Life and works.

Early life and novels.

Borislav Pekić spent his childhood in different cities of Serbia, Montenegro and Croatia. He graduated from high school in 1945 in Belgrade and shortly afterwards was arrested with the accusation of belonging to the secret association "Yugoslav Democratic Youth" and sentenced to fifteen years of prison. During the time in prison he conceived many of the ideas later developed in his major novels. He was released after five years and in 1953 began studying experimental psychology at the University of Belgrade Faculty of Philosophy, although he never earned a degree.  In 1958 he married Ljiljana Glišić, the niece of Milan Stojadinović, Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (1935–1939) and a year later their daughter Aleksandra was born, who was later married to German aristocrat, Baron Victor von Maltzahn. 1958 marked also the year when Pekić wrote his first of over twenty original film scripts for the major film studios in Yugoslavia, among which "Dan četrnaesti" ("The Fourteenth Day") represented Yugoslavia at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival.  For years Pekić had been working on several novels and when the first of them, "Vreme čuda" (1965), came out, it caught the attention of a wide reading audience as well as the critics. In 1976 it was published in English by Brace Harcourt in New York as "The Time of Miracles". It was also translated into French in 1986, Polish in 1986, Romanian in 1987, Italian in 2004, and Greek in 2007. Pekić's first novel clearly announced two of the most important characteristics of his work: sharp anti-dogmatism and constant scepticism regarding any possible 'progress' mankind has achieved over the course of history.  During the 1968–1969 period, Pekić was one of the editors of "Književne novine" literary magazine. In 1970 his second novel, "Hodočašće Arsenija Njegovana" (The Pilgrimage of Arsenije Njegovan) was published, in which an echo of the students protests of 1968 in Yugoslavia can be found. Despite his ideological distance from the mainstream opposition movements, the new political climate further complicated his relationship with the authorities, who refused him a passport for some time. The novel, nevertheless, won the NIN award for the best Yugoslav novel of the year. An English translation "The Houses of Belgrade" appeared in 1978 and it was later published in Polish, Czech and Romanian.

Exile and further work.

Following Pekić's emigration to London in 1971, the Yugoslav authorities still considered him "persona non grata" and for several years they prevented his books from being published in Yugoslavia. Finally, in 1975, "Uspenje i sunovrat Ikara Gubelkijana" ("The Rise and Fall of Icarus Gubelkian") appeared. It was later translated into Polish in 1980, Hungarian in 1982, Czech in 1985 and French in 1992.  In 1977 he sent the manuscript of "Kako upokojiti Vampira" ("How to Quiet a Vampire") to an anonymous literary competition. The Association of Yugoslav Publishers recognized it as the best novel of the year and promptly published it. "Kako upokojiti Vampira" was subsequently translated into Czech in 1980, Polish in 1985, and Italian in 1992, with an English translation finally appearing in 2005. Based in part on Pekić's own prison experiences, this novel offers an insight into the methods, logic and psychology of a modern totalitarian regime.  "Odbrana i poslednji dani" ("The Defense and the Last Days", 1977) was published in Polish and Hungarian in 1982, Czech in 1983, French in 1989 and Swedish in 2003. These three novels essentially dealt with contrasting types of collaboration in Yugoslavia at different levels during World War II.  In 1978, after more than two decades of preparation, investigation and study, the first volume of "Zlatno runo" ("The Golden Fleece", 1978-1986) was published, fully establishing Pekić as one of the most important Serbian authors. In 1987 he received Montenegrin "Njegoš" award for this work, marking it as one of the most important contemporary prose writings in Yugoslavia. "The Golden Fleece" prompted comparison by international critics to James Joyce’s "Ulysses" and its narrative patterns of classical myths, to Thomas Mann's "Buddenbrooks" and its long family history and evolution of pre-war society, and to Aldous Huxley's "Point Counter Point" and its inner tensions created through a maze of conflicting perspectives; yet "The Golden Fleece" was also hailed as unique. One of the novel’s obvious distinctions is its enormous scope and thematic complexity. "The Golden Fleece" describes the wanderings of generations of the Njegovans, and through them explores the history of the Balkans. The first, second and third volumes were published in French in 2002, 2003 and 2004. The fourth volume was published in 2008.  During the 1980s Pekić created something entirely new. He had been collecting material for a book about the lost island of Atlantis, with the intention to give “a new, although poetical, explanation of the roots, development, and the end of our civilization”. Despite the classical sources that inspired his anthropological interests, Pekić decided to project his new vision into the future and thus avoid the restrictions of the ‘historical models’, which he had inevitably had to confront in his earlier remakes of ancient myths. The result was three novels: "Besnilo" ("Rabies", 1983), "Atlantida" ("Atlantis", 1988) and "1999" (1984). The novel "Rabies" together with "The Golden Fleece" and "The Years the Locusts Have Devoured", were selected by readers as the best novels in the years from 1982 to 1991. All of them were reprinted numerous times in Serbia. "Rabies" was published in Spanish in 1988, and Hungarian in 1994, and "Atlantis" in Czech in 1989. For "Atlantis" Pekić won the ‘Croatian Goran’ award in 1988. At the end of 1984 Pekić's twelve volume "Selected Works" appeared, winning him an award from the Union of Serbian Writers.  "Godine koje su pojeli skakavci" ("The Years the Locusts Have Devoured", in three volumes) was published between 1987 and 1990. Two parts of the 1st volume were translated into English and published in literary magazines. These are Pekić’s memoirs with an account of the post-war days and the life and persecutions of the bourgeoisie under the communist rule. The account is not purely autobiographical in the classical sense, since Pekić also deals with life in general in Yugoslavia after the Second World War. He depicts prison life as a unique civilization and the civilization of ‘freedom’ as a special kind of prison. This trilogy was selected as the best memoir and received the ‘Miloš Crnjanski’ award.  The gothic stories "Novi Jerusalim" ("The New Jerusalem") were published in 1989, and Pekić accepted the "Majska Rukovanja" award in Montenegro in 1990 for his literary and cultural achievements. Two stories from the book were published in French, English and Ukrainian in different anthologies. 'Covek koji je jeo smrt' ("The man who ate death") from "Novi Jerusalim" ("The New Jerusalem") was translated into French in 2005, and won the French "Book Of The Day" award the same year.

Film, theater and radio.

