Life and career.

Daniel Auteuil was born on 24 January 1950 in Algiers, French Algeria, the son of opera singers. He grew up in Avignon and Nancy, France. He began his acting career in musical comedy and made his film debut in 1972.  Auteuil's starring role in the historical drama film "Jean de Florette" (1986) and its sequel "Manon des Sources" (1986) brought him international recognition. Auteuil has since become one of the best-known, best-paid and most popular actors in France. Through his appearances in films including the swashbuckler "Le bossu" (1997), the comedy "The Closet" (2001), the romantic comedy "After You..." (2003), the thriller "Caché" (2005) and the comedy "My Best Friend" (2006), he has since gained greater international recognition.  In 2013, Auteuil was selected as a member of the main competition jury at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival.  Auteuil has two daughters: Aurore Auteuil with his former partner, Anne Jousset, and Nelly from a ten-year relationship with actress Emmanuelle Béart, his co-star in the films "A Heart in Winter" and "Manon des Sources" (1986). He married Aude Ambroggi, a Corsican sculptor, on 22 July 2006 in Porto-Vecchio, Corsica.

Early life.

At age 16, thanks to André Benedetto, who led a company in Avignon, Auteuil began stage acting in Chekhov's "La Demande en mariage". To please his parents he began studies in topography, and he worked in a nightclub cloakroom on Saturday nights to earn money..  In 1969, after attending high school in Avignon, he went to Paris with his friend Roger Miremont. He enrolled in a theater course taught by Cours Florent. Despite several attempts, he was never accepted to compete in the Conservatoire national supérieur d'art dramatique.  In 1970, he made his debut in théâtre national populaire in "Early Morning". In 1972 and 1973 he appeared in the American musical "Godspell". Partnered with Edwige Feuillère's theater ("La folle de Chaillot") and Maria Pacôme's theater ("Apprends-moi, Céline"), he co-starred with François Périer in "Coup de chapeau", which earned him the 1979 Gérard-Philipe prize for the best young actor of the year. He then appeared in "Le Garçon d'appartement", which Gérard Lauzier adapted for the cinema in 1982 as "T'empêches tout le monde de dormir".  In 1974, Auteuil made his debut on television under the direction of Marcel Jullian in the series "Les Fargeot" before continuing next to Rellys, Jackie Sardou and Fernand Sardou in "Adieu Amélie" by Jean-Paul Carrère. In 1977, he played the detective Camaret in the six-episode series "Rendez-vous en noir", based on the novel by William Irish.  In 1975, Gérard Pirès offered Auteuil the lead role in "L'Agression" with Catherine Deneuve and Jean-Louis Trintignant.

Daniel Auteuil (; born 24 January 1950) is a French actor and director who has appeared in a wide range of film genres, including period dramas, romantic comedies, and crime thrillers. In 1996 he won the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival together with Belgian actor Pascal Duquenne. He is also the winner of two César Awards for Best Actor, one in 1987 as Ugolin Soubeyran in "Jean de Florette" and "Manon des Sources" and one for his role in "Girl on the Bridge". For his role in "Jean de Florette" he also won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. Auteuil is considered one of France's most respected actors.

Daniel Auteuil (* 24. ledna 1950 Alžír) je francouzský divadelní a filmový herec a režisér, dvojnásobný držitel francouzské filmové ceny César.


History.

Construction and inauguration.

In 1904 calculations about the future demand for water for people and industry in the growing Ruhr-area determined that the existing storage volume of 32.4 million m3 in dams of the Ruhr river system needed tripling. Thus, on 28 November 1904, the general assembly of the "Ruhrtalsperreverein" decided to construct additional dams. During 1908 to 1913 they built the Möhnetalsperre at a cost of 23.5 million marks.  When opened, the dam was the largest dam in Europe. 140 homesteads with 700 people had to move. It was built to help control floods, regulate water levels on the Ruhr river downstream, and generate hydropower. Today, the lake is also a tourist attraction.

Second World War.

The dam () was breached by RAF Lancaster Bombers ("The Dambusters") during Operation Chastise on the night of 16–17 May 1943, together with the Edersee dam in northern Hesse. Bouncing bombs had been constructed which were able to skip over the protective nets that hung in the water. A huge hole of 77 m by 22 m was blown into the dam. The resulting huge floodwave killed at least 1,579 people, 1,026 of them foreign forced labourers held in camps downriver. The small city of Neheim-Hüsten was particularly hard-hit with over 800 victims, among them at least 526 victims in a camp for Russian women held for forced labour.

Results of the bombing.

Though the Organisation Todt quickly repaired the dams through the labor of 7,000 men taken from the construction of the Atlantic Wall, the impact of the raid on German industry in the Ruhr valley and on the civil population was significant. According to Albert Speer, "the power plant at the foot of the shattered dam looked as if it had been erased, along with its heavy turbines." "Industry was brought to a standstill", due to the "electrical installations being soaked and muddied."  Three other reservoirs were still intact, though the largest, the Sorpe Dam, had a hole above the water line. Another destroyed dam, the Edersee Dam, "had nothing to do with the supply of water to the Ruhr." The Mohne Dam was repaired by 23 September 1943, in time to collect water for needs the following summer, when the British failed to follow up with additional raids to hamper reconstruction.

The Möhne Reservoir, or Moehne Reservoir, is an artificial lake in North Rhine-Westphalia, some 45 km east of Dortmund, Germany. The lake is formed by the damming of two rivers, Möhne and Heve, and with its four basins stores as much as 135 million cubic metres of water.

Reservoár Möhne je umělé jezero v Severním Porýní a Vestfálsku. Nachází se 45 kilometrů východně od Dortmundu. Přehrada byla postavena mezi lety 1908-1913. Tvoří protipovodňovou ochranu a zároveň slouží jako regulátor hladiny vody v řece během suchých období. V přehradě je také zabudována hydroelektrárna. Hráz je složena s kamenů spojených maltou.


History.

Compagnie française des pétroles (CFP): 1924–1985.

The company was founded after World War I, when then French President Raymond Poincaré rejected the idea of forming a partnership with Royal Dutch Shell in favour of creating an entirely French oil company. At Poincaré's behest, Col. Ernest Mercier with the support of ninety banks and companies founded Total on 28 March 1924, as the Compagnie française des pétroles (CFP), literally the "French Petroleum Company". Petroleum was seen as vital in the case of a new war with Germany.  As per the agreement reached during the San Remo conference of 1920, the French state received the 25% share held by Deutsche Bank in the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC) as part of the compensation for war damages caused by Germany during World War I. The French government's stake in TPC was transferred to CFP, and the Red Line agreement in 1928 rearranged the shareholding of CFP in TPC (later renamed the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1929) to 23.75%. The company from the start was regarded as a private sector company in view of its listing on the Paris Stock Exchange in 1929.  The company during the 1930s was engaged in exploration and production, primarily from the Middle East. Its first refinery began operating in Normandy in 1933. After World War II, CFP engaged in oil exploration in Venezuela, Canada, and Africa while pursuing energy sources within France. Exploration in Algeria, then a French colony, began in 1946, with Algeria becoming a leading source of oil in the 1950s.  In 1954, CFP introduced its downstream product – Total brand of gasoline in the African continent and Europe.  In 1980, Total Petroleum (North America) Ltd., a company controlled 50% by CFP, bought the American refining and marketing assets of Vickers Petroleum as part of a sell-off by Esmark of its energy holdings. This purchase gave Total refining capacity, transportation, and a network of 350 service stations in 20 states.

Total CFP and re branding to Total: 1985–2003.

The company renamed itself Total CFP in 1985, to build on the popularity of its gasoline brand. Later in 1991, the name was changed to Total, when it became a public company listed on the New York Stock Exchange. The French government, who used to control more than 30 percent of the company's stock in 1991, reduced its stake in the firm to less than 1 percent by 1996. In the time period between 1990 and 1994, foreign ownership of the firm increased from 23 per cent to 44 per cent.  Meanwhile, Total continued to expand its retail presence in North America under several brand names. In 1989, Denver, Colorado, based Total Petroleum, Total CFP's North American unit, purchased 125 Road Runner retail locations from Texarkana, Texas-based Truman Arnold Companies. By 1993, Total Petroleum was operating 2,600 retail stores under the Vickers, Apco, Road Runner, and Total brands. That year, the company began remodeling and rebranding all of its North American gasoline and convenience stores to use the Total name. Only four years later, Total sold its North American refining and retail operations to Ultramar Diamond Shamrock for $400 million in stock and $414 million in assumed debt.  After Total's takeover of Petrofina of Belgium in 1999, it became known as Total Fina. Afterwards it also acquired Elf Aquitaine. First named TotalFinaElf after the merger in 2000, it was later renamed back to Total on 6 May 2003. During that rebranding, the current globe logo was unveiled.

Total: 2003–2014.

In 2003, Total signed for a 30% stake in the gas exploration venture in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) – South Rub' al-Khali joint venture along with Royal Dutch Shell and Saudi Aramco. The stake was later bought out by its partners.  In May 2006, Saudi Aramco and TOTAL signed a MOU to develop the Jubail Refinery and Petrochemical project in Saudi Arabia which targeted 400,000 barrels per day (bpd). On 21 September 2008, the two companies officially established a joint venture called SAUDI ARAMCO TOTAL Refining and Petrochemical Company (SATORP)- in which a 62.5% stake was held by Saudi Aramco and the balance 37.5% held by TOTAL.  Total withdrew in 2006 from all Iranian development work because of United Nations concerns that resulted in sanctions over possible weaponization of the Nuclear program of Iran.  During the 2009–2010 Iraqi oil services contracts tender, a consortium led by CNPC (37.5%), which also included TOTAL (18.75%) and Petronas (18.75%) was awarded a production contract for the "Halfaya field" in the south of Iraq, which contains an estimated of oil.  As of 2010, Total had over 96,000 employees and operated in more than 130 countries. In September 2010, Total announced plans to pull out of the forecourt market in the United Kingdom.  In November 2012, Total announced it was selling its 20% stake and operating mandate in its Nigerian offshore project to a unit of China Petrochemical Corp for $2.5 billion.  In 2013, Total started the operation at Kashagan with North Caspian Operating Company. It is the biggest discovery of oil reserves since 1968. In 2013, Total increased its stake in Novatek to 16.96%. In September 2013, Total and its joint venture partner agreed to buy Chevron Corporation’s retail distribution business in Pakistan for an undisclosed amount.  In January 2014, Total became the first major oil and gas firm to acquire exploration rights for shale gas in the UK after it bought a 40 percent interest in two licences in the Gainsborough Trough area of northern England for $48 million. In July 2014, the company disclosed it was in exclusive talks to sell its LPG distribution business in France to Pennsylvania-based UGI Corporation for €450 million ($615 million).  On 20 October 2014, at 23:57 MST a Dassault Falcon 50 business jet heading to Paris caught fire and exploded during takeoff after colliding with a snow removal vehicle in Vnukovo International Airport, and killing four, including three crew members and CEO of Total S.A. Christophe de Margerie on board. Alcohol presence was confirmed in the blood of the driver of the vehicle on the ground. Patrick Pouyanne, who was Total's Refining Chief at that time, was appointed as CEO, and also as chairman of Total on 16 December 2015.

