Design and construction.

Designed by Ole Aanderud Larsen, "Endurance" was built at the Framnæs shipyard in Sandefjord, Norway, and fully completed on 17 December 1912. She was built under the supervision of master wood shipbuilder Christian Jacobsen, who was renowned for insisting that all men in his employment were not just skilled shipwrights but also be experienced in seafaring aboard whaling or sealing ships. Every detail of her construction had been scrupulously planned to ensure maximum durability: for example, every joint and fitting was cross-braced for maximum strength.  The ship was launched on 17 December 1912 and was initially christened "Polaris" (eponymous with Polaris, the North Star). She was long, with a beam, and measured 348 tons gross. Her original purpose to provide luxurious accommodation for small tourist and hunting parties in the Arctic as an ice-capable steam yacht. As launched she had 10 passenger cabins, a spacious dining saloon and galley (with accommodation for two cooks), a smoking room, a darkroom to allow passengers to develop photographs, electric lighting and even a small bathroom.  Though her hull looked from the outside like that of any other vessel of a comparable size, it was not. She was designed for polar conditions with a very sturdy construction. Her keel members were four pieces of solid oak, one above the other, adding up to a thickness of, while its sides were between and thick, with twice as many frames as normal and the frames being of double thickness. She was built of planks of oak and Norwegian fir up to thick, sheathed in greenheart, an exceptionally strong and heavy wood. The bow, which would meet the ice head-on, had been given special attention. Each timber had been made from a single oak tree chosen for its shape so that its natural shape followed the curve of the ship's design. When put together, these pieces had a thickness of. Of her three masts, the forward one was square-rigged, while the after two carried fore and aft sails, like a schooner. As well as sails, "Endurance" had a coal-fired steam engine capable of speeds up to.  By the time of her launch in 1912, "Endurance" was perhaps the strongest wooden ship ever built, with the possible exception of "Fram", the vessel used by Fridtjof Nansen and later by Roald Amundsen. There was one major difference between the ships. "Fram" was bowl-bottomed, which meant that if the ice closed in against her, the ship would be squeezed up and out and not be subject to the pressure of the ice compressing around her. "Endurance", on the other hand, was designed with great inherent strength in her hull in order to resist collision with ice floes and to break through pack ice by ramming and crushing; she was therefore not intended to be frozen into heavy pack ice, and so was not designed to rise out of a crush. In such a situation she was dependent on the ultimate strength of her hull alone.

Ownership.

"Endurance" was originally built for Adrien de Gerlache and Lars Christensen, who intended to use her for polar cruises for tourists to hunt polar bears. Financial problems led to Gerlache pulling out of their partnership, leaving Christensen unable to pay the Framnæs yard the final amounts to hand over and outfit the ship. For over a year Christensen attempted unsuccessfully to sell the ship, since her unique design as an ice-capable passenger-carrying ship, with relatively little space for stores and no cargo hold, made her useless to the whaling industry. Meanwhile, she was too big, slow and uncomfortable to be a private steam yacht. In the event, Christensen was happy to sell the ship to Ernest Shackleton for GB£11,600, which represented a significant loss to Christensen as it barely covered the outstanding payments to Framnæs, let alone the ship's total build costs. He is reported to have said he was happy to take the loss in order to further the plans of an explorer of Shackleton's stature. After Shackleton purchased the ship, she was rechristened "Endurance" after the Shackleton family motto, "Fortitudine vincimus" ("By endurance we conquer").  Shackleton had the ship relocated from Norway to London. She arrived at the Millwall Dock in the spring of 1914, where she was refitted and modified for expedition purposes. She was stripped of most of her luxurious accommodation and fittings. This included removing many of the passenger cabins to make room for space for stores and equipment, while the crew cabins on the lower deck were removed and converted into a cargo hold – the reduced crew of sailors that Shackleton would take on the expedition would make their quarters in the cramped forecastle. The darkroom remained in its original location ahead of the boiler. The refit also saw the ship repainted from her original white color to a more austere black, which was more visible amongst ice, and features such as gilt scrollwork on the bow and stern were painted over. Despite her change of name, she retained a large badge in the shape of a five-pointed star on her stern, which originally symbolized her name after the pole star.  Her new equipment included four ship's boats. Two were transom-built rowing cutters purchased secondhand from the whaling industry. The third was a larger double-ended rowing whaleboat built for the expedition to specifications drawn up by Frank Worsley, "Endurance"s new captain. The fourth was a smaller motorboat. After her refit, "Endurance" made the short coastal journey to Plymouth.  In the previous 16 years, nearly two dozen wooden vessels had sailed to the icy seas of the far south. All had returned home but "Aurora". Lloyd's of London and the Indemnity Marine Assurance Company had underwritten her hull, machinery and equipment for £15,000. Just before she sailed, "The Times" had reported that "Hitherto the insurance of vessels taking part in Antarctic exploration has ceased at the last port touched, and "Endurance" will be the first vessel to be insured in the ice zone." "The Times" praised "Endurance" as "built specially for work in Polar seas", adding that "in an ice-coated sea there can be no turbulent waves which are the causes of so many disasters in warmer zones."

Final voyage.

"Endurance" sailed from Plymouth on 6 August 1914 and set course for Buenos Aires, Argentina, under Worsley's command. Shackleton remained in Britain, finalising the expedition's organization and attending to some last-minute fundraising. This was "Endurance"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s first major voyage following its completion and amounted to a shakedown voyage. The trip across the Atlantic took more than two months. Built for the ice, her hull was considered by many of her crew too rounded for the open ocean. Shackleton took a steamer to Buenos Aires and caught up with his expedition a few days after "Endurance"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s arrival.  On 26 October 1914, "Endurance" sailed from Buenos Aires to what would be her last port of call, the whaling station at Grytviken on the island of South Georgia, where she arrived on 5 November. She left Grytviken on 5 December 1914, heading for the southern regions of the Weddell Sea.  Two days after leaving South Georgia, "Endurance" encountered polar pack ice and progress slowed to a crawl. For weeks "Endurance" worked its way through the pack, averaging less than per day. By 15 January 1915, "Endurance" was within of her destination, Vahsel Bay. By the following morning, heavy pack ice was sighted and in the afternoon a gale developed. Under these conditions it was soon evident progress could not be made, and "Endurance" took shelter under the lee of a large grounded iceberg. During the next two days, "Endurance" moved back and forth under the sheltering protection of the berg.  On 18 January, the gale began to moderate and "Endurance" set the topsail with the engine at slow. The pack had blown away. Progress was made slowly until hours later "Endurance" encountered the pack once more. It was decided to move forward and work through the pack, and at 5:00 PM "Endurance" entered it. This ice was different from what had been encountered before, and the ship was soon amongst thick but soft brash ice, and became beset. The gale increased in intensity and kept blowing for another six days from a northerly direction towards land. By 24 January, the wind had completely compressed the ice in the Weddell Sea against the land, leaving "Endurance" icebound as far as the eye could see in every direction. All that could be done was to wait for a southerly gale to start pushing in the other direction, which would decompress and open the ice.  In the early morning of 24 January, a wide crack appeared in the ice ahead of the ship. Initially across, by mid-morning the break was over a quarter of a mile (0.4 km) wide, giving the men on the "Endurance" hope that the ice was breaking up. But the break never reached the ship itself, and despite three hours under full sail and full speed on the engine, the ship did not budge. Over the next days, the crew waited for the southerly gale to release the pressure on the ice, but while the wind backed to the hoped-for south/southwest direction, it remained light and erratic. Occasional breaks in the ice were spotted, but none reached the ship and all closed up within a few hours. Trials were made on January 27 with cutting and breaking the ice around the ship by manual labour but this proved futile.  On 14 February, an open channel of water opened up a quarter of a mile (0.4 km) ahead of the ship and dawn showed the "Endurance" was afloat in a pool of soft, young ice no more than thick, but the pool was surrounded by solid pack ice of in thickness, blocking the path to the open lead. A day's continual work by the crew saw them hack a clear channel long. This work continued through the following day (15 February) and, with steam raised, the "Endurance" was backed up within her pool as far as possible to allow the ship to ram her way through the channel. As the ship went astern for successive attempts, lines were attached from the bow to loosened blocks of ice, estimated to weigh 20 tons (18 tonnes), in order to clear the path. The pool proved too small for the ship to gain enough momentum to successfully ram her way clear and by the end of the day the ice began to freeze up again. By 3:00 PM, the "Endurance" had made of distance through the ice, with still to go to clear water. Shackleton decided that the consumption of coal and manpower, and the risk of damage to the ship, was too great and called a halt.

Drift.

