Praporshchik" came through on Order 506 of the Southwest Front armies. Five days later, he fought an inconclusive battle with an enemy aircraft over Bolshovtse; there were no witnesses to the enemy's forced landing, and Smirnov's machine was badly damaged in the encounter.  On 3 June, Smirnov was recommended for the official title of Military Pilot and rewarded with a month's leave. After his return, on 5 July, Smirnov moved up to a newer machine, Nieuport 17 serial number N2522. The 19th would move again a few days later. Smirnov continued to fly combat, and to fight, but with no further success until August, when he was promoted to Ensign.  In August 1917, Smirnov racked up more flight time than anyone else in the 19th, clocking 56 hours air time in 27 sorties. On the 23rd, he fought six times, and was credited with his third aerial victory. This began a victory run that extended through his 11th victory, on 26 November 1917. Intermixed with these successes, Smirnov flew escort missions for the huge Sikorsky Ilya Muromets bombers on both 2 and 12 September, but encountered no opposition.

List of aerial victories.

Confirmed victories are numbered and listed chronologically.

Defection.

The political turmoil of the October Revolution now affected the unit, with the local Revolutionary Military Committee usurping command in December 1917. The incoming Bolshevik regime declared a ceasefire on 7 November 1917, though Smirnov continued to fly. Soldiers Committees began to take power in the Russian military; they condoned the murder of their officers. Smirnov's last victory had brought him a congratulatory telegram from General Vyatcheslav Tkachev; that brought the attention of Bolshevik enlisted men in his unit. On 18 December 1917, the IRAS was grounded. Fearing Bolshevist persecution because they were officers, Smirnov and two other pilots deserted on the 27th. They commandeered an automobile to take them to Kamianets-Podilskyi. The three deserters secretively boarded a train to continue their escape. They spent a hazardous month dodging Soviet authorities while transiting Russia. They reached Vladivostok before the incoming Bolsheviks could arrive to assume control. Smirnov and his friends made the rounds of foreign consulates, being refused help by both the Americans and the French. However, the British were amenable to their joining the Royal Flying Corps in England. A friend supplied Smirnov with someone else's Russian passport to travel upon. Smirnov and his friend Lipsky set out on a nine-month voyage to the British Isles. Their journey took them through the ports of Hong Kong, Shanghai, Saigon, and Singapore; they had to escape confinement in a prisoner of war camp in the latter. After further stops in Yangon, Colombo, and Aden, they came ashore in Suez and caught on as pilots with a British Airco DH.9 squadron for a while.  When they left the squadron, they transited Port Said and Alexandria, Egypt. They finally landed in England at Plymouth. Through the intercession of Air Vice-Marshal Sefton Brancker, they were retrained at the Central Flying School at Upavon on Bristol F.2 Fighters, Avro 504Ks, and Royal Aircraft Factory SE.5as. However, the end of World War I saw Smirnov demobilized from the Royal Air Force.

Civilian pilot of KLM.

When he was demobilized, Smirnov snagged a flight instructor's job through a Russian officers' emigre association. The ace taught Russian pilots to fly Sopwith Camels, Airco DH.9s, Sopwith Snipes, and Bristol F.2 Fighters at RAF Netheravon. The flying school closed after a few months. Smirnov then took ship again, joining a group of other Russian pilots bound for Novorossiysk to join the Volunteer Army of the White Russian counter-revolutionists. When Smirnov arrived in August 1919, he was met by his old friend Lipsky. The latter advised Smirnov that the Volunteer Army was disintegrating from defeat, and that he should flee the coming disaster. Smirnov stowed away on an outbound ship the next morning. He ended up in Paris, where he became the assistant Air Attaché and Chief Pilot for the Russian royalist government in exile.  After the new Communist government gained control in Russia, Smirnov returned to work in the Handley Page factory. Following this, he returned to piloting, joining the pioneering Belgian airline SNETA in 1920. He carried passengers in SPADs and Airco DH.9s until in September 1921 a hangar fire consumed his assigned aircraft, leaving him jobless. He moved on to the Netherlands, and began flying for KLM in 1922. On 19 October 1923, he departed Schiphol in a Fokker F.III loaded with three passengers. Engine failure brought them down on the Goodwin Sands of the English Channel, necessitating a rescue by the collier "Primo" before incoming tides submerged the aircraft. Smirnov was consequently nicknamed "Earl of the Goodwins".  In September 1928, Smirnov pioneered the postal route from Amsterdam to Batavia, Dutch East Indies for KLM, an 18,000 mile round trip. The first flight to Java, scheduled to take 12 days of daylight flying, took 16 days including stops and accidents. Five years later, between 18 and 22 December 1933, he and his crew (, J.M.H. Grosfeld and C.H. van Beukering) set a record time of 100 hours and 35 minutes on this route, flying a Fokker F.XVIII dubbed "Pelikaan" ("Pelican"). On the return flight (27–30 December), they bested this time by 10 minutes despite bad weather conditions. 22,000 people welcomed them back at Schiphol to celebrate their return. In 1940, Smirnov was permanently posted in Indonesia by KLM.