2015–present.

In February 2015, Total unveiled plans to cut 180 jobs in the United Kingdom, reduce refinery capacity and slow spending on North Sea fields after it fell to a $5.7bn final-quarter loss. The company said it would also sell off $5bn worth of assets worldwide and cut exploration costs by 30%.  In June 2016, Total signed a $224M deal to buy Lampiris, the third largest Belgian supplier of gas and renewable energy to expand its gas and power distribution activities.  In July 2016, Total agreed to buy French battery maker Saft Groupe S.A. in a $1.1bn deal, to boost its development in renewable energy and electricity businesses.  By October 2016 the company had a share value of 111,581 million euros, distributed in 2,528,459,212 shares. The shares were owned by a large number of shareholders, the biggest being Blackrock (5.02%), the employees of Total SA (4.9%), the company itself (4,7%) and the Group Bruxelles Lambert (2,5%).  In 2016 Total agreed to acquire $2.2-billion in upstream and downstream assets from Petrobras as part of the firms’ strategic alliance announced in October 2016. For Total, these new partnerships with Petrobras reinforce Total's position in Brazil through access to new fields in the Santos Basin while entering the gas value chain.  Between 2013 and 2017 Total organized the ARGOS Challenge, a robotic competition with the aim to develop robots for their oil and gas production sites. It was won by an Austrian-German team using a variant of the taurob tracker robot.  In July 2017, Total signed a deal for a total amount of $4.8b with Iran for the development and production of South Pars, the world's largest gas field. The deal was the first foreign investment in Iran since in July 2015 sanctions over Iran's nuclear weaponisation were lifted by the JCPOA.  In August 2017, Total announced the acquisition of Maersk Oil for $7.45 billion in a share and debt transaction. This deal will position Total as the second operator in the North Sea.  In September 2017, Total signed an agreement with EREN Renewable energy to acquire an interest of 23% in EREN RE for an amount of €237.5 million.  In November 2017, Total announced the launch on the French residential market of Total Spring a natural gas and green power offering that is 10% cheaper than regulated tariffs. Total is thus pursuing its strategy of downstream integration in the gas and power value chain in Europe.  In August 2018, Total officially withdrew from the Iranian South Pars gas field because of sanctions pressure from the US.  In August 2019, Total announced sale of 30% stake in the Trapil pipeline network to crude oil storage operator Pisto SAS for €260 million.  In August 2019, Total signed deals to transfer 30% and 28.33% of its assets in Namibia’s Block 2913B and Block 2912 respectively to Qatar Petroleum. The company will also transfer 40% of its existing 25% interests in the Orinduik and Kanuku blocks of Guyana and 25% interest in Blocks L11A, L11B and L12 of Kenya to Qatar Petroleum.

Organization.

Business segments.

In September 2016, Total set up a new organization to achieve its ambition to become a responsible energy major. It is composed of the following segments:  In 2016 Total also created two new corporate divisions: namely People & Social Responsibility (Human Resources; Health, Safety & Environment; the Security Division; and a new Civil Society Engagement Division) and Strategy & Innovation (Strategy & Climate Division, responsible for ensuring that strategy incorporates the 2 °C global warming scenario, Public Affairs, Audit, Research & Development, the Chief Digital Officer and the Senior Vice President Technology).

Subsidiaries and affiliates of Total S.A..

, Total S.A. had 903 subsidiaries consolidated into the group results, together with affiliate investments and joint ventures, mostly in LPG. In addition Total had other equity holdings amounting to about 3bn euros, treated as investments and was involved in a number of significant joint ventures, mostly relating to LPG and LNG exploration, production and shipping.  The joint ventures which are treated as subsidiaries are listed in the consolidated subsidiary section.

Head office.

The company has its head office in the Tour Total in the La Défense district in Courbevoie, France, near Paris. The building was originally constructed between 1983 and 1985 for Elf Aquitaine; Total SA acquired the building after its merger with Elf in 2000.

Senior management.

Christophe de Margerie was chief executive from 14 February 2007 until 20 October 2014, when he died in a plane crash at Vnukovo Airport in Moscow. During the plane's takeoff roll it collided with a snowplow which had failed to follow the remainder of its convoy. His total annual compensation for this role was €2,746,335, consisting of a €1,250,000 salary and €1,496,335 bonus.  The present chairman and CEO of the company is Patrick Pouyanné (2014 to present). On December 16, 2015, Patricia Barbizet was named Lead Independent Director.

Group Performance Management Committee.

Sinc 2 April 2015, a Group Performance Management Committee has been in place. The mission of this committee is to examine, analyze and pilot the safety, financial and business results of the group. In addition to the members of the executive committee, this committee is composed of the managers in charge of the main business units of the group, as well as a limited number of senior vice presidents of functions at group and branch levels. Since September 2016, the committee has included:

Executive committee.

The executive committee is Total's primary decision-making organization. Since September 2016, members of Total's executive committee have been:

Operations.

In May 2014, the company shelved its Joslyn North oil sands project in the Athabasca region of Alberta, Canada indefinitely, citing concerns about operating costs. An estimated $11 billion has been spent on the project, in which Total is the largest shareholder with 38.5%. Suncor Energy holds 36.75%, Occidental Petroleum owns 15% and Japan's Inpex has a 10% interest.  Total is involved in 23 projects of exploration and production in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America and Russia.

Investments in Iran.

Total has been a significant investor in the Iranian energy sector since 1990. In July 2017, Total and the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) signed a contract for the development and production of South Pars, the world's largest gas field. The project will have a production capacity of 2 billion cubic feet per day. The produced gas will supply the Iranian domestic market starting in 2021.

Acquisitions.

On 29 April 2011, Total agreed to buy 60% of photovoltaics company SunPower for US$1.38 billion. By the 2013 annual reporting date Total owned 64.65%.  In May 2016, Total agreed to purchase French battery maker Saft Groupe S.A. for 1.1 billion euros.  In June 2016, Total signed a $224M deal to buy Lampiris, the third-largest Belgian supplier of gas and renewable energy to expand its gas and power distribution activities.  In December 2016, Total acquired about 23% of Tellurian for an amount of 207 million dollars, to develop an integrated gas project.  In August 2017, Total announced they would buy Maersk Oil from A.P. Moller-Maersk in a deal expected to close in the first quarter of 2018.  In April 2018, Total announced they were buying 74% of the French electricity and gas provider Direct Énergie from their main stockholders, for 1.4 billion euros.

Environmental and safety records.

In 1998, the Total SA company was fined €375,000 for an oil spill that stretched 400 kilometers from La Rochelle to the western tip of Brittany. The company was only fined that amount because they were only partially liable because Total SA did not own the ship. The plaintiffs had sought more than $1.5 billion in damages. More than 100 groups and local governments joined in the suit. The Total company was fined just over $298,000. The majority of the money will go to the French government, several environmental groups, and various regional governments. The Total SA company was also fined $550,000 for the amount of marine pollution that came from it. After the oil spill they tried to restore their image and have opened a sea turtle conservation project in Masirah in recent years. Prior to the verdict in which Total was found guilty one of the counterparts in the incident, Malta Maritime Authority (MMA), was not to be tried for having any hand in the incident. In 2005, Total submitted a report to the Paris courts which stated that Total had gathered a group of experts which stated the tanker was corroded and that Total was responsible for it. The courts sought a second expert reviewing this information, which was turned down.  In 2001, the AZF chemical plant exploded in Toulouse, France, while belonging to the "Grande Paroisse" branch of Total.  On 16 January 2008, Total was required to compensate all of the victims of the pollution caused by the sinking of the ship Erika in the amount of €192 million. This is in addition to the €200 million that Total spent to help clean up the spill. The company appealed against the verdict, lost the case in the following two appeals and was definitely condemned.  In 2016, Total was ranked as the second best of 92 oil, gas, and mining companies on indigenous rights in the Arctic.

Climate commitments.

In May 2016, Total said it would still principally be an oil and gas company but aims to be 20% low-carbon by 2035. In May 2016, Total published their first Climate Report to detail its action as a company and with its partners to meet the growing demand for energy while limiting its impact on the climate. Total's climate strategy is based on three pillars: improving the carbon intensity of its energy mix, its energy efficiency and developing renewable energies. Total is a member of the Oil and Gas Climate Initiative (OGCI), a CEO-led initiative made up of ten oil and gas companies who collaborate on action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In November 2016, the OGCI announced to launch a 1 billion dollar climate investment fund to invest in cutting the climate change impact of fossil fuels. The fund will support start-ups and help develop and demonstrate innovative technologies that have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions significantly and also focus on ways to reduce costs of carbon capture and storage technology. In April 2019, the company partnered up with China's Tianneng Group in a deal to make and sell lithium-ion batteries. Total has also launched the BioTfueL project, which aims to produce Second-generation biofuels. It aims to convert lignocellulosic biomass (such as straw, forest waste, dedicated energy crops) into biofuel.

Controversies.

Total SA has been involved in multiple controversies. Hereafter there is a list of the main ones.

Malta.

Total is being implicated in a bribe commission scandal which is currently emerging in Malta. It has emerged that Total had told Maltese agents that it would not be interested in doing business with them unless their team included George Farrugia, who is under investigation in the procurement scandal. George Farrugia has recently been given a presidential pardon in exchange of information about this scandal. Enemalta, Malta's energy supplier, swiftly barred Total and its agents, Trafigura from bidding and tenders. An investigation is currently underway and three people have been arraigned.

Oman 1954 War.

In 1937, Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), 23.75 percent owned by Total, signed an oil concession agreement with the Sultan of Muscat. IPC offered financial support to raise an armed force that would assist the Sultan in occupying the interior region of Oman, an area that geologists believed to be rich in oil. This led to the 1954 outbreak of Jebel Akhdar War in Oman that lasted for more than 5 years.

Myanmar investments.

Despite the European Union's sanctions against the military dictatorship Myanmar, Total is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of the country's civilian slavery to construct the pipeline. The documentary 'Total Denial' shows the background of this project. The NGO Burma Campaign UK is currently campaigning against this project.

