Biography.

Early life and career.

Max Roach was born to Alphonse and Cressie Roach in the Township of Newland, Pasquotank County, North Carolina, which borders the southern edge of the Great Dismal Swamp. The Township of Newland is sometimes mistaken for Newland Town in Avery County, North Carolina. Although his birth certificate lists his date of birth as January 10, 1924, Roach has been quoted by Phil Schaap, saying that his family believed he was actually born on January 8, 1925.  Roach's family moved to the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York when he was 4 years old. He grew up in a musical home with his gospel singer mother. He started to play bugle in parades at a young age. At the age of 10, he was already playing drums in some gospel bands.  In 1942, as an 18-year-old recently graduated from Boys High School, he was called to fill in for Sonny Greer with the Duke Ellington Orchestra performing at the Paramount Theater in Manhattan. He starting going to the jazz clubs on 52nd Street and at 78th Street & Broadway for Georgie Jay's Taproom, where he played with schoolmate Cecil Payne. His first professional recording took place in December 1943, backing Coleman Hawkins.  He was one of the first drummers, along with Kenny Clarke, to play in the bebop style. Roach performed in bands led by Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk, Coleman Hawkins, Bud Powell, and Miles Davis. He played on many of Parker's most important records, including the Savoy Records November 1945 session, which marked a turning point in recorded jazz. His early brush work with Powell's trio, especially at fast tempos, has been highly praised.  Max Roach nurtured an interest in and respect for Afro-Caribbean music and traveled to Haiti in the late 1940s to study with the traditional drummer Ti Roro.

1950s.

Roach studied classical percussion at the Manhattan School of Music from 1950 to 1953, working toward a Bachelor of Music degree. The school awarded him an Honorary Doctorate in 1990.  In 1952, Roach co-founded Debut Records with bassist Charles Mingus. The label released a record of a May 15, 1953 concert billed as "the greatest concert ever", which came to be known as "Jazz at Massey Hall", featuring Parker, Gillespie, Powell, Mingus, and Roach. Also released on this label was the groundbreaking bass-and-drum free improvisation, "Percussion Discussion".  In 1954, Roach and trumpeter Clifford Brown formed a quintet that also featured tenor saxophonist Harold Land, pianist Richie Powell (brother of Bud Powell), and bassist George Morrow. Land left the quintet the following year and was replaced by Sonny Rollins. The group was a prime example of the hard bop style also played by Art Blakey and Horace Silver. Brown and Powell were killed in a car accident on the Pennsylvania Turnpike in June 1956. The first album Roach recorded after their deaths was "Max Roach + 4". After Brown and Powell's deaths, Roach continued leading a similarly configured group, with Kenny Dorham (and later Booker Little) on trumpet, George Coleman on tenor, and pianist Ray Bryant. Roach expanded the standard form of hard bop using 3/4 waltz rhythms and modality in 1957 with his album "Jazz in 3/4 Time". During this period, Roach recorded a series of other albums for EmArcy Records featuring the brothers Stanley and Tommy Turrentine.  In 1955, he played drums for vocalist Dinah Washington at several live appearances and recordings. He appeared with Washington at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1958, which was filmed, and at the 1954 live studio audience recording of "Dinah Jams", considered to be one of the best and most overlooked vocal jazz albums of its genre.

1960s-1970s.

In 1960 he composed and recorded the album "We Insist!" (subtitled "Max Roach's Freedom Now Suite)", with vocals by his then-wife Abbey Lincoln and lyrics by Oscar Brown Jr., after being invited to contribute to commemorations of the hundredth anniversary of Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. In 1962, he recorded the album "Money Jungle", a collaboration with Mingus and Duke Ellington. This is generally regarded as one of the finest trio albums ever recorded.  During the 1970s, Roach formed M'Boom, a percussion orchestra. Each member composed for the ensemble and performed on multiple percussion instruments. Personnel included Fred King, Joe Chambers, Warren Smith, Freddie Waits, Roy Brooks, Omar Clay, Ray Mantilla, Francisco Mora, and Eli Fountain.  Long involved in jazz education, in 1972 Roach was recruited to the faculty of the University of Massachusetts Amherst by Chancellor Randolph Bromery. He taught at the university until the mid-1990s.

1980s-1990s.

In the early 1980s, Roach began presenting solo concerts, demonstrating that this multi-percussion instrument could fulfill the demands of solo performance and be entirely satisfying to an audience. He created memorable compositions in these solo concert, and a solo record was released by the Japanese jazz label Baystate. One of his solo concerts is available on video, which also includes video of a recording date for "Chattahoochee Red", featuring his working quartet, Odean Pope, Cecil Bridgewater, and Calvin Hill.  Roach also embarked on a series of duet recordings. Departing from the style he was best known for, most of the music on these recordings is free improvisation, created with Cecil Taylor, Anthony Braxton, Archie Shepp, and Abdullah Ibrahim. Roach created duets with other performers, including: a recorded duet with oration by Martin Luther King, "I Have a Dream"; a duet with video artist Kit Fitzgerald, who improvised video imagery while Roach created the music; a duet with his lifelong friend and associate Gillespie; and a duet concert recording with Mal Waldron.  During the 1980s Roach also wrote music for theater, including plays by Sam Shepard. He was composer and musical director for a festival of Shepard plays, called "ShepardSets", at La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club in 1984. The festival included productions of "Back Bog Beast Bait", "Angel City", and "Suicide in B Flat". In 1985, George Ferencz directed "Max Roach Live at La MaMa: A Multimedia Collaboration".  Roach found new contexts for performance, creating unique musical ensembles. One of these groups was "The Double Quartet", featuring his regular performing quartet with the same personnel as above, except Tyrone Brown replaced Hill. This quartet joined "The Uptown String Quartet", led by his daughter Maxine Roach and featuring Diane Monroe, Lesa Terry, and Eileen Folson.  Another ensemble was the "So What Brass Quintet", a group comprising five brass instrumentalists and Roach, with no chordal instrument and no bass player. Much of the performance consisted of drums and horn duets. The ensemble consisted of two trumpets, trombone, French horn, and tuba. Personnel included Cecil Bridgewater, Frank Gordon, Eddie Henderson, Rod McGaha, Steve Turre, Delfeayo Marsalis, Robert Stewart, Tony Underwood, Marshall Sealy, Mark Taylor, and Dennis Jeter.  Not content to expand on the music he was already known for, Roach spent the 1980s and 1990s finding new forms of musical expression and performance. He performed a concerto with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. He wrote for and performed with the Walter White gospel choir and the John Motley Singers. He also performed with dance companies, including the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater, the Dianne McIntyre Dance Company, and the Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company. He surprised his fans by performing in a hip hop concert featuring the Fab Five Freddy and the New York Break Dancers. Roach expressed the insight that there was a strong kinship between the work of these young black artists and the art he had pursued all his life.  Though Roach played with many types of ensembles, he always continued to play jazz. He performed with the Beijing Trio, with pianist Jon Jang and erhu player Jeibing Chen. His final recording, "Friendship", was with trumpeter Clark Terry. The two were longtime friends and collaborators in duet and quartet. Roach's final performance was at the 50th anniversary celebration of the original Massey Hall concert, with Roach performing solo on the hi-hat.  In 1994, Roach appeared on Rush drummer Neil Peart's "," performing "The Drum Also Waltzes" Parts 1 and 2 on of the 2-volume tribute album during the 1994 All-Star recording sessions.

Death.

In the early 2000s, Roach became less active due to the onset of hydrocephalus-related complications.  Roach died in Manhattan in the early morning of August 16, 2007. He was survived by five children: sons Daryl and Raoul, and daughters Maxine, Ayo, and Dara. Over 1,900 people attended his funeral at Riverside Church on August 24, 2007. He was interred at the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx.  In a funeral tribute to Roach, then-Lieutenant Governor of New York David Paterson compared the musician's courage to that of Paul Robeson, Harriet Tubman, and Malcolm X, saying that "No one ever wrote a bad thing about Max Roach's music or his aura until 1960, when he and Charlie Mingus protested the practices of the Newport Jazz Festival."

Personal life.

Two children, son Daryl Keith and daughter Maxine, were born from Roach's first marriage with Mildred Roach in 1949. In 1956, he met singer Barbara Jai (Johnson) and fathered another son, Raoul Jordu. During the period 1961–1970, Roach was married to singer Abbey Lincoln, who had performed on several of his albums. In 1971, twin daughters, Ayodele Nieyela and Dara Rashida, were born to Roach and his third wife, Janus Adams Roach.  He had four grandchildren: Kyle Maxwell Roach, Kadar Elijah Roach, Maxe Samiko Hinds, and Skye Sophia Sheffield.  On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Max Roach among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Style.