World War II.

At the time of the German invasion of the Netherlands in May 1940, Smirnov and his wife lived in Napels, which since the outbreak of World War II had functioned as the terminal of the KLM route to the East Indies. He moved to Java and continued flying the route, until the Japanese invasion of the Dutch East Indies in December 1941. Though returned to military flying as a (reserve) captain in the army aviation corps, he remained also active as a civilian pilot. He evacuated Dutch women, children, and VIPs to Australia, at times taking off just minutes before the invaders arrived. Eventually, on 3 March 1942, his luck ran out. He was flying PK-AFV, a DC-3 Dakota again dubbed "Pelikaan", when he was attacked by three Japanese Zeroes. Although wounded five times in the arm, the ex-fighter pilot threw his transport into a diving spiral away from the attacking fighters to make his escape. He crashlanded the DC-3 on a sandy beach, four of his passengers dying in the event. The survivors and cargo were rescued five days later, though a packet of diamonds went missing. (For more details, see 1942 KNILM Douglas DC-3 shootdown)  After recovery from his injuries Smirnov worked as a captain in the US 317th Troop Carrier Group despite attempts to ground him because of his age and chronic injuries. He would serve through war's end, and return to his civil job with KLM. His Second World War exploits brought him the Dutch Distinguished Flying Cross, the French "Croix de Guerre", and installation as Knight of the Order of Orange Nassau from the Netherlands.

After the war.

Back in The Netherlands, Smirnov took up old activities and began to fly on his beloved Java route again. But in 1948 Smirnov got an offer he could not resist. He was asked to pilot a World Tour. The American Atlas Supply Company, a subsidiary of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, was planning a 100-day round-the-world flight on which heads of important American firms would act as their own commercial travellers. The plane in which they flew would be a travelling stockroom, loaded with colour films, scale models, give-away samples and literature in many languages. The Sky Merchant, a Douglas DC4, was to travel a route of 80.000 kilometres, crossing the equator six times, visiting all five continents, twenty-eight countries and forty-five principal cities. Smirnov was delighted.  Postwar, Smirnov was eventually grounded for medical reasons after 30,000+ flying hours, but remained with KLM as a senior advisor until his retirement in August 1949.

Personal life.

Since moving to the Netherlands in 1921 Smirnov lived In Amsterdam. In October 1925 he married the Danish actress Margot Linnet, whom he had met in June of that year in Copenhagen. In 1929, he became a naturalized Dutch citizen with the name Iwan Wasiliwitsj Smirnoff, a spelling he always used himself. He moved to Heemstede in 1936, where he named his house "De Pelikaan" after the airplane of his record flight. After Margot's death of cancer in July 1947 he married the American heiress Mina (Niki) Redwood in September 1948 in New York. He did not have children in either marriage. In November 1952 Mina and Ivan moved from Heemstede to Cala d'Or on the Balearic Island of Majorca. He died in Palma on 28 October 1956 and was buried on the island. However, on 20 November 1959, he was reinterred in Heemstede.

References.

