Etymology and usage.

Derivation.

The modern English word "gender" comes from the Middle English "gender", "gendre", a loanword from Anglo-Norman and Middle French "gendre". This, in turn, came from Latin "genus". Both words mean "kind", "type", or "sort". They derive ultimately from a widely attested Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root "gn-", which is also the source of "kin", "kind", "king", and many other

History of the concept.

The concept of gender, in the modern sense, is a recent invention in human history. The ancient world had no basis of understanding gender as it has been understood in the humanities and social sciences for the past few decades. The term "gender" had been associated with grammar for most of history and only started to move towards it being a malleable cultural construct in the 1950s and 1960s.  Sexologist John Money introduced the terminological distinction between biological sex and gender as a role in 1955. Before his work, it was uncommon to use the word "gender" to refer to anything but grammatical categories. For example, in a bibliography of 12,000 references on marriage and family from 1900–1964, the term "gender" does not even emerge once. Analysis of more than 30 million academic article titles from 1945–2001 showed that the uses of the term ""gender"", were much rarer than uses of ""sex"", was often used as a grammatical category early in this period.

Gender identity and gender roles.

"Gender identity" refers to a personal identification with a particular gender and gender role in society. The term "woman" has historically been used interchangeably with reference to the female body, though more recently this usage has been viewed as controversial by some feminists.  <nowiki> </nowiki>There are qualitative analyses that explore and present the representations of gender; however, feminists challenge these dominant ideologies concerning gender roles and biological sex. One's biological sex is directly tied to specific social roles and the expectations. Judith Butler considers the concept of being a woman to have more challenges, owing not only to society's viewing women as a social category but also as a felt sense of self, a culturally conditioned or constructed subjective identity. "Social identity" refers to the common identification with a collectivity or social category that creates a common culture among participants concerned. According to social identity theory, an important component of the self-concept is derived from memberships in social groups and categories; this is demonstrated by group processes and how inter-group relationships impact significantly on individuals' self perception and behaviors. The groups people belong to therefore provide members with the definition of who they are and how they should behave within their social sphere.  Categorizing males and females into social roles creates a problem, because individuals feel they have to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man or woman, rather than being allowed to choose a section in between. Globally, communities interpret biological differences between men and women to create a set of social expectations that define the behaviors that are "appropriate" for men and women and determine women's and men's different access to rights, resources, power in society and health behaviors. Although the specific nature and degree of these differences vary from one society to the next, they still tend to typically favor men, creating an imbalance in power and gender inequalities within most societies. Many cultures have different systems of norms and beliefs based on gender, but there is no universal standard to a masculine or feminine role across all cultures. Social roles of men and women in relation to each other is based on the cultural norms of that society, which lead to the creation of gender systems. The gender system is the basis of social patterns in many societies, which include the separation of sexes, and the primacy of masculine norms.  Philosopher Michel Foucault said that as sexual subjects, humans are the object of power, which is not an institution or structure, rather it is a signifier or name attributed to "complex strategical situation". Because of this, "power" is what determines individual attributes, behaviors, etc. and people are a part of an ontologically and epistemologically constructed set of names and labels. For example, being female characterizes one as a woman, and being a woman signifies one as weak, emotional, and irrational, and incapable of actions attributed to a "man". Butler said that gender and sex are more like verbs than nouns. She reasoned that her actions are limited because she is female. "I am not permitted to construct my gender and sex willy-nilly," she said. "[This] is so because gender is politically and therefore socially controlled. Rather than 'woman' being something one is, it is something one does." More recent criticisms of Judith Butler's theories critique her writing for reinforcing the very conventional dichotomies of gender.

Biological factors and views.

In most cases, men and women and boys and girls are similar in behavior, with little gender difference, but some gendered behavior is influenced by prenatal and early life androgen exposure. This includes, for example, gender normative play, self-identification with a gender, and tendency to engage in aggressive behavior. Males of most mammals, including humans, exhibit more rough and tumble play behavior, which is influenced by maternal testosterone levels. These levels may also influence sexuality, with non-heterosexual persons exhibiting sex atypical behavior in childhood.  The biology of gender became the subject of an expanding number of studies over the course of the late 20th century. One of the earliest areas of interest was what became known as "gender identity disorder" (GID) and which is now also described as gender dysphoria. Studies in this, and related areas, inform the following summary of the subject by John Money. He stated:  Money refers to attempts to distinguish a difference between biological sex and social gender as "scientifically debased", because of our increased knowledge of a continuum of dimorphic features (Money's word is "dipolar") that link biological and behavioral differences. These extend from the exclusively biological "genetic" and "prenatal hormonal" differences between men and women, to "postnatal" features, some of which are social, but others have been shown to result from "post-pubertal hormonal" effects.  Although causation from the biological—genetic and hormonal—to the behavioral has been broadly demonstrated and accepted, Money is careful to also note that understanding of the causal chains from biology to behavior in sex and gender issues is very far from complete. For example, the existence of a "gay gene" has not been proven, but such a gene remains an acknowledged possibility.  There are studies concerning women who have a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia, which leads to the overproduction of the masculine sex hormone, androgen. These women usually have ordinary female appearances (though nearly all girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) have corrective surgery performed on their genitals). However, despite taking hormone-balancing medication given to them at birth, these females are statistically more likely to be interested in activities traditionally linked to males than female activities. Psychology professor and CAH researcher Dr. Sheri Berenbaum attributes these differences to an exposure of higher levels of male sex hormones in utero.

Gender taxonomy.

The following gender taxonomy illustrates the kinds of diversity that have been studied and reported in medical literature. It is placed in roughly chronological order of biological and social development in the human life cycle. The earlier stages are more purely biological

Sexual dimorphism.

Although sexual reproduction is "defined" at the cellular level, key features of sexual reproduction operate "within" the structures of the gamete cells themselves. Notably, gametes carry very long molecules called DNA that the biological processes of reproduction can "read" like a book of instructions. In fact, there are typically many of these "books", called "chromosomes". Human gametes usually have 23 chromosomes, 22 of which are common to both sexes. The final chromosomes in the two human gametes are called "sex" chromosomes because of their role in sex determination. Ova always have the same sex chromosome, labelled "X". About half of spermatozoa also have this same X chromosome, the rest have a Y-chromosome. At fertilization the gametes fuse to form a

Human brain.

"It is well established that men have a larger cerebrum than women by about 8–10% (Filipek et al., 1994; Nopoulos et al., 2000; Passe et al., 1997a,b; Rabinowicz et al., 1999; Witelson et al., 1995)." However, what is functionally relevant are differences in composition and "wiring". Richard J. Haier and colleagues at the universities of New Mexico and California (Irvine) found, using brain mapping, that men have more grey matter related to general intelligence than women, and women have more white matter related to intelligence than men – the ratio between grey and white matter is 4% higher for men than women.  Grey matter is used for information processing, while white

Gender studies.

Gender studies is a field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted to gender, gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis. This field includes Women's studies (concerning women, feminity, their gender roles and politics, and feminism),

Psychology and sociology.

Many of the more complicated human behaviors are influenced by both innate factors and by environmental ones, which include everything from genes, gene expression, and body chemistry, through diet and social pressures. A large area of research in behavioral psychology collates evidence in an effort to discover correlations between behavior and various possible antecedents such as genetics, gene regulation, access to food and vitamins, culture, gender, hormones, physical and social development, and physical and social environments.  A core research area within sociology is the way human behavior operates on "itself", in other words, how the behavior of one group or individual influences the behavior of other groups or individuals. Starting in the late 20th century, the feminist movement has contributed extensive study of gender and theories about it, notably within sociology but not restricted to it. Social theorists have sought to determine the specific nature of gender in relation to biological sex and sexuality, with the result being that culturally established gender and sex have become interchangeable identifications that signify the allocation of a specific 'biological' sex within a categorical gender. The second wave feminist view that gender is socially constructed and hegemonic in all societies, remains current in some literary theoretical circles, Kira Hall and Mary Bucholtz publishing new perspectives as recently as 2008.  Contemporary socialisation theory proposes the notion that when a child is first born it has a biological sex but no social gender. As the child grows, "...society provides a string of prescriptions, templates, or models of behaviors appropriate to the one sex or the other," which socialises the child into belonging to a culturally specific gender. There is huge incentive for a child to concede to their socialisation with gender shaping the individual's opportunities for education, work, family, sexuality, reproduction, authority, and to make an impact on the production of culture and knowledge. Adults who do not perform these ascribed roles are perceived from this perspective as deviant and improperly socialized.  Some believe society

Legal status.

A person's sex as male or female has legal significance—sex is indicated on government documents, and laws provide differently for men and women. Many pension systems have different retirement ages for men or women. Marriage is usually only available to opposite-sex couples; in some countries and jurisdictions there are same-sex marriage laws.  The question then arises as to what legally determines whether someone is female or male. In most cases this can appear obvious, but the matter is complicated for intersex or transgender people. Different jurisdictions have adopted different answers to this question. Almost all countries permit changes of legal gender status in cases of intersexualism, when the gender assignment made at birth is determined upon further investigation to be biologically inaccurate—technically, however, this is not a change of status "per se". Rather, it is recognition of a status deemed to exist but unknown from birth. Increasingly, jurisdictions also provide a procedure for changes of legal gender for transgender people.  Gender assignment, when there are indications that genital sex might not be decisive in a particular case, is normally not defined by a single definition, but by a combination of conditions, including chromosomes and gonads. Thus, for example, in many jurisdictions a person with XY chromosomes but female gonads could be recognized as female at birth.  The ability to change legal gender for transgender people in particular has given rise to the phenomena in some jurisdictions of the same person having different genders for the purposes of different areas of the law. For example, in Australia prior to the Re Kevin decisions, transsexual people could be recognized as having the genders they identified with under many areas of the law, including social security law, but not for the law of marriage. Thus, for a period, it was possible for the same person to have two different genders under Australian law.  It is also possible in federal systems for the same person to have one gender under state law and a different gender under federal law.

