Texts.

The Brahmi script is mentioned in the ancient Indian texts of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, as well as their Chinese translations. For example, the "Lipisala samdarshana parivarta" lists 64 "lipi" (scripts), with the Brahmi script starting the list. The "Lalitavistara Sūtra" states that young Siddhartha, the future Gautama Buddha

Origins.

While the contemporary Kharoṣṭhī script is widely accepted to be a derivation of the Aramaic alphabet, the genesis of the Brahmi script is less straightforward. Salomon reviewed existing theories in 1998, while Falk provided an overview in 1993.  Early theories proposed a pictographic-acrophonic origin for the Brahmi script, on the model of the Egyptian hieroglyphic script. These ideas however have lost credence, as they are "purely imaginative and speculative". Similar ideas have tried to connect the Brahmi script with the Indus script, but they remain unproven, and particularly suffer from the fact that the Indus script is as yet undeciphered. An origin in Semitic scripts (usually the Aramaic or Phoenician alphabet) is accepted by all script scholars since the publications by Albrecht Weber (1856) and Georg Bühler's "On the origin of the Indian Brahma alphabet" (1895). Bühler's ideas have been particularly influential, though even by the 1895 date of his opus on the subject, he could identify no fewer than five competing theories of the origin, one positing an indigenous origin and the others deriving it from various Semitic models.  The most disputed point about the origin of the Brahmi script has long been whether it was a purely indigenous development or was borrowed or derived from scripts that originated outside India. Goyal (1979) noted that most proponents of the indigenous view are Indian scholars, whereas the theory of Semitic origin is held by "nearly all" Western scholars, and Salomon agrees with Goyal that there has been "nationalist bias" and "imperialist bias" on the two respective sides of the debate. In spite of this, the view of indigenous development had been prevalent among British scholars writing prior to Bühler: A passage by Alexander Cunningham, one of the earliest indigenous origin proponents, suggests that, in his time, the indigenous origin was a preference of British scholars in opposition to the "unknown Western" origin preferred by continental scholars. Cunningham in the seminal "Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum" of 1877 speculated that Brahmi characters were derived from, among other things, a pictographic principle based on the human body, but Bühler noted that by 1891, Cunningham considered the origins of the script uncertain. Most scholars believe that Brahmi was likely derived from or influenced by a Semitic script model, with Aramaic being a leading candidate. However, the issue is not settled due to the lack of direct evidence and unexplained differences between Aramaic, Kharoṣṭhī, and Brahmi. Though Brahmi and the Kharoṣṭhī script share some general features, the differences between the Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts are "much greater than their similarities," and "the overall differences between the two render a direct linear development connection unlikely", states Richard Salomon.  Virtually all authors accept that regardless of the origins, the differences between the Indian script and those proposed to have influenced it are significant. The degree of Indian development of the Brahmi script in both the graphic form and the structure has been extensive. It is also widely accepted that theories about the grammar of the Vedic language probably had a strong influence on this development. Some authors – both Western and Indian – suggest that Brahmi was borrowed or inspired by a Semitic script, invented in a short few years during the reign of Ashoka and then used widely for Ashokan inscriptions. In contrast, some authors reject the idea of foreign influence.  Bruce Trigger states that Brahmi likely emerged from the Aramaic script but with extensive local development but there is no evidence of a direct common source. According to Trigger, Brahmi was in use before the Ashoka pillars, at least by 4th or 5th century BCE in Sri Lanka and India, while Kharoṣṭhī was used only in northwest South Asia (eastern parts of modern Afghanistan and neighboring regions of Pakistan) for a while before it died out in ancient times. According to Salomon, the evidence of Kharosthi script's use is found primarily in Buddhist records and those of Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian and Kushana dynasty era. The Kharosthi likely fell out of general use in or about the 3rd-century CE.  Justeson and Stephens proposed that this inherent vowel system in Brahmi and Kharoṣṭhī developed by transmission of a Semitic abjad through the recitation of its letter values. The idea is that learners of the source alphabet recite the sounds by combining the consonant with an unmarked vowel, e.g. /kə/,/khə/,/gə/, and in the process of borrowing into another language, these syllables are taken to be the sound values of the symbols. They also accepted the idea that Brahmi was based on a North Semitic model.

History.

The earliest known full inscriptions of Brahmi are in Prakrit, dated to be from the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE, particularly the Edicts of Ashoka, c. 250 BCE. Prakrit records predominate the epigraphic records discovered in the Indian subcontinent through about the 1st century CE. The earliest known Brahmi inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st century BCE, such as the few discovered in Ayodhya, Ghosundi and Hathibada (both near Chittorgarh). Ancient inscriptions have also been discovered in many North and Central Indian sites, occasionally in South India as well, that are in hybrid Sanskrit-Prakrit language called "Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit". These are dated by modern techniques to between the 1st and 4th centuries CE. Surviving ancient records of the Brahmi script are found as engravings on pillars, temple walls, metal plates, terracotta, coins, crystals and manuscripts.  One of the most important recent developments regarding the origin of Brahmi has been the discovery of Brahmi characters inscribed on fragments of pottery from the trading town of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, which have been dated between the sixth to early fourth century BCE. Coningham et al. in 1996, stated that the script on the Anuradhapura inscriptions is Brahmi, but stated that the language was a Prakrit rather than a Dravidian language. The historical sequence of the specimens was interpreted to indicate an evolution in the level of stylistic refinement over several centuries, and they concluded that the Brahmi script may have arisen out of "mercantile involvement" and that the growth of trade networks in Sri Lanka was correlated with its first appearance in the area. Salomon in his 1998 review states that the Anuradhapura inscriptions support the theory that Brahmi existed in South Asia before the Mauryan times, with studies favoring the 4th century BCE, but some doubts remain whether the inscriptions might be intrusive into the potsherds from a later date. Indologist Harry Falk has argued that the Edicts of Ashoka represent an older stage of Brahmi, whereas certain paleographic features of even the earliest Anuradhapura inscriptions are likely to be later, and so these potsherds may date from after 250 BCE.  More recently in 2013, Rajan and Yatheeskumar published excavations at Porunthal and Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, where numerous both Tamil-Brahmi and "Prakrit-Brahmi" inscriptions and fragments have been found. Their stratigraphic analysis combined with radiocarbon dates of paddy grains and charcoal samples indicated that inscription contexts date to as far back as the 6th and perhaps 7th centuries BCE. As these were published very recently, they have as yet not been commented on extensively in the literature. Indologist Harry Falk has criticized Rajan's claims as "particularly ill-informed"; Falk argues that some of the earliest supposed inscriptions are not Brahmi letters at all, but merely misinterpreted non-linguistic Megalithic graffiti symbols, which were used in South India for several centuries during the pre-literate era.

Characteristics.

Brahmi is usually written from left to right, as in the case of its descendants. However, an early coin found in Eran is inscribed with Brahmi running from right to left, as in Aramaic. Several other instances of variation in the writing direction are known, though directional instability is fairly common in ancient writing systems.

Consonants.

Brahmi is an abugida, meaning that each letter represents a consonant, while vowels are written with obligatory diacritics called "mātrā"s in Sanskrit,

Conjunct consonants.

Special conjunct consonants are used to write consonant clusters such as or. In modern Devanagari the components of a

Vowels.

Vowels following a consonant are inherent or written by diacritics, but initial vowels have dedicated letters. There are three "primary" vowels in Ashokan Brahmi, which each occur in length-contrasted forms: /a/, /i/, /u/; long vowels are derived from the letters for short vowels. There are also four "secondary" vowels that do not have the long-short contrast, /e/, /ai/, /o/, /au/. Note though that the grapheme for /ai/ is derivative from /e/ in a way which parallels the short-long contrast of the primary vowels. However, there are only nine distinct vowel diacritics, as short is understood if no vowel is written. The initial vowel symbol for /au/ is also apparently lacking in the earliest attested phases, even though it has a diacritic. Ancient sources suggest that there were either 11 or 12 vowels enumerated at the beginning of the character list around the

Punctuation.

Punctuation can be perceived as more of an exception than as a general rule in Asokan Brahmi. For instance, distinct spaces in between the words appear frequently in the pillar edicts but not so much in others. ("Pillar edicts" refers to the texts that are inscribed on the stone pillars oftentimes with the intention of making them public.) The idea of writing each word separately was not consistently used.  In the early Brahmi period, the existence of punctuation marks is not very well shown. Each letter has been written independently with some

Evolution of the Brahmi script.

Brahmi is generally classified in three main types,

Early Brahmi or "Ashokan Brahmi" (3rd-1st century BCE).

Early "Ashokan" Brahmi (3rd-1st century BCE) is regular and geometric, and organized in a very rational fashion:

Consonants.

The final letter does not

Unicode and digitization.

Early Ashokan Brahmi was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 2010 with the release of version 6.0.  The Unicode block for Brahmi is U+11000–U+1107F. It lies within Supplementary Multilingual Plane. As of August 2014 there are

Some famous inscriptions in the Early Brahmi script.

The Brahmi script was the medium for some of the most famous inscriptions of ancient India, starting with the Edicts of Ashoka, circa 250 BCE.

