Name.

Hypotheses for the etymology of the Latin name "Italia" are numerous. One is that it was borrowed via Greek from the Oscan "Víteliú" 'land of calves' ("cf." Lat "vitulus" "calf", Umb "vitlo" "calf"). Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides.  According to Antiochus of Syracuse, the term Italy was used by the Greeks to initially refer only to the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula corresponding to the modern province of Reggio and part of the provinces of Catanzaro and Vibo Valentia in southern Italy. Nevertheless, by his time the larger concept of Oenotria and "Italy" had become synonymous and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. According to Strabo's "Geographica", before the expansion of the Roman Republic, the name was used by Greeks to indicate the land between the strait of Messina and the line connecting the gulf of Salerno and gulf of Taranto, corresponding

History.

Roman era.

The Italian peninsula was divided into a multitude of tribal or ethnic territory prior to the Roman conquest of Italy in the 3rd century BC. After a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and completed the conquest of the Italian peninsula by 218 BC.  This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, beginning with the First Punic War against Carthage. In the

The Middle Ages.

Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, the Ostrogoths. Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian. After the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak. By 553, emperor Justinian I expelled the Ostrogoths, and Italy was included into the Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty.  Byzantine rule in Italy collapsed by 572 as a result of invasions by another Germanic tribe, the Lombards. The peninsula was now dominated by the Kingdom of the Lombards, with minor remnants of Byzantine control, especially in the south.  During the 5th and 6th centuries, the popes increased their influence in both religious and

Rise of the city-states and the Renaissance.

From the 11th century on, Italian cities began to grow rapidly in independence and importance. They became centres of political life, banking, and foreign trade. Some became wealthy, and many, including Florence, Rome, Genoa, Milan, Pisa, Siena and Venice, grew into nearly independent city-states. Each had its own foreign policy and political life. They all resisted the efforts of noblemen and emperors to control them.  The emergence of identifiable Italian dialects from Vulgar Latin, and as such the possibility of a specifically "Italian" ethnic identity, has no clear-cut date, but began in roughly the 12th century. Modern standard Italian derives from the written vernacular of Tuscan writers of the 12th century. The recognition of Italian vernaculars as literary languages in their own right began with "De vulgari eloquentia", an essay written by Dante Alighieri at the beginning of the 14th century.  During

The French Revolution and Napoleon.

The French Revolution and Napoleon influenced Italy more deeply than they affected any other outside country of Europe. The French Revolution began in 1789 and immediately found supporters among the Italian people. The local Italian rulers, sensing danger in their own country, drew closer to the European kings who opposed France. After the French king was overthrown and France became a republic, secret clubs favouring an Italian republic were formed throughout Italy. The armies of the French Republic began to move across Europe. In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte led a French army into northern Italy and drove out the Austrian rulers. Once again, Italy was the scene of battle between the Habsburgs and

The Kingdom of Italy.

After the Battle of Waterloo, the reaction set in with the Congress of Vienna allowed the restoration of many of the old rulers and systems under Austrian domination. The concept of nationalism continued strong, however, and sporadic outbreaks led by such inveterate reformers as Giuseppe Mazzini occurred in several parts of the peninsula down to 1848–49. This "Risorgimento" movement was brought to a successful conclusion under the guidance of Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour, prime minister of Piedmont.  Cavour managed to unite most of Italy under the headship of Victor Emmanuel II of the house of Savoy, and on 17 March 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II as king. Giuseppe Garibaldi, the popular republican hero of Italy, contributed much

The Italian Republic.

Between 1945 and 1948, the outlines of a new Italy began to appear. Victor Emmanuel III gave up the throne on 9 May 1946, and his son, Umberto II, became king. On 2 June Italy held

Culture.

From the Magna Graecia period to the 17th century, the inhabitants of the Italian peninsula were at the forefront of Western culture, being the fulcrum and origin of Magna Graecia, Ancient Rome, the Roman Catholic Church, Humanism, the Renaissance, Baroque, the Counter-Reformation and Neoclassicism.  Italy also became a seat of great formal learning in 1088 with the establishment of the University of Bologna, the first university in the Western World. Many other Italian universities soon followed. For example, the Schola Medica Salernitana, in southern Italy, was the first medical school in Europe. These great centres of learning presaged the "Rinascimento": the European Renaissance began in Italy and was fueled throughout Europe by Italian painters, sculptors, architects, scientists, literature masters and music composers. Italy continued its leading cultural role through the Baroque period and into the

Philosophy.

Over the ages, Italian literature had a vast influence on Western philosophy, beginning with the Greeks and Romans, and going onto Renaissance, The Enlightenment and modern philosophy. Italian Medieval philosophy was mainly Christian, and included several important philosophers and theologians such as St Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas was the student of Albert the Great, a brilliant Dominican experimentalist, much like the Franciscan, Roger Bacon of Oxford in the 13th century. Aquinas reintroduced Aristotelian philosophy to Christianity. He believed that there was no contradiction between faith and secular reason. He believed that Aristotle had achieved the pinnacle in the human striving for truth and thus adopted Aristotle's philosophy as a framework in constructing his theological and philosophical outlook. He was a professor at the prestigious University of Paris.  Italy was also affected by the Enlightenment, a movement which was a consequence of the Renaissance and changed the road of Italian philosophy. Followers of the group often met to discuss in private salons and coffeehouses, notably in the cities of Milan, Rome and Venice. Cities with important universities such as Padua, Bologna and Naples, however, also remained great centres of scholarship and the intellect, with several philosophers

Literature.

Italian literature may be unearthed back to the Middle Ages, with the most significant poets of the period being Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio. During the Renaissance, humanists such as Leonardo Bruni, Coluccio Salutati and Niccolò Machiavelli were great collectors of antique manuscripts. Many worked for the organized Church and were in holy orders (like Petrarch), while others were lawyers and chancellors of Italian cities, like Petrarch's disciple, Salutati, the Chancellor of Florence, and thus had

Law and justice.

Since the Roman Empire, most western contributions to Western legal culture was the emergence of a class of Roman jurists. During the Middle Ages, St. Thomas Aquinas, the most influential western scholar of the period, integrated the theory of natural law with the notion of an eternal and biblical law. During the Renaissance, Prof. Alberico Gentili,

Science and technology.

Italians have been the central figures of countless inventions and discoveries and they made many predominant contributions to various fields. During the Renaissance, Italian polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404–72) made important contributions to a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), a physicist, mathematician and astronomer, played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include the invention of the thermometer and key improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and ultimately the triumph of Copernicanism over the Ptolemaic model. Other astronomers such as Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712) and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910) made many important discoveries about the Solar System.  Physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–54), a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that built the first nuclear reactor and is also noted for his many other contributions to physics, including the co-development of the quantum theory. He and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s by Fascist laws against Jews, including Emilio G. Segrè (1905–89) (who discovered the elements technetium and astatine, and the antiproton), and Bruno Rossi (1905–93), a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy. Other prominent physicists and

Mathematics.

During the Middle Ages, Leonardo Fibonacci, the greatest Western mathematician of the Middle Ages, introduced the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the Western world. He also introduced the sequence of Fibonacci numbers, which he used as an example in "Liber Abaci". Gerolamo Cardano established the foundation of probability and introduced the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem; he also invented several mechanical devices. During the Renaissance, Luca Pacioli introduced accounting to the world, publishing the first work on Double-entry bookkeeping system. Galileo Galilei made several significant advances in mathematics. Bonaventura Cavalieri's works partially anticipated integral calculus and popularized logarithms in Italy.  Jacopo Riccati, who was also a jurist, invented the Riccati equation. Maria Gaetana Agnesi, the first woman to write a mathematics handbook, become the first woman mathematics professor at a university. Gian Francesco Malfatti, posed the

Architecture.

As Italy is home to the greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (51) to date and it is home to half the world's great art treasures, Italians are known for their significant architectural achievements, such as the construction of arches, domes and similar structures during ancient Rome, the founding of the Renaissance architectural movement in the late-14th to 16th centuries, and being the homeland of Palladianism, a style of construction which inspired movements such as that of Neoclassical architecture, and influenced the designs

Music.

From folk music to classical, music has always played an important role in Italian culture. Instruments associated with classical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy, and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as the symphony, concerto, and sonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of 16th- and 17th-century Italian music. Italians invented many of the musical instruments, including the piano and violin.  Most notable Italians composers include the Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Claudio Monteverdi, the Baroque composers Scarlatti, Corelli and Vivaldi, the Classical composers Paganini and Rossini, and the Romantic composers Verdi and Puccini, whose operas, including "La bohème", "Tosca", "Madama Butterfly", and "Turandot", are among the most frequently worldwide performed in the standard repertoire. Modern Italian composers such as Berio and Nono proved significant in the development of experimental and electronic music. While the classical music tradition still holds strong in Italy, as evidenced by the fame of its innumerable opera houses, such as La Scala of Milan and San Carlo of Naples, and performers such as the pianist Maurizio Pollini and the late tenor Luciano Pavarotti, Italians have been no less appreciative of their thriving contemporary music scene.  Italians

Cinema.

Since the development of the Italian film industry in the early 1900s, Italian filmmakers and performers have, at times, experienced both domestic and international success, and have influenced film movements throughout the world.  Following the Fascist era, characterized by the Telefoni Bianchi genre, they got international critical acclaim through the Neorealist genre, and starting from the 1960s through the Commedia all'italiana genre as well as through a number of auteurs such as Vittorio De Sica, Federico Fellini, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Luchino Visconti, Michelangelo Antonioni and Roberto Rossellini. Actresses such as Sophia Loren,

Sport.