Intersex people.

For intersex people, who according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies", access

Non-binary and third genders.

Some countries now legally recognize non-binary or third genders, including Canada, Germany, Australia, India and Pakistan. In

Gender and society.

Languages.

Natural languages often make gender distinctions. These may be of various kinds, more or less loosely

Science.

Historically, science has been portrayed as a masculine pursuit in which women have faced significant barriers to participate. Even after universities began admitting women in the 19th century, women were still largely relegated to certain scientific fields, such as home science, nursing, and child psychology. Women

Religion.

This topic includes internal and external religious issues such as gender of God and deities creation myths about human gender, roles and rights (for instance, leadership roles especially ordination of women, sex segregation, gender equality, marriage, abortion, homosexuality)  According to Kati Niemelä of the Church Research Institute, women are universally more religious than men. They believe that the difference in religiosity between genders is due to biological differences, for instance usually people seeking security in life are more religious, and as men are considered to be greater risk takers than women, they are less religious. Although religious fanaticism is more often seen in men than women. In Taoism, yin and yang are considered feminine and masculine, respectively. The Taijitu and concept of the Zhou period reach into family and gender relations. Yin is female and yang is male. They fit together as two parts of a whole. The male principle was equated with the sun: active, bright, and shining; the female

Poverty.

Gender inequality is most common in women dealing with poverty. Many women must shoulder all the responsibility of the household because they must take care of the family. Oftentimes this may include tasks such as tilling land, grinding grain, carrying water and cooking. Also, women are more likely to earn low incomes because of gender discrimination, as men are more likely to receive higher pay, have more opportunities, and have overall more political and social capital then women. Approximately 75% of world's women are unable to obtain bank loans because they have unstable jobs. It shows that there are many women in the world's population but only a few represent world's wealth. In many countries, the financial sector

General strain theory.

According to general strain theory, studies suggest that gender differences between individuals can lead to externalized anger that may result in violent outbursts. These violent actions related to gender inequality can be measured by comparing violent neighborhoods to non-violent neighborhoods. By noticing the independent variables (neighborhood violence) and the dependent variable (individual violence), it's possible to analyze gender roles. The strain in the general strain theory is the removal of a positive stimulus and or the introduction of a negative stimulus, which would create a negative effect (strain) within individual, which is either inner-directed (depression/guilt) or outer-directed (anger/frustration), which depends on whether the individual blames themselves or their environment. Studies reveal that even though males and females are equally likely to react to a strain with anger, the origin of the anger and their means of coping with it can vary drastically. Males are likely to put the blame on

Economic development.

Gender, and particularly the role of women is widely recognized as vitally important to international development issues. This often means a focus on gender-equality, ensuring participation, but includes an understanding of the different roles and expectation of the genders within the community.  In modern times, the study of gender and development has become a broad field that involves politicians, economists, and human rights activists. Gender and Development, unlike previous theories concerning women in development, includes a broader view of the effects of development on gender including economic, political, and social issues. The theory takes a holistic approach to development and its effects on women and recognizes the negative effects gender blind development policies have had on women. Prior to 1970, it was believed that development affected men and women in the same way and no gendered perspective existed for development studies. However, the 1970s saw a transformation in development theory that sought to incorporate women into existing development paradigms.  When Ester Boserup published her book, "Woman’s Role in Economic Development", there was a realization that development affected men and women differently and there began to be more of a focus on women and development. Boserup argued that women were marginalized in the modernization process and practices of growth, development, and development policy threatened to actually make women worse off. Boserup's work translated into the beginning of a larger discourse termed Women in Development (WID) coined by the Women's Committee of the Washington DC Chapter of the Society for International Development, a network of female development professionals. The primary goal of WID was to include women into existing development initiatives, since it was argued that women were marginalized and excluded from the benefits of development. In so doing, the WID approach pointed out that the major problem to women's unequal representation and participation were male biased and patriarchal development policies. In short, the WID approach blamed patriarchy, which did not consider women's productive and reproductive work. In fact, women were tied to domestic work hence were almost invisible in development programs. The WID approach, however, began to gain criticism as ignoring how women's economic marginalization was linked to the development model itself.  Some feminists argued that the key concept for women and development should be subordination in the context of new capitalist forms of insecure and hierarchical job structures, rather than marginalization as WID approaches emphasized. The rise of criticism against the WID approach led to the emergence of a new theory, that of Women and Development (WAD).  However, just as WID had its critics, so did WAD. Critics of WAD argued that it failed to sufficiently address the differential power relations between women and men, and tended to overemphasize women's productive as opposed to reproductive roles. Also, rising criticism of the exclusion of men in WID

Climate change.

Gender is a topic of increasing concern within climate change policy and science. Generally, gender approaches to climate change address gender-differentiated consequences of climate change, as well as unequal adaptation capacities and gendered contribution to climate change. Furthermore, the intersection of climate change and gender raises questions regarding the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it. These differences, however, are mostly not due to biological or physical differences, but are formed by the social, institutional and legal context. Subsequently, vulnerability is less an intrinsic feature of women and girls but rather a product

Social media.

Gender roles and stereotypes have slowly started to change in society within the past few decades. These changes occur mostly in communication, but more specifically during social interactions. The ways in which people communicate and socialize have also started to change due to advancements in technology. One of the biggest reasons for this change is the growth of social media.  Over the past few years, the use of social media globally has started to rise. This rise can be attributed to the abundance of technology available for use among youth. Recent studies suggest that men and women value and use technology differently. Forbes published an article in 2010 that reported 57% of Facebook users are women, which was attributed to the fact that women are more active on social media. On average women have 8% more friends and account for 62% of posts that are shared via Facebook. Another study in 2010 found that in most Western cultures, women spend more time sending text messages compared to men as well as spending more time on social networking sites as a way to communicate with friends and family. Hayat, Lesser and Samuel-Azran (2017) have further shown that while men write more posts in social networking sites, women commented on other people's posts more often. They further showed that women's posts enjoyed higher popularity than men's post"s."  Social media is more than just the communication of words. With social media increasing in popularity, pictures have come to play a large role in how many people communicate. Research conducted in 2013 found that over 57% of pictures posted on social networking sites were sexual and were created to gain attention. Moreover, 58% of women and 45% of men don't look into the camera, which creates an illusion of withdrawal. Other factors to be considered are the poses in pictures such as women lying down in subordinate positions or even touching themselves in childlike ways. Research has found that images shared online through social networking sites help establish personal self-reflections that individuals want to share with the world.  According to recent research, gender plays a strong role in structuring our social lives, especially since society assigns and creates "male" and "female" categories. Individuals in society might be able to learn the similarities between gender rather than the

Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these characteristics may include biological sex (i.e., the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation), sex-based social structures (i.e., gender roles), or gender identity. Most cultures use a gender binary, having two genders (boys/men and girls/women); those who exist outside these groups fall under the umbrella term "non-binary" or "genderqueer". Some societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman", such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as "third genders" (and "fourth genders", etc.).

Gender (), česky také někdy rod, je pojem užívaný pro označení osobní identity a společenské role jedince ve vztahu k maskulinitě a feminitě. Gender jednotlivce v západní společnosti znamená, do jaké míry se daný člověk cítí být mužem či ženou, které pohlaví je mu okolím přisuzováno, a jaké chování a povahové rysy jsou od něj proto očekávány. Pojmem gender může ale být míněna pouze genderová identita jedince nebo pouze genderové stereotypy. Gender bývá někdy označován jako sociální pohlaví.


Early life.

Ljungberg was born on 16 April 1977 in Vittsjö to Roy Alve Erling Ljungberg, a civil engineer and owner of a construction and consultant business, and Elisabeth Bodil Ljungberg, a Swedish Labor Department worker. On 12 September 1984, the Ljungbergs had another son, Karl Oskar Filip. In 1982, the Ljungberg family left Vittsjö and moved to Halmstad. At first, the tenacious five-year old would not have any part of moving. He argued with his parents that he did not want to live in Halmstad. His parents relented and took him to Halmstads BK, where he played on the youth team under manager Olle Eriksson.  From the time he was from five to fourteen, Ljungberg was coached by Eriksson. Eriksson's impression of the youngster was that he was remarkably talented for his age and that he was considerate of other players, noting that Ljungberg would pass the ball to his friends, so that they would have a chance to score. He credits the Brazilian footballer Sócrates, and Eriksson for having a profound effect on his career. During his youth days, Ljungberg also enjoyed playing ice hockey and developed a talent for handball; he was eventually called up to the under-15 national handball team, but decided to focus his attentions on football.  Ljungberg did well in academic subjects and sports. When he finished ninth grade in his gymnasium school, his marks averaged 4.1 on the five-point scale. At the age of 18, Ljungberg attended university to study information technology and economics, but he struggled to balance the hectic academic timetable with the physically demanding commitments of professional football. Eventually, he quit university to concentrate on his football career.

Club career.

Halmstad.

In 1989, at the age of 12, Ljungberg had convinced Halmstads BK to move him from P12 to P14 which was against Halmstad's policies at the time. At age 14, Ljungberg joined the junior team under coach Robert Nordström. His perseverance paid off because three years later he was moved up to the senior team.  Ljungberg made his senior debut on 23 October 1994 in the Allsvenskan against AIK. In 1995, Ljungberg played 31 games in which he scored his first goal as a professional player. That same year, Halmstad won Svenska Cupen. In 1997, Halmstad won the Allsvenskan with Ljungberg netting and assisting goals that season for the club, despite picking up injuries. During his time with Halmstad, he went on to make 139 appearances and score 16 goals for the club. After winning several trophies in his years with Halmstad, Ljungberg's star was on the rise with interest from Barcelona, Chelsea, Aston Villa, Parma and Arsenal.