Ivan meets Margot Linnet

Ivan Vasilyevich Smirnov, or Iwan Smirnoff (; 30 January 1895 – 28 October 1956), was a Russian World War I flying ace and naturalized Dutch aviator who pioneered the Europe to South East Asia routes. He was born to a poor peasant family, but through courage and good fortune managed to become an officer in the Imperial Russian Air Service. After surviving extremely dangerous infantry combat, he trained as a pilot, and was subsequently credited with 11 aerial victories during World War I. When the October Revolution ended his participation in the war, he deserted and became an itinerant pilot. He would serve short spells in the Royal Air Force, the Volunteer Army of Anton Denikin, Handley Page and SNETA. The Russian emigrant subsequently piloted for KLM for the next 25 years, pioneering air routes to the Dutch East Indies in the process. In December 1941, Smirnov returned to military flying during the frenzied air evacuation of Dutch nationals. After the Dutch East Indies were overrun by the Japanese, he joined the U.S. Air Transport Command. Despite official attempts to ground the aged and oft wounded pilot, he served through war's end. He then returned to KLM. After the inevitable grounding (after 30,000+ flying hours), he continued with the company as its chief advisor.

Ivan Vasiljevič Smirnov (; –28. října 1956), ruské letecké eso. Patří s 13 potvrzenými sestřely k nejúspěšnějším stíhačům Velké války.


Ancestry and early life.

William R. Hearst was born in San Francisco to George Hearst, a millionaire mining engineer, owner of gold and other mines through his corporation, and his much younger wife Phoebe Apperson Hearst, from a small town in Missouri. The elder Hearst later entered politics, and served as a US Senator, first appointed for a brief period in 1886, then elected later that year. He served from 1887 to his death in 1891.  His paternal great-grandfather was John Hearst of Ulster Protestant origin. John Hearst, with his wife and six children, migrated to America from Ballybay, County Monaghan, Ireland, as part of the Cahans Exodus in 1766, and settled in South Carolina. Their immigration to South Carolina was spurred in part by the colonial government's policy that encouraged the immigration of Irish Protestants, many of Scots origin. The names "John Hearse" and "John Hearse Jr." appear on the council records of

Publishing business.

Searching for an occupation, in 1887 Hearst took over management of his father's newspaper, the "San Francisco Examiner", which his father had acquired in 1880 as repayment for a gambling debt. Giving his paper the grand motto "Monarch of the

"New York Morning Journal".

Early in his career at the "San Francisco Examiner," Hearst envisioned running a large newspaper chain, and "always knew that his dream of a nation-spanning, multi-paper news operation was impossible without a triumph in New York". In 1895, with the financial support of his widowed mother (his father had died in 1891), Hearst bought the failing "New York Morning Journal", hiring writers such as Stephen Crane and Julian Hawthorne, and entering into a head-to-head circulation war with Joseph Pulitzer, owner and publisher of the "New York World." Hearst "stole" Richard F. Outcault, the creator of color comics, and all of Pulitzer's Sunday staff as well. Another prominent hire was James J. Montague, who came from the "Portland Oregonian" and started his well-known "More Truth Than Poetry" column at the Hearst-owned "New York Evening Journal."  When Hearst purchased the "penny paper", so called because its copies sold for a penny apiece, the "Journal" was competing with New York's 16 other major dailies. It had a strong focus on Democratic Party politics. Hearst imported his best managers from the "San Francisco Examiner" and "quickly established himself as the most attractive employer" among New York newspapers. He was generous, paid more than his competitors, gave credit to his writers with page-one bylines, and was unfailingly polite, unassuming, "impeccably calm", and indulgent of "prima donnas, eccentrics, bohemians, drunks, or reprobates so long as they had useful talents".  Hearst's activist approach to journalism can be summarized by the motto, "While others Talk, the "Journal" Acts."

Yellow journalism and rivalry with the "New York World".

The New York "Journal" and its chief rival, the "New York World," mastered a style of popular journalism that came to be derided as "yellow journalism", after Outcault's Yellow Kid comic. Pulitzer's "World" had pushed the boundaries of mass appeal for newspapers through bold headlines, aggressive news gathering, generous use of cartoons and illustrations, populist politics, progressive crusades, an exuberant public spirit, and dramatic crime and human-interest stories. Hearst's "Journal" used the same recipe for success, forcing Pulitzer to drop the price of the "World" from two cents to a penny. Soon the two papers were

Spanish–American War.