Pekić distinguished himself in the 1970s as one of the best Serbian contemporary dramatists. He regularly wrote radio-plays for Westdeutscher Rundfunk, Cologne, as well as Süddeutscher Rundfunk, Stuttgart. Of the 27 plays written and performed in Serbia, 17 had their first production in Germany. Many of them were transformed into theatre and/or TV plays, and received a number of awards. Sixteen were published in his "Odabrana dela" (Selected works, 1984) and his play "Generali ili srodstvo po oruzju" (The Generals or Kinship-In-Arms, 1969) can be found in any anthology of Serbian contemporary drama. Pekić's theatre plays were widely acclaimed and popular, the most famous being "Korešpondencija" (Correspondence 1979), which was based on the fourth volume of "the Golden Fleece" and ran for 280 performances and 23 years at the Atelje 212 Theatre in Belgrade.  Throughout his career, Pekić worked on numerous films, writing more than twenty original screenplays and adapting some of his novels to the screen. "The Time of Miracles" was selected to represent Yugoslavia at the Cannes Film Festival in 1991, where it won an award, and later at film festivals in Glasgow and Montreal. "The Devils Heaven" (The Summer of White Roses) won an award at the film festival in Tokyo in 1989 and was selected the same year to represent Yugoslavia at film festivals in Montpellier (France), Pula (Croatia), San Sebastián (Spain), and Los Angeles and San Francisco (USA).  As a part-time commentator at the BBC World Service in London, (1986–1991) Pekić read his ‘Letters from London’ every week; these were subsequently printed in Yugoslavia as "Pisma iz tuđine", "Nova pisma iz tuđine", and "Poslednja pisma iz tuđine" (Letters From Abroad, 1, 2 &3, 1987-1991). Each book was made up of 50 letters with witty and inventive observations about England and the English people. The letters were also broadcast for listeners in Serbia, for whom Pekić particularly enjoyed making numerous humorous comparisons between the English and his fatherland’s governments, country and people. For these books he received the Jaša Ignjatović award (Hungary) in 1991. Pekić also ran a series on the same program at the BBC about the history of Great Britain, which was published posthumously - "Sentimentalna povest Britanskog carstva" (A Sentimental History Of The British Empire, 1992), for which he received the Yearly ‘Bigz’ award. It was published several times enjoying a huge success.

End of life and posthumous texts.

In 1989 he became one of the founding members of The Democratic Party in Serbia and in 1990 he became its Vice President and one of the editors of the party's newspaper "Demokratija" ("Democracy"). Pekić was a member of the P. E. N. Association in London and Belgrade, and became Vice President of the Serbian P. E. N. Association between 1990-1992. He was elected to The Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in 1985, and was made a member of the Advisory Committee to The Royal Crown in 1992. Active both as an author and a public figure until his last day, Pekić died of lung cancer at his home in London on 2 July 1992. He was laid to rest at the famous 'Alley of Distinguished Citizens' ('Aleja zaslužnih građana') in Belgrade together with other distinguished figures from the social, political and cultural echelons of society. Posthumously, in 1992, H.R.H. Crown Prince Alexander of Yugoslavia awarded Pekić the Royal Order of the Two-headed White Eagle, being the highest honour bestowed by a Serbian monarch. A large body of his work was, and continues to be, published posthumously: "Vreme reči" ("The Time of Words"), 1993; "Odmor od istorije" ("A Break from History"), 1993; "Graditelji" ("The Builders"), 1994; "Rađanje Atlantide" ("The Birth of Atlantis"), 1996; "Skinuto sa trake" ("Transferred from Tapes"), 1996; "U traganju za Zlatnim runom" ("In Search of the Golden Fleece"), 1997; "Izabrana pisma iz tuđine" ("Selected Letters from Abroad"), 2000; "Političke sveske" ("Political Notebooks"), 2001; "Filosofske sveske" ("Philosophical Notebooks"), 2001; "Korespondencija kao život, 1&2" ("Correspondence as a Life"), 2002-2003; "Sabrana pisma iz tuđine" ("Collection of letters from abroad"), 2004, "Roboti i sablasti" ("Robots and Wraiths", collection of unpublished plays), 2006, "Izabrane drame" ("Selected plays"), 2007, "Izabrani eseji" ("Selected essays"), 2007, "Moral i demokratija" ("Moral and democracy", a collection of interviews and essays), 2008, "Marginalije i moralije" (collected thoughts from published and unpublished work), 2008.  On 1 and 2 July 2000 the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Belgrade held a symposium with the theme: ‘Literary work of Borislav Pekić on the occasion of the 70th anniversary of his birth’. The essays from that symposium were published in 2003.  In 2006, his wife Ljiljana, credited with the abovementioned posthumously published work, started the Borislav Pekic blog where one can find published as well as yet unpublished works of Pekic.  Pekić has left a vast corpus of high literary quality characterized by following traits: narrative structures of growing complexity that, in the case of "The Golden Fleece" cross the fuzzy bounds of the post-modern novel and can be best described by the author's sub-title "Phantasmagoria" (this mammoth work is more than 3,500 pages long); the presence of autobiographical thread one can detect in all major Pekić's works, but especially in his vivid and unsentimental memoirs on his years as a political prisoner and essayist books on life in Britain; obsession with the theme of personal freedom crushed by the impersonal mechanism of the totalitarian power.

Bibliography.

Works available in English translation.

In chronological order of translation:

Bibliography in Serbian.

In square brackets the title in Cyrillic and its literal translation.

Borislav Pekić (, ; 4 February 1930 – 2 July 1992) was a Serbian writer and political activist. He was born in 1930, to a prominent family in Montenegro, at that time part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. From 1945 until his emigration to London in 1971, he lived in Belgrade. He was also one of the founding members of the Democratic Party in Serbia.

Borislav Pekić (v srbské cyrilici Борислав Пекић, 4. února 1930 Podgorica – 2. června 1992, Londýn) je jeden z nejvýznamnějších srbských spisovatelů 20. století, autor románů, dramat, ale i filmový scenárista.


Early life.

Liška was one of six siblings. In June 1914, he passed the leaving examination and graduated from Grammar School in Turnov.

Military service.

In 1915, during World War I, Liška was conscripted into the Austro–Hungarian Army and posted to the Russian front. He was taken prisoner of war (one source says that he defected) in 1916 on the Russian front and in 1917 he volunteered to join the Czechoslovak Legions in Russia and served with the artillery.  After his return, in 1920, to Czechoslovakia, he joined the Army as a professional officer and served with the 51st Artillery Regiment at Stará Boleslav, rising from a company commander to commanding the regiment. When Germany occupied the Czech lands in 1939, he escaped the country.  During the Battle of France, he commanded the 1st Artillery Regiment and, after the collapse of Allied forces in 1940, he and his regiment were evacuated to Britain. In 1943, Liška was promoted to Brigadier General and, from March 1943, he commanded the Czechoslovak Independent Brigade, which subsequently converted to armour as the Czechoslovak Independent Armoured Brigade Group, which subsequently became the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade. The Brigade was moved to France in August 1944 and Liška commanded the siege of Dunkirk from October 1944 to May 1945, accepting the surrender of the German garrison.

Post-war.

After the war, Liška returned to Czechoslovakia where he was reunited with his wife and daughter who had been repatriated from concentration camps; his son, Jaroslav, and older brother, Josef, had been shot during death marches. He had been appointed as the Czechoslovak Army's Chief of Staff in April 1945 by President Edvard Beneš, but this was vetoed by the Soviet authorities and instead he became commander of the Military College and was promoted to General in 1946. The Communist takeover in 1948 and consequent purges of formerly London-based officers, however, led to his dismissal from the Army and obliged him to leave his country once again, without his family.  Alois Liška died in Putney, London in 1977. He was posthumously awarded the Milan Rastislav Stefanik Order, 3rd class in 1991.