After this frustration, "Endurance"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s boilers were extinguished, committing the ship to drift with the ice until released naturally. On 17 February, the sun dipped below the horizon at midnight, showing the end of the Antarctic summer. On 24 February, regular watches on the ship were cancelled, with the "Endurance" now functioning as a shore station. The ship had slowly drifted south and at this point was within of the intended landing point at Vahsel Bay. But the icy terrain between the ship and the shore was too arduous to travel while carrying the materials and supplies needed for the overland expedition.  By March, navigational observation showed that the ship (and the mass of pack ice that contained it) was still moving, but now swinging towards the west-northwest and increasing in the speed of its drift, moving between the start of March and May 2, when the sun disappeared below the horizon and the dark Antarctic winter began. Still the men on the ship hoped for either a change in the weather which would break up the pack or that, by the spring, the warmer weather and the ship's northward drift would mean it was released.  On 14 July 1915, "Endurance" was swept by a southwest gale, with wind speeds of, a barometer reading of and temperatures falling to. The blizzard continued until 16 July. This broke up the pack ice into smaller, individual floes, each of which began to move semi-independently under the force of the weather, while also clearing water in the north of the Weddell Sea. This provided a long fetch for the south-setting wind to blow over and then for the broken ice to pile up against itself while individual parts moved in different directions. This caused regions of intense localised pressure in the ice field. The ice began "working", with sounds of breaking and colliding ice audible to those on the ship through the next day. Breaks in the ice were spotted but none approached the ice holding the "Endurance".  During July the ship drifted a further to the north. On the morning of 1 August, a pressure wave passed through the floe holding the ship, lifting the 400-ton "Endurance" bodily upwards and heeling the ship sharply to its port side before it dropped into a pool of water, afloat again for the first time in nearly six months. The broken sections of floe closed in around the ship on all sides, jarring the "Endurance" forward, backwards and sideways in violent fashion against the other slabs of ice. After over a quarter of an hour, a force from astern pushed the ship's bow up onto the floe, lifting the hull out of the pressure and with a list of five degrees to her port side. A gale overnight further disturbed the floe, driving it against the starboard side of the hull and forcing a sheet of ice upwards at a 45-degree angle until it reached the level of the scuppers. Despite the ordeal of the past few days the ship remained undamaged.  Two pressure waves struck the ship on 29 August without incident. On the evening of 31 August, a slow-building pressure gripped the "Endurance", causing her hull and timbers to creak and shudder continuously. The ice around the ship moved and broke throughout the night, battering the port side of the hull. All was quiet again until the afternoon of 30 September, by which time there were signs of spring with ten hours of sunlight per day and occasional temperature readings above freezing. A large floe was swept against the "Endurance"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s port bow and then gripped that side of the ship against the built-up ice and snow on her starboard beam. The ship's structure groaned and wracked under the strain. Carpenter Harry McNish noted that the solid oak beams supporting the upper deck were being visibly bent "like a piece of cane". On deck the ship's masts were whipping back and forth as their stepping points on the keel were distorted. Despite these disconcerting signs, Captain Frank Worsley noted that the strength of the ship's structure was causing the ice itself to break up as it piled against the hull – "...just as it appears she can stand no more, the huge floe weighing possibly a million tons or more yields to our little ship by cracking across...and so relieves the pressure. The behaviour of our ship in the ice has been magnificent. Undoubtedly she is the finest little wooden vessel ever built..." Despite this, the ship's decks were permanently buckled following this ordeal.

Final destruction.

By October, temperatures of nearly were recorded and the ice showed further signs of opening up. The floe which had been jammed against the ship's starboard side since July broke up on 14 October, casting the "Endurance" afloat in a pool of open water for the first time in nine months.  On 16 October, Shackleton ordered steam to be raised so the ship could take advantage of any openings in the ice. It took nearly four hours for the boilers to be filled with freshwater melted from ice, and then a leak was discovered in one of the fittings and they had to be pumped out, repaired and then refilled. The following day a lead of open water was seen ahead of the ship. Only one boiler had been lit and there was insufficient steam to use the engine, so all the sails were set to try and force the ship into the loosening pack ice but without success.  In the late afternoon of 18 October, the ice closed in around the "Endurance" once again. In just five seconds the ship was canted over to port by 20 degrees, and the list continued until she rested at 30 degrees, with the port bulwark resting on the pack and the boats on that side nearly touching the ice as they hung in their davits. This put the ship in a seemingly safe position – instead of being pinched between two opposing masses of ice the "Endurance" had been pushed from starboard to port and further pressure from starboard would push her bodily upwards over the top of the port-side floe, which had actually collided with its counterpart under the ship's bilge. In any case, after four hours in this position, the ice drew apart and the ship returned to a level keel.  The ice was relatively still for the rest of the month. On 20 October, steam was raised again and the engines tested. On 22 October, the temperature dropped sharply from to and the wind veered from southwest to northeast. This caused the loosening pack to compress against the Antarctic coast once again. On 23 October, pressure ridges could be seen forming in the ice and moving near the ship. The next day a series of pressure waves struck the "Endurance", causing the ice around the ship to fracture into separate large pieces which were then tumbled and turned in all directions. The ship was shunted back and forth before being pinched against two floes on her starboard side, one at her bow and one at her stern, while on the port side a floe impacted amidships, setting up a huge bending force on the hull. Parts of the rigging were snapped under the strain.  A large mass of ice slammed into the stern, tearing the sternpost away from the hull planking. Around the same time the bow planking was stove in, causing simultaneous flooding in the engine room and the forward hold. Despite using both the portable manual pumps and getting up steam to drive the main bilge pumps, the water level continued to rise. The main man-powered deck pumps did not work as their intakes had frozen and could only be restored by pouring buckets of boiling water onto the pump pipes from inside the coal bunkers and then playing a blowtorch over the intake valve. McNish constructed a cofferdam in the shaft tunnel to seal off the damaged stern area while the crew were arranged in spells of 15 minutes on, 15 minutes off on the main pump. After 28 hours of continuous work, the inflow of water had only been arrested – the ship was still badly flooded.  On 24 October, the damaged ship was wracked by further pressure waves. The port-side floe was pressed more heavily against the side, warping the keel along its length and causing near-continual creaks, groans, cracks and "screams" from the ship's timbers. The footplates in the engine room were pushed up and would no longer sit in place as the compartment was compressed. The planking of the ship's port side was bowing inwards by up to. At 10 PM, Shackleton ordered the ship's boats, stores and essential equipment to be moved onto the surrounding ice.  In the afternoon of 25 October, the pressure of the ice increased further. The main deck of the "Endurance" buckled upwards amidships and the beams sheared. As the ice moved against her stern, the aft part of the ship was lifted up and the damaged sternpost and the rudder were torn away. This angle caused all the water in the ship to run forward, collecting in the bow where it then began to freeze. The action of the ice in the stern and the excessive weight in the bow caused the ship to sink into the ice bow-first. Under its own pressure, the ice then broke over the forecastle and piled up onto the deck in the forward part of the ship, further weighing this end of the ship down. Through all of this, the pumping operations had continued, but by the end of the day Shackleton ordered this to stop and for the men to take to the ice.  During the course of the next day, parties were sent back to the ship to recover more supplies and stores. They found that the entire port side of the "Endurance" had been driven inwards and compressed, and the ice had entirely filled the bow and stern sections. The ship's Blue Ensign was hoisted up her mizzen mast so that she would, in Shackleton's word's, "go down with colours flying."  After a failed attempt to man-haul the boats and stores overland on sledges, Shackleton realised the effort was much too intense and that the party would have to camp on the ice until it carried them to the north and broke up. More parties were sent back to the "Endurance", still with her masts and rigging intact and all but her bow above the ice, to salvage any remaining items. A large portion of provisions had been left on the submerged lower deck. The only way to retrieve them was to cut through the main deck, which was more than a foot thick in places and itself under three feet of water. Some crates and boxes floated up once a hole had been cut, while others were retrieved with a grapple. In total, nearly 3.5 tons of stores were recovered from the wrecked ship.  The party was still camped under from the remains of the "Endurance" on 8 November when Shackleton returned to the ship to consider further salvage. By now the ship had sunk a further into the ice and the upper deck was now almost level with the ice. The interior of the ship was almost full of compacted ice and snow, making further work impossible. The damage to the bow and stern, and the force of the ice against the port side, had caused a large portion of the hull on that side of the ship to break free of the rest of the ship and, under the force of the ice, be moved bodily inwards in a telescoping effect. In some places, the outer hull planks were now in line with the keel. A stash of empty fuel oil cans placed against the port side wall of the deckhouse had been pushed through the wall and then the cans and the wall had come to rest against its counterpart on the starboard side of the deckhouse. The row of five cabins that had been on the port side of the main deck above the engine room and their contents had been compressed into the space of a single cabin. On 13 November, a new pressure wave swept through the pack ice. The forward topgallant mast and topmasts collapsed as the bow was finally crushed. These moments were recorded on film by expedition photographer Frank Hurley. The mainmast was split near its base and shortly afterwards the mainmast and the mizzen mast broke and collapsed together, with this also filmed by Hurley. The ensign was re-rigged on the tip of one of the foremast yardarms which, constrained by the rigging, was now hanging vertically from the remains of the foremast and was the highest point of the wreck.  In the late afternoon of 21 November, movement of the remaining wreckage was noticed as another pressure wave hit. Within the space of a minute, the stern of the "Endurance" was lifted clear of the ice as the floes moved together and then, as the pressure passed and they moved apart, the entire wreck fell into the ocean. By daylight the following day, the ice surrounding the spot where the "Endurance" had sank had moved together again, obliterating any trace of the wreck. Worsley fixed the position as 68° 38.5'S 52° 58'W.

Crew.

The crew of "Endurance" on her final voyage was made up of the 28 men listed below:

Nationalities.

All crew members were born and resident in England before the expedition, except for the following:  Perce Blackborow was originally refused a post aboard the vessel due to his young age and inexperience, and instead decided to stowaway with help from his friend William Bakewell and Walter How. When his presence aboard the "Endurance" was discovered, Shackleton decided to make him a steward rather than leave him ashore at South Georgia. Blackborow eventually proved his worth, earning the Bronze Polar Medal, and the honour of becoming the first human being ever to set foot on Elephant Island. His name is also the matter of some debate—it is sometimes spelled Percy, or Blackboro, or in other ways.