Birthplace of the historical Buddha.

In a particularly famous Edict, the Rummindei Edict in Lumbini, Nepal, Ashoka describes his visit in the 21th year of this

Heliodorus Pillar inscription.

The Heliodorus pillar is a stone column that was erected around 113 BCE in central India in Vidisha near modern Besnagar, by Heliodorus, an Indo-Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas in Taxila to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra. Historically, it is one of the earliest known inscriptions related to the Vaishnavism in India.

Middle Brahmi or "Kushana Brahmi" (1st-3rd centuries CE).

Middle Brahmi or "Kushana Brahmi" was in use from the 1st-3rd centuries CE. It is more rounded than its predecessor, and introduces some

Descendants.

Over the course of a millennium, Brahmi developed into numerous regional scripts, commonly classified into a more rounded Southern India group and a more angular Northern India group. Over time, these regional scripts became associated with the local languages. A Northern Brahmi gave rise to the Gupta script during the Gupta Empire, sometimes also called "Late Brahmi" (used during the 5th century), which in turn diversified into a number of cursives during the Middle Ages, including the Siddhaṃ script (6th century), Śāradā script (9th century) and Devanagari (10th century).  Southern Brahmi gave rise to the Grantha alphabet (6th century), the Vatteluttu alphabet (8th century), and due to the contact of Hinduism with Southeast Asia during the early centuries CE, also gave rise to the Baybayin in the Philippines, the Javanese script in Indonesia, the Khmer alphabet in Cambodia, and the Old Mon script in Burma.  Also in the Brahmic family of scripts are several Central Asian scripts such as Tibetan, Tocharian (also called slanting Brahmi), and the one used to write the Saka language.  Several authors have suggested that the basic letters of hangul were modeled on the 'Phags-pa script of the Mongol Empire, itself a derivative of the Tibetan alphabet, a Brahmi script (see origin of Hangul).  The arrangement of Brahmi was adopted as the modern order of Japanese kana, though the letters themselves are unrelated.

Brahmi (; IAST: ) is the modern name for a writing system of ancient India. The Brahmi writing system, or script, appeared as a fully developed universal one in South Asia in the third century BCE, and is a forerunner of all writing systems that have found use in South Asia with the exception of the Indus script of the third millennium BCE, the Kharosthi script, which originated in what today is northwestern Pakistan in the fourth or possibly fifth century BCE, the Perso-Arabic Scripts of the medieval period, and the Latin scripts of the modern period. Its descendants, the Brahmic scripts, continue to be in use today not only in South Asia, but also Southeast Asia. Brahmi is an abugida which uses a system of diacritical marks to associate vowels with consonant symbols.

Bráhmí je písmo používané v Indii nejméně od vlády krále Ašóky (273 až 232 př. n. l.), jehož nápisy jsou z větší části vytesány právě v bráhmí, z menší pak v písmu kháróšthí. Písmo se píše vodorovně zleva doprava. Předpokládá se, že bráhmí vzniklo ještě pár set let před Ašókou, ale písemné památky z této doby se nedochovaly. Z bráhmí se postupně vyvinula většina dnes používaných indických písem, s výjimkou písem založených na persko-arabské abecedě. Znalost samotného bráhmí postupně upadala, a když v polovině 14. století dillíský sultán objevil dva Ašókovy sloupy, nenašel mezi indickými učenci nikoho, kdo by dokázal nápisy na nich přečíst. Rozluštil ho znovu až v roce 1837 Angličan James Prinsep.


Development.

After the 1973 oil crisis, major oil and gas companies began exploration further offshore, thus creating a need for aircraft such as the S-92 with sufficient capability.  Sikorsky Aircraft first displayed a S-92 mockup of the planned helicopter in 1992. The S-92 was to be offered for sale beginning in 1993, but due to a decline in the international market for helicopters, this was delayed. In 1995 Sikorsky formed Team S-92 with international partners and launched the helicopter program at the Paris Airshow that year. Sikorsky developed the S-92 to compete with civil aircraft such as the Aerospatiale/Eurocopter Super Puma. The helicopter uses a new airframe with dynamic components based on the S-70/H-60 components. The S-92 took its maiden flight on December 23, 1998 at the Sikorsky Development Flight Center, West Palm Beach, Florida.  In July 2000, Sikorsky announced design changes to the S-92. The fuselage of prototype #3 was lengthened by 16 in (40 cm) aft of the cockpit, the tail pylon was shortened by 41 in (1.04 m), and the horizontal stabilizer was repositioned from the left side opposite the tail rotor to the right side at the base of the tail pylon. The modifications to the tail solved a pitch stability issue discovered during flight testing, and were reported to allow the aircraft to meet a key requirement of the Nordic Standard Helicopter Program (NSHP) for shipboard stowage. The lengthening of the fuselage and shortening of the tail pylon shifted the aircraft center of gravity (CG) forward, permitting a more level attitude in flight. The longer fuselage allowed for an additional row of three seats, as well as a larger passenger door option for Search and Rescue (SAR) customers. Sikorsky incorporated the changes into the following two prototypes as the production standard configuration. Some reports suggested that the modifications were actually to resolve damage from structural design flaws.  The S-92 is built and customized in Sikorsky's Coatesville, Pennsylvania facility. The S-92 received Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) part 29 type certification on December 19, 2002, and received International European Aviation Safety Agency/Joint Aviation Authorities (EASA/JAA) certification on June 8, 2004. In June 2009, Sikorsky Aircraft entered into a joint-venture with Tata Advanced Systems for S-92 manufacturing in India for export and domestic markets. A US$200 million manufacturing plant will be operational in Hyderabad by 2010. Initially, TASL will supply the complete cabins for the S-92 to Sikorsky. The first cabin was delivered in November 2010.

Design.

The S-92 is multi-purpose helicopter powered by twin GE CT7-8A turboshaft engines and has an aluminum airframe and some composite components. The four-bladed fully articulated composite main rotor blade is wider and has a longer radius than the Sikorsky S-70. The tapered blade tip sweeps back and angles downward to reduce noise and increase lift. Most of the rotor system components aside from the blades are titanium.  The S-92 features an active vibration control system, using vibration sensors and structurally mounted force generators to increase flight comfort and lower acoustic levels to below certification requirements. A 2008 study by Norway's Flymedisinsk Institute found that the S-92's vibration levels were 42 percent above that of the Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma; Sikorsky disputed this finding, saying that the study hadn't used their latest anti-vibration technology. In February 2011, as published on a Norwegian newspaper's website, the noise and vibration levels were reportedly subject to health concerns, allegedly causing tinnitus and heart problems.  A number of safety features such as flaw tolerance, bird strike capability, and engine burst containment have been incorporated into the design. Adherence to FAA FAR part 29 has led the FAA certification board to call the S-92 the "safest helicopter in the world". The S-92 reportedly met the FAR part 29 "run dry" requirement by asserting the loss of oil pressure in the main gear box is "extremely remote".

Operational history.

The S-92 received FAA certification in 2002, and International certification in June 2004. The first S-92 was delivered in late 2004 to launch customer PHI, Inc.

Competitions.

Sikorsky entered a Search and rescue variant of the H-92 in U.S. Air Force's CSAR-X combat search and rescue competition beginning in 2006. Its competitors were the AgustaWestland EH101 and HH-47, but by December 2012 all other manufacturers had withdrawn. "Flight International" magazine expects Sikorsky to bid a version of its MH-60 special operations helicopter.  After Sikorsky successfully challenged in court the preferred supplier status of NHIndustries NH90 for the Nordic Standard Helicopter Programme an open competition was held. Sikorsky entered the S-92 as a candidate for the Norwegian All Weather Search and Rescue Helicopter (NAWSARH) that is planned to replace the Royal Norwegian Air Force Westland Sea King Mk.43B in 2015. The other candidates for the NAWSARH contract of 10 to 12 helicopters were AgustaWestland AW101, Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, Eurocopter EC225, and NHIndustries NH90. The V-22 was eliminated from the competition in 2012. The S-92 was removed from the competition in July 2013 and was subsequently won by AgustaWestland with an order for 16 AW101s.  The S-92 competed with the Eurocopter EC225 for the UK Search and Rescue – Helicopter (SAR-H) program. In February 2010, the S-92 was selected by the UK in a £6bn deal to replace 40 Sea King search and rescue helicopters with 25 to 30 S-92s; it subsequently announced that Soteria, the preferred supplier, will not be used due to irregularities with its bid. The UK government subsequently opted for a smaller £2.5bn contract with the Bristow Group to operate 11 S-92s (and 11 AW189s) from 10 bases.  The Irish Coast Guard is replacing its Sikorsky S-61N fleet with the S-92. First aircraft was delivered on 29 January 2012. The aircraft are operated by CHC Helicopter.  In the wake of the deadly 2016 crash of a Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma contracted by Statoil, that company announced that it would not use that type again and instead use the Sikorsky S-92 to meet its needs, stipulating that operators it contracts with, such as CHC Helikopter Service, will be required to use such equipment.

Variants.

S-92A.

