Qualifying.

Pre-qualifying report.

The Friday morning pre-qualifying session produced another 1–2 for the Brabham team, their third of the four Grands Prix so far. This time Martin Brundle was fastest ahead of Stefano Modena, with the Dallara of Alex Caffi pre-qualifying in third. The fourth-placed driver was Stefan Johansson in the Onyx, who went through to the main qualifying sessions for the first time this season, at the expense of his team-mate Bertrand Gachot, who was fifth fastest.  Although failing to pre-qualify, Gregor Foitek had one of his better sessions, finishing sixth fastest in the sole EuroBrun, ahead of the Osella of Nicola Larini, who suffered a fuel pump issue. Larini had been lined up to replace Gerhard Berger at Ferrari had the Austrian not been fit to return to the cockpit after his Imola accident. Volker Weidler was eighth in the Rial, also one of his better performances of the season despite having gearing problems. Next were the two Zakspeeds of Bernd Schneider and Aguri Suzuki, and the other Osella, driven by Piercarlo Ghinzani. Ghinzani was excluded anyway after ignoring a weight check signal. At the bottom of the time sheets were Joachim Winkelhock in the AGS, and lastly Pierre-Henri Raphanel, who did not post a representative lap time in the Coloni FC188B after his strong performance in the last race at Monaco. Coloni had only brought three mechanics and one car for both Raphanel and Roberto Moreno, while waiting for their new C3 to be built, making a token effort to qualify in order to comply with the regulations and avoid a fine.

Qualifying report.

In qualifying proper, World Champion Ayrton Senna scored his 33rd career pole position, equalling the long-standing record held by Jim Clark. Senna's pole time in his McLaren-Honda was 0.408 slower than his pole time in 1988 in the turbocharged McLaren MP4/4. His McLaren teammate Alain Prost was second fastest with the Ferrari 640 of Nigel Mansell third. Mansell's teammate Gerhard Berger, returning to action in Mexico after his crash at San Marino, was sixth, the Ferraris split by the March-Judd of Ivan Capelli and the Williams-Renault of Riccardo Patrese. Surprisingly, Capelli's teammate Maurício Gugelmin failed to qualify. Berger, still suffering the effects of his crash, admitted that if not for Ferrari's innovative semi-automatic transmission (which meant he did not have to change gears as with a normal stick shift), he would not have been able to race.  The back row of the grid was arguably the best credentialed and most experienced in Grand Prix history, consisting of seven-time winner René Arnoux in the Ligier-Ford and triple World Champion Nelson Piquet in the Lotus-Judd.

Race.

Race report.

Senna chose medium compound Goodyear "B" tyres for the race while Prost went for the softer C-compound tyres in the hopes of gaining a speed advantage. Despite the pole being on the dirty side of the track in Mexico, Senna made a better start and was able to lead into the first turn from Mansell, Prost, Berger, Patrese and the Tyrrell-Ford of Michele Alboreto. However, it all meant nothing as Modena spun his Brabham into the Peraltada on the first lap and was tapped by the Ligier of Olivier Grouillard and finished against the tyre wall. Despite the car not being in a dangerous position, the red flag was shown and the race had to be restarted.  Senna won the restart and led Prost, a fast starting Berger, Mansell and the Williams pair of Patrese and Thierry Boutsen. Prost, with his softer tyres giving him better grip, soon moved onto the back of his teammate's car. However, Mexico would be where Prost started questioning the power of his Honda V10 compared to the ones used by Senna. For a number of laps Prost, clearly faster through the final Peraltada curve coming onto the main straight, could not make an impression on Senna despite being in his aerodynamic tow on the 1.2 km long main straight. Indeed, the #1 McLaren was seen to pull away from the #2 car on the straight. Running close to his teammate eventually had a detrimental effect on Prost's tyres and he was soon into the pits for a change of rubber. The McLaren team then mistakenly gave the Frenchman another set of C tyres rather than the B's he had come in for. Prost was soon back in for another tyre change and went back into the race only seconds in front of Senna who now had nearly a lap lead over his closest championship rival. Despite being on far fresher tyres than his teammate, Prost still lost ground to Senna and was eventually lapped when the Brazilian swept past on the main straight, fuelling Prost's claims that his engines were down on power compared to Senna's. McLaren team boss Ron Dennis later publicly apologised to Prost for the error in his pit stop.  Both Ferraris ran well until Berger's race ended on lap 16 with transmission failure while Mansell's gearbox lasted until lap 43. This left the Williams of Patrese in second place with Alboreto a surprising third. This was how the top three finished with Alessandro Nannini fourth in his Benetton B188. The Benetton team had hoped to have their new B189 available in Mexico, but ongoing problems with the new Ford HB engine meant the team had to continue using their 1988 car and engines. Prost, having unlapped himself, finished fifth to be the last car on the lead lap, while Italian Gabriele Tarquini scored the final point for sixth in his AGS-Ford, which proved to be his only point in Formula One.

The 1989 Mexican Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez, Mexico City on 28 May 1989. The race, contested over 69 laps, was the fourth race of the 1989 Formula One season and was won from pole position by Ayrton Senna, driving a McLaren-Honda, with Riccardo Patrese second in a Williams-Renault and Michele Alboreto third in a Tyrrell-Ford.

Grand Prix Mexika 1989 (oficiálně XIII Gran Premio de México) se jela na okruhu Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez v Mexico City v Mexiku dne 28. května 1989. Závod byl čtvrtým v pořadí v sezóně 1989 šampionátu Formule 1.


Qualifying.

Pre-qualifying report.

During the Friday morning pre-qualifying session, Olivier Grouillard was fastest for the first time this season, in the Osella. The Larrousse-Lolas of Éric Bernard and Aguri Suzuki were second and fourth, with the EuroBrun of Roberto Moreno between them in third place.  For the third Grand Prix in succession, the AGS cars missed out in fifth and sixth positions, with Yannick Dalmas faster than Gabriele Tarquini this time. AGS technical director Hugues de Chaunac left the team prior to this event, frustrated at the team's lack of progress. Seventh again was Bertrand Gachot in the Coloni, although he was much closer to the pace on this occasion, just three tenths of a second behind Tarquini. Claudio Langes was a distant eighth again after only completing the minimum three laps required by the regulations, as the team concentrated on Moreno. Bottom of the time sheets as usual was Bruno Giacomelli in the Life, only managing an out-lap before his engine failed. Team manager Sergio Barbasio confirmed that his engineers were working on converting the L190 chassis to run with the Judd CV engines he now claimed to have bought from Lotus.

Qualifying report.

There were no driver changes as the F1 show moved to Mexico City. The weather was changeable during the weekend, catching some drivers out, with both of the Larrousse team's drivers having major accidents on the Saturday morning. Despite that, both Aguri Suzuki and Éric Bernard managed to qualify for the race. The Leyton House drivers Ivan Capelli and Maurício Gugelmin both failed to qualify. At the front of the grid, Gerhard Berger took pole from Riccardo Patrese, Ayrton Senna, Nigel Mansell, Thierry Boutsen, Jean Alesi, Pierluigi Martini, Nelson Piquet, Satoru Nakajima, and Stefano Modena, with championship contender Alain Prost, not happy with the qualifying set up of his Ferrari so deciding instead to qualify with his race set up, 13th. Roberto Moreno was disqualified for receiving a push start in qualifying.

Race.

Race report.

Sunshine greeted the drivers on race day and at the start it was Patrese who got away from Senna, Berger, Boutsen, and Piquet. Senna and Berger both passed Patrese on lap 2, and the McLaren drivers opened a significant lead over the rest of the field. Prost was charging through the field from his poor grid position, while Piquet moved up to third. Berger's run in second place came to an early end when he had to stop for new tyres on lap 13, leaving Piquet in second but under pressure from his former team-mate Nigel Mansell, who was able to pass him soon afterwards. Prost continued his charge through the field, eventually taking second from Mansell with 15 laps to go. Prost proceeded to set off after Senna, who was beginning to slow with tyre problems. The Brazilian had gambled on tyre durability by not making a stop for fresh rubber. On lap 60, Prost got past Senna with a simple move and three laps later Senna's rear tyre exploded, forcing him to retire from his 100th Grand Prix. As he had completed over 90% of the race, he was classified as a finisher in 20th place, the lowest classified result of his career. The battle for second place between Mansell and Berger culminated in Mansell passing around the outside of Berger going into the ultra-fast Peraltada corner. Mansell thus finished second behind Prost, with Berger third from Alessandro Nannini, Boutsen, and Piquet.

The 1990 Mexican Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez on 24 June 1990. It was sixth race of the 1990 Formula One World Championship, the 14th Mexican Grand Prix and the fifth since the Mexico City circuit returned to the Formula One calendar in 1986. It was held over 69 laps of the 4.4 kilometre circuit for a race distance of 305 kilometres.

Grand Prix Mexika 1990 (oficiálně XIV Gran Premio de Mexico) se jela na okruhu Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez v Mexico City v Mexiku dne 24. června 1990. Závod byl šestým v pořadí v sezóně 1990 šampionátu Formule 1.


Video Synthesizers as Real Time performance instruments.