Arsenal.

Ljungberg was signed by Arsenal in 1998 for £3 million. Arsenal scouts watched him for over a year and Arsenal's manager, Arsène Wenger, took the unusual step of authorising the signing after watching Ljungberg play for Sweden in their victory against England on television, without seeing him play live. Seeing Ljungberg's performance against England only confirmed to Wenger that Ljungberg could cope against English opponents, and he was signed shortly after. Ljungberg proved himself without difficulty and scored on his debut on 20 September after coming on as a substitute against rival club Manchester United, the match ending 3–0. Ljungberg made 21 appearances across all competitions in his first season, and 43 in his second (1999-2000). He missed the 2000 UEFA Cup Final due to a rib injury. At the end of his third season at Arsenal, 2000-01, they got to the 2001 FA Cup Final. Ljungberg scored to put Arsenal 1-0 up but then Liverpool scored two late goals to win 2-1. This made Ljungberg the first player to score a goal at an FA Cup final outside England, with the game being the first final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.  Some of Ljungberg's best form came in the second half of the 2001–02 season, when Arsenal won their second Premier League and FA Cup double. Following a knee injury to Robert Pires, Ljungberg scored in most of Arsenal's remaining games, including a stunning finish for Arsenal's second goal in the 2–0 FA Cup Final win over Chelsea. Ljungberg had scored many important and vital goals for Arsenal throughout the season. He scored an equaliser against Manchester United, in a game where Arsenal went on to win 3–1. He was instrumental in Arsenal's 2–1 win against Liverpool at Anfield where he won a penalty which Thierry Henry scored and then he slotted in a sweet finish from a Pires cross. He scored a nearly identical goal again against Liverpool at Highbury three weeks later, where the matched ended up being a 1–1 draw. Ljungberg ended the 2001–02 season scoring 17 goals in all competitions. In the 2002 FA Cup Final he became the first player in 40 years to score in consecutive FA Cup Finals.  In the 2002-03 season Ljungberg helped Arsenal reach a third consecutive FA Cup final. He scored the winning goal in the semi-final against Sheffield United, and then started the final as Arsenal defeated Southampton. It was Ljungberg's blocked shot which set up Robert Pires to score the winning goal. This season Ljungberg also scored his first hat-trick for Arsenal in a 4-0 win at Sunderland.  In 2003-04 Ljungberg made 30 league appearances during Arsenal's unbeaten Invincibles season. That season he scored the winning goal against rivals Tottenham Hotspur at Highbury. The following season (2004-05) Ljungberg played in his fourth FA Cup final, when he came on as a subtitute and scored one of Arsenal's penalties in the shootout as they defeated Manchester United.  He was most comfortable as a winger on either side of midfield, though he could also play centrally in a 4–5–1 formation, or even as a second striker. Ljungberg became a regular in Arsenal's starting line-up following the departure of Emmanuel Petit and Marc Overmars in the summer of 2000. For several seasons he played a major role for the club including being a member of the unbeaten 49-game run for Arsenal. He had to fight with constant injury problems and occasionally severe bouts with migraines; in 2005 a persistent hip injury led to fears he may have contracted cancer, which were unfounded. It transpired that he was suffering from blood poisoning caused by his large tattoos.  Despite a persistent ankle injury, Ljungberg played for Arsenal in the 2–1 defeat by Barcelona in the Champions League Final in Paris on 17 May 2006.  It was speculated in January 2007 that Ljungberg was being forced to leave Arsenal, after bosses became tired of a run of injuries restricting his play. "Ljungberg still has a lot to offer to Arsenal," Arsène Wenger said, on 13 January 2007, at a Blackburn Rovers pre-match press conference, stressing the fact that Ljungberg will stay at Arsenal until the end of his contract in 2009.  Ljungberg came back after a long injury in an FA Cup match against Bolton Wanderers, scoring a goal thirteen minutes before the end of extra time, earning Arsenal a place in the fifth round tie of the FA Cup against Blackburn Rovers. In a game away at rivals Tottenham Hotspur on 21 April 2007 Ljungberg limped off with an injury in the first half, and this proved to be his final appearance for the club.  In 2008, Ljungberg placed eleventh in Arsenal.com's Gunners' Greatest 50 Players.

West Ham United.

On 23 July 2007, after nine years at Arsenal, Ljungberg joined London rivals West Ham United on a four-year contract. Ljungberg made his West Ham debut on the opening day of the 2007–08 season, in West Ham's 2–0 home defeat by Manchester City on 11 August, a game in which he was also captain. After seven months at the club, Ljungberg finally scored his first goal for West Ham in the home match against Birmingham City on 9 February 2008, putting West Ham up 1–0, with the game finishing 1–1. Ljungberg also scored what turned out to be his final goal for the club in a 2–1 defeat away at Sunderland a month later.  In his last game of the season, Newcastle United defender Steven Taylor accidentally landed on top of him while trying to jump over him, breaking his ribs. The injury sidelined Ljungberg for the rest of the season. In May, it was reported that Ljungberg was offered £3 million to tear up his contract. This was quickly dismissed by both Ljungberg's agents, Claes Elefalk and Scott Duxbury, West Ham's chief executive.  In June 2008, Ljungberg retired from the Sweden national team, saying:"I have decided to concentrate on my football with West Ham. This is where my priority now lies."  Following the start of training camp, Ljungberg was nowhere to be seen. Many speculated a transfer was in the works despite Elefalk's claims that Ljungberg was to return. Days later, Ljungberg agreed to terminate his contract only after one year into the four-year deal for a sum of £6 million. Ljungberg stated afterwards: "I gave my all at West Ham and enjoyed my time there but the decision is the best for the both of us. Now, I will take my time to consider my football future."

Football hiatus.

After Ljungberg's West Ham exit, fans and sport pundits alike speculated about Ljungberg's future. On 8 August, Ljungberg was seen in Los Angeles fuelling rumours of a move to LA Galaxy which was quickly dismissed. In actuality, Ljungberg went to Los Angeles to get a tattoo done by renowned tattoo artist Mister Cartoon. While he was in Los Angeles, Elefalk urged Ljungberg to meet with Joe Roth, a Hollywood producer and majority stakeholder in the Major League Soccer expansion team Seattle Sounders. Ljungberg secretly met with Roth but did not want to make any rash decisions. At the same time, there were rumours of four Italian clubs being interested in Ljungberg including Lazio, Milan, Roma, and Fiorentina. By the end of August, Ljungberg was linked to Portsmouth. On 28 August, Ljungberg's agent told the Swedish press that Ljungberg was continuing to train at his old football club Halmstads BK but was unsure of his football future. At the end of the transfer window, Ljungberg was linked to AS Monaco. When Ljungberg declined to join Monaco after the transfer window closed, many believed Ljungberg was finished with football.  In early September, Ljungberg was seen in New York City during New York Fashion Week. At this time, the "Daily Star" reported that Ljungberg was looking to become a furniture designer. Shortly after, Ljungberg was seen in London with Natalie Imbruglia.

Seattle Sounders.