Italians have a long tradition in sport. In numerous sports, both individual and team, Italy has been very successful.  Association football is the most popular sport in Italy. Italy is one of the most successful national teams in association football having four FIFA World Cups, one UEFA European Championship and one Olympic tournament. Amongst the players who won the FIFA World Cup there are Giuseppe Meazza, Silvio Piola (to date the highest goalscorer in Italian first league history), Dino Zoff, Paolo Rossi, Marco Tardelli, Bruno Conti, Gianluigi Buffon, Fabio Cannavaro, Alessandro Del Piero, Andrea Pirlo and Francesco Totti. Amongst those who did not win the World Cup but laureated as European champions are Gianni Rivera, Luigi Riva (to date Italy's leading scorer of all time), Sandro Salvadore, Giacomo Bulgarelli, Pietro Anastasi and Giacinto Facchetti. Other prominent players who achieved success at club level are Giampiero Boniperti, Romeo Benetti, Roberto Boninsegna, Roberto Bettega, Roberto Baggio and Paolo Maldini. Of the above-mentioned, the goalkeeper Dino Zoff, who served in the National team from 1968 to 1983, is to date the only Italian player to have won both the European championship (in 1968) and the FIFA World Cup (in 1982), apart from being the oldest winner ever of the World Cup. At club level, to date Italy has won a total of 12 European Cup / Champions' Leagues, 9 UEFA Cups / UEFA Europa League and 7 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup.  Motorcycle racers such as Giacomo Agostini and Valentino Rossi are recognized as some of the greatest sportstars of all time. Federica Pellegrini, one of the few female swimmers to have set world records in more than one event

Ethnogenesis.

Due to historic demographic shifts in the Italian peninsula throughout history, as well as Italy's regional ethnic diversity since ancient times, modern Italians are genetically diverse. This includes pre-Indo-European language people, such as the Etruscans, Rhaetians, Camuni and the Ligures, and pre-Roman Indo-European language peoples, like the Celts (Gauls) in northern Italy, the Italic peoples throughout the peninsula (such as the Latino-Faliscans, the Osco-Umbrians, the Sicels and the Veneti), and a significant number of Greeks in southern Italy and Sicily (Magna Graecia). The Italians originate mostly from these two primary elements and, like much of the Romance-speaking Southern Europe, share a common Latin heritage and history.

Ancient history.

The earliest modern humans inhabiting Italy are believed to have been Paleolithic peoples that may have arrived in the Italian Peninsula as early as 35,000 to 40,000 years ago. Italy is believed to have been a major Ice-age

Indo-European.

Starting in the 4th millennium BC as well as in the Bronze Age, the first wave of migrations into Italy of Indo-European-speaking peoples occurred, with the appearance of the Remedello, the Rinaldone and the Gaudo cultures. These were later (from the 18th century BC) followed by others that can be identified as Italo-Celts, with the appearance of the Proto-Celtic Canegrate culture and the Proto-Italic Terramare culture, both deriving from the

Pre-Roman.

By the beginning of the Iron Age the Etruscans emerged as the dominant civilization on the Italian peninsula. The Etruscans, whose primary home was in Etruria (modern Tuscany), inhabited a large part of central and northern Italy extending as far north as the Po Valley and as far south as Capua. On the origins of the Etruscans, the ancient authors report several hypotheses, one of which claims that the Etruscans come from the Aegean Sea. Modern archaeological and genetic research suggests descent from the indigenous Villanovan culture of Italy.  The Ligures are said to

Roman.

The Romans—who according to legend originally consisted of three ancient tribes: Latins, Sabines and Etruscans—would go on to conquer the whole Italian peninsula. During the Roman period hundreds of cities and colonies were established throughout Italy, including Florence, Turin, Como, Pavia, Padua, Verona, Vicenza, Trieste and many others. Initially many of these cities were colonized by Latins, but later also included colonists belonging to the other Italic tribes who had become Latinized and joined to Rome. After the Roman conquest of Italy "the whole of Italy had become Latinized".  After the Roman conquest of Cisalpine Gaul and the widespread confiscations of Gallic territory, much of the Gaulish population was killed or expelled. Many colonies were established by the Romans in the former Gallic territory of Cisalpine Gaul, which was then

Middle Ages and modern period.

A large Germanic confederation of Scirii, Heruli, Turcilingi and Rugians, led by Odoacer, invaded and settled Italy in 476. They were preceded by Alemanni, including 30,000 warriors with their families, who settled in the Po Valley in 371, and by Burgundians who settled between Northwestern Italy and Southern France in 443. The Germanic tribe of the Ostrogoths led by Theoderic the Great conquered Italy and presented themselves as upholders of Latin culture, mixing Roman culture together with Gothic culture, in order to legitimize their rule amongst Roman subjects who had a long-held belief in the superiority of Roman culture over foreign "barbarian" Germanic culture. Since Italy had a population of several million, the Goths did not constitute a significant addition to the local population. At the height of their power, there were several thousand Ostrogoths in a population of 6 or 7 million. Before them, Radagaisus led tens of thousands of Goths in Italy in 406, though figures may be too high as ancient sources routinely inflated the numbers of tribal invaders. After

Italian surnames.

Most of Italy's surnames ("cognomi"), with the exception of a few areas marked by linguistic minorities, derive from Italian and arose from an individual's peculiar qualities (e.g. "Rossi", "Bianchi",

Italian diaspora.

Italian migration outside Italy took place, in different migrating cycles, for centuries. A diaspora in high numbers took place after Italy's unification in 1861 and continued through 1914 with the beginning of the First World War. This rapid outflow and migration of Italian people across the globe can be attributed to factors such as the internal economic slump that emerged alongside Italy's unification, family, and the industrial boom that occurred in the world surrounding Italy.  Italy after its unification did not seek nationalism but instead sought work. However, a unified state did not automatically constitute a sound economy. The global economic expansion, ranging from Britain's Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and through mid 19th century, to the use of slave labor in the Americas did not hit Italy until much later (with the exception of the "industrial triangle" between Milan, Genoa and Turin) This lag resulted in a deficit of work available in Italy and the need to look for work elsewhere. The mass industrialization and urbanization globally resulted in higher labor mobility and the need for Italians to stay anchored to the land for economic support declined.  Moreover, better opportunities for work were not the only incentive to move; family played a major role and the dispersion of Italians globally. Italians were more likely to migrate to countries where they had family established beforehand. These ties are shown to be stronger in many cases than the monetary incentive for migration, taking into account a familial base and possibly an Italian migrant community, greater connections to find opportunities for work, housing etc. Thus, thousands of Italian men and women left Italy and dispersed around the world and this trend only increased as the First World War approached.  Notably, it was not as

Autochthonous Italian communities outside Italy.

In both the Slovenian and Croatian portions of Istria, in Dalmatia as well as in the city of Rijeka, Italian refers to autochthonous speakers of Italian and various Italo-Dalmatian languages, natives in the region since before the inception of the Venetian Republic. In the aftermath of the Istrian exodus following the Second World War, most Italian-speakers are today predominantly located in the west and south of Istria, and number about 30,000. The number of inhabitants with Italian ancestry is likely much greater but undeterminable. In the first Austrian census carried out in 1870 the number of Italian Dalmatians varied between 40,000 and 50,000 amongst the about 250,000 inhabitants of Dalmatia, or 20% of the total Dalmatian population.  In the French County of Nice, autochthonous speakers of regional languages of Italy (Ligurian and Piedmontese), are natives in the region since before annexation to France in 1860. The number of inhabitants with Italian ancestry is generally indeterminable, and the use of French language is now ubiquitous. In addition, Corsica was a part of the Republic of Genoa until 1768 and most of the islanders still have a certain level of proficiency of Corsican, a language of the Italo-Dalmatian family closely related to Tuscan. The Italian language ceased to have official status in Corsica in 1859 when it was supplanted by French and a process of de-Italianization was started by the French government in Corsica (and in 1861 the Nizzardo area).  A similar process happened in Malta, where the Maltese Italians have practically disappeared in the last two centuries after Britain took control of the island during Napoleon times. However, the Italian language is today spoken and understood by 66% of the population.  Swiss Italian is spoken as natively by about 350,000 people in the canton of Ticino and in the southern part of Graubünden (Canton Grigioni). Swiss-Italian also refers to the Italian speaking population in this region (southern Switzerland) close to the border with Italy. Swiss Italian dialects are spoken in emigrant communities around the world, including in Australia.

Italians ( ) are a Romance ethnic group and nation native to the Italian geographical region and its neighbouring insular territories. Italians share a common culture, history, ancestry and language. Legally, Italian nationals are citizens of Italy, regardless of ancestry or nation of residence (in effect, however, Italian nationality is largely based on jus sanguinis) and may be distinguished from ethnic Italians in general or people of Italian descent without Italian citizenship and from ethnic Italians living in territories adjacent to the Italian peninsula without Italian citizenship.

Italové (, staročesky "Vlachové") jsou převážně románský a italický národ, žijící především v Itálii. Spisovným jazykem jim je italština - románský jazyk, který se vyvinul z lidové latiny; v různých částech Itálie však se hovoří mnoha nářečími (lombardština, neapolština, sicilština a další). Vyznání je převážně římskokatolické.


Background.