The history of video synthesis is tied to a "real time performance" ethic. The equipment is usually expected to function on input camera signals the machine has never seen before, delivering a processed signal continuously and with a minimum of delay in response to the ever-changing live video inputs. Following in the tradition of performance instruments of the audio synthesis world such as the Theremin, video synthesizers were designed with the expectation they would be played in live concert theatrical situations or set up in a studio ready to process a videotape from a playback VCR in real time while recording the results on a second VCR. Venues of these performances included "Electronic Visualization Events" in Chicago, The Kitchen in NYC, and museum installations. Video artist/performer Don Slepian designed, built and performed a foot-controlled Visual Instrument at the Centre Pompidou in Paris (1983) and the NY Open Center that combined genlocked early micro-computers Apple II Plus with the Chromaton 14 Video Synthesizer. and channels of colorized video feedback.  Analog and early real time digital synthesizers existed before modern computer 3D modeling. Typical 3D renderers are not real time, as they concentrate on computing each frame from, for example, a recursive ray tracing algorithm, however long it takes. This distinguishes them from video synthesizers, which must deliver a new output frame by the time the last one has been shown, and repeat this performance continuously (typically delivering a new frame regularly every 1/60 or 1/50 of a second). The real time constraint results in a difference in design philosophy between these two classes of systems.  Video synthesizers overlap with video special effects equipment used in real time network television broadcast and post-production situations. Many innovations in television broadcast equipment as well as computer graphics displays evolved from synthesizers developed in the video artists' community and these industries often support "electronic art projects" in this area to show appreciation of this history.

Confluence of ideas of Electronics and Arts.

Many principles used in the construction of early video synthesizers reflected a healthy and dynamic interplay between electronic requirements and traditional interpretations of artistic forms. For example, Rutt & Etra and Sandin carried forward as an essential principle ideas of Robert Moog that standardized signal ranges so that any module's output could be connected to "voltage control" any other module's input. The consequence of this in a machine like the Rutt-Etra was that position, brightness, and color were completely interchangeable and could be used to modulate each other during the processing that led to the final image. Videotapes by Louise and Bill Etra and Steina and Woody Vasulka dramatized this new class of effects. This led to various interpretations of the multi-modal synthesesia of these aspects of the image in dialogues that extended the McLuhanesque language of film criticism of the time. In the UK Richard Monkhouse working for Electronic Music Studios (London) Limited (EMS) developed a hybrid video synthesiser – Spectre – later renamed 'Spectron' which used the EMS patchboard system to allow completely flexible connections between module inputs and outputs. The video signals were digital, but they were controlled by analog voltages. There was a digital patchboard for image composition and an analog patchboard for motion control.

Evolution into Frame Buffers.

Video synthesizers moved from analog to the precision control of digital. The first digital effects as exemplified by Stephen Beck's Video Weavings used digital oscillators optionally linked to horizontal, vertical, or frame resets to generate timing ramps. These ramps could be gated to create the video image itself and were responsible for its underlying geometric texture. Schier and Vasulka advanced the state of the art from address counters to programmable (microcodable) AMD Am2901 bit slice based address generators. On the data path, they used 74S181 arithmetic and logic units, previously thought of as a component for doing arithmetic instructions in minicomputers, to process real time video signals, creating new signals representing the sum, difference, AND, XOR, and so on, of two input signals. These two elements, the address generator, and the video data pipeline, recur as core features of digital video architecture.  The address generator supplied read and write addresses to a real time video memory, which can be thought of as evolution into the most flexible form of gating the address bits together to produce the video. While the video frame buffer is now present in every computer's graphics card, it has not carried forward a number of features of the early video synths. The address generator counts in a fixed rectangular pattern from the upper left hand corner of the screen, across each line, to the bottom. This discarded a whole technology of modifying the image by variations in the read and write addressing sequence provided by the hardware address generators as the image passed through the memory. Today, address based distortions are more often accomplished by blitter operations moving data in the memory, rather than changes in video hardware addressing patterns.

A video synthesizer is a device that electronically creates a video signal. A video synthesizer is able to generate a variety of visual material without camera input through the use of internal video pattern generators. It can also accept and "clean up and enhance" or "distort" live television camera imagery. The synthesizer creates a wide range of imagery through purely electronic manipulations. This imagery is visible within the output video signal when this signal is displayed. The output video signal can be viewed on a wide range of conventional video equipment, such as TV monitors, theater video projectors, computer displays, etc.

Syntéza videa je generování a manipulování video signálu. Přestože video syntézu lze do jisté míry emulovat softwarově (např. pomocí programů Cathodemer, Lumen...), většinou je zapotřebí video syntezátor. Tento přístroj zvládne v reálném čase tvořit animovaný obraz díky úpravě částí tvořící video (jednotlivé kanály barev, ADSR obálku signálu, světelnost atd.). Za pomoci oscilátorů pak dokáže horizontálně a vertikálně aplikovat dílčí efekty. Video syntezátor dovede produkovat různé vzory, 2D (někdy i 3D) efekty nebo zobrazit text. Jedno zařízení však zvládne jen omezený výběr efektů.


Peter Parker (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

Concept and creation.

Peter Parker first premiered as a comic book character in the anthology comic book "Amazing Fantasy" #15 (August 1962). Following a surge in teenage demand for comic books, Marvel Comics editor and head writer Stan Lee wanted to create a character with whom teens could identify. Lee cited pulp magazine crime fighter the Spider as an influence, and stated that he was further inspired by seeing a spider climb up a wall—adding in his autobiography that he has told that story so often he has become unsure of whether or not this is true. Lee "wanted the character to be a very human guy, someone who makes mistakes, who worries, who gets acne, has trouble with his girlfriend, things like that". Jack Kirby, meanwhile, had an unpublished character on which he had collaborated with Joe Simon in the 1950s, in which an orphaned boy living with an old couple finds a magic ring that granted him superhuman powers. Lee and Kirby had a story conference, and Lee directed Kirby to flesh out the character and draw some pages. Unsatisfied with Kirby's story direction, Lee turned the project over to Steve Ditko, who designed the character with a costume with a face mask, a clinging power, and wrist-fired webs. Under Kirby's direction, the character "became high-school student Peter Parker, who gets his spider powers after being bitten by a radioactive spider".  A tokusatsu (live-action) series featuring an original character named Takuya Yamashiro assuming the mantle of Spider-Man, "Supaidā-Man" was produced by Toei and aired in Japan from 1978 to 1979. The character was featured in a trilogy of live-action films directed by Sam Raimi and starring Tobey Maguire as the titular superhero, with installments released from 2002 to 2007. A third sequel was originally scheduled to be released in 2011, but Sony later decided to reboot the franchise with a new director and cast. The reboot, titled "The Amazing Spider-Man", was released in 2012; directed by Marc Webb and starring Andrew Garfield as the new Spider-Man, followed by a sequel in 2014.  Following the November 2014 hacking of Sony Pictures' computers, emails between Sony Pictures Entertainment co-chairman Amy Pascal and president Doug Belgrad were released stating that Marvel wanted to include Spider-Man (whose film rights are licensed to Sony) in "Captain America: Civil War", but talks between the studios concerning this were believed to have broken down. However, in February 2015, the studios reached a licensing deal for the use of Spider-Man in an MCU film, and reports indicated that the character would indeed appear in "Civil War". According to the deal, Sony Pictures would continue to own, finance, distribute, and exercise final creative control over the "Spider-Man" films. The next month, Marvel Entertainment CCO Joe Quesada indicated that the Peter Parker version of the character would be used, which Feige confirmed in April. Feige also stated that Marvel had been working to add Spider-Man to the MCU since at least October 2014. The following June, Feige clarified that the initial Sony deal does not allow the character to appear in any of the MCU television series, as it was "very specific... with a certain amount of back and forth allowed." The same month, the companies announced that after many auditions, Tom Holland had been cast to play Spider-Man within the MCU. Tom Holland made his debut as Spider-Man in "Civil War", before later starring in "" (2017); directed by Jon Watts. Holland reprised his role as Spider-Man in "" (2018), "" (2019) and "" (2019).  In August 2019, negotiations between Sony and Marvel broke down, leaving the character's future in the MCU uncertain. The following month, however, the companies agreed to a new deal to have Spider-Man return to the MCU, beginning with a sequel to "Spider-Man: Far From Home", to be released on November 5, 2021. Disney will provide 25% of the film's budget and receive 25% of its profit.

Characterization.

Tom Holland first appears as Peter Parker in the MCU in "", where he is recruited by Tony Stark to help him arrest Captain America and his rogue Avengers. Producer Kevin Feige said that Parker would be torn between superhero ideologies, saying, "Does he want to be like these other characters? Does he want nothing to do with these other characters? How does that impact his experience, being this grounded but super powerful hero? Those are all the things that Stan Lee and Steve Ditko played with in the first 10 years of his comics, and that now we can play with for the first time in a movie." On aligning with Tony Stark, Anthony Russo said that, despite entering the conflict after the two factions have formed and not having much political investment, Parker's choice comes from "a very personal relationship" he develops with Stark. The Russos hoped "to take a very logical and realistic and naturalistic approach to the character" compared to the previous film portrayals. Anthony Russo added that the character's introduction had to fit "that specific tonal stylistic world" of the MCU, as well as the tone established by the directors in "Winter Soldier", saying, "It's a little more grounded and a little more hard-core contemporary." That was "coloring our choices a lot" with Parker. On the Spider-Man suit, Joe Russo described it as "a slightly more traditional, Steve Ditko influenced suit," and that the film would explore the way the suit operates, particularly the mechanical eyes.

Fictional character biography.

Early life.

In the continuity of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Peter Benjamin Parker was born in Queens, New York City on August 10, 2001. Since his childhood, Parker was raised by his Aunt May and Uncle Ben, the latter of whom died later in his life. Parker attended the Midtown School of Science and Technology, where he befriended his classmate Ned Leeds but also found himself deadlocked in rivalry with Flash Thompson. In 2010, Parker visited the Stark Expo. During his visit, Hammer Drones began attacking the expo sent by Ivan Vanko, prompting Tony Stark, to fight them as Iron Man. One drone landed in front of Parker, who held his hand up in defiance. Iron Man arrived shortly afterward and annihilated the drone, thanking Parker for his help before flying off to continue his battle, leaving Parker awestruck. In adolescence, Parker was bitten by a spider and acquired superhuman powers, including strength and speed proportional to that of a spider and an uncanny ability to adhere to walls. After the death of his uncle, Parker resolved to use his abilities to help those in need and becoming Spider-Man.