The "Morning Journal's" daily circulation routinely climbed above the 1 million mark after the sinking of the and U.S. entry into the Spanish–American War, a war that some dubbed, "The "Journal"s War", due to the paper's immense influence in provoking American outrage against Spain. Much of the coverage leading up to the war, beginning with the outbreak of the Cuban Revolution in 1895, was tainted by rumor, propaganda, and sensationalism, with the "yellow" papers regarded as the worst offenders. The "Journal" and other New York newspapers were so one-sided and full of errors in their reporting that coverage of the Cuban crisis and the ensuing Spanish–American War is often cited as one of the most significant milestones in the rise of yellow journalism's hold over the mainstream media. Huge headlines in the "Journal" assigned blame for the "Maine's" destruction on sabotage, which was based on no evidence. This reporting stoked outrage and indignation against Spain among the paper's readers in New York.  The "Journal's" crusade against Spanish rule in Cuba was not due to mere jingoism, although "the democratic ideals and humanitarianism that inspired their coverage are largely lost to history," as are their "heroic efforts to find the truth on the island under unusually difficult circumstances." The "Journal's" journalistic activism in support of the Cuban rebels, rather, was centered around Hearst's political and business ambitions.  Perhaps the best known myth in American journalism is the claim, without any contemporary evidence, that the illustrator Frederic Remington, sent by Hearst to

Expansion.

In part to aid in his political ambitions, Hearst opened newspapers in other cities, among them Chicago, Los Angeles and Boston. In 1915, he founded International Film Service, an animation studio designed to exploit the popularity of the comic strips he controlled. The creation of his Chicago paper was requested by the Democratic National Committee. Hearst used this as an excuse for his mother Phoebe Hearst to transfer him the necessary start-up funds. By the mid-1920s he had a nationwide string of 28 newspapers, among them the "Los Angeles Examiner", the "Boston American", the "Atlanta Georgian", the "Chicago Examiner", the "Detroit Times", the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", the "Washington Times", the "Washington Herald", and his flagship, the "San Francisco Examiner".  Hearst also diversified his publishing interests into book publishing and magazines. Several of the latter are still in circulation, including such periodicals as "Cosmopolitan", "Good Housekeeping", "Town and Country", and "Harper's Bazaar". In 1924, Hearst opened the "New York Daily Mirror," a racy tabloid frankly imitating the "New York Daily News." Among his other holdings were two news services, Universal News and International News Service, or INS, the latter of which he founded in 1909. He also owned INS companion radio station WINS in New York); King Features Syndicate, which still owns the copyrights of a number of popular comics characters; a film company, Cosmopolitan Productions; extensive New York City real estate; and thousands of acres of land in California and Mexico, along with timber and mining interests inherited from his

Involvement in politics.

Hearst won two elections to Congress, then lost a series of elections. He narrowly failed in attempts to become mayor of New York City in both 1905 and 1909 and governor of New York in 1906, nominally remaining a Democrat while also creating the Independence Party. He was defeated for the governorship by Charles Evans Hughes. Hearst's unsuccessful campaigns for office after his tenure in the House of Representatives earned him the unflattering but short-lived nickname of "William 'Also-Randolph' Hearst", which was coined by Wallace Irwin.  Hearst was on the left wing of the Progressive Movement, speaking on behalf of the working class (who bought his papers) and denouncing the rich and powerful (who disdained his editorials). With the support of Tammany Hall (the regular Democratic organization in Manhattan), Hearst was elected to Congress from New York in 1902 and 1904. He made a major effort to win the 1904 Democratic nomination for president, losing to conservative Alton B. Parker. Breaking with Tammany in 1907, Hearst ran for mayor of New York City under a third party of his own creation, the Municipal Ownership League. Tammany Hall exerted its utmost to defeat him.  An opponent of the British Empire, Hearst opposed American involvement in the First World War and attacked the formation of the League of Nations. His newspapers abstained from endorsing any candidate in 1920 and 1924. Hearst's last bid for office came in 1922, when he was backed by Tammany Hall leaders for the U.S. Senate nomination in New York. Al Smith vetoed this, earning the lasting enmity of Hearst. Although Hearst shared Smith's opposition to Prohibition, he swung his papers behind Herbert Hoover in the 1928 presidential election. Hearst's support for Franklin D. Roosevelt at the 1932 Democratic National Convention, via his allies William Gibbs McAdoo and John Nance Garner, can also be seen as part of his vendetta against Smith, who was an opponent of Roosevelt's at that convention.

