Overview.

Gyeongbokgung was built three years after the Joseon dynasty was founded and it served as its main palace. With Mount Bugak as a backdrop and the Street of Six Ministries (today's Sejongno) outside Gwanghwamun Gate, the main entrance to the palace, Gyeongbokgung was situated in the heart of the Korean capital city. It was steadily expanded before being reduced to ashes during the Japanese invasion of 1592.  For the next 273 years the palace grounds were left derelict until being rebuilt in 1867 under the leadership of Regent Heungseon Daewongun. The restoration was completed on a grand scale, with 330 buildings crowded together in a labyrinthine configuration. Within the palace walls were the Outer Court ("oejeon"), offices for the king and state officials, and the Inner Court ("naejeon"), which included living quarters for the royal family as well as gardens for leisure. Within its extensive precincts were other palaces, large and small, including "Junggung" (the Queen's residence) and "Donggung" (the Crown Prince's residence).  Due to its status as the symbol of national sovereignty, Gyeongbokgung was extensively damaged during the Japanese occupation of the early 20th century. In 1911, ownership of land at the palace was transferred to the Japanese Governor-General. In 1915, on the pretext of holding an exhibition, more than 90% of the buildings were torn down. Following the exhibition, the Japanese leveled whatever still remained and built their colonial headquarters, the Government-General Building (1916–26), on the site. Only a handful of iconic structures survived, including the Throne Hall and Gyeonghoeru Pavilion.  Restoration efforts have been ongoing since 1990. The Government-General Building was removed in 1996 and Heungnyemun Gate (2001) and Gwanghwamun Gate (2006-2010) were reconstructed in their original locations and forms. Reconstructions of the Inner Court and Crown Prince's residence have also been completed.

History.

14th—16th centuries.

Gyeongbokgung was originally constructed in 1394 by King Taejo, the first king and the founder of the Joseon dynasty, and its name was conceived by an influential government minister named Jeong Do-jeon. Afterwards, the palace was continuously expanded during the reign of King Taejong and King Sejong the Great. It was severely damaged by fire in 1553, and its costly restoration, ordered by King Myeongjong, was completed in the following year.  However, four decades later, the Gyeongbokgung Palace was burnt to the ground during the Japanese invasions of Korea of 1592-1598. The royal court was moved to the Changdeokgung Palace. The Gyeongbokgung palace site was left in ruins for the next three centuries.

19th century.

In 1867, during the regency of Daewongun, the palace buildings were reconstructed and formed a massive complex with 330 buildings and 5,792 rooms. Standing on 4,657,576 square feet (432,703 square meters) of land, Gyeongbokgung again became an iconic symbol for both the Korean nation and the Korean royal family. In 1895, after the assassination of Empress Myeongseong by Japanese agents, her husband, Emperor Gojong, left the palace. The Imperial Family never returned to Gyeongbokgung.

20th—21st centuries.

In 1915, it was used as the site for the Joseon Industrial Exhibition with new exhibition buildings being erected in the grounds.  Starting from 1911, the colonial government of the Empire of Japan systemically demolished all but 10 buildings during the Japanese occupation of Korea and hosted numerous exhibitions in Gyeongbokgung. In 1926, the government constructed the massive Japanese General Government Building in front of the throne hall, Geunjeongjeon, in order to eradicate the symbol and heritage of the Joseon dynasty. Gwanghwamun Gate, the main and south gate of Gyeongbokgung, was relocated by the Japanese to the east of the palace. A further exhibition, the Chosun Exhibition, followed in 1929.  The palace faced further damage when the wooden structure of the relocated Gwanghwamun Gate was completely destroyed amid the devastation of the Korean War.  Gyeongbokgung's original 19th-century palace buildings that survived both the Japanese rule of Colonial Korea and the Korean War include:  Modern archaeological surveys have brought 330 building foundations to light.

Restoration.

In 1989, the South Korean government started a 40-year initiative to rebuild the hundreds of structures that were destroyed by the colonial government of the Empire of Japan, during the period of occupied Colonial Korea (1910-1945).  In 1995, the Japanese General Government Building, after many controversial debates about its fate, was demolished in order to reconstruct Heungnyemun Gate and its cloisters. The National Museum of Korea, then located on the palace grounds, was relocated to Yongsan-gu in 2005.  By the end of 2009, it was estimated that approximately 40 percent of the structures that were standing before the Japanese occupation of Korea were restored or reconstructed. As a part of phase 5 of the Gyeongbokgung restoration initiative, Gwanghwamun, the main gate to the palace, was restored to its original design. Another 20-year restoration project is planned by the South Korean government to restore Gyeongbokgung to its former status.  Having passed through the initial main gate (Gwanghwamun Gate, 광화문) and secondary gate (Heungnyemun Gate, 흥례문), visitors would pass over a small bridge named Yeongjegyo (영제교). Located on the top of the canal right next to the bridge were several imaginary creatures known as "Seosu". Chwihyanggyo was originally located on the north side of the island and was the longest bridge constructed purely of wood during the Joseon Dynasty; however, it was destroyed during the Korean War. The bridge was reconstructed in its present form on the south side of the island in 1953.

Buildings.

Gwanghwamun.

Gwanghwamun () is the main gate of Gyeongbokgung Palace.

Geunjeongjeon.

Geunjeongjeon (), also known as Geunjeongjeon Hall, is the throne hall where the king formally granted audiences to his officials, gave declarations of national importance, and greeted foreign envoys and ambassadors during the Joseon dynasty. The building was designated as Korea's National Treasure No. 223 on January 8, 1985. Geunjeongmun (), aligned and located directly to the south of Geunjeongjeon, is the main gate to the courtyard and to Geunjeongjeon. The gate is divided into three separate aisles, and only the king was allowed to walk through the center.  Geunjeongjeon was originally constructed in 1395 during the reign of King Taejo, but was burned down in 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea. The present building was built in 1867 when Gyeongbokgung was being reconstructed. The name Geunjeongjeon, created by the minister Jeong Do-jeon, means "diligent governance hall".  Constructed mainly of wood, Geunjeongjeon sits on the center of a large rectangular courtyard, on top of a two-tiered stone platform. This two-tiered platform is lined with detailed balustrades and is decorated with numerous sculptures depicting imaginary and real animals, such as dragons and phoenixes. The stone-paved courtyard is lined with two rows of rank stones, called "pumgyeseok" (), indicating where the court officials are to stand according to their ranks. The whole courtyard is fully enclosed by wooden cloisters.

Sajeongjeon.

Sajeongjeon (), also called Sajeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the main executive office by the king during the Joseon Dynasty. Located behind Geunjeongjeon Hall, the king carried out his executive duties and held meetings with the top government officials in Sajeongjeon.  Two separate side buildings, Cheonchujeon () and Manchunjeon (), flank the west and east of Sajeongjeon, and while Sajeongjeon is not equipped with a heating system, these buildings are equipped with Ondols for their use in the colder months.

Gyeonghoeru.

Gyeonghoeru (), also known as Gyeonghoeru Pavilion, is a hall used to hold important and special state banquets during the Joseon Dynasty. It is registered as Korea's National Treasure No. 224 on January 8, 1985.  The first Gyeonghoeru was constructed in 1412, the 12th year of the reign of King Taejong, but was burned down during the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592. The present building was constructed in 1867 (the 4th year of the reign of King Gojong) on an island of an artificial, rectangular lake that is 128 m wide and 113 m across.  Constructed mainly of wood and stone, Gyeonghoeru has a form where the wooden structure of the building sits on top of 48 massive stone pillars, with wooden stairs connecting the second floor to the first floor. The outer perimeters of Gyeonghoeru are supported by square pillars while the inner columns are cylindrical; they were placed thus to represent the idea of Yin & Yang. When Gyeonghoeru was originally built in 1412, these stone pillars were decorated with sculptures depicting dragons rising to the sky, but these details were not reproduced when the building was rebuilt in the 19th century. Three stone bridges connect the building to the palace grounds, and corners of the balustrades around the island are decorated with sculptures depicting twelve Zodiac animals.  Gyeonghoeru used to be represented on the 10,000 won Korean banknotes (1983-2002 Series).

Sujeongjeon.

Sujeongjeon (), a building located to the south of Gyeonghoeru, was constructed in 1867 and used by the cabinet of the Joseon dynasty.

Gangnyeongjeon.

Gangnyeongjeon (), also called Gangnyeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the king's main residing quarters. First constructed in 1395, the fourth year of King Taejo, the building contains the king's bed-chamber. Destroyed during the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592, the building was rebuilt when Gyeongbokgung was reconstructed in 1867, but it was again burned down by a major fire in November 1876 and had to be restored in 1888 following the orders of King Gojong.  However, when Huijeongdang of Changdeokgung Palace was burned down by a fire in 1917, the Japanese government dismembered the building and used its construction materials to restore Huijeongdang in 1920. Current Gangnyeongjeon was built in 1994, meticulously restoring the building to its original specifications and design.  Gangnyeongjeon consists of corridors and fourteen rectangular chambers, each seven chambers located to the left and right side of the building in a layout out like a checkerboard. The king used the central chamber while the court attendants occupied the remaining side chambers to protect, assist, and to receive orders. The building rests on top of a tall stone foundation, and a stone deck or veranda is located in front of the building.  The noted feature of the building is an absence of a top white roof ridge called "yongmaru" ( in Korean. Many theories exist to explain the absence, of which a prominent one states that, since the king was symbolized as the dragon during the Joseon dynasty, the "yongmaru", which contains the letter dragon or "yong" (龍), cannot rest on top of the king when he is asleep.

Gyotaejeon.