Civil War.

In "Captain America: Civil War", Parker is found in New York City by Tony Stark, who recruits Parker into the Avengers and provides him with a new suit in exchange for his help in dealing with Steve Rogers and his faction, the latter having gone rogue in the wake of the implementation of the Sokovia Accords. During the battle Parker proves to be a formidable opponent, going toe-to-toe with Falcon, Winter Soldier, and finally Captain America himself. Parker later helps Stark and War Machine take down Giant-Man / Ant-Man but is injured in the fight and sent home by a grateful Stark.

Conflict with the Vulture.

In "", he is mentored and monitored by Stark primarily through the latter's chauffeur Happy Hogan, while balancing his high school life with his vigilantism. He later stumbles on a group of smugglers and criminals led by the mysterious Vulture, who is revealed to be the father of his high school crush and Decathlon leader Liz Toomes and goes on a quest to defeat them to prove his mettle to Stark and his worthiness of being an Avenger which he dreams of becoming. However, after defeating Vulture, he declines Stark's offer of membership and decides to be a friendly-neighbourhood Spider-Man instead.

The Infinity War.

In "" on a school bus, being alerted to Thanos' invasion by his spider-sense. He sets out to investigate and ends up saving Iron Man from Cull Obsidian. He later joins Stark, much to the latter's chagrin, in rescuing an abducted Doctor Strange from Ebony Maw. The two kill Maw by ejecting him out of his ship into deep space, and free Strange. The trio then head to Titan to confront Thanos, where they are joined by several members of the Guardians of the Galaxy in combating the Mad Titan. The heroes are ultimately defeated and, upon Thanos snapping his fingers with a completed Infinity Gauntlet in Wakanda, Parker along with Strange and the Guardians (except Nebula) are reduced to dust, alongside half of all life in the universe.  Five years later, in "", Bruce Banner uses a reconstructed Infinity Gauntlet to bring back everyone who had been destroyed by Thanos, including Parker, who is then transported to Earth by Doctor Strange to help fight an invasion by Thanos and his armies. Parker has an emotional reunion with Stark, and helps to protect the new Infinity Gauntlet from being taken by Thanos, until he is overwhelmed, and passes the gauntlet on to Captain Marvel. Tony Stark sacrifices his life to use the Infinity Gauntlet to disintegrate Thanos and his army, and Parker later attends Stark's funeral.

School Trip to Europe.

Eight months later, Parker's school restarts its academic year to accommodate the students who were among those resurrected. The school organizes a two-week summer field trip to Europe. Parker, while still distraught over Stark's death, plans to confess his growing feelings for classmate MJ. He attends a fundraiser for the homeless, coordinated by his Aunt May. There he disconnects a call from Fury and leaves after being posed questions about Stark.  In Venice, Italy, during the trip, Parker and his friends are among those attacked by the Water Elemental, which proceeds to wreak havoc on the city; Quentin Beck arrives and destroys the creature, while Parker attempts to help. Fury sabotages Parker's trip and gives him Stark's glasses, equipped with the artificial intelligence E.D.I.T.H., which were meant for Stark's successor. Parker rejects Fury's plea for help and rejoins his class, but Fury covertly redirects the school trip's itinerary to Prague, where the Fire Elemental is projected to strike. It appears there at a carnival, but Beck, with Parker's help, destroys it. Fury and Hill invite Parker and Beck to Berlin to discuss the formation of a new superhero team. Parker considers Beck worthy of being Stark's successor and bequeaths him the E.D.I.T.H. glasses.  MJ deduces that Parker is Spider-Man. They discover that a piece of detritus she retrieved during the battle is a projector that presents an image of the Air Elemental. The two realize Beck is a fraud. At a nearby pub, Beck — a former holographic-illusions specialist at Stark Industries who was fired for being unstable — thanks his team of fellow disgruntled ex-Stark employees. Parker travels to Berlin and meets with Fury, only to realize that the version before him is an illusion created by Beck. Parker battles multiple illusions and is ultimately hit by a train. Surviving the impact badly injured, he falls unconscious in a train car. Awakening in a jail cell in the Netherlands, he breaks out and contacts Happy Hogan. Hogan flies Parker to London and reveals a suit-manufacturing machine left behind by Stark, which Parker uses to synthesize a customized costume. In London, Beck, seeking to kill MJ and any others to whom she might have revealed his secret, orchestrates a tempest Elemental. Parker breaks through the illusion using his "Peter-Tingle", gains control of E.D.I.T.H., and defeats Beck, who is shot by a misfired gun and apparently dies. Peter reunites with MJ on the bridge, where he tells her he wanted to romance her on the European trip. The two confess their feelings to each other and share their first kiss, leading them to becoming a couple.

Exposed.

Parker returns to New York City and begins a relationship with MJ. In a mid-credits scene, J. Jonah Jameson, publisher of "TheDailyBugle.net", blames Spider-Man for the Elementals' attacks, broadcasting modified footage of the incident filmed and recorded by Beck in which he reveals Parker is Spider-Man.

Differences from the comics.

Although inconsistently referred to, the MCU depiction of Peter Parker omits explicit reference to the death of Parker's Uncle Ben, whose death was a significant event both in the comic books and in previous film series. Parker only constructed his first, "homemade" suit and webshooters by himself, and his later, proper Spider-Man suit are instead designed by Stark, or built by Parker with Stark Industries technology, whereas in the comics Parker designed and constructed his suits entirely by himself.  Another change is Parker's close paternal relationship with Stark. This was partially adapted from J. Michael Straczynski's run on "The Amazing Spider-Man" (from #519 to #536), the first five issues of the limited series "Civil War" and the Ultimate Comics where Stark and Parker share a trainer-trainee relationship.  Peter Parker's relationship with Mary Jane "MJ" Watson is also omitted; instead, Parker falls in love with Michelle "MJ" Jones, a fellow high school student.

Accolades.

Holland has received numerous nominations and awards for his portrayal of Peter Parker.

Peter Parker is a fictional character portrayed by Tom Holland in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film franchise—based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name—commonly known by his alter ego, Spider-Man. In the films, Parker is a high school student at Midtown School of Science and Technology while secretly being a vigilante. He is also the protégé of Tony Stark.

Peter Parker je fiktivní postava ve filmové sérii Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), vytvořená podle stejnojmenné komiksové postavy. Obecně je znám pod svým alter egem jako Spider-Man. Postavu ztvárňuje britský herec Tom Holland. Peter Parker je v těchto filmech studentem střední školy Midtown School of Science and Technology a zároveň maskovaným superhrdinou a chráněncem Tonyho Starka


Location.

Džidžikovac is located above central parts of the old city center and just above area where Building of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located, and it is part of Centar municipality.  Džidžikovac and immediate surroundings is also location of several major embassies, with French and Austrian located at the heart of the neighborhood.

History.

Central area of the neighbourhood was designed and developed after the World War II, mostly between 1946 and 1959, while streets and areas in immediate surroundings were already developed and had many luxurious villas and buildings constructed during second half of the 19th century, in numerous styles of the era under the architect from around Austro-Hungarian Empire. Neighborhood is conceived as residential, on a steep hillside above city center with much greenery, never developed before, where, beside many small private flower gardens, also existed numerous plum, apple, cherry and pear orchard – hence the name Džidžikovac, which comes from the word ""džidži"" which is Bosnian pronunciation of Ottoman Turkish word ""güzel"", and which in Bosnian means: nadžidžan, nagizdan, gizdav, ukrašen, in, ornate or florid.

Features.

As in many other cases around central parts of Sarajevo, neighborhood designers utilized the presence of abundant natural greenery on the location and developed designated space while preserving as much as possible. This became a characteristic of the neighborhood, one which constitutes important quality and attraction.

National monument.

In 2008 Džidžikovc was proclaimed National Monument of Bosnia and Herzegovina as ""Residential complex on Džidžikovac – the architectural ensemble"" by the Commission to preserve national monuments of Bosnia and Herzegovina, due to its architectural and landscaping qualities.

Džidžikovac "(from "džidži" Bosnian pronunciation for ; in, nađiđan, lijep; or )" is a neighborhood in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and since 2008 a National Monument of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Džidžikovac (v srbské cyrilici Џиџиковац) je lokalita v bosenské metropoli Sarajevu, oficiálně "osídlené místo" (bosensky "naseljeno mjesto"). Nachází se severně od Velkého parku a bývalého obchodního domu Sarajka (dnes BBI Centar), na severním svahu údolí řeky Miljacky, okolo ulice stejného názvu. Název této lokality je tureckého původu.


Description.

Despite the common name, it is not a bamboo but an erect evergreen shrub up to tall by wide, with numerous, usually unbranched stems growing from ground level. The glossy leaves are sometimes deciduous in colder areas, long, bi- to tri-pinnately compound, with the individual leaflets long and 1.5–3 cm broad.  The young leaves in spring are brightly coloured pink to red before turning green; old leaves turn red or purple again before falling. Its petiolate leaves are 50–100 cm long, compound (two or three pinnacles) with leaflets, elliptical to ovate or lanceolate and of entire margins, 2–10 cm long by 0.5–2 cm wide, with petioles swollen at their bases.  The inflorescences are panicles axillary or terminal erect with numerous flowers hermaphrodite with numerous ovate-oblong sepals of pinkish white color and spirally imbricated and 6 oblong petals of 4 by 2.5 mm, white, patent at the beginning. The flowers are white, borne in early summer in conical clusters held well above the foliage. The fruit is a bright red berry 5–10 mm diameter, ripening in late autumn and often persisting through the winter.

Garden history and cultivation.

