Origins.

Although corporations are now typically associated with private business, historically corporations began as means to serve defined and limited public purposes. Corporation history has roots primarily in government subdivisions and religious institutions, where the institution itself is identifiable independently of its membership's mortality. For example, if the Pope dies, the Catholic Church continues to exist, just as it continues to exist as generations pass on and get replaced by new members.  Public-benefit corporations likely have their direct roots in mercantile capitalism. In the early days of European exploration and colonization, a government or monarch would sometimes grant a charter to an entity defining a legal body ("corporation") and make potentially risky investments. While certainly not public-benefit corporations by today's standards, entities such as the Massachusetts Bay Company, Hudson's Bay Company, and the Dutch East India Company arguably are prototypical examples of publicly chartered (in this case, crown-chartered) corporations successfully undertaking defined activities with the support of privately contributed investments.

History.

The modern era of delegation of government authority to a chartered corporation is marked by the United Kingdom Port of London Authority, established 1908. According to the Port of London Acts The Authority is a public trust established to "administer, preserve and improve the Port of London." The goal was to create an entity that would be run self-sufficiently like a private company yet remain under the control of the government. The name "Authority" is derived from the founding act of Parliament which repeatedly stated that ""Authority is hereby given..."" The special status of this entity and the fact that it remained subject to administrative law was established by the UK courts in "" [1919] 1 KB 176.

Incorporation and powers.

Public-benefit corporations are generally governed by boards of directors, which are appointed, rather than elected, and, internally, reflect bureaucratic forms. The corporation is government-owned and performs a specific, narrow function for the public good.  Public-benefit corporations are most often created by statute. In many Commonwealth countries, public-benefit corporations continue to receive charters from the British monarchy. In the United States, they receive their charters usually from states, but possibly from the federal government.  Public authorities are usually created with a specific mandate, such as the construction of bridges, mass transit, etc. Unlike departments or ministries of the state, these corporations usually are enabled by statute to raise revenues through bond issues.  For more information, read below about individual jurisdictions.

By location.

United Kingdom.

The first reference to public-benefit corporations in United Kingdom law is in the Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003, which established NHS Foundation Trusts as public-benefit corporations. Schedule 1 of the Act sets out the requirements for a public-benefit corporation which include a membership made up of individuals living in a specific area, employees of the corporation and service users, and a board of governors some of whom are elected by the members based on "constituencies" such as staff, users or public. British authorities have used other terms with similar functions to public-benefit corporations such as statutory authority, QUANGO and crown corporation.  Public-benefit corporations are distinguishable from public authorities in that the latter do not have a membership.  Examples of other bodies which have a similar role to, whilst not being formally called, public-benefit corporations include the BBC, which is incorporated by royal charter. Many universities have charters going back centuries, and so are also chartered corporations.

Canada.

Via Rail in Canada is an independent crown corporation offering intercity passenger rail services in Canada. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation is another example.  The Province of Ontario shares two international public-benefit corporations with the U.S. state of New York:

Russia.

In Russia the law "On Noncommercial Organizations" describes the status state corporations. It is a special form of noncommercial partnership founded by the state to fulfill socially significant tasks. The activities of each corporation are described in a special federal law. Assets transferred to a state corporation are not state property from the legal point of view. Under the law "On Noncommercial Organizations", property transferred to as the investment in a partnership is the property of the partnership. The partnership itself is no one's property. It manages its assets as described in its charter. The rights of the founder are considerable in the partnership, but they are still not ownership rights. There is only one founder in a state corporation, and it is the Russian Federation. That is why the state corporation is independent. It is a set of assets that are managed for purposes established in its charter by managers appointed by the founder. State corporations, as a rule, are subordinate not to the government, but to the Russian president, and act to accomplish some important goal. The state corporations can manage those assets as demanded by the sketchily described goals and tasks of the charters and as allowed by the supervisory council, on which there is no one the president does not trust.

United States.

The U.S. Constitution is silent about the federal government's creation of corporations; the power to define and create corporations (other than as agencies of the U.S. government) is mostly reserved to the individual states. The interstate commerce clause of the constitution gives implicit authority to create private federally-chartered commercial corporations; the most numerous of these are federally chartered banks and similar financial institutions. The federal government has established certain corporations by act of Congress, mostly non-profit organizations serving the public interest, such as the Civil Air Patrol, as well as various charitable, fraternal, and veterans' organizations. In addition, certain parastatals, which are for-profit, but may exercise unique powers, such as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, have federal charters.  Private corporations were not common in the early United States, and were created by act in early state legislatures. This was typically done for a public purpose, such as for the building and maintenance of a toll bridge or toll road, or a water utility. Today private corporations may be created by simply filing appropriate documents with the appropriate department one of the states.  Public benefit corporations of the federal government are often Independent agencies of the United States government as a form of government-owned corporation. Examples of federal public-benefit corporations created, owned and operated by the U.S. government include Amtrak, the United States Postal Service and the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Many public authorities in the United States are interstate compacts or local and regional entities spanning multiple municipalities on the county or state level.

California.

California corporation law designates three types of non-profit corporations – religious corporations, such as religious orders; mutual benefit corporations, such as a condominium associations; and public benefit corporations, including entities such as hospitals or colleges. The assets of a public benefit corporations are irrevocably dedicated to its public or charitable purpose.  Under California law a public benefit corporation may be created by a public entity – as the two examples above suggest, but the definition in the California Codes is very specific.

Colorado.

The Colorado General Assembly in House Bill 13-1138 allows for public benefit corporations. Section 7-101-503(2), C.R.S., defines public benefit as "one or more positive effects or reduction of negative effects on one or more categories of persons, entities, communities, or interests other than shareholders in their capacities as shareholders, including effects of an artistic, charitable, cultural, economic, educational, environmental, literary, medical, religious, scientific, or technological nature."  The Fourth Estate is an example of a Colorado Public Benefit Cooperative chartered under the state's public benefit corporation statutes.

Delaware.

In July 2013, Governor Markell signed into law a new type of public benefit corporation.  The Delaware General Corporation Law (Title 8, Chapter 1 of the Delaware Code) was recently amended by Senate Bill No. 47, effective August 1, 2013, adding a new subchapter XV, which authorizes the creation of public benefits corporations. As defined in the GCL, a PBC is a for-profit corporation intended to produce a public benefit and operate in a responsible and sustainable manner. The PBC is to be managed in a manner that balances stockholders' pecuniary interests, the best interests of those materially affected by the corporation's conduct, and the public benefit for which the PBC is formed.  In June 2015, Senate Bill No. 75 amended Delaware PBC rules to make it easier to form, operate or convert into a PBC, by facilitating the naming of PBCs, simplifying the issuance of stock options in PBCs and reducing the voting threshold for conversion from 90 percent to two-thirds of stockholders.  Kickstarter is also a public benefit corporation chartered in Delaware.

Georgia.

As of February 2016, the Georgia legislature is considering House Bill 1052, which would add benefit corporations to Georgia's existing for-profit corporate code.

Illinois.

The Bi-State Development Agency is a bi-state agency managing public transportation between southern Illinois and Missouri. It serves the St. Louis metropolitan area.  The Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) oversees funding and operation of public transit in the Illinois portion of the Chicago metropolitan area.  Another public benefit corporation is the Illinois State Toll Highway Authority.

Massachusetts.

Some examples of public benefit corporations in Massachusetts are as follows:  Effective December 1, 2012, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts allows for the charter of public benefit corporations that may make profits, but which may put social goals on par with profits, unlike traditional for-profit corporations. Public benefit corporations are incorporated under Chapter 156A or 156D and may choose to prioritize environmental and social aims over profit.

Minnesota.

The state of Minnesota has enacted a Public Benefit Corporation Act, effective January 2015. A Minnesota public benefit corporation is defined as an entity created under the state's business corporation statute, which "elects in its articles to pursue general public benefit..." "General public benefit," in turn, is defined as "a net material positive impact from the business and operations...on society, the environment, and the well-being of present and future generations."

Missouri.

An example of a public benefit corporation which Missouri authorized is the Bi-State Development Agency.

New Jersey.

The New Jersey Turnpike Authority (NJTA) is a public-benefit corporation in New Jersey, created by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority Act of 1948.  The Delaware River and Bay Authority controls the Delaware Memorial Bridge between Delaware and New Jersey, and is a bi-state agency. The Delaware River Port Authority is a bi-state agency of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey is a bi-state agency shared with New York.  NJ Transit, formed in 1979 operates bus, light rail and passenger rail service in New Jersey and in neighboring states as well as funding and planning of bus and rail services and programs.  Although "Public Benefit Corporation" is not a statutorily defined term under State laws (New Jersey Statutes or the New Jersey Administrative Code), such corporations are among those included within the statutorily defined term "State Agency".