Roach started as a traditional grip player but used matched grip as well as his career progressed.  Roach's most significant innovations came in the 1940s, when he and Kenny Clarke devised a new concept of musical time. By playing the beat-by-beat pulse of standard 4/4 time on the ride cymbal instead of on the thudding bass drum, Roach and Clarke developed a flexible, flowing rhythmic pattern that allowed soloists to play freely. This also created space for the drummer to insert dramatic accents on the snare drum, crash cymbal, and other components of the trap set.  By matching his rhythmic attack with a tune's melody, Roach brought a newfound subtlety of expression to the drums. He often shifted the dynamic emphasis from one part of his drum kit to another within a single phrase, creating a sense of tonal color and rhythmic surprise. Roach said of the drummer's unique positioning, "In no other society do they have one person play with all four limbs."  While this is common today, when Clarke and Roach introduced the concept in the 1940s it was revolutionary. "When Max Roach's first records with Charlie Parker were released by Savoy in 1945", jazz historian Burt Korall wrote in the "Oxford Companion to Jazz", "drummers experienced awe and puzzlement and even fear." One of those drummers, Stan Levey, summed up Roach's importance: "I came to realize that, because of him, drumming no longer was just time, it was music."  In 1966, with his album "Drums Unlimited" (which includes several tracks that are entirely drum solos) he demonstrated that drums can be a solo instrument able to play theme, variations, and rhythmically cohesive phrases. Roach described his approach to music as "the creation of organized sound." The track "The Drum Also Waltzes" was often quoted by John Bonham in his "Moby Dick" drum solo and revisited by other drummers, including Neil Peart and Steve Smith. Bill Bruford performed a cover of the track on the 1985 album "Flags".

Honors.

Roach was given a MacArthur Genius Grant in 1988 and cited as a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in France in 1989. He was twice awarded the French Grand Prix du Disque, was elected to the International Percussive Art Society's Hall of Fame and the DownBeat Hall of Fame, and was awarded Harvard Jazz Master. He was celebrated by Aaron Davis Hall and was given eight honorary doctorate degrees, including degrees awarded by Medgar Evers College, CUNY, the University of Bologna, and Columbia University, in addition to his alma mater, the Manhattan School of Music.  In 1986, the London borough of Lambeth named a park in Brixton after Roach. Roach was able to officially open the park when he visited London in March of that year by invitation from the Greater London Council. During that trip, he performed at a concert at the Royal Albert Hall along with Ghanaian master drummer Ghanaba and others.  Roach spent his later years living at the Mill Basin Sunrise assisted living home in Brooklyn, and was honored with a proclamation honoring his musical achievements by Brooklyn borough president Marty Markowitz. Roach was inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 2009.

Discography.

As co–leader.

With Clifford Brown With M'Boom

As sideman.

With Chet Baker With Don Byas With Jimmy Cleveland With Al Cohn With Miles Davis With John Dennis With Kenny Dorham With Billy Eckstine With Duke Ellington With Maynard Ferguson With Stan Getz With Dizzy Gillespie With Benny Golson With Johnny Griffin With Slide Hampton With Coleman Hawkins With Joe Holiday With J.J. Johnson With Thad Jones With Abbey Lincoln With Booker Little With Howard McGhee With Gil Mellé With Charles Mingus With Thelonious Monk With Herbie Nichols With Charlie Parker With Oscar Pettiford With Bud Powell With Sonny Rollins With George Russell With A. K. Salim With Hazel Scott With Sonny Stitt With Stanley Turrentine With Tommy Turrentine With George Wallington With Dinah Washington With Randy Weston With Joe Wilder

Maxwell Lemuel Roach (January 10, 1924 – August 16, 2007) was an American jazz drummer and composer. A pioneer of bebop, he worked in many other styles of music, and is generally considered one of the most important drummers in history. He worked with many famous jazz musicians, including Coleman Hawkins, Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, Duke Ellington, Thelonious Monk, Abbey Lincoln, Dinah Washington, Charles Mingus, Billy Eckstine, Stan Getz, Sonny Rollins, Eric Dolphy, and Booker Little. He was inducted into the "DownBeat" Hall of Fame in 1980 and the "Modern Drummer" Hall of Fame in 1992.

Maxwell Lemuel Roach (10. ledna 1924–16. srpna 2007), známý také pod jménem Max Roach, byl americký jazzový bubeník, perkusista a skladatel. Patří k nejvlivnější bubeníkům dvacátého století. Byl průkopníkem bebopu, ovlivnil však i mnoho dalších hudebních žánrů. Hrál společně s takovými jazzovými velikány, jako byli např. Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, Duke Ellington, Charles Mingus, Sonny Rollins nebo Clifford Brown. Vedl také svůj jazzový ansámbl. Celý život bojoval za občanská práva černých obyvatel Spojených států.


History.

XDM (the X Window Display Manager) originated in X11R3. This first version, written by Keith Packard of the MIT X Consortium, had several limitations, the most notable of which was that it could not detect when users switched X terminals off and on. In X11R3, XDM only knew about an X terminal from its entry in the Xservers file, but XDM only consulted this file when it started. Thus every time a user switched a terminal off and on, the system administrator had to send a SIGHUP signal to XDM to instruct it to rescan Xservers.  XDMCP arrived with the introduction of X11R4 (December 1989). With XDMCP, the X server must actively request a display manager connection from the host. An X server using XDMCP therefore no longer requires an entry in Xservers.

Local and remote display management.

A display manager can run on the same computer where the user sits—starting one or more X servers, displaying the login screen at the beginning and (optionally) every time the user logs out—or on a remote one, working according to the XDMCP protocol.  The XDMCP protocol mandates that the X server starts autonomously and connects to the display manager. In the X Window System paradigm, the server runs on the computer providing the display and input devices. A server can connect, using the XDMCP protocol, to a display manager running on another computer, requesting it to start the session. In this case, the X server acts as a graphical telnet client while the display manager acts like a telnet server: users start programs from the computer running the display manager, while their input and output take place on the computer where the server (and the user) sits.  An administrator can typically configure an XDMCP Chooser program running on the local computer or X terminal to connect to a specific host's X display manager or to display a list of suitable hosts that the user can choose from. Most implementations enable such a list to contain:  When the user selects a host from the list, the XDMCP Chooser running on the local machine will send a message to the selected remote computer's display manager and instruct it to connect the X server on the local computer or terminal.

X Display Manager Control Protocol.

The X Display Manager Control Protocol uses UDP port 177. An X server requests that a display manager start a session by sending a codice_1 packet. If the display manager allows access for that X server, it responds by sending a codice_2 packet back to the X server. (The X server can also send codice_3 or codice_4 packets to start a session - this mechanism for requesting a session resembles using DHCP to request an IP address.)  The display manager must authenticate itself to the server. To do this the X server sends a codice_5 packet to the display manager, which returns an codice_6 packet. If the codice_6 packet contains the response the X server expects, the display manager is authenticated. Producing the correct response might require the display manager to have access to a secret key, for example. If authentication succeeds, the X server sends a codice_8 packet to inform the display manager. Then the display manager displays its login screen by connecting to the X server as a regular X client.  During the session, the server can send codice_9 packets to the display manager at intervals. If the display manager fails to respond with an codice_10 packet within a certain time, the X server presumes that the display manager has ceased running, and can terminate the connection. One problem with XDMCP is that, similarly to telnet, the authentication takes place unencrypted. If snooping is possible, this leaves the system vulnerable to attack. It is more secure to use an ssh tunnel for X traffic.

Implementations.

The X Window System supplies XDM as its standard display manager.  Programmers have developed other X display managers, both commercial and free, offering additional functionality over the basic display management:

Inactive.

On some Unix distributions, the default display manager is selected in file $PREFIX/etc/X11/default-display-manager.

In the X Window System, X display manager is a graphical login manager which starts a login session on an X server from the same or another computer.

X display manager je v grafickém systému X Window System proces, který umožňuje přihlášení uživatele z lokálního počítače nebo přes počítačovou síť. Zobrazí uživateli grafickou přihlašovací obrazovku, do které se vkládá uživatelské jméno a heslo. V případě úspěšné autentizace je zahájeno sezení (session), ve kterém jsou uživateli spuštěny programy, pomocí kterých je vytvořeno grafické uživatelské rozhraní. Zobrazení probíhá prostřednictvím X serveru, který ovládá grafickou kartu počítače.


Signs and symptoms.

The main signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis are salty-tasting skin, poor growth, and poor weight gain despite normal food intake, accumulation of thick, sticky mucus, frequent chest infections, and coughing or shortness of breath. Males can be infertile due to congenital absence of the vas deferens. Symptoms often appear in infancy and childhood, such as bowel obstruction due to meconium ileus in newborn babies.  As the children grow, they exercise to release mucus in the alveoli. Epithelial cells in the person have a mutated protein that leads to abnormally viscous mucus production. The poor growth in children typically presents as an inability to gain weight or height at the same rate as their peers, and is occasionally not diagnosed until investigation is initiated for poor growth. The causes of growth failure are multifactorial and include chronic lung infection, poor absorption of nutrients through the gastrointestinal tract, and increased metabolic demand due to chronic illness.  In rare cases, cystic fibrosis can manifest itself as a coagulation disorder. Vitamin K is normally absorbed from breast milk, formula, and later, solid foods. This absorption is impaired in some cystic fibrosis patients. Young children are especially sensitive to vitamin K malabsorptive disorders because only a very small amount of vitamin K crosses the placenta, leaving the child with very low reserves and limited ability to absorb vitamin K from dietary sources after birth. Because factors II, VII, IX, and X (clotting factors) are vitamin K–dependent, low levels of vitamin K can result in coagulation problems. Consequently, when a child presents with unexplained bruising, a coagulation evaluation may be warranted to determine whether an underlying disease is present.