Alois Liška was a Czech army officer who served in both World Wars, ultimately as a Brigade General commanding the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade at Dunkirk in 1944-45. He was born on 20 November 1895 in Záborčí, some 17 kilometres south east of Liberec, and died on 7 February 1977 in Putney, London.

Arm. gen. Alois Liška, CBE (20. listopadu 1895, Záborčí, Rakousko-Uhersko – 7. února 1977, Londýn, Spojené království) byl československý generál.


History.

The material referred to "Shaochilong", IVPP V.2885.1-7, consisted of skull fragments (a braincase, partial skull roof, quadrates, and a right maxilla), axis and six caudal vertebrae. A fragmentary left maxilla was also referred to the species, although it has apparently gone missing as of 2009. Although these are believed to belong to a single individual, a lectotype was established in 2010 to accommodate for the possibility that the specimens came from multiple individuals. The lectotype consists of the braincase (IVPP V.2885.1) and partial skull roof (IVPP V.2885.2). All of these specimens were discovered in Inner Mongolia and described by Hu in 1964 as a species of "Chilantaisaurus". The genus was informally named "Alashansaurus" by Chure in 2000.  Chure (2002) and Rauhut (2001) suggested that it did not belong to that genus, and was probably a primitive coelurosaur. However, a re-description by Brusatte and colleagues in 2009 found that it was a carcharodontosaurid, the first recognized from Asia. This re-description also provided a new genus name. A more comprehensive description and discussion was published the following year.

Description.

The individual which IVPP V2885.1 belonged to was probably adult or nearly adult individual, due to the fusion of many elements of the braincase. "Shaochilong's" length – based on the length of the maxillary tooth row – is estimated at. Estimated length of the femur is 61.5 cm which suggests the whole animal weighted approximately. This made "Shaochilong" an uncharacteristically small carcharodontosaurid, in contrast with other members of the family, which were among the largest carnivorous animals on earth. Nevertheless, as an unambiguous example of a fairly large carnosaur in middle Cretaceous Asia, it provides information on the ecosystem of this setting and is evidence that carcharodontosaurids persisted through the middle cretaceous and that large tyrannosaurids (such as "Tyrannosaurus") did not dominate Laurasia until the very end of the Cretaceous.  According to the proportions of its maxilla, "Shaochilong" was a relatively short-faced carcharodontosaur. In combination with its comparatively small size, it could have had a unique ecological role in comparison to other members of the family.  "Shaochilong" can be distinguished from other carcharodontosaurids due to having the following autapomorphies:

Classification.

Phylogenetic analysis performed by Brusatte and coworkers indicate that "Shaochilong" is deeply nested within the carchorodontosaurids, the most derived group among the allosauroids. "Shaochilong" appears to be more closely related to the Gondwanan carcharodontosaurids ("Tyrannotitan", "Carcharodontosaurus", "Mapusaurus", "Giganotosaurus") than the Laurasian ones (such as "Neovenator" and "Acrocanthosaurus"). "Shaochilong" is the youngest known Laurasian allosauroid suggesting that basal tetanurans not tyrannosaurids, were still the dominant group of large-bodied theropods in Laurasian during the Mid-Cretaceous and that the rise of tyrannosaurids as the dominant group of large terrestrial predators was sudden and confined to the very end of the Cretaceous.  The following cladogram after Novas "et al.", 2013, shows the position of "Shaochilong" within Carcharodontosauridae.

Shaochilong (meaning "shark toothed dragon") is a genus of carcharodontosaurid dinosaur from the mid Cretaceous (Turonian stage) Ulansuhai Formation of China (about 92 million years ago). The type species, "S. maortuensis", was originally named "Chilantaisaurus maortuensis", but was re-described and reclassified in 2009.

Shaochilong („drak se žraločími zuby“) byl rodem dravého dinosaura (teropoda) z čeledi Carcharodontosauridae. Žil v období svrchní křídy (stupeň turon, asi před 92 miliony let) na území dnešní Číny (geologické souvrství Ulansuhai). Typovým druhem je "S. maortuensis", původně popsaný jako "Chilantaisaurus maortuensis" v roce 1964. V roce 2009 byl však překlasifikován a znovu popsán pod novým rodovým jménem.


Plot.

In 1998, the evil Rigelatins plan to enslave Earth, and they kidnap Duke Nukem, to use his brain to plot the attack for their forces. Duke breaks free to save the world again.

Gameplay.

The player's goal is to proceed through the levels collecting items, destroying enemies to the level exit and at the final level, defeat the super alien boss. In one level of each episode Duke needs to destroy radar dishes to progress.  Duke Nukem can pick up weapons along the way. There are four types of weapons: His regular default gun, the flamethrower (which can shoot through walls and launch him in the air), the laser (which can shoot through anything) and the rocket launcher. Duke can also get a rapid fire powerup. Health items can be collected to heal damage Duke receives or to boost score points at full health. Keycards need to be collected to access past the force fields and keys must be obtained to get past locked doors. A cloaking device makes Duke temporarily invincible and disables the super force fields.  Movement through the levels mainly consists of jumping onto platforms, climbing ladders, operating elevators, using teleporters, hovering over blowing fans and climbing hand-over-hand across pipes or girders. At the end of every level (with the exception of the last level in each episode), the player can receive up to seven 100,000 point bonuses, earned by making certain achievements in the level, such as destroying all cameras.

Development.

The game uses VGA and EGA graphics and draws two backgrounds ("dual-parallax scrolling"). The game took almost two years to create.

Game Boy Color version.

The Game Boy Color version of "Duke Nukem II" was titled "Duke Nukem". It was released on September 10, 1999 in North America. Several of the backgrounds closely resemble those of the earlier DOS version of the game. However, the Rigelatins have been replaced with the Zorgonites, the arsenal of weapons and items have been modified and the levels, graphics, music, vehicles, enemies and bosses are brand new. Furthermore, Duke has the ability to hang onto the edge of platforms in the Game Boy Color game. The game features 21 levels of play and eight save game slots.

Duke Nukem II: Escape From Alien Abductors! is a platform game developed by Apogee Software and released December 3, 1993. The game consists of four episodes (of eight levels each), the first available as shareware. It is the follow-up to 1991's "Duke Nukem", and followed by "Duke Nukem 3D" in 1996. Todd Replogle was the primary designer of all three games.

Duke Nukem je akční počítačová hra pro PC s operačním systémem MS-DOS. Hra byla vydána 3. prosince roku 1993 firmou Apogee Software. Hra je dělená na čtyři epizody, přičemž první epizoda byla také šířena formou shareware. Titul nepředstavoval příběhově následovníka první hry Duke Nukem, jednalo se pouze o druhou hru v pořadí ze série Duke Nukem.


Arts.

