Purpose.

Spermatogenesis produces mature male gametes, commonly called "sperm" but more specifically known as "spermatozoa", which are able to fertilize the counterpart female gamete, the oocyte, during conception to produce a single-celled individual known as a zygote. This is the cornerstone of sexual reproduction and involves the two gametes both contributing half the normal set of chromosomes (haploid) to result in a chromosomally normal (diploid) zygote.  To preserve the number of chromosomes in the offspring – which differs between species – one of each gamete must have half the usual number of chromosomes present in other body cells. Otherwise, the offspring will have twice the normal number of chromosomes, and serious abnormalities may result. In humans, chromosomal abnormalities arising from incorrect spermatogenesis results in congenital defects and abnormal birth defects (Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome) and in most cases, spontaneous abortion of the developing foetus.

Location in humans.

Spermatogenesis takes place within several structures of the male reproductive system. The initial stages occur within the testes and progress to the epididymis where the developing gametes mature and are stored until ejaculation. The seminiferous tubules of the testes are the starting point for the process, where spermatogonial stem cells adjacent to the inner tubule wall divide in a centripetal direction—beginning at the walls and proceeding into the innermost part, or "lumen"—to produce immature sperm. Maturation occurs in the epididymis. The location [Testes/Scrotum] is specifically important as the process of spermatogenesis requires a lower temperature to produce viable sperm, specifically 1°-8 °C lower than normal body temperature of 37 °C (98.6 °F). Clinically, small fluctuations in temperature such as from an athletic support strap, causes no impairment in sperm viability or count.

Duration.

For humans, the entire process of spermatogenesis is variously estimated as taking 74 days (according to tritium-labelled biopsies) and approximately 120 days (according to DNA clock measurements). Including the transport on ductal system, it takes 3 months. Testes produce 200 to 300 million spermatozoa daily. However, only about half or 100 million of these become viable sperm.

Stages.

The entire process of spermatogenesis can be broken up into several distinct stages, each corresponding to a particular type of cell in humans. In the following table, ploidy, copy number and chromosome/chromatid counts are for one cell, generally prior to DNA synthesis and division (in G1 if applicable). The primary spermatocyte is arrested after DNA synthesis and prior to division.

Spermatocytogenesis.

Spermatocytogenesis is the male form of gametocytogenesis and results in the formation of spermatocytes possessing half the normal complement of genetic material. In spermatocytogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium, which resides in the basal compartment of the seminiferous tubules, divides mitotically, producing two diploid intermediate cells called primary spermatocytes. Each primary spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules and duplicates its DNA and subsequently undergoes "meiosis I" to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes, which will later divide once more into haploid spermatids. This division implicates sources of genetic variation, such as random inclusion of either parental chromosomes, and chromosomal crossover that increases the genetic variability of the gamete. The DNA damage response (DDR) machinery plays an important role in spermatogenesis. The protein FMRP binds to meiotic chromosomes and regulates the dynamics of the DDR machinery during spermatogenesis. FMRP appears to be necessary for the repair of DNA damage.  Each cell division from a spermatogonium to a spermatid is incomplete; the cells remain connected to one another by bridges of cytoplasm to allow synchronous development. Not all spermatogonia divide to produce spermatocytes; otherwise, the supply of spermatogonia would run out. Instead, spermatogonial stem cells divide mitotically to produce copies of themselves, ensuring a constant supply of spermatogonia to fuel spermatogenesis.

Spermatidogenesis.

Spermatidogenesis is the creation of spermatids from secondary spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocytes produced earlier rapidly enter meiosis II and divide to produce haploid spermatids. The brevity of this stage means that secondary spermatocytes are rarely seen in histological studies.

Spermiogenesis.

During spermiogenesis, the spermatids begin to form a tail by growing microtubules on one of the centrioles, which turns into basal body. These microtubules form an axoneme. Later the centriole is modified in the process of centrosome reduction. The anterior part of the tail (called midpiece) thickens because mitochondria are arranged around the axoneme to ensure energy supply. Spermatid DNA also undergoes packaging, becoming highly condensed. The DNA is packaged firstly with specific nuclear basic proteins, which are subsequently replaced with protamines during spermatid elongation. The resultant tightly packed chromatin is transcriptionally inactive. The Golgi apparatus surrounds the now condensed nucleus, becoming the acrosome.  Maturation then takes place under the influence of testosterone, which removes the remaining unnecessary cytoplasm and organelles. The excess cytoplasm, known as "residual bodies", is phagocytosed by surrounding Sertoli cells in the testes. The resulting spermatozoa are now mature but lack motility. The mature spermatozoa are released from the protective Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule in a process called "spermiation".  The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in "testicular fluid" secreted by the Sertoli cells with the aid of peristaltic contraction. While in the epididymis the spermatozoa gain motility and become capable of fertilization. However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the remainder of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than the spermatozoon's recently acquired motility.

Role of Sertoli cells.

At all stages of differentiation, the spermatogenic cells are in close contact with Sertoli cells which are thought to provide structural and metabolic support to the developing sperm cells. A single Sertoli cell extends from the basement membrane to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule, although the cytoplasmic processes are difficult to distinguish at the light microscopic level.  Sertoli cells serve a number of functions during spermatogenesis, they support the developing gametes in the following ways:  The intercellular adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and soluble ICAM-1 have antagonistic effects on the tight junctions forming the blood-testis barrier. ICAM-2 molecules regulate spermatid adhesion on the apical side of the barrier (towards the lumen).

Influencing factors.

The process of spermatogenesis is highly sensitive to fluctuations in the environment, particularly hormones and temperature. Testosterone is required in large local concentrations to maintain the process, which is achieved via the binding of testosterone by androgen binding protein present in the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone is produced by interstitial cells, also known as Leydig cells, which reside adjacent to the seminiferous tubules.  Seminiferous epithelium is sensitive to elevated temperature in humans and some other species, and will be adversely affected by temperatures as high as normal body temperature. Consequently, the testes are located outside the body in a sack of skin called the scrotum. The optimal temperature is maintained at 2 °C (man) (8 °C mouse) below body temperature. This is achieved by regulation of blood flow and positioning towards and away from the heat of the body by the cremasteric muscle and the dartos smooth muscle in the scrotum.  One important mechanism is a thermal exchange between testicular arterial and venous blood streams. Specialized anatomic arrangements, consisting of two zones of coiling along the internal spermatic artery. This anatomic arrangement prolongs the time of contact and the thermal exchange between the testicular arterial and venous blood streams and may, in part, explain the temperature gradient between aortic and testicular arterial blood reported in dogs5 and rams. Moreover, reduction in pulse pressure, occurring in the proximal one third of the coiled length of the internal spermatic artery. Moreover, the activity of spermatogenic recombinase decreases, and this is supposed to be an important factor of testicles degeneration.  Dietary deficiencies (such as vitamins B, E and A), anabolic steroids, metals (cadmium and lead), x-ray exposure, dioxin, alcohol, and infectious diseases will also adversely affect the rate of spermatogenesis. In addition, the male germ line is susceptible to DNA damage caused by oxidative stress, and this damage likely has a significant impact on fertilization and pregnancy. Exposure to pesticides also affects spermatogenesis.

Hormonal control.

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis varies among species. In humans the mechanism is not completely understood; however it is known that initiation of spermatogenesis occurs at puberty due to the interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and Leydig cells. If the pituitary gland is removed, spermatogenesis can still be initiated by follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone. In contrast to FSH, luteinizing hormone (LH) appears to have little role in spermatogenesis outside of inducing gonadal testosterone production.  FSH stimulates both the production of androgen binding protein (ABP) by Sertoli cells, and the formation of the blood-testis barrier. ABP is essential to concentrating testosterone in levels high enough to initiate and maintain spermatogenesis. Intratesticular testosterone levels are 20–100 or 50–200 times higher than the concentration found in blood, although there is variation over a 5- to 10-fold range amongst healthy men. FSH may initiate the sequestering of testosterone in the testes, but once developed only testosterone is required to maintain spermatogenesis. However, increasing the levels of FSH will increase the production of spermatozoa by preventing the apoptosis of "type A spermatogonia". The hormone inhibin acts to decrease the levels of FSH. Studies from rodent models suggest that gonadotropins (both LH and FSH) support the process of spermatogenesis by suppressing the proapoptotic signals and therefore promote spermatogenic cell survival.  The Sertoli cells themselves mediate parts of spermatogenesis through hormone production. They are capable of producing the hormones estradiol and inhibin. The Leydig cells are also capable of producing estradiol in addition to their main product testosterone. Estrogen has been found to be essential for spermatogenesis in animals. However, a man with estrogen insensitivity syndrome (a defective ERα) was found produce sperm with a normal sperm count, albeit abnormally low sperm viability; whether he was sterile or not is unclear. Levels of estrogen that are too high can be detrimental to spermatogenesis due to suppression of gonadotropin secretion and by extension intratesticular testosterone production. Prolactin also appears to be important for spermatogenesis.

Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid spermatozoa develop from germ cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. This process starts with the mitotic division of the stem cells located close to the basement membrane of the tubules. These cells are called spermatogonial stem cells. The mitotic division of these produces two types of cells. Type A cells replenish the stem cells, and type B cells differentiate into primary spermatocytes. The primary spermatocyte divides meiotically (Meiosis I) into two secondary spermatocytes; each secondary spermatocyte divides into two equal haploid spermatids by Meiosis II. The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperm) by the process of spermiogenesis. These develop into mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm cells. Thus, the primary spermatocyte gives rise to two cells, the secondary spermatocytes, and the two secondary spermatocytes by their subdivision produce four spermatozoa and four haploid cells.