In the late 19th century, the strategy of the Imperial Japanese Navy was based on the radical Jeune Ecole naval philosophy, as promoted by French military advisor and naval architect Emile Bertin. This emphasised cheap torpedo boats and commerce raiding to offset expensive, heavily armoured ships. The acquisition of two German-built s by the Imperial Chinese Beiyang Fleet in 1885 threatened Japan's interests in Korea. A visit by the Chinese warships to Japan in early 1891 forced the Japanese government to acknowledge that the IJN required similarly armed and armoured ships of its own to counter the ironclads; the three lightly armoured s ordered from France would not suffice, despite their powerful guns. The IJN decided to order a pair of the latest battleships from the United Kingdom as Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships.  Obtaining funding for the battleships was a struggle for the Japanese government. The initial request was submitted in the budget of Prime Minister Matsukata Masayoshi in 1891, but was deleted by the Diet of Japan due to political infighting. Matsukata submitted the request again and, when again denied, was forced to dissolve his cabinet. His successor, Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi, attempted to pass the funding measure in 1892, but he also failed. This led to an extraordinary personal intervention by Emperor Meiji in a statement dated 10 February 1893, wherein the emperor offered to fund the construction of the two battleships himself, through an annual reduction in the expenses of the Imperial Household, and asked that all government officials likewise agree to a reduction in their salaries by ten percent. The funding measure for the "Fuji"-class battleships was passed by the Japanese Diet soon after. Completion of the ships was originally scheduled for 1899, but the start of the First Sino-Japanese War shortly before they were laid down in 1894 caused the government to accelerate the schedule by two years.

Design and description.

The design of the "Fuji" class was derived from that of the British s, albeit about smaller. The "Fuji"-class ships improved on the "Royal Sovereign"s in several ways; they were about faster, they incorporated superior Harvey armour, and their guns, although smaller and lighter, were the same as those of the later and were protected by armoured hoods (gun turrets). The two ships of the class were almost identical even though they were designed by two different naval architects, "Yashima" by Philip Watts and "Fuji" by George C. Mackrow. The primary difference was that "Yashima" had her deadwood cut away aft and was fitted with a balanced rudder. This made her almost a knot faster than her sister and gave her a smaller turning circle at the cost of a weaker stern that required careful attention when drydocked lest it sag.  The "Fuji"-class ships had an overall length of, a beam of, and a normal draught of. They displaced at normal load. The ships had double bottoms and were subdivided into a total of 181 watertight compartments. The crew numbered about 650 officers and enlisted men. "Yashima" was fitted as a flagship with accommodation for an admiral and his staff.

Propulsion.

The "Fuji"-class ships were powered by two Humphrys Tennant 3-cylinder vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller, using steam generated by ten cylindrical boilers with a working pressure of. The engines were rated at, using forced draught, and designed to reach a top speed of although the ships proved to be faster during their sea trials, reaching top speeds of. A watertight centreline bulkhead separated the two engine rooms as well as the four boiler rooms. The boiler rooms were further separated by a transverse bulkhead. Unlike both the "Royal Sovereign"s and "Majestic"s, the "Fuji" class had their funnels on the centreline.  The ships carried a maximum of of coal which allowed them to steam for at a speed of. They were fitted with three electric dynamos, each rated at.

Armament.

The main battery of the "Fuji" class consisted of four hydraulically operated Elswick Ordnance Company 40-calibre Type 41 twelve-inch guns mounted in pear-shaped twin-gun barbettes fore and aft of the superstructure. The barbettes had a firing arc of 240° and the guns had a maximum elevation of +15° and could depress to −5°. These barbettes had armoured hoods, or turrets, to protect the guns. The mountings were virtually identical to those used in the first "Majestic"-class battleships, which could only hoist ammunition from the below-decks magazines in one position. However, 18 shells were stowed in each turret that allowed a limited amount of firing at any angle before their ammunition supply needed to be replenished. The guns were loaded at a fixed angle of 1° and fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of. This gave them an approximate range of.  Secondary armament of the "Fuji" class consisted of ten 40-calibre Type 41 six-inch quick-firing guns, four on the main deck in casemates and six guns on the upper deck protected by gun shields. They fired shells at a muzzle velocity of. Protection from torpedo boat attacks was provided by fourteen three-pounder Hotchkiss guns and ten 47-millimetre 2.5-pounder Hotchkiss guns. The three-pounder gun fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of while the 2.5-pounder fired shells at a muzzle velocity of. The ships were also equipped with five 18-inch torpedo tubes, one in the bow above water and four submerged tubes, two on each broadside.  In 1901, both ships exchanged 16 of their 47 mm guns for an equal number of QF 12-pounder 12 cwt guns. They fired, projectiles at a muzzle velocity of. This raised the number of crewmen to 652 and later to 741.

Armour.

The armour scheme of the "Fuji"-class ships was similar to that used by the "Royal Sovereign"s except that the Japanese ships used superior Harvey armour of the same thickness instead of compound armour. The waterline main belt was high, of which was above the waterline at normal load, and had a maximum thickness of. It reduced to then at the ends past the two barbettes; above it was a strake of armour that ran between the barbettes. They were 14 inches thick outside the upper armour belt and reduced to behind the upper belt. Diagonal bulkheads connected the barbettes to the side armour; the forward bulkhead was 14 inches thick while the rear bulkhead was thick. The armour of the casemates and the barbette hoods had a maximum thickness of 6 inches while the conning tower was protected by 14 inches of armour. The deck armour was thick and met the sides of the ship at the top of the main armour belt.

Service.

Both ships had reached Japan by February 1898. At the start of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, "Fuji" and "Yashima" were assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet. They participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February, when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur. Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the Russian ships with his secondary guns. Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as his and six-inch guns inflicted very little damage on the Russian vessels, which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships. "Yashima" was not struck during the battle, but "Fuji" was hit twice, two men being killed and 10 wounded. On 10 March, the two ships blindly bombarded the harbour of Port Arthur from Pigeon Bay, on the southwest side of the Liaodong Peninsula, at a range of, but did little damage. When they tried again on 22 March, they were attacked by Russian coastal defence guns that had been transferred there, and also from several Russian ships in Port Arthur using observers overlooking Pigeon Bay. The Japanese ships disengaged after "Fuji" was hit by a 12-inch shell.  "Fuji" and "Yashima" participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out two battleships of the Pacific Squadron. When the Russians spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division, they turned back for Port Arthur and the battleship struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night. The ship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded. Emboldened by his success, Tōgō resumed long-range bombardment missions, which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields.  On 14 May 1904, the battleships "Hatsuse",, and "Yashima", the protected cruiser "Kasagi", and the dispatch boat put to sea to relieve the Japanese blockading force off Port Arthur. The following morning, the squadron encountered a Russian minefield. "Hatsuse" struck one mine that disabled her steering and "Yashima" struck two others when moving to assist "Hatsuse". "Yashima" was towed away from the minefield, but she was still taking on water at an uncontrollable rate and the crew abandoned ship some five hours later. "Kasagi" took "Yashima" in tow, but the battleship's list continued to increase and she capsized about three hours later. During the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904, "Fuji" was not damaged because the Russian ships concentrated their fire on Tōgō's flagship, the battleship, which was leading the column. In May the following year, during the Battle of Tsushima, "Fuji" was hit a dozen times, the most serious of which penetrated the hood of the rear barbette, ignited some exposed propellant charges, killed eight men and wounded nine. After the ammunition fire was put out, the left gun in the barbette resumed firing and apparently delivered the "coup de grâce" that sank the battleship.  On 23 October 1908, "Fuji" hosted a dinner for the American Ambassador, Thomas J. O'Brien, and the senior officers of the Great White Fleet during its circumnavigation of the world. In 1910, her cylindrical boilers were replaced by Miyabara water-tube boilers and her main armament was replaced by Japanese-built guns. "Fuji" was reclassified as a first-class coast defence ship the same year, and undertook training duties in various capacities until disarmed in 1922. Her hulk continued to be used as a floating barracks and training centre at Yokosuka until 1945. "Fuji" was damaged by American carrier aircraft during their 18 July 1945 attack on Yokosuka and capsized after the end of the war. The ship was scrapped in 1948.

The was a two-ship class of pre-dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) in the mid-1890s. They were the first battleships in the IJN, and were constructed in the UK as Japan lacked the industrial facilities needed to build them. Their design was based on the battleships being built for the Royal Navy at that time.

Třída Fudži (:, "Fudži-gata") byla třída dvou predreadnoughtů japonského císařského námořnictva postavených v letech 1894 až 1897 v britských loděnicích podle modifikovaných plánů bitevních lodí Royal Navy. Skládala se z lodí "Fudži" a "Jašima" – byly to první bitevní lodě, které Japonské císařství získalo. Původně byly objednány jako odpověď na čínské obrněnce, ale byly dokončeny až po první čínsko-japonské válce. Zúčastnily se rusko-japonské války, ve které se "Jašima" 15. května 1904 potopila po najetí na minu. "Fudži" byla v roce 1910 překlasifikována na "kaibókan" a jako plovoucí kasárna se dočkala druhé světové války, po které byla v roce 1948 sešrotována.


Biography.

Fischerová was born in Prague. Her father, actor and theatre director Jan Fischer (or Fišer), was imprisoned in Theresienstadt and Auschwitz concentration camps during World War II.  She studied at the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno, however, she did not finish her studies. In the late 1960s, she worked with Prague's Drama Club. She was sacked from the theatre during the period of normalization (in 1973). She then worked with the Jiří Wolker Theatre for four years. However, after her son Kryštof, whose father is the composer Petr Skoumal, was born with cerebral palsy, she left the theatre. In the 1980s, she worked as a freelance actress. During her acting career, she collaborated with significant personalities of Czech cinema, such as Jan Kačer, Evald Schorm, Antonín Máša, Jaromil Jireš, and Karel Kachyňa.  In 1989, she signed the petition ""Několik vět"" (A Few Sentences) prepared by the informal civic initiative Charter 77. At that time, she began participating in civic activities.  In 2002, Fischerová was elected to a seat in the Parliament of the Czech Republic as an independent candidate running on the slate of the "Unie svobody-DEU" (Freedom Union – Democratic Union). She served until 2006. However, she did not succeed in the next election, this time to the Senate of the Parliament of the Czech Republic.  Fischerová was one of the three female candidates in the 2013 Czech presidential election, along with Zuzana Roithová and Jana Bobošíková. She was supported by the Green Party. Her team gathered around 65,000 approved signatures from citizens and met the quorum of minimum of 50,000. In the 1st round of the election, she placed 7th with 3.23% (166 211 votes). She did not qualify for the second round. She was a member of the board of the Dagmar and Václav Havel Foundation VIZE 97, the Czech Helsinki Committee, and a member of Amnesty International. Along with the singer Marta Kubišová and film director Jan Kačer, she helped to organize the series of annual advent charity concerts broadcast by the Czech Television.