New Hampshire.

An example of a public benefit corporation in New Hampshire is as follows:

New York.

The widespread use of public authorities in the United States was pioneered in New York state by Robert Moses. New York likely has the most extensive number of public-benefit corporations in the country. The approval of the New York State Public Authorities Control Board is required in some cases when creating an authority. An authority may at times levy taxes and tolls; this means that they are not part of the usual state budgetary process, and gives them a certain independence.  In particular, public benefit corporations, or authorities are able to circumvent strict public debt limits in the New York State Constitution, effectively bypassing the constitution. Furthermore, they may make contracts; because of public authorities' corporate status, there is generally no remedy against the chartering State for the breach of such contracts. On the other hand, as agents of the state, public authorities are not subject to many laws governing private corporations, and are not subject to municipal regulation. Employees of public authorities usually are not state employees, but are employees of the authority. Public authorities can also often condemn property.  Among the major public-benefit corporations in New York state are the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a bistate authority; and the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, which manages most of the public transportation in and around New York City.

North Carolina.

Some examples of public benefit corporations in North Carolina are as follows:

Oregon.

Articles of incorporation may be filed listing the new entity as a Public Benefit company. Existing companies may be converted to Public Benefit. A checklist of requirements can be found at the Oregon Secretary of State, Public Benefit Corporation Page.

Tennessee.

Tennessee is arguably the banner state for the Tennessee Valley Authority's (TVA's) operations, which span a region extending into seven states (most of Tennessee and parts of six others), but the TVA is actually a federally owned public authority. The TVA has been key in aiding the region's economic development, most notably in the 1930s during the Great Depression.

Texas.

Some examples of public benefit corporations in Texas are as follows:

Vermont.

Like Maine, the state of Vermont defines public-benefit corporations broadly. They include public-benefit corporations founded by the state and by private entities. The Vermont Economic Development Authority is an example of a state-owned public-benefit corporation.

Washington.

Some examples of public benefit corporations in Washington are as follows:

Other meanings.

More broadly, a public-benefit corporation could be any corporation that exists for a charitable purpose, though these are generally called non-profit corporations if they are not founded by a government. Some jurisdictions (the U.S. State of Maine, for instance) might define a public-benefit corporation broadly. In California, public-benefit corporations are one of several types of non-profit corporations.

Public-benefit corporations (PBC) are a specific type of corporation that allow for public benefit to be a charter purpose in addition to the traditional corporate goal of maximizing profit for shareholders. Depending on the country they may also be known as crown corporations, statutory corporations, or government owned corporations having monopoly over a specific service or market..

Příspěvková organizace je jednou z forem veřejného ústavu, právnickou osobou veřejného práva zřízenou k plnění úkolů ve veřejném zájmu. Příspěvkové organizace jsou veřejnoprávními neziskovými organizacemi. V České republice upravuje základy právního postavení příspěvkových organizací zákon o rozpočtových pravidlech státu a zákon o rozpočtových pravidlech územních rozpočtů. Podle nich zřizují příspěvkové organizace organizační složky státu a územní samosprávné celky, a to pro takové činnosti v jejich působnosti, které jsou zpravidla neziskové a jejichž rozsah, struktura a složitost vyžadují samostatnou právní subjektivitu. O vzniku příspěvkové organizace vydává zřizovatel zřizovací listinu. Zřizovatel dále jmenuje a odvolává jejího ředitele, rozhoduje o jeho odměňování, může šetřit stížnosti směřující proti němu a vůbec provádět kontrolu hospodaření celé příspěvkové organizace.


History.

Cheltenham stands on the small River Chelt, which rises nearby at Dowdeswell and runs through the town on its way to the Severn. It was first recorded in 803, as "Celtan hom"; the meaning has not been resolved with certainty, but latest scholarship concludes that the first element preserves a pre-British noun "cilta",'steep hill', here referring to the Cotswold scarp; the second element may mean'settlement' or 'water-meadow'. As a royal manor, it features in the earliest pages of the Gloucestershire section of Domesday Book where it is named "Chintenha[m]". The town was awarded a market charter in 1226.  Though little remains of its pre-spa history, Cheltenham has been a health and holiday spa town resort since the discovery of mineral springs there in 1716. Captain Henry Skillicorne (1678–1763), is credited with being the first entrepreneur to recognise the opportunity to exploit the mineral springs. The retired "master mariner" became co-owner of the property containing Cheltenham's first mineral spring upon his 1732 marriage to Elizabeth Mason. Her father, William Mason, had done little in his lifetime to promote the healing properties of the mineral water apart from limited advertising and building a small enclosure over the spring. Skillicorne's wide travels as a merchant had prepared him to see the potential lying dormant on this inherited property. After moving to Cheltenham in 1738, he immediately began improvements intended to attract visitors to his spa. He built a pump to regulate the flow of water and erected an elaborate well-house complete with a ballroom and upstairs billiard room to entertain his customers. The beginnings of Cheltenham's tree-lined promenades and the gardens surrounding its spas were first designed by Captain Skillicorne with the help of "wealthy and traveled" friends who understood the value of relaxing avenues. The area's walks and gardens had views of the countryside, and soon the gentry and nobility from across the county were enticed to come and investigate the beneficial waters of Cheltenham's market town spa.  The visit of George III with the queen and royal princesses in 1788 set a stamp of fashion on the spa. The spa waters can still be sampled at the Pittville Pump Room, built for this purpose and completed in 1830; it is a centrepiece of Pittville, a planned extension of Cheltenham to the north, undertaken by Joseph Pitt, who laid the first stone 4 May 1825.  Cheltenham's success as a spa town is reflected in the railway station, which is still called "Cheltenham Spa", and spa facilities in other towns that were inspired by or named after it.  Alice Liddell and Lewis Carroll were regular visitors to a house in Cudnall Street, Charlton Kings – a suburb of Cheltenham. This house was owned by Alice Liddell's grandparents, and still contains the mirror, or looking glass, that was purportedly the inspiration for Lewis Carroll's novel "Through the Looking-Glass", published in 1871.  Horse racing began in Cheltenham in 1815, and became a major national attraction after the establishment of the Festival in 1902. Whilst the volume of tourists visiting the spa has declined, the racecourse attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors to each day of the festival each year, with such large numbers of visitors having a significant impact on the town.  In the Second World War, the United States Army Services of Supply, European Theatre of Operations established its primary headquarters at Cheltenham under the direction of Lt. Gen. John C. H. Lee, with the flats of the Cheltenham Racecourse becoming a giant storage depot for countless trucks, jeeps, tanks and artillery pieces. Most of this materiel was reshipped to the continent for and after the D-Day invasion. Lee and his primary staff had offices and took residence at Thirlestaine Hall in Cheltenham.  On 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the borough of Cheltenham was merged with Charlton Kings urban district to form the non-metropolitan district of Cheltenham. Four parishes—Swindon Village, Up Hatherley, Leckhampton and Prestbury—were added to the borough of Cheltenham from the borough of Tewkesbury in 1991.  The first British jet aircraft prototype, the Gloster E.28/39, was manufactured in Cheltenham. Manufacturing started in Hucclecote near Gloucester, but was later moved to Regent Motors in Cheltenham High Street (now the Regent Arcade), considered a location safer from bombing during the Second World War.

Geography.

Cheltenham is on the edge of the Cotswolds, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in the South-West region of England. The small River Chelt flows under and through the town.  Cleeve Hill overlooks the town and is the highest point in the county of Gloucestershire at 1,083 feet (330 m).  The town is near the northeastern edge of the South West of England region being 88 miles (140 km) west-northwest of London, 38 miles (61 km) northeast of Bristol and 41 miles (65 km) south of Birmingham.

Neighbourhoods.