Spermatogeneze je tvorba mužských pohlavních buněk (spermií). Pro správný průběh spermatogeneze je zapotřebí dostatečná stimulace pohlavními hormony (zejména testosteronem) a dále nižší teplota, jíž je docíleno umístěním varlat v šourku. Tvorba spermií má tři fáze: rozmnožovací, růstovou a zrání. Na počátku vývoje spermií jsou spermatogonie, což jsou samčí prapohlavní buňky. Mají kulovitý tvar a jsou uloženy na okrajích semenných kanálků. Spermatogonie se mitoticky dělí. Jednak aby zachovaly své početní stavy a jednak jejich dělením vznikají primární spermatocyty (spermatocyty I. řádu), které leží nad vrstvou spermatogonií. Primární spermatocyty jsou diploidní, avšak po prvním meiotickém dělení z nich vznikají haploidní sekundární spermatocyty (spermatocyty II. řádu). Ty mají stále zdvojené chromatidy, proto záhy dochází k druhému meiotickému dělení, jehož produktem jsou spermatidy. Spermatidy jsou již plně haploidní a dále se nedělí. Spermatidy poté prochází procesem spermiogeneze, při kterém dochází ke kondenzaci jádra, vytvoření bičíku a ztrátě většiny cytoplazmy a některých organel. Nezralé spermie putují přes semenotvorné kanálky do nadvarlete, kde dochází k jejich definitivnímu zrání. Celý tento proces trvá asi 72 dní (± 2 dny). Spermatogeneze probíhá od puberty do individuálně vysokého věku a odhaduje se, že muž za svůj život vyprodukuje cca 12 biliónů spermií.


Devotions and spirituality.

Devotion to the Rosary is one of the most notable features of popular Catholic spirituality. Pope John Paul II placed the Rosary at the very center of Christian spirituality and called it "among the finest and most praiseworthy traditions of Christian contemplation."  Catholics believe the Rosary is a remedy against severe trials, temptations and the hardships of life, and that the Rosary is one of the great weapons given to believers in their battle against every evil.  Saints and popes have emphasized the meditative and contemplative elements of the rosary and provided specific teachings for how the rosary should be prayed, for instance the need for ""focus," "respect," "reverence" and "purity of intention"" during rosary recitations and contemplations.  From the sixteenth century onwards, Rosary recitations often involved "picture texts" that assisted meditation. Such imagery continues to be used to depict the mysteries of the rosary. Catholic saints have stressed the importance of meditation and contemplation. Scriptural meditations concerning the rosary are based on the Christian tradition of Lectio Divina, (literally "divine reading") as a way of using the Gospel to start a conversation between the person and Christ. Padre Pio, a rosary devotee, said: ""Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds him.""  References to the Rosary have been part of a number of reported Marian Apparitions spanning two centuries. The reported messages from these apparitions have influenced the spread of Rosary devotion worldwide. In "Quamquam pluries" Pope Leo XIII related Rosary devotions to Saint Joseph and granted indulgences for adding a prayer to St. Joseph to the Rosary during the month of October.  Praying the Rosary may be prescribed by priests as a type of penance after confession. (Penance is not generally intended as a "punishment"; rather, it is meant to encourage meditation upon and spiritual growth from past sins.)

History.

Knotted prayer ropes were used in early Christianity; the Desert Fathers are said to have created the first such, using knots to keep track of the number of times they said the Jesus prayer.  According to pious tradition, the concept of the Rosary was given to Saint Dominic in an apparition of the Virgin Mary during the year 1214 in the church of Prouille, though in fact it was known from the ninth century in various forms. This Marian apparition received the title of Our Lady of the Rosary. In the 15th century it was promoted by Alanus de Rupe (aka Alain de la Roche or Blessed Alan of the Rock), a Dominican priest and theologian, who established the "fifteen rosary promises" and started many rosary confraternities.  According to Herbert Thurston, it is certain that in the course of the twelfth century and before the birth of St. Dominic, the practice of reciting 50 or 150 Ave Marias had become generally familiar. According to 20th century editions of the Catholic Encyclopedia, the story of St. Dominic's devotion to the Rosary and supposed apparition of Our Lady of the Rosary does not appear in any documents of the Church or Dominican Order prior to the writings of Blessed Alanus, some 250 years after Dominic. However recent scholarship by Donald H. Calloway, which has received the endorsement of some of the Church hierarchy, seeks to refute this claim.  Leonard Foley claimed that although Mary's giving the Rosary to St. Dominic is recognized as a legend, the development of this prayer form owes much to the Order of Preachers.  The practice of meditation during the praying of the Hail Mary is attributed to Dominic of Prussia (1382–1460), a Carthusian monk who termed it "Life of Jesus Rosary". The German monk from Trier added a sentence to each of the 50 Hail Marys, using quotes from scriptures (which at that time followed the name "Jesus," before the intercessory ending was added during the Counter-Reformation). In 1569, the papal bull Consueverunt Romani Pontifices by the Dominican Pope Pius V officially established the devotion to the rosary in the Catholic Church.  From the 16th to the early 20th century, the structure of the Rosary remained essentially unchanged. There were 15 mysteries, one for each of the 15 decades. During the 20th century, the addition of the Fatima Prayer to the end of each decade became more common. There were no other changes until 2002, when John Paul II instituted five optional new Luminous Mysteries, although variations of these had already been proposed by the likes of St. Louis de Montfort and St. George Preca and were implemented during the mid-20th Century by figures such as Patrick Peyton.

Papal endorsements.

During the 16th century, Pope Pius V associated the rosary with the General Roman Calendar by instituting the Feast of Our Lady of Victory (later changed to Our Lady of the Rosary), which is celebrated on 7 October.  Pope Leo XIII, known as "The Rosary Pope," issued twelve encyclicals and five apostolic letters concerning the rosary and added the invocation "Queen of the most Holy Rosary" to the Litany of Loreto. Pope Pius XII and his successors actively promoted veneration of the Virgin in Lourdes and Fatima, which is credited with a new resurgence of the rosary within the Catholic Church.  Pope John XXIII deemed the rosary of such importance that on 28 April 1962, in an apostolic letter he appealed for the recitation of the Rosary in preparation for the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council.Pope John Paul II issued the Apostolic Letter "Rosarium Virginis Mariae" which emphasized the Christocentric nature of the Rosary as a meditation on the life of Christ. He said: "Through the Rosary the faithful receive abundant grace, as by the hands of the Mother of the Redeemer."  On 3 May 2008, Pope Benedict XVI stated that the Rosary was experiencing a new springtime: "It is one of the most eloquent signs of love that the young generation nourish for Jesus and his Mother." To Benedict XVI, the Rosary is a meditation on all the important moments of salvation history.  The Congregation for Divine Worship's directory of popular piety and the liturgy emphasizes the Christian meditation/meditative aspects of the rosary, and states that the Rosary is essentially a contemplative prayer which requires "tranquility of rhythm or even a mental lingering which encourages the faithful to meditate on the mysteries of the Lord's life." The Congregation for Divine Worship points out the role the Rosary can have as a formative component of spiritual life.  The theologian Romano Guardini described the Catholic emphasis on the Rosary as "participation in the life of Mary, whose focus was Christ." This opinion was expressed earlier by Leo XIII who considered the rosary as way to accompany Mary in her contemplation of Christ.

Devotional growth.

The Rosary has been featured in the writings of Catholic figures from saints to popes and continues to be mentioned in reported Marian apparitions, with a number of promises attributed to the power of the rosary.  According to Alan de la Roche, the Virgin Mary is reputed to have made 15 specific promises to Christians who pray the Rosary. The Fifteen rosary promises range from protection from misfortune to meriting a high degree of glory in heaven.  John T. McNicholas says that during the time of the Penal Laws in Ireland when Mass was either infrequent or impossible, the Rosary became a substitute within the home. During the 18th century, the French priest Louis de Montfort elaborated on the importance of the rosary and its power in his book "Secret of the Rosary." He emphasized the power of the rosary and provided specific instructions on how it should be prayed, e.g. with "attention," "devotion," and "modesty (reverence)," with reflective pauses.  One of the forces that encouraged the spread of the rosary during the 19th century among Catholics was the influence of the "Rosary Pope," a title given to Leo XIII (1878–1903) because he issued a record twelve encyclicals and five Apostolic Letters concerning the Rosary, instituted the Catholic custom of daily Rosary prayer during the month of October and, during 1883, added the invocation "Queen of the most Holy Rosary" to the Litany of Loreto.  Leo XIII explained the importance of the Rosary as the one road to God from the faithful to the mother and from her to Christ and through Christ to the Father, and that the Rosary was a vital means to participate with the life of Mary and to find the way to Christ. This emphasis on the path "through Mary to Christ" has since been a key direction in Catholic Mariology, with Mariology being viewed as inherent in Christology.  Rosary as a family prayer was endorsed by Pope Pius XII in his encyclical "Ingruentium malorum": "The custom of the family praying of the Holy Rosary is a most efficacious means."

Structure of prayers.

Basic structure.

The structure of the Rosary prayer, recited using the rosary beads, is as follows:  The Rosary is begun on the short strand: The praying of the decades then follows, repeating this cycle for each mystery:  To conclude:  Instead of ending each decade with the "Gloria Patri", Pope Pius IX would add "May the souls of the faithful departed through the mercy of God rest in peace." The Fatima Prayer is commonly said after the "Gloria Patri" as a pious addition, still on the large bead.

Variations and common pious additions.

Common pious additions to the Rosary occur after each decade and after recitation of the "Hail Holy Queen". Some Catholics recite the "Fatima Decade Prayer" at the end of each decade, preceding or following the "Glory Be". Some add the Miraculous Medal prayer "O Mary, conceived without sin..." or the Fatima Ave refrain ("Ave, Ave, Ave Maria! Ave, Ave, Ave Maria!"). Others add a praying of the pious Eucharistic prayer "O Sacrament Most Holy, O Sacrament Divine, All praise and all thanksgiving be every moment Thine" at the end of each decade in honor of Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament. In the practice of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, there is an additional decade for the intentions of the students or the Virgin Mary. After the Hail, Holy Queen, many Catholics add the prayer "O God, whose only begotten Son...", the prayer to Saint Michael, and a prayer for the intentions of the Pope. In some cases, the Litany of Loreto may be recited at the end.  In the practice of the Dominican Order, the beginning prayers of the rosary correspond to the beginning of the Divine Office:

Group recitation of the Rosary.

When a group recites the Rosary, it is customary that the prayers that constitute the decades are divided into two parts. The second part of the Our Father begins with "Give us this day our daily bread..."; the second part of the Hail Mary begins with "Holy Mary, Mother of God..."; and the second part of the Glory Be to the Father with "As it was in the beginning..." This lends itself to antiphonal prayer.  Sometimes a leader may recite the first half of the prayer while the other participants recite the rest. In another style of praying the Rosary, the recitation of the first part of the prayers is sometimes entrusted to different persons while still maintaining the traditional Leader versus Congregation style of praying.