The S-92A is the civilian variant and is available in a number of versions. The civil transport version has an airliner-type interior which seats 19 passengers. The utility transport version has 22 side-facing seats with a full cabin width rear ramp. The interior cabin area can also be configured to accommodate up to three airline-style LD3 cargo containers. Additional stowage space is available in the area located in the aft ramp compartment. During development it was referred to as the S-92C Helibus.

H-92 Superhawk.

The H-92 Superhawk is the military variant of the S-92. It has been demonstrated to the U.S. Air Force, Marine Corps and Coast Guard. The H-92 has more powerful GE CT7-8C engines, rated at and, unlike the S-92, has fly-by-wire flight controls. The search and rescue variant provides space for seats, litters, auxiliary fuel cell and SAR emergency equipment.  In July 2004, the H-92 Superhawk was selected by Canada for its Maritime Helicopter Programme (MHP) as the CH-148 Cyclone. Canada ordered 28 helicopters in November 2004. The program has been delayed multiple times.

VH-92.

The S-92A variant, designated VH-92 will be used as the next Marine One to fly the U.S. President.

The Sikorsky S-92 is an American twin-engine medium-lift helicopter built by Sikorsky Aircraft for the civil and military helicopter markets. The S-92 was developed from the Sikorsky S-70 helicopter and has similar parts such as flight control and rotor systems.

Sikorsky S-92 je dvoumotorový vrtulník střední nosnosti společnosti Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation. Jedná se o zvětšený model Sikorsky S-70. Je dostupný v mnoha provedeních, např. pro přepravu VIP nebo záchranářské.


First generation (2002–2009).

After Jean-Pierre Ploué was appointed Director of the Citroën Design Center in 2000, he designed the C3 under the leadership of Donato Coco, who was already responsible for Citroën Xsara Picasso.  The first generation of the C3 was launched at the 2001 Frankfurt Motor Show, as well as the 2001 Bologna Motor Show, and began marketing in January 2002, as a five door hatchback. It was available with 1.1, 1.4 and 1.6 litre petrol engines, and 1.4 and 1.6 litre common rail diesel engines. All models came as standard with a five speed manual transmission, except for the Stop & Start model, which came with the SensoDrive gearbox, a five speed semi-automatic transmission with paddle shifters and manual and automatic modes. The top level was the only version that had the option of a four speed fully automatic transmission.  In accordance with the PSA Group policy, the C3's chassis was used for the Peugeot 1007 and the Peugeot 207. Many components of the C3 are the same as those of the Peugeot 206. Some versions of the C3 feature a start-stop system that can automatically cut the engine when not needed to save fuel, such as in traffic, and restart it briskly to move on again.

Citroën C3 Lumiere.

The Citroën C3 Lumiere was a concept car that previewed the production Citroën C3, it was initially released in 1998 as a five door hatchback, with four seats and rear suicide doors for easy access for passengers to the rear seats. It featured a five speed manual transmission, and a 1.1 L TU1 I4 petrol engine up front.

Facelift.

The C3 was given a redesign in October 2005, with the front end featuring a more imposing bumper, wider lower air intake, single air intake slit below the restyled radiator grille, and a re positioned number plate. The rear of the car was also given redesigned light clusters, with crystal coloured midsections.  The passenger compartment was also enhanced, with the fitting of a restyled dashboard with high quality finish, as well as a newer, more modern instrument cluster making the driver information easier to read.  The addition of light metallic grey embellishers around the central section of the fascia and air vents contributed to the updated interior, as did the completely re designed front and rear door panels and trims. The steering was also improved so that it weights up with speed. Citroën also added a new 1.6 L 16 valve HDi diesel engine to the range, rated at. The Pluriel also received similar interior alterations but was otherwise unchanged.

C3 Pluriel.

Citroën marketed the C3 Pluriel from 2003 to 2010 as a convertible with five open top variations, hence the name. Pluriel is a cognate with the English "plural".  The Pluriel can be configured as a hatchback with a multi layer insulated top; a full length landaulet, operable partially or to the back window or any stage in between, with a buffet minimizing wind deflector over the windshield; a fixed profile convertible, with the roof open to the back window, the roof assembly folds into a well in the trunk floor; a full convertible where roof side rails are unlatched and removed. and as a roadster pick up, where the back seats fold to a pickup like bed with a drop down tailgate.  The C3 Pluriel was introduced in July 2003, and was originally offered with a choice of a 1.4 or a 1.6 L petrol engine, and a 1.4 L diesel engine. The 1.6 L petrol came fitted, as standard, with a semi-automatic gearbox. The Pluriel was withdrawn in July 2010.  In October 2013, "Top Gear Magazine" placed the C3 Pluriel on its list of "The 13 worst cars of the last 20 years", describing the car as "useful as a chocolate teapot."

Second generation (2009–2016).

The second generation of the C3 was revealed in the media in June 2009, and made its official debut at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2009. It features a new body design, with a 108 degree field of vision windscreen, similar to the one of the larger C4 Picasso, which is available on all versions, except the entry model VT.  The new C3 builds on the curvy profile of the previous model and has a look in keeping with other Citroën models and the older C3, although it is longer and wider than the old model. The lights at the front, bonnet, dashboard assembly and other components are shared with the DS3.  On the new C3, the instrumentation is a mix of analogue dials beneath a styled cowl and a digital display for the fuel and trip computer. There is no temperature gauge (unlike the DS3), but a red and blue warning lamp to show hot or cold engines which come on as required. The drag coefficient is 0.307 "C".  In engineering terms, the PSA TU powerplants are carried over from the old car and Citroën also announced a new range of small petrol engines which PSA Peugeot Citroën developed in partnership with BMW. These "Prince" engines have double overhead 16 valve camshaft, on demand oil and water pumps and BMW's patent injection and ignition technology.  They are designed for low emissions and for good performance and economy. Economy was improved by the standard fit cruise control and speed limiter available on the VTR+, Airdream+ and Exclusive models.  All versions have a standard fit "Gear Efficiency Indicator" which graphically states what gear to be in and when to change up to optimise economy. They come in 1.4 95 bhp and 1.6 120 hp versions with low emissions, as well as new diesel engines, all with emissions of under 120 g/km, plus an "Airdream+" model with 99 g/km using a new 1.6 HDI engine.  The New C3 was presented at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2009. It was launched in November 2009, as a 2010 model. Across Europe, the advertising slogan was known as "The Visiospace", playing on the merit of the large windscreen and the improved vision afforded.

Facelift.

Launched at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2013, the C3 hatchback was revised to featuring updated exterior and interior, and more efficient engines. The C3 facelift comes with updated chevrons and bumper-mounted LED daytime running lights at the front and new tail light clusters combined with new reflectors set underneath the rear bumper.

Variants.

There are four trim levels in the C3 range, which range from the entry level VT (which does not have the panoramic windscreen), the mid range VTR+ and eco efficient "Airdream+" (which has lower emissions) to the top of the range Exclusive, which has half cloth half Alcantara seats, extra chrome outside, alloy wheels, an alarm, folding mirrors and power windows all around.  Trim levels are denoted by a small badge on the rear window frame on the VT/VTR+ and Airdream+ and by a small chrome badge on each front door on Exclusive models. Norev have produced a 1:43 scale model of the new Citroën C3 in Botticelli Blue, Metallic Green and black.

Engines and transmissions.

By 2016, a 1.6HDi with 5-speed gearbox was available.

Third generation (2016-present).

The official pictures of the new C3 were revealed on 29 June 2016. The C3 takes front styling cues from the facelifted Citroën C4 Picasso, as well as the Grand C4 Picasso and receives side Airbump mouldings from the Citroën C4 Cactus, and is available with Airbumps or without them. It is offered with a choice of nine exterior colours, and three contrast shades that appear on the roof, foglight trims, side mirrors and Airbump surrounds. Citroën claims the range will offer a total of 36 different colour combinations. The restyled version was revealed in February 2020. The main evolutions are on the front and on the headlights with new LED's. There is 2 new colors "Spring Blue" and "Rouge Exilir" and 2 new interior atmospheres "Techwood" and "Emeuraude".

The Citroën C3 is a supermini car produced by Citroën since April 2002. It replaced the Citroën Saxo in the model line up, and is currently in its third generation. The third generation model made its appearance in June 2016, and went on sale in January 2017.

Citroën C3 je osobní automobil vyráběný koncernem PSA od roku 2002, kdy nahradil předchozí model Saxo. V roce 2005 prošel faceliftem. Sesterským modelem je model C2, tedy je to spíše třídveřová verze "cé trojky", ale jediné, co mají na první pohled společné, jsou podvozek a palubní deska, jinak jsou tyto dva modely od sebe úplně designově odlišeny.


Early life.

Lippisch was born in Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria. He later recalled that his interest in aviation began with a demonstration conducted by Orville Wright over Tempelhof Field in Berlin in September 1909. Nonetheless, he planned to follow his father's footsteps into art school, until the outbreak of World War I intervened. During his service with the German Army, between 1915–1918, Lippisch had the chance to fly as an aerial photographer and mapper.

Early aircraft designs.