The districts of Cheltenham include: Arle, Benhall, Charlton Kings, Fairview, Fiddler's Green, Hesters Way, Lansdown, Leckhampton, Lynworth, Montpellier, Oakley, Pittville, Prestbury, the Reddings, Rowanfield, St Luke's, St Mark's, St Paul's, St Peter's, Springbank, Swindon Village, Tivoli, Up Hatherley, Whaddon and Wyman's Brook.  Located at the end of the Promenade South of the town centre, affluent Montpellier is known for its bars, restaurants and specialist shops. Surrounded by many grade one listed buildings, Montpellier Gardens are part of the Cheltenham Central Conservation Area.  Similarly affluent, but more a garden suburb in nature, is Pittville, known for its large park (the southern part of which is lined with large Regency terraces and villas) and the Pump Room, the largest of Cheltenham's former spa buildings, now a concert and events venue.  Lansdown Crescent is a Regency period terrace, designed by John Buonarotti Papworth for R.W. and C. Jearrad and constructed in the 1830s. The terrace is convex, and opposite the north-eastern part stands Lansdown Court, an Italianate villa possibly designed by Papworth but more probably by the Jearrads and built about 1830.  Charlton Park is a former historic park with mansion house, about a mile south-east of the town centre. From 1935 the parkland gradually became a private residential area, the main housing development taking place between 1976 and 1983. The original mansion house dated from the 13th century; alterations throughout the centuries transformed it from a medieval, timber-framed hall-house into an 18th-century brick-faced mansion in the classical style. In the 1780s the estate was emparked for deer and had magnificent Dutch-style water gardens. After 1935 the old house became part of Charlton Park Convent, and since 1987 has been part of St Edward's School.

Green belt.

Parts of the town has green belt along its fringes, and this extends into the surrounding Tewkesbury district, helping to maintain local green space, prevent further urban sprawl and unplanned expansion towards Gloucester and Bishop's Cleeve, as well as protecting smaller villages in between. West of the Greenfield Way and Fiddlers Green Lane roads, along with much of the open space up to the Civil Service Sports Ground, as well as the Cheltenham Racecourse and surrounding green park, along with St Peter Leckhampton parish church and Brizen Playing Fields/Haven and Greenmead parks along the south of the borough, are covered.

Government.

Cheltenham Borough Council is the local authority for Cheltenham, which is split into 20 wards, with a total of 40 councillors elected to serve on the borough council. Since 2002 elections have been held every two years with half of the councillors elected at each election.

GCHQ.

The head office of the British Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), known to locals as 'The Doughnut', is located in Cheltenham.

Climate.

As with the vast majority of the British Isles, Cheltenham experiences a temperate oceanic climate ("Cfb" in the Koeppen climate classification). It has warm summers and cool winters. The town held the British maximum temperature record from 1990 to 2003—temperatures reached. The absolute minimum is, set during December 1981. During a typical year, 145.6 days will report at least 1 mm of rain, and some 42.2 nights will record air frost.

Economy.

Cheltenham has light industry, including food processing, aerospace, electronics and tourism businesses. The Government's electronic surveillance operation Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), renowned for its "doughnut-shape" building, is in Cheltenham. Vertex Data Science, GE-Aviation, Chelsea Building Society, Endsleigh Insurance, Archant, Nelson Thornes, UCAS (Universities & Colleges Admissions Service), Kohler Mira, Barnett Waddingham LLP, Zürich Financial Services, Douglas Equipment and Spirax-Sarco Engineering all have sites in and around Cheltenham.  SuperGroup plc, owner of the Superdry label, have their headquarters in Cheltenham.  Cheltenham is a regional shopping centre, home to department stores, the oldest being Cavendish House, from 1823, and the Regent Arcade.  The Beechwood Shopping Centre in the town centre was demolished in 2017 to make way for a £30million, 115,000 square foot John Lewis store.  Cheltenham is well-known for its nightlife, with a wide range of pubs, wine bars, clubs and restaurants. It has a Michelin one-star restaurant, Le Champignon Sauvage.  In 2006, a house valuation web site rated Cheltenham the most desirable property location in Britain.  In 2014, "The Daily Telegraph" newspaper named Cheltenham as the best place in the United Kingdom to raise a family.  In 2020, "The Sunday Times" made Cheltenham its best place to live in south-west England.

Employment and salary.

The unemployment rate in Cheltenham was 2.7% in 2010 compared to the UK national unemployment level of 7.9%. The average GVA per head in Cheltenham was £21,947.27 in 2011 compared to the national average of £26,200.  In 2012, "The Guardian" found that, at the end of 2011, 41 multi-millionaires lived in Cheltenham, which was the fourth-highest rate in the UK of multi-millionaires per 100,000 people at 35.44.  The town is known for its Regency architecture and is said to be "the most complete regency town in England". Many of the buildings are listed, including the Cheltenham Synagogue, judged by Nikolaus Pevsner to be one of the architecturally "best" non-Anglican ecclesiastical buildings in Britain.

Culture.

Cheltenham Town Hall was built in 1902 to commemorate the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra.  The Cheltenham Art Gallery & Museum, also called The Wilson, hosts a programme of art exhibitions running throughout the year. The Wilson was named after polar explorer Dr Edward Wilson, who was born in Cheltenham.  In 2014 many of the town's historic cultural and leisure buildings were put under the control of The Cheltenham Trust, a charity set up to manage and develop the buildings on behalf of the town. Along with The Wilson, the Trust now manages the Town Hall, the Pittville Pump Room, the Prince of Wales Stadium and Leisure @, a large fitness and swimming complex. A volunteer board of Trustees, chaired by media entrepreneur Peter Harkness, controls the Trust. The Trust's CEO is Julie Finch former director museums in Bristol.  In 2014 a piece of graffiti by street artist Banksy appeared next to a telephone box in a residential street in Cheltenham. The graffiti depicted three men in trench coats and dark glasses apparently listening in to calls made in the telephone box.  Cheltenham features several sculptural artworks of note, including:  Cheltenham hosts the annual Cheltenham Music Festival, Cheltenham Jazz Festival and the Ukulele Festival of Great Britain.  In 2010, Cheltenham was named the UK's fifth "most musical" City by PRS for Music.  The collection's of the Cheltenham Art Gallery & Museum include decorative arts from the era of the Arts and Crafts Movement. The collection enjoys National Designation by the Arts Council of England. The Holst Birthplace Museum contains personal belongings of the composer of The Planets, including his piano. It also includes a working Victorian kitchen and laundry, Regency drawing room and an Edwardian nursery.  The Cheltenham Civic Society has been responsible for erecting commemorative plaques in the town since 1982: blue plaques to celebrate well-known people and green plaques to celebrate significant places and events.  Every year, Cheltenham Festivals organises music, jazz, literature and science festivals in the town, attracting names with national and international reputations in each field. Events take place at venues including the town hall, the Everyman Theatre, the Playhouse Theatre and the Pittville Pump Room.  Several other cultural festivals, including the Cheltenham Paranormal Festival, the Cheltenham Design Festival, Cheltenham Folk Festival, Cheltenham Poetry Festival, The True Believers Comic Festival and Cheltenham Comedy Festival are separately organised but also attract international performers and speakers. A more local event, the Cheltenham Festival of the Performing Arts (formerly Cheltenham Competitive Festival) is a collection of more than 300 performance competitions that is the oldest of Cheltenham's arts festivals, having been started in 1926.  Greenbelt, a Christian arts and music festival, and Wychwood Festival, a family-friendly folk and world music festival, were held at Cheltenham Racecourse. The town also hosts the multi-venue Walk the line festival.  Two sporting events are also routinely described as the "Cheltenham Festival" or "the Festival": the Cheltenham Cricket Festival, which features Gloucestershire County Cricket Club, and National Hunt racing's Cheltenham Festival.  Cheltenham has played host to and featured in a number of film and TV series: The Thistle Golden Valley Hotel (now the Jurys Inn) was used by the ITV soap opera Crossroads for outdoor location filming from 1982 to 1985.  Cheltenham has four theatres: the Everyman, the Playhouse, the Bacon and the Parabola Arts Centre.  According to 2010 estimates from the Office for National Statistics, Cheltenham's population is 115,300, ranked 186th out of 326 English districts based on population, with a population density of 6,410 people per square mile (2,473/km), placing it 72 out of 326 English districts based on population density. Inhabitants of Cheltenham are known as "Cheltonians".  According to the 2011 census, the ethnic breakdown of the population of Cheltenham is as follows:

Crime and public safety.

In 2013, Cheltenham was named one of the safest towns for university students to live in the UK by the Complete University Guide.

Police.

Gloucestershire Constabulary is the territorial police force responsible for policing the town covering 14 neighbourhoods in the Cheltenham area.

Education.