Gyotaejeon (), also called Gyotaejeon Hall, is a building used as the main residing quarters by the queen during the Joseon Dynasty. The building is located behind Gangnyeongjeon, the king's quarters, and contains the queen's bed chamber. It was first constructed in around 1440, the 22nd year of King Sejong the Great.  King Sejong, who was noted to have a frail health later in his reign, decided to carry out his executive duties in Gangnyeongjeon, where his bed-chamber is located, instead of Sajeongjeon. Since this decision meant many government officials routinely needed to visit and intrude Gangnyeongjeon, King Sejong had Gyotaejeon built in consideration of his wife the queen's privacy.  The building was burned down in 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea, but was reconstructed in 1867. Nevertheless, when Daejojeon of Changdeokgung Palace was burned down by a fire in 1917, the Japanese government disassembled the building and recycled its construction materials to restore Daejojeon. The current building was reconstructed in 1994 according to its original design and specifications. The building, like Gangnyeongjeon, does not have a top roof ridge called "yongmaru".  Amisan (), a famous garden created from an artificial mound, is located behind Gyotaejeon. Four hexagonal chimneys, constructed around 1869 in orange bricks and decorative roof tiles, adorn Amisan without showing their utilitarian function and are notable examples of formative art created during the Joseon Dynasty. The chimneys were registered as Korea's Treasure No. 811 on January 8, 1985.

Hyangwonjeong.

Hyangwonjeong (), or Hyangwonjeong Pavilion, is a small, two-story hexagonal pavilion built around 1873 by the order of King Gojong when Geoncheonggung residence was built to the north within Gyeongbokgung.  The pavilion was constructed on an artificial island of a lake named Hyangwonji (), and a bridge named Chwihyanggyo () connects it to the palace grounds. The name "Hyangwonjeong" is loosely translated as "Pavilion of Far-Reaching Fragrance", while "Chwihyanggyo" is "Bridge Intoxicated with Fragrance".  The bridge Chwihyanggyo was originally located on the north side of the island and was the longest bridge constructed purely of wood during the Joseon dynasty; however, it was destroyed during the Korean War. The bridge was reconstructed in its present form on the south side of the island in 1953, but is now being relocated to its original location on the north side. The reconstruction is expected to be completed in 2019.

Jagyeongjeon.

Jagyeongjeon (), also called Jagyeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the main residing quarters by Queen Sinjeong (), the mother of King Heonjong. First constructed in 1865, it was burned down twice by a fire but was reconstructed in 1888. Jagyeongjeon is the only royal residing quarters in Gyeongbokgung that survived the demolition campaigns of the Japanese government during the Japanese occupation of Korea.  The chimneys of Jagyeongjeon are decorated with ten signs of longevity to wish for a long life for the late queen, while the west walls of the Jagyeongjeon compound are adorned with floral designs. The protruding southeast part of Jagyeongjeon, named Cheongyeollu (), is designed to provide a cooler space during the summer, while the northwest part of Jagyeongjeon, named Bokandang (), is designed for the winter months. The eastern part of Jagyeogjeon, named Hyeopgyeongdang () and distinguished by the building's lower height, was used by the late queen's assistants.  The building and the decorative walls were registered as Korea's Treasure No. 809 on January 8, 1985.

Jibokjae.

Jibokjae (), located next to Geoncheonggung Residence, is a two-story private library used by King Gojong. In 1876, a major fire occurred in Gyeongbokgung Palace, and King Gojong, for a brief period, moved and resided in Changdeokgung Palace. He eventually moved back to Gyeongbokgung in 1888, but he had the pre-existing Jibokjae building disassembled and moved from Changdeokgung to the present location in 1891. Its name, "Jibokjae", translates loosely in English as the "Hall of Collecting Jade".  The building uniquely shows heavy influence of Chinese architecture instead of traditional Korean palace architecture. Its side walls were entirely constructed in brick, a method commonly employed by the contemporary Chinese, and its roof formations, interior screens, and columns also show Chinese influences. Its architecture possibly was meant to give it an exotic appearance.  Jibokjae is flanked by Parujeong (), an octagonal two-story pavilion, to the left and Hyeopgildang () to the right. Parujeong was constructed to store books, while Hyeopgildang served as a part of Jibokjae. Both of the buildings are internally connected to Jibokjae.  Bohyeondang () and Gahoejeong (), buildings that also formed a library complex to the south of Jibokjae, were demolished by the Japanese government in the early 20th century.

Taewonjeon.

Taewonjeon (), or Taewonjeon Shrine, is an ancestral shrine originally built in 1868 to house a portrait of King Taejo, the founder of the Joseon dynasty, and to perform rites to the deceased royalties. Completely destroyed by the Japanese government in the early 20th century, the shrine was accurately restored to its former design in 2005.

Donggung.

Donggung (), located south of the Hyangwonjeong pavilion, were the living quarters for the crown prince and his wife. The four main buildings of the compound were Jaseondang and Bihyeongak, Chunbang (the lecture hall, where the prince received the preparatory education in order to become a future monarch), as well as Gyebang (the security building).  In the 19th century, the future Emperor Sunjong lived in the compound. Donggung was razed to the ground during the Japanese occupation. The restoration work was started in 1999, and currently, only Jaseondang and Bihyeongak were restored.

Geoncheonggung.

Geoncheonggung (), also known as Geoncheonggung Residence, was a private royal residence built by King Gojong within the palace grounds in 1873.  King Gojong resided in Geoncheonggung from 1888 and the residence was continuously expanded, but on October 8, 1895, Empress Myeongseong, the wife of King Gojong, was brutally assassinated by the Japanese agents at the residence. Her body was burned and buried near the residence.  Haunted by the experiences of the incident, the king left the palace in January 1896 and never again returned to the residence. Demolished completely by the Japanese government in 1909, the residence was accurately reconstructed to its former design and open to the public in 2007.

Governor-General's Residence (dismantled).

The back garden of Gyeongbokgung used to contain the main part of the Japanese Governor-General's residence, that was built in the early 20th century during the Japanese occupation. With the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948, President Syngman Rhee used it as his office and residence. In 1993, after President Kim Young-sam's civilian administration was launched, the Japanese Governor-General's residence in the Cheongwadae compound was dismantled to remove a major symbol of the Japanese colonialism.

Tourism.

In 2011 a survey was conducted by the Seoul Development Institute, which included 800 residents and 103 urban planners and architects. 39 percent of residents voted the palace as the most scenic location in Seoul, following Mount Namsan and Han River in the top spots.

Events.

In a poll of nearly 2,000 foreign visitors, conducted by the Seoul Metropolitan Government in November 2011, stated that watching the changing of the guards at the main gate Gwanghwamun is their third favorite activity in Seoul. The royal changing of the guard ceremony is held in front of the main gate every hour from 10:00 to 15:00. There are many tourists wearing hanbok while visiting Gyeongbokgung. There are rental shops close to Gyeongbokgung.  This year, the number of night tours exclusively for foreigners at Gyeongbokgung Palace will be increased to 14 from 3 last year.  At Gyeongbokgung Palace, a program called “Suragan Tasting Sympathy”, you can experience royal food and watch traditional performances.  On selected days from April to October, Gyeongbokgung offers special 'nighttime viewing' sessions from 7PM to 10PM. 4,500 tickets are offered each session which could be reserved online or purchased on-site (ID required). However, on-site tickets are available "only" for foreigners and senior citizens age 65 and over, for which 500 and 50 tickets are allocated respectively. In 2019, Gyeongbokgung held 71 nighttime viewing sessions.

Access.

Today, the Gyeongbokgung Palace is open to the public and houses the National Folk Museum of Korea, the National Palace Museum of Korea, and traditional Korean gardens.

Transportation.

Gyeongbokgung entry is located 22 Sajik-no, Jongno-gu. The nearest subway station is  There has been off and on talk to extending the Shinbundang Line near the palace including during a March 2012 campaign promise by Hong Sa-duk to expand the line near Gyeongbok Palace.

Gyeongbokgung (), also known as Gyeongbokgung Palace or Gyeongbok Palace, was the main royal palace of the Joseon dynasty. Built in 1395, it is located in northern Seoul, South Korea. The largest of the "Five Grand Palaces" built by the Joseon dynasty, Gyeongbokgung served as the home of Kings of the Joseon dynasty, the Kings' households, as well as the government of Joseon.

Kjonbokkung, též Gyeongbokgung (hangul: 경복궁) je první korejský královský palác postavený za dynastie Čoson na severu Soulu v roce 1395. V období své největší slávy sloužil jako domov pro královskou rodinu a její příslušníky. Je největším z tzv. Pěti velkých paláců, postavených dynastií Čoson. Během Imdžinské války byl z velké části zničen požárem a poté po více než dvě století opuštěn. V 19. století byl za vlády krále Kodžona pod vedením prince regenta Chinsona Tewonguna obnoven a rozšířen, ale během japonské okupace znovu zničen. V současnosti se rekonstruuje a slouží především jako muzeum.


History.

Early life and career.

Laura Pergolizzi was born in 1981 on Long Island, to an Italian father and an Irish mother, her paternal grandfather coming from Naples and grandmother from Palermo. Pergolizzi adopted the stage name "LP" after moving to New York City. David Lowery of the band Cracker saw LP performing and featured her on "Cinderella", a hidden track on the band's 1998 album, "Gentleman's Blues". Lowery followed up by producing LP's debut album, "Heart-Shaped Scar", released in 2001 through Koch Records.  LP's second album, "Suburban Sprawl & Alcohol", was released in June 2004 through Lightswitch Records. On the record, she collaborated with songwriter and music producer Linda Perry. However, in spite of extensive touring to promote the release and positive reviews from music critics, the album failed to gain widespread recognition.

2006–2010.

In 2006, LP appeared at the music conference South by Southwest and reportedly sparked a bidding war amongst major music labels, eventually being signed by L.A. Reid to his Island Def Jam Music Group record label, part of the Universal Music Group. However, due to artistic differences LP left the contract. She signed with SoBe Entertainment in 2007, an independent record label, with the album tracks she had written at the major label. "Love Will Keep You Up All Night", one of the tracks she had written at Island Def Jam Music Group with Billy Mann, was released in late 2007 on the Backstreet Boys album, "Unbreakable". LP wrote and performed "Wasted", from her album "Suburban Sprawl & Alcohol", which was the theme song for a television show, "South of Nowhere", on The N, currently known as TeenNick. MTV's "The Hills" also featured LP's song "Damage Is Done" in mid-2010, and it was released on iTunes.  During 2009, LP started writing songs for other artists, including several songs which ended up on Heidi Montag's album, "Superficial" (Warner Music). LP co-wrote the single, "More Is More", as well as the album tracks, "Twisted", "Hey Boy" and "Love It or Leave It". She also co-wrote other tracks for and with Montag, such as the Cathy Dennis co-written, "Look How I'm Doin'", "I Do This" and "Who's That Girl". A song LP wrote with Alexander Kronlund, "Standing Where You Left Me", was released on Erik Hassle's debut UK album, "Pieces" (Roxy/EMI/Universal). LP moved to Los Angeles in 2010.