Supposed advertisement.

To find crew for the "Endurance", Shackleton reportedly placed an advertisement in the London "Times", reading:  When discussing the advertisement in the 1944 book "Quit You like Men", Carl Hopkins Elmore quoted Shackleton as saying that "so overwhelming was the response to his appeal that it seemed as though all the men of Great Britain were determined to accompany him." Although the advertisement was listed in Julian Watkins' "The 100 Greatest Advertisements: 1852-1958", no trace has been found to date. Many sources have concluded that the story of Shackleton's advertisement is likely apocryphal. The crew did receive the recognition the advertisement promised; "Time Magazine" has deemed their voyage "the most storied epic of survival".

Legacy.

American journalist Alfred Lansing's book "", first published in 1959, described the ordeal that Shackleton and his men endured aboard the ship and quickly became a bestseller.  Two Antarctic patrol ships of the British Royal Navy have been named "Endurance" in honour of Shackleton's ship. The first, launched in May 1956 and awarded pennant number A171 sometime later, acted as an ice patrol and hydrographic survey ship until 1986. The second was bought from Norway in 1992 where she was named MV "Polar Circle". She suffered severe flooding in 2008 due to procedural errors during maintenance and, despite being returned to the UK, was not repaired prior to being scrapped in 2016.

Wreck of the "Endurance".

In 1998, wreckage found at Stinker Point on the southwestern side of Elephant Island was incorrectly identified as flotsam from the ship. It instead was from the 1877 wreck of the Connecticut sealing ship "Charles Shearer". In 2001, wreck hunter David Mearns unsuccessfully planned an expedition to find the wreck of "Endurance". By 2003, two rival groups were making plans for an expedition to find the wreck, but no expedition was actually mounted.  In 2010, Mearns announced a new plan to search for the wreck. The plan is sponsored by the National Geographic Society but is subject to finding sponsorship for the balance of the US$10 million estimated cost. A 2013 study by Dr. Adrian Glover of the Natural History Museum, London suggests the Antarctic Circumpolar Current could preserve the wreck on the seabed by keeping wood-boring "ship worms" away. A Weddell Sea Expedition to locate and possibly photograph the wreck using long-range Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV) was underway in the Antarctic summer of 2018–2019. This expedition failed when the researchers' AUV was lost to the ice as well. The wreck itself is speculated to rest on flat terrain at around 3,000 metres, undisturbed by massive sediment disposition and little to no erosion. According to Professor Julian Dowdeswell of the Scott Polar Research Institute, that due to the aforementioned conditions on the sea bed, there is speculation that the Endurance shouldn't be harmed and that it would be in the same state as it was when it sunk in the pack ice in 1915. He also noted that any future attempts at finding the Endurance would be "add-ons" to other main scientific expeditions to the area such as the one in 2019, which was launched with the intention to study the melting and retreat of the Larsen ice shelves.

Endurance was the three-masted barquentine in which Sir Ernest Shackleton and a crew of 27 men sailed for the Antarctic on the 1914–1917 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. She was launched in 1912 from Sandefjord in Norway; three years later, she was crushed by pack ice and sank in the Weddell Sea off Antarctica. All of her crew survived.

Endurance ("Vytrvalost") byla třístěžňová barkentina, se kterou roku 1914 do Antakrtidy odplula Shackletonova expedice, aby se pokusila o překročení Antarktidy. Dne 21. listopadu 1915 byla rozdrcena ledem ve Weddellově moři.


History.

In 1713, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz suggested to establish an Academy, inspired by the Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences. The "Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien" was finally established by Imperial Patent on 14 May 1847. The academy soon began extensive research. In the humanities the academy started with researching and publishing important historical sources of Austria. Research in natural science also covered a wide variety of topics.  The 1921 federal law guaranteed the legal basis of the academy in the newly founded First Austrian Republic. From the mid-1960s onwards it became the country's leading institution in the field of non-university basic research.  The academy is also a learned society, and its past members have included Theodor Billroth, Ludwig Boltzmann, Christian Doppler, Anton Eiselsberg, Otto Hittmair, Paul Kretschmer, Hans Horst Meyer, Albert Anton von Muchar, Julius von Schlosser, Roland Scholl, Eduard Suess and the Nobel Prize winners Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Victor Francis Hess, Erwin Schrödinger and Konrad Lorenz.

Research facilities.

The academy operates 28 research institutes. In 2012, a reorganization prompted the outsourcing of various institutes to universities as well as mergers. The academy's institutes are split into two major divisions, one for mathematics and natural sciences ("mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Klasse") and one for humanities and social sciences ("philosophisch-historische Klasse").  In the field of humanities, there are the Institute for the Study of Ancient Culture, which is well known for the analysis of excavation results in Carnuntum and Ephesos, the Institute for Interdisciplinary Mountain Research, focusing on montology, the Institute of Culture Studies and Theatre History, and the Vienna Institute of Demography, among others.  Facilities that focus on natural sciences include the Institute of Molecular Biotechnology (which is operated in cooperation with Boehringer Ingelheim), the Gregor Mendel Institute, the Institute of Molecular Biology, Salzburg, the Johann Radon Institute for Computational and Applied Mathematics (RICAM), Linz, the Research Center for Molecular Medicine, the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information, the Acoustics Research Institute and the Space Research Institute.

Gallery of Research.

During his term as president of the academy (1991–2003), Werner Welzig initiated the establishment of the Galerie der Forschung (English: Gallery of Research). In 2005 the Gallery organised its pilot event "Mapping controversies: the case of the genetically modified food", which was staged in the Alte Aula in Vienna.

Publications.

The academy publishes "Medieval Worlds: Comparative & Interdisciplinary Studies", a biannual peer-reviewed open access academic journal covering Medieval studies. Its main scope is the time period from roughly 400 to 1500 CE, with a focus on Europe, Asia, and North Africa. The founding editors-in-chief are Walter Pohl and Andre Gingrich. The journal was established in 2015 with initial funding of the Austrian Science Fund.  Other publications are the "Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum" and "eco.mont – Journal on Protected Mountain Areas Research and Management".

The Austrian Academy of Sciences () is a legal entity under the special protection of the Republic of Austria. According to the statutes of the Academy its mission is to promote the sciences and humanities in every respect and in every field, particularly in fundamental research.

Rakouská akademie věd (, zkráceně "ÖAW") je největší vědeckou institucí neuniverzitního typu v Rakousku. Byla založena roku 1847 jako "Císařská akademie věd ve Vídni" (německy "Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien"). Od svého vzniku sídlí ve Vídni, ale v současnosti působí i v dalších rakouských městech. K Akademii patří více než 25 odborných ústavů ve dvou třídách: matematicko-přírodovědné a filosoficko-historické. Roční rozpočet v roce 2012 činil 97 milionů eur, od roku 2013 je jejím předsedou Anton Zeilinger.


Design.

Sombreros, like the cowboy hats invented later, were designed in response to the demands of the physical environment. The concept of a broad-brimmed hat worn by a rider on horseback can be seen as far back as the Mongolian horsemen of the 13th century. In hot, sunny climates hats evolved to have wide brims, which provided shade. The exact origin of the Mexican sombrero is unknown, but it is usually accepted that the hat originated with Mestizo cowboys in Central Mexico. Although "sombrero" is usually taken to refer to the traditional Mexican headwear, the term "sombrero" predates this item of clothing, and is and has been applied to several differing styles of hat, since it is simply the word for hat in Spanish. Other types of hats known as "sombrero" can be found in South America and Spain, including the "sombrero calañés, sombrero cordobés" and "sombrero de catite" (Spain)", sombrero vueltiao" (Colombia).

Cultural influence.

Many early Texan cowboys adopted the Spanish and Mexican sombrero with its flat crown and wide, flat brim. Also called the these hats came from Spain.  The Mexican variation of the sombrero added an even wider brim and a high, conical crown. These are the hats worn by mariachi musicians and Both types of sombreros usually include a or chin strap.  In the Western United States, the sombrero had a high conical or cylindrical crown with a saucer-shaped brim, highly embroidered and made of plush felt.  In the Philippines, due to the influence from Spain brought about by the Manila galleon trade, the term has been assimilated into the Tagalog language in the form of and now refers to any hat – from actual sombreros to baseball caps.  The galaxy Messier 104 is known as the Sombrero Galaxy due to its appearance. Similarly, Tampa Stadium was also known as "The Big Sombrero."

Sombrero (; Spanish for "hat", literally "shadower") in English refers to a type of wide-brimmed hat from Mexico, used to shield from the sun. Known as a Sombrero de Charro in Spanish, it usually has a high pointed crown, an extra-wide brim (broad enough to cast a shadow over the head, neck and shoulders of the wearer) that's slightly upturned at the edge, and a chin strap to hold it in place. In Spanish, sombrero refers to any wide-brimmed hat.

Sombrero je klobouk, který tvoří součást mexického lidového kroje. Vyznačuje se vysokou kuželovou střechou a širokou krempou, která může měřit až přes půl metru a na okrajích bývá zvednutá. Zhotovuje se z pšeničné slámy nebo palmových vláken, dražší typy bývají z plsti, nejčastěji černé barvy. Sombrera bývají zpravidla zdobená pestrobarevnými výšivkami, stuhami nebo korálky. Pro uchycení klobouku pod bradou slouží šňůra nazývaná "barboquejo".