Following the war, Lippisch worked with the Zeppelin Company, and it was at this time that he first became interested in tailless aircraft. In 1921, his first design to be built, by his friend Gottlob Espenlaub, was the Espenlaub E-2 glider. This was the beginning of a research programme that would result in some fifty designs throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Lippisch's growing reputation saw him appointed in 1925 as the director of the Rhön-Rossitten Gesellschaft (RRG), a glider organisation including research groups and construction facilities.  Lippisch also designed conventional gliders at this time, including the Wien of 1927 and its successor the Fafnir of 1930. In 1928, Lippisch's tail-first Ente ("Duck") became the first aircraft to fly under rocket power. From 1927, he resumed his tailless work, leading to a series of designs named Storch I – Storch IX (Stork I-IX), mostly gliders. These designs attracted little interest from the government and private industry.

Delta wing designs.

Experience with the Storch series led Lippisch to concentrate increasingly on delta-winged designs. The Delta I was the world's first tailless delta wing aircraft to fly (in 1931). This interest resulted in five aircraft, numbered Delta I – Delta V, which were built between 1931 and 1939. In 1933, RGG had been reorganised into the "Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug" (German Institute for Sailplane Flight, "DFS") and the Delta IV and Delta V were designated as the DFS 39 and DFS 40 respectively.

World War II projects.

In early 1939, the "Reichsluftfahrtsministerium" (RLM, Reich Aviation Ministry) transferred Lippisch and his team to work at the Messerschmitt factory, in order to design a high-speed fighter aircraft around the rocket engines then under development by Hellmuth Walter. The team quickly adapted their most recent design, the DFS 194, to rocket power, the first example successfully flying in early 1940. This successfully demonstrated the technology for what would become the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet.  Although technically novel, the Komet did not prove to be a successful weapon and friction between Lippisch and Messerschmitt was frequent. In 1943, Lippisch transferred to Vienna's Aeronautical Research Institute ("Luftfahrtforschungsanstalt Wien", "LFW"), to concentrate on the problems of high-speed flight. That same year, he was awarded a doctoral degree in engineering by the University of Heidelberg.  Wind tunnel research in 1939 had suggested that the delta wing was a good choice for supersonic flight, and Lippisch set to work designing a supersonic, ramjet-powered fighter, the Lippisch P.13a. By the time the war ended, however, the project had only advanced as far as a development glider, the DM-1.

Postwar work in the United States.

Like many German scientists, Lippisch was taken to the United States after the war under Operation Paperclip at the White Sands Missile Range.

Convair.

Advances in jet engine design were making Lippisch's ideas more practical, and Convair became interested in a hybrid (mixed power) jet/rocket design which they proposed as the F-92. In order to gain experience with the delta wing handling at high speeds, they first built a test aircraft, the 7002 which, on June 9, 1948, became the first jet-powered delta-wing aircraft to fly. Although the U.S. Air Force lost interest in the F-92, the next test model 7003 was designated the XF-92A. This led Convair to proposing delta wing for most of their projects through the 1950s and into the 1960s, including the F-102 Delta Dagger, F-106 Delta Dart and B-58 Hustler.

Ground effect aircraft.

From 1950–1964, Lippisch worked for the Collins Radio Company in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, which had an aeronautical division. It was during this time that his interest shifted toward ground effect craft. The results were an unconventional VTOL aircraft (eventually becoming the Dornier Aerodyne) and an aerofoil boat research seaplane X-112, flown in 1963. However, Lippisch contracted cancer, and resigned from Collins.  When he recovered in 1966, he formed his own research company, Lippisch Research Corporation, and attracted the interest of the West German government. Prototypes for both the aerodyne and the ground-effect craft RFB X-113 (1970) then RFB X-114 (1977) were built, but no further development was undertaken. The Kiekhaefer Mercury company was also interested in his ground-effect craft and successfully tested one of his designs as the Aeroskimmer, but also eventually lost interest.

Death and Legacy.

Lippisch died in Cedar Rapids on February 11, 1976. In 1985, he was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.

Alexander Martin Lippisch (November 2, 1894 – February 11, 1976) was a German aeronautical engineer, a pioneer of aerodynamics who made important contributions to the understanding of tailless aircraft, delta wings and the ground effect, and also worked in the U.S. His most famous designs are the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-powered interceptor and the Dornier Aerodyne.

Alexander Martin Lippisch (2. listopadu 1894 - 11. února 1976) byl německý průkopník aerodynamiky. Svými poznatky přispěl k rozvoji samokřídel a delta křídel. Jeho nejznámější projekt, Messerschmitt Me 163 se stal prvním sériově vyráběným letadlem s raketovým pohonem.


History.

SaGoh 24/7 and the origins of Anberlin (1998–2002).

Lead singer Stephen Christian met bassist Deon Rexroat while they were both in high school, and they formed a punk band called SaGoh 24/7. Drummer Sean Hutson and guitarist Joseph Milligan joined the group as well. The band released two albums, "Servants After God's Own Heart" (1999), and "Then I Corrupt Youth" (2001), both under Rescue Records. After the albums sold only 1,300 units, Hutson left the band to start a family, and Nathan Young was brought in as a replacement.  Christian, Milligan and Rexroat began working on a side project, marking the beginning of the end for SaGoh 24/7. The side project's sound transformed after a suggestion from Milligan to develop more of a rock sound for Anberlin. They used money left over from shows SaGoh had performed and teamed up with producer Matt Goldman to record five demos. The demos that were then posted on PureVolume (which was mp3.com at the time). On the advice of friends, including Chad Johnson, and Timmy McTague from Underoath, the band signed with Tooth & Nail Records.

First two albums (2002–2005).

Out of the five demos Anberlin recorded with Matt Goldman, three were eventually chosen to be reworked for the band's debut album, the lead single "Readyfuels", "Driving" (later renamed "Autobahn") and "Foreign Language". Another song, "Embrace the Dead", was also recorded as a demo track and is often mistaken as an Anberlin song, however, the song didn't make it onto the band's debut album as it didn't constitute the stylistic direction the band wanted to head in.  After hearing demos from the band Acceptance, Anberlin chose to record their debut album with the same producer, Aaron Sprinkle, creating a relationship that would last the entire duration of their time with Tooth & Nail Records. Barely a year after their formation, their first album as a new band was entitled "Blueprints for the Black Market" (2003). It failed to chart, but spurred on by their debut single, "Readyfuels", the album sold over 60,000 units. They toured steadily with other bands in their label.  Rhythm guitarist Joey Bruce was eventually ejected from the band. According to Christian, he was "all about sex and drugs", and was going in a different direction than the rest of the band. After several failed replacements, Nathan Strayer from The Mosaic took over rhythm guitar duties.  Anberlin released their follow-up to "Blueprints", "Never Take Friendship Personal", in early 2005, again produced by Aaron Sprinkle. Charting at No. 144 on the "Billboard" 200, the album brought the band closer to the mainstream. "NTFP" was generally more well received by critics than "Blueprints for the Black Market." Before its release, the band promoted the album by releasing a track per week on their PureVolume and MySpace website accounts, as well as on their own website. Two singles were released from the album: "A Day Late" and "Paperthin Hymn". Both were reasonably successful on alternative rock radio, with the latter peaking at the No. 38 position on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart.  Anberlin participated in a number of compilations during this time, recording covers of Bob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone", Depeche Mode's "Enjoy the Silence," and the song "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)".

"Cities" and "Lost Songs" (2005–2007).

Anberlin's third album produced by Aaron Sprinkle was released in early 2007 under the title "Cities". It sold 34,000 copies in its first week of release, debuted at No. 19 on the Billboard 200 chart, and, like their previous album, received fairly positive reviews from critics. Before the release of "Cities", the band released "Godspeed EP" exclusively through the iTunes Store in late 2006 to give a preview to the new album. In support of the album, Anberlin held their first headlining tour, supported by Bayside, Meg & Dia and Jonezetta.  In an interview about the album, Christian commented that the lyrics throughout the band's discography are progressively becoming more mature. "The first CD ("Blueprints for the Black Market") was childish in the manner that it was Man vs. World in the lyrics. The second ("Never Take Friendship Personal") was Man Vs. Man. "Cities" is more adult in the manner that it's Man Vs. Self. "Cities" was the most anticipated album on Jesus Freak Hideout's Most Anticipated Albums of 2007.  Three to four weeks before the release of "Cities", it was announced that guitarist Nathan Strayer amicably left the band to go back to The Mosaic and that Christian McAlhaney, formerly of the band Acceptance, would take over as the new guitarist.  A compilation album of unreleased material, called "Lost Songs", was released on November 20, 2007. It features B-sides, demos, covers, and acoustic versions of their previous songs as well as other tracks recorded at Sessions@AOL.

Universal Republic signing and "New Surrender" (2007–2009).