Mysteries of the Rosary.

The Mysteries of the Rosary are meditations on episodes in the life and death of Jesus from the Annunciation to the Ascension and beyond. These are traditionally grouped by fives into themed sets known as the "Joyful" (or "Joyous") "Mysteries", the "Sorrowful Mysteries", and the "Glorious Mysteries".  Typically, a spiritual goal known as a "fruit" is also assigned to each mystery. Below are listed from the appendix of Louis Marie de Montfort's book "Secret of the Rosary" for the original 15 mysteries, with other possible fruits being listed in other pamphlets bracketed:  Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter "Rosarium Virginis Mariae" (October 2002), recommended an additional set called the "Luminous Mysteries" (or the "Mysteries of Light").  The original "Mysteries of Light" were written by George Preca, the only Maltese official Catholic Saint, and later reformed by the Pope.

Days of praying.

The full Rosary consists of praying all 15 mysteries, with the Joyful, Sorrowful and Glorious considered the minimal amount. Alternatively, a single set of five mysteries can be prayed each day, according to the following convention:

Rosary beads.

The rosary beads provide a physical method of keeping count of the number of Hail Marys said as the mysteries are contemplated. The fingers are moved along the beads as the prayers are recited. By not having to keep track of the count mentally, the mind is free to meditate on the mysteries. A five-decade rosary contains five groups of ten beads (a decade), with additional large beads before each decade. The Hail Mary is said on the ten beads within a decade, while the Lord's Prayer is said on the large bead before each decade. A new mystery meditation commences at each of the large beads. Some rosaries, particularly those used by religious orders, contain fifteen decades, corresponding to the traditional fifteen mysteries of the rosary. Both five- and fifteen-decade rosaries are attached to a shorter strand, which starts with a crucifix, followed by one large bead, three small beads, and one large bead, before connecting to the rest of the rosary. A five-decade rosary consists of a "total" of 59 beads.  Although counting the prayers on a string of beads is customary, the prayers of the Rosary do not require a set of beads, but can be said using any type of counting device, by counting on the fingers or by counting without any device at all.

Single-decade rosaries.

Single-decade rosaries can also be used: the devotee counts the same ring of ten beads repeatedly for every decade. During religious conflict in 16th- and 17th-century Ireland severe legal penalties were prescribed against practising Catholics. Small, easily hidden rosaries were thus used to avoid identification and became known as Irish penal rosaries. Sometimes rather than a cross, other symbols of specific meanings were used, such as a hammer to signify the nails of the cross, cords to represent the scourging, a chalice to recall the Last Supper, or a crowing rooster signifying the denial of Peter.

Materials and distribution.

The beads can be made from any materials, including wood, bone, glass, crushed flowers, semi-precious stones such as agate, jet, amber, or jasper, or precious materials including coral, crystal, silver, and gold. Beads may be made to include enclosed sacred relics or drops of holy water. Rosaries are sometimes made from the seeds of the "rosary pea" or "bead tree." Today, the vast majority of rosary beads are made of glass, plastic or wood. It is common for beads to be made of material with some special significance, such as jet from the shrine of St. James at Santiago de Compostela, or olive seeds from the Garden of Gethsemane. In rare cases beads are made of expensive materials, from gold and silver to mother of pearl and Swarovski black diamond designs. Early rosaries were strung on thread, often silk, but modern ones are more often made as a series of chain-linked beads. Catholic missionaries in Africa have reported that rosaries made of tree bark have been used there for praying due to the lack of conventional rosaries. Our Lady's Rosary Makers produce some 7 million rosaries annually that are distributed to those considered to be in economic and spiritual need.  Most rosaries used in the world today have simple and inexpensive plastic or wooden beads connected by cords or strings. The major cost is labor for assembly. A large number of inexpensive rosary beads are manufactured in Asia, especially in China. Italy has a strong manufacturing presence in medium- and high-cost rosaries.  Rosaries are often made for sale; hundreds of millions have also been made and distributed free of charge by Catholic lay and religious apostolates worldwide. There are a number of rosary-making clubs around the world that make and distribute rosaries to missions, hospitals, prisons, etc. free of charge. To comply with safety precautions in prisons, special rosaries are donated using string that easily breaks.

Wearing the rosary.

The Apostolate of Holy Motherhood writes that the Virgin Mary encourages the faithful to wear the rosary and scapular because "it will help them to love Jesus more" and serve as a "protection from Satan." In addition, Saint Louis-Marie Grignion de Montfort encouraged Christians to wear the rosary, stating that doing so "eased him considerably." Many religious orders wear the rosary as part of their habit. A rosary hanging from the belt often forms part of the Carthusian habit.  Canon Law §1171 provides that sacred objects, which are designated for divine worship by dedication or blessing, are to be treated reverently and are not to be employed for profane or inappropriate use even if they are owned by private persons. As such, according to Edward McNamara, professor of liturgy at the Regina Apostolorum University:  If the reason for wearing a rosary is as a statement of faith, as a reminder to pray it, or some similar reason "to the glory of God," then there is nothing to object to. It would not be respectful to wear it merely as jewelry. This latter point is something to bear in mind in the case of wearing a rosary around the neck. In the first place, while not unknown, it is not common Catholic practice....While a Catholic may wear a rosary around the neck for a good purpose, he or she should consider if the practice will be positively understood in the cultural context in which the person moves. If any misunderstanding is likely, then it would be better to avoid the practice....Similar reasoning is observed in dealing with rosary bracelets and rings, although in this case there is far less danger of confusion as to meaning. They are never mere jewelry but are worn as a sign of faith.  A rosary ring is a ring worn around the finger with 10 indentations and a cross on the surface, representing one decade of a rosary. These and other kinds of religious rings were especially popular during the 15th and the 16th centuries. These rosary rings have been given to some Catholic nuns at the time of their solemn profession. A finger rosary is similar to a ring, but is somewhat larger. Rosaries like these are used by either rotating or just holding them between a finger and thumb while praying. A hand rosary is a decade in a complete loop, with one bead separated from ten other beads, this is meant to be carried while walking or running, so as not to entangle the larger type.  In addition to a string of beads, single-decade rosaries are made in other physical forms. A ring rosary, also known as a "Basque rosary," is a finger ring with eleven knobs on it, ten round ones and one crucifix.  A rosary bracelet is one with ten beads and often a cross or medal. Another form is the rosary card. A rosary card is either one with a "handle" that moves like a slide rule to count the decade, or it has a whole rosary with bumps similar to Braille and ancient counting systems. Some households that cannot afford Christian artwork or a crucifix hang up a rosary. In addition, many Christians hang rosaries from the rear-view mirror of their automobiles as a sign of their faith and for protection as they drive.

Rosary and Scapular.

"The Rosary and the Scapular are inseparable" were words attributed to the Virgin Mary by Lucia Santos, one of the three children who reported the Marian apparitions of Our Lady of Fátima in 1917 and later the Pontevedra apparitions in 1925. In these apparitions, the Virgin Mary reportedly called herself "The Lady of the Rosary" and in one of the final Fátima appearances on 13 October 1917 had a Brown Scapular in one hand and a rosary in the other. "The Lady of the Rosary" reportedly encouraged the praying of the Rosary and the wearing of the Brown Scapular.  Throughout history, the Rosary and the Scapular as objects for devotions and prayers have been encouraged and associated by a number of popes, and specific indulgences have been attached to them.

Click To Pray eRosary.

In October 2019 the Vatican launched a US$109 "electronic rosary" with ten black agate and hematite beads, and a metal cross that detects movement. It is connected to the "Click to Pray eRosary" mobile telephone app, designed to help Catholic users pray for world peace and contemplate the gospel. The rosary can be worn as a bracelet; it is activated by making the sign of the cross. The app gives visual and audio explanations of the rosary..

Rosary based devotions.

The use of Novenas which include a rosary is popular among Catholics. As in other Novenas, the traditional method consists of praying the rosary on nine consecutive days, and submitting a petition along with each prayer. Indulgences are provided for rosary Novenas that include specific prayers, e.g. a prayer to Saint Catherine of Siena and Saint Dominic.  The longer "54-day Rosary Novena" consists of two parts, 27 days each, i.e. three repetitions of the 9-day Novena cycle. It is an uninterrupted series of Rosaries in honor of the Virgin Mary, reported as a private revelation by Fortuna Agrelli in Naples, Italy, in 1884. The Novena is performed by praying five decades of the Rosary each day for twenty-seven days in petition. The second phase which immediately follows it consists of five decades each day for twenty-seven days in thanksgiving, and is prayed whether or not the petition has been granted. During the novena, the meditations rotate among the joyful, sorrowful and glorious mysteries.  Rosary beads are at times used to say rosary-based prayers that do not primarily involve the Hail Mary and the mysteries of the Rosary. Some forms of the Catholic rosary are intended as reparation "including the sins of others". An example is the Rosary of the Holy Wounds first introduced at the beginning of the 20th century by the Venerable Sister Marie Martha Chambon, a Catholic nun of the "Monastery of the Visitation Order" in Chambéry, France. This rosary is somewhat similar in structure to the Chaplet of Divine Mercy introduced by Saint Faustina Kowalska said on the usual rosary beads and intended as an Act of Reparation to Jesus Christ for the sins of the world. These prayers often use rosary beads, but their words and format do not correspond to the Mysteries. Both Kowalska and Chambon attributed these prayers to visions of Jesus.

Recordings of the Rosary.

Recordings of the Rosary prayers are sometimes used by devotees to help with aspects of prayer such as pacing, memorization, and by providing inspirational meditations. Some of the more well known include:

In non-Catholic Christianity.

Many similar prayer practices exist in other Christian communities, each with its own set of prescribed prayers and its own form of prayer beads (known as the "Chotki"), such as the prayer rope in Eastern Orthodox Christianity. These other devotions and their associated beads are usually referred to as "chaplets." The rosary is sometimes used by other Christians, especially in Lutheranism, the Anglican Communion, and the Old Catholic Church.  Another example of Rosary-based prayers includes the non-denominational Ecumenical Miracle Rosary, "a set of prayers and meditations which covers key moments in the New Testament."

Anglicanism.