Lungs and sinuses.

Lung disease results from clogging of the airways due to mucus build-up, decreased mucociliary clearance, and resulting inflammation. Inflammation and infection cause injury and structural changes to the lungs, leading to a variety of symptoms. In the early stages, incessant coughing, copious phlegm production, and decreased ability to exercise are common. Many of these symptoms occur when bacteria that normally inhabit the thick mucus grow out of control and cause pneumonia.  In later stages, changes in the architecture of the lung, such as pathology in the major airways (bronchiectasis), further exacerbate difficulties in breathing. Other signs include coughing up blood (hemoptysis), high blood pressure in the lung (pulmonary hypertension), heart failure, difficulties getting enough oxygen to the body (hypoxia), and respiratory failure requiring support with breathing masks, such as bilevel positive airway pressure machines or ventilators. "Staphylococcus aureus", "Haemophilus influenzae", and

Gastrointestinal.

Prior to prenatal and newborn screening, cystic fibrosis was often diagnosed when a newborn infant failed to pass feces (meconium). Meconium may completely block the intestines and cause serious illness. This condition, called meconium ileus, occurs in 5–10% of newborns with CF. In addition, protrusion of internal rectal membranes (rectal prolapse) is more common, occurring in as many as 10% of children with CF, and it is caused by increased fecal volume, malnutrition, and increased intra–abdominal pressure due to coughing.  The thick mucus seen in the lungs has a counterpart in thickened secretions from the pancreas, an organ responsible for providing digestive juices that help break down food. These secretions block the exocrine movement of the digestive enzymes into the duodenum and result in irreversible damage to the pancreas, often with painful inflammation (pancreatitis). The pancreatic ducts are totally plugged in more advanced cases, usually seen in older children or adolescents. This causes atrophy of the exocrine glands and progressive fibrosis.  The lack of digestive enzymes leads to difficulty absorbing nutrients with their subsequent excretion in the feces, a disorder

Endocrine.

The pancreas contains the islets of Langerhans, which are responsible for making insulin, a hormone that helps regulate blood glucose. Damage of the pancreas can lead to loss of the islet cells, leading to a type of diabetes unique to those with the disease. This cystic fibrosis-related diabetes shares characteristics that can be found

Infertility.

Infertility affects both men and women. At least 97% of men with cystic fibrosis are infertile, but not sterile and can have children with assisted reproductive techniques. The main cause of infertility in men with CF is congenital absence of the vas deferens (which normally connects the testes to the

Causes.

CF is caused by a mutation in the gene cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator ("CFTR"). The most common mutation, ΔF508, is a deletion (Δ signifying deletion) of three nucleotides that results in a loss of the amino acid phenylalanine (F) at the 508th position on the protein. This mutation accounts for two-thirds (66–70%) of CF cases worldwide and 90% of cases in the United States; however, over 1500 other mutations can produce CF. Although most people have two working copies (alleles) of the "CFTR" gene, only one is needed to prevent cystic fibrosis. CF develops when neither allele can produce a functional CFTR protein. Thus, CF is considered an autosomal recessive disease.  The "CFTR" gene, found at the q31.2 locus of chromosome 7, is 230,000 base pairs long, and creates a protein that is 1,480 amino acids long. More specifically, the location is between base pair 117,120,016 and 117,308,718 on the long arm of chromosome 7, region 3, band 1, subband 2, represented as 7q31.2. Structurally, the "CFTR" is a type of gene known as an ABC gene. The product of this gene (the CFTR protein) is a chloride ion channel important in creating sweat, digestive juices, and mucus. This protein possesses two ATP-hydrolyzing domains, which allows the protein to use energy in the form of ATP. It also contains two domains comprising six alpha helices apiece, which allow the protein to cross the cell membrane. A regulatory binding site on the protein allows activation by phosphorylation, mainly by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. The carboxyl terminal of the protein is anchored to the cytoskeleton by a PDZ domain interaction. The majority of CFTR in the lung's passages is produced by rare ion-transporting cells that regulate mucus properties.  In addition, the evidence is increasing that genetic modifiers besides "CFTR" modulate the frequency and severity of the disease. One example is mannan-binding lectin, which is involved in innate immunity by facilitating phagocytosis of microorganisms. Polymorphisms in one or both mannan-binding lectin alleles that result in lower circulating levels of the protein are associated with a threefold higher risk of end-stage lung disease, as well as an increased burden of chronic bacterial infections.

Carriers.

Up to 1 in 25 individuals of Northern European ancestry is considered a genetic carrier. The disease appears only when two of these carriers have children, as each pregnancy between them will have a 25% chance of producing a child with the disease. Although only about 1 of every 3,000 Caucasian newborns has CF, there are more than 900 known mutations of

Pathophysiology.

Several mutations in the "CFTR" gene can occur, and different mutations cause different defects in the CFTR protein, sometimes causing a milder or more severe disease. These protein defects are also targets for drugs which can sometimes restore their function. ΔF508-CFTR, which occurs in >90% of patients in the U.S., creates a protein that does not fold normally and is not appropriately transported to the cell membrane, resulting in its degradation.  Other mutations result in proteins that are too short (truncated) because production is ended prematurely. Other mutations produce proteins that do not use energy (in the form of ATP) normally, do not allow chloride, iodide, and thiocyanate to cross the membrane appropriately, and degrade at a faster rate than normal. Mutations may also lead to fewer copies of the CFTR protein being produced.  The protein created by this gene is anchored to the outer membrane of cells in the sweat glands, lungs, pancreas, and all other remaining exocrine glands in the body. The protein spans this membrane and acts as a channel connecting the inner part of the cell (cytoplasm) to the surrounding fluid. This channel is primarily responsible for controlling the movement of halide anions from inside to outside of the cell; however, in the sweat ducts, it facilitates the movement of chloride from the sweat duct into the cytoplasm. When the CFTR protein does not resorb ions in sweat ducts, chloride and thiocyanate released from sweat glands are trapped inside the ducts and pumped to the skin.  Additionally hypothiocyanite, OSCN, cannot be produced by the immune defense system. Because chloride is negatively charged, this modifies the electrical potential inside and outside the cell that normally causes cations to cross into the cell. Sodium is the most common cation in the extracellular space. The excess chloride within sweat ducts prevents sodium resorption by epithelial sodium channels and the combination of sodium and chloride creates the salt, which is lost in high amounts in the sweat of individuals with CF. This lost salt forms the basis for the sweat test.  Most of the damage in CF is due to blockage of the narrow passages of affected organs with thickened secretions. These blockages lead to remodeling and infection in the lung, damage by accumulated digestive enzymes in the pancreas, blockage of the intestines by thick feces, etc. Several theories have been posited on how the defects in the protein and cellular function cause the clinical effects. The most current theory suggests that defective ion transport leads to dehydration in the airway epithelia, thickening mucus. In airway epithelial cells, the cilia exist in between the cell's apical surface and mucus in a layer known as airway surface liquid (ASL). The flow of ions from the cell and into this layer is determined by ion channels such as CFTR. CFTR not only allows chloride ions to be drawn from the cell and into the ASL, but it also regulates another channel called ENac, which allows sodium ions to leave the ASL and enter the respiratory epithelium. CFTR normally inhibits this channel, but if the CFTR is defective, then sodium flows freely from the ASL and into the cell.  As water follows sodium, the depth of ASL will be depleted and the cilia will be left in the mucous layer. As cilia cannot effectively move in a thick, viscous environment, mucociliary clearance is deficient and a buildup of mucus occurs, clogging small airways. The accumulation of more viscous, nutrient-rich mucus in the lungs allows bacteria to hide from the body's immune system, causing repeated respiratory infections. The presence of the same CFTR proteins in the pancreatic duct and sweat glands in the skin also cause symptoms in these systems.

Diagnosis.

Cystic fibrosis may be diagnosed by many different methods, including newborn screening, sweat testing, and genetic testing. As of 2006 in the United States, 10% of cases are diagnosed shortly after birth as part of newborn screening programs. The newborn screen initially measures for raised blood concentration of immunoreactive trypsinogen. Infants with an abnormal newborn screen need a sweat test to confirm the CF diagnosis.  In many cases, a parent makes the diagnosis because the infant tastes salty. Immunoreactive trypsinogen levels can be increased in individuals who have a single mutated copy of the "CFTR" gene (carriers) or, in rare instances, in individuals with two normal copies of the "CFTR" gene. Due to these false positives, CF screening in newborns can be controversial.  Most U.S. states and countries do not screen for CF routinely at birth. Therefore, most individuals are diagnosed after symptoms (e.g. sinopulmonary disease and GI manifestations) prompt an evaluation for cystic fibrosis. The most commonly used form of testing is the sweat test. Sweat testing involves application of a medication that stimulates sweating (pilocarpine). To deliver the medication through the skin, iontophoresis is used, whereby one electrode is placed onto the applied medication and an electric current is passed to a separate electrode on the skin. The resultant sweat is then collected on filter paper or in a capillary tube and analyzed for abnormal amounts of sodium and chloride. People with CF have increased amounts of them in their sweat. In contrast, people with CF have less thiocyanate and hypothiocyanite in their saliva and mucus (Banfi et al.). In the case of milder forms of CF, transepithelial potential difference measurements can be helpful. CF can also be diagnosed by identification of mutations in the CFTR gene.  People with CF may be listed in a disease registry that allows researchers and doctors to track health results and identify candidates for clinical trials.