The oldest school in Cheltenham is Pate's Grammar School (founded in 1574). Cheltenham College (founded in 1841) was the first of the public schools of the Victorian period. The school was the setting in 1968 for the classic Lindsay Anderson film "if...". It also hosts the annual Cheltenham Cricket Festival, first staged in 1872, and the oldest cricket festival in the world.  The most famous school in the town, according to "The Good Schools Guide", is Cheltenham Ladies' College (founded in 1853). Dean Close School was founded in 1886 in memory of the Reverend Francis Close (1797–1882), a former rector of Cheltenham. The town also includes several campuses of the University of Gloucestershire, two other public and six other state secondary schools, plus institutions of further education.

Sport and leisure.

Cheltenham Racecourse, in the nearby village of Prestbury, is the home of National Hunt, or jumps, racing in the UK. Meetings are hosted from October to April. The highlight of the season is the Cheltenham Gold Cup, which is normally held in the middle of March, during the Cheltenham Festival.  The local football teams are Cheltenham Town F.C. who play in the Football League Two, Bishop's Cleeve who play in the Southern League South & West Division, Cheltenham Saracens F.C. in the Hellenic League Premier and Cheltenham Civil Service F.C. who play in the local Gloucester Northern Senior League, and Falcons AFC who play in the Cheltenham 1st and 3rd Division.  Amateur rugby union clubs include Cheltenham R.F.C., Cheltenham Saracens RFC, Cheltenham North R.F.C., Old Patesians R.F.C., Smiths Rugby and Cheltenham Civil Service R.F.C.  In rugby league university side Gloucestershire All Golds were admitted into the semi-professional Championship 1. The Cheltenham Rugby Festival is a rugby league nines event held in May.  The town has one golf course, Lilley Brook, in Charlton Kings.  Cheltenham has one of the largest croquet clubs in the country, and is home to the headquarters of the national body of the sport, the Croquet Association. The East Glos tennis, squash and women's hockey club, which was founded in 1885, is also located in the town.  Sandford Parks Lido is one of the largest outdoor pools in England. There is a main pool, a children's pool and paddling pool, set in landscaped gardens. Sandford Parks Lido is the home of Cheltenham Swimming and Water Polo Club.

Cheltenham Festival.

Cheltenham Festival is a significant National Hunt racing meeting, and has race prize money second only to the Grand National. It is an event where many of the best British and Irish trained horses race against each other, the extent of which is relatively rare during the rest of the season.  The festival takes place annually in March at Cheltenham Racecourse. The meeting is often very popular with Irish visitors, mostly because of that nation's affinity with horse racing, but also because it usually coincides with St. Patrick's Day, a national holiday in celebration of the patron saint of Ireland.  Large amounts of money are bet during festival week, with hundreds of millions of pounds being gambled over the four days. Cheltenham is often noted for its atmosphere, most notably the "Cheltenham roar", which refers to the enormous amount of noise that the crowd generates as the starter raises the tape for the first race of the festival.

Transport.

Cheltenham Spa railway station is located on the Bristol-Birmingham main line, with services to Gloucester, Bristol, Swindon, London Paddington, Cardiff Central, Bridgend, Maesteg, Plymouth and the South West, Birmingham, Derby, the North West, the North East and Scotland. The station is located to the West of the Montpellier area of the town, and is known locally as Lansdown.  The Cheltenham Spa Express, once known as the "Cheltenham Flyer", is a named passenger train connecting Cheltenham with London. The town has had seven railway stations, but never had a direct route towards Oxford and London which have always been reached via Gloucester and Stroud.  The restored station at Cheltenham Racecourse is the southern terminus of the Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway heritage railway. The Honeybourne Line is being extended northwards to Broadway, with an eventual aspiration to extend the line southwards to Cheltenham Spa.  Cheltenham is adjacent to the M5 motorway (between Bristol and Birmingham) and its junction with the A417 to Swindon, and the A40 runs from across the M5 through the town towards Oxford and London.  National Express operate a number of coach services from Cheltenham including route 444 to London and Heathrow airport. Before becoming part of National Express, Cheltenham was a major hub for Black and White coaches, with routes throughout the country, many of which formed a mass exodus through the town at 14:30 each day.  Cheltenham was a terminus of the Gloucester and Cheltenham Tramroad.

Churches.

The first parish church is Cheltenham Minster, St Mary's, which is the only surviving medieval building in the town. As a result of expansion of the population, absorption of surrounding villages, and the efforts of both evangelical and Anglo-Catholic missions, the town has a large number of other parish churches, including Trinity Church and All Saints', Pittville, where the composer Gustav Holst's father was the organist.  St Gregory's Roman Catholic church is an example of the work of the architect Charles Hansom. The Gothic Revival building was built 1854–57, the porch was added in 1859, the tower and spire were completed in 1861 and the nave was extended to join the tower in 1877. The church's s stained glass is by Hardman & Co.

Bell ringing.

The town has two notable rings of bells hung for change ringing. One is at St. Christopher's (Warden Hill), the lightest ring of church bells in the world. The other is a ring of 12 bells hung in St. Mary's Church (the Minster). These were the venue in 2008 for the eliminators of the National 12 Bell Striking contest, in which teams of campanologists from around the world compete to win the Taylor Trophy. In 2017 the old ring of 12 was completely replaced with new bells cast by John Taylor & Co. The tenor bell is just over a ton in weight, and the new ring also includes a thirteenth bell, a sharp 2nd, to provide a lighter 8. The towers in the locality of Cheltenham belong to the Cheltenham branch of the Gloucester & Bristol Diocesan Association of Church Bell Ringers.

Twin towns.

Cheltenham is twinned with:

Cheltenham () is a large spa town and borough on the edge of the Cotswolds in the county of Gloucestershire, England. Cheltenham became known as a health and holiday spa town resort following the discovery of mineral springs in 1716.

Cheltenham (či Cheltenham Spa) je velké lázeňské město v hrabství Gloucestershire. Podle sčítání lidu v roce 2001 žije ve městě 112 300 obyvatel. Motto Cheltenhamu zní: "Salubritas et Eruditio" (Zdraví a vzdělání).


Etymology.

The term "Bogomil" in free translation means "dear to God", and is a compound of the Slavic words for "god" (Common Slavic: *bogъ) and "dear" (Common Slavic: *milъ). It may be also a translation of the Greek name "Theophilos", literally "dear to God; loved by the gods," from "theos" "god" + "philos" "loved, beloved". It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that movement, the priest Bogomil (), or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the sect itself. The word is an Old Church Slavonic calque of "Massaliani", the Syriac name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Messalians in Greek and Slavonic documents from the 12th-14th centuries.  The members are referred to as "Babuni" in Church Slavonic documents, which originally meant "superstition; superstitious person" (Common Slavic: "*babonъ, *babunъ *babona"). Toponyms which retain the name include the river Babuna, the mountain Babuna, the Bogomila Waterfall and village Bogomila, all in the region of Azot today in central North Macedonia, suggesting that the movement was very active in the region.

Sources.

Much of their literature has been lost or destroyed by the contemporary Christian Churches. The earliest description of the Bogomils is in a letter from Patriarch Theophylact of Bulgaria to Tsar Peter of Bulgaria. The main source of doctrinal information is the work of Euthymius Zigabenus, who says that they believe that God created man's soul but matter was the invention of Satan, God's older son, who in seducing Eve lost his creative power. Concerning the Bogomils, something can be gathered from the polemic "Against the Newly-Appeared Heresy of the Bogomils" written in Slavonic by Cosmas the Priest, a 10th-century Bulgarian official. The old Slavonic lists of forbidden books of the 15th and 16th century also give us a clue to the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils employed to carry on their teachings. Much may also be learned from the doctrines of the numerous variations of Bogomilism which spread in Medieval Kievan Rus' after the 11th century.

History.

Paulicians.

One of the earliest Christian dualist sects, Marcionism, originated in eastern Anatolia. The church Marcion himself established, appeared to die out around the 5th century, although similarities between Marcionism and Paulicianism, a sect in the same geographical area, indicate that Marcionist elements may have survived. Paulicianism began in the mid-7th century, when Constantine of Mananalis, basing his message solely on the New Testament, began to teach that there were two gods: a good god who had made men's souls, and an evil god who had created the entire physical universe including the human body. His followers, who became known as Paulicians, were not marked by extreme deviance in lifestyle compared to contemporaries, despite their belief that the world was evil, and were renowned as good fighting men.  In 970 the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes transplanted 200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis (today's Plovdiv in Thrace). Under Byzantine and then later Ottoman rule, the Armenian Paulicians lived in relative safety in their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and further northward. Linguistically, they were assimilated into the Bulgarians, by whom they were called "pavlikiani" (the Byzantine Greek word for Paulician). In 1650, the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. Fourteen villages near Nicopolis, in Moesia, embraced Catholicism, as well as the villages around Philippopolis. A colony of Paulicians in the Wallachian village of near Bucharest also followed the example of their brethren across the Danube.