2011–2012.

In August 2010, it was announced that LP had signed with RedOne's record label, 2101 Records. LP landed her first major breakthrough as a songwriter, co-writing Rihanna's song, "Cheers (Drink to That)", featured on Rihanna's fifth studio album "Loud", released on November 12, 2010, on Def Jam Recordings. "Cheers" features a vocal hook performed by LP (taken from Avril Lavigne's "I'm with You"). In a 2010 interview with MTV News, Rihanna said: "I love that song ("Cheers"). That is one of my favorite songs on the album. It makes you feel like celebrating. It gives you a great feeling inside like you want to go out and have a drink.... People can't wait for the weekend." LP's major label songwriting breakthroughs continued, as she co-wrote "Beautiful People", performed by Christina Aguilera. The song is featured on the "Burlesque: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack" album, which was released on November 22, 2010 through RCA Records.  In June 2011, LP co-wrote "Afraid to Sleep", which was performed by NBC's "The Voice" finalist Vicci Martinez and reached #10 on the iTunes Top Singles Chart. In September 2011, LP signed a deal with Warner Bros. Records. Shortly after, "Into the Wild", written and performed by LP, was prominently used in a Citibank national television advertisement campaign. In April 2012, LP released her first major label album, "", a five-song live extended play, and started touring extensively including festivals such as SXSW, Bonnaroo, Lollapalooza, Bumbershoot, Tropfest as well as Tokyo's Sonic Boom and London's Hyde Park. In 2012, she became the first female Martin Guitar ambassador.

2013–present.

In May 2012, LP was featured as the Artist of the Week in "Vogue" magazine. Over the following two years, she completed the recording of her album that included collaborations with Billy Steinberg, Isabella "Machine" Summers (from Florence and the Machine), Josh Alexander, Claude Kelly, Justyn Pilbrow, Carl Ryden and Rob Kleiner. The album was produced by Rob Cavallo, Warner Bros. Records' chairman and producer. On April 1, 2014, it was announced that LP's third full-length studio album would be titled "Forever for Now" and was scheduled to be released on June 3, 2014. The album was promoted by the lead single "Night Like This". Following the album, a second single, "Someday", was released in June 2014 in Canada. On September 16, 2014, a music video for "Tokyo Sunrise" officially premiered on "Time" magazine's website.  In September 2015, the song "Muddy Waters" was released as the first single from LP's fourth studio album "Lost on You". In November 2015 one of LP's best known songs, Lost on You was released to great success.  In June 2016, Muddy Waters featured in the violent and emotionally charged closing scene of the season four finale of Netflix's original series "Orange Is The New Black". It was also featured in the trailer for the NBC show "Shades of Blue. "Muddy Waters"" clarifies the ending of season 5 episode 4 of Starz Power, as the layers of uncertainty and drama are revisited. In November, the album's eponymous second single was released, while LP held a residency at the No Vacancy club. Both songs originate from a collaboration with Mike Del Rio. An EP titled "Death Valley" was released on June 17, 2016.  The song "Hi Ho Nobody Home" by David Baerwald featuring LP was used in an episode of Mr. Mercedes. In 2017 she performed the song "Back Where I Belong" (Otto Knows featuring Avicii) for the episode 5 (second season) of the Netflix's original series "Sense8".  LP duets with Mylène Farmer on the single "N'oublie pas", released on June 22. The single immediately hit number 1 on the French iTunes chart upon release. The track is the second single from Farmer's upcoming studio album "Désobéissance".  On June 15, 2018, LP announced on her Facebook page that she had been working on a new album. A day later, the first track from the record, "Girls Go Wild" was released.  In September 2018 she recorded two songs for the singer Morrissey for his new album of cover songs.  On June 6, 2019, Grey Daze, the old band of late Linkin Park's singer Chester Bennington, announced on their Instagram page that she had recorded some vocals for a song from their upcoming album which also features vocals from Chester.  In October 2019, the song "Strange" was featured on the commercial for the Samsung Galaxy phone.

Laura Pergolizzi (born March 18, 1981), known professionally as LP, is an American singer and songwriter, best known for her single "Lost on You". She has released five albums and three EPs. She has written songs for other artists including Cher, Rihanna, the Backstreet Boys, Leona Lewis, Mylène Farmer, Céline Dion and Christina Aguilera.

LP, vlastním jménem Laura Pergolizzi (* 18. března 1981), je americká zpěvačka s italskými kořeny. Vyrůstala na Long Islandu a po dokončení studií na střední škole se, v roce 1996, přestěhovala do New York City. V roce 2010 se usadila v Los Angeles. Proslavila se skládáním písní pro Cher, Christinu Aguileru, Ritu Oru, Rihannu a Backstreet Boys. Následně začala zpívat sama a je velmi úspěšná. Nebýt vytetované lodi na její hrudi, připomínala by vzhledem i stylem zpěváka Boba Dylana. Svou první desku s názvem "Heart-Shaped Scar" vydala v roce 2001 (vydavatelství Koch Records). Později vydala několik dalších alb. V některých písních zpívá o své bývalé přítelkyni Tamzin Brown. Nyní je její přítelkyní Lauren Ruth Ward, která je rovněž zpěvačkou a mají spolu psa, který se jmenuje Orson Johny Valentine. V červenci 2017 vystoupila zpěvačka na festivalu Colours of Ostrava, web iReport ohodnotil její vystoupení velmi kladně.


The kingdom.

According to Hittite sources, the capital of the Kingdom of Arzawa was Apasa (or "Abasa"), corresponding with later Greek Ephesus.  The languages spoken in Arzawa during the Bronze Age and early Iron Age cannot be directly determined due to the paucity of indigenous written sources. It was previously believed that the linguistic identity of Arzawa was predominantly Luwian, based, "inter alia", on the replacement of the designation Luwiya with Arzawa in a corrupt passage of a New Hittite copy of the Laws. However, it was recently argued that Luwiya and Arzawa were two separate entities, because Luwiya is mentioned in the Hittite Laws as a part of the Hittite Old Kingdom, whereas Arzawa was independent from the Hittites during this period. The geographic identity between Luwiya and Arzawa was rejected or doubted in a variety of recent publications, although the ethnolinguistic implications of this analysis remain to be assessed. One scholar suggested that there was no significant Luwian population in Arzawa, but instead that it was predominantly inhabited by speakers of Proto-Lydian and Proto-Carian. The difference between the two approaches need not be exaggerated since the Carian language belongs to the Luwic branch of the Anatolian languages. Thus, the Luwic presence in Arzawa is universally acknowledged, but whether the elites of Arzawa were Luwian in the narrow sense remains a matter of debate. The zenith of the kingdom was during the 15th and 14th centuries BC. The Hittites were then weakened, and Arzawa was an ally of Egypt. This alliance is recorded in the correspondence between the Arzawan ruler Tarhundaradu and the Pharaoh Amenophis III called the Arzawa letters, part of the archive of the Amarna letters (Nr. 31 and 32), having played a substantial role in the decipherment of the Hittite language in which they were written.  According to Hittite records, in c. 1320 BC Arzawa joined an anti-Hittite alliance together with the region of Millawanta (Miletus) under the king of the Ahhiyawa (the latter widely accepted as Mycenaean Greece or part of it). As a response to this initiative, the Hittite kings Suppiluliuma I and Mursili II finally managed to defeat Arzawa around 1300 BC. The king of Arzawa managed to escape to Mycenaean-controlled territory. Arzawa was then split by the Hittites into vassal kingdoms. These were called:  "Seha river" is now believed to be the present-day Gediz River, although some scholars said it was the Bakırçay river.  Also, Mursili's son Muwatalli added Wilusa (Troy) as a vassal.  In 1998, J. David Hawkins succeeded in reading the Karabel relief inscription, located at the Karabel pass, about 20 km from Izmir. This has provided evidence that the kingdom of Mira was actually south of the 'Seha river land', thus locating the latter along the Gediz River.  These kingdoms, usually termed simply as "lands" in Hittite registers, could have formed part of the Arzawa complex already during the existence of the Arzawa kingdom.  Known western Anatolian late-Bronze Age regions and/or political entities which, to date, have not been cited as having been part of the Arzawa complex are:  After the collapse of the Hittite Empire from the 12th century, while Neo-Hittite states partially pursued Hittite history in southern Anatolia and Syria, the chain seems to have broken as far as the Arzawa lands in western Anatolia were concerned and these could have pursued their own cultural path until unification came with the emergence of Lydia as a state under the Mermnad dynasty in the 7th century BC. There has been evidence from a British expedition in 1954 to Beycesultan in inner western Anatolia which suggests that the local king had central heating in his home. Nothing more was heard from this invention until Gaius Sergius Orata reinvented it in Ancient Rome around 80 BC.

Arzawa was the name of a region and a political entity (a "kingdom" or a federation of local powers) in Western Anatolia in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC (roughly from the late 15th century BC until the beginning of the 12th century BC). The core of Arzawa is believed to be along the Kaystros River (now known as Küçük Menderes River), with its capital at Apasa, later known as Ephesus. When the Hittites conquered Arzawa it was divided into three Hittite provinces: a southern province called Mira along the Maeander River, which would later become known as Caria; a northern province called the Seha River Land, along the Gediz River, which would later become known as Lydia; and an eastern province called Hapalla.

Arzawa byl starověký státní útvar existující v západní části Malé Asie v době bronzové, od 15. století př. n. l. do 12. století př. n. l. Hlavním městem byla Apaša, ztotožňovaná s pozdějším Efezem. Obyvateli byli pravděpodobně Luvijci: písemné památky v jejich jazyce se nedochovaly, existují jen nepřímé zmínky v egyptských a chetitských zdrojích (El-amarnské dopisy). V průsmyku Karabel nedaleko İzmiru byly nalezeny skalní reliéfy a nápisy z arzawského období. Podobnost doloženého jména vládce Pijamaradu s Homérovým Priamem vzbuzuje domněnky o spojení Arzawy s Trójou.