History.

Formation, early years and "Remission" (2000–2003).

Mastodon was formed on January 13, 2000, after drummer Brann Dailor and guitarist Bill Kelliher moved to Atlanta from Victor, New York, and met bassist/singer Troy Sanders and guitarist/singer Brent Hinds at a High on Fire show. They discovered they had a mutual appreciation of sludge metal bands Melvins and Neurosis, heavy metal legends Iron Maiden, and 1970s hard rockers Thin Lizzy, and shortly thereafter formed Mastodon. In an interview in 2009, Kelliher revealed that the first time Hinds attended a practice with the band, he "showed up so wasted he couldn't play".  The band recorded a demo in 2000, which featured Eric Saner on vocals. Saner left the band for personal reasons after just a couple of months. After recording a four-song demo and a 7-inch picture disc through Reptilian Records, Mastodon landed a record deal with Relapse Records in 2001. Mastodon released the EP "Lifesblood" in 2001, and its first full-length album, "Remission", in 2002, with the singles "March of the Fire Ants" and "Crusher/Destroyer" (which was also featured on "Tony Hawk's Underground"). On each of Mastodon's first three full-length albums, the last track was an instrumental composition with a title that related to the Elephant Man.

"Leviathan" and "Call of the Mastodon" (2004–2005).

The band's second full-length album, "Leviathan", was released in 2004. It is a concept album loosely based on Herman Melville's novel "Moby-Dick". The band received critical acclaim for "Leviathan" and the record was named album of the year by "Kerrang!" and "Terrorizer". "Blood and Thunder," which featured Clutch vocalist Neil Fallon, was chosen as one of the most important recordings of the decade by National Public Radio in November 2009, and that the entire album epitomizes " a phenomenal decade for metal". "Leviathan" also ranked second in a list by "Metal Hammer" of the best albums of 2004.  The band went on tour in support of the album, playing throughout North America and Europe in The Unholy Alliance tour along with Slayer and Lamb of God and later on with Slipknot.  "Iron Tusk", the fifth track on the album, can be found on the soundtrack of the skateboarding video game "Tony Hawk's American Wasteland" and in 2K Sports video game "NHL 2K9". "Blood and Thunder" is featured in the video games "", "Project Gotham Racing 3", and "Saints Row." "Blood and Thunder" was added as a playable track on all instruments in "" and was featured in Japanese music games "Drummania V2" and "Guitarfreaks V2". It has also been released as downloadable content for "Rock Band 3", with Pro Guitar support also available at extra cost.  "Leviathan" was followed by the 2006 release of "Call of the Mastodon", a remastered collection of the band's first nine songs, and a DVD of interviews and concert footage called "The Workhorse Chronicles" that includes material from the band's early days as a five-piece. The band has stated that they consider ""Call of the Mastodon"" to be their first studio album even though it was the third to be released. These two releases were the band's last for Relapse Records, as they would later go on to sign with Warner Bros. Mastodon also recorded a cover version of Metallica's "Orion" for a 2006 "Kerrang!" tribute album marking the twentieth anniversary of the release of "Master of Puppets".

"Blood Mountain" (2006–2008).

Their third studio album, "Blood Mountain", was released on September 12, 2006, followed by a tour to support the album along with Tool in Europe and Slayer in Australia and New Zealand. The Mars Volta frontman Cedric Bixler-Zavala lent his vocals to the track "Siberian Divide". Queens of the Stone Age frontman Josh Homme contributed vocals for the song "Colony of Birchmen". The band performed the song "Colony of Birchmen" on NBC's "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" on November 1, their first appearance on network television, to a viewing audience of around 2.4 million people. This song was also featured in the video games "Saints Row 2" and "Rock Band 2".  The band's first single off "Blood Mountain", "Capillarian Crest," was ranked number 27 in "Rolling Stone" Magazine's Top 100 Songs of 2006. The album itself was ranked 9th in the magazine's best albums of the year chart. The UK's "Metal Hammer" voted it the best album of 2006 in its end of year critic's poll. The album was voted in at No. 5 by "Kerrang!" in their end of year list, No. 6 on PopMatters' Best Albums of 2006, and No. 1 on The Best Metal Albums of 2006. About.com rated it the top metal album of 2006. "Blood Mountain" was also named best album of 2006 in the 10th anniversary birthday edition (issue 119) of "Bizarre". It also came in at No. 2 on Revolver magazine's list of the top albums of 2006. The band was named Artist Of The Month for March 2007 at Gametap.com.  The band had been touring and playing numerous shows during this time. Mastodon joined Against Me!, and Cursive for a North American tour, with Planes Mistaken for Stars opening for one leg and These Arms Are Snakes the other. A performance in Milwaukee had to be canceled due to illness on the part of Brent Hinds. Mastodon would play the Hove Festival in Norway as well as on the Main Stage of the Download Festival and then the Pitchfork Music Festival. During this time the band opened for Metallica on the Sick of the Studio tour. The band also played at the 2007 Dubai Desert Rock, the 2008 Bonnaroo Music festivals, and the inaugural Mayhem Festival. Mastodon then toured with Slayer, Trivium, Lamb of God and several other metal bands in 2008 for The Unholy Alliance tour 2008.  The band performed "Colony of Birchmen" at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards live with Josh Homme. After the televised performance, Brent Hinds was reported to have sustained a severe head injury. Blabbermouth.net initially reported that it was the result of a brutal assault, but the police report later suggested that an inebriated Hinds had started a fight with System of a Down bassist Shavo Odadjian and vocalist William Hudson, also known as Reverend William Burke of Achozen.  "Sleeping Giant" was made available as a downloadable song for "", "Colony of Birchmen" was included on Harmonix's "Rock Band 2" and also volition's Saints row 2, and "Divinations" was featured in "Madden NFL 10" and "". Mastodon contributed a cover version of Harry Nilsson's "One" to the video game "Army of Two"s advertisement campaign. The band members are fans of "Aqua Teen Hunger Force" and in 2007, Mastodon performed the opening song of "Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters", "Cut You Up with a Linoleum Knife".

"Crack the Skye" and "Live at the Aragon" (2009–2010).

"Crack the Skye" was released on March 24, 2009, as a normal version and a deluxe version (which includes all songs in instrumental versions as well as their normal versions) and entered the Billboard 200 at number 11 a week later. The album is produced by Brendan O'Brien and Scott Kelly of Neurosis returns as a guest musician on the title-track. In a MusicRadar interview, guitarist Bill Kelliher confirmed the album is about an "out-of-body experience", and looks at the concepts of astral travel, wormholes, Stephen Hawking's theories and the spiritual realm. The album follows a quadriplegic who learns astral projection. On his journey he flies too close to the sun, burning his umbilical cord which connects him to his body, and flies into oblivion. At the same time in Czarist Russia, Rasputin and his cult were channeling spirits and brought the quadriplegic to their time. He explains his situation and foretells the assassination of Rasputin. Inevitably Rasputin is assassinated and Rasputin guides him back to his body. The band had debuted three new tracks at the Bonnaroo Music Festival, but did not play any more live shows before the album's release, due to fears of internet distribution and wanting to play the songs to the right audience. Drummer Brann Dailor sings lead vocals for the verses of the song "Oblivion". Mastodon was a headliner at the Scion Rock Fest on February 28, 2009, performing a set containing three tracks from "Crack the Skye", the first time these songs were played since being finalized and recorded. On May 15, 2009, Mastodon performed a shortened version of "Oblivion" on the "Late Show with David Letterman". In order to support their new album, Mastodon toured with Metallica on the latter part of the 2009 European leg of their World Magnetic Tour. In Fall of 2009, they embarked with Dethklok on the "Adult Swim Presents" tour along with Converge and High on Fire. On October 17, 2009, they recorded a DVD documenting the tour at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago. Mastodon played the alternative music festival Big Day Out, touring across Australia and New Zealand in January and February 2010.  On October 29, 2009, they performed "Divinations" on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon".  On November 4, 2009, Mastodon released their second EP, entitled "Oblivion".  Teaming up with bands Deftones and Alice in Chains, Mastodon went on tour in September 2010 in the United States and Canada. The tour was called Blackdiamondskye, a portmanteau of the three bands' latest albums ("Black Gives Way to Blue", "Diamond Eyes", and "Crack the Skye").  Film director Jimmy Hayward contacted the band during their 2009 tour of Europe and expressed how much listening to "Blood Mountain" had helped his creative process while finishing a screenplay, and he offered Mastodon a chance to score the film he had been working on - "Jonah Hex". In an interview with "Paste" magazine, bassist Troy Sanders said that Hayward "called us out of the blue as a fan. It was the most beautiful, authentic way to collaborate." Mastodon used scenes from the film as inspiration during the writing and recording process, and the instrumental soundtrack, "", was released on June 29, 2010, through Reprise Records.  In 2010, the band was confirmed as being part of the soundtrack for Namco Bandai Games' 2010 remake of Splatterhouse. The game's protagonist can also be seen wearing a Mastodon T-shirt in certain flashback cutscenes.  On March 15, 2011, Mastodon released their first live DVD/CD entitled "Live at the Aragon" through Reprise. The recording features the entire performance of their fourth studio album, "Crack the Skye", along with songs from their previous records.