Italian bribes.

On 16 December 2008, the managing director of the Italian division of Total, Lionel Levha, and ten other executives were arrested by the public Prosecutor's office of Potenza, Italy, for a corruption charge of €15 million to undertake the oilfield in Basilicata on contract. Also arrested was the local deputy of Partito Democratico Salvatore Margiotta and an Italian entrepreneur.

UN Oil-for-Food Programme for Iraq.

In April 2010, Total was accused of bribing Iraqi officials during former president Saddam Hussein's regime to secure oil supplies. A United Nations report later revealed that Iraqi officials had received bribes from oil companies to secure contracts worth over $10bn. On 26 February 2016, the Paris Court of Appeals considered Total guilty and ordered the company to pay a fine of €750,000 for corrupting Iraqi civil servants. The court's ruling overturns an earlier acquittal in the case.

Bribery in Iran.

In 2013, a case was settled that concerned charges that Total bribed an Iranian official with $60 million, which they documented as a "consulting charge," and which unfairly gave them access to Iran's Sirri A and Sirri E oil and gas fields. The bribery gave them a competitive advantage, earning them an estimated $150 million in profits. The Securities Exchange Commission and the Department of Justice settled the charges, expecting Total to pay $398 million.

Moroccan Sahara oil exploration.

In October 2001, Total signed a contract for oil-reconnaissance in areas offshore Western Sahara (near Dakhla), with the "Moroccan Office National de Recherches et d’Exploitations Petrolières" (ONAREP). In January 2002, Hans Corell (the United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs) stated in a letter to the president of the Security Council that whenever the contracts are only for exploration they're not illegal, but if further exploration or exploitation are against the interests and wishes of the people of Western Sahara, they would be in violation of the principles of international law. Finally, Total decided to not renew their license off Western Sahara.

Automobile and motorcycle OEM partnerships.

Total is an official recommended fuel and lubricants for Renault (shared with BP), Nissan, Infiniti, Datsun, Kia Motors, Citröen, Peugeot, Honda (including Acura, shared with BP and ExxonMobil), Aston Martin, DS, Mazda (shared with BP and it's subsidiary Castrol), Sany and Tata Motors for automobiles only as well as Peugeot Motocycles, Kawasaki (fuel only) and Honda for motorcycles only.

Sponsorship.

Total has provided fuel and lubricants to professional auto racing teams.  Total has been a longtime partner of Citroën Sport in the World Rally Championship, Dakar Rally and World Touring Car Championship. Sébastien Loeb won nine WRC drivers titles, whereas Ari Vatanen and Pierre Lartigue won four editions of the Dakar Rally.  Total has been a partner of Peugeot Sport in Formula One from 1995 to 2000, the British Touring Car Championship in 1995 and 1996 and since 2001 in the World Rally Championship, Intercontinental Rally Challenge, 24 Hours of Le Mans, Intercontinental Le Mans Cup, Dakar Rally and Pikes Peak International Hill Climb.  Total was a partner of Renault Sport in Formula One from 2009 to 2016. Their logo appeared on the Red Bull Racing cars since 2009, the Renault F1 cars in 2009, 2010 and 2016, and the Lotus F1 cars from 2011 to 2014. Total also partnered Caterham F1 Team in 2011–2014, Scuderia Toro Rosso in 2014–2015 and Williams F1 Team in 2012–2013.  Also, Total was the title sponsor of the Copa Sudamericana football tournament in 2013 and 2014.  In April 2017, Total S.A. was appointed by FIA and ACO as official fuel supplier of World Endurance Championship and 24 Hours of Le Mans from 2018–19 season onwards.  Total is one of the official sponsors for one of the most popular and influential Mexican football teams, Club America.  In terms of educational development Total provides scholarships worth millions of euros annually to international students to study in France. These programs are mainly for master's degree. Doctoral scholarships are also offered but in limited numbers. The student come from mainly from Europe, Africa, Asia and the Middle-East where Total Operates. Students from Africa are mainly from Nigeria. The scholarship involves the payment of Tuition and a monthly allowance of 1400 Euros (2014 disbursement). The allowance is able to cater for feeding, transportation and accommodation for the students. The drop in oil prices in 2015 has led to the reduction of the number of scholars.  The scholarship scheme has come under a lot of criticism for various reasons. Some scholars believe the flat rate of 1400 euros is unfair as the cost of living for cities in France are not the same. Also, students have complained that the monthly allowance needs to be reviewed and upgraded to 2000 euros monthly. Other criticism include the fact that the number of PHd. scholarship slots are very small compared to the master's degree slots.  In July 2016, Total has secured an eight-year sponsorship package from the Confederation of African Football (CAF) to support 10 of its principal competitions. Total will start with the Africa Cup of Nations to be held in Gabon therefore renaming it "Total Africa Cup Of Nations".  On Tuesday 16 April 2019, the company's Chief Executive Officer, Patrick Pouyanne pledged that Total will make a €100 million contribution to the reconstruction of the Notre-Dame cathedral after it was extensively damaged in a fire.  On January 15, 2020, the company confirmed a two-year sponsorship deal with CR Flamengo, being the first time a partner of a Brazilian football team.

Total S.A. (; or ) is a French multinational integrated oil and gas company founded in 1924 and one of the seven "Supermajor" oil companies in the world. Its businesses cover the entire oil and gas chain, from crude oil and natural gas exploration and production to power generation, transportation, refining, petroleum product marketing, and international crude oil and product trading. Total is also a large scale chemicals manufacturer.

Total je nadnárodní francouzská společnost zaměřená na zpracování ropy. Byla založená roku 1924 a sídlí v Courbevoii ve Francii. Celkem provozuje síť téměř 17 000 čerpacích stanic a zaměstnává přes 96.000 zaměstnanců po celém světě.


History.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, starting in 1992, each former Soviet republic organized an independent national championship. In Russia, the six Russian teams who had played in the Soviet Top League in 1991 (CSKA Moscow, Spartak Moscow, Torpedo Moscow, Dynamo Moscow, Spartak Vladikavkaz, and Lokomotiv Moscow) were supplemented with 14 teams from lower divisions to form a 20-team Russian Top Division. The Top Division was further divided into two groups to reduce the total number of matches. The number of teams in the Top Division was gradually reduced to 18 in 1993 and 16 in 1994. Since then, the Russian Top Division (and the Premier League since 2002) has consisted of 16 teams, except for a short-lived experiment with having two more teams in 1996 and 1997.  Spartak Moscow was the dominant force in the top division, winning nine of the first ten titles. Spartak-Alania Vladikavkaz was the only team which managed to break Spartak's dominance, winning the top division title in 1995. Lokomotiv Moscow have won the title three times, and CSKA Moscow six times.  In 2007, Zenit St. Petersburg climbed to the top, winning the title for the first time in their history in Russian professional football; they had also won a Soviet title in 1984. 2008 brought the rise of Rubin Kazan, a club entirely new to the Russian top flight, as it had never competed in the Soviet Top League.  In preparation for the 2018–19 season, it was decided to hold a rebranding in which a new logo was presented.

Competition.

Teams in the Russian Premier League play each other twice, once at home and once away, for a total of 30 matches. Three points are awarded for a win, one for a draw, and none for a loss. If teams are level on points, the tie-breakers are the number of wins, then the goal difference, followed by several other factors. If the teams are tied for the first position, the tie-breakers are the number of wins, then head-to-head results. If the teams tied for the first place cannot be separated by these tie-breakers, a championship play-off is ordered.  As of 2010, the champions and the runners-up qualify for the UEFA Champions League group stage. The third-placed team qualifies for the Champions League Third qualifying round. The fourth- and fifth-place teams qualify for the UEFA Europa League. The bottom two teams are relegated to the First Division (renamed the National Football League starting in 2011).  Unlike most other European football leagues, the league traditionally ran in summer, from March to November, to avoid playing games in the cold and snowy weather in winter. This was altered ahead of the 2012–13 season, with the league planning to run the season from autumn to spring. The transitional season of the competition began in early 2011 and continued until summer of 2012. After the 16 Premier League teams played each other twice over the course of the 2011 calendar year, they were split into two groups of eight, and the teams played other teams in their groups two more times for a total of 44 games (30 in 2011 and 14 in 2012). Those two groups were contested in spring 2012, with the top eight clubs playing for the title and European places. The other sides vied to avoid relegation: the bottom two went down while the next two played off against the sides third and fourth in the National Football League, with the two losers being relegated (or denied promotion). Under the current autumn-spring calendar, the league takes a three-month winter break from mid-December until mid-March.

Youth championship.

The (), also known as Youth teams championship (), Reserve team tournament () or (), full name Youth football championship of Russia among teams of clubs of the Premier League (), is a league that runs in parallel to the Russian Premier League and includes the youth or reserve teams of the Russian Premier League teams. The number of players a team can have on the pitch at a time that are over 21 years of age or without a Russian citizenship is limited. 16 teams participate in the league. Matches are commonly played a day before the match of the senior teams of the respective teams. All of the Russian Premier League teams are obliged to have a youth team that would participate in the Youth championship. The teams that are promoted from the National Football League and do not have a youth team must create one. The teams in the league are not relegated based on their final league position, but on the league position of their respective clubs' senior teams.  It has to be noted however that some Premier League clubs have three teams. Apart from the senior team and the team that plays in the Youth championship a team might have another senior team that plays in a lower division of Russian football and serves as the farm team for the main team. Some examples include Spartak-2 and Zenit-2, playing in the Russian Football National League.

UEFA club rankings.

Russia are currently sixth in the UEFA coefficient rankings. The best Russian teams in Europe as of November 2018:

Current clubs.

The following teams are competing in the 2019–20 season:

UEFA ranking.

UEFA League Ranking at the end of the 2018–19 season:

Media coverage.

2018-2022.

Worldwide (exclude Rusia, CIS, and China).

All 240 matches is aired live globally on YouTube by requiring subscription. There will be two membership levels for the viewers outside Russia. The first level includes two matches with English commentary each matchday and will cost a monthly fee of $2.99. The second level, for $4.99 a month, gives subscribers access to all eight matches in Russian and two matches with English commentary as well. In 2018–19 season, YouTube broadcast four live matches per week for free (in matchweek 30, aired all last eight matches).

Balkans.

Selected matches also available live on Sport Klub in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, and Slovenia

China.