Georgian society and its preoccupations were well portrayed in the novels of writers such as Henry Fielding, Mary Shelley and Jane Austen, characterised by the architecture of Robert Adam, John Nash and James Wyatt and the emergence of the Gothic Revival style, which hearkened back to a supposed golden age of building design.  The flowering of the arts was most vividly shown in the emergence of the Romantic poets, principally through Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake, John Keats, Lord Byron and Robert Burns. Their work ushered in a new era of poetry, characterised by vivid and colourful language, evocative of elevating ideas and themes.  The paintings of Thomas Gainsborough, Sir Joshua Reynolds and the young J. M. W. Turner and John Constable illustrated the changing world of the Georgian period – as did the work of designers like Capability Brown, the landscape designer.  Fine examples of distinctive Georgian architecture are Edinburgh's New Town, Georgian Dublin, Grainger Town in Newcastle upon Tyne, the Georgian Quarter of Liverpool and much of Bristol and Bath.  The music of John Field, Handel, Haydn, Clementi, Johann Christian Bach, William Boyce, Mozart, Beethoven and Mendelssohn was some of the most popular in England at that time.

Social change.

It was a time of immense social change in Britain, with the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution which began the process of intensifying class divisions, and the emergence of rival political parties like the Whigs and Tories.  In rural areas the Agricultural Revolution saw huge changes to the movement of people and the decline of small communities, the growth of the cities and the beginnings of an integrated transportation system but, nevertheless, as rural towns and villages declined and work became scarce there was a huge increase in emigration to Canada, the North American colonies (which became the United States during the period) and other parts of the British Empire.

Evangelical religion and social reform.

The evangelical movement inside and outside the Church of England gained strength in the late 18th and early 19th century. The movement challenged the traditional religious sensibility that emphasized a code of honor for the upper-class, and suitable behaviour for everyone else, together with faithful observances of rituals. John Wesley (1703–1791) and his followers preached revivalist religion, trying to convert individuals to a personal relationship with Christ through Bible reading, regular prayer, and especially the revival experience. Wesley himself preached 52,000 times, calling on men and women to "redeem the time" and save their souls. Wesley always operated inside the Church of England, but at his death, his followers set up outside institutions that became the Methodist Church. It stood alongside the traditional nonconformist churches, Presbyterians, Congregationalist, Baptists, Unitarians, and Quakers. The nonconformist churches, however, were less influenced by revivalism.  The Church of England remained dominant, but it had a growing evangelical, revivalist faction, the "Low Church". Its leaders included William Wilberforce and Hannah More. It reached the upper class through the Clapham Sect. It did not seek political reform, but rather the opportunity to save souls through political action by freeing slaves, abolishing the duel, prohibiting cruelty to children and animals, stopping gambling, and avoiding frivolity on the Sabbath; they read the Bible every day. All souls were equal in God's view, but not all bodies, so evangelicals did not challenge the hierarchical structure of English society. As R.J. Morris noted in his 1983 article "Voluntary Societies and British Urban Elites, 1780-1850," "[m]id-eighteenth-century Britain was a stable society in the sense that those with material and ideological power were able to defend this power in an effective and dynamic manner," but "in the twenty years after 1780, this consensus structure was broken." Anglican Evangelicalism thus, as historian Lisa Wood has argued in her book "Modes of Discipline: Women, Conservatism, and the Novel After the French Revolution", functioned as a tool of ruling-class social control, buffering the discontent that in France had inaugurated a revolution; yet it contained within itself the seeds for challenge to gender and class hierarchies.

Empire.

The Georgian period saw continual warfare, with France the primary enemy. Major episodes included the Seven Years' War, known in America as the French and Indian War (1756–63), the American Revolutionary War (1775–83), the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and the Napoleonic Wars (1803–15). The British won most of the wars except for the American Revolution, where the combined weight of the United States, France, Spain and the Netherlands overwhelmed Britain, which stood alone without allies.  The loss of the 13 American Colonies was a national disaster. Commentators at home and abroad speculated on the end of Britain as a great power. In Europe, the wars with France dragged on for nearly a quarter of a century, 1793–1815. The British organize coalition after coalition, using its superb financial system to subsidize infantry forces, and building up its Navy to maintain control of the seas. Victory over Napoleon at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) and the Battle of Waterloo (1815) under Admiral Lord Nelson and the Duke of Wellington brought a sense of triumphalism and political reaction.  The expansion of empire in Asia was primarily the work of the British East India Company, especially under the leadership of Robert Clive. Captain James Cook was perhaps the most prominent of the many explorers and geographers using the resources of the Royal Navy to develop the Empire and make many scientific discoveries, especially in Australia and the Pacific. Instead of trying to recover the lost colonies in North America, the British built up in Asia a largely new Second British Empire. That new empire flourished during the Victorian and Edwardian eras which were to follow.

The trading nation.

The era was prosperous as entrepreneurs extended the range of their business around the globe. By the 1720s Britain was one of the most prosperous countries in the world, and Daniel Defoe boasted:  While the other major powers were primarily motivated toward territorial gains, and protection of their dynasties (such as the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties, and the House of Hohenzollern), Britain had a different set of primary interests. Its main diplomatic goal (besides protecting the homeland from invasion) was building a worldwide trading network for its merchants, manufacturers, shippers and financiers. This required a hegemonic Royal Navy so powerful that no rival could sweep its ships from the world's trading routes, or invade the British Isles. The London government enhanced the private sector by incorporating numerous privately financed London-based companies for establishing trading posts and opening import-export businesses across the world. Each was given a monopoly of trade to the specified geographical region. The first enterprise was the Muscovy Company set up in 1555 to trade with Russia. Other prominent enterprises included the East India Company, and the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada. The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa had been set up in 1662 to trade in gold, ivory and slaves in Africa; it was reestablished as the Royal African Company in 1672 and focused on the slave trade. British involvement in the each of the four major wars, 1740 to 1783, paid off handsomely in terms of trade. Even the loss of the 13 colonies was made up by a very favorable trading relationship with the new United States of America. British gained dominance in the trade with India, and largely dominated the highly lucrative slave, sugar, and commercial trades originating in West Africa and the West Indies. China would be next on the agenda. Other powers set up similar monopolies on a much smaller scale; only the Netherlands emphasized trade as much as England.  Mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies. Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximise exports from and minimise imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling, which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a large and powerful Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country.  Most of the companies earned good profits, and enormous personal fortunes were created in India, but there was one major fiasco that caused heavy losses. The South Sea Bubble was a business enterprise that exploded in scandal. The South Sea Company was a private business corporation supposedly set up much like the other trading companies, with a focus on South America. Its actual purpose was to renegotiate previous high-interest government loans amounting to £31 million through market manipulation and speculation. It issued stock four times in 1720 that reached about 8,000 investors. Prices kept soaring every day, from £130 a share to £1,000, with insiders making huge paper profits. The Bubble collapsed overnight, ruining many speculators. Investigations showed bribes had reached into high places—even to the king. The future prime minister Robert Walpole managed to wind it down with minimal political and economic damage, although some losers fled to exile or committed suicide.