Taťana Fischerová (better known as Táňa Fischerová) (6 June 1947 – 25 December 2019) was a Czech actress, writer, television host, politician and civic activist. From 2002 to 2006, she was a member of the Parliament of the Czech Republic. She was a candidate in the 2013 Czech presidential election.

Taťana Fischerová (6. června 1947 Praha – 25. prosince 2019 Čerčany), známá převážně jako Táňa Fischerová, byla česká herečka, spisovatelka, moderátorka, politička a občanská aktivistka. Mezi lety 2008 a 2018 byla předsedkyní a lídryní Klíčového hnutí, založeného na principech sociální trojčlennosti rakouského filozofa a humanisty Rudolfa Steinera. V červnu 2002 byla na kandidátce US-DEU zvolena jako nezávislá poslankyně do Parlamentu ČR. Mandát jí skončil v červnu 2006. V historicky první přímé volbě v roce 2013 kandidovala na prezidentku České republiky.


Storylines.

Cuddy's job title in "House" is Dean of Medicine and Hospital Administrator. She is Jewish, and has a mother and one sister; her father died. She began dreaming of becoming a doctor when she was 12, graduated from medical school at age 25 as second best in her class, and became the first female and second youngest Dean of Medicine at the age of 32 (she was actually 29 but she added three years to her age in order to seem more mature to the Selection Committee). Cuddy attended the University of Michigan, where she first met Gregory House (Hugh Laurie), and with whom she shared a one-night stand.  After hiring House to run the hospital's Diagnostics Department, Cuddy began setting aside $50,000 a year from the hospital's budget for potential legal expenses. When, during Season 1, the new Chairman of the Board Edward Vogler (Chi McBride) tries to have House fired for refusing to kowtow to his demands, Cuddy urges the board to save House and remove Vogler instead, losing the $100 million donation he had made to the hospital. In Season 2, it is revealed that Cuddy is trying to conceive a child. House agrees to administer the twice-daily injections necessary for her to undergo in-vitro fertilization and to keep the matter secret. In Season 3, Cuddy confesses to the hospital's Head of Oncology and House's best friend Wilson (Robert Sean Leonard) that she has made a total of three attempts at impregnation, one of which was miscarried. She is hurt when House, who was going through Vicodin withdrawal, tells her it is a good thing she has failed to become a mother, as she would suck at it. When House's career is threatened by Detective Michael Tritter (David Morse), Cuddy falsifies documents and perjures herself in court to cover up his wrongdoing.  Cuddy questions whether House has a romantic interest in her when he interrupts her repeatedly during a blind date. When Wilson takes Cuddy to the theatre and later to an art exhibition, House intervenes in an attempt to prevent Cuddy from becoming Wilson's fourth wife. In Season 5, Cuddy reveals that she is adopting a baby girl, to be named Joy, and then is devastated when the birth-mother decides to keep the baby. House consoles her, and the two share a passionate kiss. Cuddy professes not to want a relationship with House but is touched when he has her old desk from medical school brought out of storage for her when her office is renovated. In episode "Joy to the World", Cuddy becomes a foster mother and potential adoptive mother to a baby girl she names Rachel. She initially struggles with motherhood, revealing to Wilson that she feels nothing for Rachel but soon begins to bond with her. In episode "Under My Skin", Cuddy helps House detox from Vicodin; and the two sleep together. In the following episode, the Season 5 finale "Both Sides Now", this is revealed to have been a hallucination on House's part: in reality, he spent the evening alone and is suffering from psychiatric problems as a result of Vicodin and emotional trauma.  Throughout Season 6, Cuddy is busy with her adopted daughter and is in a relationship with a private investigator, Lucas, who was hired by House to spy on Wilson at the start of Season 5. She cared for House after he goes through rehab for Vicodin. After sensing romantic feelings from House, Cuddy tells House that she would like to be friends; but he refuses, quoting that is the "last thing he wants". In the Season 6 finale "Help Me", House gives Cuddy an antique medical text written by her great-grandfather, which prompts her to confess that she and Lucas were engaged. Cuddy, House and House's team go to Trenton to help victims where a crane collapsed on a building. House finds a woman named Hannah who is trapped under a mountain of rubble. The first responders and Cuddy both tell House that Hannah's leg needs to be amputated for a chance of survival. House and the girl refuse for this to happen. House and Cuddy later get in an argument over it. Cuddy claims that the reason why he is refusing is because he is bitter over her engagement and what he went through with his leg years ago. During their argument, Cuddy tells him that she doesn't love him and to move on. House then decides to amputate Hannah's leg. Afterwards she is sent to the hospital but on the way she dies due to a fat embolism, caused by the amputation. With the pain he is dealing with, Hannah's death, and what Cuddy said to him earlier, when House arrives home he rips the bathroom mirror off the wall to get his stash of Vicodin. As he gets ready to take the pills, Cuddy arrives just in time. She reveals to him that even though she was moving on with her life she can't stop thinking about him. She broke off her engagement to Lucas and tells House that she loves him and they kiss. He asks her if he is hallucinating this and she asks if he took the Vicodin. He says no and drops the pills on the floor. They smile and kiss again.  Cuddy's relationship with House progressed throughout most of Season 7. In Episode 15, "Bombshells", Cuddy discovers blood in her urine. After several tests, Wilson finds a mass in Cuddy's kidney and schedules a biopsy to take place later in the episode. Further "imaging shows enhancing masses across multiple lobes of Cuddy's lungs", of which Foreman points out "That's what kidney cancer looks like when it metastasizes". Finally, just before surgery to have the tumor removed, House shows up to support his girlfriend through this tough time. Cuddy realizes at the end of the episode that the only reason House was able to overcome his selfishness was because he had taken Vicodin before visiting her in the hospital. It is here that Cuddy breaks off the relationship with House after confronting him regarding her suspicion of his relapse.  In the Season 7 finale, an angry House rams his car into her house. She resigns as Dean of Medicine after this event with Eric Foreman eventually replacing her.

Characterization.

Cuddy was created by executive producer Bryan Singer, who had enjoyed Lisa Edelstein's portrayal of a high-priced call girl putting herself through law school on "The West Wing", and sent her a copy of the pilot script. Edelstein was attracted to the program's "smart writing", and was cast in the role. The character has been described as "tough-as-woodpecker lips" by "Salon"'s Lily Burana, a woman who "clicks through the halls of the fictional Princeton-Plainsboro Hospital in low-cut sweaters and pencil skirts, bringing incredible Jewy glamour to prime time". "The New York Times"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Alessandra Stanley has similarly referred to her as the hospital's "comely but by-the-book chief administrator [...] who, like all heads of prestigious teaching hospitals, wears plunging necklines to work." Edelstein, questioned on whether she felt Cuddy's typical attire of tight-fitting, low-cut outfits was appropriate for her position, responded: "She doesn't care what people say [...] She's a television character, and I'm an actress playing a hospital administrator, and I don't want to be in frumpy clothes. I want to be a "hot" hospital administrator." "TV Guide"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Nina Hämmerling Smith calls Cuddy a foil for House, who "doesn't take [his] nonsense and knows how to keep him in check — more or less." "The Washington Post"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Tom Shales has deemed Cuddy House's "nagging nemesis", whose role is "to make House miserable". Discussing Cuddy's characterization in terms of her relationship with House, Edelstein has opined: Co-executive producer Garrett Lerner has praised Edelstein's versatility in the role when asked to summarize Cuddy, stating:

Development.

During the early fourth season of "House", Cuddy received reduced screen time as the show focused on House's new fellows. Edelstein revealed that the show would return to its regular format after the season's ninth episode. However, production was halted by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, which delayed the remainder of the season. Edelstein commented: "Cuddy won't be sleeping with House unless we get the writers back. So I'm out there picketing." As a result of the strike, storylines involving Cuddy had to be pushed back into the show's fifth season, as the fourth season ran for a reduced number of episodes.  When Edelstein heard she had to do a strip scene in the episode "House's Head", she called actress Sheila Kelley, wife of Richard Schiff (with whom Edelstein had worked previously on "The West Wing" and "Relativity"). Kelley had worked on a movie about strippers long ago and Edelstein asked her for her advice on the choreography of the striptease. On the episode itself, Edelstein commented: "It is very interesting what happens in the first half of the finale in terms of learning about how House sees people and getting the world from his point of view entirely". Before the filming of the scene started, Edelstein showed the dance to Hugh Laurie, who, according to Edelstein, was "incredibly supportive, like a cheerleader". Edelstein commented that after the scene was filmed she, "felt beautiful, and it ended up being a really lovely experience".  Cuddy's desire for a baby paralleled Edelstein's personal life, with the actress explaining: "When the show started, I told the producers that at some point during the run of the show, if it was successful, that I was going to get pregnant one way or another. So they planted that seed in the character's story so it would be possible for me as a woman to experience that." When Cuddy became a mother to Rachel in the show's fifth season, executive producer Katie Jacobs discussed the need for Cuddy to find a balance between her personal and professional life, as well as the impact motherhood would have on her relationship with House: The tension and chemistry are still there. Neither one of them is actively fessing-up to looking for a relationship, but they are drawn to each other. None of the flirtatiousness is going to go away. The stakes are very high for them. The attraction is still there. We are absolutely going to continue that. It's real and it's palpable. And it's who they are.  Cuddy has had a difficult relationship with her mother (played by Candice Bergen) after her father passing away. Although they are cordial they tend to hide things from each other. As Cuddy had misgivings about House meeting her mother for a long time and how her mother hid an affair she was having for the past five years.