The band signed to Universal Republic on August 16, 2007, and soon after began to write material for their major-label debut, entitled "New Surrender", which was released on September 30, 2008. This was the band's first album to not be distributed through Tooth & Nail Records or produced by Aaron Sprinkle. The first song to be heard from the new album was tentatively titled "Bittersweet Memory" during its initial live performances; it was later renamed to "Breaking", with an acoustic remix of the song included on USB wristbands sold exclusively during the 2008 Warped Tour. On July 11, 2008, the band showcased a second new song called "Disappear" on their MySpace profile. The first actual single from the album was the re-recorded "Feel Good Drag" which was set to go to radio on August 18 - eventually being released on August 26.  The band booked eight weeks of recording sessions with noted producer Neal Avron (New Found Glory, Yellowcard, Fall Out Boy) in early February 2008. Stephen Christian stated in an interview, "We're very excited about working with Neal; I think our fans are going to be pleased when they hear the final result." Christian also discussed the difficulties in writing this record. "When you try to write 29 songs lyrically you find yourself topically working in circles; I only go through so much in one year, but needlessly I have dedicated myself to begin searching books, art, and friends for new directions." During the recording process, the band set up a live webcam in the studio so fans could watch them record the album via the band's MySpace profile. "New Surrender" was placed at the No. 2 spot on Jesus Freak Hideout's 25 Most Anticipated Albums of 2008.  In the week of its release, the album sold 36,000 units, entering the "Billboard" 200 chart at No. 13. It also placed at No. 5 on the Top Current Rock chart, according to a Universal Republic press release. In support of the album, the band embarked on a fall headlining U.S. tour alongside Scary Kids Scaring Kids, Straylight Run, and There For Tomorrow. Kyle Flynn, formerly of the band Acceptance, joined the band while on tour doing keys, loops, acoustic guitar, and background vocals. The band then traveled to the United Kingdom where they supported Elliot Minor and played a handful of headlining shows with Furthest Drive Home and Data.Select.Party.  Anberlin went into the studio to record several tracks, including a cover of the New Order song "True Faith", which was made available online. The band also recorded a cover of the Danzig song "Mother", which they performed during an interview with "Billboard". After supporting Taking Back Sunday throughout May and June 2009, the band planned to start writing the follow-up to "New Surrender" in the summer, but the release date was undetermined, as the band needed to give the new material the proper time and effort. They also undertook an Australian tour in August, alongside The Academy Is... A b-side from "New Surrender", "A Perfect Tourniquet", was released on the soundtrack for the TV show "90210". The cover of New Order's "True Faith" was released to radio airplay on November 17, the same day as the Tooth & Nail released "Blueprints for City Friendships: The Anberlin Anthology", which is a 33-song, three-album set including all the songs from their Tooth & Nail studio albums.

"Dark Is the Way, Light Is a Place" (2010–2011).

In an interview with the "South Florida Sun-Sentinel" in December 2009, it was revealed by lead singer Stephen Christian that the band were tentatively due to enter the studio in the beginning of 2010, with a release probable later in the year. He said "it looks like we are going to go to the studio in January, February or March, right around that time". Drummer Nathan Young stated that the album would be "less poppy" and "darker". Christian posted on his Twitter account in December 2009, that his choice for an album name was "a go" but did not reveal the name.  The band entered Blackbird Studios, Nashville, to begin recording the album in March 2010. It was announced on March 3 that the band would be working with Grammy Award-winning producer, Brendan O'Brien. The tracking of the album was completed on April 9, with mixing commencing on April 13, 2010. In an April 2010 interview with MyMag, Christian stated that the album's release date is "looking like late July or early August" 2010. However, in a May 2010 interview with Spin Magazine, McAlhaney stated that the album would be released in September 2010.  In early June 2010, the album's release date was confirmed to be September 21, 2010. The band also began exposing their new music, with videos of live performances of the album's songs appearing online. A press release revealed on June 17 that Anberlin's fifth studio album would be titled "Dark Is the Way, Light Is a Place", taking its title from a line in Dylan Thomas’ "Poem on His Birthday". Along with the disclosure of a track listing, the press release also announced the album's lead single, "Impossible", which went to radio play on July 12, 2010.  When asked about the possible impact of the new album, Stephen replied 'I feel like we're on the brink of something... either world domination or destruction, but either way we're on the brink'.  Anberlin supported Thirty Seconds to Mars on their Closer to the Edge Tour with CB7 during April and May 2011.

"Vital" and "Devotion" (2012–2013).

In an interview with "Common Revolt", Stephen Christian stated that the band had begun work on their next album. A few songs had been written, including one with the working title "Control" (later renamed Orpheum), and a song influenced by the events in Egypt (later confirmed to be "Someone Anyone").  The band announced via Facebook and e-mail in February 2012 that they would be returning to Aaron Sprinkle to record their upcoming album. The band recorded their first three albums with Sprinkle; not only is he a good friend of the band but also a fan favorite. The band will begin recording around the start of March, and are not expected to be finished until May. In a recent interview, Stephen Christian announced their new album is finally done. On June 11, during the Nashville show of their acoustic tour, Stephen Christian announced that the title of the new record would be "Vital", calling the record "their most aggressive to date" and also announced a fall release date. On July 31, the band announced on their official website that "Vital" was to be released on October 16.  The new album's opening track, "Self-Starter",' was streamed on Billboard.com for free listening on August 17., and the album's second single, "Someone Anyone" was released on August 22.  "Infectious" Magazine reported on October 26, 2012 that the band had already "made a lot of headway writing for the next record".  The band released "City Electric" on September 20, 2013. It is the first of three new and previously unreleased tracks from their rework of "Vital", "Devotion" which was released on October 15, 2013.

Return to Tooth & Nail, "Lowborn" and breakup (2014).

On the January 16, 2014, the band posted a video in which the band confirmed that this year would be their last and that they will release their seventh, and final, studio album in mid-2014 on their original label, Tooth & Nail Records. They also stated that they will do their last set of tours this year to celebrate what the band has become. On May 6, 2014, Anberlin revealed the title of the final album, "Lowborn", as well as the album artwork. The band played their final show on November 26, 2014, at the House of Blues in Orlando, Florida.  On December 15, 2017, it was announced that the band's former rhythm guitarist Nathan Strayer had died. He was 34.

Reunions (2018–present).

On October 18, 2018, the band announced that they would reunite for one show on December 14 at the Yuengling Center in Tampa, Florida, as part of Underoath's Erase Me Tour. The band also performed a headlining show the day before at The Orpheum.  In March 2019, it was announced that the band would perform a series of headlining shows across Australia in May 2019. In April 2019, the band announced a 22-stop U.S. tour. Young revealed the band had no plans to stage a comeback after the reunion shows.

Origin of name.

Anberlin lead vocalist Stephen Christian has stated different origins of the band's name in various interviews, prevalent among which was his claim that he had long intended to name his first daughter Anberlin. Struggling to find a name for the band, Stephen suggested it; "We were all sitting around trying to come up with a name. None of us were married or had kids, but one day I was going to name my daughter Anberlin, so I figured we could name the band that until we thought of something better. So we chose Anberlin and no one has thought of anything better." He stated he was no longer going to use Anberlin to name his first daughter, however he said, "If I ever have a daughter and name her Anberlin, she'll think she was named after the band instead of the other way around." Christian had also stated in another interview that the band's name was created when he was thinking about cities in Europe he wanted to visit. In his mind he listed "London, Paris, Rome, and Berlin." Christian thought that "and Berlin" would be an appropriate name for a band, and so when the band was looking for a name Christian suggested "And Berlin," which was then modified to "Anberlin."  Christian has since retracted those comments admitting that when the band first started, in interviews they "would take turn making stories about how it came to be" as a joke, as he believed the actual origin of the band name wasn't interesting enough. Christian said there was a story about how his grandfather had "saved a little girl from a World War II bombing... her name was Anberlin" and that they had hit a dog, which had the name Anberlin, with the stories getting more diverse, it was decided they reveal the true origin. He has said the "real" name came from the Radiohead song "Everything in Its Right Place", stating that "There are several stories that have circulated on the internet, but the actual story is when I was in college my favorite band was Radiohead; on one of their songs off the record "Kid A" there is a background noise on the song "Everything in Its Right Place" (about 2 minutes 31 seconds into the song). While Thom (Yorke) is singing "try to say" I always thought the background noise sounded like "Anberlin", I always thought that Anberlin would have been a great band name and well...it was/is."

Status as a Christian musical group.