Prenatal.

Women who are pregnant or couples planning a pregnancy can have themselves tested for the "CFTR" gene mutations to determine the risk that their child will be born with CF. Testing is typically performed first on one or both parents and, if the risk of CF is high, testing on the fetus is performed. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends all people thinking of becoming pregnant be tested to see if they are a carrier.  Because development of CF in the fetus requires each parent to pass on a mutated copy of the "CFTR" gene and because CF testing is expensive, testing is often performed initially on one parent. If testing shows that parent is a "CFTR" gene mutation carrier, the other parent

Management.

While no cures for CF are known, several treatment methods are used. The management of CF has improved significantly over the past 70 years. While infants born with it 70 years ago would have been unlikely to live beyond their first year, infants today are likely to live well into adulthood. Recent advances in the treatment of cystic fibrosis have meant that individuals with cystic fibrosis can live a fuller life less encumbered by their condition. The cornerstones of management are the proactive treatment of airway infection, and encouragement of good nutrition and an active lifestyle. Pulmonary rehabilitation as a management of CF continues throughout a person's life, and is aimed at maximizing organ function, and therefore the quality of life. At best, current treatments delay the decline in organ function. Because of the wide variation in disease symptoms, treatment typically occurs at specialist multidisciplinary centers and is tailored to the individual. Targets for therapy are the lungs, gastrointestinal tract (including pancreatic enzyme supplements), the reproductive organs (including assisted reproductive technology), and psychological support.  The most consistent aspect of therapy in CF is limiting and treating the lung damage caused by thick mucus and infection, with the goal of maintaining quality of life. Intravenous, inhaled, and oral antibiotics are used to treat chronic and acute infections. Mechanical devices and inhalation medications are used to alter and clear the thickened mucus. These therapies, while effective, can be extremely time-consuming. Oxygen therapy at home is recommended in those with significant low oxygen levels.

Antibiotics.

Many people with CF are on one or more antibiotics at all times, even when healthy, to prophylactically suppress infection. Antibiotics are absolutely necessary whenever pneumonia is suspected or a noticeable decline in lung function is seen, and are usually chosen based on the results of a sputum analysis and the person's past response. This prolonged therapy often necessitates hospitalization and insertion of a more permanent IV such as a peripherally inserted central catheter or Port-a-Cath. Inhaled therapy with antibiotics such as tobramycin, colistin, and aztreonam is often given for months at a time to improve lung function by impeding the growth of colonized bacteria. Inhaled antibiotic therapy helps lung function by fighting infection, but also

Other medication.

Aerosolized medications that help loosen secretions include dornase alfa and hypertonic saline. Dornase is a recombinant human deoxyribonuclease, which breaks down DNA in the sputum, thus decreasing its viscosity. Dornase alpha improves lung function and probably decreases the risk of exacerbations but there is insufficient evidence to know if it is more or less effective than other similar medications. Denufosol, an investigational drug, opens an alternative chloride channel, helping to liquefy mucus. Whether inhaled corticosteroids are useful is unclear, but stopping inhaled corticosteroid therapy is safe. There is weak evidence that corticosteroid treatment may cause harm by interfering with growth. Pneumococcal vaccination has not been studied., there is no clear evidence from randomized controlled trials that

Vitamin supplementation.

It is uncertain whether vitamin A or beta-carotene supplementation have any effect on eye and skin problems caused by vitamin A deficiency.  There is no strong evidence that people with cystic fibrosis can prevent osteoporosis by increasing their intake of

Procedures.

Several mechanical techniques are used to dislodge sputum and encourage its expectoration. One technique good for short-term airway clearance is chest physiotherapy where a respiratory therapist percusses an individual's chest by hand several times a day, to loosen up secretions. This "percussive effect" can be administered also through specific devices that use chest wall oscillation or intrapulmonary percussive ventilator. Other methods such as biphasic cuirass ventilation, and associated clearance mode available in such devices, integrate a cough assistance phase, as well as a vibration phase for dislodging secretions. These are portable and adapted for home use.  Another technique is positive expiratory pressure physiotherapy that consists of providing a back pressure to the airways during expiration. This effect is provided by devices that consists of a mask or a mouthpiece in which a resistance is applied only on the expiration phase. Operating principles

Transplantation.

Lung transplantation often becomes necessary for individuals with CF as lung function and exercise tolerance decline. Although single lung transplantation is possible in other diseases, individuals with CF must have both lungs replaced because the

Other aspects.

Newborns with intestinal obstruction typically require surgery, whereas adults with distal intestinal obstruction syndrome typically do not. Treatment of pancreatic insufficiency by replacement of missing digestive enzymes allows the duodenum to properly absorb nutrients and vitamins that would otherwise be lost in the feces. However, the best dosage and form of pancreatic enzyme replacement is unclear, as are the risks and long-term effectiveness of this treatment.  So far, no large-scale research involving the incidence of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease in adults with cystic fibrosis has been conducted. This is likely because the vast majority of people with cystic fibrosis do not live long enough to develop clinically significant atherosclerosis or coronary heart disease.  Diabetes is the most common nonpulmonary complication of CF. It mixes features of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and is recognized as a distinct entity, cystic fibrosis-related diabetes. While oral antidiabetic drugs are sometimes used, the recommended treatment is the use of insulin injections or an insulin pump, and, unlike in type 1 and 2 diabetes, dietary restrictions are not recommended.  While Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is relatively common in people with cystic fibrosis, the evidence about

Prognosis.

The prognosis for cystic fibrosis has improved due to earlier diagnosis through screening and better treatment and access to health care. In 1959, the median age of survival of children with CF in the United States was six months. In 2010, survival is estimated to be 37 years for women and 40 for men. In Canada, median survival increased from 24 years in 1982 to 47.7 in 2007. In the United States those born with CF in 2016 have an expected life expectancy of 47.7 when cared for in specialty clinics.  In the US, of those with CF who are more than 18 years old as of 2009, 92% had graduated from high school, 67% had at least some college education, 15% were disabled, 9% were unemployed, 56% were single, and 39% were married or living with a partner.

Quality of life.

Chronic illnesses can be very difficult to manage. CF is a chronic illness that affects the "digestive and respiratory tracts resulting in generalized malnutrition and chronic respiratory infections". The thick secretions clog the airways in the lungs, which often cause inflammation and severe lung infections. If it is compromised, it affects the quality of life (QOL) of someone with CF and their ability to complete such tasks as everyday chores.  According to Schmitz and Goldbeck (2006), CF significantly increases emotional stress on both the

Epidemiology.

Cystic fibrosis is the most common life-limiting autosomal recessive disease among people of European heritage. In the United States, about 30,000 individuals have CF; most are diagnosed by six months of age. In Canada, about 4,000 people have CF. Around 1 in 25 people of European descent, and one in 30 of Caucasian Americans, is a carrier of a CF mutation. Although CF is less common in these groups, roughly one in 46 Hispanics, one in 65 Africans, and one in 90 Asians carry at least one abnormal "CFTR" gene. Ireland has the world's highest prevalence of CF, at one in 1353.  Although technically a rare disease, CF is ranked as one of the most widespread life-shortening genetic diseases. It is most common among nations in the Western world. An exception is Finland, where only one in 80 people carries a CF mutation. The World Health Organization states, "In the European Union, one in 2000–3000 newborns is found to be affected by CF". In the United States, one in 3,500 children is born with CF. In 1997, about one in 3,300 Caucasian children in the United States was born with CF. In contrast, only one in 15,000 African American children suffered from it, and in Asian Americans, the rate was even lower at one in 32,000.  Cystic fibrosis is diagnosed in males and females equally. For reasons that remain unclear, data have shown that males tend to have a longer life expectancy than females, but recent studies suggest this gender gap may no longer exist perhaps due to improvements in health care facilities, while a recent study from Ireland identified a link between the female hormone estrogen and worse outcomes in CF.  The distribution of CF alleles varies among populations. The frequency of ΔF508 carriers has been estimated at one in 200 in northern Sweden, one in 143 in Lithuanians, and one in 38 in Denmark. No ΔF508 carriers were found among 171 Finns and 151 Saami people. ΔF508 does occur in Finland, but it is a minority allele there. CF is known to occur in only 20 families (pedigrees) in Finland.

Evolution.

The ΔF508 mutation is estimated to be up to 52,000 years old. Numerous hypotheses have been advanced as to why such a lethal mutation has persisted and spread

History.

CF is supposed to have appeared about 3,000 BC because of migration of peoples, gene mutations, and new conditions in nourishment. Although the entire clinical spectrum of CF was not recognized until the 1930s, certain aspects of CF were identified much earlier. Indeed, literature from Germany and Switzerland in the 18th century warned ""Wehe dem Kind, das beim Kuß auf die Stirn salzig schmeckt, es ist verhext und muss bald sterben"" or "Woe to the child who tastes salty from a kiss on the brow, for he is cursed and soon must die", recognizing the association between the salt loss in CF and illness.  In the 19th century, Carl von Rokitansky described a case of fetal death with meconium peritonitis, a complication of meconium ileus associated with CF. Meconium ileus was first described in 1905 by Karl Landsteiner. In 1936, Guido Fanconi described a connection between celiac disease, cystic fibrosis of the pancreas, and bronchiectasis.  In 1938, Dorothy Hansine Andersen published an

Research.