On 17 October 2008, the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" reported that Ljungberg might be a part of the new Major League Soccer franchise Seattle Sounders. On 28 October 2008, Seattle Sounders officially announced they had signed Ljungberg as their designated player for the 2009 season. The terms of his contract saw Ljungberg earn $10 million over two seasons with the Sounders. Much like the contract of David Beckham and as is the norm for professional sports stars in the US, Ljungberg's contract assured that he kept all of the money derived from his private endorsements. Because of this, Grahame L. Jones of the "Los Angeles Times" was quick to compare Ljungberg with Beckham. Alexi Lalas stated: "Eddie Vedder, I think, would have a better chance of making an impact at Seattle than Freddie Ljungberg". However, after the 2009 regular season Lalas acknowledged his initial skepticism but admitted he had changed his mind. "For me he's the best DP signing, because of the way he plays in MLS."  In December 2008, it was announced that Ljungberg would undergo surgery to repair a persistent hip injury that has plagued him throughout his later career. Surgeons repaired a slightly torn hip labrum and shaved a small amount of bone where the hip meets the femur to prevent future injury. "The Seattle Times" reported that Ljungberg was expected to miss ten to twelve weeks of training and possibly be sidelined for the team's inaugural game, but he recovered from his hip injury sooner than expected. Although Ljungberg did not take part of Seattle's preseason in Argentina, he did however do light training with IS Halmia.  Once the Sounders returned to Seattle, Ljungberg joined in training. Despite his speedy recovery, Ljungberg did not participate in the inaugural game against New York Red Bulls. He made his debut one week later on 28 March 2009, coming on as a 61st-minute substitute in a 2–0 victory over Real Salt Lake. The following week he made his first start on 4 April 2009 against Toronto FC, where he also scored his first MLS goal. Ljungberg played his first full game against Chivas USA in Los Angeles in which they lost 2–0. While some noted that Fredy Montero and Ljungberg were not cohesive on the pitch, due to Ljungberg's absence in the preseason and few practices with one other, coach Sigi Schmid answered: "That's just something that takes some time. But they're both quality players and it will get sorted out I think a lot sooner than later."  Ljungberg missed two games against FC Dallas and Colorado Rapids due to a migraine attack. He quickly recovered to play against Chivas USA. On 30 May 2009, the Sounders drew their fifth match in a row, this time against the Columbus Crew, after Ljungberg missed a penalty kick in the 31st minute. Ljungberg scored his second goal for the season against the San Jose Earthquakes on 13 June 2009 as a result of beating Joe Cannon to the ball, lofting it over him and into the center of the net. In the 59th minute, Ljungberg's corner kick set up Montero's goal which led the Sounders to a 2–0 victory. After playing D.C. United, Ljungberg suffered from some hamstring tightness. Ljungberg did suit up for the New York Red Bulls game on 20 June 2009, but he did not play as a result of the injury. On 28 June, Ljungberg assisted Montero's 23rd-minute goal against the Colorado Rapids. He was subbed out toward the end of the game, in which he received a standing ovation. Ljungberg sat out for the US Open Cup game against the USL side Portland Timbers and focused on training during the four-week vacation in July. Following the brief holiday vacation, Seattle defeated Houston Dynamo, a game in which Ljungberg was heavily targeted and fouled. Despite this, Ljungberg outmaneuvered his opponents and assisted a goal to Patrick Ianni. As is so, the "Bleacher Report" thus dubbed him the man of the match.  During his 2009 season, the "Daily Express" noted rumors that Ljungberg was poised to return to a European club, but Ljungberg assured fans that he would stay to fulfill his two-year contract. The Swede also gave the insight that he might even extend his contract beyond 2010. In July 2009, Ljungberg was selected for starting MLS' All-Stars along with teammate Kasey Keller. Selection for the All-Star team is based upon votes from players, coaches, general managers, members of the media and an online fan voting system. Ljungberg received the most votes among fans, a testament to his popularity in the MLS. Ljungberg was also appointed captain of the 2009 MLS All-Star Team in their game over Everton.  Due to receiving a red card in the previous game, Ljungberg was ineligible to play the next Seattle Sounders game. As a result, All-Star coach Dominic Kinnear played Ljungberg for a full 90 minutes. At the end of the game, Ljungberg started to have impaired vision. When the game went to penalty kicks, he chose to sit it out due to his loss of vision after an on-set migraine. Unfortunately for Ljungberg, the initial five kicks ended in a draw. Kinnear, not fully understanding Ljungberg's condition, sent him out as the sixth kicker. Ljungberg, unable to see, took a chance and just tapped the ball in the center of the net. However, Tim Howard saved it, resulting in Everton winning. Immediately following the game, Ljungberg was removed from the field on a stretcher. Later, Ljungberg told reporters that he ingested trace amount of red wine while in Utah, resulting in his second migraine within months.  Ljungberg went on to win the U.S. Open Cup of 2009 with the Seattle Sounders in September of that year.

Chicago Fire.

Ljungberg was traded to Major League Soccer club Chicago Fire on 30 July 2010 in exchange for a second-round selection in the 2011 MLS SuperDraft. He made his team debut as a substitute in the club's 3–2 victory over the LA Galaxy the following Sunday. Ljungberg's first start for the Fire came against the New York Red Bulls in a match that featured five designated players. After 15 league appearances, Ljungberg announced that he would be leaving Chicago Fire at the end of the 2010 season.

Celtic.

On 27 December 2010, Ljungberg joined Scottish Premier League outfit Celtic on a week-long trial. After a successful trial, Ljungberg officially signed a contract with the club on 30 December 2010. Ljungberg made his debut for Celtic away to Berwick Rangers in the Scottish Cup on 9 January 2011, playing over 60 minutes and helping his team to a 2–0 victory.

Shimizu S-Pulse.

On 6 September 2011, Ljungberg signed for Japanese team Shimizu S-Pulse. He left the club by mutual consent on 14 February 2012.  Upon his release, Ljungberg was linked to Australian club Central Coast Mariners and South African team, Orlando Pirates. Meanwhile, he became a Premier League ambassador in which he promoted the league. He also participated in charitable events such as Soccer Aid 2012 and McDonald's Player Escort Program in Kiev.

Retirement.

On 24 August 2012, Ljungberg announced his retirement from football.

Mumbai City.

On 25 July 2014, Ljungberg announced a comeback to promote the launch of the Indian Super League. On 2 September, he was signed by Mumbai City, becoming their marquee signing. Due to injury, he missed their involvement in the league's opening match, a 3–0 defeat at Atlético de Kolkata on 12 October. Ljungberg's comeback was cut short due to persistent back problems. After only four games played, he decided to end his contract and return to his home in London.

International career.

Early career.

In 1996, Ljungberg made his debut for the Sweden national under-21 team. He almost did not make it as an international player because Sweden head coach Lars Lagerbäck thought Ljungberg was too short. In the 2003 documentary film "Fredrik Ljungberg: Up Close", Lagerbäck stated: "Of course it's difficult to say at 15 to 16 years of age (whether or not a player has the potential to be an international player). To be honest, I wouldn't say I thought he would become an international player because he was very very little. In his first match, we played Denmark and he scored twice so he convinced me rather fast that he was a good player even if he was very very small but he was quick." On 10 November 1996, Ljungberg scored twice in a game against Scotland.

Senior team.

Ljungberg made his senior international debut on 24 January 1998 against the United States in Orlando, losing 0–1. He scored his first national team goal against Denmark in Malmö with a 3–0 victory.

2002 FIFA World Cup.

During an open team practice before the 2002 FIFA World Cup, Ljungberg broke into a fight with teammate Olof Mellberg following a robust tackle from the latter. Ljungberg pushed Mellberg right in front of the world press and Mellberg responded by grabbing at Ljungberg's jersey top at throat level before the two wrestled on the ground. The two of them were quickly separated by shocked teammates and the team practice was immediately cancelled to deal with the public relations disaster. Within hours, video footage of the fight flooded the media and internet.  Sweden was a part of Group F, dubbed the 'Group of Death', which included Argentina, England and Nigeria. At the time, Ljungberg was suffering from a hip injury which prevented him from playing in most of the games. However, Ljungberg did muster the strength to play against England on 2 June 2002 and Nigeria on 7 June 2002 despite the pain. After Sweden advanced from group death, the team was defeated by Senegal.

UEFA Euro 2004.

Sweden were one of the 16 teams to qualify for UEFA Euro 2004 with host nation of Portugal. In Sweden's first game on 14 June, Ljungberg scored the opening goal as Sweden beat Bulgaria 5–0. He started the next two matches against Italy and Denmark, which both ended in draws. Sweden along with Italy and Denmark were in a three-way tie for the first spot. However, it was concluded that Italy would not advance due to a goal difference after Sweden and Denmark drew 2–2. Italy disputed the decision saying both Sweden and Denmark fixed the match. UEFA squashed that notion and Sweden moved onto the next round to compete against the Netherlands. The match ended with 0–0 draw in which Ljungberg attempted two shots but failed to score.

2006 FIFA World Cup.

Prior to the finals, the team doctor Magnus Forssblad prohibited Ljungberg from participating in full-blown training between matches to protect his injured foot. His right foot was swollen due to fluid building up inside his ankle joint. Ljungberg sat out the warm-up games against Finland and Chile at Sweden's base in Bremen. Despite being advised to take time off, Ljungberg insisted on playing in the cup to help Sweden win.  Sweden's weak start was quickly forgotten after their victory against Paraguay in the 2006 FIFA World Cup. However, Paraguay almost held out for a scoreless tie until Ljungberg scored in the 89th minute giving Sweden a 1–0 victory. Sweden's third match within the group was against England, resulting in a 2–2 draw. Despite the draw, Sweden advanced to the next round only to lose 0–2 against host nation Germany. Ljungberg received the Guldbollen award for helping Sweden advance to the next round in the World Cup by heading in the game-winning goal against Paraguay: "I am proud and humble to get this award,"" "Ljungberg said." ""If you look at the football year 2006, it was very eventful.... If I should try to sum it up, the Champions League final left some deep marks. That felt heavy. But for me, the World Cup was the biggest event of the year."

UEFA Euro 2008.

After the 2006 World Cup, Ljungberg was made captain of Sweden. He captained the side in eight of the nine UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers including games against Latvia, Liechtenstein, Spain, Northern Ireland, and Iceland. In the qualifiers, Ljungberg scored one goal against Liechtenstein on 17 October 2007 and had an assist in the Latvia match four days later. Sweden qualified for the European Championship with six wins.  Prior to UEFA Euro 2008, Ljungberg fractured his ribs, making his appearance in the tournament uncertain. However, Ljungberg was able to participate in the Euro and played the games with a special brace to protect his healing ribs. Ljungberg was able to start in Sweden's first match against Greece which ended in a 2–0 victory. Sweden's next match was against one of the favorites, Spain. Sweden were able to contain Spain who struggled from making big advances. However, Sweden lost that match 1–2.  Sweden was unable to compete with the young Russia squad and were defeated 0–2. Despite Sweden's early dismissal from the tournament, Ljungberg was considered by newspapers in Sweden, France, Italy, Germany and the host nation Austria as being Sweden's leading player throughout the competition. On 27 June 2008, Ljungberg announced that he was ending his ten-year career for the Sweden national team. The decision came following Sweden's early exit from UEFA Euro 2008. Ljungberg played in 75 internationals for Sweden, scoring 14 goals.

Coaching career.

Arsenal.

In May 2013, Arsenal announced that Ljungberg would be "renewing his ties with the club" by taking an ambassadorial role with the view of increasing the international awareness of the club. He said that he was "honoured to take on this ambassadorial role".  On 12 July 2016, it was confirmed that he would be joining Arsenal Academy coaching Arsenal's under-15s.

VfL Wolfsburg.

After the appointment of Andries Jonker as the new manager for VfL Wolfsburg on 27 February 2017, the club announced later the same day that he would be assisted by Ljungberg and Uwe Speidel. He was at the club for six months before Jonker and his assistants were sacked in September 2017.

Back to Arsenal.