"N. domestica", grown in Chinese and Japanese gardens for centuries, was brought to Western gardens by William Kerr, who sent it to London in his first consignment from Canton, in 1804. The English, unsure of its hardiness, kept it in greenhouses at first. The scientific name given to it by Carl Peter Thunberg is a Latinized version of a Japanese name for the plant, "nan-ten". Over 65 cultivars have been named in Japan, where the species is particularly popular and a national Nandina society exists. In Shanghai berried sprays of nandina are sold in the streets at New Year, for the decoration of house altars and temples. Nandina does not berry profusely in Great Britain, but it can be grown in USDA hardiness zones 6–10 with some cultivars hardy into zone 5. Nandina can take heat and cold, from. It generally needs no pruning, but can spread via underground runners and can be difficult to remove.  Nandina is extremely toxic to birds and animals. Spent berry stalks can easily be snapped off by hand in spring. Due to the naturally occurring phytochemicals (see above) this plant is commonly used in rabbit, deer, and javelina resistant landscape plantings.

Cultivars.

These are some of the popular cultivars of this plant:

Toxicity.

All parts of the plant are poisonous, containing compounds that decompose to produce hydrogen cyanide, and could be fatal if ingested. The plant is placed in Toxicity Category 4, the category "generally considered non-toxic to humans", but the berries are considered toxic to cats and grazing animals. Excessive consumption of the berries will kill birds such as cedar waxwings, because they are subject to cyanide toxicosis, resulting in death to multiple individuals at one time.  The berries also contain alkaloids such as nantenine, which is used in scientific research as an antidote to MDMA (ecstasy).

Status as an invasive species.

"Nandina" is considered invasive in North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida. It was placed on the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council's invasive list as a Category I species, the highest listing. It has been observed in the wild in Florida in Gadsden, Leon, Jackson, Alachua and Citrus counties, in conservation areas, woodlands and floodplains. In general, the purchase or continued cultivation of non-sterile varieties in the southeastern United States is discouraged.  "Nandina" is also becoming invasive in wild areas farther north, and in May 2017 was added to the Maryland invasive plant list with a tier 2 status.  Although grown extensively in Texas because of its tolerance for dry conditions, fruiting varieties of "Nandina" are considered invasive there. This is primarily due to birds spreading seeds into natural areas where "Nandina" proliferates and crowds out native species, both through seeding and by the growth of rhizomatous underground stems.

Nandina domestica ( ) commonly known as nandina, heavenly bamboo or sacred bamboo, is a species of flowering plant in the family Berberidaceae, native to eastern Asia from the Himalayas to Japan. It is the only member of the monotypic genus Nandina. It is widely grown in gardens as an ornamental plant since it has a number of cultivars that display bright-red fall foliage in the cool months with attractive new foliage growth in spring.

Nandina domácí ("Nandina domestica") je stálezelený, listnatý keř prutovitého vzrůstu, jediný druh monotypického rodu nandina, který byl dříve řazen do čeledi "Nandinaceae". Je v subtropických i tropických klimatických podmínkách vysazována pro svůj neobvyklý habitus, množství bílých květů i dlouho na větvích vytrvávajících červených plodů, stejně jako pro nenáročnost při pěstování i snadné rozmnožování. Jméno rodu "Nandina" je latinizovaná forma japonského jména "nanten".


Early life.

Margaret Lamb Bodine was born in Gambier, Ohio, the daughter of Rev. William Budd Bodine (1841-1907) and Rachel Alice Allen Bodine (1840-1921). Her father was the president of Kenyon College from 1876 to 1891. Judge Joseph Lamb Bodine was her first cousin; their fathers were brothers. She graduated from Harcourt Place Seminary in Gambier in 1891.

Career.

In 1905, Bodine was a founder and first president of the Lantern and Lens Gild, a club for women photographers, which grew out of Mathilde Weil's photography classes for women at Drexel University. Bodine and Nina Fisher Lewis shared first prize for a botanical photograph, second prize for an interior photograph, and second prize for a portrait, at the guild's first annual exhibition in 1913.  Bodine photographed plants and animals, especially hummingbirds, finches, and flying squirrels, during summers in Northeast Harbor, Maine, and made documentary films about them. She wrote in detail about the equipment she used and the challenges she faced in this work. "I know of no branch of picture-taking more interesting than this special kind," she said of her work, adding that "there is infinite variety in it, sufficient difficulties to make it absorbing, and a very large proportion of rewarding results."  Bodine was a member of the Amateur Motion Picture Club of America of Philadelphia. Films by Bodine included "Humming-birds" (1931), "Ruby-Throated Humming-bird" (1931). Bodine wrote articles about her work, including "Adventures in Taming Wild Birds at Birdbank" (1923), and "Holiday with Humming Birds" (1928) for "National Geographic" magazine. The latter article described rigging bottles of sweet liquid disguised as flowers to attract hummingbirds, and inspired the creation of blown-glass hummingbird feeders by Laurence and May Rogers Webster, soon after.  Bodine spoke to the Woman's City Club in 1925, the national conference of the National Audubon Society in 1930, and to a meeting of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia in 1939.

Personal life.

Margaret L. Bodine and Nina Fisher Lewis worked and lived together for over 40 years, until Lewis's death in 1948. Bodine received a life income from Lewis's estate, "in partial appreciation of her long friendship, devotion, and companionship." She died in 1960, aged 84 years, in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania.

Margaret L. Bodine (July 27, 1876 — November 24, 1960) was an American naturalist, photographer and filmmaker, based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She was founder of the Lantern and Lens Gild, a women's photography club in Philadelphia.

Margaret L. Bodine (27. července 1876, Gambier – 24. listopadu 1960, Phoenixville) byla americká přírodovědkyně, fotografka a filmařka se sídlem ve Filadelfii v Pensylvánii. Byla zakladatelkou umělecké organizace Lantern and Lens Gild, ženského fotografického klubu ve Filadelfii.


Etymology.

The term derives from the Latin word "potestas", meaning power. There is a similar derivation for the Arabic term "Sultan": originally meaning "power" or "authority", it eventually became the title of the person holding power.

Italian history.

The first documented usage of "podestà" was in Bologna in 1151, when it was applied to Guido di Ranieri di Sasso of Canossa, brought in from Faenza to be "rettore e podestà", noted in numerous documents. Leander Albertus gives the particulars: "The citizens, seeing that there often arose among them quarrels and altercations, whether from favoritism or friendship, from envy or hatred that one had against another, by which their republic suffered great harm, loss and detriment; therefore, they decided, after much deliberation, to provide against these disorders. And thus they began to create a man of foreign birth their chief magistrate, giving him every power, authority and jurisdiction over the city, as well over criminal as over civil causes, and in times of war as well as in times of peace, calling him praetor as being above the others, or "podestà"., as having every authority and power over the city."  Podests were first more widely appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa when he began to assert the rights that his Imperial position gave him over the cities of northern Italy; at the second imperial diet at Roncaglia, November 1158, Frederick appointed in several major cities imperial podestà "as if having imperial power in that place" The elected consuls, which Frederick had claimed the right to ratify, he began to designate directly. The business of the podestà was to enforce imperial rights. From the start, this was very unpopular, and their often arbitrary behaviour was a factor in bringing about the formation of the Lombard League and the uprising against Frederick in 1167.  Although the Emperor's experiment was short-lived, the podestà soon became important and common in northern Italy, making their appearance in most communes around the year 1200, with an essential difference. These officials were now appointed by the citizens or by the citizens' representatives, rather like the older consuls (but not collegial). The podestà exercised the supreme power in the city, both in peace and war, and in foreign and domestic matters alike; but their term of office lasted only about a year.  In order to avoid the intense strife so common in Italian civic life, it soon became the custom to hire a stranger to fill this position. Venetians were in special demand for this purpose during the 12th and 13th centuries. This was probably due to their lesser concern (at the time) than other Italians in the affairs of the mainland. Afterwards, in a few cases, the term of office was extended to cover a period of years, or even a lifetime. They were confined in a luxury palace to keep them from being influenced by any of the local families. The architectural arrangement of the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena, built starting in 1297, evokes the uneasy relation of the commune with the "podestà", who in Siena's case was a disinterested nobleman at the head of the judiciary. It provided a self-contained lodging round its own interior court for the podestà, separate but housed within the Palazzo Pubblico where the councillors and their committee of nine habitually met.  During the later part of the twelfth and the whole of the thirteenth century most Italian cities were governed by a podestà. Concerning Rome, with a history of civic violence, Gregorovius says that "in 1205 the Pope Innocent III changed the form of the civic government; the executive power lying henceforward in the hand of a single senator or podest, who, directly or indirectly, was appointed by the pope". In Florence after 1180, the chief authority was transferred from the consuls to the podest, and Milan and other cities were also ruled by these officials. There were, moreover, podests in some of the cities of the adjoining Provence in southeastern France.  An anonymous writer composed a short guide for the would-be "podestà" (although it would be unseemly to appear openly to run for the office), "Oculus pastoralis", of about 1222; in six simple and brief chapters it guides the novice through the requirements of the office, the salary, the address of welcome given by the retiring "podestà" to the new one, the choice of counsellors, the handling of money accounts. The fifth chapter offers some model speeches on public occasions, such as the death of prominent citizens. A final chapter touches upon making war (in a paragraph), and the training of urban officials.  In the thirteenth century in Florence, in Orvieto (1251) and some other cities a "capitano del popolo" (literally, "captain of the people") was chosen to look after the interests of the lower classes. (To this day, the heads of government of the little independent republic of San Marino are still called "capitani".) In other ways the power of the podests was reduced—they were confined more and more to judicial functions until they disappeared early in the sixteenth century.  The officials sent by the Italian republics to administer the affairs of dependent cities were also sometimes called podests. Into the 20th century the cities of Trento and Trieste gave the name of podest to their chief magistrate.  The example of Italy in the matter of podests was sometimes followed by cities and republics in northern Europe in the Middle Ages, notably by such as had trade relations with Italy. The officers elected sometimes bore the title of "podesta" or "podestat". Thus in East Frisia there were podests identical in name and functions with those of the Italian republics; sometimes each province had one, sometimes the federal diet elected a podest-general for the whole country, the term of office being for a limited period or for life.