Gene therapy.

Gene therapy has been explored as a potential cure for CF. Results from clinical trials have shown limited success, and using gene therapy as routine therapy is not suggested. A small study published in 2015 found a small benefit.  The focus of much CF gene therapy research is aimed at trying to place a normal copy of the "CFTR" gene into affected cells. Transferring the normal "CFTR" gene into the affected epithelium cells would result in the production of

Phage therapy.

Phage therapy is being studied

Gene modulators.

A number of small molecules that aim at compensating various mutations of the "CFTR" gene are under development. CFTR modulator therapies have been used in place of other types of genetic therapies. These therapies focus on the expression of a genetic mutation instead of the mutated gene itself. Modulators are split into two classes: potentiators and correctors. Potentiators act on the CFTR ion channels that are embedded in the cell membrane, and these types of drugs help open up the channel to allow transmembrane flow. Correctors are meant to assist in the transportation of nascent proteins, a protein that is formed by ribosomes before it is morphed into a specific shape, to the cell surface to be implemented into the cell membrane.  Most target the transcription stage of genetic expression. One approach has been to

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder that affects mostly the lungs, but also the pancreas, liver, kidneys, and intestine. Long-term issues include difficulty breathing and coughing up mucus as a result of frequent lung infections. Other signs and symptoms may include sinus infections, poor growth, fatty stool, clubbing of the fingers and toes, and infertility in most males. Different people may have different degrees of symptoms. CF is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. It is caused by the presence of mutations in both copies of the gene for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein. Those with a single working copy are carriers and otherwise mostly healthy. CFTR is involved in the production of sweat, digestive fluids, and mucus. When the CFTR is not functional, secretions which are usually thin instead become thick. The condition is diagnosed by a sweat test and genetic testing. Screening of infants at birth takes place in some areas of the world. There is no known cure for cystic fibrosis. Lung infections are treated with antibiotics which may be given intravenously, inhaled, or by mouth. Sometimes, the antibiotic azithromycin is used long term. Inhaled hypertonic saline and salbutamol may also be useful. Lung transplantation may be an option if lung function continues to worsen. Pancreatic enzyme replacement and fat-soluble vitamin supplementation are important, especially in the young. Airway clearance techniques such as chest physiotherapy have some short-term benefit, but long-term effects are unclear. The average life expectancy is between 42 and 50 years in the developed world. Lung problems are responsible for death in 80% of people with cystic fibrosis. CF is most common among people of Northern European ancestry and affects about one out of every 3,000 newborns. About one in 25 people is a carrier. It is least common in Africans and Asians. It was first recognized as a specific disease by Dorothy Andersen in 1938, with descriptions that fit the condition occurring at least as far back as 1595. The name "cystic fibrosis" refers to the characteristic fibrosis and cysts that form within the pancreas.

Cystická fibróza (CF) neboli mukoviscidóza je lidské geneticky podmíněné onemocnění, které postihuje převážně dýchací a trávicí soustavu. Jde o autozomální recesivní vrozené onemocnění způsobené mutací genu produkujícího protein CFTR (). Jedná se o gen uložený na dlouhém raménku 7. chromozomu. Gen kóduje protein, který je klíčový pro chloridový ABC transportér na buněčné membráně.


Latin.

In Classical Latin, the combination "AE" denotes the diphthong, which had a value similar to the long "i" in "fine" as pronounced in most dialects of Modern English. Both classical and present practice is to write the letters separately, but the ligature was used in medieval and early modern writings, in part because "æ" was reduced to the simple vowel during the Roman Empire. In some medieval scripts, the ligature was simplified to "ę", an "e" with ogonek, the "e caudata". That was further simplified into a plain "e", which may have influenced or been influenced by the pronunciation change. However, the ligature is still relatively common in liturgical books and musical scores.

French.

In the modern French alphabet, "æ" is used to spell Latin and Greek borrowings like "tænia" and "ex æquo". It was mentioned in Serge Gainsbourg's song "Elaeudanla Téïtéïa" (e.g. "L, A, E dans l'A, T, I, T, I, A"), which is the spelling in French of the name Lætitia.

English.

In English, usage of the ligature varies between different places and contexts, but it is fairly rare. In modern typography, if technological limitations make the use of "æ" difficult (such as in use of typewriters, telegraphs, or ASCII), the digraph "ae" is often used instead.  In the United States, the issue of the ligature is sidestepped in many cases by use of a simplified spelling with "e", as happened with œ as well. Usage, however, may vary; for example, "medieval" is now more common than "mediaeval" (and the now old-fashioned "mediæval") even in the United Kingdom, but "archaeology" is preferred over "archeology", even in the US.  Given their long history, ligatures are sometimes used to show archaism or in literal quotations of historic sources; for instance, in those contexts, words such as "dæmon" and "æther" are often so spelled.  The ligature is seen on gravestones of the 19th century, short for "ætate" ("at the age (of)"): "Æ "xx"Ys, "yy"Ms, "zz"Ds." It is also common in formal typography (invitations, resolutions, announcements and some government documents).  In Old English, "æ" represented a sound between "a" and "e" (), very much like the short "a" of "cat" in many dialects of Modern English. If long vowels are distinguished from short vowels, the long version is marked with a macron ("ǣ") or, less commonly, an acute ("ǽ").

Other Germanic languages.

In Old Norse, "æ" represents the long vowel. The short version of the same vowel,, if it is distinguished from, is written as "ę".  In most varieties of Faroese, "æ" is pronounced as follows:  One of its etymological origins is Old Norse é (the other is Old Norse æ), which is particularly evident in the dialects of Suðuroy, where Æ is or :  In Icelandic, "æ" represents the diphthong, which can be long or short.  In Danish and Norwegian, "æ" is a separate letter of the alphabet that represents a monophthong. It follows "z" and precedes "ø" and "å". In Norwegian, there are four ways of pronouncing the letter:  In many western, northern and southwestern Norwegian dialects and in the western Danish dialects of and Southern Jutland, has a significant meaning: the first person singular pronoun I. It is thus a normal spoken word and is usually written when such dialects are rendered in writing. It is prounounced, contrary to the definite article which is pronounced.  In western and southern Jutish dialects of Danish, is also the proclitic definite article: (the house), as opposed to Standard Danish and all other Nordic varieties which have enclitic definite articles (Danish, Swedish, Norwegian:, Icelandic, Faroese: (the house)).  The equivalent letter in German and Swedish is, but it is not located at the same place within the alphabet. In German, it is not a separate letter from "A" but in Swedish, it is the second-last letter (between å and ö).  In the normalised spelling of Middle High German, represents a long vowel. The actual spelling in the manuscripts varies, however.

Ossetic.

Ossetic used the letter "æ" when it was written using the Latin script from 1923 to 1938. Since then, Ossetian has used a Cyrillic alphabet with an identical-looking letter (Ӕ and ӕ). It is pronounced as a mid-central vowel (schwa).

South American languages.

The letter "æ" is used in the official orthography of Kawésqar spoken in Chile and also in that of the Fuegian language Yaghan.

International Phonetic Alphabet.

The symbol is also used in the International Phonetic Alphabet to denote a near-open front unrounded vowel like in the word "cat" in many dialects of Modern English, which is the sound that was most likely represented by the Old English letter. In the IPA, it is always in lowercase.

Uralic Phonetic Alphabet.

The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA) uses several additional æ-related symbols:

Computer encodings and entering.

Cyrillic.

The Latin letters are frequently used in place of the Cyrillic Ӕ and ӕ in Cyrillic texts (such as on Ossetian sites on the Internet).

Æ (minuscule: æ) is a character formed from the letters "a" and "e", originally a ligature representing the Latin diphthong "ae". It has been promoted to the full status of a letter in some languages, including Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faroese. It was also used in Old Swedish before being changed to ä. Today, the International Phonetic Alphabet uses it to represent the "a" sound in the English word "cat". Variants include Ǣ ǣ Ǽ ǽ Æ̀ æ̀ Æ̂ æ̂ Ǣ ǣ Æ̃ æ̃.

Æ (æ) je písmeno (grafém) latinské abecedy, vzniklé spojení písmen "a" a "e". Původně jde o ligaturu představující latinskou dvojhlásku. Je součástí abecedy některých jazyků (norština, dánština, islandština, faerština, latina). Používalo se též ve staré angličtině.


Construction.