Politics and social revolt.

With the ending of the War with France, Great Britain entered a period of greater economic depression and political uncertainty, characterised by social discontent and unrest. The Radical political party published a leaflet called "The Political Register", also known as "The Two Penny Trash" to its rivals. The so-called March of the Blanketeers saw 400 spinners and weavers march from Manchester to London in March 1817 to hand the Government a petition. The Luddites destroyed and damaged machinery in the industrial north-west of England. The Peterloo Massacre in 1819 began as a protest rally which saw 60,000 people gathering to protest about their living standards, but was quelled by military action and saw eleven people killed and 400 wounded. The Cato Street Conspiracy of 1820 sought to blow up the Cabinet and then move on to storm the Tower of London and overthrow the government. This too was thwarted, with the conspirators executed or transported to Australia.  The Black Act of 1723, sponsored by Robert Walpole, strengthened the criminal code for the benefit of the upper class. It specified over 200 capital crimes, many with intensified punishment. Arson, for example, was expanded to include burning or the threat of burning haystacks. The legal rights of defendants were strictly limited. For example, suspects who refused to surrender within 40 days could be summarily judged guilty and sentenced to execution if apprehended. Local villages were punished if they failed to find, prosecute and convict alleged criminals.

Enlightenment.

Historians have long explored the importance of the Scottish Enlightenment, as well as the American Enlightenment, while debating the very existence of the English Enlightenment.

Scottish Enlightenment.

English historian Peter Gay argues that the Scottish Enlightenment "was a small and cohesive group of friends – David Hume, Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson, and others – who knew one another intimately and talked to one another incessantly. Education was a priority in Scotland, both at the local level and especially in four universities that had stronger reputations than any in England. The Enlightenment culture was based on close readings of new books, and intense discussions that took place daily at such intellectual gathering places in Edinburgh as The Select Society and, later, The Poker Club as well as within Scotland's ancient universities (St Andrews, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen). Sharing the humanist and rationalist outlook of the European Enlightenment of the same time period, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment asserted the importance of human reason combined with a rejection of any authority that could not be justified by reason. In Scotland, the Enlightenment was characterised by a thoroughgoing empiricism and practicality where the chief values were improvement, virtue, and practical benefit for the individual and society as a whole. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, economics, history architecture, and medicine. Leaders included Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, Adam Smith, Dugald Stewart, Thomas Reid, William Robertson, Henry Home, Lord Kames, Adam Ferguson, John Playfair, Joseph Black and James Hutton. The Scottish Enlightenment influenced England and the American colonies, and to a lesser extent continental Europe.

English Enlightenment.

The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks and standard surveys make no room for an English Enlightenment. Some European surveys include England, others ignore it but do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison, Edward Gibbon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope and Joshua Reynolds. Roy Porter argues that the reason for the neglect was the assumption that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that after the 1720s, England could claim few thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire or Rousseau. Indeed, its leading intellectuals, such as Edward Gibbon, Edmund Burke and Samuel Johnson were all quite conservative and supported the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England, and had succeeded so that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. The coffee-house culture provided an ideal venue for enlightened conversation. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent, and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.

Science and medicine.

The British sponsored numerous scientists who made major discoveries in the small laboratories. Joseph Priestley investigated electricity. Chemist Henry Cavendish identified hydrogen in 1772. Daniel Rutherford isolated nitrogen in 1774, while Priestley discovered oxygen and ammonia. Antiquarians and archaeologists mapped the past. In medicine, in 1717 Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation against smallpox and Britain, and by 1740 it was in wide usage. Guy's Hospital was founded in 1721; the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh in 1729; Queen Charlotte's maternity hospital in 1739 and the Middlesex Hospital in 1745. Asylums for the mentally ill were established, notably Bethel Hospital in Norwich (1713); a ward for incurable lunatics at Guy's Hospital (1728); and lunatic hospitals in Manchester (1766) and York in (1777)--York was the first to be called an asylum.

End of the Georgian era.

Historians debate the exact ending, with the deaths of George IV in 1830 or William IV in 1837 as the usual marker. In most social and cultural trends, the timing varied. The emergence of romanticism and literature began as early as the 1780s, while religious changes took much longer and were incomplete until around a century later. The 1830s saw important developments such as the emergence the Oxford Movement in religion and the demise of classical architecture. Victorians typically were disapproving of the times of the previous era. By the late 19th century, the "Georgian Era" was a byword for a degenerate culture. Charles Abbey in 1878 argued that the Church of England:

Further reading.

Historiography and memory.

"Note: In the twentieth century, the period 1910–1936 was informally called the Georgian Era during the reign of George V (following the Edwardian Era), and is sometimes still referred to as such; see Georgian Poetry."

The Georgian era is a period in British history from 1714 to, named after the Hanoverian kings George I, George II, George III and George IV. The sub-period that is the Regency era is defined by the regency of George IV as Prince of Wales during the illness of his father George III. The definition of the Georgian era is often extended to include the relatively short reign of William IV, which ended with his death in 1837. The transition to the Victorian era was characterized in religion, social values, and the arts by a shift in tone away from rationalism and toward romanticism and mysticism.

Georgiánské období je perioda britské historie, která je běžně definována jako období vlády Jiřího I., Jiřího II., Jiřího III. a Jiřího IV. v letech 1714 až 1830. Občas je to této etapy britských dějin zahrnováno i období vlády Viléma IV. Pojem georgiánský se běžně používá ve spojení s architekturou a sociálními změnami.


Session description.

The Session Description Protocol describes a session as a group of fields in a text-based format, one field per line. The form of each field is as follows. Where <character> is a single case-sensitive character and <value> is structured text in a format that depends on the attribute type. Values are typically UTF-8 encoded. Whitespace is not allowed immediately to either side of the equal sign.  An SDP message consists of three sections, detailing the session, timing, and media descriptions. Each message may contain multiple timing and media descriptions. Names are only unique within the associated syntactic construct.  Optional values are specified with codice_1 and each field must appear in the order shown below.  Below is a sample session description from RFC 4566. This session is originated by the user 'jdoe', at IPv4 address 10.47.16.5. Its name is "SDP Seminar" and extended session information ("A Seminar on the session description protocol") is included along with a link for additional information and an email address to contact the responsible party, Jane Doe. This session is specified to last for two hours using NTP timestamps, with a connection address (which indicates the address clients must connect to or — when a multicast address is provided, as it is here — subscribe to) specified as IPv4 224.2.17.12 with a TTL of 127. Recipients of this session description are instructed to only receive media. Two media descriptions are provided, both using RTP Audio Video Profile. The first is an audio stream on port 49170 using RTP/AVP payload type 0 (defined by RFC 3551 as PCMU), and the second is a video stream on port 51372 using RTP/AVP payload type 99 (defined as "dynamic"). Finally, an attribute is included which maps RTP/AVP payload type 99 to format h263-1998 with a 90kHz clock rate. RTCP ports for the audio and video streams of 49171 and 51373, respectively, are implied.  The SDP specification does not incorporate any transport protocol; it is purely a format for session description. It is intended to use different transport protocols as necessary, including SAP, SIP, and RTSP. SDP could even be transmitted by email or as an HTTP payload.