The use of the Catholic Rosary is fairly common among Anglicans of Anglo-Catholic churchmanship. Many Anglo-Catholic prayer books and manuals of devotion, such as Saint Augustine's Prayer Book contain the Catholic Rosary along with other Marian devotions. The public services of the Anglican churches, as contained in the Book of Common Prayer, do not directly invoke the Blessed Virgin or any other saint in prayer as the Thirty-Nine Articles reject the practice of praying to saints, but many Anglo-Catholics feel free to do so in their private devotions. Anglicans who pray the Catholic Rosary tend not to use the Luminous Mysteries or the Fátima decade prayer.  Anglican prayer beads, also known informally as the "Anglican rosary," are a recent innovation created in the 1980s. They consist of four "weeks" (the equivalent of a decade) of seven beads each. The weeks are separated from each other by single beads termed "cruciform beads." A variety of different prayers may be said, the most common being the Jesus Prayer.  Anglican Prayer Beads are not a Marian devotion, and there are no appointed meditations. Although it is sometimes called the "Anglican "rosary"," it is distinct from the Rosary of Our Lady as prayed by Catholics, Anglicans, and other Western Christians.

Lutheranism.

A small minority of Lutherans pray the Rosary. However, while using the Catholic format of the Rosary, each "Hail Mary" is replaced with the "Jesus Prayer." The only time the "Hail Mary" is said is at the end of the Mysteries on the medal, where it is then replaced with the "Pre-Trent" version of the prayer (which omits "Holy Mary, mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at the hour of our death"). The final "Hail Mary" can also be replaced by reciting of either the prayer "Magnificat," or Martin Luther's "Evangelical praise of the Mother of God." The Wreath of Christ is used in the Swedish Lutheran church.

Churches named for the Rosary.

Catholic Marian church buildings around the world named in honor of the rosary include: the Shrine of the Virgin of the Rosary of Pompei in Italy, "Our Lady of the Rosary Basilica" in the archdiocesan seat of Rosario province, Argentina; the Sanctuary of Our Lady of the Rosary of San Nicolás in the neighboring suffragan diocese of San Nicolás de los Arroyos, Our Lady of Pompeii in New York City, which is named for the Our Lady of the Rosary of Pompei, the "Rosary Basilica" in Lourdes, "Nossa Senhora do Rosário" in Porto Alegre, Brazil, The Chapel of the Virgin of the Rosary (1531–1690) in Puebla City, Mexico.

In Marian art.

Since the 17th century, the rosary began to appear as an element in key pieces of Catholic Marian art. Key examples include Murrillo's "Madonna with the Rosary" at the Museo del Prado in Spain and the statue of "Madonna with Rosary" at the church of San Nazaro Maggiore in Milan.

The Holy Rosary (;, in the sense of "crown of roses" or "garland of roses"), also known as the Dominican Rosary, or simply the Rosary, refers to a form of prayer psalter used in the Catholic Church and to the string of knots or beads used to count the component prayers. When referring to the prayer, the word is usually capitalized ("the Rosary", as is customary for other names of prayers, such as "the Lord's Prayer", and "the Hail Mary"); when referring to the beads, it is written with a lower-case initial letter ("a rosary bead").

Růženec ( "rosarium", „Zahrada růží“) je meditativní opakovací modlitba široce rozšířená mezi katolíky. Je považována za tradiční symbol římsko-katolické církve a významný prvek mariánské úcty.


History.

Development.

Known during development as Xbox Next, Xenon, Xbox 2, Xbox FS or NextBox, the Xbox 360 was conceived in early 2003. In February 2003, planning for the Xenon software platform began, and was headed by Microsoft's Vice President J Allard. That month, Microsoft held an event for 400 developers in Bellevue, Washington to recruit support for the system. Also that month, Peter Moore, former president of Sega of America, joined Microsoft. On August 12, 2003, ATI signed on to produce

Launch.

The Xbox 360 was released on November 22, 2005, in the United States and Canada; December 2, 2005, in Europe and December 10, 2005, in Japan. It was later launched

Critical reception.

In 2009, IGN named the Xbox 360 the sixth-greatest video game console of all time, out of a field of 25. Although not the best-selling console of the seventh-generation, the Xbox 360 was deemed by TechRadar to be the most influential, by emphasizing digital media distribution and online gaming through Xbox Live, and by popularizing game achievement awards. "PC Magazine" considered the Xbox 360 the prototype for online gaming as it "proved that online gaming communities could thrive in the console space". Five years after the Xbox 360's original debut, the well-received Kinect motion capture camera was released, which set

Sales.

The Xbox 360 began production only 69 days before launch, and Microsoft was not able to supply enough systems to meet initial consumer demand in Europe or North America, selling out completely upon release in all regions except in Japan. Forty thousand units were offered for sale on auction site eBay during the initial week of release, 10% of the total supply. By year's end, Microsoft had shipped 1.5 million units, including 900,000 in North America, 500,000 in Europe, and 100,000 in Japan. In May 2008 Microsoft announced that 10 million Xbox 360s had been sold and that it was the "first current generation gaming console" to surpass the 10 million figure in the US. In the US, the Xbox 360 was the leader in current-generation

Legacy.

The Xbox 360 sold much better than its predecessor, and although not the best-selling console of the seventh generation, it is regarded as a success since it strengthened Microsoft as a major force in the console market at the expense of well-established rivals. The inexpensive Nintendo Wii did sell the most console units but eventually saw a collapse of third-party software support in its later years, and it has been viewed by some as a fad since the succeeding Wii U had a poor

Hardware.

The main unit of the Xbox 360 itself has slight double concavity in matte white or black. The official color of the white model is Arctic Chill. It features a port on the top when vertical (left side when horizontal) to which a custom-housed hard disk drive unit can be attached.  On the Slim and E models, the hard drive bay is on the bottom when vertical (right side when horizontal) and requires the opening of a concealed door to access it. (This does not void the warranty.) The Xbox 360 Slim/E hard drives are standard 2.5" SATA laptop drives, but have a custom enclosure and firmware so that the Xbox 360 can recognize it.

Technical specifications.

Various hard disk drives have been produced, including options at 20, 60, 120, 250, 320, or 500 GB. Inside, the Xbox 360 uses the triple-core IBM designed Xenon as its

Accessories.

Many accessories are available for the console, including both wired and wireless controllers, faceplates for customization, headsets for chatting, a webcam for video chatting, dance mats and Gamercize for exercise, three sizes of memory units and five sizes of hard drives (20, 60, 120, 250 (initially Japan only, but later also available elsewhere) and 320 GB), among other items, all of which are styled to match the console.  In 2006, Microsoft released the Xbox 360 HD DVD Player. The accessory was discontinued in 2008 after the format war had ended in Blu-ray's favor.

Kinect.

Kinect is a "controller-free gaming and entertainment experience" for the Xbox 360. It was first announced on June 1, 2009 at the Electronic Entertainment Expo, under the codename, "Project Natal". The add-on peripheral enables users to control and interact with the Xbox 360 without a game controller by using gestures, spoken commands and presented objects and images. The Kinect accessory is compatible with all Xbox 360 models, connecting to new models via a custom connector, and to older ones via a USB and mains power adapter. During their CES 2010 keynote speech, Robbie Bach and Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer went on to say that Kinect will be released during the holiday period (November–January) and work with every 360 console. It was released on November 4, 2010

AV output.

Built-in Through AV connector (excluding

Retail configurations.

At launch, the Xbox 360 was available in two configurations: the "Xbox 360" package (unofficially known as the 20 GB Pro or Premium), priced at US$399 or GB£279.99, and the "Xbox 360 Core", priced at US$299 and GB£209.99. The original shipment of the Xbox 360 version included a cut-down version of the Media Remote as a promotion. The Elite package was launched later at US$479. The "Xbox 360 Core" was replaced by the "Xbox 360 Arcade" in October 2007 and a 60 GB version of the Xbox 360 Pro was released on August 1, 2008. The Pro package was discontinued and marked

United States.

November 22, 2005  April 29, 2007  August 6, 2007  October 27, 2007 July 13, 2008  August 1, 2008  September 5, 2008  August 28, 2009 June 19, 2010  August 3, 2010  June 10, 2013  April 20, 2016

Technical problems.

The original model of the Xbox 360 has been subject to a number of technical problems. Since the console's release in 2005, users have reported concerns over its reliability and failure rate.  To aid customers with defective consoles, Microsoft extended the Xbox 360's manufacturer's warranty to three years for hardware failure problems that generate a "General Hardware Failure" error report. A "General Hardware Failure" is recognized on all models released before the Xbox 360 S by three quadrants of the ring around the power button flashing red. This error is often known as the "Red Ring of Death". In April 2009 the warranty was extended to also cover failures related to the E74 error code. The warranty extension is not granted for any other types of

Software.

Games.

The Xbox 360 launched with 14 games in North America and 13 in Europe. The console's best-selling game for 2005, "Call of Duty 2", sold over a million copies. Five other games sold over a million copies in the console's first year on the market: "Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter", "", "Dead or Alive 4", "Saints Row", and "Gears of War". "Gears of War" would become the best-selling game on the console with 3 million copies in 2006, before being surpassed in 2007 by "Halo 3" with over 8 million copies.  Six

Interface.

The Xbox 360's original graphical user interface was the "Xbox 360 Dashboard"; a tabbed interface that featured five "Blades" (formerly four blades), and was designed by AKQA and Audiobrain. It could be launched automatically when the console booted without a disc in it, or when the disc tray was ejected, but the user had the option to select what the console does if a game is in the tray on start up, or if inserted when already on. A simplified version of it was also accessible at any time via the Xbox Guide button on

New Xbox Experience.

At E3 2008, at Microsoft's Show, Microsoft's Aaron Greenberg and Marc Whitten announced the new Xbox 360 interface called the "New Xbox Experience" (NXE). The update was intended to ease console menu navigation. Its GUI uses the Twist UI, previously used in Windows Media Center and the Zune. Its new Xbox Guide retains all Dashboard functionality (including the Marketplace browser and disk ejection) and the original "Blade" interface (although the color scheme has been changed to match that of the NXE Dashboard).  The NXE also provides many new features. Users can now install games from disc to the hard drive to

Multimedia.