In the pit, the walls are specially designed to provide the best possible acoustics, ensuring that the sound of the orchestra flows through the entire venue without overwhelming the performance on stage. Many orchestra pits are also designed to have reasonably low decibel levels, allowing musicians to work without fears of damaging their hearing. Typically, a small platform in the pit accommodates the conductor, so that he or she can be seen by all of the musicians, who may sit in chairs or on bleachers, depending on the design of the pit.  The lift can usually be lowered all the way to a storage space under the stage, or halfway to floor level, or all the way up level with the stage. When lowered all the way, the lift can be filled with equipment or props from underneath the stage and then raised and unloaded on stage. The pit can be raised so it is level with the floor of the audience seats to accommodate more seating area. This is common when the stage is being used for a rock show and then the pit area is used for standing room. When the pit is raised all the way up, level with the stage, it can be used as part of the stage to give more room for larger shows. Having a lift set up this way gives the theatre much more flexibility and ability to adapt to different events that occur in the theatre. It allows many different setups, each one personal to certain types of productions.  An orchestra pit doesn't have to be located directly in front of the stage, either, although many patrons expect to see the orchestra performing in front of the stage; when an orchestra pit is elsewhere in the theaters, the conductor's movements may be broadcast on monitors visible from the stage, so that the actors can follow cues.

History.

Earlier in theatre history from 1500–1650 the orchestra pit was also called the yard and it was a lower level that lower-class members of the audience would stand to watch the show. It was generally very crowded and hard to see the full stage. The amount of space in the yard varied with different stages. Everyone else would sit in the normal seating where the whole stage was visible. Since then the orchestra pit has been changed and enhanced to work better with modern theatre. Now orchestra pits are designed much better and have a lot of different uses.

Uses.

Sometimes when an opera or musical is being performed in the theatre and there is a need for live music the orchestra pit will be lowered all the way down and the musicians will play down in the pit in front of the stage. This way the director of the orchestra is able to see what is happening on stage and has a better feel for when to start and stop the music. Sometimes there are very precise cues that director needs to give for certain sound effects and it is crucial that they are done at the right time. Having the orchestra play in the pit creates a problem because often there is a lack of space and the sound quality suffers because instruments bleed into other instrument’s microphones when everyone is squeezed close together. Before the 19th century the conductor stood at the stage edge, facing the audience and orchestra, with his back toward the onstage performers as shown in the Palais Garnier orchestra pit plan. During the late 19th century the typical conductor location changed. Now the conductor stands in front of the first row of audience, with his back to the audience, facing the orchestra and facing the performers on stage.

An orchestra pit is the area in a theater (usually located in a lowered area in front of the stage) in which musicians perform. Orchestral pits are utilized in forms of theatre that require music (such as opera and ballet) or in cases when incidental music is required. The conductor is typically positioned at the front of the orchestral pit facing the stage.

Orchestřiště je zvláštní část velkého kamenného divadla, ve kterém obvykle během divadelního představení účinkuje orchestr. Vzhledem k tomu, že je nutné, aby hudbu z orchestru bylo dobře slyšet jak na jevišti tak i v hledišti bývá orchestřiště umístěno na stavebně sníženém místě v prostoru mezi hledištěm a jevištěm. Součástí orchestřiště musí být dirigentský pult, který musí být umístěn tak, aby bylo na dirigenta vidět ze všech míst na jevišti, dále také běžné potřeby pro muzikanty - notové stojany, sedačky, lampičky pro osvětlování notových zápisů apod. Jak již bylo uvedeno, orchestřiště bývá stavebně sníženo tak, aby hudebníci nepřekáželi divákům ve výhledu a hercům či pěvcům v kontaktu s diváky, z tohoto důvodu mívá orchestřiště také svůj vlastní vchod, kterým hudebníci a dirigent přicházejí a odcházejí tak, aby nerušili ani diváky, ani ostatní účinkující.


Description.

The willow ptarmigan is a medium to large ground-dwelling bird and is the most numerous of the three species of ptarmigan. Males and females are about the same size, the adult length varying between with a wingspan ranging from. The weight is. It is deep-chested and has a fairly long neck, a broad bill, short feathered legs and a moderately short rounded tail. In the summer, the male's plumage is marbled brown, with a reddish hue to the neck and breast, a black tail and white wings and underparts. It has two inconspicuous wattles above the eyes, which become red and prominent in the breeding season. The female is similar in appearance but lacks the wattles and has brown feathers scattered among the white feathers on the belly. During winter, the plumage of both sexes becomes completely white, except for some black feathers in the tail. Immature birds resemble the adults. The willow ptarmigan can be distinguished from the closely related rock ptarmigan ("Lagopus muta") by its larger size and thicker bill and by the fact that it is not generally found above the tree line while the rock ptarmigan prefers more elevated, barren habitat. The summer plumage is browner and in the winter, the male willow ptarmigan lacks the rock ptarmigan's black stripe between the eyes and bill. The white-tailed ptarmigan ("Lagopus leucura") in North America is smaller, has a white tail and finely-barred greyer plumage and lives permanently above the tree line. The distinctive British Isles subspecies "L. l. scoticus" (red grouse) was once considered a separate true British species but is now classified as a sub-species. This moorland bird is reddish brown all over, except for its white feet.  The voice is low-pitched and guttural and includes chuckles, repeated clucking sounds, expostulations. When displaying, the male makes rattles and barking noises.

Taxonomy and systematics.

The willow ptarmigan's scientific name, "Lagopus lagopus" is derived from Ancient Greek "lagos" (λαγως) "hare" + "pous" (πους) "foot", in reference to the bird's feathered feet which allow it to negotiate frozen ground.

Subspecies.

Nineteen subspecies have been recognised though some are believed not to be valid. Most differ little in appearance, though the red grouse "(L. l. scoticus)" is rather distinct. The taxonomy is confused, partly because of the complicated changes in plumage several times a year and the differing colour and pattern of the summer plumage:  The willow ptarmigan often hybridises with the black grouse ("Tetrao tetrix") and the hazel grouse ("Tetrastes bonasia") and occasionally with the western capercaillie ("Tetrao urogallus"), the spruce grouse ("Falcipennis canadensis") and the rock ptarmigan ("Lagopus muta").  During the Pleistocene, the willow ptarmigan widely occurred in continental Europe. Authors who recognize paleosubspecies have named the Pleistocene willow ptarmigan "L. l. noaillensis" (though the older name "medius" might be the correct one). These marginally different birds are said to have gradually changed from the earlier (Pliocene) "Lagopus atavus" into the present-day species "L. lagopus". Pleistocene willow ptarmigan are recorded from diverse sites until the end of the Vistulian glaciation about 10,000 years ago, when the species, by then all but identical with the living birds, retreated northwards with its tundra habitat.

Distribution and habitat.

The willow ptarmigan has a circum-boreal distribution. It is native to Canada and the United States, China, Mongolia, the Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, the Czech Republic, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Germany, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Spain. It primarily occupies subalpine and subarctic habitats such as sparse pine and birch forests, thickets with willow and alder trees, heather moors, tundra and mountain slopes. In the winter, females and sub-adults may move to lower altitudes and seek shelter in valleys or in more densely vegetated areas, but adult males usually remain in the subalpine region. The red grouse is common on heather-clad moorland across the north and west of Great Britain and in localised areas of Ireland.

Diet.

The willow ptarmigan has a varied and seasonal diet. The bird is herbivorous for most of its life and subsists on various plant materials. As juveniles, they may feed on insects due to an inability to digest plant material caused by underdeveloped cecums. In the summer, their diet is highly varied and may consist of berries, flowers, leaves, twigs and seeds.  In Alaska, the main dietary item of the adults at all times of year is willows such as the Alaska willow "Salix alaxensis", with leaves being eaten in summer and buds, twigs and catkins supplying the birds' main nutritional needs in winter and early spring. In the early twenty-first century, there has been an increase in shrub expansion in arctic Alaska that is thought to be greatly affecting the willow ptarmigan's winter diet. Because of the way they browse, Ptarmigan help shape the landscape of the area. After heavy snowfalls, the birds cannot access the shorter shrubs as they are blanketed with snow, so they will eat the taller species that poke through. In one study it was found that 90% of the buds of the Alaska willow within their reach had been browsed. This will stunt the willows and create a feedback cycle extending through the entire ecosystem. However, in winters with below average snowfall, the browsing of Ptarmigans will not have such a drastic effect as their feeding will be spread out across a range of lower plant species. It is also believed that the greening of parts of the Arctic is affecting Willow Ptarmigan populations by altering the shape and size of the shrubs they are able to feed on.

Behavior.

Male willow ptarmigans are territorial birds. Males arrive in the breeding areas and set up territories in April and May, aggressively defending them against male interlopers. When the females arrive a few weeks later, the male performs courtship displays such as aerial manoeuvres, strutting and tail-fanning. When she has chosen a mate and a nesting site, the female lays a clutch of six to ten eggs in a shallow depression on the ground. The nest site is usually in a hidden location at the edge of a clearing.  A small minority of male willow ptarmigan are polygynous but most are monogamous. They are assiduous at guarding both nest and mate, particularly early in the incubation period and when the eggs are nearly ready to hatch. During this time, the greatest danger may be from conspecifics. Although adult willow ptarmigans are herbivores, the newly hatched young also feed on insects. In most other species of grouse, only the female takes care of the young, but the male willow ptarmigan also helps with feeding the brood and protecting them. He may take over completely if the female dies. In particular, the male defends the young from predators and both he and his mate can dive-bomb intruders or lure attackers away by pretending to have a broken wing. Nevertheless, the chicks face many dangers which range from attacks by foxes or birds of prey, getting separated from the rest of the brood, bad weather and coccidiosis. Fewer than 35% of chicks survive to eleven months and only a minority of these reach maturity. Despite this, in favourable seasons, many juveniles may survive and the population of willow ptarmigan is prone to wide fluctuations in size. By September, families begin to form flocks. The females and young migrate to lower altitudes and may overwinter from their breeding grounds in wooded valleys and hilly country. The males also congregate in small groups but do not usually travel as far as the females.