Birth-death process.

The behaviour / state of a single queue (also called a "queueing node") can be described by a birth-death process, which describes the arrivals and departures from the queue, along with the number of jobs (also called "customers" or "requests", or any number of other things, depending on the field) currently in the system. An arrival increases the number of jobs by 1, and a departure (a job completing its service) decreases "k" by 1 (see Fig. 3).  The steady state equations for birth-and-death process are as follows. (Here formula_1 denotes the steady state probability to be in state "n".)

Example analysis of an M/M/1 queue.

Consider a queue with 1 server and the following variables:  Further, let "E" represent the number of times the system enters state "n", and "L" represent the number of times the system leaves state "n". For all "n", we have |"E" − "L"| ∈ {0, 1}, that is, the number of times the system leaves a state differs by at most 1 from the number of times it enters that state, since it will either return into that state at some time in the future ("E" = "L") or not (|"E" − "L"| = 1).  When the system arrives at a steady state, the arrival rate should be equal to the departure rate.

Simple two-equation queue.

A common basic queuing system is attributed to Erlang, and is a modification of Little's Law. Given an arrival rate "λ", a dropout rate "σ", and a departure rate "μ", length of the queue "L" is defined as:  Assuming an exponential distribution for the rates, the waiting time "W" can be defined as the proportion of arrivals that are served. This is equal to the exponential survival rate of those who do not drop out over the waiting period, giving:  The second equation is commonly rewritten as:  The two-stage one-box model is common in epidemiology.

Kendall's notation.

Single queueing nodes are usually described using Kendall's notation in the form A/S/"c" where "A" describes the distribution of durations between each arrival to the queue, "S" the distribution of service times for jobs and "c" the number of servers at the node. For an example of the notation, the M/M/1 queue is a simple model where a single server serves jobs that arrive according to a Poisson process (inter-arrival durations are exponentially distributed) and have exponentially distributed service times. In an M/G/1 queue, the G stands for general and indicates an arbitrary probability distribution for service times.

Overview of the development of the theory.

In 1909, Agner Krarup Erlang, a Danish engineer who worked for the Copenhagen Telephone Exchange, published the first paper on what would now be called queueing theory. He modeled the number of telephone calls arriving at an exchange by a Poisson process and solved the M/D/1 queue in 1917 and M/D/"k" queueing model in 1920. In Kendall's notation:  If there are more jobs at the node than there are servers, then jobs will queue and wait for service  The M/G/1 queue was solved by Felix Pollaczek in 1930, a solution later recast in probabilistic terms by Aleksandr Khinchin and now known as the Pollaczek–Khinchine formula.  After the 1940s queueing theory became an area of research interest to mathematicians. In 1953 David George Kendall solved the GI/M/"k" queue and introduced the modern notation for queues, now known as Kendall's notation. In 1957 Pollaczek studied the GI/G/1 using an integral equation. John Kingman gave a formula for the mean waiting time in a G/G/1 queue: Kingman's formula.  Leonard Kleinrock worked on the application of queueing theory to message switching (in the early 1960s) and packet switching (in the early 1970s). His initial contribution to this field was his doctoral thesis at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1962, published in book form in 1964 in the field of message switching. His theoretical work published in the early 1970s underpinned the use of packet switching in the ARPANET, a forerunner to the Internet.  The matrix geometric method and matrix analytic methods have allowed queues with phase-type distributed inter-arrival and service time distributions to be considered.  Problems such as performance metrics for the M/G/"k" queue remain an open problem.

Service disciplines.

Various scheduling policies can be used at queuing nodes:  Arriving customers not served (either due to the queue having no buffer, or due to balking or reneging by the customer) are also known as dropouts and the average rate of dropouts is a significant parameter describing a queue.

Heavy traffic/diffusion approximations.

In a system with high occupancy rates (utilisation near 1) a heavy traffic approximation can be used to approximate the queueing length process by a reflected Brownian motion, Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process or more general diffusion process. The number of dimensions of the RBM is equal to the number of queueing nodes and the diffusion is restricted to the non-negative orthant.  = Queueing networks = Networks of queues are systems in which a number of queues are connected by what's known as customer routing. When a customer is serviced at one node it can join another node and queue for service, or leave the network.  For networks of "m" nodes, the state of the system can be described by an "m"–dimensional vector ("x", "x",..., "x") where "x" represents the number of customers at each node.  The simplest non-trivial network of queues is called tandem queues. The first significant results in this area were Jackson networks, for which an efficient product-form stationary distribution exists and the mean value analysis which allows average metrics such as throughput and sojourn times to be computed. If the total number of customers in the network remains constant the network is called a closed network and has also been shown to have a product–form stationary distribution in the Gordon–Newell theorem. This result was extended to the BCMP network where a network with very general service time, regimes and customer routing is shown to also exhibit a product-form stationary distribution. The normalizing constant can be calculated with the Buzen's algorithm, proposed in 1973.  Networks of customers have also been investigated, Kelly networks where customers of different classes experience different priority levels at different service nodes. Another type of network are G-networks first proposed by Erol Gelenbe in 1993: these networks do not assume exponential time distributions like the classic Jackson Network.

Routing algorithms.

In discrete time networks where there is a constraint on which service nodes can be active at any time, the max-weight scheduling algorithm chooses a service policy to give optimal throughput in the case that each job visits only a single person service node. In the more general case where jobs can visit more than one node, backpressure routing gives optimal throughput. A network scheduler must choose a queuing algorithm, which affects the characteristics of the larger network. See also Stochastic scheduling for more about scheduling of queueing systems.

Mean field limits.

Mean field models consider the limiting behaviour of the empirical measure (proportion of queues in different states) as the number of queues ("m" above) goes to infinity. The impact of other queues on any given queue in the network is approximated by a differential equation. The deterministic model converges to the same stationary distribution as the original model.

Fluid limits.

Fluid models are continuous deterministic analogs of queueing networks obtained by taking the limit when the process is scaled in time and space, allowing heterogeneous objects. This scaled trajectory converges to a deterministic equation which allows the stability of the system to be proven. It is known that a queueing network can be stable, but have an unstable fluid limit.  = See also =  = References = = Further reading =  = External links =

Queueing theory is the mathematical study of waiting lines, or queues. A queueing model is constructed so that queue lengths and waiting time can be predicted. Queueing theory is generally considered a branch of operations research because the results are often used when making business decisions about the resources needed to provide a service.

Jako teorie hromadné obsluhy nebo též teorie front se označuje obor aplikované matematiky, který se zabývá modelováním, návrhem a řízením situací, při kterých jsou zákazníci (za které mohou být považováni lidé nebo i různé procesy a automaty) obsluhováni různými kanály a je potřeba optimalizovat využití zdrojů, jakými jsou čekací doby zákazníků a kapacity kanálů. Teorie hromadné obsluhy je součást operačního výzkumu a vznikla začátkem 20. století, kdy ji založil dánský inženýr Agner Krarup Erlang v rámci svých výzkumů telefonních ústředen.


History.

Analyzing the history of vegetarianism and opposition to it from ancient Greece to the present day, literary scholar Renan Larue found certain commonalities in what he described as carnist arguments. According to him, carnists typically held that vegetarianism is a ludicrous idea unworthy of attention, that mankind is invested with dominion over animals by divine authority, and that abstaining from violence against animals would pose a threat to humans. He found that the views that farmed animals do not suffer, and that slaughter is preferable to death by disease or predation, gained currency in the nineteenth century, but that the former had precedent in the writings of Porphyry, a vegetarian who advocated the humane production of animal products which do not require animals to be slaughtered, such as wool.  In the 1970s traditional views on the moral standing of animals were challenged by animal rights advocates, including psychologist Richard Ryder, who in 1971 introduced the notion of speciesism. This is defined as the assignment of value and rights to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership. In 2001 psychologist and animal rights advocate Melanie Joy coined the term "carnism" for a form of speciesism that she argues underpins using animals for food, and particularly killing them for meat. Joy compares carnism to patriarchy, arguing that both are dominant normative ideologies that go unrecognized because of their ubiquity:  Sandra Mahlke argues that carnism is the "central crux of speciesism" because the eating of meat motivates ideological justification for other forms of animal exploitation.

Features.

Edible or inedible.

A central aspect of carnism is that animals are categorized as edible, inedible, pets, vermin, predators, or entertainment animals, according to people's schemata – mental classifications that determine, and are determined by, our beliefs and desires. There is cultural variability regarding which animals count as food. Dogs are eaten in China, and South Korea, but elsewhere are not viewed as food, either because they are loved or, as in the Middle East and parts of India, regarded as unclean. Cows are eaten in the West, but revered in much of India. Pigs are rejected by Muslims and Jews but widely regarded by other groups as edible. Joy and other psychologists argue that these taxonomies determine how the animals within them are treated, influence subjective perceptions of their sentience and intelligence, and reduce or increase empathy and moral concern for them.

Meat paradox.

Jeff Mannes writes that carnism is rooted in a paradox between most people's values and actions: they oppose harming animals, and yet eat them. He argues that this conflict leads to cognitive dissonance, which people attempt to attenuate through psychic numbing. The apparent conflict between caring about animals and embracing diets which require them to be harmed has been termed the "meat paradox".  There is experimental evidence supporting the idea that the meat paradox induces cognitive dissonance in Westerners. Westerners are more willing to eat animals which they regard as having lesser mental capacities and moral standing, and conversely, to attribute lesser mental faculties and moral standing to animals which are eaten. Furthermore, the relationship is causative: the categorization of animals as food or not affects people's perception of their mental characteristics, and the act of eating meat itself causes people to attribute diminished mental capacity to animals. For example, in one study people rated an unfamiliar exotic animal as less intelligent if they were told native people hunted it, and in another they regarded cows as less intelligent after eating beef jerky.  Avoiding consideration of the provenance of animal products is another strategy. Joy argues that this is why meat is rarely served with the animal's head or other intact body parts.

Justification.