"Huddy".

The relationship between House and Cuddy is known by the portmanteau term "Huddy". Cuddy has what "USA Today"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Peter Johnson terms a "cat-and-mouse" relationship with House. Edelstein has described it as "a really complicated, adult relationship", explaining: "These are people who have very full lives and lots of responsibilities that perhaps conflict with their feelings for each other." The actress "would love for them to have a [romantic] relationship, because it could be as complicated as the rest of their relationship", however, she is unsure how it would affect the dynamics of the show. Jacobs commented at the end of the show's third season: "I can't see them pairing them in a permanent fashion. But they are close; they have gone through a lot together. Might there be a moment of weakness in which the two might explore their chemistry? Maybe." Questioned at the end of the fourth season on whether Cuddy and House would ever consummate their relationship on-screen, Jacobs responded: "there is heat and chemistry between them and I never want to see that go away because that is the essence of their relationship. [...] we'll never ignore [their chemistry] because, as I said, it's the very essence of them. She wouldn't forgive him over and over again if he wasn't so brilliant in her eyes, clearly she's got a soft spot for him. And he has one for her. You will continue to see that." Prior to the beginning of the fifth season, series creator David Shore discussed his intention to further the relationship between the two, as: "If House is capable of any relationship with "anyone", it's Cuddy. We can't have them dancing around forever." Following the fifth season revelation that House had hallucinated a physical relationship with Cuddy, Shore commented on the storyline's continuation into the sixth season: "it would be dishonest to just let that disappear. Obviously House has feelings for her. Even though the love affair didn’t happen, in House’s mind it did." Edelstein does not know whether the two characters will eventually end up together, however believes that the combination of frustration and love Cuddy feels for House "makes for a very interesting relationship", as: "there's a great deal of admiration and respect, and also an incredible amount of annoyance and frustration, which is like how most relationships are in your life." As of the very end of the Sixth Season finale, "Help Me", House and Cuddy appear to have entered a romantic relationship. In the closing minutes of the episode, House came very close to relapsing and taking vicodin once again, at which point Cuddy entered to tell him that she had ended her relationship with Lucas. She professed her love for House, which led to them kissing briefly. A close-up shot of their clasped hands (House's left, Cuddy's right) was the closing shot of the episode, as well as the season. The relationship later ends in season 7; in the episode "Bombshells".

Reception.

In 2005, Edelstein won the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television for her role as Cuddy. Following the show's pilot episode, Tom Shales noted in "The Washington Post" that: "The skirmishes between House and Cuddy could get awfully tired, but by the second episode there are already some provocative wrinkles in what had seemed a simple situation." "TV Guide"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Nina Hämmerling Smith has deemed the banter between Cuddy and House "one of the best things about the show", while "Salon"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Lily Burana has declared herself to be on "Team Cuddy" in terms of House's romantic interests. Following the season three episode "Merry Little Christmas", Mary McNamara for the "LA Times" wrote: "The Avid Viewer was also happy to see the seeds of a romantic relationship between House and Cuddy being sown — that had to be part of the show's original bible because really, who else could survive a romantic relationship with House now that Sela Ward's gone?" McNamara has opined that a romantic relationship between the two "makes perfect sense", as "she is the only one who seems able to accept House as he is, to give almost as good as she gets and to let most of his barbs fall where they may. How Edelstein can play this in a believable way is the point where acting moves from skill to art." When the show underwent a change of format at the beginning of the fourth series, McNamara commented positively on the changing dynamic in Cuddy's relationship with House, noting: gone is the increasingly dull and unbelievable tension between him and Cuddy. (As subordinate/boss, that is. The sexual tension, one hopes, is still in there somewhere.) Cuddy is done trying to squelch him; now she is just shooting for managed chaos. Which is so much more fun because it revolves more around the medicine and less around all the personal pathos of the staff.  However, as "USA Today"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Robert Bianco noted, when Cuddy and House finally began a physical relationship, in what later transpired to be a hallucination sequence, "It started a firestorm among fans who hated the change in the relationship". Following the pair's first screen kiss, IGN reviewer James Chamberlin opined that the event was "kind of awkward" and "just didn't feel right to me". With regards to Cuddy's season five storylines as a whole, Chamberlin commented: "Cuddy's interest in becoming a mother was something I enjoyed. [..] This plot contained some heart-wrenching moments, particularly when Cuddy had to a take on the case as both a doctor and a potential mother in "Joy." "The New York Times"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Lisa Belkin has also praised Cuddy's motherhood storyline, citing her as one of few examples of good parenting on television.  Discussing the numerous YouTube fan videos dedicated to the "Huddy" relationship, "The New York Times"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Ginia Bellafante has assessed: "It is not merely the unrelenting push-pull of the show's writing, but the "His Girl Friday" chemistry between the actors Hugh Laurie (House) and Lisa Edelstein (Cuddy) that inspires otherwise reasonable women to bizarre, time-consuming digressions of fantasy." Bellafante considers herself amongst these women, writing: Shamefully, I would have been overjoyed if the season finale had ended with House and Cuddy electing to spend the summer together in Corsica. This would have betrayed the show’s primary covenant—to keep House miserable—and entirely erased its integrity. And yet I would mostly have wondered if House and Cuddy were going to make time for a stop in Sardinia. Following the fifth-season finale's revelation that the consummation of their relationship was a hallucination, Bellafante wrote: "I feel used and manipulated. I feel like a one-night stand who is never going to get calla lilies or a follow-up phone call. I feel hate for the show and I feel begrudging respect." Despite this, it is Bellafante's opinion that: "basically the show went in the obvious right direction, gratifying our base collective urge to finally see House and Cuddy together, not talking about lumbar punctures, in a fake-sex way that didn't ultimately impinge on the show's credibility." She considered: What would we really have done if House and Cuddy had woken up together, if he'd made her waffles, if she had eaten them wearing one of his shirts, if they spent the next day exchanging coy, knowing glances at Princeton-Plainsboro Hospital? Then we would have been watching "Grey's Anatomy" and we would have experienced not a jump-the-shark moment, but a bungee-jumping-the-Arctic moment. Her conclusion is that: "House" refuses to buy into the myth that a good woman can save an ornery jerk, and the finale made it clear what a dope you were to even think the show would try. It doesn't want to appease the woman who wants to appease her Harlequin Romance self. It wants to appease anyone who gets ticked off when a romantic comedy shows an accomplished woman in a skirt suit giving it all up for a jobless, slovenly idiot. The House-Cuddy attraction isn't an attraction of opposites. It's an attraction between two highly intelligent workaholics, two people too interesting for anyone else but ultimately unfit for each other—no matter how pathetically we'd like it to be otherwise.  Mike Hale for "The New York Times" has praised Edelstein's performance as Cuddy in comedic situations, writing: Lisa Edelstein may not be the funniest performer around, but she is without a doubt the best sport in American television: every week the writers of "House" find new ways to embarrass her and her character, Dr. Cuddy, who is engaged in an excruciating mating dance with Hugh Laurie's Dr. House. Ms. Edelstein somehow manages to maintain her dignity while playing a 40-something dean of medicine who acts like a teenage girl. The fourth season scene in which Cuddy did a pole dance was very positively received by critics, Mary McNamara stated that these scenes "in three minutes earned back the price of TiVo". James Chamberlin stated that he never expected Edelstein to do a strip tease, although he had hoped it.  Lisa Cuddy was elected TV's Most Crushworthy Female Doctor over Remy "Thirteen" Hadley in a poll held by "Zap2it".

Lisa Cuddy, M.D., is a fictional character on the Fox medical drama "House". She is portrayed by Lisa Edelstein. Cuddy was the Dean of Medicine of the fictional Princeton-Plainsboro Teaching Hospital in New Jersey. Cuddy quit her job after the events of season seven's finale "Moving On".

Dr. Lisa Cuddyová je fiktivní postava v seriálu Dr. House, jejíž postavu ztvárnila Lisa Edelstein. Je ředitelkou a děkankou medicíny fakultní nemocnice v Princeton-Plainsboro a její specializací je endokrinologie. Vystudovala lékařství na Michiganské univerzitě, rozhořčena tím, že byla druhá v ročníku. Zde se seznámila s Housem, se kterým potom strávila jednu noc (právě House byl v ročníku první). Je židovka. Mezi její záliby patří golf, tenis a láska k nemocnici díky níž zanedbává svůj soukromý život. Je velice cílevědomá a Prinston Plainsboro je něco jako její druhý domov. Má ráda House a chce z něj udělat lepšího člověka. Nutí ho pracovat na ambulanci, kde musí být s pacienty a mluvit s nimi, což ale spíš působí problémy než užitek a Cuddyová musí neustále napravovat Houseovy prohřešky. Také chce, aby House přestal brát prášky a drogu Vicodin a donutí ho se léčit. Jak má opravdu House ráda se ukáže později na konci série, která právě běžela v televizi, kdy se oba políbí...