All matches is aired live on Tencent QQ

The Russian Premier League (RPL; ; РПЛ) (Russian Premier Liga) is the top division professional association football league in Russia. It was established at the end of 2001 as the Russian Football Premier League (RFPL; ; РФПЛ) and was rebranded with its current name in 2018. From 1992 through 2001, the top level of the Russian football league system was the Russian Football Championship (, "Chempionat Rossii po Futbolu"). There are 16 teams in the competition. The league has three Champions League qualifying spots given to the top three teams at the end of the season and the two Europa League spots will be allocated to the fourth and fifth placed teams. The last two teams are relegated to the Russian National Football League at the end of the season.

Ruská Premier Liga (rusky "Российская футбольная премьер-лига") je nejvyšší ruská fotbalová soutěž. V soutěži hraje 16 klubů, na konci sezóny poslední dva sestupují do nižší soutěže, Ruské divize. První mistrovství se konalo v Rusku v roce 1992, před rokem 1997 pod názvem Premier Liga, v roce 1998 byla liga přejmenovaná na první divizi. Od roku 2001 ruský šampionát hrají profesionální kluby, a liga má větší nezávislost na Ruském fotbalovém svazu. Podle koeficientu UEFA 2019 je to šestá nejlépe hodnocená liga (za La Ligou, Premier league, Serií A, Bundesligou a Ligue 1.


History.

The monastery was founded by several monks from Kievan Rus in the 11th century, which is why it is known as "Rossikon". It has been inhabited by mainly Russian monks in certain periods of its history. It was recognized as a separate monastery in 1169.  Russian pilgrim Isaiah confirms that, by the end of the 15th century, the monastery was Russian.  The monastery prospered in the 16th and 17th centuries being lavishly sponsored by the tsars of Moscovy and Serbian dukes of Kratovo, but it declined dramatically in the 18th century to the point where there were only two Russian and two Bulgarian monks left by 1730.  The construction of the present monastery on a new site, closer to the seashore, was carried out during the first two decades of the nineteenth century, with the financial help of the ruler of Moldo-Wallachia, Skarlatos Kallimachos. Russian monks numbered 1,000 in 1895, 1,446 in 1903, and more than 2,000 by 1913. During the Tatar yoke in Russia, most of the monks were Greeks and Serbs. The monastery occupies the nineteenth rank in the hierarchical order of the twenty Athonite monasteries. It is coenobitic (i.e., it is a communal monastic life). It also contains four sketes.  In 1913, the monastery was the site of a raging theological argument (Imiaslavie) among Russian monks, which led to tsarist Russian intervention and the deportation of approximately 800 of the monks on the losing side of the debate.  The Monastery of St Panteleimon was repeatedly gutted by fires, most famously in 1307 (when Catalan mercenaries set it aflame) and in 1968. The first Russian leader to visit the monastery was President Vladimir Putin on September 9, 2005.

In the modern era.

Today, the monastery features the architecture of a small town, with buildings of various heights and many domes. It is the largest of the monasteries on the peninsula. Although destroyed by a fire in 1968, one wing of the monastery was used as the guest quarters, with a capacity of 1,000 monks. The monastery's "katholikon" (main church) was built between 1812–1821 and is dedicated to St. Panteleimon. It features the same style found in all the Athonite churches. Aside from the "katholikon", the monastery has many smaller chapels.  The library is housed in a separate building in the monastery's court. It contains 1,320 Greek manuscripts and another 600 Slavonic ones, as well as 25,000 printed books. In addition, the library has a few priceless relics, such as the head of Saint Panteleimon, one of the most popular saints in Russia. The 19th-century monastery bells are said to be the largest in Greece. There is a daughter community at the monastery at New Athos, Abkhazia.  After the transfer of Athos to the Kingdom of Greece in 1912, and especially with the start of World War I in 1914, the stream of pilgrims and monks from Russia was disrupted and later was strictly controlled by the government of Greece until the collapse of the USSR in 1991. As a result, the number of Russian monks in the monastery and on Mount Athos generally, was reduced from several thousand in the 1900s to 13 in the early 1970s.  In the 1990s, Greece relaxed its restrictive policy and the monastery has since undergone a relative revival. As of May 2016, there are approximately 70 Russian and Ukrainian monks.

Notable monks.

Notable former monks of the monastery include Silouan the Athonite and Archimandrite Sophrony.

Saint Panteleimon Monastery (;, "Moní Agíou Panteleímonos"), known as Rossikon (, "Rossikon";, "Rossikón") or New Russik (, "Novyy Russik"), is one of the twenty Eastern Orthodox monasteries on Mount Athos, located on the southwestern side of the peninsula in Northern Greece. It is often referred to as "Russian" and does have historical and liturgical ties to the Russian Orthodox Church; nevertheless, like all the other monastic settlements on Mount Athos, the monastery is under the direct ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and all its monks are citizens of Greece, usually naturalized.

Klášter svatého Panteleimona (Pantaleona) (řecky: Άγιος Παντελεήμων – "Aghios Panteleimon", rusky: "Пантелеймонов", zřejmě známější jako Ρωσσικόν – "Rossikón"), je jeden z klášterů na hoře Athos. Klášter je předposledním v hierarchii 20 klášterů na svaté hoře Athos.


Background and writing.

When Perry and McKee first met in 2004, they both were "really into "Lolita"" and "had a mutual fascination with the adolescent state of mind." They explored the themes in their first records: Perry wrote "One of the Boys", which touched on the early stages of discovering that boys could be more than friends, whereas McKee wrote "Confessions of a Teenage Girl", which was about using sexual power to one's advantage. For the "Teenage Dream" sessions, Perry and McKee had a "forever young" idea in mind. Perry at first wrote a lyric about Peter Pan, but they later deemed it as "too young" since "we wanted it to have more edge, more sex." Another version included the lines "And the next thing you know / You're a mom in a minivan", which made them laugh uncontrollably for an hour. There was a final version that was based around the metaphor of "trying me on" comparing clothes to sex, in a similar manner to Madonna's 1985 single "Dress You Up". It was rejected by the producers, as McKee explained, "Luke always makes us 'Benny Proof' everything. He says that if Benny doesn't get it, America won't get it." Blanco showed them The Teenagers's 2007 single "Homecoming" and asked them to write in a similar style. McKee said that "[We] looked at each other with dread, knowing we had to start all over again... We were both so over it we just called it a night."  McKee continued working on the song the following days. She explained, "I thought about my own adolescent years, my own first love. I thought about watching Baz Luhrmann's 'Romeo and Juliet' and putting on a little mini disco ball light and just dreaming of Leo. I thought about me and my friends sitting around at slumber parties in the 90's, giddy even just THINKING about boys... I thought about what Benny said and I listened to the song again, and I was like The Teenagers... that's such a great word, Teenager. It is a very descriptive word; it packs a lot of emotion and imagery into three syllables... I couldn't believe after all of our agonizing over 'youth' themes, that we had overlooked such an obvious one – the teenage condition." The following week, Perry invited McKee, Luke, and Martin to write at her hometown of Santa Barbara, California. McKee tried to approach Luke about her idea, but he was upset about the amount of time he had spent working in the chorus, so he banned them from changing it. They started working on the verses, where Perry had already prepared most of the imagery.  Perry described the process "a very pure moment for me" and continued saying, "[It was] where I started my creative juices. And also it kind of exudes this euphoric feeling because everybody remembers what their teenage dreams were — all the girls that were on your poster walls." After she recorded the vocals, McKee pulled Luke and Martin aside and told them her idea, to which they responded, "Well why didn't you say that in the first place?". The chorus was rewritten, and the line "Skin tight jeans" was taken from the early "trying me on" version. When the final version was finished, McKee said, "We were all so pumped that it had paid off. I remember Max sitting back and saying 'I wish we could bottle this feeling'. It was really magical." Perry commented that even though the song was rewritten many times, she was "so happy to finally get somewhere that we all agreed on" after it was finished. During an interview in June 2010, Perry confirmed "Teenage Dream" as the second single from the album, and said that the song was about "kind of like feeling that way when you were a teenager: really emotional, really invested... It's intense being in love and being a teenager." After confirming that "Teenage Dream" was also the title of the album, she explained that it was a throwback to her teenage years, as she thought back to her youth while contemplating marriage to her boyfriend Russell Brand. She added, "To me, this year is pretty heavy. I am going to be getting married and putting out this record, and there is so much going on that it's nice to think of those young dreams."

Composition.

"Teenage Dream" is a midtempo love song with a strong beat that follows the retro sound of previous single "California Gurls". It is predominantly a power pop and electropop song, which features influences of disco and pop rock. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, by Alfred Music Publishing, the song is written in the key of B major, and moves at a tempo of 120 beats per minute. It starts with the sequence of B–B played by a guitar. These intervals are played on guitar throughout the song, but with the addition of different bass notes from halfway through the first verse, the overall harmony can be heard as E – Gm – Fsus. The general chord progression of the song is made from the progression E - Gm – F. Perry's vocals in the song span from the note of B to the note of F. The song starts with relatively high vocals, with Perry singing in head voice; it also continues during the second verse. Amos Barshad of "New York" said that "if not for a bluntly muscular chorus ('You!... make!... me!'), [the song] is nearly a ballad." The lyrics refer to being with a lover that makes one feel like a teenager. According to James Montgomery of MTV, the lyrics refer to being in love, and about the feelings of commitment and security that it brings. They also talk about taking the relationship further in lines such as: "Let's go all the way tonight / No regrets, just love / We can dance until we die / You and I / We'll be young forever".  In a 2014 article in "Slate", composer Owen Pallett analyzed the song using music theory to explain its success. He focused on two factors: the tonal interplay of the chords and melody, and Perry's use of syncopation in her vocals. "This song is all about suspension—not in the voice-leading 4–3 sense, but in the emotional sense, which listeners often associate with 'exhilaration,' being on the road, being on a roller coaster, travel," he explained.  That suspension is created "simply, by denying the listener any I chords," Pallett explains. After the first few lines, the B tonic chord that repeats throughout the song is offset by bass notes that give it a more dominant 7th feel. "The I chord will never appear again," he observes. At the same time, however, Perry begins singing the melody on that note, and returns to it frequently, even when it clashes with the dominant V chord as she sings "feel like I'm living a". "[T]he vocal melody establishes the key so clearly that there is no doubt... Her voice is the sun and the song is in orbit around it," he concludes. "The insistence of the tonic in the melody keeps your ears' eyes fixed on the destination, but the song never arrives there. Weightlessness is achieved. Great work, songwriters!" Pallett notes other classic pop songs, such as Fleetwood Mac's "Dreams" and Coldplay's "Viva la Vida", that employ the same device.  "The second key to this song's Enormous Chart Success," Pallett continues, "has to do with the weighting of the melody lines." Perry begins singing each verse on the beat ("you think I'm pretty...") but then falls off it before the end of the first line ("... makeup on"), syncopating the melody, creating additional tension. "Her lines dovetail elegantly into each other. This contributes to the feeling of suspension that I mentioned above. As listeners, we're waiting for her to get to the point." Pallett says she does indeed do this in the pre-chorus, when she accentuates the imperatives ("Let's go all the way tonight...") by returning to the beat. Pallett than calls it "genius" that the chorus itself inverts the weighting of the verses, as the line "You make me feel like I'm living a teenage dream" goes from off beat to on and then back again, in a single line.  Further, Pallett writes, in the song's bridge, Perry adds more complexity to the song—and makes it more memorable, in his opinion—by taking the simple step of singing the "let you put your hands on me in my skintight jeans" lyrics entirely on beat, including the reiteration of the song's title. "How brilliant. The title of the song is rhythmically weighted two ways—it's like a flank attack. Two sides of the same face. You WILL remember the name of this song."