Fascist era.

The Fascist regime created its own version of the "podestà" figure. In February 1926, Mussolini's Senate issued a decree which abolished the autonomous powers and functions of "comunes" (municipalities), including elected town councils and mayors. Instead, all "comunes" except for Rome were to be headed by a ""podestà"", an authoritarian mayor with full executive and legislative powers. He was appointed by royal charter (in practice, by the National Fascist Party) for a renewable five-year term (which could be revoked at any time with immediate effect). In Rome, a governor was appointed to head the local government. In larger communes, the "podestà" was assisted by one or two "vice-podestà" nominated by the Ministry of Interior, in addition to a board of advisors ("consulta municipale") nominated either by the local prefect or, in the major cities, by the Ministry of Interior.  The decree was in effect from 21 April 1927 until 1945, when the entire system was abandoned with the return to democracy.

Podesteria.

Literally this derived word means the office of a podestà or its term, but "Podesteria" can also designate a district administered by a "podestà" within a larger state. In the "domini di Terraferma" that the dogal republic of Venice gradually established in the basin of the river Po, annexing various former principalities and self-governing cities, mostly in the fifteenth century, podesterias (ven. "podestarie") were one of the intermediate levels of the hierarchical administrative organization, the highest ('provincial') level being the "territorio" (roughly a modern administrative region).  After the other dogal republic, Genoa, was in 1273 granted control of Pera and Galata, commercial suburbs of Constantinople, by the Byzantine emperor, it governed them jointly by a common "podestà" until 1453, when all Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.

Frisian "potestaat".

The concept of a local man "empowered" to represent the Emperor was also a feature of medieval Frisia. From apocryphal beginnings, important rights were granted or confirmed under the code of law known as the "Lex Frisionum". According to later tradition, it was Charlemagne who granted the Frisians the title of freemen and permitted them to choose their own podestat or imperial governor from among the chieftains, to organize and lead the defense of two of the three districts of Frisia, in Middle Frisia, from the Flie to the Lauwers and in East Frisia from the Lauwers to the Weser, later the Countship of Ostfriesland.  The Italians probably became aware of the Frisian Potestaat, in Dutch "op poten staan" in English 'on legs standing', like for instance king Henry on his painting (Dutch: "potestaat", German: "Potestat", English: "potestate") during the Sixth Crusade in 1228. According to privileges that were falsely ascribed to the Carolingian era, the "potestate" was chosen by council and he must be able to slay knights. Apocryphal historical writings mention the potestate as early as the Viking Age.  The only "potestates" chosen to lead Friesland between the Vlie and Lauwers were Juw Juwinga (1396) and Juw Dekema (1494), both were chosen by the Schieringers. However, in 1399 the districts of Westergo and Oostergo elected potestates, Haring Harinxma and Sjoerd Wiarda respectively, in the struggle against the count of Holland. The title became well known outside of Friesland only with the installation of Albrecht of Saxony as "hereditary potestate" in 1498; the Frisians chose Jancko Douwama as their imperial stadtholder (1522).

Podestà (, English: Potestate, Podesta) is the name given to certain high officials in many Italian cities beginning in the later Middle Ages. Mainly it meant the chief magistrate of a city state, the counterpart to similar positions in other cities that went by other names, e.g. "rettori" ("rectors"), but it could also mean the local administrator, who was the representative of the Holy Roman Emperor. Currently, "Podestà" is the title of mayors in Italian-speaking municipalities of Graubünden in Switzerland.

Podestà (pochází z italštiny, odvozeno od latinského slova "potestas" znamenajícího moc, vrchnost) byl ve středověku purkmistr severo a středoitalských měst. Ve městských republikách mu náležela nejvyšší moc. Hodnost zavedl císař Fridrich I. Barbarossa jako náhradu za funkci městských konzulů. Podestové byli voleni z řad příslušníků cizích šlechtických rodů. Původně jejich funkční období trvalo jeden rok, později i déle.


Background.

As Liverpool declined to participate, Borussia Mönchengladbach was the team appointed to play the series. Due to schedule problems, the Cup was not played until 1978, with the second leg having been held more than four months after the first game in Buenos Aires.  Previously to those series, Borussia had won the Bundesliga three consecutive times (1974–77) with notable players such as Berti Vogts and Danish forward Allan Simonsen, awarded with Ballon d'Or in 1977.  As part of the preparation for the series, Boca Juniors manager, Juan Carlos Lorenzo, sent a friend of him to Borussia's training camp (pretending to be a local journalist due to his knowledge of German language) to watch the team in action. The envoy then sent Lorenzo a detailed report about Borussia's players, their technical characteristics and skills on the field.

First leg.

The first game was held in La Bombonera, with Boca Juniors taking advantage with a goal by Ernesto Mastrángelo, but Borussia scored two goals for a partial 2–1 win until Jorge Ribolzi scored for the 2–2 that would be the final result.

Second leg.

In October, Boca Juniors travelled to Germany to play the second leg, with the media being sceptical about a victory there. As Borussia's stadium was being refurbished, the match played at Wildparkstadion, which was remarkable for being the stadium with the best lighting throughout Germany by then.  Coach Juan Carlos Lorenzo surprised everyone when he decided to replace Francisco Sa, an experienced but slow player (with 33 years old) by younger and faster José Luis Tesare. He also put three attacking players (resulting in a 4–3–3 formation), something infrequent by those times.  The plan designed by Lorenzo was a real aim so Boca Juniors scored three goals for a 3–0 (Felman, Mastrángelo and Salinas) at the end of first half. Nevertheless, during the first 15 minutes of the match Borussia played much better than Boca Juniors but the German match could not score a goal in despite of their dominance over the rival.  One of the key players of the match was Darío Felman, who also scored a goal. Felman, on loan to Valencia CF by then, had not attend the first game in La Bombonera but Alberto J. Armando convinced him to play the second leg. Felman gave Ernesto Mastrangelo a precise pass to score the second goal of the match.  At the end of the match, Borussia manager, Udo Lattek stated that "Boca Juniors was a more mature and intelligent team than us".

Aftermath.

Boca Juniors's victory was acclaimed throughout Argentina, even by supporters of rival clubs. It was the first intercontinental title for the club and the third for a "big five" club of Argentina after the victories of Racing and Independiente in 1967 and 1973 respectively.  After their return from Germany, Boca Juniors players went directly to the club so they had to play Newell's Old Boys in the Metropolitano tournament, which would be finally won by Quilmes.

The 1977 Intercontinental Cup was an association football tie held over two legs in March and August 1978 between Boca Juniors, winners of the 1977 Copa Libertadores, and Borussia Mönchengladbach, runners-up of the 1976–77 European Cup. European Cup winners Liverpool declined to participate.

Sedmnáctý ročník Interkontinentálního poháru byl odehrán ve dnech 21. března 1978 a 1. srpna 1978. Ve vzájemném dvouzápase se střetli finalista Poháru mistrů evropských zemí ročníku 1976/77 - Borussia Mönchengladbach a vítěz Poháru osvoboditelů ročníku 1977 - CA Boca Juniors. Německý klub v souboji nahradil vítěze PMEZ Liverpool FC, který účast v poháru odmítl.


Terminology.

Glycated hemoglobin is preferred over glycosylated hemoglobin to reflect the correct (non-enyzmatic) process. Early literature often used "glycosylated" as it was unclear which process was involved until further research was performed. The terms are still sometimes used interchangeably in English-language literature.  The naming of HbA derives from Hemoglobin type A being separated on cation exchange chromatography. The first fraction to separate, probably considered to be pure Hemoglobin A, was designated HbA, and the following fractions were designated HbA, HbA, and HbA, in their order of elution. Improved separation techniques have subsequently led to the isolation of more subfractions.

History.

Hemoglobin A1c was first separated from other forms of hemoglobin by Huisman and Meyering in 1958 using a chromatographic column. It was first characterized as a glycoprotein by Bookchin and Gallop in 1968. Its increase in diabetes was first described in 1969 by Samuel Rahbar "et al." The reactions leading to its formation were characterized by Bunn and his coworkers in 1975.  The use of hemoglobin A1c for monitoring the degree of control of glucose metabolism in diabetic patients was proposed in 1976 by Anthony Cerami, Ronald Koenig and coworkers.

Damage mechanisms.

Glycated hemoglobin causes an increase of highly reactive free radicals inside blood cells. Radicals alter blood cell membrane properties. This leads to blood cell aggregation and increased blood viscosity, which results in impaired blood flow.  Another way glycated Hb causes damage is via inflammation, which results in atherosclerotic plaque (atheroma) formation. Free-radical build-up promotes the excitation of Fe-Hb through into abnormal ferryl Hb (Fe-Hb). Fe is unstable and reacts with specific amino acids in Hb to regain its Fe oxidation state. Hb molecules clump together via cross-linking reactions,and these Hb clumps (multimers) promote cell damage and the release of Fe-Hb into the matrix of innermost layers (subendothelium) of arteries and veins. This results in increased permeability of interior surface (endothelium) of blood vessels and production of pro-inflammatory monocyte adhesion proteins, which promote macrophage accumulation in blood vessel surfaces, ultimately leading to harmful plaques in these vessels.  Highly glycated Hb-AGEs go through vascular smooth muscle layer and inactivate acetylcholine-induced endothelium-dependent relaxation, possibly through binding to nitric oxide (NO), preventing its normal function. NO is a potent vasodilator and also inhibits formation of plaque-promoting LDLs (i.e. “bad cholesterol”) oxidized form.  This overall degradation of blood cells also releases heme from them. Loose heme can cause oxidation of endothelial and LDL proteins, which results in plaques.