Humans.

Anthropological and historical evidence.

Some researchers believe that humans first ate soil in Africa:  Geophagia is nearly universal around the world in tribal and traditional rural societies (although apparently it has not been documented in Japan or Korea). In the ancient world, several writers noted the phenomenon of geophagia. Pliny is said to have noted the ingestion of soil on Lemnos, an island of Greece, and the use of the soils from this island was noted until the 14thcentury. The textbook of Hippocrates (460–377 BCE) mentions geophagia, and the famous medical textbook titled "DeMedicina" edited by A.Cornelius Celsus (14–37 CE) seems to link anaemia to geophagia.  Early explorers in the Americas noted the existence of geophagy amongst Native Americans, including Gabriel Soares de Sousa, who in 1587 reported a tribe in Brazil using it in suicide, and Alexander von Humboldt, who said that a tribe called the Otomacs ate large amounts of soil. In Africa, David Livingstone wrote about slaves eating soil in Zanzibar, and it is also thought that large numbers of slaves brought with them soil-eating practices when they were shipped to the New World as part of the transatlantic slave trade. Slaves who practised geophagia were nicknamed "clay-eaters" because they were known to consume clay, as well as spices, ash, chalk, grass, plaster, paint, and starch.  In more recent times, according to "Dixie's Forgotten People: the South's Poor Whites", geophagia was common among poor whites in the Southeastern United States in the 19th and early 20thcenturies, and was often ridiculed in popular literature. The literature also states, "Many men believed that eating clay increased sexual prowess, and some females claimed that eating clay helped pregnant women to have an easy delivery." Geophagia among Southerners may have been caused by the high prevalence of hookworm disease, of which the desire to consume soil is a symptom. Geophagia has become less prevalent as rural Americans assimilate into urban culture. However, cooked, baked, and processed dirt and clay are sold in health food stores and rural flea markets in the American South.

Contemporary practices.

In Africa, kaolin, sometimes known as "kalaba" (in Gabon and Cameroon), "calaba", and "calabachop" (in Equatorial Guinea), is eaten for pleasure or to suppress hunger. Kaolin for human consumption is sold at most markets in Cameroon and is often flavoured with spices such as black pepper and cardamom. Consumption is greatest among women, especially during pregnancy. Another example of geophagia was reported in Free State Province in South Africa, where the practice was geochemically investigated. In Haiti, poor people are known to eat mud biscuits made from soil, salt, and vegetable shortening. These biscuits hold minimal nutritional value, but manage to keep the poor alive. However, long-term consumption of the biscuits is reported to cause stomach pains and malnutrition, and is not recommended by doctors.  Bentonite clay is available worldwide as a digestive aid; kaolin is also widely used as a digestive aid and as the base for some medicines. Attapulgite, another type of clay, is an active ingredient in many anti-diarrheal medicines.

Animals.

Geophagia is widespread in the animal kingdom. Galen, the Greek philosopher and physician, was the first to record the use of clay by sick or injured animals in the second century AD. This type of geophagia has been documented in "many species of mammals, birds, reptiles, butterflies and isopods, especially among herbivores".

Birds.

Many species of South American parrots have been observed at clay licks, and sulphur-crested cockatoos have been observed ingesting clays in Papua New Guinea.  Analysis of soils consumed by wild birds show that they often prefer soils with high clay content, usually with the smectite clay families being well represented.  The preference for certain types of clay or soil can lead to unusual feeding behaviour. For example, Peruvian Amazon rainforest parrots congregate not just at one particular bend of the Manu River but at one specific layer of soil which runs hundreds of metres horizontally along that bend. The parrots avoid eating the substrate in layers one metre above or below the preferred layer. These parrots regularly eat seeds and unripe fruits containing alkaloids and other toxins that render the seeds and fruits bitter and even lethal. Because many of these chemicals become positively charged in the acidic stomach, they bind to clay minerals which have negatively charged cation-exchange sites, and are thereby rendered safe. Their preferred soils have a much higher cation-exchange capacity than the adjacent, rejected layers of soils because they are rich in the minerals smectite, kaolin, and mica. The preferred soils surpass the pure mineral kaolinate and surpass or approach pure bentonite in their capacity to bind quinine and tannic acid.  "In vitro" and "in vivo" tests of these soils and many others from southeastern Peru indicate that they also release nutritionally important quantities of minerals such as calcium and sodium. In the Manu River example cited above, the preferred soil bands had much higher levels of sodium than those that were not chosen. Repeated studies have shown that the soils consumed most commonly by parrots in South America have higher sodium contents than those that are not consumed.  It is unclear which factor is driving avian geophagy. However, evidence is mounting that sodium is the most important driver among parrots in southeastern Peru. Parrots are known to eat toxic foods globally, but geophagy is concentrated in very specific regions. Researchers Lee etal. show that parrot geophagy in South America is positively correlated to a significant degree with distance from the ocean. This suggests that overall lack of sodium in the ecosystem, not variation in food toxicity, is a better predictor of the spatial distribution of geophagy. This work, coupled with the recent findings of consistently high sodium levels in consumed soils, make it highly likely that sodium is the primary driver of avian geophagy among parrots (and possibly other taxa) in the western Amazon Basin. This supplemental nutrients hypothesis is further supported by peak geography occurring during the parrots’ breeding season.

Primates.

There are several hypotheses about the importance of geophagia in bats and primates. Chimpanzees in Kibale National Park, Uganda, have been observed to consume soil rich in kaolinite clay shortly before or after consuming plants including "Trichilia rubescens", which possesses antimalarial properties in the laboratory.

Bats.

There is debate over whether geophagia in bats is primarily for nutritional supplementation or detoxification. It is known that some species of bats regularly visit mineral or salt licks to increase mineral consumption. However, Voigt etal. demonstrated that both mineral-deficient and healthy bats visit salt licks at the same rate. Therefore, mineral supplementation is unlikely to be the primary reason for geophagia in bats. Additionally, bat presence at salt licks increases during periods of high energy demand. Voigt etal. concluded that the primary purpose for bat presence at salt licks is for detoxification purposes, compensating for the increased consumption of toxic fruit and seeds. This was shown to be especially evident in lactating and pregnant bats, as their food intake increases to meet higher energy demands.

Impact on health.

Clay minerals have been reported to have beneficial microbiological effects, such as protecting the stomach against toxins, parasites, and pathogens. Humans are not able to synthesize vitamin B12 (cobalamin), so geophagia may be a behavioral adaption to obtain it from bacteria in the soil. Mineral content in soils may vary by region, but many contain high levels of calcium, copper, magnesium, iron, and zinc, minerals that are critical for developing fetuses which can cause metallic, soil, or chewing ice cravings in pregnant women. To the extent that these cravings, and subsequent mineral consumption (as well as in the case of cravings for ice, or other cold neck vasoconstricting food which aid in increasing brain oxygen levels by restricting neck veins) are therapeutically effective decreasing infant mortality, those genetic predispositions and the associated environmental triggers, are likely to be found in the infant as well. Likewise, multigenerationally impoverished villages or other homogenous socioeconomic closed genetic communities are more likely to have rewarded gene expression of soil or clay consumption cravings, by increasing the likelihood of survival through multiple pregnancies for both sexes.  There are obvious health risks in the consumption of soil that is contaminated by animal or human feces; in particular, helminth eggs, such as Ascaris, which can stay viable in the soil for years, can lead to helminth infections. Tetanus poses a further risk. Lead poisoning is also associated with soil ingestion, as well as health risks associated with zinc exposure can be problematic among people who eat soils on a regular basis. Gestational geophagia has been associated with various homeostatic disruptions and oxidative damage.

Geophagia (), also known as geophagy (), is the practice of eating earth or soil-like substrates such as clay or chalk. It occurs in non-human animals where it may be a normal or abnormal behaviour, and also in humans, most often in rural or preindustrial societies among children and pregnant women. Human geophagia may be related to pica, an eating disorder in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM) characterized by abnormal cravings for non-nutritive items.

Geofágie označuje pojídání půdy či hlíny. Jedná se o poruchu chování lidí a zvířat. V případě člověka se geofágie vyskytuje nejčastěji u dětí do 2 let nebo u mentálně zaostalých a psychicky nemocných osob. U zvířat může geofágie vznikat jako následek onemocnění nervového aparátu nebo při nedostatku nějaké životně důležité živiny (stopového prvku). Typickým příkladem infekční nemoci zvířat, při které je geofágie běžná, je vzteklina a Aujeszkyho choroba.


Early life.

Raised in Newark, New Jersey, Redman attended Speedway Avenue School and 13th Avenue School before attending West Side High School, an experience he described as "off the hook".  In 1987, Redman was expelled from Montclair State University his freshman year due to poor academic performance at age 16. Having no other options, Redman then went back home to live with his mother, Darlene Noble, who eventually kicked him out of her house for selling cocaine. Two years later, at age 18, Redman was a young DJ-MC who went by the name "DJ Kut-Killa". He freestyled over funk and hip hop instrumental tracks on vinyl records in various parks and house parties around New York and New Jersey.  Redman was eventually discovered by Erick Sermon of EPMD while he was a DJ for Lords of the Underground. Erick Sermon said when he met Redman for the first time, "I knew there was something spectacular about him. Right off the bat. The next day, we talked. And within the next two or three months, he moved to Long Island, to my crib. He moved right into my apartment." After moving in with Erick Sermon, Redman went out on tour with EPMD. While on tour with the group he did everything from carrying the group's bags to coming out on stage and doing rap freestyles. In 1990 at an EPMD show in New York, Redman was invited onstage by Erick Sermon where he delivered a rap freestyle that changed his life. He freestyled a song describing himself as a rapper using every letter in the alphabet, from A to Z. After this, Redman was an official rap artist and began production with Erick Sermon on his first major label album, "Whut? Thee Album".