Critical reception.

Craig Marks of "Billboard" said that along with "California Gurls", the songs "are textbook summer singles whose ingenious pop hooks and zillion-dollar drum tracks are stamped with Perry's knack for a memorable line and frothy, gum-snapping persona." As of January 2015, "Billboard" also named "Teenage Dream" as the second best song of the 2010s (so far). James Montgomery of MTV commented that "Teenage Dream" showed a "definite change of pace for Perry. While it's still as saccharine sweet as her previous hits, there's also a rather, well, "mature" quality to it (despite the title)." Amos Barshad of "New York" said, "Right now, it's feeling a bit too earnest, and not nearly as catchy as the follow-up single from Perry's first album ('Hot n Cold,' most definitely still a jam). That said, we are now mentally preparing ourselves for its ubiquity." Alyssa Rosenberg of "The Atlantic" dismissed the lyrics as "simply annoying and incoherent" and added that "the hook and chorus aren't nearly compelling enough to pull me back into it." "Rolling Stone"' ranked it number 4 on their "Best Singles of 2010" list and "The Village Voice" placed fourteenth on its 38th annual Pazz & Jop critics' poll. In 2014, "Gawker" ranked it the best #1 single of the last ten years while "Pitchfork" ranked it the 35th-best song released in the first half of the 2010s and the 102nd-best song of the 2010s.

Chart performance.

"Teenage Dream" debuted at number 20 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 dated August 7, 2010, becoming the week's Hot Shot debut. It also debuted on the Hot Digital Songs chart at number 11 with 84,000 downloads, and on the Radio Songs chart at number 75. According to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems, "Teenage Dream" set the record for most added song in a week with 64 new stations and 14.9 million plays. The following week, it jumped to number seven on the Hot 100, due to a radio audience of 29.5 million impressions and an increase of 183,000 downloads. On the issue dated September 18, 2010, the song topped the chart becoming her second consecutive number one-single and her third overall number one-single. As of January 2015, the song had sold 4.7 million copies in the United States.  The same week the song topped the charts in the US, it debuted at number 20 in the Canadian Hot 100. On the September 2 issue of the Canadian Digital Download Chart, "Teenage Dream" rose to number one, making it her third number one on that tally. It went to number one in New Zealand on the August 30 chart making it her third number one in New Zealand that year, preceded by "If We Ever Meet Again" with Timbaland in early 2010 and "California Gurls". Overall the song remained at the top for four weeks in New Zealand. It was her fourth number one overall achieving this with "I Kissed a Girl" in 2008. On September 5, 2010, "Teenage Dream" debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number two selling over 86,000 units in its debut week. It was kept off top spot by the release of Olly Murs' debut single "Please Don't Let Me Go". The following week it stayed at number two, before moving down to number three the following week. The song reached number one on the Scottish Singles Chart.

Music video.

Background and concept.

The music video for "Teenage Dream" was filmed in Santa Barbara, California, in July 2010, and was directed by Yoann Lemoine. Perry planned the concept along with the songwriters during the sessions. Pictures from the shoot feature Perry kneeling in the sand looking at a man (played by Josh Kloss) wearing speedos, while others show her kissing the man in a hotel pool. She commented about the filming on her Twitter, saying, "That's a wrap for Teenage Dream! So gorgeous [...] In my hometown. I got to cast all my friends in the new music vid for Teenage Dream = amazing insanity." The video features images of Perry in a car with a boyfriend, then, Perry is shown in a party with her friends, and the closing scene shows Perry kissing her boyfriend under the water. Perry was interviewed online via YouTube, where she talked about the music video. She said: "It is gonna be completely different from 'California Gurls.' With 'Teenage Dream' you'll see a very raw, almost vulnerable [side]... I had to wear so many less layers of makeup. I had to make out with a boy which was very traumatizing, I was kind of mean to him. I would be the one to call cut because I was like, 'oh I can't do this!' I feel so horrible. But I know it's a job. [Russell and I] understand what our work is."

Release.

A lyric video with pictures was uploaded to Perry's YouTube account on July 26, 2010. A 30-second snippet was released on August 5, 2010. The clip showed Perry in a montage of locations around Santa Barbara including riding a late 1960s white BMW New Class convertible, kissing her love interest on the bed at the Sunset Motel in Santa Barbara, and dancing on the beach with her friends. James Dinh of MTV said the teaser resonated with the song's feel-good melody. The full video premiered on MTV on August 10, 2010 at 8:00pm ET. Its UK premiere was at 10:45pm on ITV2. The 4:39 minute long official remix was posted on Katy Perry's Vevo account on YouTube on October 27, 2010 featuring an inserted party scene.

Accusations of sexual misconduct.

In August 2019, Josh Kloss accused Perry of sexual misconduct during the filming of the music video. Posting on Instagram, Kloss claimed that, during a party at a skating rink, Perry pulled down his sweatpants and underwear, exposing his penis to her male friends. Kloss also claimed that Perry's management prevented him from speaking about his time with the singer.

Live performances.

Perry performed "Teenage Dream" at the MTV World Stage 2010 held in Sunway Surfbeach, Malaysia. Perry performed her songs "California Gurls", "Hot n Cold" and "Teenage Dream" on "Sunrise" in Australia. On August 9, 2010, she performed it as the opening song of the Teen Choice Awards when she was hosting the award ceremony. She then appeared and performed "Teenage Dream" on the "Late Show with David Letterman" and "Today" show. The same month, Perry traveled to Europe and performed the song on "The Album Chart Show" in the UK, on "Le Grand Journal" in France and on UK chat show "". On September 25, 2010 she was the musical guest and performed the song on "Saturday Night Live". In October 2010, she performed the song on "Wetten, dass..?" in Germany. Perry performed the song with actor Darren Criss for the first time on the "Trevor Project Live" on December 5, 2010.  On February 13, 2011, Perry performed "Teenage Dream" at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards. The song was featured on the set list of the California Dreams Tour in 2011 as the opening act of the show. The show begins with a video screen introduction which tells the story of a girl named Katy who lives in a colorless world wasting her life cutting meat for a mean old butcher. One night, Perry escapes her dreadful reality by falling asleep and visits a vibrant candy land in search for her pet cat, Kitty Purry and also for the love of her life, the Baker's Boy, played by Nick Zano. Perry then appears on stage and starts performing "Teenage Dream" with her dancers, while wearing a white dress with spinning peppermints. For Obama's 2012 presidential candidacy, Perry performed several of her hit songs dressed as a ballot, including "Teenage Dream", "Firework", and "Wide Awake". Expressing solidarity for his campaign, the box next to Obama's name was shaded. For her 2014–15 The Prismatic World Tour and her 2017-2018, "Teenage Dream" was included on the setlist.  On February 1, 2015, Perry performed the song during the Super Bowl XLIX halftime show.

Cover versions.

The Beelzebubs, a male a cappella group from Tufts University, covered "Teenage Dream" and gained prominence when it was used on the American musical television series "Glee" in the episode "Never Been Kissed". The Beelzebubs provided the arrangement and back-up vocals (recorded during September in New York City) for the performance, and actors playing students from the fictional Dalton Academy Warblers lip-synced to their vocals. The lead vocals were provided by Darren Criss, playing Blaine Anderson in the episode. Following the airing of the episode in the US on November 9, 2010, the track was released as a single credited to the "Glee" cast; the recording is also featured on "". The cover sold 55,000 copies through the iTunes Store on the first day, breaking the group's first-day sales record previously held by "Empire State of Mind". Selling 214,000 copies over the week, the song debuted at the eighth position on the "Billboard" Hot 100, surpassing "Don't Stop Believin'" for the highest first-week sales of any "Glee" song, and first top ten by Glee Cast on the chart since "Don't Stop Believin'". It remains the third best-selling recording in the show's history, having sold 652,000 copies in the United States. The song also charted at number ten in Canada, twenty-four in Australia, and eighteen in Ireland. The cover was included in a list of no particular order of the 210 best songs of 2010, published by the "New York Post".  The song appears in three Glee albums: "", "" and the live album "". Criss covered the song again on "Glee"s season four episode, "The Break-Up", on October 4, 2012 with a slower, piano-only version. Unlike the original version, which was lip-synced, Criss sang this version live on set to capture the emotion of the performance.

Credits and personnel.

Credits adapted from "Teenage Dream" album liner notes.

Certifications.

!scope="row"| France (SNEP)

"Teenage Dream" is a song by American singer Katy Perry. It was released as the second single from her third studio album of the same name on July 23, 2010. Perry and Bonnie McKee wrote many songs with youthful themes in mind, but they were rejected by producers Benny Blanco and Dr. Luke. Blanco showed them The Teenagers' single "Homecoming", and McKee imagined "Teenage Dream" as a throwback song to the euphoric feelings of being in love as a teenager. They met with Max Martin in Perry's hometown of Santa Barbara, California and started writing the track at Playback Recording Studio, which Perry later described as a pure moment for her. After Perry recorded her vocals, McKee presented her idea and the chorus was rewritten. Perry also described the song as reminiscent of her youth while contemplating her future marriage to Russell Brand.

„Teenage Dream“ je píseň americké popové zpěvačky Katy Perry. Píseň pochází z jejího třetího alba "Teenage Dream". Produkce se ujmuli producenti Max Martin, Dr. Luke a Benny Blanco.


Political influence in the United States.

The largest pharmaceutical companies and their two trade groups, Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) and Biotechnology Innovation Organization, lobbied on at least 1,600 pieces of legislation between 1998 and 2004. According to the non-partisan Center for Responsive Politics, pharmaceutical companies spent $900 million on lobbying between 1998 and 2005, more than any other industry. During the same period, they donated $89.9 million to federal candidates and political parties, giving approximately three times as much to Republicans as to Democrats. According to the Center for Public Integrity, from January 2005 through June 2006 alone, the pharmaceutical industry spent approximately $182 million on Federal lobbying. The industry has 1,274 registered lobbyists in Washington D.C.