State bird.

The willow ptarmigan was adopted as the state bird of Alaska in 1955.

Status.

Widespread and not uncommon in its remote habitat, the willow ptarmigan is classified as a species of "Least Concern" by the IUCN. This is because, even if, as is suspected, numbers are declining slightly, it has a very wide range with a total population estimated at forty million individuals.

The willow ptarmigan () ("Lagopus lagopus") is a bird in the grouse subfamily Tetraoninae of the pheasant family Phasianidae. It is also known as the willow grouse and in Ireland and Britain, where it was previously considered to be a separate species, as the red grouse. It is a sedentary species, breeding in birch and other forests and moorlands in northern Europe, the tundra of Scandinavia, Siberia, Alaska and Canada, in particular in the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador and Quebec. It is the state bird of Alaska. In the summer the birds are largely brown, with dappled plumage, but in the winter they are white with some black feathers in their tails (British populations do not adopt a winter plumage). The species has remained little changed from the bird that roamed the tundra during the Pleistocene. Nesting takes place in the spring when clutches of four to ten eggs are laid in a scrape on the ground. The chicks are precocial and soon leave the nest. While they are young, both parents play a part in caring for them. The chicks eat insects and young plant growth while the adults are completely herbivorous, eating leaves, flowers, buds, seeds and berries during the summer and largely subsisting on the buds and twigs of willow and other dwarf shrubs and trees during the winter.

Bělokur rousný ("Lagopus lagopus"), někdy nazýván bělokur tundrový či kur rousný, je středně velký pták z řádu hrabavých ("Galliformes"), čeledi bažantovitých ("Phasianidae"), podčeledi tetřevi ("Tetraoninae"). Hnízdí v březinách nebo jiných lesích a v tundře v severní Eurasii, na Aljašce a v severní Kanadě. Bělokur rousný je jedním ze symbolů Aljašky.


Early life.

Sinise was born in Blue Island, Illinois, son of Robert L. Sinise, a film editor, and Mylles (Alsip) Sinise. His paternal grandfather was of Italian descent, Sinise's great-grandfather Vito Sinisi having immigrated from Ripacandida, in the Italian region of Basilicata. Sinise briefly attended Glenbard West High School in Glen Ellyn, Illinois, and later graduated from Highland Park High School in Highland Park, Illinois.  In 1974, Sinise and two friends, Terry Kinney and Jeff Perry, founded the Steppenwolf Theatre Company. Since then, Steppenwolf has showcased the talents of notable actors such as Joan Allen, Kevin Anderson, Gary Cole, Ethan Hawke, Glenne Headly, John Mahoney, John Malkovich, Laurie Metcalf, Martha Plimpton, Jim True-Frost, and most recently William Petersen. Sinise honed his acting and directing skills at Steppenwolf, and received a Joseph Jefferson Award for his direction of Lyle Kessler's play "Orphans". That took him from Chicago to New York City, and then to London's West End, where he worked on more than thirty of the company's productions.

Career.

In 1982, Sinise's career began to take off when he directed and starred in Steppenwolf's production of "True West". In 1983, he earned an Obie Award for his direction, and a year later appeared with John Malkovich in the PBS' "American Playhouse" production of the play. In 1988, Sinise directed "Miles from Home", a film starring Richard Gere, about two brothers' fight against the foreclosure of the family farm. Sinise collaborated with fellow actor Tom Hanks five times, including "Forrest Gump", "Apollo 13", and "The Green Mile". Other noteworthy films in which Sinise has appeared include "Of Mice and Men" (which he directed), "Reindeer Games", "Snake Eyes", "Ransom", "Mission to Mars", "The Stand" and "Impostor". He narrated the audiobooks for John Steinbeck's "Travels with Charley".  In 2004, he began his first regular television series, in the crime drama "", in which he plays Detective Mac Taylor. He was credited as a producer from season two onwards and wrote the storyline of an episode. Several episodes have allowed Sinise to demonstrate his musical prowess, including a season-two episode where Mac Taylor plays the bass guitar in a jazz club with musicians Kimo and Carol Williams and Danny Gottlieb, members of the Lt. Dan Band, which Sinise and Kimo Williams co-founded in 2003. The band is named for Sinise's character in "Forrest Gump".  Apart from his television and movie work, Sinise is the host in the video for the Epcot ride, at Walt Disney World, Orlando, Florida, and a model for Baume & Mercier watches. He co-founded Operation Iraqi Children. Sinise said, "Iraq is in the news every day, and most of it is bad. But there are some positive stories. And how our soldiers are rebuilding schools and helping kids is one of them."  Sinise was the narrator for the Discovery Channel's miniseries "When We Left Earth" in 2008. He was awarded the Presidential Citizen Medal by George W. Bush for work he did supporting the U.S. military and humanitarian work supporting Iraqi children. He narrated Army and Army Reserve Army Strong recruitment ads in late 2008. He is also the national spokesperson for the American Veterans Disabled for Life Memorial.  Sinise is the executive producer—along with David Scantling—of the Iraq War documentary "Brothers at War". The film features an American military family and the experiences of three brothers: Jake Rademacher, Isaac Rademacher, and Joseph Rademacher.  In November 2009, Sinise narrated the highly acclaimed "World War II in HD" on the History Channel. In 2010, he narrated the World War II documentary "Missions That Changed The War" on the Military Channel. In late 2002, he started the Cadillac commercials starting with the 2002–2003 Season's Best commercial and has been with the Break Through campaign since it started the campaign in the 2002 Super Bowl with Led Zeppelin's "Rock and Roll" then ended in late 2006. In 2009, Sinise lent his voice talents in the Thomas Nelson audio Bible production known as "The Word of Promise", playing the character of David.  On April 17, 2017, Sinise received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in the television industry, located at 6664 Hollywood Boulevard.  On October 30, 2017, Sinise was selected as Grand Marshal of the Pasadena Tournament of Roses Parade, which took place on January 1, 2018.

Personal life.

Sinise married actress Moira Harris in 1981. They have three children. In 2003, Sinise was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters by Amherst College. He was awarded the U.S. Presidential Citizens Medal by President George W. Bush in 2008.  Sinise is a devoted fan of the Chicago Cubs and the Chicago Bears. He also is a fan of the band Kansas.  Sinise is a practicing Roman Catholic. He converted to the faith on December 24, 2010. His wife, Moira, converted in 2000.

Politics.

In 2005, Sinise founded Friends of Abe, a support and networking group for conservative members of Hollywood.  Sinise's name was in an advertisement in the "Los Angeles Times" (August 17, 2006) that condemned Hamas and Hezbollah and supported Israel in the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict. In June 2008, Sinise donated $2,300 to the Republican presidential primary campaign of Arizona Senator John McCain. Nicolle Wallace, a former adviser to George W. Bush and the presidential campaign of John McCain, stated in May 2009 that she believed Sinise could help bring about a resurgence of the Republican Party. Wallace stated, "The natural strengths that an actor brings to politics would come in handy to anyone going up against Obama in 2012. We will need an effective communicator who can stand toe to toe with Obama’s eloquence." Other names mentioned were those of Generals David Petraeus and Ray Odierno. Sinise narrates the online virtual tour for the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and spoke at the centennial celebration of Reagan's birth at the library in February 2011.  In September 2012, Sinise donated to Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney. Sinise's Republican-leaning has been written into his character of Mac Taylor who has a picture of Ronald Reagan displayed in his office, and is once the subject of a joke by one of his colleagues about an eight-hour documentary about Reagan he keeps watching over and over.  Although a staunch supporter of the Republican Party, Sinise refused to vote or show support for Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election. After Trump questioned McCain's status as a hero because he was captured as a prisoner of war, Sinise rebuked Trump.

Humanitarian Work.

Sinise is a supporter of various veterans' organizations, both personally and through the Lt. Dan Band. He frequently performs on USO tours at military bases around the world, and volunteered for the National Vietnam Veterans Arts Museum now called the National Veterans Art Museum. On June 8, 2011, he put on a space suit to become one of the few people to fly in a U-2 spy plane up to 70,000 feet (21,000 m). Sinise is also on the Advisory Council of Hope For The Warriors, a national nonprofit dedicated to provide a full cycle of nonmedical care to combat-wounded service members, their families, and families of the fallen from each military branch. Sinise narrates the audiobook of John Steinbeck's "Of Mice and Men," which was released on April 13, 2011. In December 2011, Sinise was the narrator at the Candelight Processional at Disneyland. In August 2012, Sinise was honored at the United States Navy Memorial, by Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy (MCPON) Rick West, and was made an honorary U.S. Navy Chief Petty Officer for his efforts in helping veterans. On August 29, 2013, he was named an honorary Marine by the Commandant of the Marine Corps. In 2006, Sinise began co-hosting the National Memorial Day Concert on the Mall in Washington, D.C., with actor and Illinois native Joe Mantegna. He serves as the national spokesperson for the American Veterans Disabled for Life Memorial and spends much of his time raising awareness for the memorial and other veterans' service organizations. In 2012, he was honored by the Joe Foss Institute for his dedication to veterans. In 2013, he was awarded the third highest honor within the Department of the Army Civilian Awards, the Outstanding Civilian Service Award, for substantial contributions to the U.S. Army community through his work with the Gary Sinise Foundation. Each year the foundation raises over $30 million which it uses to benefit military veterans, including building smart homes for those who are disabled. He participated in Troopathon VI for 2013, as he has in the past, to help raise money for care packages for American troops. He received 2015's Sylvanus Thayer Award, awarded by the West Point Association of Graduates to a non-West Point graduate whose character, service, and achievements reflect the ideals prized by the U.S. Military Academy.