On 12 June 2018, Arsenal announced that Ljungberg would return as the under-23 coach. On 5 June 2019, Ljungberg was promoted to Arsenal's first-team coaching squad. On 29 November 2019, Ljungberg was announced as interim head coach following the dismissal of Unai Emery.  In December 2019 he said he was working on a game-by-game basis. His first match as interim head-coach ended in a 2-2 draw away to Norwich City on 1 December, and he achieved his first and only win, beating West Ham United 3-1 eight days later. After Mikel Arteta was appointed as club head-coach, Ljungberg was retained as the first-team assistant coach, after a record of one win, three draws and two defeats as interim head coach.

Outside football.

Endorsements.

Ljungberg's work as a male model have garnered media attention rivaling that of his football career. In 2003, he signed a contract as an underwear model for Calvin Klein, fronting a worldwide campaign which became one of the company's most successful ever. However, Ljungberg was upset that, as a result, women persistently groped him in nightclubs.  Ljungberg was sponsored by sportswear company Nike and appeared in Nike commercials. In a global Nike advertising campaign in the run-up to the 2002 World Cup in Korea and Japan, he starred in a "Secret Tournament" commercial (branded "Scopion KO") directed by Terry Gilliam, appearing alongside football players such as Ruud van Nistelrooy, Thierry Henry, Ronaldo, Edgar Davids, Fabio Cannavaro, Francesco Totti, Ronaldinho, Luís Figo and Hidetoshi Nakata, with former player Eric Cantona the tournament "referee".

Personal life.

Ljungberg, who rarely talks about his personal life in the media, married long-time partner Natalie Foster, whom he met in 2007, on 9 June 2014 at a ceremony in front of the Natural History Museum. The daughter of a business executive, Foster is a fan of Arsenal's local rivals Tottenham Hotspur. They have two children.

Nicknames.

While playing in England, Ljungberg became known as "Freddie", a nickname rarely used in his native Sweden. There, he is most commonly referred to by his birthname "Fredrik", although teammates in the Sweden national team have sometimes referred to him by the nickname "Ljungan" ().

Honours.

Halmstad  Arsenal  Seattle Sounders  Individual

Karl Fredrik Ljungberg (; born 16 April 1977) is a Swedish former professional footballer who played as a winger and is a football manager. He is currently the assistant coach of Arsenal Football Club after serving as interim head coach in 2019.

Karl Fredrik „Freddie“ Ljungberg (* 16. dubna 1977, Vittsjö, Švédsko) je bývalý švédský fotbalový záložník. Největší část své hráčské kariéry strávil v anglickém Arsenalu, který od konce listopadu 2019 trénuje.


Life.

Heuvelmans was born on 10 October 1916 in Le Havre, France, and raised in Belgium and earned a doctorate in zoology from the Free University of Brussels (now split into the Université Libre de Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel). Heuvelmans was a pupil of Serge Frechkop, a proponent of the Theory of Initial Bipedalism. In 1939, his doctoral dissertation concerned the teeth of the aardvark. During World War II he had escaped from a Nazi prison camp and later worked as a jazz singer in Paris.  Heuvelmans' books made reference to literary sources. He was influenced by Jules Verne and Arthur Conan Doyle's book "The Lost World" (1912). Though earlier interested in zoological oddities, he credits a 1948 "Saturday Evening Post" article, "There Could be Dinosaurs" by Ivan T. Sanderson, with inspiring a determined interest in unknown animals. Sanderson discussed the possibility of dinosaurs surviving in remote corners of the world. Heuvelmans was also influenced by the work of Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans, who had defended the existence of the sea serpent.  Heuvelmans wrote many other books and articles, only a few of which have been translated into English. His works sold well among general audiences but saw little attention from mainstream scientists and experts. "In the Wake of the Sea-Serpents" was his second book; it was translated into English and sold in the United States in 1968. It consisted of his book on sea serpents with parts of his book on the giant squid (and colossal squid) added. As he continued his research, he saw the need to "give a name to the totally new discipline in zoology my research implied. That is how I coined the word 'cryptozoology', the science of hidden animals".  There is evidence that Heuvelmans planned to author a third book on fresh-water cryptozoology, but instead he assisted Irish author Peter Costello to produce his 1974 book "In Search of Lake Monsters", providing source material from his files.  Science writer David Quammen has stated that Heuvelmans's "On the Track of Unknown Animals" is "heavily researched and encyclopedic" but contains "leaps of credulity that leave a skeptical reader behind." He also wrote that Heuvelmans was known for making "overstated claims".  His book "The Natural History of Hidden Animals" (published posthumously) was heavily criticized. Biologist Aaron Bauer noted that "Heuvelmans's own writings, this book included, often eschew critical analysis of available data". John Burton has written that the book's "credibility is seriously undermined by sloppy research".  Heuvelmans's wife was the novelist and artist Monique Watteau; she was also the main illustrator of his books. They divorced in 1961, but remained friends and colleagues.  Heuvelmans eventually converted to Buddhism. He died on 22 August 2001 at the age of 84.

Bernard Heuvelmans (10 October 1916 – 22 August 2001) was a Belgian-French scientist, explorer, researcher, and writer probably best known, along with Scottish-American biologist Ivan T. Sanderson, as a founding figure in the pseudoscientific and subculture of cryptozoology. His 1958 book "On the Track of Unknown Animals" (originally published in French in 1955 as "Sur la Piste des Bêtes Ignorées") is often regarded as one of the most influential cryptozoology texts.

Bernard Heuvelmans (10. října 1916 Le Havre – 22. srpna 2001 Paříž) byl francouzský zoolog. Je považován za zakladatele kryptozoologie. V roce 1955 vydal knihu "Na stopě ignorovaných zvířat", která upozornila světovou veřejnost na mnohé záhady zoologického světa. Jako autor řady dalších publikací se zúčastnil i pátrání u jezera Loch Ness (1961), v jižní a východní Africe (1967), střední Americe (1969) a v Malajsii (1993).


Composition.

After the success of "The Sleeping Beauty" in 1890, Ivan Vsevolozhsky, the director of the Imperial Theatres, commissioned Tchaikovsky to compose a double-bill program featuring both an opera and a ballet. The opera would be "Iolanta". For the ballet, Tchaikovsky would again join forces with Marius Petipa, with whom he had collaborated on "The Sleeping Beauty." The material Petipa chose was an adaptation of E. T. A. Hoffmann's story "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King", by Alexandre Dumas called "The Story of a Nutcracker". The plot of Hoffmann's story (and Dumas' adaptation) was greatly simplified for the two-act ballet. Hoffmann's tale contains a long flashback story within its main plot titled "The Tale of the Hard Nut", which explains how the Prince was turned into the Nutcracker. This had to be excised for the ballet.  Petipa gave Tchaikovsky extremely detailed instructions for the composition of each number, down to the tempo and number of bars. The completion of the work was interrupted for a short time when Tchaikovsky visited the United States for twenty-five days to conduct concerts for the opening of Carnegie Hall. Tchaikovsky composed parts of "The Nutcracker" in Rouen, France.

History.

Saint Petersburg premiere.

The first performance of the ballet was held as a double premiere together with Tchaikovsky's last opera, "Iolanta", on, at the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Although the libretto was by Marius Petipa, who exactly choreographed the first production has been debated. Petipa began work on the choreography in August 1892; however, illness removed him from its completion and his assistant of seven years, Lev Ivanov, was brought in. Although Ivanov is often credited as the choreographer, some contemporary accounts credit Petipa. The performance was conducted by Italian composer Riccardo Drigo, with Antonietta Dell'Era as the Sugar Plum Fairy, Pavel Gerdt as Prince Coqueluche, Stanislava Belinskaya as Clara, Sergei Legat as the Nutcracker-Prince, and Timofey Stukolkin as Drosselmeyer. Unlike in many later productions, the children's roles were performed by real children – students of the Imperial Ballet School in Saint Petersburg, with Belinskaya as Clara, and Vassily Stukolkin as Fritz – rather than adults.  The first performance of "The Nutcracker" was not deemed a success. The reaction to the dancers themselves was ambivalent. While some critics praised Dell'Era on her pointework as the Sugar Plum Fairy (she allegedly received five curtain-calls), one critic called her "corpulent" and "podgy". Olga Preobrajenskaya as the Columbine doll was panned by one critic as "completely insipid" and praised as "charming" by another.  Alexandre Benois described the choreography of the battle scene as confusing: "One can not understand anything. Disorderly pushing about from corner to corner and running backwards and forwards – quite amateurish."  The libretto was criticized as "lopsided" and for not being faithful to the Hoffmann tale. Much of the criticism focused on the featuring of children so prominently in the ballet, and many bemoaned the fact that the ballerina did not dance until the "Grand Pas de Deux" near the end of the second act (which did not occur until nearly midnight during the program). Some found the transition between the mundane world of the first scene and the fantasy world of the second act too abrupt. Reception was better for Tchaikovsky's score. Some critics called it "astonishingly rich in detailed inspiration" and "from beginning to end, beautiful, melodious, original, and characteristic". But this also was not unanimous, as some critics found the party scene "ponderous" and the "Grand Pas de Deux" "insipid".

Subsequent productions.