"The Hunter" (2011–2012).

"The Hunter", Mastodon's fifth studio album, was recorded at Doppler Studios in Atlanta with producer Mike Elizondo. The first hints of the new album were given by the band via Facebook in January 2011. Drummer Brann Dailor revealed during interviews the title of the band's new album and described the new material as not so much proggy as riff-oriented and "a little more stripped down".  Meanwhile, the band performed in many major summer festivals. On June 28, 2011, Mastodon released through Adultswim.com a leftover track from the "Crack the Skye" sessions called "Deathbound".  The first taste of "The Hunter" came in July 2011 where Mastodon released via YouTube the song "Black Tongue", set to a video of AJ Fosik creating the sculpture used for the album cover. By August 12, the band had revealed the track listing from "The Hunter" and debuted "Curl Of The Burl", the first official single from the new album. Mike Elizondo was chosen to produce the album which marks his first time working with the band. It was also announced that a deluxe edition would be released. It featured the two bonus tracks "The Ruiner" and "Deathbound" and a different cover.  On September 6, Mastodon released a third song from "The Hunter", "Spectrelight", featuring Scott Kelly of Neurosis.  On September 16, the band released a 53-minute custom visualizer with all of the album tracks, 11 days prior to the release of "The Hunter". In support of the album a North American headline tour was announced. The album was very well received by fans and the media. It also performed strongly on the official charts, rising to number ten on the "Billboard" 200. On October 5, 2011, they performed "Curl of the Burl" on the "Late Show with David Letterman".  On October 12, a UK tour was announced that will run through February 2012 with fellow bands The Dillinger Escape Plan and Red Fang as support acts. They were at "Later... with Jools Holland", where they performed "Black Tongue" and "Curl of the Burl". A seventeen-date European tour was announced that featured dates in Scandinavia, Germany, France, Spain, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, the Netherlands and Latvia.  On December 1, "Curl of the Burl" was nominated for a Grammy Award in the category Best Metal/Hard Rock performance. It is the band's second nomination with the first being for "Colony of Birchmen" in 2007.  The record was named "Album of the Year" by "Metal Hammer", "Classic Rock" and "Rock Sound".  In January 2012 it was announced that Mastodon and Swedish prog metal band Opeth will tour together in a joint tour across North America. It was named the "Heritage Hunter Tour" after both bands latest releases, "The Hunter" and "Heritage". The bands took turns in the headlining spot. Support came from the Swedish heavy metal band Ghost. On February 11, 2012, the band performed a sold-out show at the Brixton Academy in London, it was the band's biggest headline show ever. Dry Bone Valley" was released on February 13 as the third single of the album. A music video for the song was also released.  On April 21, 2012, to commemorate Record Store Day, Mastodon released two separate vinyls. The first was a split 7" with Feist titled "Feistodon". Mastodon covered Feist's "A Commotion" and Feist covered Mastodon's "Black Tongue". The pair also released a one of a kind interactive, crossfading music video for the song 'A Commotion'. The second release was a cover of The Flaming Lips' "A Spoonful Weighs a Ton".  The band spent the summer performing at festivals across Europe and South America. It was the last tour in support of "The Hunter".

"Once More 'Round the Sun" (2014–2015).

Mastodon began recording again in early 2013. Guitarist Brent Hinds described the new music as "really eerie" and "very spooky-sounding", and stated that he has written three new songs. On December 3, 2012, the band announced via their Twitter page that they were writing a song for the film "Monsters University". However, the song used in the film was the previously released "Island". They were also part of the 2013 Rockstar Energy Mayhem Festival. On May 6, 2013, the band stated that they are "...Very busy writing and putting songs together for the next studio Mastodon album..." In an interview on July 26, Brann Dailor was reported as saying that the band would "probably [go into the studio] end of September". The band also played at the 2014 Bonnaroo Music and Arts Festival. On February 27, Brann Dailor told in the interview that their sixth album would be released in summer of 2014, and he also stated that the band would release an EP in winter of 2014. Some of the confirmed tracks were: "Tread Lightly", "Buzzard's Guts", "Scent of Bitter Almonds", "High Road" and "Aunt Lisa".  In an interview with Troy Sanders in "Paste" magazine released on April 3, he revealed the album was called "Once More 'Round the Sun" and had 15 tracks. He also confirmed that Mastodon recorded 90 minutes of material, but only 60 minutes of it will be present on the album; the unreleased material possibly might be released on an EP later in 2014. A few more tracks that have been confirmed are: "Diamonds in the Witch House" (which has Scott Kelly from Neurosis on a guest vocal appearance), and "Ember City".  In an interview on April 11, Dailor revealed the album will be released in June.  On April 17, the first single "High Road" was made available for streaming.  On 26 April, Bill Kelliher revealed the title of the second single "Chimes at Midnight".  As of June 16, 2014, the entire album is streaming on iTunes.  The album was released on June 24, 2014 through Reprise Records. The album sold around 34,000 copies in the United States in its first week of release to land at position No. 6 on The Billboard 200 chart making it the band's first consecutive top 10 debut, with their previous album, "The Hunter", peaking at No.10 after opening with 39,000 copies in 2011.

"Emperor of Sand" and "Cold Dark Place" (2017–present).

On January 18, 2015, it was reported that Brent Hinds was working on a new Mastodon album, showing a picture with him playing the 13 string pedal steel. The same report was later confirmed by Troy Sanders, who stated: "Every record that we do is gonna sound different, because we always want to evolve and create our own musical path. And every record will be different. We do not wanna write the same record twice."  On March 12, 2015, Mastodon released a new track called "White Walker", which appears on the "Game of Thrones: Catch the Throne Vol. 2" mixtape to promote the fifth season of the HBO TV series "Game of Thrones". Dailor, Hinds, and Kelliher also appeared in episode 8 of the season as wildlings. This mixtape will also feature songs by various other acts, ranging from Killswitch Engage to Snoop Dogg. Hinds and Kelliher once again returned to Game of Thrones as wights among the White Walker army for the season 7 finale episode, "The Dragon and the Wolf".  The band's seventh studio album, "Emperor of Sand", was released on March 31, 2017. The theme for the album was cancer, inspired by Troy's wife who was diagnosed with cancer, and Bill's mother who lost her life to cancer. It details the story of a traveller banished to the desert by an emperor, in effect giving him a death sentence. The story is a metaphor for someone diagnosed with terminal cancer. The first single, "Show Yourself", was released in February, and had peaked at number 4 on the US "Billboard" Mainstream Rock Songs chart in June, making it the band's highest charting song to date. The second single, "Steambreather", peaked at number 18 on the same chart in October.  Mastodon also released an EP titled "Cold Dark Place" on September 22 of the same year. It was a four-song EP, featuring three songs recorded during the "Once More 'Round the Sun" sessions, and one track recorded during the "Emperor of Sand" sessions. The first single for the EP, "Toe to Toes" was released on September 1, 2017. Brent Hinds stated that the inspiration behind some of the songs recorded for "Cold Dark Place", which he wrote, were inspired by a nasty breakup that he had endured. Describing the sound of the record, Hinds stated that "I wrote some pretty dark, beautiful, spooky, funky, ethereal, melancholy music, which also sounds like the Bee Gees a little bit." On December 1, the band released a revised version of the 12-part "The Making of "Emperor of Sand"" documentary via their official YouTube channel. Mastodon were announced to be on a co-headlining Summer 2018 Tour with Primus spanning across North America lasting from May to July.

Characteristics.

Musical style.

Mastodon has been described as a heavy metal band, along with more specific genres such as progressive metal, sludge metal, alternative metal, stoner rock, psychedelic metal, experimental metal, and groove metal. James Christopher Monger of AllMusic describes Mastodon as "one of the more notable new wave of American heavy metal acts, a genre spawned in the mid-'90s" and says that "Mastodon's innovative, lyrically astute blend of progressive metal, grindcore, and hardcore helped position the band as one of the preeminent metal acts of the early 21st century."  Bassist Troy Sanders stated about their musical style:  Scott Kelly of Neurosis has appeared to perform guest vocals on a track on every Mastodon album excluding "Remission".  Mastodon's musical style has evolved much from their earliest pre-"Remission" releases to "The Hunter". Their early work is significantly heavier and more abrasive than their later work, primarily or exclusively using harsh vocals, more distorted instruments, and more atypical song structures; this is especially prominent in their earliest work. The release of Mastodon's third studio album "Blood Mountain", which incorporates both clean and harsh vocals, marked a shift in the vocal styles used, with subsequent albums favouring clean vocals almost exclusively.

Lyrical themes.