Joy introduced the idea of the "Three Ns of Justification", writing that meat-eaters regard meat consumption as "normal, natural, and necessary". She argues that the "Three Ns" have been invoked to justify other ideologies, including slavery and denying women the right to vote, and are widely recognized as problematic only after the ideology they support has been dismantled.  The argument holds that people are conditioned to believe that humans evolved to eat meat, that it is expected of them, and that they need it to survive or be strong. These beliefs are said to be reinforced by various institutions, including religion, family and the media. Although scientists have shown that humans get more than enough protein in their diets without eating meat, the belief that meat is required persists.  Building on Joy's work, psychologists conducted a series of studies in the United States and Australia, published in 2015, that found the great majority of meat-eaters' stated justifications for consuming meat were based on the "Four Ns" – "natural, normal, necessary, and nice". The arguments were that humans are omnivores ("natural"), that most people eat meat ("normal"), that vegetarian diets are lacking in nutrients ("necessary"), and that meat tastes good ("nice").  Meat-eaters who endorsed these arguments more strongly reported less guilt about their dietary habits. They tended to objectify animals, have less moral concern for them and attribute less consciousness to them. They were also more supportive of social inequality and hierarchical ideologies, and less proud of their consumer choices.

"Saved from slaughter" narratives.

An illustration of dissonance reduction is the prominence given to "saved from slaughter" stories, in which the media focus on one animal that evaded slaughter, while ignoring the millions that did not. Joy wrote that this dichotomy is characteristic of carnism.  Animals at the center of these narratives include Wilbur in "Charlotte's Web" (1952); the eponymous and fictional star of "Babe" (1995); Christopher Hogwood in Sy Montgomery's "The Good, Good Pig" (2006); the Tamworth Two; and Cincinnati Freedom. The American National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation is cited as another example. A 2012 study found that most media reporting on it celebrated the poultry industry while marginalizing the link between living animals and meat.

Non-academic reception.

Opinion pieces in "The Huffington Post", "The Statesman", and "The Drum" praised the idea, saying the term made it easier to discuss, and challenge, the practices of animal exploitation. An article in the beef industry publication Drovers Cattle Network criticized the use of the term, saying it implied that eating animal foods was a "psychological sickness".

Carnism is a concept used in discussions of humanity's relation to other animals, defined as a prevailing ideology in which people support the use and consumption of animal products, especially meat. Carnism is presented as a dominant belief system supported by a variety of defense mechanisms and mostly unchallenged assumptions. The term "carnism" was coined by social psychologist and author Melanie Joy in 2001 and popularized by her book "Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows" (2009).

Karnismus (anglicky "") je ideologický postoj, který poprvé definovala americká sociální psycholožka, novinářka a veganská aktivistka. Tento termín vysvětluje v knize "Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows" (2009). Podle autorky jde o všeobecně sdílenou a nereflektovanou ideologii, že je správné nebo dokonce žádané konzumovat maso zvířat, která jsou v dané kultuře definovaná jako jedlá. Řadou sdílených přesvědčení (např. že je konzumace masa nezbytná) a mechanismů (skrývání původu masa) se lidé vyrovnávají s nepříjemnými pocity, které by mohli mít kvůli rostoucí senzibilitě vůči utrpení a zabíjení ostatních zvířat.


Types.

Spring type.

The first type of epilator was the original "Epilady" released in Israel, and manufactured by Mepro, in kibbutz Hagoshrim in 1986. The design incorporated a coil spring, which was bowed into a curve such that the coils on one side of the spring were squeezed tightly together while on the other side the coils were spread apart. The motor in the epilady rotated the spring, causing it to flex as it rotated. Moving the rotating spring across the skin caused the hairs to be caught up in the spring and pulled out through hair follicles.  Because the springs flexed continuously, they were subject to occasional failure and were sold separately as a replacement part.  Today, there are manual epilators designed for the face, that do not use a power supply. This design consists simply of a coil spring with two handles. The spring is then bowed into a curve and placed upon the unwanted facial hair whilst turning the handles. This caused the hairs to be caught between the coils of the springs and pulled out from the roots.

Rotating disc type.

The Remington "Lady Remington Smooth and Silky" was designed to operate in a similar way to the spring type Epilady, except that a series of metal discs were used instead of a spring. It was the subject of extensive patent litigation in Europe due to a conceptual similarity to the spring type epilator. The UK patent infringement case is known as "Improver Corporation v Remington Consumer Product Limited [1990] F.S.R. 181".

Tweezer type.

The rotating disc design has been refined such that, in modern designs, the plates are no longer complete discs. The "head" of a modern epilator incorporates a series of metal plates mounted in a plastic housing. The ends of the plates may be exposed at one or both sides of the housing. As the head rotates, the tips of the plates move together and apart once per revolution. This creates a tweezing effect, where the hair between the plates, when they close, is pulled as the plates rotate away from the skin, then released as the plates separate. This allows a continuous cycle of gripping, pulling, extracting and discarding the hair as the epilator is moved across the skin.  Depending upon the strength and brittleness of the hair, some may snap off rather than being pulled out. Because those hairs snap off just above the skin surface, they can look somewhat like stubble from shaving, but are far more sparsely spread because the other hairs have been pulled out entirely. As with waxing, because of the phases of growth that occur with hair, there is not as much regrowth following the first epilation. Regular epilation of regrowth is less painful than the initial epilation and the number of broken off hairs diminishes with regular epilation.

Wet use type.

Many modern epilators, such as the Braun Silk-Epil 9, have a built in rechargeable battery and are designed to be used either wet or dry. These types of devices are built to be used in or out of the shower or with an optional cream or gel. The use of a skin cream or gel is said to be helpful with reducing the pain and irritation associated with the dry use only devices.

An epilator is an electrical device used to remove hair by mechanically grasping multiple hairs simultaneously and pulling them out. The way in which epilators pull out hair is similar to waxing, although unlike waxing, they do not remove cells from the epithelium of the epidermis. Aside from the spring in early spring-type epilators, there are no parts in epilators that require regular replacement. Epilators come in corded, rechargeable and battery-operated designs. The battery-operated devices can be used wet or dry. They may also come with various attachments, like a smaller head to help with epilation of hard-to-reach areas, or an exfoliation head that may help exfoliate the skin before and after epilation.

Epilátor je elektrické zařízení, které se používá k odstraňování lidských chloupků tím, že mechanicky uchopí více chloupků současně a vytáhne je. Způsob, jakým epilátory vytahují chloupky, je podobný voskování, i když na rozdíl od voskování neodstraňuje buňky z epitelové tkáně pokožky. Kromě pružin v raných pružinových typech epilátorů nejsou v epilátorech žádné části, které by vyžadovaly pravidelnou výměnu. Epilátory jsou dodávány v provedení s napájením, s akumulátorem či dobíjecí. Zařízení s bateriemi mohou být používána za mokra nebo za sucha.


Synthesis.

Aldaric acids are usually synthesized by the oxidation of aldoses with nitric acid. In this reaction it is the open-chain (polyhydroxyaldehyde) form of the sugar that reacts.  An aldaric acid is an aldose in which both the hydroxyl function of the terminal carbon and the aldehyde function of the first carbon have been fully oxidized to carboxylic acid functions. (Oxidation of just the aldehyde yields an aldonic acid while oxidation of just the terminal hydroxyl group yields an uronic acid.) Aldaric acids cannot form cyclic hemiacetals like unoxidized sugars, but they can sometimes form lactones.

Structure.

Nomenclature of the aldaric acids is based on the sugars from which they are derived; for example, glucose is oxidized to glucaric acid and xylose to xylaric acid.  Unlike their parent sugars, aldaric acids have the same functional group at both ends of their carbon chain; therefore, two different sugars can yield the same aldaric acid (this can be understood by looking at the Fischer projection of a sugar upside down—with normal aldoses, this is a different compound due to the aldehyde function at the top and the hydroxyl function at the bottom, but with aldaric acids, there is a carboxylic acid function on both ends, so upside down and right side up do not matter). For example, -glucaric acid and -gularic acid are the same compound (but the first name is preferred, because of - prefix). A consequence of this is that some aldaric acids are meso forms with no optical activity despite their multiple chiral centers—this occurs if a sugar and its enantiomer oxidize to the same aldaric acid. An example is -galactose—it has four chiral centers, but -galactaric and -galactaric acids, which have the opposite configuration at each chiral center and therefore would be expected to be enantiomers, are actually the same compound; therefore, galactaric acid is an achiral meso form with no optical activity. Again, this can be understood by taking the Fischer projection of either acid and looking at it upside down—the configuration is now switched at every carbon.  Adipic acid, HOOC-(CH)-COOH, is not an aldaric acid, though it is structurally similar. In fact, six-carbon aldaric acids can be considered tetrahydroxyl derivatives of adipic acid.

Aldaric acids are a group of sugar acids, where the terminal hydroxyl and carbonyl groups of the sugars have been replaced by terminal carboxylic acids, and are characterised by the formula HOOC-(CHOH)-COOH.

Aldarové kyseliny jsou skupinou karboxylových kyselin. Vznikají oxidací jak aldehydové skupiny, tak i hydroxylové skupiny terminálního uhlíku monosacharidů na karboxylové skupiny. Jména aldarových kyselin se odvozují od názvů výchozích sacharidů. Jako příklad je možné uvést glukarovou kyselinu.


Early life.

Carleson was born on 11 July 1917 in Stockholm, Sweden, the son of captain Waldemar Carleson and his wife Gunnila Carleson. He grew up in Stockholm with four brothers. Early attention was paid to his great interest and aptitude for swimming. During high school years at Högre latinläroverket å Norrmalm, he became Swedish champion and record holder in the 100 m backstroke.

Career.

Military career.