Origins.

The Gnostic social-religious movement and doctrine originated in the time of Peter I of Bulgaria (927–969), alleged in the modern day to be a reaction against state and clerical oppression of the Byzantine church. In spite of all measures of repression, it remained strong and popular until the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in the end of the 14th century. Bogomilism was an outcome of many factors that had arisen in the beginning of the 10th century, most probably in the region of Macedonia. It was also strongly influenced by the Paulicians who had been driven out of Armenia.  The Slavonic sources are unanimous on the point that Bogomil's teaching was Manichaean. A "Synodikon" from the year 1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles", Mihail, Todur, Dobri, Stefan, Vasilie and Peter. Zealous missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 25 years after the introduction of Christianity into Kievan Rus, we hear of a priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was imprisoned by Leontius, Bishop of Kiev. In 1125, the Church in the south of Rus had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. Several thousand went in the army of Alexios I Komnenos against the Norman, Robert Guiscard; but, deserting the emperor, many of them (1085) were thrown into prison. Efforts were again put forth for their conversion; and for the converts the new city of Alexiopolis was built, opposite Philippopolis. When the Crusaders took Constantinople (1204), they found some Paulicians, whom the historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin calls Popelicans.  The Legend of Saint Gerard discloses that followers of Bulgarian Bogomilism were present during the early 11th century in Ahtum's realm, which comprised present day Banat. They invoked Archangel Uriel, whose name is common in amulets and magic rituals.

Spread of Bogomilism in the Balkans.

The Bogomils spread westwards and settled in Serbia, where they were to be known as Babuns ("Babuni"). At the end of the 12th century Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja and the Serbian council deemed Bogomilism a heresy, and expelled them from the country. Large numbers, majority of Vlach origin, took refuge in Bosnia and Dalmatia where they were known under the name of Patarenes ("Patareni").  Providing refuge to heretics, including Bogomils, was a recurrent pretext for Hungarian rulers to declare crusades against Bosnia and extend their influence in the region. A first Hungarian complaint to the Pope was averted by the public abjuration of the Bosnian ruler Ban Kulin, close relative of Stefan Nemanja, in 1203. A second Hungarian crusade against Bosnia on Bogomil heresy pretext was launched in 1225, but failed. In 1254, rebelling against the Papal order to accept a Hungarian bishop, the Bosnian Church chose the schism. In the following centuries, the Bosnian Church (autonomous but mainly following Orthodox doctrine) and the heretic sect of the Bogomils came to be identified with each other, due to the scarcity of documents after the Ottoman conquest.  In 1203, Pope Innocent III, with the aid of the King of Hungary, forced an agreement of Kulin to acknowledge Papal authority and religion: in practice this was ignored. On the death of Kulin in 1216 a mission was sent to convert Bosnia to Rome but failed. In 1234, the Catholic Bishop of Bosnia was removed by Pope Gregory IX for allowing heretical practices. In addition, Gregory called on the Hungarian king to crusade against the heretics. However, Bosnian nobles were able to expel the Hungarians.  In 1252, Pope Innocent IV decided to put Bosnia's bishop under the Hungarian Kalocsa jurisdiction. Such decision provoked the schism of the Bosnian Christians, who refused to submit to the Hungarians and broke off their relations with Rome. In that way, an autonomous Bosnian Church came into being, in which some later saw a Bogomil or Cathar Church, while in reality no trace of Bogomilism, Catharism or dualism can be found in the original documents of the Bosnian Christians.  It was not until Pope Nicholas' Bull ""Prae cunctis"" in 1291 that the Dominican-led inquisition was imposed on Bosnia. The Inquisition reported of the existence of a dualist sect in Bosnia in the late 15th century and called them "Bosnian heretics", but this sect was most likely not the same as the Bosnian Church.  Bogomilism was eradicated in Bulgaria, Rascia (one of Serbian medieval states) and Byzantium in the 13th century, but some smaller elements survived in Rascia's principality of Hum (present day - Herzegovina) and Bosnia by embracing eastern tradition of the Bosnian church until the Ottoman Empire gained control of the region in 1463. Some scholars, who sought certain ideological backgrounds and justifications for their political narratives, argue that both Catholics and Orthodox persecuted the Bogomils as heretics and according to them, the pressures drew Bosnia to Bogomilism. It has purportedly been said that, with the introduction of Ottoman rule, Bosnians were often more likely to convert to Islam since some of them were not adherents of either the Roman Catholic or Serb Orthodox churches.. However, these claims have been completely rejected today as an anachronism from the Austro-Hungarian era. Although this narrative has been debunked, it continues to be emphasized by the Bosniak academic community.  From Bosnia, their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but towards the close of the 15th century, the conquest of that country by the Turks put an end to their persecution. Few or no remnants of Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by the Bosnian Radoslav, and published in vol. xv. of the "Starine of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram", shows great resemblance to the Cathar ritual published by Cunitz, 1853.  In the 18th century, the Paulician people from around Nicopolis were persecuted by the Turks, presumably on religious grounds, and a good part of them fled across the Danube and settled in the Banat region that was part of the Kingdom of Hungary at the time, and became known as Banat Bulgarians. There are still over ten thousand Banat Bulgarians in Banat today in the villages of Dudeştii Vechi, Vinga, Breştea and also in the city of Timișoara, with a few in Arad; however, they no longer practice Bogomilism, having converted to Roman Catholicism. There are also a few villages of Paulicians in the Serbian part of Banat, especially the villages of Ivanovo and Belo Blato, near Pančevo.

Social factors.

The gradual Christianization of the Bulgarian population, the fact that the service was initially practiced in Greek, which only the elite knew, resulted in a low level of understanding of the religion among the peasantry. Due to the constant wars during the time of Tsar Simeon I, the lands near the Byzantine border (Thrace) were devastated, and the people living there were left without occupation. The constant change of authority over these lands, and the higher taxes during the time of Tsar Peter I, gave birth to a great social discontent at the beginning of the 10th century. Moreover, the corruption of the church as an institution, led to grave disappointment among its recently converted flock.

Religious factors.

The existence of older Christian heresies in the Bulgarian lands (Manichaeism and Paulicianism), which were considered very dualistic, influenced the Bogomil movement. Manichaeism's origin is related to Zoroastrianism; that is why Bogomilism is sometimes indirectly connected to Zoroastrianism in the sense of its duality.

Connections to the royal court.

Most probably, as Samuil of Bulgaria revolted against the Byzantine Empire, he relied on the popular support of the movement. There are no sources of Bogomil persecution during his reign (976–1014).

Doctrine.

From the imperfect and conflicting data that is available, one positive result can be gathered that the Bogomils were gnostics, adoptionists and dualists.  Their dualism was initially moderate (or "monarchian"): according to their teachings, God created and rules the spiritual part of the world, and Satan the material, but Satan is ultimately inferior to God and his side by virtue of being God's son. However, Bogomils were not quite free from the absolute dualism of Manichaeism and Paulicianism, and over time adopted an absolute position too, believing God and Satan as eternal opponents, similar to the one maintained by the posterior Cathars.  Their adoptionist teaching apparently came from Paul of Samosata (though at a later period the name of Paul was believed to be that of the Apostle). They rejected the Christianity of the Orthodox churches, though did not accept the docetic teaching of some of the other gnostic sects. They also opposed established forms of government and church as alike to anarchism (see Christian anarchism).

Source texts.

Possible source texts for Bogomil doctrine include:  Bogomils accepted the four Gospels, fourteen Epistles of Paul, the three Epistles of John, James, Jude, and an Epistle to the Laodiceans, which they professed to have. They sowed the seeds of a rich, popular religious literature in the East as well as the West. The Historiated Bible, the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings through Heaven and Hell, the numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the "Kalēki perehozhie" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their successors in other lands.

Cosmology.