Attributes.

SDP uses attributes to extend the core protocol. Attributes can appear within the Session or Media sections and are scoped accordingly as "session-level" or "media-level". New attributes are added to the standard occasionally through registration with IANA.  Attributes take two forms:  Two of these attributes are specially defined: The first one is used in the Session or Media sections to specify another character encoding (as registered in the IANA registry) than the default one highly recommended (UTF-8) where it is used in standard protocol keys whose values are containing a text intended to be displayed to a user. The second one is used to specify in which language it is written (alternate texts in multiple languages may be carried in the protocol, and selected automatically by the user agent according to user preferences. In both cases, each textual field in the protocol which are not interpreted symbolically by the protocol itself, will be interpreted as opaque strings, but rendered to the user or application with the values indicated in the last occurrence of the codice_6 and codice_7 in the current Media section, or otherwise their last value in the Session section).  The first 3 mandatory parameters (v=, s= and o=), even though they seem to contain displayable text, are not intended to be displayed to users and translated. The fields present in their values are considered in the protocol as opaque strings, they are used as identifiers, just like paths in an URL or filenames in a file system: the SDP standard indicates that they must be all non empty and should be UTF-8 encoded.  A few other attributes (described as part the standard SDP specifications in the same RFC) are also shown in the example above, either as a session-level attribute (such as the attribute in property form codice_8) which also applies to the described medias unless they override their value, or as a media-level attribute (such as the attribute in value form codice_9 for the video media in the example).

Time formats and repetitions.

Absolute times are represented in Network Time Protocol (NTP) format (the number of seconds since 1900). If the stop time is 0 then the session is "unbounded." If the start time is also zero then the session is considered "permanent." Unbounded and permanent sessions are discouraged but not prohibited. Intervals can be represented with NTP times or in typed time: a value and time units (days ('d'), hours ('h'), minutes ('m') and seconds ('s')) sequence.  Thus an hour meeting from 10 am UTC on 1 August 2010, with a single repeat time a week later at the same time can be represented as:  Or using typed time:  When repeat times are specified, the start time of each repetition may need to be adjusted so that it will occur at the same local time in a specific time zone throughout the period between the start time and the stop time (which are still specified in NTP format in UTC).  Instead of specifying this time zone and having to support a database of time zones for knowing when and where daylight adjustments will be needed, the repeat times are assumed to be all defined within the same time zone, and SDP supports the indication of NTP absolute times when a daylight offset (expressed in seconds or using a type time) will need to be applied to the repeated start time or end time falling at or after each daylight adjustment. All these offsets are relative to the start time, they are not cumulative. NTP supports this with the z= field which indicates a series of pairs, whose first item is the NTP absolute time when a daylight adjustment will occur, and the second item indicates the offset to apply relative to the absolute times computed with the r= field.  For example, if a daylight adjustment will subtract 1 hour on 31 October 2010 at 3 am UTC (i.e. 60 days minus 7 hours after the start time on Sunday 1 August 2010 at 10am UTC), and this will be the only daylight adjustment to apply in the scheduled period which would occur between 1 August 2010 up to the 28 November 2010 at 10 am UTC (the stop time of the repeated 1h session which is repeated each week at the same local time, which occurs 88 days later), this can be specified as:  If the weekly 1-hour session was repeated every Sunday for full one year, i.e. from Sunday 1 August 2010 3 am UTC to Sunday 26 June 2011 4 am UTC (stop time of the last repeat, i.e. 360 days plus 1 hour later, or 31107600 seconds later), so that it would include the transition back to Summer time on Sunday 27 March 2011 at 2 am (1 hour is added again to local time so that the second daylight transition would occur 209 days after the first start time):  As SDP announcements for repeated sessions should not be made to cover very long periods exceeding a few years, the number of daylight adjustments to include in the z= parameter should remain small.  Sessions may be repeated irregularly over a week but scheduled the same way for all weeks in the period, by adding more tuples in the "r" parameter. For example, to schedule the same event also on Saturday (at the same time of the day) you would use :  The SDP protocol does not support repeating sessions monthly and yearly schedules with such simple repeat times, because they are irregularly spaced in time; instead, additional "t"/"r" tuples may be supplied for each month or year.

The Session Description Protocol (SDP) is a format for describing multimedia communication sessions for the purposes of session announcement and session invitation. Its predominant use is in support of streaming media applications, such as voice over IP (VoIP) and video conferencing. SDP does not deliver any media streams itself but is used between endpoints for negotiation of network metrics, media types, and other associated properties. The set of properties and parameters are often called a "session profile".

Session Description Protocol (SDP) je internetový protokol určený k popisu vlastností relace multimediálního přenosu dat. Nepřenáší se pomocí něj vlastní data, slouží pro vyjednání parametrů, jako je typ média (video, audio, atd.), transportní protokol (RTP/UDP/IP, H.320, atd.), typ kodeku nebo přenosová rychlost. Je popsaný v. Často se používá ve spojení s SIP.


Biology.

In plant biology, pectin consists of a complex set of polysaccharides (see below) that are present in most primary cell walls and are particularly abundant in the non-woody parts of terrestrial plants. Pectin is a major component of the middle lamella, where it helps to bind cells together, but is also found in primary cell walls. Pectin is deposited by exocytosis into the cell wall via vesicles produced in the golgi.  The amount, structure and chemical composition of pectin differs among plants, within a plant over time, and in various parts of a plant. Pectin is an important cell wall polysaccharide that allows primary cell wall extension and plant growth. During fruit ripening, pectin is broken down by the enzymes pectinase and pectinesterase, in which process the fruit becomes softer as the middle lamellae break down and cells become separated from each other. A similar process of cell separation caused by the breakdown of pectin occurs in the abscission zone of the petioles of deciduous plants at leaf fall.  Pectin is a natural part of the human diet, but does not contribute significantly to nutrition. The daily intake of pectin from fruits and vegetables can be estimated to be around 5 g if approximately 500 g of fruits and vegetables are consumed per day.  In human digestion, pectin binds to cholesterol in the gastrointestinal tract and slows glucose absorption by trapping carbohydrates. Pectin is thus a soluble dietary fiber. In non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice pectin has been shown to increase the incidence of diabetes.  A study found that after consumption of fruit the concentration of methanol in the human body increased by as much as an order of magnitude due to the degradation of natural pectin (which is esterified with methyl alcohol) in the colon.  Pectin has been observed to have some function in repairing the DNA of some types of plant seeds, usually desert plants. Pectinaceous surface pellicles, which are rich in pectin, create a mucilage layer that holds in dew that helps the cell repair its DNA.  Consumption of pectin has been shown to slightly (3-7%) reduce blood LDL cholesterol levels. The effect depends upon the source of pectin; apple and citrus pectins were more effective than orange pulp fiber pectin. The mechanism appears to be an increase of viscosity in the intestinal tract, leading to a reduced absorption of cholesterol from bile or food. In the large intestine and colon, microorganisms degrade pectin and liberate short-chain fatty acids that have positive influence on health (prebiotic effect).