Over its first four albums, Mastodon had specific concepts in mind, specifically the classical elements of fire, water, earth, and aether.  "Remission" does not deal with a particular theme but it is loosely based on the theme of fire. Songs like "Crusher Destroyer", "Where Strides the Behemoth" and "Ol'e Nessie" deal with the theme of fictional creatures.  "Leviathan" is about the novel "Moby-Dick". It centers around the main characters and their thoughts during the story.  "Blood Mountain" is about a man who is searching for the "Crystal Skull", which is on top of the "Blood Mountain". According to bassist Troy Sanders, "It's about climbing up a mountain and the different things that can happen to you when you're stranded on a mountain, in the woods, and you're lost. You're starving, hallucinating, running into strange creatures. You're being hunted. It's about that whole struggle."  "Crack the Skye" deals with many different themes. The title, as well as some lyrical content, is a tribute to Skye, the younger sister of drummer Brann Dailor, who committed suicide at the age of fourteen. Themes touched on within the album include "dark magic(k), astral travelling and the role of Rasputin in the downfall of Czarist Russia".  "The Hunter" does not deal with an entire concept like their earlier work. The title is a tribute to Hinds' brother, Brad Hinds, who died of a heart attack on December 4, 2010 while hunting.  "Once More 'Round the Sun", like its predecessor, is not a concept album. It features themes such as relationships, struggles and hardships. The album was based on the various events that took place in each band member's lives the year before the album release.  "Emperor of Sand" mainly deals with the themes of death and survival and is about a desert wanderer faced with a death sentence. The lyrics were inspired by the friends and family members of the band members who were diagnosed with cancer.

Visual art.

Artwork.

Artist Paul Romano was responsible for all of the band's album art and backdrops up to 2011. The artwork for the band's fifth studio album "The Hunter" was made by AJ Fosik, a woodcarver who was also responsible for the backdrop the band used live at the time. Oakland-based artist Skinner, who, in his own words, specializes in "psychedelic nightmare paintings", has taken the reins on "Once More 'Round the Sun". "It's going to be a work of art for sure. It's going to be very eye-opening", said bassist Troy Sanders before the album's release. "Very striking. It's from another dimension, and a lot of our music is geared toward that idea—taking you to another planet on songs. It's out there, and I think it's incredible."

Live presentation.

Following their first tours in the early 2000s, Mastodon have performed at many major festivals such as Download, Roskilde, Coachella, Bonnaroo, Big Day Out, Rock Werchter, Pinkpop, Metaltown, Ottawa Bluesfest, Sonisphere and Soundwave. When performing the band has traditionally had a fairly lo-fi visual presentation. However, during the band's "Crack The Skye Tour" (2009–2010), they used a large screen behind the drumkit showing a visual show.

Legacy and reception.

The "sludge/stoner/alternative metal outfit" Mastodon, as labelled by AllMusic, is "one of the preeminent metal acts of the early 21st century". The BBC stated about Mastodon: "They might be bonkers of lyric, full of fantasy mumbo jumbo, but the band is unashamedly committed to its complex-of-composition craft, and the results have frequently stunned ever since their 2002 debut, "Remission". They are the most ambitious, most fearless, most fun heavy metal band to have breached the mainstream since the genre oozed its way out of The Midlands in the 1970s." "Alternative Press" has stated: "Mastodon are one of the all-time great hard rock groups." "Rolling Stone" stated: "Mastodon are a bunch of doom-haunted, myth-obsessed, meat-and-potatoes Southern badasses who have become the most important new band in metal." Playboy wrote: "one of Mastodon’s greatest talents: the ability to take traditional metal fans along with them into other musical realms, and also appeal to more mainstream rock fans but give them some doses of metal."

Members.

Current Former  Touring musicians

Discography.

Studio albums  EPs

Awards and nominations.

Grammy Awards  "Kerrang!" Awards Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards Metal Storm Awards "Revolver" Golden Gods

Mastodon is an American heavy metal band from Atlanta, Georgia, formed in 2000. The group is composed of Troy Sanders (bass/vocals), Brent Hinds (lead guitar/vocals), Bill Kelliher (rhythm guitar/backing vocals), and Brann Dailor (drums/vocals). Mastodon has released seven studio albums, as well as a number of other releases. The band's 2002 debut album, "Remission", garnered significant critical acclaim for its unique sound. Mastodon's second full-length release, "Leviathan", is a concept album based on the novel "Moby-Dick" by Herman Melville. Three magazines awarded the record "Album of the Year" in 2004: "Revolver", "Kerrang!" and "Terrorizer".

Mastodon je americká hudební skupina, která vznikla roku 2000 ve městě Atlanta. Jejími členy jsou kytaristé Brent Hinds a Bill Kelliher, baskytarista Troy Sanders a bubeník Brann Dailor (všichni čtyři rovněž zpívají). Původně ve skupině zpíval Eric Saner, avšak odešel ještě před vydáním první desky (zpíval pouze na prvních demonahrávkách). Své první studiové album, které dostalo název "Remission", kapela vydala roku 2002.


Plot.

The film is set at an elite rugby-obsessed all boys boarding school in Ireland modelled on Castleknock and Blackrock, and is seen through the eyes of Ned, an ostracised student at the school. He seems to be the only student there who does not enjoy rugby. A new student arrives at the school, Conor, who is Ned's roommate and a star rugby player. Though the two are initially wary of each other, they soon form a close friendship, with a particular interest in music. The new English teacher, Mr. Sherry, also arrives at the school, who, though stern, is encouraging towards Ned and Conor. It is revealed throughout the film that the school generally encourages homophobic behaviour, particularly by the students and the rugby coach, Pascal.  During a night out celebrating with the rugby team, Conor sees Mr. Sherry with his male partner and understands that he is gay. At the same time, Ned realizes that Conor himself is gay after seeing him going into a gay club. Pascal sees the two of them talking with each other and becomes worried that Mr. Sherry's influence will have a negative effect on Conor, his most valuable player.  Ned and Conor decide to perform a musical piece at the local elementary school's variety show, at the encouragement of Mr. Sherry. Pascal and the rest of the rugby team find out that Conor was kicked out of his former school for repeatedly getting into fights with those who discovered that he was gay, and uses it as blackmail, insinuating that if he does not pick different friends, his secret will be revealed. As a result, Conor does not turn up to the variety show performance, leaving Ned emotionally hurt. Ned turns up to an event with the rugby team, where Conor shoves him away in front of the entire team.  Angry and frustrated, during a rugby rally, Ned outs Conor in front of the entire school. Ned is expelled and Conor runs away.  As the final match approaches, Conor is still missing. Ned knows where to find him and brings him back to the stadium, where they convince Pascal that he can still be gay and a good rugby player, and that Conor is not ashamed of his sexuality, despite that being the case in the past. The film ends with the team winning the final of the Leinster Schools Senior Cup and Ned returning to the school and winning the English writing competition using the story of his and Conor's friendship.

Reception.

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 83% based on 46 reviews, with an average rating of 6.59/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Handsome Devil" offers a charming, well-acted variation on the coming-of-age story with a few fresh topical twists." Metacritic gives the film a weighted average rating of 60 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

Handsome Devil is a 2016 Irish comedy-drama film directed by John Butler. It was screened in the Contemporary World Cinema section at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival.

Pokušitel ("Handsome Devil") je irský hraný film z roku 2016, který režíroval John Butler podle vlastního scénáře. Film zachycuje přátelství dvou spolužáků. Snímek měl světovou premiéru na Mezinárodním filmovém festivalu v Torontu. V ČR byl uveden v roce 2017 na filmovém festivalu Febiofest.


Geography.

The territory is located in Rivers State on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, east of the city of Port Harcourt. It extends across the Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Khana, Gokana, Eleme and Tai. Traditionally, Ogoniland was divided into the six kingdoms: Babbe, Gokana, Ken-Khana, Nyo-Khana, Eleme and Tai. Nyo-Khana is on the East while Ken-Khana is on the west.

Languages.

There are multiple languages spoken by the Ogoni. The largest is Khana, which mutually intelligible with the dialects of the six kingdoms, Gokana, Tae (Tẹẹ), Eleme, and Baen Ogoi part of the linguistic diversity of the Niger Delta.

History.

According to oral tradition, the Ogoni people migrated from ancient Ghana down to the Atlantic coast eventually making their way over to the eastern Niger Delta. Linguistic calculations done by Kay Williamson place the Ogoni in the Niger Delta since before 15 BC, making them one of the oldest settlers in the eastern Niger Delta region. Radiocarbon dating taken from sites around Ogoniland and the neighboring communities oral traditions also support this claim. Traditionally, the Ogoni are agricultural, also known for livestock herding, fishing, salt and palm oil cultivation and trade.  Like many peoples on the Guinea coast, the Ogoni have an internal political structure subject to community-by-community arrangement, including appointment of chiefs and community development bodies, some recognized by government and others not. They survived the period of the slave trade in relative isolation, and did not lose any of their members to enslavement. After Nigeria was colonized by the British in 1885, British soldiers arrived in Ogoni by 1901. Major resistance to their presence continued through 1914.  The Ogoni were integrated into a succession of economic systems at a pace that was extremely rapid and exacted a great toll from them. At the turn of the twentieth century, “the world to them did not extend beyond the next three or four villages,” but that soon changed. Ken Saro-Wiwa, the late president of MOSOP, described the transition this way: “if you then think that within the space of seventy years they were struck by the combined forces of modernity, colonialism, the money economy, indigenous colonialism and then the Nigerian Civil War, and that they had to adjust to these forces without adequate preparation or direction, you will appreciate the bafflement of the Ogoni people and the subsequent confusion engendered in the society.”

Human rights violations.