Music career.

"Whut? Thee Album" & "Dare Iz a Darkside" (1990–1995).

In 1990, Redman made his official debut on EPMD's album "Business as Usual", appearing on the tracks "Hardcore" and "Brothers on My Jock".  In 1992, Redman released his debut album, "Whut? Thee Album", which "Allmusic" noted for blending "reggae and funk influences" with a "terse, though fluid rap style". The album peaked at number forty-nine on the "Billboard" 200 and was certified gold. He was named "Rap Artist of the Year" by "The Source". Redman followed this up with his 1994 album, "Dare Iz a Darkside". The first single, "Rockafella", samples Leon Haywood's "I Want'a Do Something Freaky to You" and George Clinton's "Flash Light", two of the most sampled songs in hip hop. Redman's second album was notable for having most of the tracks produced by the artist himself (later on Redman would let other producers make most of his beats). During this time he used former mentor Erick Sermon to produce his records, including "Pick it up" and "Whateva Man" from "Muddy Waters".  In 1992, Redman appeared in A Tribe Called Quest's "Scenario" music video.

"Muddy Waters" (1996–1997).

On December 10, 1996, Redman released his third album "Muddy Waters", which was highly praised by critics. The album featured two of his "Billboard"'s hit singles: "Whateva Man" and "It's Like That (My Big Brother)". The song "Do What You Feel" appeared on the soundtrack to the video game "". The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on February 12, 1997. During this time, with new found friendships with Method Man and Tupac, they both appeared on Tupac's double album "All Eyez on Me" on the song "Got my Mind Made Up".  In 1999 Redman took part in the Hard Knock Life Tour, including a stop in Toronto at the Air Canada Centre.

"Doc's da Name 2000" & "Blackout" (1998–1999).

In 1998 Redman released his first collaboration album "El Nino" with group Def Squad. His fourth studio album "Doc's Da Name 2000" was a top seller, shipping platinum in sales and exceeding his previous record of gold. It peaked at #11 on The Billboard 200 and had three songs ("I'll Bee Dat", "Da Goodness", "Let Da Monkey Out") that charted. With his new formed close partnership with labelmate Method Man who, with him, made a featured appearance on the Doc's Da Name 2000 record on the song "Well All Rite Cha". In 1999 Method Man and Redman released a collaborative album called "Blackout!". Originally, the record was supposed to be advertised as "Amerika's Most Blunted", but it was changed to the more commercially friendly title "Blackout!".

"Malpractice" (2001).

In 2001 Redman released his fifth studio album "Malpractice". It reached #4 on the "Billboard" 200 and was certified Gold by the RIAA on July 21, 2001. It boasted two singles "Let's Get Dirty (I Can't Get in da Club)" and "Smash Sumthin'".

"Mixtapes, Collaborations & Production" (2002–2006).

Since the release of Malpractice, he has kept his fans happy by independently releasing the "Ill At Will" mixtapes, which feature various members of his new record label "Gilla House" members under Redman's Gilla House imprint include Saukrates, Icarus, Ready Roc, E3, Young Heat, and Melanie.  Redman had his best-known international hit with Christina Aguilera, when he was featured on her 2002 single "Dirrty". Around this time he was also featured on a popular remix of Pink's track "Get This Party Started". He is cited in the song 'Till I Collapse as rapper Eminem's favorite rapper, beating out Jay Z, 2Pac, and Notorious B.I.G., among others.  Under his birthname, Reggie Noble, Redman has done production for himself, many of his crew members, and even Shaquille O'Neal on his '' album.

"Red Gone Wild" (2007–2008).

In March 2007, Redman released "Red Gone Wild". He stated on MySpace that the reason for the long wait to drop the album is because of the fast-changing pace of Hip Hop. On March 27, 2007, Redman confirmed on BET's "Rap City: Tha Bassment" that the sequel to "How High", "How High 2", is currently being written. In an April 10, 2007, "Onion A.V. Club" interview, Redman hinted that there would be a second collaborative album with Method Man.

"Blackout! 2" & "Reggie" (2009–2010).

"Blackout! 2" was announced in 2007 by Redman and was originally scheduled for release in 2008, but its release was pushed back a number of times due to numerous reasons. In early 2008, a remake of the da Hustler and Trigger tha Gambler classic "Broken Language" was released to the internet by the duo entitled "Broken Language 2008", fueling rumors of a "Blackout!" sequel coming soon. This rumor was further fueled by the duo while performing in Gainesville, FL at the University of Florida. A "Blackout!" LP was scheduled for a December 9, 2008, release but was recently pushed back to the first quarter of '09. It was finally released on May 19, 2009. It debuted at number #7 on the "Billboard" 200, at number 2 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, at number 2 on the Top Rap Albums and digital in charted number 7 on the Digital Albums charts selling 63,000 copies in its first week. The album also charted number 10 on the Canadian Albums Chart. The album has sold 160,375 copies in the United States by December 12, 2009, according to SoundScan.  In May 2009, Redman confirmed his next solo album would come out December 2009. The title for the project is "Reggie Noble "0" 91⁄2". The title of the album was then changed to just "Redman Presents... Reggie", and three singles ("Coc Back", "Oh My", & "Money on My Mind") were released. The first single "Coc Back" (which features Ready Roc) had music video filmed and released for it. But as it turns out, none of the tracks made the final cut of the album, only being promo singles. During an interview, Redman stated that Reggie Noble (Redman's own birth name), does the album, not Redman. Redman also said that there is going to be more, "poppish", type songs, rather his normal "rugged" and "hardcore" songs. After a few push backs, "Redman Presents... Reggie" was finally released on December 7, 2010. The first official single is "Def Jammable" & a video was released for the single. It has been confirmed that Redman will appear on a remix along with French rapper Soprano of "Tranne Te" by Italian rapper Fabri Fibra.

"Mudface", "Blackout! 3" & "Too High" & Muddy Waters 2 The Album (2011–present).

In June 2013, Redman announced that his next studio album "Muddy Waters 2" would be released in late 2013 via Entertainment One and he would release a mixtape to go along with it, which evolved into an EP titled "Muddy Waters 2: The Preload". Redman has also confirmed work on "Blackout! 3" with Method Man with recording starting summer 2012, however, recording was pushed back to late 2014. "Mudface" was released on November 13, 2015, with "Blackout! 3" coming out after, and Method Man's long-awaited mixtape and fifth solo album directly following these projects. Method Man and Redman are also slated to be working on a long-rumored sequel to their original stoner comedy, "How High". In a HipHopDX interview in February 2017, Matt "M-80" Markoff confirmed the project, revealed that the sequel will be titled "Too High" and that he is currently looking to acquire finances for the film.

Other ventures.

Acting.

In 2001, Redman co-starred with Method Man in the stoner comedy film "How High", which featured the pair playing two marijuana-addled students attempting to survive at Harvard. Redman also stated at a concert (at the Soundset in Minneapolis) that he and Method Man are working on "How High 2", a sequel to the first movie.  Redman played a major role in the horror film "Seed of Chucky".  Method Man and Redman also appear in "Def Jam Vendetta", "" and "" video games, often as tag team partners, and briefly had their own television sitcom, "Method & Red", on Fox during the 2003–2004 season.  In the music video for The Offspring's single "Original Prankster", Redman plays the part of the "conscience", telling the "Original Prankster" what pranks to pull.  In 2004, Redman again co-starred with Method Man in the Nickelodeon cartoon, "The Fairly OddParents", in "School's Out! The Musical", rapping the "Pixes Rap".  Redman is featured in the 2006 video game "". He provides the voice of himself in a mini-game where he tries to escape New York during a riot. This character also has a cameo in the main storyline.  In 2001 Redman was featured in an episode of "MTV Cribs" that showed the rapper's modest, sparsely-decorated home in a middle-class neighborhood in Staten Island, contrasting with the luxurious homes usually featured in the series. The episode, which featured the crew having to pinch two wires together because Redman's lack of a doorbell, and a cameo by Redman's cousin Mr. Cream sleeping on the floor in a comforter, has become "the most infamous, most cited" episode of the show according to MTV VP of programming Nina L. Diaz. In the UK, Redman was featured in a "Cribs" special on MTV and TMF. The special was titled "Dope Luxurious Cribs".

Fashion.

In April 2015, Redman released a collaboration with New York-based streetwear brand Mighty Healthy. The 420-themed collection includes jerseys, T-shirts, hats, and other items with cannabis-related graphics.

Hosting.

In August 2017, it was announced that Redman would host the first season of VH1's "Scared Famous", which premiered on October 23, 2017.

Personal life.

Redman was born in Newark, New Jersey, to Darlene and Eddie Noble. His sister Rosalyn Noble is a fellow rapper, going by the name Roz. She's appeared on several Redman songs over the years. He is a cousin of rapper Tame One.  Redman began boarding his four-month-old pit bull terrier Daddy with dog trainer Cesar Millan, with Daddy ultimately becoming Millan's "right-hand-man" on his TV show "The Dog Whisperer".

Awards and nominations.

Redman has been nominated for two Grammys:

External links.

Reginald "Reggie" Noble (born April 17, 1970), better known by his stage name Redman, is an American rapper, DJ, record producer, and actor. He rose to fame in the early 1990s as an artist on the Def Jam label.