Principle in medical diagnostics.

Glycation of proteins is a frequent occurrence, but in the case of hemoglobin, a nonenzymatic condensation reaction occurs between glucose and the N-end of the beta chain. This reaction produces a Schiff base (R-N=CHR', R = beta chain, CHR'= glucose-derived), which is itself converted to 1-deoxyfructose. This second conversion is an example of an Amadori rearrangement. When blood glucose levels are high, glucose molecules attach to the hemoglobin in red blood cells. The longer hyperglycemia occurs in blood, the more glucose binds to hemoglobin in the red blood cells and the higher the glycated hemoglobin.  Once a hemoglobin molecule is glycated, it remains that way. A buildup of glycated hemoglobin within the red cell, therefore, reflects the average level of glucose to which the cell has been exposed during its life-cycle. Measuring glycated hemoglobin assesses the effectiveness of therapy by monitoring long-term serum glucose regulation.  A1c is a weighted average of blood glucose levels during the life of the red blood cells (117 days for men and 106 days in women). Therefore, glucose levels on days nearer to the test contribute substantially more to the level of A1c than the levels in days further from the test.  This is also supported by data from clinical practice showing that HbA1c levels improved significantly after 20 days from start or intensification of glucose-lowering treatment.

Measurement.

Several techniques are used to measure hemoglobin A1c. Laboratories use high-performance liquid chromatography (the HbA result is calculated as a ratio to total hemoglobin using an immunoassay; enzymatic assay; capillary electrophoresis; or boronate affinity chromatography. Point of care (e.g., doctor's office) devices use immunoassay ororonate affinity chromatography.  In the United States, HbA testing laboratories are certified by the National Glycohemoglobin Standardization Program to standardize them against the results of the 1993 Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT). An additional percentage scale, Mono S has previously been in use by Sweden and KO500 is in use in Japan.

Switch to IFCC units.

The American Diabetes Association, European Association for the Study of Diabetes, and International Diabetes Federation have agreed that, in the future, HbA is to be reported in the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC) units. IFCC reporting was introduced in Europe except for the UK in 2003; the UK carried out dual reporting from 1 June 2009 until 1 October 2011.  Conversion between DCCT and IFCC is by the following equation:

Interpretation of results.

Laboratory results may differ depending on the analytical technique, the age of the subject, and biological variation among individuals.  Higher levels of HbA are found in people with persistently elevated blood sugar, as in diabetes mellitus. While diabetic patient treatment goals vary, many include a target range of HbA values. A diabetic person with good glucose control has a HbA level that is close to or within the reference range.  The International Diabetes Federation and the American College of Endocrinology recommend HbA values below 48 mmol/mol (6.5 DCCT %), while the American Diabetes Association recommends HbA be below 53 mmol/mol (7.0 DCCT %) for most patients. Recent results from large trials suggest that a target below 53 mmol/mol (7 DCCT %) for older adults with type 2 diabetes may be excessive: Below 53 mmol/mol, the health benefits of reduced A1c become smaller, and the intensive glycemic control required to reach this level leads to an increased rate of dangerous hypoglycemic episodes.  A retrospective study of 47,970 type 2 diabetes patients, aged 50 years and older, found that patients with an HbA more than 48 mmol/mol (6.5 DCCT %) had an increased mortality rate, but a later international study contradicted these findings.  A review of the UKPDS, Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD), ADVANCE and Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trials (VADT) estimated that the risks of the main complications of diabetes (diabetic retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic neuropathy, and macrovascular disease) decreased by about 3% for every 1 mmol/mol decrease in HbA.  However, a trial by ACCORD designed specifically to determine whether reducing HbA below 6.0% using increased amounts of medication would reduce the rate of cardiovascular events found higher mortality with this intensive therapy, so much so that the trial was terminated 17 months early.  Practitioners must consider patients' health, their risk of hypoglycemia, and their specific health risks when setting a target HbA level. Because patients are responsible for averting or responding to their own hypoglycemic episodes, their input and the doctors' assessments of the patients' self-care skills are also important.  Persistent elevations in blood sugar (and, therefore, HbA) increase the risk of long-term vascular complications of diabetes, such as coronary disease, heart attack, stroke, heart failure, kidney failure, blindness, erectile dysfunction, neuropathy (loss of sensation, especially in the feet), gangrene, and gastroparesis (slowed emptying of the stomach). Poor blood glucose control also increases the risk of short-term complications of surgery such as poor wound healing.  Lower-than-expected levels of HbA can be seen in people with shortened red blood cell lifespans, such as with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, sickle-cell disease, or any other condition causing premature red blood cell death. Blood donation will result in rapid replacement of lost RBCs with newly formed red blood cells. Since these new RBCs will have only existed for a short period of time, their presence will lead HbA to underestimate the actual average levels. There may also be distortions resulting from blood donation, which occurred as long as two months before due to an abnormal synchronization of the age of the RBCs, resulting in an older than normal average blood cell life (resulting in an overestimate of actual average blood glucose levels). Conversely, higher-than-expected levels can be seen in people with a longer red blood cell lifespan, such as with vitamin B or folate deficiency.  Results can be unreliable in many circumstances, for example after blood loss, after surgery, blood transfusions, anemia, or high erythrocyte turnover; in the presence of chronic renal or liver disease; after administration of high-dose vitamin C; or erythropoetin treatment. In general, the reference range (that found in healthy young persons), is about 30–33 mmol/mol (4.9–5.2 DCCT %). The mean HbA for diabetics type 1 in Sweden in 2014 was 63 mmol/mol (7.9 DCCT%) and for type 2, 61 mmol/mol (7.7 DCCT%).  The approximate mapping between HbA values given in DCCT percentage (%) and eAG (estimated average glucose) measurements is given by the following equation:

Normal, prediabetic, and diabetic range.

The 2010 American Diabetes Association Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes added the =HbA ≥ 48 mmol/mol (≥6.5 DCCT %) as another criterion for the diagnosis of diabetes.

Indications and uses.

Glycated hemoglobin testing is recommended for both checking the blood sugar control in people who might be prediabetic and monitoring blood sugar control in patients with more elevated levels, termed diabetes mellitus. For a single blood sample, it provides far more revealing information on glycemic behavior than a fasting blood sugar value. However, fasting blood sugar tests are crucial in making treatment decisions. The American Diabetes Association guidelines are similar to others in advising that the glycated hemoglobin test be performed at least twice a year in patients with diabetes who are meeting treatment goals (and who have stable glycemic control) and quarterly in patients with diabetes whose therapy has changed or who are not meeting glycemic goals.  Glycated hemoglobin measurement is not appropriate where a change in diet or treatment has been made within 6 weeks. Likewise, the test assumes a normal red blood cell aging process and mix of hemoglobin subtypes (predominantly HbA in normal adults). Hence, people with recent blood loss, hemolytic anemia, or genetic differences in the hemoglobin molecule (hemoglobinopathy) such as sickle-cell disease and other conditions, as well as those who have donated blood recently, are not suitable for this test.  Due to glycated hemoglobin's variability (as shown in the table above), additional measures should be checked in patients at or near recommended goals. People with HbA values at 64 mmol/mol or less should be provided additional testing to determine whether the HbA values are due to averaging out high blood glucose (hyperglycemia) with low blood glucose (hypoglycemia) or the HbA is more reflective of an elevated blood glucose that does not vary much throughout the day. Devices such as continuous blood glucose monitoring allow people with diabetes to determine their blood glucose levels on a continuous basis, testing every few minutes. Continuous use of blood glucose monitors is becoming more common, and the devices are covered by many health insurance plans, but not by Medicare in the United States. The supplies tend to be expensive, since the sensors must be changed at least every 2 weeks. Another useful test in determining if HbA values are due to wide variations of blood glucose throughout the day is 1,5-anhydroglucitol, also known as GlycoMark. GlycoMark reflects only the times that the person experiences hyperglycemia above 180 mg/dl over a two-week period.  Concentrations of hemoglobin A1 (HbA1) are increased, both in diabetic patients and in patients with kidney failure, when measured by ion-exchange chromatography. The thiobarbituric acid method (a chemical method specific for the detection of glycation) shows that patients with kidney failure have values for glycated hemoglobin similar to those observed in normal subjects, suggesting that the high values in these patients are a result of binding of something other than glucose to hemoglobin.  In autoimmune hemolytic anemia, concentrations of HbA1 is undetectable. Administration of prednisolone will allow the HbA1 to be detected. The alternative fructosamine test may be used in these circumstances and it also reflects an average of blood glucose levels over the preceding 2 to 3 weeks.  All the major institutions such as the International Expert Committee Report, drawn from the International Diabetes Federation, the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, and the American Diabetes Association, suggest the HbA level of 48 mmol/mol (6.5 DCCT %) as a diagnostic level. The Committee Report further states that, when HbA testing cannot be done, the fasting and glucose-tolerance tests be done.  Diagnosis of diabetes during pregnancy continues to require fasting and glucose-tolerance measurements for gestational diabetes, and not the glycated hemoglobin.

Modification by diet.

Meta-analysis has shown probiotics to cause a statistically significant reduction in glycated hemoglobin in type 2 diabetics. Trials with multiple strains of probiotics had statistically significant reductions in glycated hemoglobin, whereas trials with single strains did not.

Standardization and traceability.

Hemoglobin A1c is now standardized and traceable to IFCC methods HPLC-CE and HPLC-MS. The change to the newer unit of mmol/mol is part of this standardization. The standardized test does not test for iodine levels in the blood; hypothyroidism or iodine supplementation are known to artificially raise the A1c.