The Ogoni people have been victims of human rights violations for many years. In 1956, four years before Nigerian Independence, Royal Dutch/Shell, in collaboration with the British government, found a commercially viable oil field on the Niger Delta and began oil production in 1958. In a 15-year period from 1976 to 1991 there were reportedly 2,976 oil spills of about 2.1 million barrels of oil in Ogoniland, accounting for about 40% of the total oil spills of the Royal Dutch/Shell company worldwide.  In a 2011 assessment of over 200 locations in Ogoniland by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), they found that impacts of the 50 years of oil production in the region extended deeper than previously thought. Because of oil spills, oil flaring, and waste discharge, the alluvial soil of the Niger Delta is no longer viable for agriculture. Furthermore, in many areas that seemed to be unaffected, groundwater was found to have high levels of hydrocarbons or were contaminated with benzene, a carcinogen, at 900 levels above WHO guidelines.  UNEP estimated that it could take up to 30 years to rehabilitate Ogoniland to its full potential and that the first five years of rehabilitation would require funding of about US$1 billion. In 2012, the Nigerian Minister of Petroleum Resources, Deizani Alison-Madueke, announced the establishment of the Hydrocarbon Pollution Restoration Project, which intends to follow the UNEP report suggestions of Ogoniland to prevent further degradation.  In 1990, under the leadership of activist and environmentalist Ken Saro-Wiwa, the Movement of the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) planned to take action against the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the oil companies. In October 1990, MOSOP presented "The Ogoni Bill of Rights" to the government. The Bill hoped to gain political and economic autonomy for the Ogoni people, leaving them in control of the natural resources of Ogoniland protecting against further land degradation. The movement lost steam in 1994 after Saro-Wiwa and several other MOSOP leaders were executed by the Nigerian government  In 1993, following protests that were designed to stop contractors from laying a new pipeline for Shell, the Mobile Police raided the area to quell the unrest. In the chaos that followed, it has been alleged that 27 villages were raided, resulting in the death of 2,000 Ogoni people and displacement of 80,000.

References.

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The Ogoni people (also known as the Ogonis) are people in the region of Southeastern Senatorial district in Rivers State Nigeria. They now number about over two million people and live in a homeland which they also refer to as Ogoni, or Ogoniland. They share common oil-related environmental problems with the Ijaw people of Niger Delta.

Ogoni nebo Ogoniové jsou příslušníci domorodé etnické skupiny v nigerijském státě Rivers. Jejich počet se odhaduje v různých zdrojích mezi půl milionem a dvěma miliony, Organizace nezastoupených států a národů uvádí 850 000. Hlavním městem Ogonilandu je město Bori. Obyvatelé hovoří ogonijskými jazyky Khana, Tee, Gokana, Eleme a Baan, které patří do nigerokonžské jazykové rodiny.


Life and career.

Early years and LuckyMe.

Birchard is the son of actor and singer Paul Birchard.  At the age of 15, Birchard (under the name DJ Itchy) was the youngest UK DMC finalist. His earliest gigs as a club DJ were with Glasgow University's Subcity Radio where he first appeared as part of the culture city kids show and later as part of other shows including Turntable Science with Pro Vinylist Karim and Cloudo's Happy Hardcore show, under the alias DJ Mayhem. During this period, Birchard formed the Lucky Me collective with childhood friends. He adopted the stage name "Hudson Mohawke" after seeing the name engraved on a statue in the hallway of his accommodation. In 2007, Birchard applied to the Red Bull Music Academy and was invited to attend the event in Toronto, where he first met Steve Beckett of Warp Records, who was giving a lecture there, and was to sign Hudson Mohawke two years later.  In addition to his solo work, Hudson Mohawke collaborated with Mike Slott as Heralds of Change, releasing a series of 12" EPs including "Show You" (2006), "Sittin' on the Side" (2007), "Puzzles" (2007) and "Secrets" (2007) on All City Records. Hudson Mo was also DJ/Producer for the now defunct hip hop group Surface Emp alongside MC's Dom Sum and sometimes 2 Can Dan. Surface Empire released the "LuckyMe" EP in 2005 on Far Cut Records.

2008–11: TNGHT and Warp.

In 2008, Birchard met Canadian producer Lunice during the first LuckyMe Records tour of North America, with Hudson Mohawke performing at the Pop Montreal festival and Lunice playing support. Following a successful performance headlining Warp Records' 2012 SXSW showcase, the duo's collaborative project TNGHT debuted their "TNGHT" EP, released via Warp X LuckyMe on 23 July 2012. TNGHT has performed at multiple venues internationally, including The Opera House, the Coachella music festival and Brooklyn's Music Hall of Williamsburg, which featured an appearance by rapper/producer Kanye West during a remix of West's "Cold".  In 2009, Hudson Mohawke signed to Warp Records, despite a very limited track record of official releases; in fact, the bulk of his releases were unofficial tracks and DJ mixes circulated on the Internet. His first official release to get major notice was entitled "Spotted" on the Rush Hour beat compilation "Beat Dimensions Vol 1". In 2008 his 12" EP "Ooops!" on LuckyMe/Wireblock became an underground sensation, particularly once word spread of his recording contract with Warp. In 2009, Hudson Mohawke released his first studio album, "Butter". In that year, he contributed a cover of a Jimi Tenor song, titled "Paint the Stars", to the "Warp20 (Recreated)" compilation. He would follow with several EPs, including 2011's "Satin Panthers". He produced the debut EP for UK band Egyptian Hip Hop at Club Ralph Studios in London, which was released in August 2010. One of his songs, "100hm", has been featured as a track on the video game "Grand Theft Auto V", while "Fuse" was featured in "Sleeping Dogs" and "Dirt 3".

2012–16: G.O.O.D. Music and "Lantern".

In 2012, Hudson Mohawke began a series of collaborations with Kanye West, resulting in production credits on the GOOD Music label album "Cruel Summer". On 17 January 2013, it was announced that Mohawke had officially signed with GOOD Music as a producer, whilst remaining with Warp and LuckyMe as a recording artist. TNGHT announced their hiatus on 27 December 2013. Mohawke co-produced two tracks on West's 2013 album "Yeezus" ("I Am a God" and "Blood on the Leaves") and contributed to West's 2016 follow-up "The Life of Pablo", in addition to working with various other hip hop and pop artists, including Drake, Pusha T, and Future. In 2015, he released his second studio album, "Lantern". In 2016, he collaborated with singer Anohni on her 2016 album "Hopelessness". Mohawke announced on 26 October 2016 via Twitter that he was creating the original soundtrack for the 2016 video game "Watch Dogs 2" titled "Ded Sec" and that Warp Records would release it on 11 November 2016.

Musical style.

Following early acclaim for his turntable work, Hudson Mohawke has gone on to receive praise for his "genre-smashing" production approach, in which styles of music are "incorporated, manipulated and bounced against each other." In 2009, during Birchard's debut Essential Mix, Pete Tong (MBE) proclaimed "Hudson Mohawke is doing for hip-hop what the Aphex Twin did for techno". In 2011, "The Guardian" characterized his trademark sound as "a vivid, psychedelic melange of J Dilla-esque instrumental hip hop, space-age R&B, bass boom and oldskool rave euphoria, garnished with effervescent FX from unexpected sources." Following the formation of TNGHT, Birchard and partner Lunice attempted to strip down their production styles and avoid "all over the place" tracks. In 2015, "Exclaim!" wrote that "in the six years since Glaswegian producer Hudson Mohawke released his debut full-length, "Butter", Mohawke's music has gone from a glitch-y, turntablist jitter to a euphoric, multicolored trap-hop pound and everywhere in between."

Discography.

Albums  EPs  Singles  Production work  Remixes

Ross Matthew Birchard (born 11 February 1986), better known by the stage name Hudson Mohawke, is a Scottish producer, DJ, and composer from Glasgow. A founding member of the UK label collective LuckyMe, he signed to Warp Records and released his debut album "Butter" in 2009. In 2011, he formed the duo TNGHT with Canadian producer Lunice and released their debut EP the following year.

Hudson Mohawke, vlastním jménem Ross Matthew Birchard, (* 11. února 1986) je skotský hudebník a producent. V roce 2007 spoluzaložil vydavatelství LuckyMe. Své první album nazvané "Butter" vydal v říjnu 2009 (vydavatelství Warp Records). Později vydal několik dalších alb a EP. Jako producent spolupracoval s mnoha hudebníky, mezi něž patří například Anohni, ASAP Rocky a Kanye West. Rovněž je autorem řady remixů.


History.

An early predecessor to modern caseless ammunition, Walter Hunt's Rocket Ball cartridge, was developed in 1850s and guns using them were sold during that time, primarily by Volcanic Repeating Arms. These cartridges were severely under-powered and never saw wide acceptance for self-protection, hunting, or military use.  During World War II, Germany began an intensive program to research and develop a practical caseless ammunition for military use, which was driven by the rising scarcity of metals, especially copper used to make cartridge cases. The Germans had some success, but not sufficient to produce a caseless cartridge system during the war. Japan successfully developed the Ho-301 40mm autocannon during the war for mounting on aircraft. It saw action, though relatively limited, use in the defense of the Japanese home islands during the waning months of the war.

Modern caseless ammunition.

Modern caseless ammunition consists of a solid mass of propellant (originally nitrocellulose) cast to form the body of the cartridge. Cavities exist in the body to accept the bullet and a primer (both of which are glued into place). The completed cartridge might also contain a booster charge of powdered propellant to help ignite the body and provide initial thrust to the bullet.  Many caseless cartridges are also telescoped, with the bulk of the bullet held within the body of the cartridge, to cut down on cartridge length. A shorter cartridge cuts down on the distance the firearm's action must reciprocate to load a new round, which allows for higher cyclic rates and greater probability of multiple hits on a target at long range. Lack of a case also reduces the weight of the cartridge substantially, especially in small bore rifles. For example, the caseless ammunition designed by Austrian inventor Hubert Usel (1926–2010) for the Voere VEC-91 weighs about one third as much as regular ammunition for the same caliber.