The Xbox 360 supports videos in Windows Media Video (WMV) format (including high-definition and PlaysForSure videos), as well as H.264 and MPEG-4 media. The December 2007 dashboard update added support for the playback of MPEG-4 ASP format videos. The console can also display pictures and perform slideshows of photo collections with various transition effects, and supports audio playback, with music player controls accessible through the Xbox 360 Guide button. Users may play back their own music while playing games or using the dashboard, and can play music with an interactive visual synthesizer.  Music, photos and videos can be played from standard USB mass storage devices, Xbox 360 proprietary storage devices (such as memory cards or Xbox 360 hard drives), and servers or computers with Windows Media Center or Windows XP with Service pack 2 or higher within the local-area network in streaming mode. As the Xbox 360 uses a modified version of the UPnP AV protocol, some alternative UPnP servers such as uShare (part of the GeeXboX project) and MythTV can also stream media to the Xbox 360, allowing for similar functionality from non-Windows

XNA community.

XNA Community is a feature whereby Xbox 360 owners can receive community-created games, made with Microsoft XNA Game Studio, from the XNA Creators Club. The games are written, published, and

Services.

Xbox Live.

When the Xbox 360 was released, Microsoft's online gaming service Xbox Live was shut down for 24 hours and underwent a major upgrade, adding a basic non-subscription service called Xbox Live Silver (later renamed Xbox Live Free) to its already established premium subscription-based service (which was renamed Gold). Xbox Live Free is included with all SKUs of the console. It allows users to create a user profile, join on message boards, and access Microsoft's Xbox Live Arcade and Marketplace and talk to other members. A Live Free account does not generally support multiplayer gaming; however, some games that have rather limited online functions already, (such as "Viva Piñata") or games that feature

Xbox Live Marketplace.

The Xbox Live Marketplace is a virtual market designed for the console that allows Xbox Live users to download purchased or promotional content. The service offers movie and game trailers, game demos, Xbox Live Arcade games and Xbox 360 Dashboard themes as well as add-on game content (items, costumes, levels etc.). These features are available to both Free and Gold members on Xbox Live. A hard drive or memory unit is

Xbox Live Arcade.

Xbox Live Arcade is an online service operated by Microsoft that is used to distribute downloadable video games to Xbox and Xbox 360 owners. In addition to classic arcade games such as "Ms. Pac-Man", the service offers some new original games like "Assault Heroes". The Xbox Live Arcade also features games from other consoles, such as the PlayStation game "" and PC games such as "Zuma". The service was first launched on November 3, 2004, using

Movies & TV.

On November 6, 2006, Microsoft announced the Xbox Video Marketplace, an exclusive video store accessible through the console. Launched in the United States on November 22, 2006, the first anniversary of the Xbox 360's launch, the service allows users in the United States to download high-definition and standard-definition television shows and movies onto an Xbox 360 console for viewing. With the exception of short clips, content is not currently available for streaming, and must be downloaded. Movies are also available for rental. They expire in 14 days after download or at the end of the first 24 hours after the movie has begun playing, whichever comes first. Television episodes can be purchased to own, and are transferable to an unlimited number of consoles. Downloaded files use 5.1 surround audio and are encoded using VC-1 for video at 720p, with a bitrate of 6.8 Mbit/s. Television content is offered from MTV, VH1, Comedy Central, Turner Broadcasting, and CBS; and movie content is Warner Bros., Paramount, and Disney, along with other publishers.  After the Spring

Groove Music.

Xbox Music provides 30 million music tracks available for purchase or access through subscription. It was announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo

Xbox SmartGlass.

Xbox SmartGlass allows for integration between the Xbox 360 console and mobile devices such as tablets and smartphones. An app is available on Android, Windows Phone 8 and iOS. Users of the feature

Game development.

PartnerNet, the developers-only alternative Xbox Live network used by developers to beta test game content developed for Xbox Live Arcade, runs on Xbox 360 debug kits, which are used both by developers and by the gaming press. In a podcast released on February 12, 2007, a developer breached the PartnerNet non-disclosure agreement (NDA) by commenting that he had found a playable version of "Alien Hominid" and an unplayable version of "Ikaruga" on PartnerNet. A few video game journalists, misconstruing the breach of the NDA as an invalidation of the NDA, immediately began reporting on other games being tested via PartnerNet, including a remake of "Jetpac". ("Alien Hominid" for the Xbox 360 was released on February 28 of that year, and "Ikaruga" was released over a year later on April 9, 2008. "Jetpac" was released for the Xbox 360 on March 28, 2007 as "Jetpac Refuelled".) There have also been numerous video and screenshot leaks of game footage on PartnerNet, as well as a complete version of "", which caused for the whole PartnerNet service to be shut down overnight on April 3, 2010. In the following days, Microsoft reminded developers and journalists that they were in breach of NDA by sharing information about PartnerNet content and asked websites to remove lists of games in development that were discovered on the service. Sega used feedback from fans about the leaked version of Sonic the Hedgehog 4: Episode I to refine it before they eventually released it. Additionally, a pair of hackers played their modded Halo 3 games on PartnerNet in addition to using PartnerNet to find unreleased and untested software. The hackers passed this information along to their friends before they were eventually caught by Bungie. Consequently, Bungie left a message for the hackers on PartnerNet which read "Winners Don't Break Into PartnerNet." Other games that were leaked in the PartnerNet fiasco include Shenmue and Shenmue 2.

The Xbox 360 is a home video game console developed by Microsoft. As the successor to the original Xbox, it is the second console in the Xbox series. It competed with Sony's PlayStation 3 and Nintendo's Wii as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles. It was officially unveiled on MTV on May 12, 2005, with detailed launch and game information announced later that month at the 2005 Electronic Entertainment Expo.

Xbox 360 je videoherní konzole, kterou vyvinula společnost Microsoft. Jde o nástupce původního Xboxu, tudíž jde o druhou konzoli z rodiny Xbox. Jako součást sedmé generace videoherních konzolí soutěží na trhu s PlayStation 3 od Sony a Wii od Nintenda. Xbox 360 byl oficiálně odhalen na stanici MTV 12. května 2005, přičemž detailní informace o uvedení konzole na trh a hrách byly zveřejněny později téhož měsíce na výstavě Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3).


Design and development.

Origins.

At the beginning of World War I, the production lines of the Barcelona based Hispano-Suiza automobile and engine company were switched to the production of war materiel. Chief engineer Marc Birkigt led work on an aircraft engine based on his successful V8 automobile engine. The resulting engine, called the Hispano-Suiza 8A (HS-31), made its first appearance in February 1915.  The first 8A kept the standard configuration of Birkigt's existing design: eight cylinders in 90° Vee configuration, a displacement of 11.76 litres (717.8 cu in) and a power output of 140 hp at 1,900 rpm. In spite of the similarities with the original design, the engine had been substantially refined. The crankshaft was machined from a solid piece of steel. The cylinder blocks were cast aluminium and of monobloc type that is, in one piece with the SOHC cylinder heads. The inlet and exhaust ports were cast into the blocks, the valve seats were in the top face of the steel cylinder liners, which were screwed into the blocks. Using a rotating bevel gear-driven tower shaft coming up from the crankcase along the rear end of each cylinder bank, with the final drive for each cylinder bank's camshaft accommodated within a semicircular bulge at the rear end of each valve cover. Aluminium parts were coated in vitreous enamel to reduce leakage. All parts subject to wear, and those critical for engine ignition were duplicated: spark plugs for dual ignition reliability, valve springs, magnetos, etc.  Engine reliability and power to weight ratios were major problems in early aviation. The engine and its accessories weighed, making it 40% lighter than a rotary engine of equivalent power. This empty weight does not include the radiator and coolant fluid. Generally, air-cooled engines are lighter than their equivalent horsepower water-cooled counterparts. For example, the Bentley BR.2 rotary put out and weighed, Clerget 9B rotary,. The new engine was presented to the French Ministry of War in February 1915, and tested for 15 hours at full power. This was standard procedure for a new engine design to be admitted into military service. However, because of lobbying by French engine manufacturers, the Spanish-made engine was ordered to undergo a bench test that no French-made engine had yet passed: a 50-hour run at full speed. The HS-31 was therefore sent back to Chalais-Meudon on July 21, 1915, and tested for 50 hours, succeeding against all expectations. The design also promised far more development-potential than rotary engines. This was despite being the most common type, then in use, for most aircraft. Also, rotary engines were getting close to the limits of their development at this time. Rotary engines of increased power generally had increased weight, which in turn increased the already serious gyroscopic torque generated by the engine's rotation. A further increase in torque was considered unacceptable, and the power to weight ratio of the new rotary engines under development did not appeal to aircraft designers.  French officials ordered production of the 8A to be started as soon as possible and issued a requirement for a new single-seat high-performance fighter aircraft using the new engine. The Louis Béchereau-designed SPAD VII was the result of this requirement and allowed the Allies to regain air superiority over the Germans.

Variants.

"Some data from:" British Piston Engines and their Aircraft  "Note:" Hispano-Suiza company type numbers were prefixed by HS- or written in full as Hispano-Suiza Type 31, but military designations used the conventional system of Hispano-Suiza(engine manufacturer) 8(no of cylinders) A(engine series) b(variant) r(attribute), thus Hispano-Suiza 8Abr.  The 8B series was used to power the earliest versions of the S.E.5a, all examples of the SPAD S.XIII, front-line versions of the Sopwith Dolphin and several other Allied aircraft types, with its gear reduction easily identifiable in vintage World War I photos, from its use of a clockwise (viewed from in front, otherwise known as a left hand tractor) rotation propeller.  Note: The designations 8C, 8Ca, and 8Cb are probably contractions of the real STAe designation which would be similar to 8BeC or 8BeCa. Cannon-equipped 8s were given the company designation HS-38

The Hispano-Suiza 8 was a water-cooled V8 SOHC aero engine introduced by Hispano-Suiza in 1914, and was the most commonly used liquid-cooled engine in the aircraft of the Entente Powers during the First World War. The original Hispano-Suiza 8A was rated at and the later, larger displacement Hispano-Suiza 8F reached.

Označení Hispano-Suiza 8 zahrnuje několik typových řad čtyřdobých zážehových vodou chlazených vidlicových osmiválců, leteckých motorů vyráběných firmou Hispano-Suiza od roku 1914 a používaný v mnoha typech letadel Dohody během první světové války. Konstruktérem úspěšné řady motorů byl Švýcar Marc Birkigt.