Veterinary medicine.

HbA1c has not been found useful in the treatment of cats and dogs with diabetes, and is not generally used; fructosamine is favoured instead.

Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c, A1c, or less commonly HbA, HgbA1c, Hb1c, etc.) is a form of hemoglobin (abbreviated Hb) that is chemically linked to a sugar. Most monosaccharides, including glucose, galactose and fructose, spontaneously (i.e. non-enzymatically) bond with hemoglobin, when present in the bloodstream of humans. However, glucose is less likely to do so than galactose and fructose (13% that of fructose and 21% that of galactose), which may explain why glucose is used as the primary metabolic fuel in humans.

Glykovaný hemoglobin nebo také HbA1c vzniká v organismu reakcí mezi glukózou a hemoglobinem. Tento děj si můžeme představit jako červené krevní barvivo na které je vázán cukr. Jinými slovy se jedná o tzv. dlouhodobou glykémii. Využívá se k posouzení kompenzace a léčby diabetu. Dříve se jeho hodnoty určovaly v procentech, ale nově se používá jednotka mmol/l.


Princess Dorothea of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck

Family.

She was the eldest of the thirteen children of Frederick Louis, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, by his wife, Luise Charlotte of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg. Of all her siblings, only seven survived adulthood: Frederick William II, who inherited Beck after succeeding his father; Charles Louis, later husband of the Countess Orzelska and ruler of Beck after the death of his nephew; Philipp Wilhelm, who died unmarried in 1729; Luise Albertine, by marriage von Seeguth-Stanislawsky; Peter August, who years later inherited Beck from his older brother; Sophie Henriette, Burgravine and Countess of Dohna-Schlobitten; and Charlotte, Abbess of Quedlinburg.

Life.

Dorothea married Georg Frederick Karl of Brandenburg-Bayreuth-Kulmbach, later Margrave of Bayreuth, on 17 April 1709 in Reinfeld. They had five children, two sons and three daughters.  The union was completely unhappy. In 1716, Dorothea was convicted of adultery and imprisoned in Nürnberg; eight years later, in 1724, the marriage was formally dissolved, but Dorothea remained in her prison. In 1726, her former husband ascended to the throne. At the death of her former husband in 1735, she was released.  Officially pronounced dead, she went to Sweden, where she lived under the name "Dorothea von Ziedewitz", first as the guest of Governor von Brehmen and then with his widow outside Kalmar, and finally with the Lewenhaupt family on Stäflö for a payment of §1000, where she died, aged seventy-six. By that time, all her children, except the Margrave Frederick of Bayreuth -who died two years later (1763), had predeceased her.

References.

Dorothea of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, known also as "Dorothea von Holstein-Beck" and "Dorothea von Ziedewitz", (24 November 1685 – 25 December 1761), was a German princess of the House of Oldenburg and by marriage Margravine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth-Kulmbach.

Dorotea Šlesvicko-Holštýnsko-Sonderbursko-Becká (24. listopadu 1685, Augustenborg, Dánsko – 25. prosince 1761, Stäflö, Švédsko) byla německou princeznou z rodu Oldenburků a sňatkem braniborsko-bayreuthsko-kulmbašskou markraběnkou.


Life.

Charlotte was born in France in 1388, one of the seven children of John I, Count of La Marche and Catherine de Vendôme. She had three brothers and three sisters. These were: James II, Count of La Marche, Louis, Count of Vendôme, Jean de Bourbon, Seigneur de Carency and de Duisant, Anne, Countess of Montpensier, Marie de Bourbon, Dame de Bréhencourt, and Isabelle de Bourbon. She also had an illegitimate half-brother by her father's relationship with a mistress.  Charlotte's paternal grandparents were James I, Count of La Marche and Jeanne de Châtillon, and her maternal grandparents were Jean VI, Count of Vendôme and Jeanne of Ponthieu.

Queen of Cyprus.

On 25 August 1411, at Saint Sophia's Cathedral in Nicosia, Cyprus, Charlotte married as his second wife, King Janus of Cyprus and Armenia and titular King of Jerusalem. He was the son of King James I of Cyprus and Helvis of Brunswick-Grubenhagen. Janus and Charlotte had been married by proxy on 2 August 1409 in Melun, France. A document dated 10 January 1409 (Old Style) (which was actually 19 January 1410 New Style), records the arrangements for Charlotte's voyage from Venice to Cyprus. The chronicle of Amadi records the arrival in Cyprus of " damisella Carlotta de Borbon, moglie de re Zegno" and her marriage on 25 August 1411. Charlotte's lavish retinue which accompanied her to Cyprus included many musicians.  Janus was a member of the prominent and extensive Lusignan dynasty, which was also his family name. He had divorced his first wife, Anglesia Visconti several years earlier, and that marriage had not produced any children.  The marriage of Janus and Charlotte was described as a "cornerstone in the revitalisation of French culture in the Lusignan court that characterised Janus's rule". Following her marriage, she immediately established a "socièté courtoise" at the royal court at Nicosia, where French literature and music flourished.  King Janus had three illegitimate children by an unnamed mistress.  Charlotte died on 15 January 1422 of the plague. She was buried in the Royal Monastery of Saint Dominic's in Nicosia.

Issue.

Together Janus and Charlotte had six children:

Charlotte of Bourbon (1388 – 15 January 1422) was the queen consort of Cyprus and titular queen consort of Armenia and Jerusalem through her marriage to King Janus. She was his second wife and the mother of his six legitimate children, which included King John II and Anne de Lusignan. It was Charlotte's influence which was instrumental in the revival of French culture at the royal court in Nicosia.

Šarlota Bourbonská (1388, Francie – 15. ledna 1422, Kypr) byla sňatkem s králem Janusem královnou Kypru a titulární královnou Arménie a Jeruzaléma. Byla Janusovou druhou manželku a matkou šesti jeho manželských dětí, včetně krále Jana II. a vévodkyně Anny Kyperské. Díky Šarlotinu vlivu se u královského dvora v Nikósii obnovila francouzská kultura.


History.

Grayson County was founded in 1793 from part of Wythe County. It was named for William Grayson, delegate to the Continental Congress from 1784 to 1787 and one of the first two U.S. Senators from Virginia. The first courthouse was built in Greensville, later called Oldtown, constructed in 1794 and rebuilt beginning in 1832. In 1842, the Virginia General Assembly authorized the division of Grayson County, the northeastern portion becoming Carroll County.  During the American Civil War, little fighting occurred within Grayson County. However, the "Grayson Dare Devils" (Company F, 4th Regiment of the Stonewall Brigade) were recruited from the Elk Creek Valley of Grayson County shortly after Virginia seceded, and sustained significant losses as the First Battle of Manassas. The Grayson Cavalry was Company C of the 8th Virginia Cavalry, which served until the war's end. Company D of the 50th Virginia Infantry was recruited in the Mouth of Wilson Community and they were known as the "Wilson Rifles."  The county seat since shortly before the American Civil War has been Independence, Virginia, since the former county seat had been centrally located until Carroll County split off (and Oldtown now is a district within Grayson county). The Old Grayson County Courthouse and Clerk's Office renovated circa 1834 still exists, but is now located near what since 1953 is the independent city of Galax, Virginia. Even by 1890 the nearest railroad to Grayson county was nine miles from the county line, a Norfolk and Western Railway stop called "Rural Retreat." Textile and then furniture factories arrived in Galax (which was planned as a town near the old village of Blair on a plateau beginning in 1903, and renamed after a plant harvested from the surrounding mountains). Also the New River was dammed at Fries to power a cotton mill, which also led to more direct service by the Norfolk and Western to Troutdale (which later faltered). Whitetop City and Fairwood also virtually disappeared during the Great Depression.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.8%) is water. The southernmost point in Virginia lies in Grayson County.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 17,917 people, 7,259 households, and 5,088 families residing in the county. The population density was 40 people per square mile (16/km2). There were 9,123 housing units at an average density of 21 per square mile (8/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 91.70% White, 6.79% Black or African American, 0.12% Native American, 0.07% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.70% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races. 1.55% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 7,259 households out of which 26.40% had children under the living with them, 57.60% were married couples living together, 8.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.90% were non-families. 26.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.77.  In the county, the population was spread out with 19.50% under the age of 18, 7.60% from 18 to 24, 29.80% from 25 to 44, 26.20% from 45 to 64, and 16.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 107.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.70 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $28,676, and the median income for a family was $35,076. Males had a median income of $24,126 versus $17,856 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,768. About 10.00% of families and 13.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.80% of those under age 18 and 16.30% of those age 65 or over.

Economy.

Grayson is economically isolated, without an Interstate Highway and surrounded by mountains. It struggled to attract and retain business; a situation made much worse beginning in 2009 with the recession. Losses of jobs in the furniture and textile sectors resulted in an unemployment rate of 14.6%. As part of the reformation of county government beginning in 2009, the new but idle River North Correctional Center was activated by the state brought in several hundred jobs. County government efforts were successful in retaining Core Fitness' Nautilus facility as the largest employer in the county and integrating local businesses as part of their supply chain. Independence Lumber suffered significant losses in a fire in November 2012 which forced it to relocate operations to North Carolina. Efforts by the county led to the company rebuilding and reopening its facility in 2014 with 125 jobs. By 2014 a focus on job creation brought additional business operations and 300 more jobs to the county and resulted in an unemployment rate of only 6.9%. By April 2019, the unemployment rate had plummeted to just 2.6%.

Government.

In 2009, the county, in dire financial condition from mismanagement and the failing economy, hired Jonathan Sweet as County Administrator. The county debt was $18.3 million and operational expenses were being paid by added borrowing. By 2015 the county had reversed its fiscal direction, revitalized the business climate, and begun to regain the confidence of its citizens. The county fund balance was 35% of its operating expenses and government operations were financially stable with reduced debt.