In their original monarchian dualist story, Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder Satanail and the younger Michael. Satanail rebelled against the father and became an evil spirit. He created the lower heavens and the Earth and tried in vain to create man, though in the end he had to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation, Adam was allowed to till the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the owner of the Earth, Satanail.  In order to free Adam and his offspring, Michael was sent in the form of a man, becoming identified with Jesus Christ, and was "elected" by God after the baptism in the Jordan. When the Holy Ghost appeared in the shape of the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a clay tablet ("hierographon") held by Satanail from Adam. He had now become the angel Michael in a human form, and as such he vanquished Satanail, and deprived him of the suffix "il" (meaning "God"), in which his power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. However, through Satan's machinations the crucifixion took place, and Satan was the originator of the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies, sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its pleasure, though not so far as asceticism.  They held the "Lord's Prayer" in high respect as the most potent weapon against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against "evil spirits". Each community had its own twelve "apostles", and women could be raised to the rank of "elect". The Bogomils wore garments like those of mendicant friars and were known as enthusiastic missionaries, travelling far and wide to propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and exorcising the evil spirit, they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament, deeply influencing the religious spirit of the nations and preparing them for the Reformation.

Christology and the Trinity.

For Bogomils "the Logos was not the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, the Eternal Word incarnate, but merely the spoken word of God, shown in the oral teaching of Christ". Although Bogomils regarded themselves as "Trinitarian", anathemas against Bogomils (circa 1027) charge Bogomils with rejection of the Trinity.

Opposition to institutions and materialism.

The Catholic Church considered Bogomilism a heresy due to the duality in the Bogomil cosmogony, wherein the earthly sinful corporeal life is a creation of Satan, an angel that was sent to Earth. Also objectionable to the Church was the Bogomil claim that no human doctrine should be followed because no doctrine comes from the soul — the only divine possession of the human. Furthermore, their disbelief in anything that is created with materialistic and governmental goals led Bogomil followers to refuse to pay taxes, to work in serfdom, or to fight in conquering wars. The enemies and contemporaries of the movement interpreted this rejection of the feudal social system as creating disorder, even as the destruction of the state and Church.  Karp Strigolnik, who in the 14th century preached the doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St. Paul had taught that simpleminded men should instruct one another; therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. There is a tradition that the Bogomils taught that prayers were to be said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches. Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect", and each member could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chlist". Marriage was not a sacrament. Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays and Fridays, and they rejected monasticism. They declared Christ to be the Son of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and wine of the eucharist were not physically transformed into flesh and blood; that the last judgement would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the images and the cross were idols and the veneration of saints and relics idolatry.  These doctrines have survived in the great Russian sects, and can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils. But in addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken deep root in the beliefs and traditions of Balkan nations with substantial Bogomil followings. The chief literature of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books "which no orthodox dare read". Though these writings are mostly of the same origin as those from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent a modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as to be useful for the propagation of their own specific doctrines.  In its most simple and attractive form—invested with the authority of the reputed holy author—their account of the creation of the world and of man, the origin of sin and redemption, the history of the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong, heaven and hell, were embodied either in "Historiated Bibles" (Paleya) or in special dialogues held between Christ and his disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people (Lucidaria).

Legacy.

Link with later religious movements.

The Bogomils were the connecting link between the so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West. They were, moreover, the most active agents in disseminating such teachings in Kievan Rus' and among all the nations of Europe. In the 12th and 13th century, the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Cathars" or in other places as "Bulgari", i.e. Bulgarians (българи). In 1207 the "Bulgarorum heresis" is mentioned. In 1223 the Albigenses are declared to be the local Bougres, and in the same period mention is made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of Bulgaria" (see also Nicetas, Bogomil bishop). The Cathars and Patarenes, the Waldenses, the Anabaptists, and in Russia the Strigolniki, and Spiritual Christians, have all at different times been either identified with the Bogomils or closely connected with them, even though several of these are unrelated and are not dualist.  Considerable scholarly debate has arisen about the exact relationship between dualist heresies that arose in different places and centuries across medieval Europe, questioning whether it was indeed a single movement or belief system which was spread from one region to the next, or if multiple heretical movements arose independently in different parts of Europe. Furthering the confusion is that the medieval sources themselves, such as the 13th century papal Inquisition in France, would often simply assume that dualistic heresies were directly connected to previous heretical movements in different regions. Inquistors often described 13th century Cathars as a direct outgrowth of surviving Manichean dualists from previous centuries—though by the same logic, Inquisitors who encountered pagan religions in the fringes of Europe (Celtic lands, or in the Baltic Crusades) would directly accuse non-Christians of worshiping "Apollo and Mercury", simply applying previous terms and rhetoric to new contexts in which they didn't accurately apply. Thus medieval scholarship is divided over whether the "Cathars" actually were an offshoot of the "Bogomils", or if the 13th century Inquisition itself simply mistook "Cathars" for "Bogomils".

In modern and popular culture.

In "Foucault's Pendulum", a novel by the Italian philosopher and writer Umberto Eco, the plot concerning a widespread secret and mystic conspiracy has its ground in the disappearance of the Bogomils after the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.  "The Secret Book" is a Macedonian feature film combining the detective, thriller and conspiracy fiction genres, based on a fictional story of the quest for the original Slavic language "Secret Book", written by the Bogomils in Bulgaria and carried to Western Europe during the Middle Ages.  A French and consequently an English word emerged based on twisted perceptions of the Bogomils by the Catholic Church. The words "bouguer" and "buggery" emerged, by way of the word "bougre" in French, from the Latin "Bulgarus" (Bulgarian). "Buggery" first appears in English in 1330 with the sense "abominable heresy", though "bugger" in a sexual sense is not recorded until 1555. The "Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology" quotes a similar form—"bowgard" (and "bouguer"), but claims that the Bulgarians were heretics "as belonging to the Greek Church, sp. Albigensian". Webster's Third New International Dictionary, gives the only meaning of the word "bugger" as sodomite, "from the adherence of the Bulgarians to the Eastern Church considered heretical".  Bogomil Cove on Rugged Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Priest Bogomil.  The Bogomils make a significant part in the Thomas Pynchon novel "Against the Day", when Cyprian Lakewood becomes a postulant and gives up his life of sodomitic servitude as a spy.

Bogomilism (Bulgarian and ; / Богумилство) was a Christian neo-Gnostic or dualist sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the 10th century. It most probably arose in what is today the region of Macedonia.

Bogomilství byl za křesťanství sám sebe označující náboženský směr, označovaný někdy jako dualistický, gnostický, či jako příbuzný s manicheismem. Podnětem k jeho vzniku byla mimo jiné misijní činnost křesťanů označovaných jako tzv. "Paulikiáni" (sami sebe tak nenazývali), kteří působil v Malé Asii (Arménii a Palestině). Takzvaní bogomilové sami sebe nazývali pojmem "„křesťané“" a v jejich řadách se aktivně uplatnili i nižší křesťanští duchovní.


Production.

"The L Word" was co-created by Ilene Chaiken, Michele Abbot, and Kathy Greenberg; Chaiken served as the primary creator and executive director of the series, as well as a writer and director. Steve Golin and Larry Kennar served as additional executive producers, while Guinevere Turner, Susan Miller, Cherien Dabis, and Rose Troche were among the series' writers.  The series premiered on Showtime on January 18, 2004 and ran for a total of six seasons, airing its finale on March 8, 2009. "The L Word" was filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia at Coast Mountain Films Studio, as well as on location in Los Angeles, California. MGM Worldwide Television distributes the series internationally, and it is syndicated by Logo TV and Netflix.

Series overview.

Title.

Contemporary use of the phrase "the L word" as an alias for "lesbian" dates to at least the 1981 play "My Blue Heaven" by Jane Chambers, in which a character stammers out: "You're really...? The L-word? Lord God, I never met one before."  The original code-name for "The L Word" was "Earthlings", a rarely used slang term for lesbians.

"The Chart".

"The Chart", an undirected labeled graph in which nodes represent individuals and lines represent affairs or hookups, is a recurring plot element throughout the series. Originally, "The L Word" was to be based around a gay woman Kit Porter, and "The Chart" was tattooed on her back.  In season 4, Alice launches The Chart as a social networking service. Concurrently, a real-world parallel project OurChart.com was created. The website, which allowed registered members to create their own profiles and hosted several blogs on the show, operated from the beginning of season four until the end of season six, after which the site was discontinued and redirected to Showtime's official website.

Plot.

Season 1.

The first season of "The L Word" premiered on January 18, 2004 and ended on April 11, 2004. The season introduces Bette Porter and Tina Kennard, a couple in a seven-year relationship attempting to have a child; Marina Ferrer, owner of the local cafe The Planet; Jenny Schecter, who has recently moved to Los Angeles to live with her boyfriend Tim Haspell; Shane McCutcheon, an androgynous, highly sexual hairstylist; Alice Pieszecki, a bisexual journalist who maintains The Chart; Dana Fairbanks, a closeted professional tennis player; and Kit Porter, Bette's straight half-sister.