Over the years, many fans, critics, and other members of the media have consistently characterized Anberlin as a Christian band. However, Stephen Christian stated in an interview that their faith is more complicated than a simple label: "I think we're categorized like that a lot because we're on Tooth & Nail Records, which, years ago, was known as a Christian label and never lost that reputation. I don't care who listens to our records. If it helps people in whatever circumstances they're in, that's amazing, but I definitely don't classify us as a Christian band." Elsewhere, Christian has remarked, "[My faith] affects every single aspect of my life, but I'm not a preacher, I'm an entertainer."  Despite these statements and others of the like, multiple sources list the band as part of the Christian rock genre, and some Anberlin song lyrics do contain Christian references. Furthermore, the band appears at Christian music festivals such as Parachute Music Festival and Cornerstone Festival, and their songs have been included on Christian rock compilation CDs and DVDs. They are also played on the Gospel Music Channel.  Anberlin has also been repeatedly featured in Christian rock magazine "HM" ("Hard Music", which was originally the fanzine "Heaven's Metal"). Christian submitted a letter to the magazine, criticizing the more overtly religious Christian punk band the Knights of the New Crusade for a promotional image that represented a "black mark on the face of Christianity".  Christian has also said in an interview with Lightforce radio how the band tries to "step out of the bubble" and referred to themselves as being part of Christian music. He discussed in detail what Christians should do in their lives: love and embrace others as Jesus would as well as show God's grace to others. He mentioned as well how the band Fall Out Boy said in an interview that they did not really know much about Jesus until Anberlin toured with them.  In an interview with Smartpunk, drummer Nathan Young commented, "The thing is, some bands that are trying to get out of the Christian market, they get bummed out by questions about it. I don’t really mind it, because I’m a Christian, and I’m okay talking about it. With the whole term 'Christian Band,' I don’t understand how a band can be Christian. We get the question, 'Is Anberlin a Christian band?' and it’s like, yeah, Anberlin is — as humans".

Band members.

Final lineup Former members Touring musicians  Timeline

Side projects.

Anchor & Braille.

Stephen Christian formed an acoustic side project, Anchor & Braille. The project was originally a joint venture with Aaron Marsh of the band Copeland; however, Marsh did not feature on the project's debut album, entitled "Felt", although he did produce it. The project first yielded a 7" vinyl, and "Felt" was released on August 4, 2009. On July 31, 2012, Anchor & Braille's second album, "The Quiet Life", was released. Later, in 2016, after the break-up of Anberlin, Anchor & Braille's third studio album, "Songs for the Late Night Drive Home", was released.

Carrollhood.

Nathan Young formed a side project with his brother-in-law Tim McTague of Underoath and Reed Murray in July 2011. Carrollhood released their first three-song EP, "Afraid", on August 23, 2012. The EP included "Afraid", "Remission" and "Mr. Tampa". The second three-song EP, "Violence", was released February 11, 2013. It included "Two Minutes Hate", "Violence", "MDSFWL".

Sins.

Joseph Milligan formed a side project, "Sins", who released "Sink Away" on December 19, 2012.

Loose Talk.

Former Anberlin members Deon Rexroat and Christian Mcalhaney started a band called Loose Talk. Former drummer Nathan Young provided the drums for the band's first EP.

Anberlin is an American alternative rock band formed in Winter Haven, Florida in 2002, disbanded in 2014, and reunited in 2018. Since the beginning of 2007, the band consisted of lead vocalist Stephen Christian, guitarists Joseph Milligan and Christian McAlhaney, bassist Deon Rexroat, and drummer Nathan Young.

Anberlin byla americká hudební skupina založená v roce 2002 na Floridě ve Spojených státech amerických. Kapela zanikla v roce 2014 po vydání sedmého a zároveň poslední studiového alba.


Description.

The group consists of about 500 small coral islands, east of the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean; the distance from Manila to Yap, one of the larger islands of the group, is.  Most of the islands comprise low, flat coral atolls, but some rise high above sea level.

People and culture.

The native inhabitants speak a variety of Micronesian languages including Pohnpeian, Chuukese, Carolinian, and Kosraean, as well as the Western Malayo-Polynesian languages Palauan and Chamorro, and the unclassified language Yapese (possibly one of the Admiralty Islands languages). Other significant populations include Filipinos and Japanese.  The natives live mainly on horticulture and fishing, also supplementing their diet with many different varieties of bananas and taro, either of the "swamp" or "purple" varieties. On some islands housing continues to be built with local materials including coconut thatch. The language spoken in commerce is English, but there are several indigenous languages. They traditionally believe in a Supreme Being (Yalafar) and in a bad spirit (Can), yet they have hardly any religious rites. Due to extensive missionary work, Christianity is the primary religion practiced in this region of Micronesia.  Micronesian Navigator Mau Piailug was from the Carolinian island of Satawal. He learned the traditional navigation techniques of the Weriyeng school. These techniques had been preserved while similar techniques had been forgotten elsewhere partly due to the remoteness of the Carolinian Islands. In the 1970s Mau shared his knowledge with the Polynesian Voyaging Society which led to a revival of traditional Polynesian navigation and a new anthropological understanding of the history of Polynesian and Micronesian peoples.  In 1985 a study was made on the origin of the sidereal compass used in the Caroline Islands.

History.

Different islands and island groups in the Carolines passed down unique and variant oral legends recounting the origins and early histories of their peoples. On Pohnpei, for example, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras: "Mwehin Kawa" or "Mwehin Aramas" (Period of Building, or Period of Peopling, before c. 1100); "Mwehin Sau Deleur" (Period of the Lord of Deleur, c. 1100 to c. 1628); and "Mwehin Nahnmwarki" (Period of the Nahnmwarki, c. 1628 to c. 1885). Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin. The Saudeleur centralized form of absolute rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, sowed resentment among Pohnpeians. The Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized "nahnmwarki" system in existence today.

Spanish overseas province.

In mid-1525 a storm carried the Portuguese navigators Diogo da Rocha and Gomes de Sequeira eastward from the Moluccas (via Celebes); they reached several islands of the Carolines and stayed there until January 20, 1526. The Spanish explorers Toribio Alonso de Salazar and Diego de Saavedra arrived on August 22, 1526, sighting the Island of San Bartolomé or Taongui. On 1 January 1528 the discoverer Álvaro de Saavedra took possession of the Ulithi Islands on behalf of the King of Spain. Spanish explorers visited the archipelago in 1542 (Matelotes Islands), 1543, and 1545. In 1565 Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the first Governor-General of the Philippines (in office 1565–1572), passed through.  The islands, known to contemporary Spaniards as "Islas de las Hermanas", "Hombres Pintados" and "Los Jardines", dropped out of European consciousness until 1686, when Francisco de Lezcano came to Yap and called the islands "Las Carolinas", in honor of Charles II of Spain. The name was extended to include the Palau Islands and the archipelagos which were named the Gilbert Islands and the Marshall Islands by British explorers who visited them a century later, between 1788 and 1799.  The colonization of the Caroline Islands had, as in most of the Spanish colonies, a marked religious character. A royal decree of October 19, 1707 granted authorization for the sending of missionaries in several expeditions to the islands. One such expedition (1731) was made by Father Juan Antonio Cantova, who was killed. As a result, Spain ceased relations with the Caroline Islands until 1787. Relations resumed later, but with a distinctly commercial character.  In 1852 the Spanish colonel Coello suggested to the Spanish government that the effective occupation of the Caroline Islands provided trade advantages between the Philippines and Australia, New Guinea and the Americas, but Spain ignored his suggestions until 1885. In that year, the Spanish representative Butron and the kings of Koror and Artingal signed an act which recognized the sovereignty of the king of Spain on the Carolines. Having secured the territory, Spain attempted to establish custom duties in the region in 1875, but Germany and the United Kingdom protested because Spain's previous abandonment of the islands had allowed the arrival of German and British missions there. A conflict arose, leading to the submission of these facts for arbitration by Pope Leo XIII, who recognized Spanish rights on the islands west of the 164th meridian east; he assigned to Germany the Marshall Islands and the right to maintain a naval station in one of the Caroline Islands, a right that Germany never exercised.  After the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain sold the Carolines and the Northern Marianas to Germany in the German–Spanish Treaty (1899) for 25 million pesetas or 17 million goldmark (nearly 1,000,000 pounds sterling), while reserving to itself the right to establish a coal mine in the area. Germany governed the archipelago as the "Karolinen", administratively associated with German New Guinea.

A resort for whalers.

The islands were a popular resort for whaling ships in the 19th century. The first such vessel known to have visited was the London whaler "Britannia" which called at Ngatik in December 1793. Such vessels from Britain, the United States, Australia and elsewhere came for water, wood and food and, sometimes, for men willing to serve as crewmen on such vessels. These ships stimulated commerce and were significant vectors for change both good and ill. The islands most commonly visited were Kosrae, Mokil, Ngatik, Pingelap and Pohnpei.

Japanese colony.

Japan invaded and occupied the islands in 1914, during World War I. This occupation was carried out by two naval squadrons: the Western Carolines under the squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Matsumura Tatsuo (1868–1932), and the Eastern Carolines under Vice-Admiral Yamaya Tanin (1866–1940). In 1920, after the conclusion of World War I, Japan received a League of Nations mandate over the Caroline and Marshall Islands. During World War II, Japan had a large base set up at Truk Lagoon which was used for expansion into the southeastern Pacific. In the latter years of the war, during the Japanese withdrawal to the Japanese home islands, the Allies effectively neutralized Truk in Operation Hailstone. After the war, the islands (together with the Marshall Islands) became trust territories of the United States, with the Federated States of Micronesia gaining independence in 1986, followed by Palau in 1994.

Colonial governors or officers.

District officers (from 1889, styled Bezirksamtmann):  In the "Western Caroline islands" (Yap and Palau [and from 1907 Saipan])  In the "Eastern Caroline islands" (Ponape, and including the Marshall Islands from 1911)

Ecclesiastical history.