In 1919, choreographer Alexander Gorsky staged a production which eliminated the Sugar Plum Fairy and her Cavalier and gave their dances to Clara and the Nutcracker Prince, who were played by adults instead of children. This was the first production to do so. An abridged version of the ballet was first performed outside Russia in Budapest (Royal Opera House) in 1927, with choreography by Ede Brada. In 1934, choreographer Vasili Vainonen staged a version of the work that addressed many of the criticisms of the original 1892 production by casting adult dancers in the roles of Clara and the Prince, as Gorsky had. The Vainonen version influenced several later productions.  The first complete performance outside Russia took place in England in 1934, staged by Nicholas Sergeyev after Petipa's original choreography. Annual performances of the ballet have been staged there since 1952. Another abridged version of the ballet, performed by the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, was staged in New York City in 1940, Alexandra Fedorova – again, after Petipa's version. The ballet's first complete United States performance was on 24 December 1944, by the San Francisco Ballet, staged by its artistic director, Willam Christensen, and starring Gisella Caccialanza as the Sugar Plum Fairy, and Jocelyn Vollmar as the Snow Queen. After the enormous success of this production, San Francisco Ballet has presented "Nutcracker" every Christmas Eve and throughout the winter season, debuting new productions in 1944, 1954, 1967, and 2004. The original Christensen version continues in Salt Lake City, where Christensen relocated in 1948. It has been performed every year since 1963 by the Christensen-founded Ballet West.  The New York City Ballet gave its first annual performance of George Balanchine's staging of "The Nutcracker" in 1954. Beginning in the 1960s, the tradition of performing the complete ballet at Christmas eventually spread to the rest of the United States.  Since Gorsky, Vainonen and Balanchine's productions, many other choreographers have made their own versions. Some institute the changes made by Gorsky and Vainonen while others, like Balanchine, utilize the original libretto. Some notable productions include Rudolf Nureyev's 1963 production for the Royal Ballet, Yury Grigorovich for the Bolshoi Ballet, Mikhail Baryshnikov for the American Ballet Theatre, Kent Stowell for Pacific Northwest Ballet starting in 1983, and Peter Wright for the Royal Ballet and the Birmingham Royal Ballet. In recent years, revisionist productions, including those by Mark Morris, Matthew Bourne, and Mikhail Chemiakin have appeared; these depart radically from both the original 1892 libretto and Vainonen's revival, while Maurice Bejart's version completely discards the original plot and characters. In addition to annual live stagings of the work, many productions have also been televised or released on home video.

Roles.

The following extrapolation of the characters (in order of appearance) is drawn from an examination of the stage directions in the score.

Plot.

Below is a synopsis based on the original 1892 libretto by Marius Petipa. The story varies from production to production, though most follow the basic outline. The names of the characters also vary. In the original E. T. A. Hoffmann story, the young heroine is called Marie Stahlbaum and Clara (Klärchen) is her doll's name. In the adaptation by Dumas on which Petipa based his libretto, her name is Marie Silberhaus. In still other productions, such as Baryshnikov's, Clara is Clara Stahlbaum rather than Clara Silberhaus.

Act I.

Scene 1: The Stahlbaum Home  It is Christmas Eve. Family and friends have gathered in the parlor to decorate the beautiful Christmas tree in preparation for the party. Once the tree is finished, the children are sent for. They stand in awe of the tree sparkling with candles and decorations.  The party begins. A march is played. Presents are given out to the children. Suddenly, as the owl-topped grandmother clock strikes eight, a mysterious figure enters the room. It is Drosselmeyer, a local councilman, magician, and Clara's godfather. He is also a talented toymaker who has brought with him gifts for the children, including four lifelike dolls who dance to the delight of all. He then has them put away for safekeeping.  Clara and Fritz are sad to see the dolls being taken away, but Drosselmeyer has yet another toy for them: a wooden nutcracker carved in the shape of a little man. The other children ignore it, but Clara immediately takes a liking to it. Fritz, however, breaks it, and Clara is heartbroken.  During the night, after everyone else has gone to bed, Clara returns to the parlor to check on her beloved nutcracker. As she reaches the little bed, the clock strikes midnight and she looks up to see Drosselmeyer perched atop it. Suddenly, mice begin to fill the room and the Christmas tree begins to grow to dizzying heights. The nutcracker also grows to life size. Clara finds herself in the midst of a battle between an army of gingerbread soldiers and the mice, led by their king. The mice begin to eat the gingerbread soldiers.  The nutcracker appears to lead the soldiers, who are joined by tin soldiers, and by dolls who serve as doctors to carry away the wounded. As the Mouse King advances on the still-wounded nutcracker, Clara throws her slipper at him, distracting him long enough for the nutcracker to stab him.  Scene 2: A Pine Forest  The mice retreat and the nutcracker is transformed into a handsome Prince. He leads Clara through the moonlit night to a pine forest in which the snowflakes dance around them, beckoning them on to his kingdom as the first act ends.

Act II.

Scene 1: The Land of Sweets  Clara and the Prince travel to the beautiful Land of Sweets, ruled by the Sugar Plum Fairy in the Prince's place until his return. He recounts for her how he had been saved from the Mouse King by Clara and transformed back into himself. In honor of the young heroine, a celebration of sweets from around the world is produced: chocolate from Spain, coffee from Arabia, tea from China, and candy canes from Russia all dance for their amusement; Danish shepherdesses perform on their flutes; Mother Ginger has her children, the Polichinelles, emerge from under her enormous hoop skirt to dance; a string of beautiful flowers perform a waltz. To conclude the night, the Sugar Plum Fairy and her Cavalier perform a dance.  A final waltz is performed by all the sweets, after which the Sugar Plum Fairy ushers Clara and the Prince down from their throne. He bows to her, she kisses Clara goodbye, and leads them to a reindeer drawn sleigh. It takes off as they wave goodbye to all the subjects who wave back.  In the original libretto, the ballet's apotheosis "represents a large beehive with flying bees, closely guarding their riches". Just like "Swan Lake", there have been various alternative endings created in productions subsequent to the original.

Musical sources and influences.

"The Nutcracker" is one of the composer's most popular compositions. The music belongs to the Romantic period and contains some of his most memorable melodies, several of which are frequently used in television and film. (They are often heard in TV commercials shown during the Christmas season.) The ""Trepak"", or "Russian dance", is one of the most recognizable pieces in the ballet, along with the "Waltz of the Flowers" and "March", as well as the "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy". The composer's reverence for Rococo and late 18th-century music (such as by Mozart and Haydn) can be detected in passages such as the Overture, the ""Entrée des parents"", and ""Grossvater Tanz"" in act 1.  Tchaikovsky is said to have argued with a friend who wagered that the composer could not write a melody based on a one-octave scale in sequence. Tchaikovsky asked if it mattered whether the notes were in ascending or descending order and was assured it did not. This resulted in the Adagio from the Grand pas de deux, which, in the ballet, nearly always immediately follows the "Waltz of the Flowers". A story is also told that Tchaikovsky's sister had died shortly before he began composition of the ballet and that his sister's death influenced him to compose a melancholy, descending scale melody for the adagio of the Grand Pas de Deux.  One novelty in Tchaikovsky's original score was the use of the celesta, a new instrument Tchaikovsky had discovered in Paris. He wanted it genuinely for the character of the Sugar Plum Fairy to characterize her because of its "heavenly sweet sound". It appears not only in her "Dance" but also in other passages in Act II. (However, he first wrote for the celesta in his symphonic ballad "The Voyevoda" the previous year.) Tchaikovsky also uses toy instruments during the Christmas party scene. Tchaikovsky was proud of the celesta's effect and wanted its music performed quickly for the public, before he could be "scooped".  The original ballet is only about 85 minutes long if performed without applause or an intermission, and therefore much shorter than either "Swan Lake" or "The Sleeping Beauty", but some modern staged performances have omitted or re-ordered some of the music or inserted selections from elsewhere, thus adding to the confusion over the suites. In most of the very famous versions of the ballet, the order of the dances has been slightly re-arranged, and/or the music has been altered. For instance, the 1954 George Balanchine New York City Ballet version adds to Tchaikovsky's score an "entr'acte" that the composer wrote for Act II of "The Sleeping Beauty" but which is now seldom played in productions of that ballet. It is used as a transition between the departure of the guests and the battle with the mice. Nearly all of the CD and LP recordings of the complete ballet present Tchaikovsky's score exactly as he originally conceived it.  Tchaikovsky was less satisfied with "The Nutcracker" than with "The Sleeping Beauty". (In the film "Fantasia", commentator Deems Taylor observes that he "really detested" the score.) Tchaikovsky accepted the commission from Vsevolozhsky but did not particularly want to write the ballet (though he did write to a friend while composing it, "I am daily becoming more and more attuned to my task").

Instrumentation.

The music is written for an orchestra with the following instrumentation.  Woodwinds  Brass  Percussion  Keyboard  Voice  Strings

Musical scenes.

From the Imperial Ballet's 1892 program.

Titles of all of the numbers listed here come from Marius Petipa's original scenario as well as the original libretto and programs of the first production of 1892. All libretti and programs of works performed on the stages of the Imperial Theatres were titled in French, which was the official language of the Imperial Court, as well as the language from which balletic terminology is derived.  Casse-Noisette. "Ballet-féerie" in two acts and three tableaux with apotheosis. Act I  Act II

Structure.

List of acts, scenes (tableaux) and musical numbers, along with tempo indications. Numbers are given according to the original Russian and French titles of the first edition score (1892), the piano reduction score by Sergei Taneyev (1892), both published by P. Jurgenson in Moscow, and the Soviet collected edition of the composer's works, as reprinted Melville, New York: Belwin Mills [n.d.]

Concert excerpts and arrangements.

Tchaikovsky: The Nutcracker Suite, Op. 71a.

Tchaikovsky made a selection of eight of the numbers from the ballet before the ballet's December 1892 première, forming "The Nutcracker Suite", Op. 71a, intended for concert performance. The suite was first performed, under the composer's direction, on 19 March 1892 at an assembly of the Saint Petersburg branch of the Musical Society. The suite became instantly popular, with almost every number encored at its premiere, while the complete ballet did not begin to achieve its great popularity until after the George Balanchine staging became a hit in New York City. The suite became very popular on the concert stage, and was excerpted in Disney's "Fantasia", with everything omitted prior to Sugar Plum Fairies. "The Nutcracker Suite" should not be mistaken for the complete ballet. The outline below represents the selection and sequence of the "Nutcracker Suite" culled by the composer.