Honors.

Over the years, Sinise has received numerous honors for his humanitarian work and his work on behalf of military veterans and families.

Gary Alan Sinise (; born March 17, 1955) is an American actor, director, musician, producer and philanthropist. Among other awards, he has won an Primetime Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and was nominated for multiple Tony Awards and a Academy Award.

Gary Alan Sinise (* 17. březen 1955, Blue Island, Illinois) je americký herec a filmový režisér, držitel Emmy a Zlatého glóbu, nominovaný na Zlatou palmu a Oscara (za roli poručíka Dana Taylora ve filmu "Forrest Gump"). Hraje detektiva Maca Taylora v seriálu "Kriminálka New York".


Plot.

While digging on Dakara, SG-1 discovers a box that they believe contains the Ark of Truth, but before they can open it, Ori soldiers arrive, led by Tomin. Daniel tricks them into opening the box, but it is revealed to be a fake. When Tomin is ordered by a Prior to kill them, he refuses, and Mitchell kills the Prior, whose powers were being blocked by the Anti-Prior device. Shocked at the death of their Prior, the Ori soldiers surrender with Tomin returning to Earth with SG-1 where he resides at the SGC for a time.  Back on Earth, General Landry and Mitchell meet James Marrick, an IOA representative sent to interrogate Tomin, because the original IOA representative, Richard Woolsey is now working for the Atlantis Expedition. When Daniel Jackson realizes that the Ark is still in the Ori galaxy, Marrick is assigned to accompany them on board the "Odyssey" through the Supergate. In the Ori galaxy, a member of the anti-Ori resistance tells the team that according to legend, the Ark is on Celestis, the Ori capital. When SG-1 beams down to the planet, Marrick activates the Asgard computer core which alerts the Ori to the ship's location.  Upon being alerted by Major Kevin Marks of what is going on, Mitchell and Carter beam back to the "Odyssey" and discover that Marrick has used the core to build a Replicator, intending to plant it on an Ori ship and let it spread to their entire fleet. When Mitchell attempts to destroy it with an anti-Replicator Gun, the replicator escapes, and Marrick reveals that the IOA removed that weakness from the design, although conventional weapons are sufficient to destroy individual replicators. Marrick implies that a shutdown code has been included as a failsafe, but claims he does not know what it is. He is placed in the ship's brig and falls victim to the Replicators, when they make their way into the brig, resulting in Marrick becoming a Human/Replicator hybrid. With several Ori ships approaching, Mitchell attempts to beam Daniel, Teal'c, Vala, and Tomin up from the planet, but the replicator takes over the system and keeps Mitchell from doing so. With no other option, the "Odyssey" jumps to hyperspace to escape, leaving the others on the planet.  Daniel finds the Ark in a set of catacombs, and after several ground tremors, brings it to the surface. When the team emerges, they are ambushed by Ori warriors, and Teal'c is shot in the back while the others are captured. When they are brought to the city, Vala discovers that the Ori were indeed killed by the Sangraal during the events of "The Shroud." Adria has ascended and taken over all of their power. Teal'c, who has been walking toward the city of Celestis since he was shot, collapses due to his wound within sight of the city. He is subsequently revived by Morgan le Fay and continues on to free Daniel. Morgan then arrives in Daniel's cell (initially in the guise of Merlin) and tells him if he can expose one Prior to the Ark, the others will be turned by a link in their staffs. This will weaken Adria enough for Morgan to stalemate her.  In the meantime, a Prior arrives on Earth, offering a last chance to convert to Origin. When General Landry refuses to even listen to him, the "Apollo" detects a fleet of Ori motherships waiting on the edge of the solar system. On the "Odyssey", Marrick is attacked by Replicators who infest his body. In the ensuing battle, Mitchell is able to briefly disable the Replicator connection to Marrick's brain, who then informs Mitchell the shut down code for the Replicators is on the other side of the crystal used to create them. Mitchell activates an explosive charge which kills Marrick. Mitchell informs Carter, who activates the shut-down command, deactivating the Replicators.  When the Ark is activated and opened, the Doci is caught by the beam and made to see that the Ori are not gods and spreads this belief to all of the Priors in the Ori galaxy and through them their followers. With Adria now in a weakened state, Morgan is able to engage her in an eternal battle. SG-1 exposes the Prior on Earth to the Ark, transmitting the knowledge about the Ori to all of the Priors in the Milky Way, and thus turning all known Priors in the Universe.  In the aftermath, Tomin departs for the Ori galaxy as the new leader of his people, he and Vala agreeing that, while the Ori were liars, Origin itself has a worthwhile message. Tomin asks Vala to come with him, but Vala apologizes and says that she feels her place is with the SGC. Over Daniel's objections the Ark is taken to Area 51 for study while SG-1 later prepare for another new mission through the Stargate.

Production.

This movie is the conclusion of "Stargate SG-1" Ori arc, which began in the season nine episode "Avalon". "Stargate: The Ark of Truth" is the story that Cooper originally planned as a five- or six-episode arc to begin at the end of Season Ten and beginning of Season Eleven, but the series was canceled by the Sci-Fi Channel in August 2006. The intended ending for the Tenth Season was to introduce the concept of the Ark of Truth, an artifact for which SG-1 is searching. As the story progresses, SG-1 would learn that this device is in the Ori galaxy and could be helpful in diverting the Ori warriors from their crusade. The "Odyssey" would have brought them through the Supergate to the Ori galaxy. However, the Sci Fi Channel wanted the series to be concluded, and the producers neither had the time nor the will to do that and went with the idea of what would become "Unending", the "SG-1" series finale. The movie's storyline picks up after "Unending", but takes place before the fourth season of "Stargate Atlantis".  According to Robert C. Cooper, the film had higher production values than episodes of the television series. The production budget was $7 million. The film was shot in a 16:9 aspect ratio on 35mm film. Joel Goldsmith produced an orchestral score for the film, rather than a synthetic score as he did for episodes of the series.  In addition to wrapping up the Ori storyline, this film was also intended as a transition into an ongoing series of films centered around the "SG-1" characters. Certain scenes were shot concurrently with that of the second film, "". According to the DVD commentary, a tease leading into that film was planned to be included at the end of "Stargate: The Ark of Truth", but was ultimately dropped as it was felt that this film had "too many endings."  The movie went into production in April 2007.

Release and reception.

A pre-release (workprint) version of the film with unfinished special effects, no credits and recorded in cropped 16:9 was leaked onto the Internet in mid-December 2007.  "The Ark of Truth" was released as a Region 1 DVD release on March 11, 2008. Sky One broadcast the film on March 24, 2008, to be followed by the Region 2 DVD release on April 14, 2008. The DVD was released in Australia on April 9, 2008. The DVD includes an audio commentary with Robert C. Cooper, Peter Woeste and Christopher Judge, a 30-minute behind-the-scenes program, highlights from the 2007 Comic-Con Stargate panel and a nine-minute summary of the Ori storyline from seasons nine and 10.  The DVD release of "Stargate:The Ark of Truth" in the U.S. earned MGM/Fox US $1.59 million in rentals in the first week after the release, and another US $1.38 million in rentals in the second week. In its third week it earned US $1.19 million in rentals totaling US $4.16 million. The DVD has also earned US $9.0 million in sales.

Stargate: The Ark of Truth is a 2008 Canadian-American, military science fiction, direct-to-video film in the "Stargate" franchise, acting as a sequel to the television series "Stargate SG-1". It is written and directed by Robert C. Cooper, produced by Cooper, John G. Lenic, and the series' creator Brad Wright, and stars its regular cast. The film is the conclusion of the Ori arc, and picks up after the "SG-1" series finale. However, it happens before the Stargate Atlantis third season finale.

Hvězdná brána: Archa pravdy (v anglickém originále Stargate: The Ark of Truth) je americko-kanadský sci-fi film z roku 2008, součást franšízy "Hvězdné brány" společnosti Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Scénář snímku napsal Robert C. Cooper, který film také režíroval. "Archa pravdy" navazuje na televizní seriál "Hvězdná brána"; je zakončením orijského příběhu, jenž představoval hlavní dějovou linii posledních dvou řad tohoto seriálu. Vojenský tým SG-1 se ve filmu vydává do vzdálené orijské galaxie hledat takzvanou Archu pravdy, která by mohla být důležitou zbraní k poražení samotných Oriů.