Reginald Noble (*17. duben 1970, Newark, NJ, USA), spíše známý jako Redman, je americký rapper, hudební producent, DJ a herec. Často spolupracuje se členem skupiny Wu-Tang Clan Method Manem, v roce 1995 spolu začali vystupovat jako duo. Také je členem skupiny "Def Squad", kterou s ním tvoří Erick Sermon a Keith Murray. Jeho nejúspěšnějším sólo albem je "Doc's da Name 2000" (1998). Roku 2004 ztvárnil sám sebe ve filmu "Chuckyho sémě".


Early life.

Ebert was born in Heidelberg, Baden, German Empire on 4 February 1871 as the seventh of nine children of the tailor Karl Ebert (1834–92) and his wife Katharina (née Hinkel; 1834–1897). Three of his siblings died at a young age. Although he wanted to attend university, this proved impossible due to the lack of funds of his family. Instead, he trained as a saddle-maker from 1885 to 1888. After he became a journeyman in 1889 he travelled, according to the German custom, from place to place in Germany, seeing the country and learning fresh details of his trade. In Mannheim, he was introduced by an uncle to the Social Democratic Party, joining it in 1889. Although Ebert studied the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, he was less interested in ideology than in practical and organisational issues that would improve the lot of the workers then and there. Ebert was on the "black list" of the police due to his political activities, so he kept changing his place of residence. Between 1889 and 1891 he lived in Kassel, Braunschweig, Elberfeld-Barmen, Remscheid, Quakenbrück and Bremen, where he founded and chaired local chapters of

World War I.

When the July Crisis of 1914 erupted, Ebert was on vacation. After war was declared in early August, Ebert travelled to Zürich with party treasurer Otto Braun and the SPD's money to be in a position to build up a foreign organisation if the SPD should be outlawed in the German Empire. He returned on 6 August and led the SPD "Reichstag" members to vote almost unanimously in favour of war loans, accepting that the war was a necessary patriotic, defensive measure, especially against the autocratic regime of the Tsar in Russia. In January 1916, Haase resigned. Under the leadership of Ebert and other "moderates" such as Philipp Scheidemann, the SPD party participated in the "Burgfrieden", an agreement among the political parties in the "Reichstag" to suppress domestic policy differences for the duration of the war in order to concentrate the energies of the country solely on bringing the conflict to a successful conclusion for Germany. This positioned the party in favour of the war with the aim of a compromise peace, a stance that eventually led to a split in the SPD, with those radically opposed to

Revolution of 1918–19.

Parliamentisation.

As the war continued, the military Supreme Command (OHL), nominally headed by Paul von Hindenburg, but effectively controlled by his subordinate Erich Ludendorff, became the "de facto ruler" of Germany. When it became clear that the war was lost in late summer and fall of 1918, Ludendorff started to favour the "parliamentisation" of the German Empire, i.e. a transfer of power to those parties that held the majority in the Reichstag (SPD, Centre Party and Progress Party). The goal was to shift the blame for the military defeat from the OHL to the politicians of the majority parties.  On 29 September 1918, Ludendorff suddenly informed Paul von Hintze, the German Foreign Minister, that the Western Front could collapse at any moment and that a ceasefire had to be negotiated without delay. However, he suggested that the request for the ceasefire should come from a new government sanctioned by the Reichstag majority. In his view, a "revolution from above" was needed. Chancellor

"November revolution".

The plans of the new German government were thrown into disarray when a confrontation between officers and crews on board the German fleet at Wilhelmshaven on 30 October set in motion a train of events that would result in a revolution that spread over a substantial part of the country over the next week. Against the backdrop of a country falling into anarchy, the SPD led by Ebert on 7 November demanded a more powerful voice in the cabinet, an extension of parliamentarism to the state of Prussia and the renunciation of the throne by both the Emperor and his oldest son, Crown Prince Wilhelm. Ebert had favoured retaining the monarchy under a different ruler, but at this time told Prince Maximilian von Baden, "If the Kaiser does not abdicate, the social revolution is inevitable. But I do not want it, I even hate it like sin." On the left, the Spartacists (numbering around 100 in Berlin) and a group of around 80 to 100 popular

Council of the People's Deputies.

In domestic policy, a number of social reforms were quickly introduced by the Council of the People's Deputies under Ebert's leadership, including unemployment benefits, the eight-hour workday, universal suffrage for everyone over the age of 20, the right of farmhands to organise, and increases in workers' old-age, sick and unemployment benefits.  A decree of 12 November 1918 established the Reich Office for Economic Demobilization, with the purpose of carrying the German economy over "to peace conditions." On 22 November 1918, a regulation was issued by the Reich Food Office for election to "peasants' and workers' councils" which were

Civil war.

In the weeks following the creation of the Council of the People's Deputies, Ebert and the leadership of the SPD sided with the conservative and nationalistic elements in German society (the civil servants, the armed forces, the police, the judiciary) against the forces of the revolution. The latter wanted to eliminate the challenge to the existing order posed by the workers' councils as soon as possible. Yet the majority of those in the workers' and soldiers' councils viewed themselves as supporters of the government. It was only the Spartacists who wanted a dictatorship of the workers. Ebert and Groener worked

President of Germany.

In the first German presidential election, held on 11 February 1919, five days after the "Nationalversammlung" (constituent assembly) convened in Weimar, Ebert was elected as provisional president of the German Republic. He remained in that position after the new constitution came into force and was sworn in as "Reichspräsident" on 21 August 1919. He was Germany's first-ever democratically elected head of state, and was also the first commoner, the first socialist, the first civilian and the first person from a proletarian background to hold that position. In the whole time of the unified German Reich's existence from 1871 to 1945, he was also the only head of state who was unequivocally committed to democracy.  One of Ebert's first tasks as president was to deal with the Treaty of Versailles. When the treaty's terms became public on 7 May 1919, it was cursed by Germans of all political shades as an onerous "Diktat," particularly because Germany had essentially been handed the treaty and told to sign without any negotiations. Ebert himself denounced the treaty as "unrealizable and unbearable." However, Ebert was well aware of the possibility that Germany would not be in a position to reject the treaty. He believed that the Allies would invade Germany from the west if Germany refused to sign. To appease public opinion, he asked Hindenburg if the army was capable of holding out if the Allies renewed hostilities. He promised to urge rejection of the treaty if there was even the remote possibility that the army could make a stand. Hindenburg, with some prodding from Groener, concluded that the army was not capable

Death.

Ebert suffered from gallstones and frequent bouts of cholecystitis. Vicious attacks by Ebert's right-wing adversaries, including slander and ridicule, were often condoned or even supported by the judiciary when the president turned to the courts. The constant necessity to defend himself against those attacks also undermined his health. In December 1924, a court in Magdeburg fined a journalist who had called Ebert a "traitor to his country" for his role in the January 1918 strike, but it also said that, legally, Ebert had in fact committed treason. This court case prevented him from seeking medical help for a while, as he wanted to be

Friedrich Ebert Foundation.

Ebert's policy of balancing the political factions during the Weimar Republic is seen as an important archetype in the

Controversy about the Freikorps collaboration.

Ebert remains a controversial figure to this day. While the SPD recognizes him as one of the founders and keepers of German democracy whose death in office was a great loss, others argue that he paved the way for national socialism by supporting the "Freikorps" and their suppression of worker uprisings.  Ebert effectively allied himself with forces that in truth considered the republic tainted beyond redemption for being associated with the national humiliation of November 1918 and the Treaty of Versailles. They also failed to thank him for working with them in suppressing the more radical leftist groups. As a social democrat Ebert was considered to be the political enemy by conservative and nationalistic groups. They subsequently claimed that the German working class, supported by the SPD, was responsible for Germany's defeat in World War I. The alleged proof of this "Dolchstoßlegende" was found in a number of strikes during 1917 and 1918 which had partly disrupted production in the Imperial German armaments industry. The aim of the striking workers and their socialist allies was said to have been to turn the German Empire into a Soviet Socialist Republic. In addition, it had been the majority parties of the Reichstag which formally asked for the ceasefire in October 1918 and it had been the civilian government rather than the military which represented Germany in the ceasefire negotiations of November 1918. Most historians, however, agree that military defeat was inevitable after the U.S. had joined the war against Germany.  Some historians have defended Ebert's actions as unfortunate but inevitable if the creation of a socialist state on the model that had been promoted by Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Liebknecht and the communist Spartacists was to be prevented. Leftist historians like as well as mainstream ones like Sebastian Haffner on the other hand, have argued that organized communism was not yet politically relevant in Germany at the time. However, the actions of Ebert and his Minister of Defense, Gustav Noske, against the insurgents contributed to the radicalization of the workers and to increasing support for communistic ideas.  Although the Weimar constitution (which Ebert signed into law in August 1919) provided for the establishment of workers' councils on different levels of society, they did not play a major part in the political life of the Weimar Republic. Ebert always regarded the institutions of parliamentary democracy as a more legitimate expression of the will of the people; workers' councils, as a product of the revolution, were only justified in exercising power for a transitive period. "All power to all the people!" was the slogan of his party, in contrast to the slogan of the far left, "All power to the (workers') councils!".  In Ebert's opinion only reforms, not a revolution, could advance the causes of democracy and socialism. He therefore has been called a traitor by leftists, who claim he paved the way for the ascendancy of the far right and even of Adolf Hitler, whereas those who think his policies were justified claim that he saved Germany from Bolshevik excesses.

Friedrich Ebert (; 4 February 1871 28 February 1925) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the first President of Germany from 1919 until his death in office in 1925.

Friedrich Ebert (4. února 1871 Heidelberg – 28. února 1925 Berlín) byl německý sociálnědemokratický politik, od 9. listopadu 1918 do 11. února 1919 německý kancléř a od 11. února 1919 až do své smrti první německý prezident.