Surname.

Reymont's baptism certificate gives his birth name as Stanisław Władysław Rejment. The change of surname from "Rejment" to "Reymont" was made by the author himself during his publishing debut, as it was supposed to protect him, in the Russian sector of partitioned Poland, from any potential trouble for having already published in Austrian Galicia a work not allowed under the Tsar's censorship. Kazimierz Wyka, an enthusiast of Reymont's work, believes that the alteration could also have been intended to remove any association with the word "rejmentować", which in some local Polish dialects means "to swear".

Life.

Reymont was born in the village of Kobiele Wielkie, near Radomsko, as one of the nine children of Józef Rejment, an organist. His mother, Antonina Kupczyńska, had a talent for story-telling. She descended from the impoverished Polish nobility from the Kraków region. Reymont spent his childhood in Tuszyn, near Łódź, to which his father had moved to work at a richer church parish. Reymont was defiantly stubborn; after a few years of education in the local school, he was sent by his father to Warsaw into the care of his eldest sister and her husband to teach him his vocation. In 1885, after passing his examinations and presenting "a tail-coat, well-made", he was given the title of journeyman tailor, his only formal certificate of education.  To his family's annoyance, Reymont did not work a single day as a tailor. Instead, he first ran away to work in a travelling provincial theatre and then returned in the summer to Warsaw for the "garden theatres". Without a penny to his name, he then returned to Tuszyn after a year, and, thanks to his father's connections, he took up employment as a gateman at a railway crossing near Koluszki for 16 rubles a month. He ran away twice more: in 1888 to Paris and London as a medium with a German spiritualist and then again to join a theatre troupe. After his lack of success (he was not a talented actor), he returned home again. Reymont also stayed for a time in Krosnowa near Lipce and for a time considered joining the Pauline Order in Częstochowa. He also lived in Kołaczkowo, where he bought a mansion.

Work.

When his "Korespondencje" ("Correspondence") from Rogów, Koluszki and Skierniewice was accepted for publication by "Głos" ("The Voice") in Warsaw in 1892, he returned to Warsaw once more, clutching a group of unpublished short stories along with a few rubles in his pocket. Reymont then visited the editorial offices of various newspapers and magazines, and eventually met other writers who became interested in his talent including Mr. Świętochowski. In 1894 he went on an eleven-day pilgrimage to Częstochowa and turned his experience there into a report entitled "Pielgrzymka do Jasnej Góry" (Pilgrimage to the Luminous Mount) published in 1895, and considered his classic example of travel writing.  Rejmont proceeded to send his short stories to different magazines, and, encouraged by good reviews, decided to write novels: "Komediantka" ("The Deceiver") (1895) and "Fermenty" ("Ferments") (1896). No longer poor, he would soon satisfy his passion for travel, visiting Berlin, London, Paris, and Italy. Then, he spent a few months in Łódź collecting material for a new novel ordered by the "Kurier Codzienny" ("The Daily Courier") from Warsaw. The earnings from this book "Ziemia Obiecana" ("The Promised Land") (1899) enabled him to go on his next trip to France where he socialized with other exiled Poles (Jan Lorentowicz, Żeromski, Przybyszewski and Lucjan Rydel).  His earnings did not allow for this kind of life of travel. However, in 1900 he was awarded 40,000 rubles in compensation from the Warsaw-Vienna Railway after an accident in which Reymont as a passenger was severely injured. During the treatment he was looked after by Aurelia Szacnajder Szabłowska, whom he married in 1902, having first paid for the annulment of her earlier marriage. Thanks to her discipline, he marginally restrained his travel-mania, but never gave up either his stays in France (where he partly wrote "Chłopi" between 1901 and 1908) or in Zakopane. Rejmont also journeyed to the United States in 1919 at the (Polish) government's expense. Despite his ambitions to become a landowner, which led to an unsuccessful attempt to manage an estate he bought in 1912 near Sieradz, the life of the land proved not to be for him. He would later buy a mansion in Kołaczkowo near Poznań in 1920, but still spent his winters in Warsaw or France.

Nobel Prize.

In November 1924 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature over rivals Thomas Mann, George Bernard Shaw and Thomas Hardy, after he had been nominated by Anders Österling, member of the Swedish Academy. Public opinion in Poland supported the Nobel for Stefan Żeromski, but the prize went to the author of "Chłopi". Żeromski was reportedly refused for his allegedly anti-German sentiments. However, Reymont could not take part in the award ceremony in Sweden due to a heart illness. The award and the check for 116,718 Swedish kronor were sent to Reymont in France, where he was being treated.  In 1925, somewhat recovered, he went to a farmers' meeting in Wierzchosławice near Kraków, where Wincenty Witos welcomed him as a member of PSL "Piast" (the Polish People's Party) and praised his writing skills. Soon after that event, Reymont's health deteriorated. He died in Warsaw in December 1925 and was buried in the Powązki Cemetery. The urn holding his heart was laid in a pillar of the Holy Cross Church in Warsaw.  Reymont's literary output includes about 30 extensive volumes of prose. There are works of reportage: "Pielgrzymka do Jasnej Góry" ("Pilgrimage to Jasna Góra") (1894), "Z ziemi chełmskiej" ("From the Chełm Lands") (1910 – about the persecutions of the Uniates), "Z konstytucyjnych dni" ("From the Days of the Constitution") (about the revolution of 1905) and some sketches from the collection "Za frontem" ("Beyond the Front") (1919). There are numerous short stories on life in the theatre, village life or work on the railway: "Śmierć" ("Death") (1893), "Suka" ("Bitch") (1894), "Przy robocie" ("At Work") and "W porębie" ("In the Clearing") (1895), "Tomek Baran" (1897), "Sprawiedliwie" ("Justly") (1899) and a sketch for a novel "Marzyciel" ("Dreamer") (1908). Then there are the novels: "Komediantka", "Fermenty", "Ziemia obiecana", "Chłopi", "Wampir" ("The Vampire") (1911), which was sceptically received by the critics, and a trilogy written in the years 1911–1917: "Rok 1794" ("1794") ("Ostatni Sejm Rzeczypospolitej", "Nil desperandum" and "Insurekcja") ("The Last Parliament of the Commonwealth", "Nil desperandum" and "Insurrection").

Major books.

Critics admit a number of similarities between Reymont and the Naturalists. They stress that this was not a "borrowed" Naturalism but rather a record of life as experienced by the writer. Moreover, Reymont never formulated an aesthetic of his writing. In that, he resembled other Polish autodidacts such as Mikołaj Rej and Aleksander Fredro. With little higher education and inability to read another language, Reymont realized that it was his knowledge of grounded reality, not literary theory, that was his strong suit.  His novel "Komediantka" paints the drama of a rebellious girl from the provinces who joins a traveling theater troupe and finds, instead of escape from the mendacity of her native surroundings, a nest of intrigue and sham. In "Fermenty", a sequel to "Komediantka", the heroine, rescued after a suicide attempt, returns to her family and accepts the burden of existence. Aware that dreams and ideas do not come true, she marries a "nouveau riche" who is in love with her.  "Ziemia Obiecana" ("The Promised Land"), possibly Reymont's best-known novel, is a social panorama of the city of Łódź during the industrial revolution, full of dramatic detail, presented as an arena of the struggle for survival. In the novel, the city destroys those who accept the rules of the "rat race", as well as those who do not. The moral gangrene affects equally the three main characters, a German, a Jew, and a Pole. This dark vision of cynicism, illustrating the bestial qualities of men and the law of the jungle, where ethics, noble ideas and holy feelings turn against those who believe in them, are, as the author intended, at the same time a denunciation of industrialisation and urbanisation.  "Ziemia Obiecana" has been translated into at least 15 languages and two film adaptations—one in 1927, directed by A. Węgierski and A. Hertz, the other, in 1975, directed by Andrzej Wajda.  In "Chłopi", Reymont created a more complete and suggestive picture of country life than any other Polish writer. The novel impresses the reader with its authenticity of the material reality, customs, behaviour and spiritual culture of the people. It is authentic and written in the local dialect. Reymont uses dialect in dialogues and in narration, creating a kind of a universal language of Polish peasants. Thanks to this, he presents the colourful reality of the "spoken" culture of the people better than any other author. He set the action in Lipce, a real village which he came to know during his work on the railway near Skierniewice, and restricted the time of events to ten months in the unspecified "now" of the 19th century. It is not history that determines the rhythm of country life, but the "unspecified time" of eternal returns. The composition of the novel astonishes the reader with its strict simplicity and functionality.  The titles of the volumes signal a tetralogy in one vegetational cycle, which regulates the eternal and repeatable rhythm of village life. Parallel to that rhythm is a calendar of religion and customs, also repeatable. In such boundaries Reymont placed a colourful country community with sharply drawn individual portraits. The repertoire of human experience and the richness of spiritual life, which can be compared with the repertoire of Biblical books and Greek myths, has no doctrinal ideas or didactic exemplifications. The author does not believe in doctrines, but rather in his knowledge of life, the mentality of the people described, and his sense of reality. It is easy to point to moments of Naturalism (e.g., some erotic elements) or to illustrative motives characteristic of Symbolism. It is equally easy to prove the Realistic values of the novel. None of the "isms" however, would be enough to describe it. The novel was filmed twice (directed by E. Modzelewski in 1922 and by J. Rybkowski in 1973) and has been translated into at least 27 languages.

"Revolt".

Reymont's last book, "Bunt" ("Revolt"), serialized 1922 and published in book form in 1924, describes a revolt by animals which take over their farm in order to introduce "equality". The revolt quickly degenerates into abuse and bloody terror.  The story was a metaphor for the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and was banned from 1945 to 1989 in communist Poland, along with George Orwell's similar novella, "Animal Farm" (published in Britain in 1945). It is unknown whether Orwell knew of Reymont's "Revolt" of over two decades earlier. Reymont's novel was reprinted in Poland in 2004.

Władysław Reymont (, born Rejment; 7 May 1867 – 5 December 1925) was a Polish novelist and the 1924 laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature. His best-known work is the award-winning four-volume novel "Chłopi" ("The Peasants").