After "studentexamen" in Stockholm in 1937, Carleson graduated from the Royal Swedish Naval Academy in 1940 and was the same year commissioned as an reserve officer with the rank of "fänrik" in the Swedish Coastal Artillery. In 1941, Carleson was commissioned as "fänrik" in the Vaxholm Coastal Artillery Regiment (KA 1), where he immediately started serving in a unit in the outermost coastline. Later he became commander of a training company in Vaxholm. After graduation from the Swedish Army Physical Training School ("Arméns gymnastik- och idrottsskola"), he was placed as a cadet and sports officer at the Royal Swedish Naval Academy. Carleson attended the Royal Swedish Naval Staff College from 1944 to 1946, and then the staff and artillery course at the Royal Swedish Naval Staff College from 1947 to 1949.  Carleson served in the Naval Staff from 1949 to 1953, in the Vaxholm Coastal Artillery Regiment from 1953 to 1954, in the Military Office of the Minister of Defence from 1954 to 1956 and again in the Vaxholm Coastal Artillery Regiment from 1956 to 1957. He was involved in studies and planning for the creation of mobile ground combat forces in an archipelago environment and was given the opportunity to follow the education at a French amphibious school in Algeria and then undergo combat diver training in the Swedish Navy. As a result of an amphibious investigation, appointed by Sweden's Supreme Commander and boat investigations in the Naval Staff, the Chief of the Navy was commissioned by the Supreme Commander to carry out experimental training of mobile ground combat units in the archipelago. It was natural that the Coastal Artillery Inspector appointed the then captain Carleson to prepare and conduct this activity in 1956. He thus became the founder and first head of the Coastal Ranger School (1956–1957). Carleson's ideal instructor was, with his own words "skilful in hand-to-hand combat, skilled navigator of the archipelago, good at orienteering, preferably a combat diver, knowledgeable signaller and artillery observer, and also strong, durable and provided with good judgment".  Carleson was promoted to major in 1957 and served in the Defence Staff from 1957 to 1962. In 1962 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and appointed chief of staff of the Norrland Coastal Artillery Defence ("Norrlands kustartilleriförsvar", NK). In 1964, Carleson was promoted to colonel and appointed chief of Section 2 in the Naval Staff. Carleson was promoted to colonel 1st class in 1969 and was appointed commanding officer of the Gothenburg and Bohus Defence District as well as Halland Defence District (Fo 31/32) as well as commander of Gothenburg Coastal Artillery Defence (GbK). He held this position until 1977.

Sports career.

Carleson competed at the 1948, 1952 and 1956 Olympics and won two team medals, in 1948 and 1952. He was a Swedish Olympic flag bearer at the 1948 and 1956 Games.  Carleson started as a backstroke swimmer, and in the late 1930s held a national record and was a national champion over 100 m. Besides his Olympic achievements, he won three silver and three bronze medals at the world championships between 1947 and 1954.

Later life.

He became president of Majorna's Rotary club in Gothenburg and governor of the district and Swedish representative in the international law council. For his efforts, he received the Paul P. Harris Fellow recognition and became honorary member of his own Rotary club. During his last year of life, he received an award that greatly pleased him. The voluntary education organization "Förbundet Kustjägarna" ("Coastal Ranger Association"), which was formed in 2003, handed over its newly established gold medal with number 1 to Carleson.

Personal life.

In 1952, he married Karin Stenbeck (born 1906), the daughter of Magnus Ekstedt and Anna (née Hörman).

Colonel 1st Class Per Hjalmar Ludvig Carleson (11 July 1917 – 8 June 2004) was a Swedish officer and épée fencer. Carleson was one of the founders of the Swedish Coastal Rangers.

Per Hjalmar Ludvig Carleson (* 11. července 1917 Stockholm – 8. června 2004 Göteborg, Švédsko) byl švédský sportovní šermíř, který se specializoval na šerm kordem. Švédsko reprezentoval v čtyřicátých a padesátých letech. Na olympijských hrách startoval v roce 1948 a 1952 v soutěži jednotlivců a družstev. V roce 1949 obsadil na mistrovství světa v soutěži jednotlivců třetí místo. Se švédským družstvem kordistů vybojoval v roce 1952 stříbrnou a v roce 1948 bronzovou olympijskou medaili a v roce 1947, 1949 a 1954 druhé místo na mistrovství světa.


Plot.

Two years after the battle of Sokovia, Thor is imprisoned by the fire demon Surtur, who reveals that Thor's father Odin is no longer on Asgard. He explains that the realm will soon be destroyed during the prophesied Ragnarök, once Surtur unites his crown with the Eternal Flame that burns in Odin's vault. Thor frees himself, defeats Surtur and takes his crown, believing he has prevented Ragnarök.  Thor returns to Asgard to find Heimdall gone and his estranged brother Loki posing as Odin. After exposing Loki, Thor forces him to help find their father, and with directions from Stephen Strange at the Sanctum Sanctorum in New York City, they locate Odin in Norway. Odin explains that he is dying, Ragnarök is imminent despite Thor's efforts to prevent it, and his passing will free his firstborn child, Hela, from a prison she was sealed in long ago. Hela was the leader of Asgard's armies, conquering the Nine Realms with Odin, but Odin imprisoned her and wrote her out of history after fearing that she had become too ambitious and powerful. Odin dies as Thor and Loki look on, and Hela appears, destroying Thor's hammer Mjolnir. She pursues the two as they attempt to flee through the Bifröst Bridge, forcing them out into space. Arriving in Asgard, she defeats its army and kills the Warriors Three. She then resurrects the ancient dead who once fought with her, including her giant wolf Fenris, and appoints the Asgardian Skurge as her executioner. Hela plans to use the Bifröst to expand Asgard's empire, but Heimdall sneaks in, takes the sword that controls the Bridge and begins hiding other Asgardians.  Thor crash-lands on Sakaar, a garbage planet surrounded by wormholes. A slave trader designated Scrapper 142 subdues him with an obedience disk and sells him as a gladiator to Sakaar's ruler, the Grandmaster, with whom Loki has already ingratiated himself. Thor recognizes 142 as a Valkyrie, one of a legendary force of female warriors who were killed fighting Hela eons ago. Thor is forced to compete in the Grandmaster's Contest of Champions, facing his old friend Hulk. Summoning lightning, Thor gets the upper hand, but the Grandmaster sabotages the fight to ensure Hulk's victory.

Production.

Development.

While promoting the release of "Thor: The Dark World" in October 2013, Chris Hemsworth expressed willingness to portraying Thor for as long as "people wanted more", adding that he was contracted for another "Thor" film and two more "Avengers" films. Producer Kevin Feige stated that the next "Thor" would build from elements at the end of "The Dark World". In January 2014, Marvel announced that Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost would write the screenplay for a third film, with Feige again producing; the story was being outlined that July. At the end of October 2014, Feige announced that the film would be titled "Thor: Ragnarok", with a scheduled release date of July 28, 2017. Hemsworth and Tom Hiddleston were set to return as Thor and Loki, respectively. Hemsworth earned $15 million for the film. Feige added that the film would be "very important" in of

Pre-production.

In January 2016, with the film beginning pre-production, Ruffalo described it as a "road movie" and indicated that additional filming would take place in Sydney. Waititi stated that he was working on the script "a little bit", mainly adding humor to the screenplay, with Eric Pearson joining the project to rewrite the screenplay. Pearson felt joining presented many challenges, as "there were so many puzzle pieces already there," such as having Blanchett as Hela, who was confirmed in the role a month later, and including Hulk, Valkyrie, and Skurge, that he was asked to assemble. Pearson was told not to be restrained by anything from the previous films, and Waititi asked him to make the film fun and have Thor "be the coolest character." Alexander said in early March that she was no longer sure if she would appear in the film, due to scheduling conflicts with her television series "Blindspot". She later indicated that this may not be the case, but ultimately was unable to appear in

Filming.

Principal photography began on July 4, 2016, under the working title "Creature Report", at Village Roadshow Studios in Oxenford, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, exclusively using all nine of the studios' sound stages. Additional filming was to occur throughout the state of Queensland, including Tamborine National Park. The Brisbane central business district, where filming took place from August 22 to 25, was used to double as New York City. Javier Aguirresarobe served as cinematographer on the film, describing his work on the film as "a rare combination of satisfaction and frustration", feeling that he was mostly there to service the director and visual effects supervisor, but felt "very happy to have been able to respond to such

Post-production.

In January 2017, it was revealed that Pearson would receive sole screenwriting credit on the film, with the story credited to Kyle, Yost, and Folsom. These credits were later updated the following September, with Pearson as the screenwriter and story credit for Kyle and Yost. Folsom took issue with Marvel marketing the film with these credits, noting the Writers Guild of America (WGA) had yet to determine the final credits for the film. She later said that Marvel had given her a story credit on the film, but it was denied by the WGA due to their regulation that a maximum of two individuals can receive story credit, with an allowance for a writing team to count as one individual; Pearson and the team of Kyle and Yost received the story credit on "Ragnarok". Folsom added that she planned to appeal the decision, and that Marvel has been supportive of her throughout her attempt to receive credit. By the end of the month, the writing credits were updated once again, this time simply crediting Pearson, Kyle, and Yost as screenwriters.  In February 2017, Rachel House said she had a small role in the film, having worked with Waititi before. Additional filming took place in Atlanta in July 2017, over three weeks, including filming post-credit scenes. One of these introduces the spaceship "Sanctuary II", which belongs to Thanos in "Avengers: Infinity War", while the other, shown at the end of the credits, features the Grandmaster. Goldblum and Waititi improvised multiple versions of the latter scene; one unused version involved the singing of the Sakaarian national anthem, which was "made up on the spot". Also filmed in Atlanta was the completion of a sequence where Asgardian actors perform a play based on the events of "The Dark World". Neill appears

Music.

By August 2016, Mark Mothersbaugh was hired to score the film. The synthesized score is influenced by the work of Jean-Michel Jarre. Waititi stated he would have asked the band Queen to work on the soundtrack for the film if their lead singer Freddie Mercury was still alive, because the film is "a cool, bold, colorful cosmic adventure" which

Marketing.