180-degree change: Hearst to the right.

As biographer Ben Proctor explains:  Hearst broke with FDR in spring 1935 when the president vetoed the Patman Bonus Bill for veterans and tried to enter the World Court. Hearst's papers were his weapon. They carried the publisher's rambling, vitriolic, all-capital-letters editorials, but he no longer employed the energetic reporters, editors, and columnists who might have made a serious attack. He reached 20 million readers in the mid-1930s, but they included much of the working class which Roosevelt had attracted by three-to-one margins in the 1936 election. The Hearst papers—like

Personal life.

Millicent Willson.

In 1903, Hearst married Millicent Veronica Willson (1882–1974), a 21-year-old chorus girl, in New York City. Evidence in Louis Pizzitola's book, "Hearst Over Hollywood", indicates that Millicent's mother Hannah Willson ran a Tammany-connected and protected brothel near the headquarters of political power in New York City at the turn of the 20th

Marion Davies.

Conceding an end to his political hopes, Hearst became involved in an affair with the film actress and comedian Marion Davies (1897–1961), former mistress of his friend Paul Block. From about 1919, he lived openly with her in California. The affair dominated Davies's life. After the death of Patricia Lake (1919/1923-1993), who

California properties.

Beginning in 1919, Hearst began to build Hearst Castle, which he never completed, on a ranch at San Simeon, California, which he had inherited from his father. He furnished the mansion with art, antiques, and entire historic rooms purchased and brought from the great houses of Europe. He established an Arabian horse breeding operation on the grounds of the ranch.  Hearst also had a property on the McCloud River in Siskiyou County, in far northern California, called Wyntoon. The buildings at Wyntoon were designed by architect Julia Morgan, who also designed Hearst Castle and worked in collaboration with William J. Dodd on a number of other projects.  In 1947, Hearst paid $120,000 for an H-shaped Beverly Hills mansion, (located at 1011 N Beverly Dr), on 3.7 acres three blocks from Sunset Boulevard. This home, known as Beverly House, was once perhaps the "most expensive" private home in the U.S., valued at $165 million (£130.5 million).

Art collection.

Hearst was renowned for his extensive collection of international art that spanned centuries. Most notable in his collection were his Greek vases, Spanish and Italian furniture, Oriental carpets, Renaissance vestments, an extensive library with many books signed by their authors, and paintings and statues. In addition to collecting pieces of fine art, he also gathered manuscripts, rare books, and autographs. His guests included varied celebrities and politicians, who stayed in rooms furnished with pieces of antique furniture and

St Donat's Castle.

After seeing photographs of St. Donat's Castle in "Country Life Magazine," Hearst bought the Vale of Glamorgan property in Wales and renovated it in 1925 as a love gift to Davies. The Castle was restored by Hearst, who spent a fortune buying entire rooms from castles and palaces in Europe. The Great Hall was bought from the Bradenstoke Priory in Wiltshire and reconstructed brick by brick in its current site at St. Donat's Castle. From the Bradenstoke Priory, he also bought and removed the guest house, Prior's

Interest in aviation.

Hearst was particularly interested in the newly emerging technologies relating to aviation and had his first experience of flight in January

Financial disaster.

Hearst's crusade against Roosevelt and the New Deal, combined with union strikes and boycotts of his properties, undermined the financial strength of his empire. Circulation of his major publications declined in the mid-1930s, while rivals such as the New York "Daily News" were flourishing. He refused to take effective cost-cutting measures, and instead increased his very expensive art purchases. His friend Joseph P. Kennedy offered to buy the magazines, but Hearst jealously guarded his empire and refused. Instead, he sold some of his heavily mortgaged real

Final years and death.