Władysław Stanisław Reymont [vuadysuav staňisuav rejmont] (7. května 1867, Kobielo Wielkie u Radomi – 5. prosince 1925, Varšava) byl polský prozaik, člen hnutí "Mladé Polsko", nositel Nobelovy ceny za literaturu za rok 1924.


History.

Early years (1993–1995).

Papa Roach's formation began in January 1993, when lead singer Jacoby Shaddix and drummer Dave Buckner met on the Vacaville High School football field. They were later joined by lead guitarist Jerry Horton from nearby Vanden High School, trombonist Ben Luther and bassist Will James. They decided to enter the school's talent show, performing a version of Jimi Hendrix's song "Fire". They ultimately ended up losing the talent show. In March 1993, Ben Luther left the band. At this point, Papa Roach was practicing every day and touring, playing every gig they could get. Their first tour van was called Moby Dick, where Shaddix was inspired to come up with his first stage name "Coby Dick". The band chose the name Papa Roach from the nickname of Shaddix's step-grandfather, Howard William Roatch. In 1994, Papa Roach released their first EP titled "Potatoes for Christmas". Drummer Dave Buckner was temporarily replaced by Ryan Brown, as Buckner was spending the year in Seattle studying art. In 1995, they released a demo at Sound Farm Studios titled "Caca Bonita". By this time Buckner was back. In 1996, they replaced original bassist Will James with longtime roadie Tobin Esperance, as James' involvement in a church summer camp would limit the band's summer practicing and touring.

"Old Friends from Young Years" and record deal (1996–1999).

On February 4, 1997, the band produced their debut studio album, entitled "Old Friends from Young Years". Still touring heavily, they supported bands such as Incubus, Powerman 5000, Hed PE, Snot, Far, and Static-X.  In 1998, they released an EP titled "5 Tracks Deep". It sold more than 1,000 copies in its first month of release. In 1999, they produced another EP, which would end up being their last independent release, titled "Let 'Em Know". Its success caught the attention of Warner Music Group, who as part of a development deal provided a small amount of money for the production of a five-track promo-demo CD. The band decided they wanted influential rock producer Jay Baumgardner on board to produce the record. In an interview with HitQuarters, Baumgardner said, “At first I wasn’t really convinced it would work out, but then I saw a video of them performing at a club - I saw all these kids going wild, knowing the songs by heart - and that’s when I realized that they definitely had potential.”  Warner Bros. was not impressed with the demo, and elected not to sign them. The unreleased disc included the songs "Infest", "Last Resort", "Broken Home", "Dead Cell", and "She Loves Me Not".  Soon after, DreamWorks Records offered the band a recording contract.

Mainstream success, "Infest, Lovehatetragedy" and "Getting Away With Murder" (2000–2005).

After signing with DreamWorks Records in October 1999, they immediately entered the studio to record their major-label debut album titled "Infest". The album included old songs from their independent releases, these being "Infest", "Last Resort", "Broken Home", "Dead Cell" from the Warner Bros. demo CD; "Revenge In Japanese" as "Revenge" and "Thrown Away" from their "5 Tracks Deep" EP; "Legacy", "Binge", "Snakes", and a softer version of the originally heavier "Tightrope" from the "Let 'Em Know" EP; which were re-recorded, and three additional newly written songs: "Obsession" (later known as "Between Angels and Insects"), "Blood Brothers", and "Never Enough". "Infest" was released on April 25, 2000, and sold 30,001 copies in its first week of release.  With their second album released, and the music video for "Last Resort" recorded, they embarked on the Vans Warped Tour and numerous other large tours, including the Anger Management Tour with Limp Bizkit and rap acts such as Eminem, E-40, Xzibit, and Ludacris. They embarked on their headlining "Master Bay" tour in 2000, with support from Linkin Park and Hed PE. The band was nominated for "Best New Artist in a Video" at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards for "Last Resort".  In late 2000, they toured the United Kingdom, highlighting how quickly their popularity had spread worldwide. In 2001, the band toured Ozzfest, where they performed on the prestigious main stage, on both the United States and United Kingdom tours. The song "Blood Brothers" was also featured on the popular video game "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2".  After touring worldwide, the band returned to the studio to record their third album which was to be titled "Born to Rock", but was later renamed to "Lovehatetragedy". The album was released in the United States on June 18, 2002, and though it did not outsell "Infest", it managed to chart higher in both the United States and United Kingdom album charts. The album has sold over 500,000 copies and has been certified gold. The album features a bigger focus on singing over rapping, though the band retained their nu metal sound. The album had two singles which were She Loves Me Not and Time and Time Again, both had rapping and both had the rap metal sound of "Infest". The music video for the single "Time and Time Again" was featured on the Pepsi Blue commercial. In 2002, Papa Roach also embark on some tours including the second Anger Management Tour in 2002. The tour from Lovehatetragedy was from 2002 to early of 2003.  In late 2003, Papa Roach wrote and recorded their third album with the working title "Dancing In the Ashes", but released as "Getting Away with Murder". The band worked with well-recognized producer Howard Benson. After completion, the band filmed a music video for the title track, "Getting Away with Murder", and went on a small summer club tour to warm-up for the tours that would follow. The album introduced a different approach for the band, becoming their first album not to feature the nu metal style of their previous albums. It was also the band's first album not to feature rapping. "Getting Away with Murder" outsold "Lovehatetragedy", mainly due to the popularity of the album's second single, "Scars". To date, the album has sold over one million copies and has been certified Platinum. On November 9, 2004, the band released their fifth EP, "Rolling Stone Original", an EP only available digitally. On November 22, 2005 they released their first live album, "".  In 2005, the band spent much of their time on tour. This included a full United States and European tour alongside bands such as Dead Poetic, Trust Company, Chronic Future, Skindred, 311 and Unwritten Law.

"The Paramour Sessions" and Buckner's departure (2006–2008).

On September 12, 2006 Papa Roach released their fourth album "The Paramour Sessions". The band named the title after the recording location, the Paramour Mansion. The band came up with the idea of doing an album in a mansion while they were recording "Getting Away with Murder", Shaddix stated that recording in a manor was becoming popular for the unique sound and feeling it generates (which is reflected on the lyrics). "...To Be Loved" was the first single to be released from the album, and was the official theme song for "WWE Raw" from 2006 to 2009 until it was replaced by "Burn It to the Ground" by Nickelback. The album continued in an alternative rock-based direction but still contained softer ballads akin to "Getting Away with Murder". The album debuted at No. 16 on the Billboard 200 Charts.  The band started touring in support of the album in August 2006, with an American tour followed by another in Europe. In October 2006, Papa Roach toured with bands such as Guns N' Roses, during their Chinese Democracy tour, and Deftones throughout the United States, having major success. They were also the special guest band during the Zippo Hot Tour with Hed PE and Stealing December.  On October 10, 2006 a String Quartet tribute album entitled "Perfect Murder: Strung Out on Papa Roach" was released by Vitamin Records.  The band originally planned to release a compilation of acoustic recordings for their songs, such as "Forever", "Scars", and "Not Coming Home", which was recorded for KROQ-FM's charity Christmas album, "Kevin and Bean's Super Christmas". The acoustic compilation was later shelved. In an interview with billboard.com, Shaddix stated that he didn't think fans were ready for an acoustic direction from the band.  On April 25, 2007, it was announced that drummer Dave Buckner would be sitting out the band's touring schedule due to personal matters. He was expected to rejoin the group shortly afterwards. Shaddix later confirmed in an interview with Launch Radio Networks that Dave had entered rehab to "go clean his act up 'cause he was out of his mind." Unwritten Law drummer Tony Palermo filled in on drums.  In the summer of 2007 the band went on the Bad Boys of Rock tour, supporting Hinder. During the tour frontman Shaddix and Hinder lead singer Austin John created a very tight friendship, causing the band to tour with Hinder on multiple tours in later years. It was revealed in 2015 that Shaddix and Austin wrote and recorded a song together for a part of Austin John's solo project, although the two said they were not for sure if the song would ever see the light of day.  On January 28, 2008 Shaddix announced on Papa Roach's MySpace that Buckner would officially be parting ways with Papa Roach for good. He stated that Dave was still trying to get his life back together. Shaddix also mentioned that the band would be going back to the Paramour Mansion to begin work on their fifth studio album.  On July 17, the band released their sixth EP, "Live Session (iTunes Exclusive)". On July 24, they released their seventh EP, "". Both EPs are available exclusively through iTunes.

"Metamorphosis" and tours (2008–2010).

In an interview in February 2008 with 99.7 The Blitz, Shaddix stated that the band was working on their next album, which was to be titled "Days of War, Nights of Love". However, the album was renamed to "Metamorphosis" to mark the band's tenth anniversary of signing with DreamWorks Records in 1999 and all of the changes the band had experienced in that time.  On April 15, Papa Roach announced they would be touring as part of Mötley Crüe's "Crüe Fest", along with Buckcherry,, and Trapt. The tour began on July 1 in West Palm Beach, Florida. The release date for the album was confirmed as August 26 during "Crüe Fest".  The band also went on tour with Seether, Staind, and Red later in the year. They changed the release date of "Metamorphosis" to March 24, 2009 during that tour.  On October 26, Papa Roach released the music video for the song, "Hollywood Whore", which was released as an EP in Canada and as a digital single on October 28. The album's first official single, "Lifeline", was released on the band's MySpace profile on January 9, 2009. The band also went on tour with Buckcherry, Avenged Sevenfold, and Burn Halo in early 2009. The "Crüe Fest" DVD was released on March 24, the same day "Metamorphosis" was released. The second single, "I Almost Told You That I Loved You", was released on June 1. On June 23, they released their ninth EP, "". The EP is available through the Zune Marketplace, iTunes, and Rhapsody.  "Metamorphosis" made it to top 10 on the Billboard 100, reaching number 8, the band's first top ten album since 2002.  Papa Roach toured with Nickelback on their Dark Horse Tour through Live Nation outdoor amphitheater's along with Hinder and Saving Abel in the summer, and ever Breaking Benjamin.  "Lifeline" was nominated for Fuse TV's Best Video of 2009 contest, beating Metallica's "All Nightmare Long", Daughtry's "No Surprise", Shinedown's "Sound of Madness", and Paramore's "Ignorance", before finishing 2nd to Britney Spears for her song "Circus" in the final round.