Season 2.

The second season of "The L Word" premiered on February 20, 2005 and ended on May 15, 2005. The season introduces Carmen de la Pica Morales, a DJ who becomes part of a love triangle with Shane and Jenny; Helena Peabody, a wealthy art patron who becomes a rival to Bette and love interest to Tina (while she and Bette are separated).  Major storylines in the season include Tina's pregnancy following a second insemination, culminating in Tina and Bette's reconciliation at the end of the season; the introduction of Mark Wayland, a documentary filmmaker who moves in with Shane and Jenny and Kit's acquisition of The Planet following Marina's departure from Los Angeles; Shane and Jenny becoming the unknowing subjects of Mark's documentary after he places hidden cameras in their home; a developing relationship between Alice and Dana; and insights into Jenny's past as an abused child.

Season 3.

The third season of "The L Word" premiered on January 8, 2006 and ended on March 26, 2006. The season introduces Moira Sweeney, a working-class butch; and Angus Partridge, a male nanny who becomes Kit's lover.  The season is set six months after the birth of Tina and Bette's daughter Angelica. Major storylines include Bette and Tina's relationship deteriorating once again, which leads Tina to start a fake relationship with a man in order to win a possible custody battle with Bette; Moira taking the name Max after coming out as a trans man; Dana's diagnosis with and ultimate death from breast cancer; and Shane and Carmen's engagement and wedding, which ends when Shane abandons Carmen at the altar. Helena is integrated into the primary group of characters as a friend rather than a rival; she acquires a movie studio, where she is entangled in a sexual harassment lawsuit that leads her mother to cut her off financially.  In the lead-up to the third season, the fan fiction website FanLib.com launched a contest where individuals could submit a piece of "L Word" fanfiction, with the winner's story incorporated into a scene in third-season episode.

Season 4.

"The L Word" was renewed for a fourth season on February 2, 2006, and began filming on May 29, 2006. The season aired from January 7, 2007 to March 25, 2007, and introduces Jodi Lerner, a love interest for Bette; Phyllis Kroll, Bette's closeted new boss at California Art College; Paige Sobel, a love interest for Shane; Tasha Williams, a former Captain in the Army National Guard and love interest for Alice; and who has slept with the most women on The Chart. reprises her role for two episodes.  Major storylines in the season include the adaptation of "Lez Girls", an article written by Jenny for "The New Yorker", into a film; Bette taking a job as a dean at California Art College; and Tasha’s struggle to reconcile her military service with her sexuality under don't ask, don't tell.

Season 5.

"The L Word" was renewed for a fifth season on March 8, 2007, and began filming in summer 2007. The season aired from January 6, 2008 to March 23, 2008 and introduces Bette Porter, Jenny's new personal assistant a closeted gay actress who portrays the lead role in "Lez Girls' The Planet with her lover Bette Porter Papi and Angus were written out of the series.  Major storylines in the season include Bette and Tina reconciling their relationship, Jenny being ousted from the production of "Lez Girls", and Tasha's dishonorable discharge from the military.

Season 6.

The sixth and final season of "The L Word" aired from January 18, 2009 to March 8, 2009. The season introduces Jennifer Beals, Bette's college roommate, who attempts to open a gallery with her; Jamie Chen, a social worker who becomes involved in a love triangle with Alice and Tasha; and Marybeth Duffy and Sean Holden, detectives with the LAPD. The season is focused on the murder of Jenny. The events of the season are depicted as a flashback leading up to the night of the crime, with each episode focused around what could have potentially motivated each character to have killed Jenny. The series concludes without revealing the identity of her murderer.

Interrogation tapes.

Following the series finale of "The L Word", Showtime released a series of seven short videos depicting Bette, Jenny, Tina, Nikki Shane being questioned by the police over Jenny's murder. The episodes were posted weekly on Showtime's website. Showtime additionally released an interview with "L Word" series creator Ilene Chaiken, released in two weekly instalments. In the interview, Chaiken stated that Alice went to jail for Jenny's murder, but was not necessarily guilty of the crime.

"Generation Q".

On July 11, 2017, it was announced a sequel series was in the works with Showtime. Marja-Lewis Ryan has been selected to serve as executive producer and showrunner. On January 31, 2019, Entertainment Weekly reported Showtime picked up the sequel series for a premiere later in the year, in which Jennifer Beals, Katherine Moennig, and Leisha Hailey will reprise their roles. Other sources, such as TVLine, call the eight-episode order a revival, so the nature of the follow-up is unclear. The new series, titled "", will premiere in the fall of 2019.

Related media.

Unaired spin-off series and film.

In July 2008, Showtime CEO Matthew Blank announced that the network would shoot a pilot for an "L Word" spin-off set in a women's prison, based on a pitch from "L Word" series creator Ilene Chaiken. Titled "The Farm", the series would star Famke Janssen, Melissa Leo, Laurie Metcalf, and the lattermost of whom would reprise her role as now detained in prison. The series shot its pilot episode in December 2008. In April 2009, Showtime declined to pick up "The Farm" for a full series order.  Prior to the announcement of "Generation Q", Chaiken expressed interest in producing an "L Word" feature film in an interview aired through "The L Word"'s website, although according to her declarations, it would likely not emphasize any of the unresolved plot lines of the show and would simply continue the story of the characters' friendships.

"The Real L Word".

"The Real L Word", a reality television series produced by Chaiken, aired on Showtime from June 20, 2010 to September 6, 2012. The series, initially set in Los Angeles and later in Brooklyn, New York City, followed a group of real-life gay women.

"L Word Mississippi: Hate the Sin".

"L Word Mississippi: Hate the Sin", a documentary directed by Lauren Lazin and produced by Chaiken, premiered on Showtime on August 8, 2014. The documentary, which follows a group of LGBT women in rural Mississippi, won the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Documentary in 2015.

Music.

EZgirl served as "The L Word"'s music composed, while Natasha Duprey served as music supervisor. A total of five soundtracks were produced.  All three of Leisha Hailey's bands were referenced in the series: a song by The Murmurs was used in the first season, Shane wears a shirt for Gush in the second season. Songs by Uh Huh Her were featured in the show's fifth and sixth seasons; Tasha is seen wearing an Uh Huh Her t-shirt during the sixth season.

Reception and legacy.

Critical reception.

The show's first season was "broadcast to critical acclaim and instant popularity"; as an article from "The New York Times" pointed out:  Co-creator and executive producer Ilene Chaiken had some issues with the reaction:  By the time the sixth and final season began, however, reviews had become far more negative. "The New York Times" called the show a "Sapphic "Playboy" fantasia" that has "shown little interest in variegating portrayals of gay experience. Instead it has seemed to work almost single-mindedly to counter the notion of "lesbian bed death" and repeatedly remind the viewer of the "limits and tortures of monogamy" while "never align[ing] itself with the traditionalist ambitions [for same-sex marriage] of a large faction of the gay rights movement".

Legacy.

Unlike its network predecessor "Queer as Folk", praised critically for its ground-breaking material that was both well-written and well-acted, there were complaints from critics regarding "The L Word"'s watered-down, unrealistically glamorous characters and melodrama, and some reviewers and fans were put off by the theme song (introduced in the second season) and the "graceless, clunky dialogue".  While the show is seen as fulfilling gay characters' "obvious and modest representational need" or even the "ferocious desire not only to be seen in some literal sense... but to be seen with all the blood and angst and magic that you possess", the show has been criticized for various scenes which serve to "reify heteronormativity". The show has also been praised for its nuanced consideration (in the first season) of how and in what ways gay women should stand up to the religious right, with the "Provocations" art show storyline being "a fictionalized version of what happened when Cincinnati's Contemporary Art Center booked a controversial exhibition of Mapplethorpe photographs in 1990".  Several shows have referenced "The L Word", including "South of Nowhere"'s first season episode "Girls Guide to Dating"; "According to Jim"; the medical drama "House"; the first season finale of "Weeds", Jon Stewart's "The Daily Show" (July 24, 2006); "Chappelle's Show: The "Lost Episodes""; "The Sopranos" episode "Live Free or Die"; the US version of "The Office"; "Gilmore Girls" fourth season episode "Scene in a Mall"; "The Big Gay Sketch Show"; "The Simpsons" episode "You Kent Always Say What You Want"; and "Family Guy" episode "Brian Sings and Swings". Also, movies such as "Puccini for Beginners" and "I Can't Think Straight" have made mention of "The L Word" as to reference lesbians but considers the term is sometimes used as slander.