Legislative representation.

Grayson is represented by Republican C.W. "Bill" Carrico in the Virginia Senate, Republican Israel D. O'Quinn in the Virginia House of Delegates, and Republican H. Morgan Griffith in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Education.

Public high schools.

Grayson County High School, Independence

Private high schools.

Oak Hill Academy, Mouth of Wilson

Culture.

Located in the Appalachian region of the United States, Grayson County has long been famous for its traditional, or "old-time" music and musicians. Although the entire Appalachian region is known for its music, the region around Mount Airy, North Carolina and Galax, Virginia is one of the areas where this music has remained strongest, even among young people. The Old Fiddler's Convention, one of the most prominent traditional music contests in the United States, has been held annually in Galax since 1935. Grayson County is also the home of other fiddlers' conventions and old time and bluegrass festivals such as the Grayson County Fiddlers Convention, Fries Fiddlers Convention, and the Wayne C. Henderson Guitar Festival. The Whitetop Mountain Band, The New Ballards Branch Bogtrotters, The Wolfe Brothers String Band, and the Konnarock Critters are among many of the best known old time bands of the area.

Grayson County is a county located in the southwestern part of the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 15,533. Its county seat is Independence. Mount Rogers, the state's highest peak at, is in Grayson County.

Grayson County je okres amerického státu Virginie založený v roce 1793. Hlavním městem je Independence. Pojmenovaný je podle politika, senátora za stát Virginie Williama Graysona (1740–1790). Žije zde obyvatel.


Meteorological scales.

There are four main scales, or sizes of systems, dealt with in meteorology: the macroscale, the synoptic scale, the mesoscale, and the microscale. The macroscale deals with systems with global size, such as the Madden–Julian oscillation. Synoptic scale systems cover a portion of a continent, such as extratropical cyclones, with dimensions of across. The mesoscale is the next smaller scale, and often is divided into two ranges: meso-alpha phenomena range from across (the realm of the tropical cyclone), while meso-beta phenomena range from across (the scale of the mesocyclone). The microscale is the smallest of the meteorological scales, with a size under (the scale of tornadoes and waterspouts). These horizontal dimensions are not rigid divisions but instead reflect typical sizes of phenomena having certain dynamic characteristics. For example, a system does not necessarily transition from meso-alpha to synoptic scale when its horizontal extent grows from.

Extratropical cyclones.

Norwegian cyclone model.

The Norwegian cyclone model is an idealized formation model of cold-core cyclonic storms developed by Norwegian meteorologists during the First World War. The main concept behind this model, relating to cyclogenesis, is that cyclones progress through a predictable evolution as they move up a frontal boundary, with the most mature cyclone near the northeast end of the front and the least mature near the tail end of the front.

Precursors for development.

A preexisting frontal boundary, as defined in surface weather analysis, is required for the development of a mid-latitude cyclone. The cyclonic flow begins around a disturbed section of the stationary front due to an upper level disturbance, such as a short wave or an upper-level trough, near a favorable quadrant of the upper level jet. However, enhanced along-frontal stretching rates in the lower troposphere can suppress the growth of extratropical cyclones.

Vertical motion affecting development.

Cyclogenesis can only occur when temperature decreases polewards (to the north, in the northern hemisphere), and pressure perturbation lines tilt westward with height. Cyclogenesis is most likely to occur in regions of cyclonic vorticity advection, downstream of a strong westerly jet. The combination of vorticity advection and thermal advection created by the temperature gradient and a low pressure center cause upward motion around the low.  If the temperature gradient is strong enough, temperature advection will increase, driving more vertical motion. This increases the overall strength of the system. Shearwise updrafts are the most important factor in determining cyclonic growth and strength.

Modes of development.

A surface low can have a variety of causes for forming. Topography can force a surface low to form when an existing baroclinic wave moves over a mountain barrier; this is known as "lee cyclogenesis" since the low forms on the leeward side of the mountains. Mesoscale convective systems can spawn surface lows which are initially warm core. The disturbance can grow into a wave-like formation along the front and the low will be positioned at the crest. Around the low, flow will become cyclonic, by definition. This rotational flow will push polar air equator-ward west of the low via its trailing cold front, and warmer air will push poleward low via the warm front. Usually the cold front will move at a quicker pace than the warm front and “catch up” with it due to the slow erosion of higher density airmass located out ahead of the cyclone and the higher density airmass sweeping in behind the cyclone, usually resulting in a narrowing warm sector. At this point an occluded front forms where the warm air mass is pushed upwards into a trough of warm air aloft, which is also known as a trowal (a trough of warm air aloft). All developing low pressure areas share one important aspect, that of upward vertical motion within the troposphere. Such upward motions decrease the mass of local atmospheric columns of air, which lower surface pressure.

Maturity.

Maturity is after the time of occlusion when the storm has completed strengthening and the cyclonic flow is at its most intense. Thereafter, the strength of the storm diminishes as the cyclone couples with the upper level trough or upper level low, becoming increasingly cold core. The spin-down of cyclones, also known as cyclolysis, can be understood from an energetics perspective. As occlusion occurs and the warm air mass is pushed upwards over a cold air airmass, the atmosphere becomes increasingly stable and the centre of gravity of the system lowers. As the occlusion process extends further down the warm front and away from the central low, more and more of the available potential energy of the system is exhausted. This potential energy sink creates a kinetic energy source which injects a final burst of energy into the storm's motions. After this process occurs, the growth period of the cyclone, or cyclogenesis, ends, and the low begins to spin down (fill) as more air is converging into the bottom of the cyclone than is being removed out the top since upper-level divergence has decreased.  Occasionally, cyclogenesis will re-occur with occluded cyclones. When this happens a new low center will form on the triple-point (the point where the cold front, warm front, and occluded front meet). During triple-point cyclogenesis, the occluded parent low will fill as the secondary low deepens into the main weathermaker.

Tropical cyclones.

Tropical cyclones exist within a mesoscale alpha domain. As opposed to mid-latitude cyclogenesis, tropical cyclogenesis is driven by strong convection organised into a central core with no baroclinic zones, or fronts, extending through their center. Although the formation of tropical cyclones is the topic of extensive ongoing research and is still not fully understood, there are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis: sea surface temperatures that are warm enough, atmospheric instability, high humidity in lower to middle levels of the troposphere, enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center, a pre-existing low level focus or disturbance, and low vertical wind shear. These warm core cyclones tend to form over the oceans between 10 and 30 degrees of the equator.

Mesocyclones.

Mesocyclones range in size from mesoscale beta to microscale. The term mesocyclone is usually reserved for mid-level rotations within severe thunderstorms, and are warm core cyclones driven by latent heat of its associated thunderstorm activity.  Tornadoes form in the warm sector of extratropical cyclones where a strong upper level jet stream exists. Mesocyclones are believed to form when strong changes of wind speed and/or direction with height ("wind shear") sets parts of the lower part of the atmosphere spinning in invisible tube-like rolls. The convective updraft of a thunderstorm is then thought to draw up this spinning air, tilting the rolls' orientation upward (from parallel to the ground to perpendicular) and causing the entire updraft to rotate as a vertical column.  As the updraft rotates, it may form what is known as a wall cloud. The wall cloud is a spinning layer of clouds descending from the mesocyclone. The wall cloud tends to form closer to the center of the mesocyclone. The wall clouds do not necessarily need a mesocyclone to form and do not always rotate. As the wall cloud descends, a funnel-shaped cloud may form at its center. This is the first stage of tornado formation. The presence of a mesocyclone is believed to be a key factor in the formation of the strong tornadoes associated with severe thunderstorms.

Tornadoes.

Tornadoes exist on the microscale or low end of the mesoscale gamma domain. The cycle begins when a strong thunderstorm develops a rotating mesocyclone a few miles up in the atmosphere, becoming a supercell. As rainfall in the storm increases, it drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.  As the mesocyclone approaches the ground, a visible condensation funnel appears to descend from the base of the storm, often from a rotating wall cloud. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, creating a gust front that can cause damage a good distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.

Waterspouts.

Waterspouts exist on the microscale. While some waterspouts are strong (tornadic) like their land-based counterparts, most are much weaker and caused by different atmospheric dynamics. They normally develop in moisture-laden environments with little vertical wind shear along lines of convergence, such as land breezes, lines of frictional convergence from nearby landmasses, or surface troughs. Their parent cloud can be as innocuous as a moderate cumulus, or as significant as a thunderstorm. Waterspouts normally develop as their parent clouds are in the process of development, and it is theorized that they spin up as they move up the surface boundary from the horizontal wind shear near the surface, and then stretch upwards to the cloud once the low level shear vortex aligns with a developing cumulus or thunderstorm. Weak tornadoes, known as landspouts, across eastern Colorado have been witnessed to develop in a similar manner. An outbreak occurred in the Great Lakes in late September and early October 2003 along a lake effect band. September is the peak month of landspout and waterspout occurrence around Florida and for waterspout occurrence around the Great Lakes.

Related terms.

Cyclogenesis is the opposite of cyclolysis, which concerns the weakening of surface cyclones. The term has an anticyclonic (high pressure system) equivalent—Anticyclogenesis, which deals with the formation of surface high pressure systems.

Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere (a low-pressure area). Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for at least three different processes, all of which result in the development of some sort of cyclone, and at any size from the microscale to the synoptic scale.

Cyklogeneze je rozvoj či zesílení cyklónové cirkulace v atmosféře (oblast nízkého tlaku). Jedná se o obecný termín pro několik různých procesů, které dávají vzniknout jednomu druhu cyklóny. Základní rozlišení cyklón je na tropické a vnětropické.