Two Jesuits, Juan Antonio Cantova (also known as John Anthony Cantova) and Victor Walter, attempted missionary work there in 1731; the former was soon murdered and the latter obliged to flee. Two other Jesuits were killed later. In 1767 the Jesuits were suppressed in the Spanish dominions, and during the next 120 years there has been no trace of a missionary.  The controversy between Germany and Spain concerning the possession of the Carolines having been settled by Pope Leo XIII in favour of Spain, the king directed Spanish Capuchins to the islands, 15 March 1886, and the "Propaganda Fide" officially established that mission, 15 May 1886, dividing it into two sections, named West and East Carolines respectively. Until then the islands had belonged ecclesiastically to the Vicariate Apostolic of Micronesia. The Spanish Capuchins had a catechism and prayer book printed in the Ponape dialect, and Father Anthony of Valentia wrote a small grammar and dictionary of the Yap dialect in 1890.  When the Spanish Fathers had laid the foundations of the mission, these islands passed by purchase into the hands of Germany in 1899. Spain had contributed more than $5000 a year towards the mission; Germany granted no support. Spain had compelled the aborigines to send their children to school; Germany gave full liberty in this regard, and the people consequently began to neglect school as well as church. The mission thereby suffered greatly, and the "Propaganda Fide" finally deemed it advisable to replace the Spanish Capuchins with others of German nationality (7 November 1904) and to erect one Apostolic prefecture instead of the two separate missions (18 December 1905). The Very Reverend Father Venantius of Prechtal, Germany was appointed first prefect Apostolic.  In 1906 twelve fathers and twelve brothers were working in thirteen stations, and several Sisters of St. Francis left Luxembourg to take charge of the ten schools, in which were 262 children. Ninety adult converts were the "harvest" of that year, and the Catholic population is given as 1900 among 11,600 unconverted natives and a few Protestants. The United States Government sent, 1 July 1905, a Jesuit from the Manila Observatory to erect a meteorological station on the island of Yap, of which station the Capuchin Father Callistus was appointed director. The origin of the East-Asiatic typhoons had been traced to these regions, and twice a day observations are made, and notice is frequently given to Manila by cable.

Postage stamps.

During the period of German control, Germany issued postage stamps for the islands.

The Caroline Islands (or the Carolines) are a widely scattered archipelago of tiny islands in the western Pacific Ocean, to the north of New Guinea. Politically they are divided between the Federated States of Micronesia in the eastern part of the group, and Palau at the extreme western end. Historically, this area was also called Nuevas Filipinas or New Philippines as they were part of the Spanish East Indies and governed from Manila in the Philippines.

Karolíny (též Karolínské ostrovy nebo Souostroví Karolíny) je název pro souostroví v západní oblasti Tichého oceánu. Geograficky patří do Mikronésie.


Population.

The population of the city in 2010 was 97,635 inhabitants, growing constantly since the first census in 1842, while the rest of the province is losing population dramatically. The population of the city in 2014 was 98,560 inhabitants (45.948 men and 52.612 women). From INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística).  By the month of april of 2020, the population of the capital city grew to 99,638 inhabitants. Reaching the cypher of 100,000 inhabitants is one of the goals of the city Mayor, Lara Méndez.  In 2010 there were 5,373 foreigners living in the city, representing a 5.5% of the total population. The main nationalities are Colombians (18%), Moroccans (12%) and Brazilians (11%).  By language, according to 2008 data, 47.37% of the population speaks always or mainly in Galician, 52.63% speaks always or mainly in Spanish.

Geography.

The town lies on a hill surrounded by the rivers Minho, Rato and Chanca. The difference in altitude between the city centre and the river banks is considerable: the former being at an altitude of 465 meters above sea level, whilst the Miño River Walk is at an altitude of only. The municipality of Lugo is the second largest in Galicia, with and 59 parishes. The outline of the city was declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO on 7 November 2002, this being the most important recognition at international level regarding the conservation of landscapes and habitats of this Atlantic European region.  The area has been divided into more than 54 villages: Adai, Bacurín, Bascuas, Bazar, Benade, Bocamaos, Bóveda, O Burgo, Calde, Camoira, Carballido, Coeo, Coeses, Cuíña, Esperante, Gondar, Labio, Lamas, Lugo, Mazoi, Meilán, Monte de Meda, Muxa, Ombreiro, Orbazai, O Outeiro das Camoiras, Pedreda, Pías, Piúgos, Poutomillos, Prógalo, Recimil, Ribas de Miño, Romeán, Rubiás, Saa, San Mamede dos Anxos, San Martiño de Piñeiro, San Pedro de Mera, San Román, San Salvador de Muxa, San Xoán de Pena, San Xoán do Alto, San Xoán do Campo, Santa Comba, Santa María de Alta, Santa Marta de Fixós, Santalla de Bóveda de Mera, Santo André de Castro, Soñar, Teixeiro, Tirimol, Torible, O Veral, Vilachá de Mera.

Climate.

Lugo has a humid oceanic climate with drier summers, "Cfb" in the Köppen climate classification although it could also be classified as a mild Mediterranean climate ("Csb") depending on favoured summer precipitation threshold. Due to its remoteness from the Atlantic, its annual precipitation of can be considered low compared with areas of the Rias Baixas and Santiago de Compostela. The highest temperature recorded in history,, occurred in August 1961 and the lowest temperature was in February 1983. The city has an average of six days of snow per year, which is a contrast to coastal cities of Galicia which have not received snow in modern times. <div>

History.

The city was probably founded by Celtic inhabitants of the region and dedicated to Lugos, a pan-Celtic god of light, oaths and arts. Later conquered by Paullus Fabius Maximus and called Lucus Augusti in 13 BC on the positioning of a Roman military camp, while the Roman Empire completed the conquest, in the North, of the Iberian Peninsula. Situated in what was the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis, it was the chief town of the tribe of the Capori. Though small it was the most important Roman town in what became Gallaecia during the Roman period, the seat of a "conventus", one of three in Gallaecia, and later became one of the two capitals of Gallaecia, and gave its name to the "Callaïci Lucenses". It was centrally situated in a large gold mining region, which during the Roman period was very active. The Conventus Lucensis, according to Pliny, began at the river Navilubio, and contained 16 peoples; besides the Celtici and Lebuni. Though these tribes were not powerful, and their names "barbarous" to Roman ears, there were among them 166,000 freemen. The city stood on one of the upper branches of the Minius (modern Minho), on the road from Bracara to Asturica, and had some famous baths, near from the bridge across the Minho.  Lucus was the seat of a bishopric by the later 5th century at the latest and remained an administrative center under the Suebi and Visigoths, before going into such a decline that the site was found to be deserted in the middle of the 8th century by Bishop Odoario, who set about reviving it. 10th century attempts at rebuilding its "casas destructas" (abandoned tenements) suggest that it remained a town only on paper: the seat of a bishopric, administered by a count, from which royal charters were issued. "Its commercial and industrial role was insignificant", Richard Fletcher wrote of 11th century Lugo.  During the Middle Ages Lugo, like Santiago de Compostela, was a center of pilgrimage, because the cathedral had the special privilege, which it still retains today, of exposing to the public the consecrated host twenty-four hours a day. In the 18th century Lugo was granted the privilege of organizing the fairs of St. Froilán. During the Modern Age, Lugo had a certain supremacy, although other nearby towns such as Mondoñedo or Ribadeo disputed it. It was not until the division of the state into provinces in 1833 and the creation of provincial governments that Lugo has become the most important town in the province of Lugo, because of its capital status. This rise has been bolstered by the arrival of the first railroad to the city in 1875.  During the 20th century the city continued to grow as the administration and services center of the province. In 1936, when the Civil War broke out, the city became quickly under the Nationalists control. In the 1970s the city met important reforms, like the development of the Ceao Industrial Area (1979) and the complete restoration of the Roman walls.  Infanta Elena, the elder daughter of King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofía of Spain and fourth in the line of succession to the Spanish throne, has been duchess of Lugo since 1995.  In 2000, the recognition of the Roman walls on UNESCO's World Heritage Site was an important event in the city.

Economy.

Lugo is a city of services. The main activities are commercial, the administration (offices of the autonomous and central Governments) and educational and health services (the recently opened "Hospital Universitario Lucus Augusti" is the largest in Galicia). The steady increase of population of the city has coincided with the development of the major economic sectors of the municipality. Industry is scarce and almost exclusively dedicated to the processing of agricultural products (dairy, meat, timber...).  There is a shopping center on the outskirts of the city (As Termas), with an Eroski hypermarket, cinemas, clothing stores like H&M, NewYorker or Cortefiel and many restaurants and fast food chains like McDonald's. A new shopping center (Abella) has opened in late 2015 and hosts an E.Leclerc hypermarket, a bowling court, cinemas and a McFit fitness center.  The University of Santiago de Compostela has several faculties at its Lugo Campus, one of the most important being the Faculty of Veterinary sciences, one of the leading in its field in Spain.  The daily newspaper, is published in the city. It's the most read newspaper in the province of Lugo.  There is a private aerodrome in the nearby town of Rozas, owned by the Spanish Ministry of Defence and administered by Real Aero Club de Lugo. In 2011, the Ministry of Defence transferred the installations to INTA, Spain's space agency, in order to convert it into a center of aeronautical research,

Main sights.