Awards and honors.

In 2006, won a Satellite Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for her portrayal of the International Press Academy also nominated the show for a Satellite Award for Best Television Series – Drama. In the second season, Ossie Davis received a posthumous Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a drama series in recognition of his portrayal Bette and Kit Porter's father, Melvin. The show received multiple nominations for GLAAD Media Awards, and both Pam Grier and Jennifer Beals were repeatedly nominated for NAACP Image Awards.  In 2008 "The L Word"'s companion website was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for Outstanding Achievement in Advanced Media Technology for Best Use of Commercial Advertising on Personal Computers.

References.

Death of Tina Kennard

The L Word is an American-Canadian co-production television drama that aired on Showtime from January 18, 2004 to March 8, 2009. The series follows an ensemble cast of friends who live in West Hollywood, California; it featured American television's first ensemble cast depicting homosexual, bisexual and a transgender person. The premise originated with Ilene Chaiken, Michele Abbot and Kathy Greenberg; Chaiken is credited as the primary creator of the series, and also served as its executive producer. The series theme song was performed by the band Betty.

Láska je Láska (v anglickém originále The L Word) je americký koprodukční seriál stanice Showtime popisující život lesbických žen, bisexuálů a transsexuálů a jejich přátel žijících v Los Angeles.


Principles of operation.

In general, fire retardants reduce the flammability of materials by either blocking the fire physically or by initiating a chemical reaction that stops the fire.

Physical action.

There are several ways in which the combustion process can be retarded by physical action:  Commonly used fire retardant additives include mixtures of huntite and hydromagnesite, aluminium hydroxide, and magnesium hydroxide. When heated, aluminium hydroxide dehydrates to form aluminum oxide (alumina, AlO), releasing water vapor in the process. This reaction absorbs a great deal of heat, cooling the material into which it is incorporated. Additionally, the residue of alumina forms a protective layer on the material's surface. Mixtures of huntite and hydromagnesite work in a similar manner. They endothermically decompose releasing both water and carbon dioxide, giving fire retardant properties to the materials in which they are incorporated.

Uses.

Fire extinguishers.

Class A foam is used as a fire retardant in 2.5 gallon [APW] and [CAFS] extinguishers to contain incipient brush fires and grass fires by creating a fire break. Other chemical retardants are capable of rendering class A material and Class B fuels non-flammable and extinguishing class A, class B, and some class D fires. Fire retardant slurries dropped from aircraft are normally applied ahead of a wildfire to prevent ignition, while fire suppression agents are used to extinguish fires.

Surface coating.

Objects may be coated with fire retardants. For example, Christmas trees are sprayed with retardants. As a tree dries out it becomes very flammable and a fire-hazard.  Steel structures have a fire retardant coating around columns and beams to prevent structural elements from weakening during a fire.  Dormitories in the US are also considering using these products. Since 2000, 109 people have died in fires in dormitories or off-campus student housing across the nation, according to Campus Firewatch, an online newsletter. Campus Firewatch's publisher, Ed Comeau, said a January 2000 fire at Seton Hall University in New Jersey drew attention to the perils of fire on campus. A common area in a Seton Hall dorm caught fire after two students ignited a banner from a bulletin board. The fire quickly spread to furniture and killed three students and injured 58 others.

Forest-fire fighting.

Early fire retardants were mixtures of water and thickening agents, and later included borates and ammonium phosphates.  Generally, fire retardants are dropped from aircraft or applied by ground crews around a wildfire's edges in an effort to contain its spread. This allows ground crews time to work to extinguish the fire. However, when needed, retardant can also be dropped directly onto flames to cool the fire and reduce flame length.

Aerial firefighting.

Aerial firefighting is a method to combat wildfires using aircraft. The types of aircraft used include fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. Smokejumpers and rappellers are also classified as aerial firefighters, being delivered by parachute from a variety of fixed-wing aircraft, or rappelling from helicopters. Chemicals used to fight fires may include water, water enhancers, or specially-formulated fire retardants.

Materials.

Wildfire retardants.

Fire retardants applied to wildfires are usually a mixture of water and chemicals designed to wet the area as well as chemically retard a fire's progression through vegetation. Typically it is colored so that the application area can be seen from the air. New gel-based retardants which meet NFPA Standard 1150 are being introduced into use. These are dyed other colors to differentiate them from the traditional red retardant. The gels and their dyes are designed to biodegrade naturally. Phos-Chek is a brand of long-term retardant currently approved for wildland fire use. Phos-Chek also has a consumer-based fire retardant spray called Wildfire Home Defense that is effective immediately after application and that remains effective until it is washed off with heavy water levels.

Environmental concerns.

Forest fire retardants that are used are generally considered non-toxic, but even less-toxic compounds carry some risk when organisms are exposed to large amounts. Fire retardants used in firefighting can be toxic to fish and wildlife as well as firefighters by releasing dioxins and furans when halogenated fire retardants are burned during fires, and drops within 300 feet of bodies of water are generally prohibited unless lives or property are directly threatened. The US Forest Service is the governing agency that conducts research and monitors the effect of fire retardants on wildland systems in the US.  A study published in June 2014 found that marine bacteria have the ability to manufacture a non-synthetic source of chemically identical polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). These chemicals are used as flame retardant, but are known to be toxic to the environment.

A fire retardant is a substance that is used to slow down or stop the spread of fire or reduce its intensity. This is commonly accomplished by chemical reactions that reduce the flammability of fuels or delay their combustion. Fire retardants may also cool the fuel through physical action or endothermic chemical reactions. Fire retardants are available as powder, to be mixed with water, as fire-fighting foams and fire-retardant gels. Fire retardants are also available as coatings or sprays to be applied to an object.

Zpomalovač hoření, retardér hoření nebo samozhášecí přísada je látka, která zpomaluje nebo zabraňuje hoření. Zpomalovače hoření se v požární ochraně používají velmi často. Nejčastěji používaným zpomalovačem hoření je voda, avšak termín se většinou používá pro chemické zpomalovače. Může se týkat i ochranné vrstvy na předmětu, například zpomalovače ve spreji, který se používá pro ochranu vánočních stromků proti ohni.


Geography.

The approximately circular-shaped island has a diameter of and is in area. The highest point on the island is at 166 m (545 feet). The vast wetland consists of many bogs and morainic hills, covered by vegetation characteristic of the tundra. Notably, a proposed subspecies of the Candle Larkspur, "Delphinium elatum" ssp. "cryophilum", is only found on this island, but its distinctness from the mainland population is disputed.  There is only one inhabited settlement on the island, Bugrino, located on the southeast coast. Nenets form the majority of the population, with fishing, reindeer farming and trapping being their main economic activities. Oil and gas are also present.

Climate.

Kolguyev Island has a tundra climate (ET) with an August mean of only 7.7.  Highest Temperature: on July 10, 1990  Lowest Temperature: on February 16, 1951  Warmest Month: on July, 2016  Coldest Month: on February, 1998  Wettest Year: in 1962  Driest Year: in 2017

Report by Trevor-Battye.

The island was explored in 1894 by the British naturalist Aubyn B.R. Trevor-Battye. He landed in June with an assistant, intending to spend about one month studying the wildlife, especially the birds. Due to mechanical problems with the vessel and a misunderstanding, they were left stranded on the island for 12 weeks. He published his study of the natural history and topography of Kolguyev as: "Ice-bound on Kolguev" (Trevor-Battye 1895). The book includes observations on the Nenets (whom he called Samoyed) who brought their reindeer to the island for summer grazing and to trap geese for trade in Russia. Trevor-Battye eventually left the island with these reindeer herders in September 1894, and had to travel overland from the Pechora River to Archangel. He described this adventurous journey in: "A northern highway of the Tsar" (Trevor-Battye 1898).

Kolguyev Island () is an island in Nenets Autonomous Okrug Russia located in the south-eastern Barents Sea (west of the Pechora Sea) to the north-east of the Kanin Peninsula.

Kolgujev ( "Колгуев", něnecky "Холӈгов") je ostrov ležící v jižním Barentsově moři na východě Pečorského moře v evropské části Ruska. Ostrov náleží do ruské Archangelské oblasti. Jeho rozloha činí 3 495 km2.