Controversy in the U.S..

Prescription drug costs in the U.S..

Critics of the pharmaceutical lobby argue that the drug industry's influence allows it to promote legislation friendly to drug manufacturers at the expense of patients. The lobby's influence in securing the passage of the Medicare Prescription Drug Improvement and Modernization Act of 2003 was considered a major and controversial victory for the industry, as it prevents the government from directly negotiating prices with drug companies who provide those prescription drugs covered by Medicare. Price negotiations are instead conducted between manufacturers and the pharmacy benefit managers providing Medicare Part D benefits under contract with Medicare. In 2010 the Congressional Budget Office estimated the average discount negotiated by pharmacy benefit managers at 14%.  The high price of U.S. prescription drugs has been a source of ongoing controversy. Corporations state that the high costs are the result of pricey research and development programs. Critics point to the development of drugs having only small incremental benefit. According to Marcia Angell, the former head of the New England Journal of Medicine, "The United States is the only advanced country that permits the pharmaceutical industry to charge exactly what the market will bear." In contrast, the RAND Corporation and authors from the National Bureau of Economic Research have argued that price controls stifle innovation and are economically counterproductive in the long term.

The pharmaceutical lobby refers to the representatives of pharmaceutical drug and biomedicine companies who engage in lobbying in favour of the pharmaceutical industry and its products.

Farmaceutická lobby - v anglofonních zemích též zvaná Big Pharma - je označení pro placené zástupce velkých farmaceutických a biomedicínských společností, kteří se snaží ovlivnit rozhodování zejm. vlád tak, aby byla legislativa výhodná pro jejich obchodní činnost. Snaha ovlivnit rozhodování může být akceptovatelná, jako například snaha ovlivnit legislativu tak, aby zajišťovala dostatečnou ochranu duševního vlastnictví farmaceutických firem, nebo snaha o legislativní usnadnění spolupráce s vysokými školami. Některé snahy farmaceutické lobby však mohou být značně kontroverzní, například snaha o zahrnutí nového léku do široce hrazené terapie např. na základě veřejného zdravotního pojištění zejména v případě, kdy k léku existuje podstatně levnější plnohodnotná náhrada, nebo snaha o omezení odpovědnosti při neočekávaném poškození pacienta lékem. Velký objem financí ve farmaceutickém průmyslu a kontroverze kolem některých cílů farmaceutické lobby vedly ke vzniku řady konspiračních teorií ve kterých hraje farmaceutická lobby ústřední roli.


History.

The early history of Gyeongju is closely tied to that of the Silla kingdom, of which it was the capital. Gyeongju first enters non-Korean records as Saro-guk, during the Samhan period in the early Common Era. Korean records, probably based on the dynastic chronicles of Silla, record that Saro-guk was established in 57 BCE, when six small villages in the Gyeongju area united under Bak Hyeokgeose. As the kingdom expanded, it changed its name to Silla. During the Silla period, the city was called "Seorabeol" (lit. Capital), "Gyerim" (lit. Rooster's forest) or "Geumseong" (lit. City of Gold).  After the unification of the peninsula up to Taedong River in 668 AD, Gyeongju became the center of Korean political and cultural life. The city was home to the Silla court and the great majority of the kingdom's elite. Its prosperity became legendary, and was reported as far away as Persia according to the 9th century book "The Book of Roads and Kingdoms". Records of "Samguk Yusa" give the city's population in its peak period as 178,936 households, suggesting that the total population was almost one million. Many of Gyeongju's most famous sites date from this Unified Silla period, which ended in the late 9th century by Goryeo (918–1392).  In 940, the founder of Goryeo, King Taejo, changed the city's name to "Gyeongju", which literally means "Congratulatory district". In 987, as Goryeo introduced a system in which three additional capitals were established in politically important provinces outside Gaegyeong (nowadays Kaesong), and Gyeongju was designated as "Donggyeong" ("East Capital"). However, that title was removed in 1012, the third year of King Hyeongjong's reign, due to political rivalries at

Geography and climate.

Gyeongju lies in the southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang Province, and is bounded by the metropolitan city of Ulsan on the south. Within the province, its neighbors include Pohang on the north, Cheongdo County on the southwest, and Yeongcheon on the northwest. Gyeongju is located about north of Busan. To the east, it has no neighbor but the sea.  Most of Gyeongju lies in the Gyeongsang Basin, but a few areas of the city belong to the Pohang Basin, such as Eoil-ri and Beomgok-ri in Yangbuk-myeon, and part of Cheonbuk-myeon. The Gyeongsang Basin areas consist of Bulguksa intrusive rock penetrating layers of sedimentary rocks, mainly granite and porphyry. By contrast, the Pohang Basin areas are made up of stratum that formed in the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic era, which consist of igneous rock, aqueous rock, porphyry, sandstone, and tuff.  Low mountains are widespread throughout Gyeongju. The highest of these are the Taebaek Mountains, which run along the city's western border. Gyeongju's highest point, Munbok Mountain (문복산), is above sea level. This peak lies in Sannae-myeon, on the border with Cheongdo. East of the Taebaek range, other western peaks such as Danseok Mountain lie within the Jusa subrange. The city's eastern peaks, including Toham Mountain, belong to the Haean Mountains and Dongdae Mountains. Gyeongju's drainage patterns are shaped by these lines of mountains. The Dongdae Mountains divide a narrow foothills area on their east, and various internal river systems to the west. Most of the city's interior is drained by the small Hyeongsan River, which flows north from Ulsan and meets the sea at Pohang Harbor. The Hyeongsan's chief tributaries include the Bukcheon and Namcheon, which join it in Gyeongju Basin. The southwestern corner of Gyeongju, on the far side of the Taebaek range, drains into the Geumho River, which then flows into the Nakdong. A small area of the south, just west of the Dongdae range, drains into the Taehwa River, which flows into the Bay of Ulsan.  The Gyeongju coastline runs for between Pohang in the north and Ulsan in the south. There are no islands or large bays, only the small indentations made by the small streams flowing off the Dongdae ridgeline. Because of this, the city has no significant ports, though there are 12 small harbors. One such harbor in Gyeongju's southeast corner is home to the Ulsan base of the National Maritime Police. This base is responsible for security over a wide area of South Korea's east-central coast.

Government.

The executive branch of the government is headed by a mayor and vice-mayor. As in other South Korean cities and counties, the mayor is elected directly, while the vice-mayor is appointed. As of 2019, the mayor is Joo Nak-young, who was elected on June 13, 2018 in the local elections. He is Gyeongju's fifth mayor to be directly elected, the sixth to preside over the city in its present form, and the 31st mayor since 1955. Like most heads of government in the Yeongnam region, he is a member of the conservative Liberty Korea Party.  The legislative branch consists of the Gyeongju City Council, with 21 members as of 2009. The present City Council was formed from the merger of the

Subdivisions.

The city is divided into 23 administrative districts: 4 "eup", 8 "myeon", and 11 "dong". These are the standard subdivisions of cities and counties in South Korea. The "dong" or neighborhood units occupy the area of the city center, which was formerly occupied by Gyeongju-eup. "Eup" are typically substantial villages, whereas "myeon" are more rural.  The city's boundaries and designation changed

Demographics.

When the Silla kingdom reached the peak of its development, Gyeongju was estimated to have a million residents, four times the city's population in 2008. In recent years, Gyeongju has followed the same trends that have affected the rest of South Korea. Like the country as a whole, Gyeongju has seen its population age and the size of families shrink. For instance, the mean household size is 2.8 people. Because this has fallen in recent years, there are more households in the city as of 2008 (105,009) than there were in 2003, even though the population has fallen.  Like most of South Korea's smaller cities, Gyeongju has seen a steady drop in population in recent years. From 2002 to 2008, the city lost 16,557 people. This is primarily due to the migration of workers seeking employment in the major South Korean cities. In 2007, about 1,975 more people moved away from the city each year than moved in. During the same period, births exceeded deaths by roughly 450 per year, a significant number but not enough to offset the losses due to migration.  Gyeongju has a small but growing population of non-Koreans. In 2007, there were 4,671 foreigners living in Gyeongju. This number corresponds to 1.73% of the total population, more than double the figure from 2003. The growth was largely in immigrants from other Asian countries, many of whom are employed in the automotive parts industry. Countries of origin whose numbers have risen include the Philippines, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, and Vietnam. The number of residents from Japan, the United States, and Canada fell significantly in the 2003–2007 period.

Dialect.

The city has a distinctive dialect which it shares with northern portions of Ulsan. This dialect is similar to the general Gyeongsang dialect, but retains distinctive features of its own. Some

Culture and people.

Cultural properties.

Gyeongju is the main destination in South Korea for visitors interested in the cultural heritage of Silla and the architecture of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910). The city has 31 National Treasures, and Gyeongju National Museum houses 16,333 artifacts. There are four broad categories of relics and historical sites: tumuli and their artifacts; Buddhist sites and objects; fortresses and palace sites; and ancient architecture. Prehistoric remains including Mumun pottery have been excavated in central Gyeongju, in the Moa-ri and Oya-ri villages of the Cheonbuk-myeon district, and in the Jukdong-ri village of the Oedong-eup district. Dolmens are found in several places, especially in Gangdong-myeon and Moa-ri. Bronze Age relics found in Angye-ri village of Gangdong-myeon, Jukdong-ri and Ipsil-ri villages of Oedong-eup and graveyards

Notable people.

Gyeongju has produced notable individuals throughout its history. As the capital of Silla, Gyeongju was a center of culture in its heyday. Notable Gyeongju residents in the Silla period included most of the kingdom's leading figures, not only rulers but scholars such as Seol Chong and Choe Chi-won, and generals like Kim Yusin, the leader of the Hwarang warriors. The city continued to contribute to traditional Korean thought in subsequent dynasties. Relatives of Choe Chi-won such as Choe Eon-wui and Choe Hang played an important role in establishing the structures of early Goryeo. In the Joseon period, Gyeongju joined the rest of Gyeongsang in becoming a hotbed of the conservative "Sarim" faction. Notable Gyeongju members of this faction included the 15th century intellectual Yi Eon-jeok. He

Religion.

The city remains an important centre of Korean Buddhism. East of the downtown area lies Bulguksa, one of South Korea's largest Buddhist temples; nearby is Seokguram, a famed Buddhist shrine. Traditional prayer locations are found on mountains throughout Gyeongju. Such mountains include Namsan near the city center, Danseok-san and Obong-san in the west, and the low

Cuisine.