Grainger: "Paraphrase on Tchaikovsky's Flower Waltz", for solo piano.

The "Paraphrase on Tchaikovsky's Flower Waltz" is a successful piano arrangement from one of the movements from "The Nutcracker" by the pianist and composer Percy Grainger.

Pletnev: Concert suite from "The Nutcracker", for solo piano.

The pianist and conductor Mikhail Pletnev adapted some of the music into a virtuosic concert suite for piano solo:

Selected discography.

Many recordings have been made since 1909 of the "Nutcracker Suite", which made its initial appearance on disc that year in what is now historically considered the first record album. This recording was conducted by Herman Finck and featured the London Palace Orchestra. But it was not until the LP album was developed that recordings of the complete ballet began to be made. Because of the ballet's approximate hour and a half length when performed without intermission, applause, or interpolated numbers, it fits very comfortably onto two LPs. Most CD recordings take up two discs, often with fillers. An exception is the 81-minute 1998 Philips recording by Valery Gergiev that fits onto one CD because of Gergiev's somewhat brisker speeds.  With the advent of the stereo LP coinciding with the growing popularity of the complete ballet, many other complete recordings of it have been made. Notable conductors who have done so include Maurice Abravanel, André Previn, Michael Tilson Thomas, Mariss Jansons, Seiji Ozawa, Richard Bonynge, Semyon Bychkov, Alexander Vedernikov, Ondrej Lenard, Mikhail Pletnev, and most recently, Simon Rattle. A CD of excerpts from the Tilson Thomas version had as its album cover art a painting of Mikhail Baryshnikov in his Nutcracker costume; perhaps this was due to the fact that the Tilson Thomas recording was released by CBS Masterworks, and CBS had first telecast the Baryshnikov "Nutcracker".  There have been two major theatrical film versions of the ballet, made within seven years of each other, and both were given soundtrack albums.  Neither Ormandy, Reiner, nor Fiedler ever recorded a complete version of the ballet; however, Kunzel's album of excerpts runs 73 minutes, containing more than two-thirds of the music. Conductor Neeme Järvi has recorded act 2 of the ballet complete, along with excerpts from "Swan Lake". The music is played by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra.

Accusations of racism.

Some people view the second-act "Coffee" (Arabian) and "Tea" (Chinese) dances as racist. In 2013 "Dance Magazine" printed the opinions of three directors. Ronald Alexander of Steps on Broadway and The Harlem School of the Arts said the characters in the dances were "borderline caricatures, if not downright demeaning." He also said some productions had made changes to improve this. In the Arabian dance, for example, it was not necessary to portray a woman as a "seductress", showing too much skin. Alexander tried a more positive portrayal of the Chinese, but this was replaced by the more traditional version, despite positive reception. Stoner Winslett of the Richmond Ballet said "The Nutcracker" was not racist and that her productions had a "diverse cast". Donald Byrd of Spectrum Dance Theater saw the ballet as Eurocentric and not racist. Chloe Angyal, in Feministing, referred to "unbelievably offensive racial and ethnic stereotypes". Some people who have performed in productions of the ballet do not see a problem because they are continuing what is viewed as "a tradition". George Balanchine admitted "Coffee", described in a "New York Times" article as a "sultry belly dance", was intended for the fathers, not the children.  In "The New Republic" in 2014, Alice Robb described white people wearing "harem pants and a straw hat, eyes painted to look slanted" and "wearing chopsticks in their black wigs" in the Chinese dance. The Arabian dance, she said, has a woman who "slinks around the stage in a belly shirt, bells attached to her ankles". One of the problems, Robb said, was the use of white people to play ethnic roles, because of the desire for everyone to look the same.  Among the attempts to change the dances were Austin McCormick making the Arabian dance into a pole dance, and San Francisco Ballet and Pittsburgh Ballet Theater changing the Chinese dance to a dragon dance.  Alastair Macaulay of "The New York Times" defended Tchaikovsky, saying he "never intended his Chinese and Arabian music to be ethnographically correct." He said, "their extraordinary color and energy are far from condescending, and they make the world of 'The Nutcracker' larger." To change anything is to "unbalance 'The Nutcracker'" with music the author did not write. If there were stereotypes, Tchaikovsky also used them in representing his own country of Russia.  UC-Irvine professor Jennifer Fisher said in 2018 that a two-finger salute used in the Chinese dance was not a part of the culture. Though it might have had its source in a Mongolian chopstick dance, she called it "heedless insensitivity to stereotyping". She also complained about the use in the Chinese dance of "bobbing, subservient 'kowtow' steps, Fu Manchu mustaches, and... yellowface" makeup, compared to blackface. One concern she had was that dancers believed they were learning about Asian culture, when they were really experiencing a cartoon version.  Fisher went on to say ballet companies were recognizing that change had to happen. Georgina Pazcoguin of the New York City Ballet and former dancer Phil Chan started the ""Final Bow for Yellowface" movement and created a web site which explained the history of the practices and suggested changes. One of their points was that only the Chinese dance made dancers look like an ethnic group other than the one they belonged to. The New York City Ballet went on to drop geisha wigs and makeup and change some dance moves. Other ballet companies followed.

In popular culture.

Film.

Several films having little or nothing to do with the ballet or the original Hoffmann tale have used its music:

Children's recordings.

There have been several recorded children's adaptations of the E.T.A. Hoffmann story (the basis for the ballet) using Tchaikovsky's music, some quite faithful, some not. One that was not was a version titled "The Nutcracker Suite for Children", narrated by Metropolitan Opera announcer Milton Cross, which used a two-piano arrangement of the music. It was released as a 78-RPM album set in the 1940s. For the children's label Peter Pan Records, actor Victor Jory narrated a condensed adaptation of the story with excerpts from the score. It was released on one side of a 45-RPM disc. A later version, titled "The Nutcracker Suite", starred Denise Bryer and a full cast, was released in the 1960s on LP and made use of Tchaikovsky's music in the original orchestral arrangements. It was quite faithful to Hoffmann's story "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King", on which the ballet is based, even to the point of including the section in which Clara cuts her arm on the glass toy cabinet, and also mentioning that she married the Prince at the end. It also included a less gruesome version of "The Tale of the Hard Nut", the tale-within-a-tale in Hoffmann's story. It was released as part of the Tale Spinners for Children series.

The Nutcracker ( ) is an 1892 two-act ballet ("";, ), originally choreographed by Marius Petipa and Lev Ivanov with a score by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (Op. 71). The libretto is adapted from E. T. A. Hoffmann's story "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King".

Louskáček je divadelní baletní pohádková inscenace na náměty příběhu Ernesta Theodora Amadea Hoffmanna. Hudbu složil Petr Iljič Čajkovskij, choreografii Lev Ivanov.


The diagenesis - metamorphism sequence.

Migmatite is the penultimate member of a sequence of lithology transformations first identified by Lyell, 1837. Lyell had a clear perception of the regional diagenesis sequence in sedimentary rocks that remains valid today. It begins ‘’’A’’’ with deposition of unconsolidated sediment (protolith for future metamorphic rocks). As temperature and pressure increase with depth, a protolith passes through a diagenetic sequence from porous sedimentary rock through indurated rocks and phyllites ‘’’A2’’’ to metamorphic schists ‘’’C1’’’ in which the initial sedimentary components can still be discerned. Deeper still, the schists are reconstituted as gneiss ‘’’C2’’’ in which folia of residual minerals alternate with quartzo-feldspathic layers; partial melting continues as small batches of leucosome coalesce to form distinct layers in the neosome, and become recognizable migmatite ‘’’D1’’’. The resulting leucosome layers in stromatic migmatites still retain water and gas in a discontinuous reaction series from the paleosome. This supercritical HO and CO content renders the leucosome extremely mobile.  Bowen 1922, p184 described the process as being ‘In part due to... reactions between already crystallized mineral components of the rock and the remaining still-molten magma, and in part to reactions due to adjustments of equilibrium between the extreme end-stage, highly concentrated, "mother-liquor", which, by selective freezing, has been enriched with the more volatile gases usually termed "mineralizers," among which water figures prominently’. J.J. Sederholm (1926) described rocks of this type, demonstrably of mixed origin, as migmatites. He described the granitising ‘ichors’ as having properties intermediate between an aqueous solution and a very much diluted magma, with much of it in the gaseous state.

Partial melting, anatexis and the role of water.