Lugo is the only city in the world to be surrounded by completely intact Roman walls, which reach a height of 10 to 15 metres along a 2117 m circuit ringed with 71 towers. The walk along the top is continuous round the circuit, and features ten gates. These 3rd century walls are protected by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The bridge over the Minho is essentially of Roman date, though many repairs over the centuries have effaced its Roman character.  Other sources suggest that the name "Lucus Augusti" comes from the Latin word "Lucus", which means "sacred grove", or "sacred forest", as the city was founded on the place of a small grove.  Besides the walls, sights include:  Two important festivals take place in Lugo:

Sports.

The most popular and known professional team of the city is the basketball team CB Breogán, currently playing in [[Liga Española de Baloncesto[[Liga ACB]], the first division in [[Spain]], the team has played many seasons in [[Liga ACB]] the top Spanish basketball league. The team occupies the 9th position in the historical ranking of that league.  [[Futsal]] is also popular in Lugo, represented by [[Prone Lugo AD|Azkar Lugo]], which plays in [[ Second División de Futsal|Spanish first division]].  The football team of Lugo is [[CD Lugo]], currently playing in Spanish [[Segunda División]].  The fifth stage of the [[2016 Vuelta a España]] cycling race finished in Lugo.

International relations.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Lugo is [[Twin towns and sister cities|twinned]] with:

External links.

[[Category:Lugo| ]] [[Category:Municipalities in the Province of Lugo]] [[Category:13 BC establishments]] [[Category:University towns in Spain]]

Lugo (, ; ) is a city in northwestern Spain in the autonomous community of Galicia. It is the capital of the province of Lugo. The municipality had a population of 98,025 in 2018, making it the fourth most populous city in Galicia.

Lugo je starobylé město na severovýchodě Galicie (severozápadní Španělsko) na řece Minho, sídlo provincie Lugo. S necelými sty tisíci obyvatel je čtvrtým největším galicijským městem. Bylo založeno Římany zřejmě roku 25 př. n. l. a následně bylo hlavním městem Galicie. Ve městě se zachovaly monumentální starověké hradby, zapsané na seznam Světového dědictví UNESCO.


Club career.

Early career.

Steffen Iversen was born in Oslo, when his father, Odd Iversen, was playing for Vålerenga. His family moved back to Trondheim when he was three years old, and the first club that Iversen played for was his father's club Rosenborg. He signed for Nationalkameratene at the age of seven, and the contract, dated 16 February 1984, included a clause that stated that Steffen Iversen any time could move back to Rosenborg free of charge, and was signed by his father. He later moved on to Astor before he joined Rosenborg's youth department in 1994, where he scored six goals in his debut for the reserve team.  He joined Rosenborg's first team squad in 1995, and made his debut in the first match of the season against Kongsvinger at Lerkendal on 21 April 1995. During the two season he first played at Rosenborg, he scored 18 goals in 50 matches, won two consecutive league championship and played in the Champions League. His last match in his first period for Rosenborg was the famous win against Milan at San Siro.

Tottenham Hotspur and Wolverhampton Wanderers.

In December 1996, he joined Tottenham Hotspur for a fee of £2.3 million, and made his Premier League debut against Coventry City, four days after his last match for Rosenborg. He spent seven years at White Hart Lane – collecting a League Cup winners' medal in 1999, assisting Allan Nielsen's stoppage time winner. He also scored the winning goal in the semi-final against Wimbledon. He became the top scorer for the club in the 1998–99 and 1999–2000 season with 13 and 17 goals respectively. Ahead of the 2003–04 season, he signed a one-year contract with Wolverhampton Wanderers, after a long time with injury problems.

Vålerenga and return to Rosenborg.

In 2004, he moved back to Norway to play for Vålerenga where he played a crucial role during the 2005 season and won his third Tippeligaen, ten years after his first. His contract ended on 31 October 2005, and for months he was a free agent. Rumours abounded of several clubs showing their interest, including Mallorca, Everton and his previous club Vålerenga. On 10 February 2006 it was, a bit surprisingly, announced that he wanted to return to his old club Rosenborg, where his joining was officially announced on 13 February 2006. In Rosenborg Iversen was the star player and Rosenborg's topscorer (18 goals) of the 2006/07 season and helped his team win the title, Iversen's fourth medal.  When the transfer market was about to open again in the winter, the Belgian club K.R.C. Genk showed a great interest to buy him. A clause in his contract allowed him to leave the club if the new deal was signed before new year. After a lot of speculations and rumors, Iversen announced that he was staying in Rosenborg to Genk's dismay and disappointment.

Crystal Palace.

He was linked to a number of English Championship clubs in the summer of 2010; including Crystal Palace, Norwich City and Ipswich Town, before provisionally signing for Crystal Palace on 1 January 2011. In his debut match for Crystal Palace, he scored against Preston after 58 minutes, giving Palace their first win in five matches. He scored two goals in 19 matches during the 13 months he played for the Eagles, before he was released by the club on 31 January 2012.

Third spell at Rosenborg.

Iversen joined Rosenborg for the third time in his career on 15 February 2012. He signed a performance-based one-year contract, with an option for one more year, and stated that he had returned to win the league. In November 2012 he decided to retire from football.

International career.

Iversen was a regular for the Norway U-21 and was a major contributor for the team that earned a third place in the 1998 UEFA U-21 Championship, by scoring Norway's all three goals during the championship, including two goals in the third-place match against Netherlands U-21. In total, he played 23 matches for the U-21 team, and scored 17 goals, a record.  Later the same year, he made his debut for the senior team in the UEFA Euro 2000 qualifier against Albania. He scored his first international goal on 20 May 1999 in the friendly match against Jamaica, a game Norway won 6–0.  In Norway's first match in a UEFA European Championship, Iversen scored the match-winning goal against Spain with a header. Iversen's goal is still Norway's only goal in a UEFA European Football Championship.  Iversen played regularly for the national team, until he in August 2008 overslept to a meeting with the squad that was to play a friendly match against Republic of Ireland on 20 August 2008 and was sent home by the national team coach Åge Hareide. Nevertheless, Iversen was called up for the next squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Iceland where he scored Norway's two goals.  The UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier match against Denmark on 26 March 2011 was to be his last match for Norway. In total he achieved 79 caps – scoring 21 goals.

Agent.

His agent while at Tottenham and Wolves was Christian Eidem.

Honours.

Club.

Rosenborg  Tottenham Hotspur  Vålerenga

Steffen Iversen (born 10 November 1976) is a Norwegian footballer who is currently player-manager for Norwegian 4th division side Trygg/Lade as a striker. He is the son of former Norway international Odd Iversen, one of Norway's most prolific goalscorers of all time.

Steffen Iversen (* 10. listopadu 1976, Oslo, Norsko) je bývalý norský fotbalový útočník a reprezentant. Je synem trondheimské fotbalové legendy Odda Iversena, po němž zdědil vlohy ke střílení gólů. Mimo Norska hrál na klubové úrovni v Anglii.


Early life.

Bridie was born and raised in Melbourne, Australia, the eldest of three children. She has two younger brothers. Her mother, Kiffy Rubbo, was a gallery director.

Career.

Carter has been acting since the age of six and started her first classes at the Bouverie Street Theatre in Carlton, Melbourne. She graduated from the National Institute of Dramatic Art in 1994. She is perhaps best known for her starring role as Tess Silverman McLeod in the hit Nine Network television series "McLeod's Daughters"; she appeared on the show for its first six seasons. She was nominated for many Silver and Gold Logies for her performance as Tess McLeod, including the industry-voted Most Outstanding Actress in 2004.  Carter's recent television credits include "Wild Boys" for the Seven Network and "" for the Nine Network, both in 2011. Other television credits include "G.P.", "Water Rats", "All Saints", "Home and Away", "Murder Call", and "Above the Law", where she had the starring role of Senior Constable Debbie Curtis. Her film credits include Princess Pictures' "I Love You Too", "Fresh Air", and the short film, "There's A Hippopotamus on My Roof Eating Cake".  In 2009, she reunited with her "McLeod's Daughters" costar Aaron Jeffery in A.R. Gurney's "Love Letters". She appeared in "No Names No Packdrill" at Sydney's Parade Theatre in 2006.  In 2007, she won the seventh season of Australian "Dancing with the Stars" with her dance partner, Craig Monley.  She played Jan, a recurring role, in the Aussie/New Zealand hit "800 Words".

Personal life.

In early May 2004, she married clothing designer Michael Wilson; they have two children.

Bridie Carter (born 18 December 1970) is an Australian actress best known for her role as the main character of Tess Silverman McLeod on the television drama series "McLeod's Daughters".

Bridie Carterová (* 18. prosince 1970) je australská herečka, jež vyrůstala v Melbourne. Má dva mladší bratry – Barneyho a Darcyho. Její matka vlastní uměleckou galérii.