At the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con, a physical model of Hulk's gladiator armor was revealed, concept art and rough animatics were shown, and a "mockumentary" short titled "Team Thor" was screened. Directed by Waititi, it showed what Thor and Banner were doing during the events of "Civil War", with Daley Pearson appearing as Thor's Australian flatmate Darryl Jacobson. The short was released online in August 2016, and with the digital download of "Captain America: Civil War" the following month. "" was released on the home media of "Doctor Strange" in February 2017, with Pearson reprising his role. Footage and concept art for the film were shown at CinemaCon 2017.  On April 10, 2017, the first teaser trailer was released. Sandy Schaefer of Screen Rant felt it was "a strong start" for the film, having "a distinctly playful vibe" by setting it to "Immigrant Song". "The Verge"s Chaim Gartenberg said "this may be the weirdest Marvel movie to date" thanks to the costumes, makeup, and '80s aesthetic. Michael Arbeiter for Nerdist was pleased with the teaser, stating, "nothing in the MCU thus far can hold a candle to the imagination promised by this "..." have any of [the previous MCU films] felt this beholden to what we've always known and loved as the "adventure" genre?" The teaser was viewed 136 million times in 24 hours, the third-highest in that time frame, behind "The Fate of the Furious" (139 million) and "It" (197 million). It also became Disney and Marvel's most viewed trailer within that time period, surpassing "Beauty and the Beast" (127 million) and "Captain America: Civil War" (94 million), respectively. The line from the trailer of Thor saying Hulk "is a friend from work" was suggested to Hemsworth by a Make-A-Wish child visiting the set on the day the scene was filmed.  Props and costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 along with set pieces for photo opportunities. The costumes were also on display at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con, where Waitti and cast members promoted the film. Exclusive clips were shown, along with a new trailer. Ethan Anderton of /Film felt "the blend of comedy and bright, vibrant

Release.

Theatrical.

"Thor: Ragnarok" had its world premiere at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on October 10, 2017, and its Australian premiere took place on October 13, on the Gold Coast. It was released in the United Kingdom on October 24, 2017, with additional international releases on October 25,

Home media.

"Thor: Ragnarok" was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on February 20, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, DVD and On-Demand on March 6. The digital and Blu-ray releases include behind-the-scenes featurettes; audio commentary; deleted scenes; a blooper reel; and "Team Darryl", a continuation of the "mockumentary" short films "Team Thor" and "Team Thor: Part 2", in which the Grandmaster moves in with Darryl after Thor leaves. In one of the deleted scenes, Michael Rooker makes an appearance as Yondu, reprising the role from the first two "Guardians of the Galaxy" films. James

Reception.

Box office.

"Thor: Ragnarok" grossed $315.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $538.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $854 million. In September 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that "Ragnarok" was the most anticipated fall film. On the weekend of November 3, 2017, the film earned $25.4 million from IMAX showings, surpassing "Doctor Strange" as the largest for a November weekend. The film had earned $650.1 million globally, surpassing the total grosses for "Thor" ($449.3 million) and "Thor: The Dark World" ($644.6 million), by the end of its

Critical response.

The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 93% approval rating with an average score of 7.58/10, based on 409 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Exciting, funny, and above all fun, "Thor: Ragnarok" is a colorful cosmic adventure that sets a new standard for its franchise—and the rest of the Marvel Cinematic Universe." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 74 out of 100 based on 51 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, the best of the "Thor" series, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 90% overall positive

Sequel.

By the release of "Ragnarok", Waititi and Marvel had discussed a spin-off Marvel One-Shot short film following the characters Korg and Miek, but it was unfeasible due to Marvel's commitment to producing three feature films a year. Feige said Marvel still had plans for those characters, but did not specify. In January 2018, Hemsworth indicated his interest in continuing to play Thor, despite his contract with Marvel Studios scheduled to end after "", saying the next month "if there's another great script that comes along" he would consider playing the character again, and later added, "I'd play this character for as long as anyone would let me," crediting Waititi for revitalizing his interest in Thor. He and Waititi had discussed what they would want in a potential fourth "Thor" film by then.  By April 2019, Thompson believed that a pitch had been made for a sequel to "Ragnarok" that involved Waititi returning. By July 2019, Waititi had signed a deal with Marvel to write and direct a fourth "Thor" film, titled "Thor: Love and Thunder". It was also revealed that Natalie Portman would return to portray Jane Foster taking on the mantle of a female incarnation of Thor, in a manner similar to the comics. Thompson will reprise her role as Valkyrie who, after being declared King of New Asgard, will begin searching for her queen, revealing her to be the MCU's first major LGBTQ character. In October 2019, Waititi confirmed that Korg will return in "Love and Thunder". In January 2020, Christian Bale entered talks to join the sequel, and in March was confirmed by Thompson to have been cast as the villain. In February 2020, Jennifer Kaytin Robinson was brought on board to co-write the screenplay with Waititi. In March 2020, Vin Diesel, who voices Groot in the MCU films, stated that the Guardians of the Galaxy would be incorporated in the film. "Thor: Love and Thunder" is scheduled for release on February 11, 2022.

Thor: Ragnarok is a 2017 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character Thor, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to "Thor" (2011) and "" (2013), and the 17th film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Taika Waititi from a screenplay by Eric Pearson and the writing team of Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost, and stars Chris Hemsworth as Thor alongside Tom Hiddleston, Cate Blanchett, Idris Elba, Jeff Goldblum, Tessa Thompson, Karl Urban, Mark Ruffalo, and Anthony Hopkins. In "Thor: Ragnarok", Thor must escape the alien planet Sakaar in time to save Asgard from Hela and the impending Ragnarök.

Thor: Ragnarok je americký superhrdinský film z roku 2017 na motivy postavy Thora od Marvel Comics. Film je produkován Marvel Studios a distribuován Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. Je pokračováním filmů z roků 2011 a 2013 Thor a. Jedná se o sedmnáctý film Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).


Scribes.

Writing was not as we see it today. In Mesopotamia, writing began as simple counting marks, sometimes alongside a non-arbitrary sign, in the form of a simple image, pressed into clay tokens or less commonly cut into wood, stone or pots. In that way, recorded accounts of amounts of goods involved in a transaction could be made. This convention began when people developed agriculture and settled into permanent communities that were centered on increasingly large and organized trading marketplaces. These marketplaces traded sheep, grain, and bread loaves, recording the transactions with clay tokens. These initially very small clay tokens were continually used all the way from the pre-historic Mesopotamia period, 9000 BCE, to the start of the historic period around 3000 BCE, when the use of writing for recording was widely adopted.  The clay tablet was thus being used by scribes to record events happening during their time. Tools that these scribes used were styluses with sharp triangular tips, making it easy to leave markings on the clay; the clay tablets themselves came in a variety of colors such as bone white, chocolate, and charcoal. Pictographs then began to appear on clay tablets around 4000 BCE, and after the later development of Sumerian cuneiform writing, a more sophisticated partial syllabic script evolved that by around 2500 BCE was capable of recording the vernacular, the everyday speech of the common people.  Sumerians used what is known as pictograms. Pictograms are symbols that express a pictorial concept, a logogram, as the meaning of the word. Early writing also began in Ancient Egypt using hieroglyphs. Early hieroglyphs and some of the modern Chinese characters are other examples of pictographs. The Sumerians later shifted their writing to Cuneiform, defined as "Wedge writing" in Latin, which added phonetic symbols, syllabograms.

Uses of clay tablets.

Text on clay tablets took the forms of myths, fables, essays, hymns, proverbs, epic poetry, laws, plants, and animals. What these clay tablets allowed was for individuals to record who and what was significant. An example of these great stories was The Story of Gilgamesh. This story would tell of the great flood that destroyed Sumer. Remedies and recipes that would have been unknown were then possible because of the clay tablet. Some of the recipes were stew, which was made with goat, garlic, onions and sour milk.  By the end of the 3rd Millennium BCE, (2200–2000 BCE), even the ""short story"" was first attempted, as independent scribes entered into the philosophical arena, with stories like: "The Debate between Bird and Fish", and other topics, (List of Sumerian debates).

Communication.

Communication grew faster as now there was a way to get messages across just like mail. Important and private clay tablets were coated with an extra layer of clay, that no one else would read it. This means of communicating was used for over 3000 years in fifteen different languages. Sumerians, Babylonians and Eblaites all had their own clay tablet libraries.

Proto-writing.

The Tărtăria tablets, the Danubian civilization, may be still older, having been dated by indirect method (bones found near the tablet were carbon dated) to before 4000 BCE, and possibly dating from as long ago as 5500 BCE, but their interpretation remains controversial because the tablets were fired in a furnace and the properties of the carbon changed accordingly.

History by region.

Babylonia.

Fragments of tablets containing the Epic of Gilgamesh dating to 1800–1600 BCE have been discovered. A full version has been found on tablets dated to the 1st millennium BCE.  Tablets on Babylonian astronomical records date back to around 1800 BCE. Tablets discussing astronomical records continue through around 75 CE.  Late Babylonian tablets at the British Museum refer to appearances of Halley's Comet in 164 BCE and 87 BCE.

In the Ancient Near East, clay tablets (Akkadian "ṭuppu(m)" ) were used as a writing medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age.

Hliněná tabulka je nosič písma hojně používaný v některých oblastech ve starověku. Jílovitá hlína byla zejména v záplavových oblastech v Mezopotámii důležitou surovinou používanou mimo jiné i pro stavební účely a předměty umělecké i denní potřeby. Na Předním východě se nejprve užívalo hliněných známek a schránek s písemnými záznamy, forma tabulek se objevuje asi od přelomu 4. a 3. tisíciletí před naším letopočtem. Tabulky byly nejčastější formou hliněného nosiče písma, ale vyskytovaly se k různým účelům i jiné tvary, jako válce, kvádry, cihly nebo hliněné hřeby zaražené zdiva. Tabulky se používaly asi do 1. století našeho letopočtu.


History.