After the disastrous financial losses of the 1930s, the Hearst Company returned to profitability during the Second World War, when advertising revenues skyrocketed. Hearst, after spending much of the war at his estate of Wyntoon, returned to San Simeon full-time in 1945 and resumed building works. He also continued collecting, on a reduced scale. He threw himself into philanthropy by donating a great many works to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.  In 1947, Hearst left his San Simeon estate to seek medical care, which was unavailable in the remote location. He died in

Criticism.

Joe Rogan and various other media outlets have attempted to bring attention to Hearst's involvement in the prohibition of cannabis in America. Hearst collaborated with Harry J. Anslinger to ban hemp due to the threat that the burgeoning hemp industry posed to his major investment and market share in the paper milling industry. This partnership to market propaganda against cannabis also created an immeasurable, long-lasting negative impact on global socioeconomics.  As Martin Lee and Norman Solomon noted in their 1990 book "Unreliable Sources," Hearst "routinely invented sensational stories, faked

In fiction.

"Citizen Kane".

The film "Citizen Kane" (released on May 1, 1941) is loosely based on Hearst's life. Welles and his collaborator, screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, created Kane as a composite character, among them Harold McCormick, Samuel Insull and Howard Hughes. Hearst, enraged at the idea of "Citizen Kane" being a thinly disguised and very unflattering portrait of him used his massive influence and resources to prevent the film from being released—all without

William Randolph Hearst Sr. (; April 29, 1863 – August 14, 1951) was an American businessman, newspaper publisher, and politician known for developing the nation's largest newspaper chain and media company, Hearst Communications. His flamboyant methods of yellow journalism influenced the nation's popular media by emphasizing sensationalism and human interest stories. Hearst entered the publishing business in 1887 with Mitchell Trubitt after being given control of "The San Francisco Examiner" by his wealthy father.

William Randolph Hearst (29. dubna 1863 – 14. srpna 1951) byl americký vydavatel novin, který vybudoval největší státní novinovou síť své doby. Svou kariéru započal roku 1887, kdy po svém otci převzal vedení bulvárních novin The San Francisco Examiner. Později vedl i The New York Journal. Pomáhal stvořit typ žurnalistiky zvaný žlutá žurnalistika.


Geography.

Peaceful Valley is located at (48.942689, -122.147401).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 17.0 square miles (44.0 km2), of which, 16.9 square miles (43.9 km2) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.1 km2) of it (0.29%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,448 people, 787 households, and 571 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 144.5 people per square mile (55.8/km2). There were 1,156 housing units at an average density of 68.3/sq mi (26.3/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 92.24% White, 0.29% African American, 2.21% Native American, 0.45% Asian, 0.20% Pacific Islander, 1.18% from other races, and 3.43% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.25% of the population.  There were 787 households out of which 45.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.9% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.4% were non-families. 18.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.11 and the average family size was 3.61.  In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 38.1% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 30.9% from 25 to 44, 16.8% from 45 to 64, and 5.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.6 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $32,357, and the median income for a family was $34,141. Males had a median income of $31,853 versus $19,833 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $12,733. About 27.7% of families and 36.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 52.8% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.  Since the 1990s the community has experienced a considerable influx of Russians and Russian Americans, many of whom are evangelical Christians who were granted asylum in the United States. 34.7% of the children and 24% of the general population speak Russian as a first language and 12.2% of the population were born in Russia.

Peaceful Valley is a census-designated place (CDP) in Whatcom County, Washington, United States, near Kendall. The population was 3,324 at the 2010 census.

Peaceful Valley je obec v okrese Whatcom v americkém státě Washington. Při sčítání lidu v roce 2010 zde žilo 3 324 obyvatel, z nichž 88 % tvořili běloši, 2 % původní obyvatelé a 1 % Asiaté. 8 % obyvatel bylo hispánského původu, 24 % obyvatelstva pak uvedlo ruštinu jako svůj první jazyk. Rozloha obce činí 44 km2.