The cuisine of Gyeongju is generally similar to other areas of Gyeongsang province: spicy and salty. However, it has distinctive tastes according to region and several local specialties known nationwide. The most famous of these is "Gyeongju bread" or "Hwangnam bread", a red-bean pastry first baked in 1939 and now sold throughout the country. "Chalboribbang", made with locally produced glutinous barley, is also a pastry with a filling of red bean paste. Local specialties with a somewhat longer pedigree include "beopju", a traditional Korean liquor produced by the Gyeongju Choe in Gyo-dong. The brewing skill and distill master were designated as Important Intangible Cultural Properties by South Korea government. Other local specialities include "ssambap", "haejangguk", and "muk". "Ssambap"

Sports.

As of 2007, Gyeongju city had two stadiums, two gymnasiums, two tennis courts, one swimming pool and others as public sport facilities as well as various registered private sports venues. Many of public sport facilities are located in Hwangseong Park with an area of including a luxuriant pine trees forest. The site was originally the location of the artificial forest of Doksan which was established for "feng shui" purposes during the Silla period. It was also used as a training ground for hwarang warriors and hunting spot for Silla kings, and was reported to be King Jinpyeong's favorite location. In 1975, Hwangseong Park was designated a "city neighborhood park" and it currently consists of the multi-purpose Gyeongju Public Stadium, Football Park (with seven football fields and one futsal field), and one gymnasium, as well as Horimjang field for "gukgung" or Korean traditional archery and a ssireum

Economy.

The economy of Gyeongju is more diverse than the city's image as a tourist haven would suggest. Although tourism is important to the economy, most residents work in other fields. Over 27,000 are employed in manufacturing compared to roughly 13,500 in the hospitality industry. The number involved in tourism has remained constant over recent years, while the manufacturing sector added about 6,000 jobs from 1999 to 2003. The manufacturing sector is closely tied to nearby cities, utilizing Gyeongju's transit links with Ulsan, Pohang, and Daegu. As in Ulsan and Daegu the automotive parts industry plays an important role. Of the 1,221 businesses incorporated in Gyeongju almost a third are involved in auto-parts manufacture.  Fishing takes place in coastal towns, especially in Gampo-eup in the city's northeast, with 436 registered fishing craft in the city. Fishing industry in Gyeongju is generally in a declined status due to relatively inconvenient transport conditions and lacks of subordinate facilities. Much of the catch from these boats goes direct from the harbor to Gyeongju's many seafood restaurants. Mainly, sauries, anchovies, rays are harvested and a small number of abalone and wakame farming takes place. Local specialties include "myeolchijeot" (fermented anchovy), abalone, wakame, and squid. Agriculture is still important, particularly in the outlying regions of Gyeongju. According to the 2006 statistical yearbook of Gyeongju, rice fields occupy an area of, which is 70% of the total cultivated acreage of. The remaining consists of fields under other crops and farmsteads. Crop production is centered in the fertile river basins near the Hyeongsan River. The main crops are rice, barley, beans and corn. Vegetables such as radish and napa cabbage and fruits are also important crops. Apples are mainly produced in the districts of Geoncheon-eup, Gangdong-myeon and Cheonbuk-myeon and Korean pear are cultivated in Geoncheon-eup and Angang-eup. The city plays a leading role in the domestic production of beef and mushrooms. Button mushrooms harvested in Geoncheon-eup are canned and exported. The cultivated acreage and the number of households engaging in agriculture is however declining.  A small amount of quarrying activity takes place in the city, with 46 active mines and quarries in Gyeongju. Most are engaged in the extraction of kaolin, fluorspar and Agalmatolite and Kaolin is exported. As the capital of Silla, commerce and trading in Gyeongju developed early on. "Samguk Sagi" has records on the establishment of "Gyeongdosi" (capital area market) in March, 490 during King Soji's reign, and "Dongsi" (East Market) in 509, during King Jijeung's reign. In the 1830s, Gyeongju had five five-day markets which remained very active until the late 1920s. Due to its size "Gyeongju Bunaejang" (Gyeongju village market) was referred to as one of the two leading markets in the Yeongnam area, along with "Daegu Bunaejang". Transportation developed in the late period of the Japanese occupation, as the Jungang Line and the Daegu Line and the connecting route between Pohang and the northwestern part of Japan were set up, leading to increasing population and developing commerce. After the 1960s, traditional periodic markets gradually transformed into regular markets as the city was flourishing. In periodic markets, agricultural and marine products, industrial products, living necessaries, wild edible greens, herbs, and cattle are mainly traded. As of 2006, Gyeongju had eight regular markets, nine periodic markets and the Gyeongju department store. Traditional periodic markets declined and have become token affairs these days.

Media.

Gyeongju has two main local newspapers; the "Gyeongju Sinmun" and the "Seorabeol Sinmun". Both are weekly newspapers providing news via online as well and their headquarters are located in the neighborhood of Dongcheon-dong. The Gyeongju Sinmun was founded in 1989 and provides various news and critics on anything concerning Gyeongju. Its online newspaper, Digital Gyeongju Sinmun opened in December, 2000 to provide live local news out of the limit as a weekly newspaper and to establish mutual information exchanges from Gyeongju locals. In 2001, Gyeongju Sinmun started to present Gyeongju Citizen Awards

Education.

Gyeongju is strongly associated with the education tradition of Hwarangdo ("Way of the Flower of Young Men") which was established and flourished during the Silla period. It is a military and philosophical code that offered the basis of training to Hwarang, a military cadet of youths from the aristocratic class. The training equally emphasized practicing academic and martial arts based on Buddhism and patriotism. A number of Silla's greatest generals and military leaders such as Kim Yu-sin were Hwarang who played a central role in Silla unification of the Korean peninsula. As Silla was integrated into the next ruling dynasty, Goryeo, the system declined and was officially disbanded in the Joseon dynasty. However, the spirit and discipline were revived in the second half of the 20th century as a form of Korean martial arts with the same name. Formal education has a longer history in Gyeongju than anywhere else in South Korea. The "Gukhak", or national academy, was established here in 682, at the beginning of the Unified Silla period. Its curriculum focused on the Confucian classics for local officials. After the fall of

Infrastructure.

Healthcare.

According to the 2008 yearbook of Gyeongju, the total number of medical institutions was 224 with 3,345 beds, including two general hospitals, thirteen hospitals, 109 clinics, five nursing homes, forty two dental hospitals, two Korean traditional medicine hospitals and 50 Korean traditional medicine clinics. There are also twenty eight medical institutions related to Gyeongju Health Center affiliated to the Gyeongju City government.  The two general hospitals are associated with two major universities in Gyeongju and nearby Daegu. One is the Dongguk University Gyeongju Hospital, located in

Utilities.

Water supply and sewage disposal are municipal services which are respectively handled by the Water Supply Office and Water Quality and Environment Office. Water comes from the Hyeongsan River, the multi-purpose Deokdong Dam and several streams. The city is divided into seven water districts, with eight filtration plants and seven sewage treatment plants. One of the sewage treatment plants, Angang Sewage Disposal Plant began operating in April 2005 by the co-investment of the Government of North Gyeongsang and Gyeongju City with a fund of 44,300,000,000 won to install facilities to prevent the pollution of the Hyeongsan River, which is a main water source for Gyeongju and Pohang residents. The plant is located on a spacious site with in Homyeong-ri, Gangdong-myeon in Gyeongju where nature friendly facilities provide recreational venues for the locals. Through of sewer pipes and 14 pumping stations, the plant has a capacity of 18,000 tonnes of domestic sewage per day that comes from Angang-eup,

Transportation.

The city lies at the junction of two minor lines operated by the Korean National Railroad. The Jungang Line runs from Seoul to Gyeongju and carries trains from the Daegu Line, which originates in Dongdaegu. In Gyeongju, the Jungang line connects to the Donghae Nambu Line which runs between Pohang and Busan. The Gyeongbu Expressway, which runs from

Twin towns – sister cities.

Gyeongju is twinned with:

Gyeongju (, ), historically known as "Seorabeol" (, ), is a coastal city in the far southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang Province in South Korea. It is the second largest city by area in the province after Andong, covering with a population of 264,091 people (as of December 2012.) Gyeongju is southeast of Seoul, and east of Daegu. The city borders Cheongdo and Yeongcheon to the west, Ulsan to the south and Pohang to the north, while to the east lies the coast of the East Sea. Numerous low mountains—outliers of the Taebaek range—are scattered around the city.

Kjongdžu (korejsky 경주) je město v provincii Severní Kjongsang v jihovýchodní části Jižní Koreje. V současnosti má zhruba 270 tisíc obyvatel.


Life.

In 1460 Ludmila was betrothed to George, only son and heir of Duke Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria-Landshut. This marriage would have gained King George an ally in his efforts to obtain the German throne.  However, the change of the political plans of George forced him in 1461 to dissolve Ludmila's betrothal with the Bavarian prince and engaged her with the Hungarian magnate Wawrzyńcem Uljakim. The Bohemian King wanted to win the Hungarian magnates to the cause of Matthias Corvinus (who recently had married with one of his eldest twin daughters, Katharina) and simultaneously tried to gain his own opportunity of became the ruler of Hungary. In 1464, after Katharina's death, the relations between the Kings of Hungary and Bohemia become unfriendly. In this situation, George reassumed the idea of a marriage between Ludmila and the heir of Bavaria-Landshut. This engagement was broken by 1468, when King George found himself in political isolation. Then, he tried to arrange a marriage between Ludmila and the young Prince Vladislaus Jagiellon (eldest son of King Casimir IV of Poland) but this plan never prospered. After King George's death in 1471, his widow proposed Prince Vladislaus as his successor. Shortly after, the Polish prince became in King Vladislaus II of Bohemia, and after succeeded Matthias Corvinus in 1490, he also reigned as King of Hungary.  On 5 September 1474 Ludmila married with Duke Frederick I of Legnica. In 1475 along with her husband, she went on a pilgrimage to Rome for the Jubilee year. Ludmila bore her husband three sons: John II, Frederick II and George I.  After the death of her husband (9 May 1488) Ludmila assumed the regency on behalf of her minor sons in the Duchies of Chojnów, Legnica and Lubin, but not in Brzeg and Oława, who were assigned to her in Frederick I's will as her dower, and in consequence, they are under Ludmila's direct sovereignty for her life.  Ludmila's regency ended in 1498, when her eldest surviving son, Frederick II (John II had already died in 1495 still underage) attained his majority and assumed the government and the guardianship of his youngest brother George I by himself. Ludmila died five years later, and the Duchy of Brzeg-Oława was taken by her sons, who divided their domains between them two years later, in 1505.