Chemistry.

Pectins, also known as pectic polysaccharides, are rich in galacturonic acid. Several distinct polysaccharides have been identified and characterised within the pectic group. Homogalacturonans are linear chains of α-(1–4)-linked D-galacturonic acid. Substituted galacturonans are characterized by the presence of saccharide appendant residues (such as D-xylose or D-apiose in the respective cases of xylogalacturonan and apiogalacturonan) branching from a backbone of D-galacturonic acid residues. Rhamnogalacturonan I pectins (RG-I) contain a backbone of the repeating disaccharide: 4)-α-D-galacturonic acid-(1,2)-α-L-rhamnose-(1. From many of the rhamnose residues, sidechains of various neutral sugars branch off. The neutral sugars are mainly D-galactose, L-arabinose and D-xylose, with the types and proportions of neutral sugars varying with the origin of pectin.  Another structural type of pectin is rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II), which is a less frequent, complex, highly branched polysaccharide. Rhamnogalacturonan II is classified by some authors within the group of substituted galacturonans since the rhamnogalacturonan II backbone is made exclusively of D-galacturonic acid units.  Isolated pectin has a molecular weight of typically 60,000–130,000 g/mol, varying with origin and extraction conditions.  In nature, around 80 percent of carboxyl groups of galacturonic acid are esterified with methanol. This proportion is decreased to a varying degree during pectin extraction. Pectins are classified as high- vs. low-methoxy pectins (short HM-pectins vs. LM-pectins), with more or less than half of all the galacturonic acid esterified. The ratio of esterified to non-esterified galacturonic acid determines the behavior of pectin in food applications - HM-pectins can form a gel under acidic conditions in the presence of high sugar concentrations, while LM-pectins form gels by interaction with divalent cations, particularly Ca, according to the idealized ‘egg box’ model, in which ionic bridges are formed between calcium ions and the ionised carboxyl groups of the galacturonic acid.  In high-ester/high-methoxy pectins at soluble solids content above 60% and a pH-value between 2.8 and 3.6, hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions bind the individual pectin chains together. These bonds form as water is bound by sugar and forces pectin strands to stick together. These form a 3-dimensional molecular net that creates the macromolecular gel. The gelling-mechanism is called a low-water-activity gel or sugar-acid-pectin gel.  While low-ester/low-methoxy pectins need calcium to form a gel, they can do so at lower soluble solids and higher pH-values than high-ester pectins. Normally low-ester pectins form gels with a range of pH from 2.6 to 7.0 and with a soluble solids content between 10 and 70%.  The non-esterified galacturonic acid units can be either free acids (carboxyl groups) or salts with sodium, potassium, or calcium. The salts of partially esterified pectins are called pectinates, if the degree of esterification is below 5 percent the salts are called pectates, the insoluble acid form, pectic acid.  Some plants, such as sugar beet, potatoes and pears, contain pectins with acetylated galacturonic acid in addition to methyl esters. Acetylation prevents gel-formation but increases the stabilising and emulsifying effects of pectin.  Amidated pectin is a modified form of pectin. Here, some of the galacturonic acid is converted with ammonia to carboxylic acid amide. These pectins are more tolerant of varying calcium concentrations that occur in use.  To prepare a pectin-gel, the ingredients are heated, dissolving the pectin. Upon cooling below gelling temperature, a gel starts to form. If gel formation is too strong, syneresis or a granular texture are the result, while weak gelling leads to excessively soft gels.  Amidated pectins behave like low-ester pectins but need less calcium and are more tolerant of excess calcium. Also, gels from amidated pectin are thermo-reversible; they can be heated and after cooling solidify again, whereas conventional pectin-gels will afterwards remain liquid.  High-ester pectins set at higher temperatures than low-ester pectins. However, gelling reactions with calcium increase as the degree of esterification falls. Similarly, lower pH-values or higher soluble solids (normally sugars) increase gelling speeds. Suitable pectins can therefore be selected for jams and jellies, or for higher-sugar confectionery jellies.

Sources and production.

Pears, apples, guavas, quince, plums, gooseberries, and oranges and other citrus fruits contain large amounts of pectin, while soft fruits, like cherries, grapes, and strawberries, contain small amounts of pectin.  Typical levels of pectin in fresh fruits and vegetables are:  The main raw materials for pectin production are dried citrus peels or apple pomace, both by-products of juice production. Pomace from sugar beets is also used to a small extent.  From these materials, pectin is extracted by adding hot dilute acid at pH-values from 1.5 – 3.5. During several hours of extraction, the protopectin loses some of its branching and chain length and goes into solution. After filtering, the extract is concentrated in a vacuum and the pectin is then precipitated by adding ethanol or isopropanol. An old technique of precipitating pectin with aluminium salts is no longer used (apart from alcohols and polyvalent cations, pectin also precipitates with proteins and detergents).  Alcohol-precipitated pectin is then separated, washed and dried. Treating the initial pectin with dilute acid leads to low-esterified pectins. When this process includes ammonium hydroxide (NH(aq)), amidated pectins are obtained. After drying and milling, pectin is usually standardised with sugar and sometimes calcium salts or organic acids to have optimum performance in a particular application.

Uses.