Issues and practical considerations.

While it seems a simple operation to replace the case with a piece of solid propellant, the cartridge case provides more than just a way to keep the cartridge components together, and these other functions must be replaced if the case is to be replaced. Caseless ammunition is not without its drawbacks, and it is these drawbacks that have kept modern caseless ammunition from achieving wider success.

Heat sensitivity.

The first major problem, of special concern in military applications, which often involve sustained firing, is the heat sensitivity of the ammunition. Nitrocellulose, the primary component of modern gunpowder, ignites at a relatively low temperature of around 170 °C (338 °F). One of the functions of the metallic cartridge case is as a heat sink; when extracted after firing, every metallic case carries away a significant amount of the heat from the combustion of the propellant, slowing the rate at which heat builds up in the chamber. The thermal insulation provided by the case also works the other way around, shielding the propellant from built-up heat in the chamber walls.  Without a case to provide these functions, caseless rounds using nitrocellulose will begin to cook off, firing from the residual chamber heat, much sooner than cased cartridges do. Cooking off can be avoided by designing the weapon to fire from an open bolt, but this greatly impacts accuracy, and thus is only suitable for machine guns and submachine guns.  The normal solution to the problem of heat is to increase the heat resistance by switching to a propellant with a higher ignition temperature, typically a non-crystalline explosive carefully formulated to provide an appropriate rate of combustion. Heckler & Koch, in concert with Dynamit Nobel, managed such a task by producing relatively heat-resistant caseless ammunition.

Sealing.

Another important function provided by the cartridge is to seal the rear of the chamber. During firing of a cased cartridge, the pressure in the chamber expands the metallic case which obturates to the chamber. This prevents gas exiting from the rear of the chamber, and it has also been experimentally shown to provide a significant amount of support to the bolt. Without the case to provide this seal, the firearm design must account for this and provide a means of sealing the rear of the chamber. This problem was also encountered with the Dreyse needle gun; the French Chassepot solved the leaking-breech problem with the addition of a rubber seal to the bolt.  Telescoping caseless rounds must also deal with the issue of blocking the bore, as the bullet is surrounded by propellant. The booster charge is used to address this issue, providing an initial burst of pressure to force the bullet out of the cartridge body and into the barrel before the body combusts.

Fragility.

Caseless rounds are limited by the fact that the cartridge body is primarily a propellant, and structural properties are secondary to the combustion properties. The primary issue is one of extraction. While caseless ammunition eliminates the need to extract a fired case, unfired caseless rounds must be extractable to unload the firearm or to clear a misfire. With metallic cases, this ability is provided by a rim or extractor groove machined into the rear of the case. Even in completely plastic bodied cartridges, such as the "Activ" brand shotgun shells, a thin metal ring is molded into the rim to provide support for the extractor. A secondary issue is that ammunition in use can be exposed to air, water, lubricants, and solvents. Primer and propellant in caseless rounds is unprotected, while cartridge cases provide a high degree of protection.

Modern caseless firearms.

One of the first caseless firearm and ammunition systems produced was made by Daisy, the airgun maker, in 1968. The Daisy V/L Rifle used a.22 caliber (5.5 mm) low-powered caseless round with no primer. The rifle was basically a spring-piston air rifle, but when used with the V/L ammunition the energy from the compression of the piston heated the air behind the caseless cartridge enough to ignite the propellant, and this generated the bulk of the energy of firing. The Daisy V/L Rifle system was discontinued in 1969 after the ATF ruled that it was not an airgun, but a firearm, which Daisy was not licensed to produce.  Some assault rifles have used caseless ammunition. One of the better-known weapons of this type is the G11 made by Heckler & Koch as a potential replacement for the G3 battle rifle. Although the G11 never entered full production, it went through a number of prototype stages as well as field testing, including testing as part of the American Advanced Combat Rifle program. While it was scheduled to be adopted by the West German military with a plan set out to procure 300,000 G11K2 rifles over a period from 1990 to 2002, the expenses created by the reunification of Germany and the impossibility of modifying the G11 to use NATO-standard ammunition led to the cancellation of the G11 project and the adoption of a cheaper, more conventional NATO-standardised assault rifle, the 5.56mm G36. The G11's caseless ammunition was later used as the basis for the caseless round development in the US Lightweight Small Arms Technologies program.  The first commercial caseless rifle featuring electronic firing was the Voere VEC-91.  Several Russian grenade launchers use caseless ammunition including the GP-25 under-barrel grenade launcher and the AGS‐40 Balkan automatic grenade launcher.

Caseless ammunition is a type of small arms ammunition that eliminates the cartridge case that typically holds the primer, propellant, and projectile together as a unit.

Beznábojnicové střelivo je střelivo do palných zbraní které nepoužívá v sestavě náboje nábojnici. Funkci spojení komponent náboje plní pak obvykle výmetná náplň, která je provedena ve formě tuhého tělesa.


History.

President Deane Waldo Malott established the original University Art Museum in 1953. The A. D. White House was renovated to house Cornell's art collections. The current museum, constructed in 1973, is named after its primary benefactor, Herbert Fisk Johnson, Jr., a Cornell Class of 1922 graduate, head of S.C. Johnson & Sons ("Johnson Wax"), and a former member of the university's Board of Trustees.

Architecture.

The Johnson Museum of Art was designed by architect I.M. Pei. It can be characterized by its fifth floor, which cantilevers over the open aired sculpture garden. It was designed so that it would not block the view of Cayuga Lake, and offers a panoramic view of the same from its north and west sides. It also houses a room for meetings on the sixth floor, which was used for many years by Cornell's Board of Trustees.  The unique location of the museum presented several architectural challenges; building space was limited, and it could not overwhelm the view of Cayuga Lake or the nearby Arts Quad. Moreover, it would sit atop the knoll where tradition said Ezra Cornell chose the site for his university, at the north end of the Stone Row of McGraw, Morrill, and White Halls. The design sought to visually terminate the north end of Library Slope. The resulting design was a narrow tower and a bridge, which critics have likened to a giant sewing machine.  The building was awarded the American Institute of Architects Honor Award in 1975. The building's design also appeared on the cover of "Scientific American" as an early example of computer graphics.

Extension.

In 2011, the Museum opened renovated spaces and a 16,000-square-foot extension inspired by the original plans drawn up by Pei Cobb Freed & Partners. The head architect was John L. Sullivan III, Cornell class of 1962. The project cost $22 million, including some renovations to the main building, and was funded by major grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Kresge Foundation. The Asian art storage area was relocated from the center of the fifth floor to the lower level of the addition, making room for additional public gallery space on the fifth floor. An outdoor Japanese garden was created outside the extension.  In 2015, Cornell filed a lawsuit against Pei Cobb Freed & Partners for "architectural malpractice," citing an "inherently flawed and materially defective" design of the new wing. Cornell claimed the addition was "fundamentally flawed" and resulted in over $1.1 million in damage costs.

Collections.

The permanent collection consists of more than 35,000 works of art. Most notable is the George and Mary Rockwell Asian Art collection. Spanning from the Middle Ages to the 20th century, the European collection includes works by Albrecht Dürer, William Hogarth, Francisco Goya, Édouard Manet, Charles-François Daubigny, Edgar Degas, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Otto Dix, Fernand Léger and Henri Matisse.There are also extensive holdings of American artists, including Georgia O'Keeffe and Andy Warhol, as well as members of the Hudson River School and the American Impressionists to contemporary art. The Collection of Prints, Drawings, and Photographs consists of more than 22,000 works, including works by Berenice Abbott, Robert Frank, Alfred Stieglitz, and Garry Winogrand. Its fifth floor houses the museum's extensive Asian collection. The permanent collection also includes works from Africa, pre-Columbian America, and Oceania, representing many eras.

Education.

Although for-credit classes are conducted by Cornell's academic departments rather than the museum, the museum does provide curriculum-structured gallery sessions for specific classes. It also hosts faculty-conducted gallery tours and course-related exhibitions. The museum also hosts thematic tours for local school student field trips. The Johnson Museum Club is a Cornell student group that promotes awareness of the Johnson Museum's facilities and collections. It hosts concerts, scavenger hunts and other events.

The Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art ("The Johnson Museum") is an art museum located on the northwest corner of the Arts Quad on the main campus of Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. Its collection includes two windows from Frank Lloyd Wright's Darwin D. Martin House, and more than 35,000 other works in the permanent collection. It was designed by architect I.M. Pei and is known for its distinctive concrete facade.

Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art je muzeum umění, nacházející se v severozápadní části parku Arts Quad (součást kampusu Cornellovy univerzity) v newyorském městě Ithaca. Muzeum bylo otevřeno v roce 1973 a svůj název dostalo podle svého hlavního patrona Herberta Fiska Johnsona. Architektem budovy je I. M. Pei. Ten za budovu v roce 1975 získal čestnou cenu od Amerického institutu architektů. Ve stálé expozici muzea se nachází více než 35 000 exponátů. Jsou zde jak malířská díla (Francisco Goya, Edgar Degas, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec), tak i tisky, kresby a fotografie (Berenice Abbottová, Robert Frank, Garry Winogrand).