Ludmila of Poděbrady ; (16 October 1456 – Legnica, 20 January 1503), was a member of the House of Poděbrady and by marriage Duchess of Chojnów-Oława-Legnica-Brzeg-Lubin.

Ludmila z Poděbrad (16. října 1456 – 20. ledna 1503 Lehnice) byla česká princezna, dcera českého krále Jiřího z Poděbrad a jeho manželky Johanky z Rožmitálu. Provdala se za lehnického a břežského knížete Fridricha I.


French version.

Background.

In the late 1980s, the "Marine Nationale" started the studies for frigates adapted to low-intensity conflicts in the post–Cold War era. The ships were to serve in the large French exclusive economic zone (EEZ), be adapted to humanitarian operations or low-intensity operations in support of land troops, and replace the aging s, which tended to prove too focused on naval operations and were ill-suited for joint operations.  Conventional warships used in low-intensity or humanitarian relief operations proved costly, with their heavy equipment and large crew. Hence came the requirement for lightly armed frigates with economical engines and small crew. In Italy, the same requirements led to the development of the and type corvettes, built according to both civilian and military standards. These ships were limited to 1,300 tonnes because the limited size and depth of the Mediterranean and the proximity of the homeland. The French Navy, on the other hand, had to be present in overseas territories, bases and EEZ. To be enduring enough, the ships had to reach 3,000 tonnes, the size of a frigate. The larger displacement allows combining strong firepower (like the "Minerva" class) and a capacity for a medium helicopter (like the "Cassiopea" class), along with a good autonomy and seaworthiness.  The first type of ships built on these principles were the s, built on civilian standards, with a limited armament, and carrying a medium helicopter. These ships are high endurance units designed to be operated in overseas possessions (the Caribbean, Polynesia, and New Caledonia) and the EEZ, where the likelihood of a naval threat is low. The speed is limited to 20 knots because of the low-power engines which emphasises autonomy and reliability. To fight pirates in fast rigid-hulled inflatable boats, the "Floréal"s rely on their onboard helicopter and marine detachment.  The niche for more hostile environments is covered by the "La Fayette" type, designed to operate in complex zones like the Indian Ocean or Djibouti. These ships were to be able to secure the EEZ, but also to operate in naval groups or intelligence gathering missions. The intended role for the ships was in fact very varied, because the experience of the C.70 class, with an intended 20 ships cut down to only nine (the seven s and two s) had taught that project downsizing and reorganisations could lead to badly balanced naval capabilities. The new ships were to benefit from breakthroughs on stealth (""furtivité"") achieved by the DCN in the 1980s.  It took several years to refine the concept, and the first ship was eventually launched in 1992, two years after the final design was completed. Weapon system testing took place in 1994, and particularly extensive trials were undertaken to prove the structure of the ship under a wide range of conditions. "La Fayette" was eventually commissioned in March 1996.

Stealth.

At the time of their commissioning, the units of the "La Fayette" class were the state of the art in stealth for warships. The shape of the hull and the superstructures is devised for the optimal reduction of the radar signature, which has been reduced by 60 percent: a 3000-tonne "La Fayette" unit has the typical radar signature of a 1200 tonne ship. Stealth is achieved with inclined flanks, as few vertical lines as possible, and very clean lines and superstructures: stairs and mooring equipment are internal, and prominent structures are covered by clear surfaces. The superstructures are built using radar-absorbent synthetic materials.  Their radar cross-section is equivalent to that of a large fishing boat, which can make camouflage among civilian ships possible; or that of a much less capable corvette, which could lead an enemy to underestimate the capabilities of the ship. In case of a direct attack, the small radar signature helps evade enemy missiles and fire control systems. The "La Fayette"s are also equipped with jammers that can generate false radar images, as well as decoy launchers. Further point missile defence will be provided when the ships are equipped with the Aster 15 antimissile missiles.  Thanks to the adoption of low-power diesel motors and a special heat dissipation system, the "La Fayette" ships have a low thermal signature. The usual funnel is replaced with a small sets of pipes, aft of the mast, which cool the exit gas before it is released. The ships usually operate in warm areas, which further decreases the thermal contrast with the environment.  The magnetic signature is reduced by the presence of a demagnetisation belt.  The acoustic signature is minimized by mounting the engines on elastomeric supports, which minimize vibration transfers to the hull, and by rubber coatings on the propellers. The "La Fayette"s are equipped with the Prairie Masker active acoustic camouflage system, which generates small bubbles from underneath the hull to confuse sonars.

Construction.

The superstructure is made of light alloy and glass-reinforced plastic, which allow a reduction in top weight. This provides adequate but sub-optimal resistance to fire. Vital zones are armoured in Kevlar, and important systems are redundant. The crew is protected against biological, chemical and nuclear environments.  The ships were built with a modular inner structure from eleven prefabricated modules which were completed at the factory, delivered to the shipyard and assembled there. This technique results in a construction time of less than two years.  The hull has a pronounced angle at the stem, with a short forecastle that integrates directly into the superstructure. The ship's sides have a negative inclination of ten degrees. The single anchor is located exactly on the stem, into which it is completely recessed. The deck where the seamanship equipment and capstans are installed is internal in order to hide it from radar.  The superstructure is built in one piece and directly integrates into the hull, with only a change in inclination. A platform is located between the main gun and the bridge. The superstructure runs continuously down to the helicopter hangar, on top of which short-range antiaircraft Crotale missiles are installed.  The ships feature two masts. The main mast has a pyramidal structure which integrates funnels and supports the antenna of the Syracuse military communications satellite system, while the second supports the main radar.  Three of the French Navy frigates (La Fayette, Courbet and Aconit) have been selected to receive mid-life upgrades pending the introduction of the FTI frigates starting in 2023. The three frigates will receive a hull-mounted sonar to incorporate an anti-submarine capability, modernized point air defence systems as well as other improvements. The upgrades will permit the three ships to operate through the 2020s and into the 2030s. The first updated vessel is scheduled for completion in 2021.

Export.

"Al Riyadh" class: Saudi Arabia.

The three "Al Riyadh"-class ships are an expanded anti-air version of the French "La Fayette" class, displacing about 4,700 tonnes and extended to in length.  The ships' combat systems are produced by Armaris (a DCN/Thales joint venture) and are armed with the Aster 15 missile. The Aster missiles use the DCN SYLVER launcher. As with the "La Fayette" class the primary offensive weapon is the anti-surface Exocet missile. The ships' main gun is the Oto Melara 76 mm/62 Super Rapid gun replacing the 100 mm TR automatic gun. There are also four aft torpedo tubes. The ship is armed with the DCNS F17 heavyweight anti-submarine torpedo.  The ships are capable of a maximum speed of with a maximum range of.

"Formidable" class: Singapore.

The Republic of Singapore Navy's six s are of comparable size to the "La Fayette" class but differs from that class and the Saudi "Al Riyadh" class in the armament carried: in place of the Exocet is the Boeing Harpoon. The main gun is a stealth cupola equipped with an Oto Melara 76 mm gun replacing the 100 mm TR automatic gun. The "Formidable" class also uses the SYLVER launcher/Aster missile combination. The first ship, RSS "Formidable", was built by DCN, while the remaining ships were constructed by Singapore Technologies Marine.  Anti-submarine capability includes S-70B Seahawk helicopters.  Maximum speed is, making it the fastest variant. The ships have a maximum range of.

"Kang Ding" class: ROC (Taiwan).

As the ROC (Taiwan)'s defensive stance is aimed towards the Taiwan Strait, the ROC Navy is constantly seeking to upgrade its anti-submarine warfare capabilities. The US$1.75 billion agreement with France in the early 1990s was an example of this procurement strategy: the six ships are configured for both ASW and surface attack. The Exocet was replaced by Taiwan-developed Hsiung Feng II anti-ship missile and the AAW weapon is the Sea Chaparral. The main gun is an Oto Melara 76 mm/62 mk 75 gun, similar to its Singaporean counterparts, the "Formidable"-class frigates. Some problems in the integration of Taiwanese and French systems had been reported. The frigate carries a single Sikorsky S-70C(M)-1/2 ASW helicopter.  The Sea Chaparral SAM system is considered inadequate for defense against aircraft and anti-ship missiles, so the ROC (Taiwan) Navy plans to upgrade its air-defense capabilities with the indigenous TC-2N in 2020. The AMRAAM-class missiles will be quad-packed in a vertical launch system for future ROCN surface combatants, but a less-risky alternative arrangement of above-deck, fixed oblique launchers is seen as more likely for upgrading these French-built frigates.  The class's maximum speed is with a maximum range of.  The six ships of the class are named "Kang Ding" (康定, PFG-1202), "Si Ning" (西寧, PFG-1203), "Kun Ming" (昆明, PFG-1205), "Di Hua" (迪化, PFG-1206), "Wu Chang" (武昌, PFG-1207), and "Chen De" (承德, PFG-1208) respectively, after provincial capitals in mainland China under ROC's pre-1949 political division.

Taiwan frigates scandal.

The Taiwan frigate deal was a large political scandal, both in Taiwan and France. A former French foreign minister claimed that up to US$500K was paid by Thomson-CSF (now Thales), the prime contractor, as a "sweetener", as the ships did not strictly meet Taiwan's requirements. Eight people involved in the contract died in unusual and possibly suspicious circumstances. Six ROC naval officers were indicted on corruption charges relating to the affair.  In 2003, the Taiwanese Navy sued Thomson-CSF (Thales) to recover alleged $590 million in kickbacks, paid to French and Taiwanese officials to grease the 1991 La Fayette deal. The kickback money was deposited in Swiss banks, and under the corruption investigation, Swiss authorities froze approx. $730 million in over 60 accounts. In June 2007 the Swiss authority returned $34 million from frozen accounts to Taiwan, with additional funds pending.

The "La Fayette" class (also known as FL-3000 for ""Frégate Légère de 3,000 tonnes"", or FLF for "Frégate Légère Furtive") is a class of general purpose frigates built by DCNS and operated by the French Navy. Derivatives of the type are in service in the navies of Saudi Arabia, Singapore and Taiwan.

Třída La Fayette je třída fregat francouzského námořnictva. Skládá se z pěti jednotek – "Fayette", "Surcouf", "Courbet", "Aconit" a "Guépratte". Další fregaty tohoto typu doposud zakoupily ještě Čínská republika, Singapur a Saúdská Arábie. Námořnictvo Čínské republiky vlastní šest lodí třídy "Kang Ding", singapurské námořnictvo získalo šest lodí třídy "Formidable" a konečně saúdské královské námořnictvo zakoupilo tři fregaty třídy "Al Riyadh". Celkem tak bylo postaveno 20 fregat této třídy.