Newark was founded by Scots-Irish and Welsh settlers in 1694. The town was officially established when it received a charter from George II of Great Britain in 1758.  Schools have played a significant role in the history of Newark. A grammar school, founded by Francis Alison in 1743, moved from New London, Pennsylvania to Newark in 1765, becoming the Newark Academy. Among the first graduates of the school were three signers of the Declaration of Independence: George Read, Thomas McKean, and James Smith. Two of these, Read and McKean, went on to have schools named after them in the state of Delaware: George Read Middle School and Thomas McKean High School.  During the American Revolutionary War, British and American forces clashed outside Newark at the Battle of Cooch's Bridge. Tradition holds that the Battle of Cooch's Bridge was the first instance of the Stars and Stripes being flown in battle.  The state granted a charter to a new school in 1833, which was called Newark College. Newark Academy and Newark College joined together in the following year, becoming Delaware College. The school was forced to close in 1859, but was resuscitated eleven years later under the Morrill Act when it became a joint venture between the State of Delaware and the school's Board of Trustees. In 1913, pursuant to legislative Act, Delaware College came into sole ownership of the State of Delaware. The school would be renamed the University of Delaware in 1921.  Newark received a license from King George II to hold semi-annual fairs and weekly markets for agricultural exchange in 1758. A paper mill, the first sizable industrial venture in Newark, was created around 1798. This mill, eventually known as the Curtis Paper Mill, was the oldest paper mill in the United States until its closing in 1997. Methodists built the first church in 1812 and the railroad arrived in 1837.  One of Newark's major sources of employment and revenue was the Chrysler Newark Assembly plant which was built in 1951. Jamaican reggae star, Bob Marley worked as an assembly-line worker at the plant during his short stint in Delaware in the 1960s. Originally constructed to build tanks for the US Army, the plant was 3.4 million square feet in size. It employed 1,100 employees in 2008 which was down from 2,115 in 2005. This turn was due largely to the decline of sales of the Durango and Aspen vehicle models that were being produced. The plant stood for more than 50 years, providing jobs and revenue to the state of Delaware. The factory produced a wide variety of automobile models during its run. The plant was closed in late 2008 due to the recession and limited demand for larger cars.

Geography.

Newark is located at (39.6837226, −75.7496572). It is located directly east of the Maryland state line, adjacent to the unincorporated community of Fair Hill, and is less than a mile south of the tripoint where Delaware, Maryland, and Pennsylvania meet, known as The Wedge.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all of it land. Originally surrounded by farmland, Newark is now surrounded by housing developments in some directions, although farmland remains just over the state lines in Maryland and Pennsylvania. To the north and west are small hills, but south and east of the city, the land is flat (part of Newark falls in the Piedmont geological region and part of the city is in the Coastal Plain geological region, as is the majority of the land in the State of Delaware).

Parks and natural areas.

Despite the fact that Newark is located roughly halfway between Philadelphia (approximately away) and Baltimore (approximately away) and is part of densely populated New Castle County, there is a large amount of public parkland—over – surrounding the city. To the south is Iron Hill Park (part of the New Castle County Park System), to the west (in Cecil County, Maryland) is Fair Hill Natural Resources Management Area, and to the North is White Clay Creek State Park and White Clay Creek Preserve (in Chester County, Pennsylvania). Also nearby is Middle Run Valley Natural Area, which is part of the New Castle County Park System. These parks provide ample hiking, mountain biking, and horseback riding opportunities. The Fair Hill Natural Resources Management Area and large portions of White Clay Creek State Park consist of land formerly owned by the Du Pont family that was later ceded to the states of Maryland and Delaware, respectively.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 28,547 people, 8,989 households, and 4,494 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,198.6 people per square mile (1,235.7/km). There were 9,294 housing units at an average density of 1,041.4 per square mile (402.3/km). The racial makeup of the city was 87.29% White, 6.00% Black, 0.16% Native American, 4.07% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 0.86% from other races, and 1.57% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.53% of the population. 16.8% were of Irish, 13.5% Italian, 13.4% German, 10.2% English and 5.1% Polish ancestry according to Census 2000.  Of the 8,989 households, 20.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.5% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.0% were non-families. 27.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.91.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 12.5% under the age of 18, 43.6% from 18 to 24, 19.8% from 25 to 44, 14.9% from 45 to 64, and 9.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.3 males.  The median household income was $48,758, and the median family income was $75,188. Males had a median income of $45,813 versus $33,165 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,376. About 4.1% of families and 20.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.0% of those under age 18 and 7.1% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Public schools.

Public education in Newark is managed by the Christina School District and the New Castle County Vocational-Technical School District. The Christina School District manages public education for Newark and environs, and also for parts of Wilmington, Delaware.  Christina School District schools located within or near the city limits are:

Charter schools.

Newark Charter School is a state-chartered school offering grades K-12.

University of Delaware.

Newark is home to the University of Delaware (UD). The school has programs in a broad range of subjects, but is probably best known for its business, chemical engineering, chemistry and biochemistry programs, drawing from the historically strong presence of the nation's chemical and pharmaceutical industries in the state of Delaware. In 2006, UD's graduate engineering program was ranked number 11 in the nation by The Princeton Review. Newark's Main Street is popular among both the University of Delaware students as well as the residents of Newark, offering many restaurant and boutique options.

Sports.

Newark is a recognized center of US and international figure skating, mostly due to the many national, world, and Olympic champions (including many foreign nationals) that have trained at the University of Delaware Figure Skating Club (an independent club operating within UD facilities) and at The Pond Ice Rink. In 2009, "Sporting News" ranked Newark 192 in its list of the 400 Best Sports Cities.  The University of Delaware offers 21 varsity sports, which compete in the NCAA Division I. The athletic teams at Delaware are known as the Fightin' Blue Hens, named after the Blue Hen of Delaware, the state bird of Delaware. The official mascot of the University of Delaware is YouDee.  The Delaware 87ers were a professional basketball team that played in the NBA G League (formerly the NBA D-League) as the affiliate of the Philadelphia 76ers. From 2013 until 2018, they played their home games at the Bob Carpenter Center in Newark on the University of Delaware campus. They moved to nearby Wilmington and the 76ers' new Fieldhouse, rebranded as the Delaware Blue Coats.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Several highways pass through the Newark area. Interstate 95, the main interstate highway through the northeast urban seaboard corridor, passes to the south of Newark on the tolled Delaware Turnpike. Delaware Route 896 serves as the main north-south route through the Newark area, interchanging with I-95 to the south and continuing north through the city, bypassing the University of Delaware campus to the west. Delaware Route 72 runs north-south, bypassing Newark to the east. Major east–west highways through the Newark area include Delaware Route 273, which passes through the heart of Newark, Delaware Route 2 (Kirkwood Highway), which heads east to Wilmington, Delaware Route 4, which bypasses Newark to the south on the Christiana Parkway, and Delaware Route 279, which heads southwest towards Elkton, Maryland.  The City of Newark Parking Division regulates parking in the downtown area of Newark with 457 on-street parking meters, three off-street hourly parking lots offering a total of 577 spaces, and two long-term monthly parking lots offering a total of 151 spaces. The city regulates parking in residential areas of Newark with residential parking permits. The University of Delaware regulates parking at various lots and garages on-campus.  The closest airport to Newark is the Wilmington Airport in New Castle. The closest airport to Newark that provides full domestic and international service is Philadelphia International Airport.  Newark has a Rail Station (Map, via Google Maps) located to the south of downtown near the University of Delaware campus that is serviced by both SEPTA and Amtrak on the Northeast Corridor. Newark is the last stop on the SEPTA Wilmington/Newark Line, one of the farthest points out on the system. SEPTA service to Newark consists of a few trains in both directions during the morning and evening rush hours on weekdays only. There is limited Amtrak service in Newark with one train in each direction on weekdays, an additional northbound train on Thursdays and Fridays and an additional southbound train on Fridays, and three trains in each direction on weekends. Newark is also served by two freight railroads. Norfolk Southern provides freight service via trackage rights on the Northeast Corridor line and the Delmarva Secondary line that splits to the south to run toward the Delmarva Peninsula and an interchange with the Delmarva Central Railroad in Porter. Norfolk Southern operates the Newark Yard adjacent to the former Newark Assembly plant used by Chrysler that is now owned by the University of Delaware. CSX passes through the northern part of Newark along the Philadelphia Subdivision line.  Newark is served by DART First State bus routes No. 6, 16, 33, 34, 46, 53, 55, and 302 and Cecil Transit bus routes No. 4 and 5, providing service to Wilmington, the Christiana Mall, Elkton, MD, and Dover. Most routes travel through the university campus and also stop at the rail station. The Newark Transit Hub is located in the eastern part of the town and serves several of the bus routes. There is also a UNICITY bus, run jointly through the city and the University of Delaware, free for everyone to ride, which acts as a community circulator. Unicity operates three routes (N1, N2, and N3) Monday through Friday except major holidays and when city and university offices are closed. The University of Delaware also operates the UD Shuttle bus system, available and free to all students and those associated with the university. OurBus provides intercity bus service from Newark to New York City and Washington, D.C., stopping at a park and ride lot at the intersection of DE 4 and DE 896. Megabus and OurBus provide intercity bus service from Newark to New York City, Baltimore, and Washington, D.C.. The Megabus stop is located at the University of Delaware campus. The OurBus stop is located at the Route 896 & Route 4 Park and Ride.

Utilities.

The City of Newark Electric Department provides electricity within the city limits. The city's electric department purchases electricity on the wholesale market, serving about 12,800 customers and maintaining of electric lines. The electric department is a member of the Delaware Municipal Electric Corporation. The City of Newark Public Works and Water Resources Department provides trash collection, recycling, water, and wastewater service to Newark. Water service is provided to 33,000 customers in Newark, with of water pipes serving the city. The city's water supply comes from the Newark Reservoir. The city maintains of sewer lines, with wastewater pumped through the New Castle County system to the Wilmington Regional Wastewater Treatment facility. Natural gas service in Newark is provided by Delmarva Power, a subsidiary of Exelon.

Health care.

Christiana Care Health System operates the Christiana Hospital to the east of Newark. The hospital has 907 beds, 22 hospital operating rooms, 10 outpatient operating rooms, an emergency room with the only Level I trauma center in Delaware, the state's only Level 3 neonatal intensive care unit, the state's largest maternity center, the Center for Heart & Vascular Health, and the Helen F. Graham Cancer Center.

Newark ( ) is a city in New Castle County, Delaware, United States. It is located west-southwest of Wilmington. According to the 2010 Census, the population of the city is 31,454. Newark is home to the University of Delaware.

Newark je třetí největší město v americkém státě Delaware. Dle sčítání lidu v roce 2010 mělo město 31 454 obyvatel. Město se rozkládá na ploše 24 km2. Ve městě sídlí University of Delaware. Přesto, že je město v hustě obydlené krajině, je v okolí města množství rezervací a velkých parků.