"Time for Annihilation" (2010–2012).

On January 8, 2010, Shaddix announced on Papa Roach's official Twitter account that the band was about to start working on new material. On February 8, Jerry Horton said that he was at the studio starting to write.  On February 23, Jerry Horton officially announced that the band were releasing a new album, which was recorded on the last run of their 2009 co-headlining tour with Shinedown at the Binghamton, New York.  In April, the band played two new songs, "Burn" at the Chili Cook Off in Richmond, Virginia on April 17, and "Kick In the Teeth" on April 30. In May, Jerry Horton said in an interview that the name of the album would be "Time for Annihilation", and would feature nine live tracks and five new songs, making it a combined live album and an EP. He also said that the first single would be "Kick In the Teeth" and that the band switched labels to Eleven Seven Music. Later, Shaddix added on that the album would be released on August 31. "Kick In the Teeth" was released as a single on June 22.  On June 29, the band's former label, Geffen Records, released a greatest hits compilation of the band's biggest hits, titled "". The band, however, told fans not to buy it, saying that the band was making no money off of the album's sales and that the label released the album against the band's will. Masters and/or copyrights by Papa Roach are represented by Downtown Music Publishing. The band no longer owns the rights to their songs, but continue to play them live.  "Time for Annihilation" was released on August 31. The band announced that the next singles from the album would be "Burn" and "No Matter What". They also said they were interested in releasing another live DVD, but wanted to wait until they had a headlining show in Europe. In October, Papa Roach began the "Monsters of Annihilation" tour with Skillet. From November 15 to December 13, The band toured with Disturbed, Buckcherry and Halestorm on the Taste of Chaos tour, and from March 1 to March 18, Papa Roach co-headlined the Canada leg of the Jägermeister Music Tour with Buckcherry, and special guests My Darkest Days and Bleeker Ridge.  In an interview, guitarist Jerry Horton said that the band was going to release a new album in 2012. He also mentioned that Papa Roach would explore "electronic sounds" for this upcoming release.<ref name="Papa Roach : Interview 2010 / 2011"></ref>  In an interview with Upvenue, Tobin Esperance said of "Time for Annihilation" that "We put out five major label, full-length records, and we were transitioning from a major label, going independent, and we wanted to do something different [...] we'd always talked about doing a live record, and it turned into 'let's add a couple of bonus songs' [...] and now it's half live, half new songs and it's kind of the past and present of Papa Roach, and I think it's a good representation and a good reminder of what this band's about, [...] and it gives you a look at where our sound can go."  Starting April 25, Papa Roach headlined the Raid The Nation tour, the first leg consisting of Finger Eleven, and the second leg with Escape the Fate, both legs of the tour also had special guests Pop Evil. On June 23 and 25, the band co-headlined the Sonisphere Festival with Linkin Park.  Papa Roach played two intimate shows in London and Sheffield in July with the band Yashin. They also co-headlined the Rock Allegiance Tour from August 24 to September 25 with Buckcherry. Also on the tour was Puddle of Mudd, P.O.D., Red, Crossfade, and Drive A.

"The Connection" (2012–2013).

Papa Roach entered the studio on November 2011 to work on their next album, aiming for a mid-2012 release. While in the studio, the band released the single, "Even If I Could", which appeared in "The Avengers" soundtrack.  On June 15, 2012 the band announced in a live chat with fans on YouTube that the next album would be released on October 2. The album was later given the name, "The Connection".  Papa Roach started off touring for 2012 Co-Headlining dates with Shinedown, along with other supporting acts such as Adelitas Way and In This Moment. Following up the short Co-Headliner, Papa Roach headed out on a short headlining tour bringing out bands such as In This Moment, Art of Dying, and Mindset Evolution. Papa Roach participated on the main stage of the 2012 Uproar Festival alongside Shinedown, Godsmack, Staind, and Adelitas Way.  The band released their first music video for the album on August 30, 2012. The video idea for Still "Swingin'" came from Jacoby's 8-year-old son.  On September 8, 2012, Papa Roach announced dates in Belarus, Russia, Poland, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and the UK. They will be playing two dates (10 and 11 December) in London co-headlining with rockers Stone Sour on their UK tour. They only played on those two dates of the tour. They then toured the United States with Stone Sour starting on January 20, 2013, and played at 2013 Download Festival at Donington Park, UK on the Main Stage on Friday, June 14. In September, the band was rejoined by original drummer Buckner for a one-off performance of "Last Resort". October 2013 saw the band perform across Canada and the US in support of "The Connection" with Pop Evil and Age of Days also on the bill.

"F.E.A.R." (2014–2016).

On February 3, 2014 the band announced that they will be going into the studio, recording a new album. On February 18, 2014 on Twitter Jerry stated that the first single should come out "somewhere around July". They did a live studio chat on YouTube on February 25, 2014. In the live chat they mentioned that they have already written 4 songs. They revealed the titles of three songs: 'Just As Broken As Me', 'Gravity' and 'War Over Me'. On April 24, 2014 on an interview for Loudwire Jacoby revealed a few more song titles from the upcoming album, the titles were 'Never Have To Say Goodbye' and 'Face Everything and Rise'.  On July 10, 2014, it was announced that the band will release their new album, titled "F.E.A.R.", in early 2015. On October 9, 2014, it was announced that the new album will release on January 27, 2015 via Eleven Seven Music. During an interview, bassist Tobin Esperance has admitted that the new release is heavier than previous albums and describes how F.E.A.R. is the first time they've allowed other artists to feature on their records.  On May 19, 2015, The band announced a co-headlining North American Tour with longtime friends Five Finger Death Punch. They will be accompanied by In This Moment as special guests with support from "From Ashes To New" for the tour.

"Crooked Teeth" (2016–2018).

On January 26, 2016, Papa Roach announced that they will begin writing their new album the following week. In July, they played live at the Alternative Press Music Awards. In an interview they said, that the new record will be released in early 2017, with a first single appearing this year. The recording of the album was supported through crowdfunding service PledgeMusic.  On November 1, 2016, "Crooked Teeth" was the first song to be released from the upcoming record. The first official single, titled "Help" was released on February 17, 2017. On March 24, 2017, the band announced the new album, "Crooked Teeth" to be released on May 19, 2017. A second single, "American Dreams", was released in April 2017, and a third single, "Born for Greatness", was released towards the end of the year. "Born for Greatness" became the official main theme of WWE Raw in February 2018, replacing "Enemies" by Shinedown. Both "Help" and "Born for Greatness" made it to #1 on the Mainstream Rock Charts, the first time the band had two songs off one album achieve the feat.

"Who Do You Trust?" (2018–2020).

In October 2017, the band revealed they had already written six songs for the follow up to "Crooked Teeth", with plans to start work on recording the album in June 2018. On October 5, 2018, Papa Roach released two singles, entitled "Renegade Music" and "Who Do You Trust?", with the latter being accompanied by a music video, where frontman and vocalist Jacoby Shaddix stars as news reporter Larry Dickman. Later, information leaked that the new album will be called "Who Do You Trust?" and will be released on January 19, 2019. An interview with Papa Roach from November 9 confirmed this. On November 16, 2018, the band released the new song "Not the Only One". A third single, "Come Around", was released in September 2019.

Musical style and influences.

Papa Roach has been described as alternative metal, alternative rock, hard rock, nu metal, and rap metal. In their early independent releases and on their first two major label albums, "Infest" and "Lovehatetragedy", the band tended to use nu metal and rap metal. Before Papa Roach released their major label albums, Jacoby Shaddix's singing style was compared to Chino Moreno and Lynn Strait of Snot. Additionally, with their 2009 album, "Metamorphosis", as the name expresses, the band felt that their music was going through a transformation to "stuff that's...harder and faster". Allmusic has compared the band's recent work to 1980s glam metal, Allmusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote "At the close of the 2000s, the quartet has shed the rap and the angst, ditching all the alt-metal accoutrements to become a knowing update of an '80s Sunset Strip sleaze rock outfit." With the release of "F.E.A.R.", both MetalSucks and Metal Injection noted that the band has acquired some djent influences.  In 2004, frontman Jacoby Shaddix said the following in an interview with the Dallas Music Guide regarding the band no longer using rapping in their music: "...the rapping's gone! I don't feel like rapping. I'm just over that...I just want to be a rocker. It's what I wanted to be when I was a kid". Shaddix has added this remark in another interview: "We’re a band that tries to walk that line between metal, hardcore, punk rock and pop music, and we do our best at trying to make it all cool".  Prior to the release of "The Connection", guitarist Jerry Horton said in an interview by VerdamMnis Magazine that "It's kind of a natural thing for us, we've always been changing throughout the years. Of course, there are some things that stay the same in our sound but we do like to try new things to sort of stretch out a little bit our basis and therefore make it more interesting". He also said that the band was going to explore "electronic sounds for the next record".  The band's influences include Faith No More, Social Distortion, Metallica, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Wu-Tang Clan, Fugees, Refused, Queen, and Led Zeppelin. Jacoby Shaddix acknowledges Faith No More's Mike Patton and Social Distortion's Mike Ness as major influences, stating that "the way that I sing, I definitely was inspired by Mike Patton", "but I like the storytelling that Mike Ness does so I kind of fused both those two guys together at an early age, and it inspired me to become my own thing."

Band members.

Current members  Touring members Former members Timeline

Discography.

Studio albums

Awards and nominations.

Grammy Awards MTV Video Music Awards

Papa Roach is an American rock band from Vacaville, California, formed in 1993. The original lineup consisted of lead vocalist Jacoby Shaddix, guitarist Jerry Horton, drummer Dave Buckner, bassist Will James, and trombonist Ben Luther.

Papa Roach je čtyřčlenná hard rocková skupina pocházející z Vacaville, Kalifornie. Kapela vydala již sedm studiových alb, ovšem první deska "Old Friends from Young Years" neměla hudebního vydavatele. CD "Infest" představuje průlom v jejich kariéře, protože album mělo obrovský úspěch (3× platinové v USA). Další desky nesly název "Lovehatetragedy" (zlatá), "Getting Away with Murder" (platinová), "The Paramour Sessions", "Metamorphosis", a zatím jejich poslední deska "The Connection". Papa Roach obdrželi nominaci Grammy a prodali po celém světě více jak 10 milionů alb.