The role of partial melting is demanded by experimental and field evidence. Rocks begin to partially melt when they reach a combination of sufficiently high temperatures (> 650°C) and pressures (>34MPa). Some rocks have compositions that produce more melt than others at a given temperature, a rock property called "fertility". Some minerals in a sequence will make more melt than others; some do not melt until a higher temperature is reached. If the temperature attained only just surpasses the solidus, the migmatite will contain a few small patches of melt scattered about in the most fertile rock. Holmquist 1916 called the process whereby metamorphic rocks are transformed into granulite ‘anatexis’.  The segregation of melt during the prograde part of the metamorphic history (temperature > solidus) involves separating the melt fraction from the residuum, which higher specific gravity causes to accumulate at a lower level. The subsequent migration of anatectic melt flows down local pressure gradients with little or no crystallization. The network of channels through which the melt moved at this stage may be lost by compression of the melanosome, leaving isolated lenses of leucosome. The melt product gathers in an underlying channel where it becomes subject to differentiation. Conduction is the principal mechanism of heat transfer in the continental crust; where shallow layers have been exhumed or buried rapidly there is a corresponding inflection in the geothermal gradient. Cooling due to surface exposure is conducted very slowly to deeper rocks so the deeper crust is slow to heat up and slow to cool. Numerical models of crustal heating confirm slow cooling in the deep crust. Therefore, once formed, anatectic melt can exist in the middle and lower crust for a very long period of time. It is squeezed laterally to form sills, laccolithic and lopolithic structures of mobile granulite at depths of c. 10–20 km. In outcrop today only stages of this process arrested during its initial rapid uplift are visible. Wherever the resulting fractionated granulite rises steeply in the crust, water exits from its supercriticality phase, the granulite starts to crystallize, becomes firstly fractionated melt + crystals, then solid rock, whilst still at the conditions of temperature and pressure existing beyond 8 km. Water, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and other elements are exsolved under great pressure from the melt as it exits from supercritical conditions. These components rise rapidly towards the surface and contribute to formation of mineral deposits, volcanoes, mud volcanoes, geysers and hot springs..

Color-banded migmatites.

A leucosome is the lightest-colored part of migmatite. The melanosome is the darker part, and occurs between two leucosomes or, if remnants of the more or less unmodified parent rock (mesosome) are still present, it is arranged in rims around these remnants. When present, the mesosome is intermediate in color between leucosome and melanosome.

Migmatite textures.

Migmatite textures are the product of thermal softening of the metamorphic rocks. Schlieren textures are a particularly common example of granite formation in migmatites, and are often seen in restite xenoliths and around the margins of S-type granites.  Ptygmatic folds are formed by highly plastic ductile deformation of the gneissic banding, and thus have little or no relationship to a defined foliation, unlike most regular folds. Ptygmatic folds can occur restricted to compositional zones of the migmatite, for instance in fine-grained shale protoliths versus in coarse granoblastic sandy protolith.  When a rock undergoes partial melting some minerals will melt (neosome, i.e. newly formed), while others remain solid (paleosome, i.e. older formation). The neosome is composed of lightly-colored areas (leucosome) and dark areas (melanosome). The leucosome lies in the center of the layers and is mainly composed of quartz and feldspar. The melanosome is composed of cordierite, hornblende and biotite and forms the wall zones of the neosome.

Early history of migmatite investigations.

James Hutton (1795) made some of the earliest comments on the relationship between gneiss and granite: “If granite be truly stratified, and those strata connected with the other strata of the earth, it can have no claim to originality; and the idea of primitive mountains, of late so much employed by natural philosophers, must vanish, in a more extensive view of the operations of the globe; but it is certain that granite, or a species of the same kind of stone, is thus found stratified. It is the granit feuilletée of M. de Saussure, and, if I mistake not, what is called gneis by the Germans.” The minute penetration of gneiss, schists and sedimentary deposits altered by contact-metamorphism, alternating with granitic materials along the planes of schistosity was described by Michel-Lévy 1887, in his paper'Sur l'Origine des Terrains Cristallins Primitifs' he makes the following observations: “I first drew attention to the phenomenon of intimate penetration, ‘lit par lit’ of eruptive granitic and granulitic rocks that follow the schistosity planes of gneisses and schists... But in between, in the contact zones Immediately above eruptive rock, quartz and feldspars insert themselves, bed by bed, between the leaves of the micaceous shales; it started from a detrital shale, now we find it definitively transformed into a recent gneiss, very difficult to distinguish from ancient gneiss”. The coincidence of schistosity with bedding gave rise to the proposals of static or load metamorphism, advanced by Judd (1889), Milch (1894), and others. Vertical pressure due to the weight of the overlying load was recognized to be the controlling factor. Home and Greenly (1896) agreed that granitic intrusions are closely associated with metamorphic processes " the cause which brought about the introduction of the granite also resulted in these high and peculiar types of crystallization ". A later paper of Edward Greenly (1903) described the formation of granitic gneisses by solid diffusion, and ascribed the mechanism of lit-par-lit occurrence to the same process. Greenly (1903) drew attention to thin and regular seams of injected material, which indicated that these operations took place in hot rocks; also to undisturbed septa of country rocks, which suggested that the expression of the magma occurred by quiet diffusion rather than by forcible injection.. Sederholm (1907) called the migmatite-forming process palingenesis. and (although it specifically included partial melting and dissolution) he considered magma injection and its associated veined and brecciated rocks as fundamental to the process. The upward succession of gneiss, schist and phyllite in the Central European Urgebirge influenced Grubenmann (1910, p. 138) in his formulation of three depth-zones of metamorphism. Persuaded by the close connection between migmatization and granites in outcrop, Sederholm considered migmatites to be an intermediary between igneous and metamorphic rocks. He thought that the granitic partings in banded gneisses originated through the agency of either melt or a nebulous fluid, the ichor, both derived from nearby granites. An opposing view, proposed by Holmquist, was that the granitic material came from the adjacent country rock, not the granites, and that it was segregated by fluid transport. Holmquist believed that such replacive migmatites were produced during metamorphism at a relatively low metamorphic grade, with partial melting only intervening at high grade. Thus, the modern view of migmatites corresponds closely to Holmquist's concept of ultrametamorphism, and to Sederholm's concept of anatexis, but is far from the concept of palingenesis, or the various metasomatic and subsolidus processes proposed during the granitization debate; (see Read 1952). Read 1940, p. 249 considered that regionally metamorphosed rocks resulted from the passage of waves or fronts of metasomatizing solutions out from the central granitization core, above which arise the zones of metamorphism.

Agmatite.

The original name for this phenomenon was defined by Sederholm (1923) as a rock with "fragments of older rock cemented by granite", and was regarded by him to be a type of migmatlte. There is a close connection between migmatites and the occurrence of ‘explosion breccias’ in schists and phyllites adjacent to diorite and granite intrusions. Rocks matching this description can also be found around igneous intrusive bodies in low-grade or unmetamorphosed country-rocks. Brown (1973) argued that agmatites are not migmatites, and should be called ‘intrusion breccias’ or ‘vent agglomerates’. Reynolds (1951) thought the term ‘agmatite’ ought to be abandoned.

Migmatite melts provide buoyancy for sedimentary isostasy.

Recent geochronological studies from granulite-facies metamorphic terranes (e.g. Willigers et al. 2001) shows that metamorphic temperatures remained above the granite solidus for between 30 and 50 My. This suggests that once formed, anatectic melt can exist in the middle and lower crust for a very long period of time. The resulting granulite is free to move laterally and up weaknesses in the overburden in directions determined by the pressure gradient.  In areas where it lies beneath a deepening sedimentary basin, a portion of granulite melt will tend to move laterally beneath the base of previously metamorphosed rocks that have not yet reached the migmatic stage of anatexis. It will congregate in areas where pressure is lower. The melt will lose its volatile content when it reaches a level where temperature and pressure is less than the supercritical water phase boundary. The melt will crystallise at that level and prevent following melt from reaching that level until persistent following magma pressure pushes the overburden upwards.

Other migmatite hypotheses.

For migmatised argillaceous rocks, the partial or fractional melting would first produce a volatile and incompatible-element enriched rich partial melt of granitic composition. Such granites derived from sedimentary rock protoliths would be termed "S-type granite", are typically potassic, sometimes containing leucite, and would be termed adamellite, granite and syenite. Volcanic equivalents would be rhyolite and rhyodacite.  Migmatised igneous or lower-crustal rocks which melt do so to form a similar granitic "I-type granite" melt, but with distinct geochemical signatures and typically plagioclase dominant mineralogy forming monzonite, tonalite and granodiorite compositions. Volcanic equivalents would be dacite and trachyte.  It is difficult to melt mafic metamorphic rocks except in the lower mantle, so it is rare to see migmatitic textures in such rocks. However, eclogite and granulite are roughly equivalent mafic rocks.

Etymology.

The Finnish petrologist Jakob Sederholm first used the term in 1907 for rocks within the Scandinavian craton in southern Finland. The term was derived from the Greek word "μιγμα":, meaning a mixture.

Migmatite is a composite rock found in medium and high-grade metamorphic environments. It consists of two or more constituents often layered repetitively; one layer was formerly paleosome, a metamorphic rock that was reconstituted subsequently by partial melting; the alternate layer has a pegmatitic, aplitic, granitic or generally plutonic appearance. Commonly, migmatites occur below deformed metamorphic rocks that represent the base of eroded mountain chains, commonly within Precambrian cratonic blocks,

Migmatity (z řeckého "migma" – směs) jsou přeměněné horniny složené ze dvou složek, granitové a rulové. Nejčastěji mívají podobu páskovaných rul. Vyskytují se při okrajích granitových intruzí nebo v zónách nejvyššího stupně přeměny (ultrametamorfismu), kde již začíná částečná anatexe (roztavení horniny). Vznikají tak, že z magmatu unikající plyny a horké roztoky vnikají po plochách břidličnatosti do přeměněných hornin. Po ochlazení se z nich vyloučí minerály živec a křemen, které vytvoří v tmavé hornině (substrátu) světlé proužky (metatekt). Minerálním složením jsou migmatity blízké pararulám, způsobem vzniku zase magmatickým horninám. Často mají podobu páskovaných rul, od kterých je makroskopicky často nelze rozlišit. Proto jsou v soustavě přeměněných hornin řazeny do zvláštní skupiny smíšených hornin. Migmatit, jako hornina hybridního charakteru, tvoří hranici mezi přeměněnými a magmatickými horninami. Pro migmatity se původně používalo několik různých označení. Termín migmatit poprvé použil finský petrolog J. J. Sederholm v roce 1907, který zkoumal migmatity v oblasti Baltského štítu v jižním Finsku.