The main use for pectin is as a gelling agent, thickening agent and stabilizer in food. The classical application is giving the jelly-like consistency to jams or marmalades, which would otherwise be sweet juices. Pectin also reduces syneresis in jams and marmalades and increases the gel strength of low-calorie jams. For household use, pectin is an ingredient in gelling sugar (also known as "jam sugar") where it is diluted to the right concentration with sugar and some citric acid to adjust pH. In some countries, pectin is also available as a solution or an extract, or as a blended powder, for home jam making.  For conventional jams and marmalades that contain above 60% sugar and soluble fruit solids, high-ester pectins are used. With low-ester pectins and amidated pectins, less sugar is needed, so that diet products can be made. Water extract of aiyu seeds is traditionally used in Taiwan to make aiyu jelly, where the extract gels without heating due to low-ester pectins from the seeds and the bivalent cations from the water.  Pectin is used in confectionery jellies to give a good gel structure, a clean bite and to confer a good flavour release. Pectin can also be used to stabilize acidic protein drinks, such as drinking yogurt, to improve the mouth-feel and the pulp stability in juice based drinks and as a fat substitute in baked goods. Typical levels of pectin used as a food additive are between 0.5 and 1.0% – this is about the same amount of pectin as in fresh fruit.  In medicine, pectin increases viscosity and volume of stool so that it is used against constipation and diarrhea. Until 2002, it was one of the main ingredients used in Kaopectate a medication to combat diarrhea, along with kaolinite. It has been used in gentle heavy metal removal from biological systems. Pectin is also used in throat lozenges as a demulcent.  In cosmetic products, pectin acts as a stabilizer. Pectin is also used in wound healing preparations and specialty medical adhesives, such as colostomy devices.  Sriamornsak revealed that pectin could be used in various oral drug delivery platforms, e.g., controlled release systems, gastro-retentive systems, colon-specific delivery systems and mucoadhesive delivery systems, according to its intoxicity and low cost. It was found that pectin from different sources provides different gelling abilities, due to variations in molecular size and chemical composition. Like other natural polymers, a major problem with pectin is inconsistency in reproducibility between samples, which may result in poor reproducibility in drug delivery characteristics.  In ruminant nutrition, depending on the extent of lignification of the cell wall, pectin is up to 90% digestible by bacterial enzymes. Ruminant nutritionists recommend that the digestibility and energy concentration in forages be improved by increasing pectin concentration in the forage.  In cigars, pectin is considered an excellent substitute for vegetable glue and many cigar smokers and collectors use pectin for repairing damaged tobacco leaves on their cigars.  Yablokov "et al.", writing in "", quote research conducted by the Ukrainian Center of Radiation Medicine and the Belarusian Institute of Radiation Medicine and Endocrinology, concluded, regarding pectin's radioprotective effects, that "adding pectin preparations to the food of inhabitants of the Chernobyl-contaminated regions promotes an effective excretion of incorporated radionuclides" such as cesium-137. The authors reported on the positive results of using pectin food additive preparations in a number of clinical studies conducted on children in severely polluted areas, with up to 50% improvement over control groups.  During the Second World War, Allied pilots were provided with maps printed on silk, for navigation in escape and evasion efforts. The printing process at first proved nearly impossible because the several layers of ink immediately ran, blurring outlines and rendering place names illegible until the inventor of the maps, Clayton Hutton, mixed a little pectin with the ink and at once the pectin coagulated the ink and prevented it from running, allowing small topographic features to be clearly visible.

Legal status.

At the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee Report on Food Additives and in the European Union, no numerical acceptable daily intake (ADI) has been set, as pectin is considered safe.  In the United States, pectin is generally recognized as safe for human consumption.  In the International Numbering System (INS), pectin has the number 440. In Europe, pectins are differentiated into the E numbers E440(i) for non-amidated pectins and E440(ii) for amidated pectins. There are specifications in all national and international legislation defining its quality and regulating its use.

History.

Pectin was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot, though the action of pectin to make jams and marmalades was known long before. To obtain well-set jams from fruits that had little or only poor quality pectin, pectin-rich fruits or their extracts were mixed into the recipe.  During the Industrial Revolution, the makers of fruit preserves turned to producers of apple juice to obtain dried apple pomace that was cooked to extract pectin. Later, in the 1920s and 1930s, factories were built that commercially extracted pectin from dried apple pomace and later citrus peel in regions that produced apple juice in both the US and Europe.  Pectin was first sold as a liquid extract, but is now most often used as dried powder, which is easier than a liquid to store and handle.

Pectin (from ', "congealed, curdled") is a structural acidic heteropolysaccharide contained in the primary and middle lamella cell walls of terrestrial plants. Its main component is galacturonic acid, a sugar acid derived from galactose. It was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot. It is produced commercially as a white to light brown powder, mainly extracted from citrus fruits, and is used in food as a gelling agent, particularly in jams and jellies. It is also used in dessert fillings, medicines, sweets, as a stabilizer in fruit juices and milk drinks, and as a source of dietary fiber.

Pektin je lineární polysacharid kyseliny galakturonové, jejího esteru a její vápenato–hořečnaté soli, jenž se podílí na stavbě některých rostlinných pletiv.


Plot summary.

The novel's protagonist, Roy Complain, lives in a culturally-primitive tribe in which curiosity is discouraged, and life is solitary, poor, and short. With a small group, he leaves his home and ventures into uncharted territory. The consequent discoveries will change his perception of the entire universe.  Complain's small tribe roam nomadically through corridors overrun by vegetation. After his wife is kidnapped, a tribal priest, Marapper, encourages Complain to join a furtive expedition into the unexplored corridors. It is Marapper's belief that they are all living on board a moving spacecraft and that if they can reach the control room, they will gain command of the entire gargantuan vessel.  On their journey, the group encounters other tribes of varying levels of sophistication. Complain is also briefly captured by humanoid 'Giants' of legend, who release him with no explanation. Complain's party eventually join the more sophisticated society of the 'Forwards'. Here, they learn that the space-craft is a multi-generational starship returning from a newly colonised planet in the Procyon star system. In a previous generation, the ship's inhabitants had suffered from a pandemic because of an alien amino acid found in the waters of the Procyon planet. Law and order began to collapse, and knowledge of the ship and its purpose was eventually almost entirely lost throughout the vessel. Since the 'Catastrophe', 23 generations have passed so far.  The Forwards have uncertain knowledge of 'Giants', who, though feared, are generally considered to be benevolent. Other mysterious beings, 'Outsiders', are thought to infiltrate the human world from an unknown place and are reviled as enemies. However, when the Giants attack a Forward crew-member, the humans conclude that the Giants and Outsiders are colluding against humanity and prepare to retaliate in force. Meanwhile, Complain and his developing romantic interest Vyann (a Forward officer) learn that the spacecraft should have taken only six generations to return to Earth. Aware that 23 generations have passed since the epidemic, they despairingly deduce that the entire spacecraft is now plummeting into the cold expanse of infinite space. Although they find the ship's control centre, all of its mechanisms have been destroyed.  The Forwards briefly engage the Giants, but the conflict quickly ends. It is then revealed that the ship has been moored outside Earth's atmosphere for a number of years. The 'Giants' are merely normal-sized Earth-humans who have been attempting to improve the conditions of the ship's inhabitants by slowly repairing the vessel. The 'Outsiders' are unusually-short humans from Earth who have infiltrated the ship's various societies to study the development of their civilization.  The rulers of Earth have been reluctant to integrate the ship-dwellers into Earth's civilization because the epidemic survivors have mutated to live four times faster than Earth's population. However, the recent battle on board the spacecraft has caused it to begin an emergency split into its composite parts, ensuring that the entire population will now be granted a new start on Earth.

Reception.

"Galaxy" reviewer Floyd C. Gale gave the novel a mixed review, rating the book 3 1/2 stars out of five and faulting "the shock ending [which] is abrupt and leaves so much unanswered". He later compared the book's "impact to "Tumithak"".  In 2000, the book was re-published as part of the SF Masterworks series. This edition contained some minor revisions by the author.

Non-Stop is a 1958 science fiction novel by Brian Aldiss. It was the author's first novel. Originally published by Faber & Faber, it was published in the U.S. by Criterion Books as Starship in 1959. The novel has been frequently republished in the UK and US and translated into French, German, Danish and other languages. The Signet and Avon US paperback editions were also published under the title "Starship", but American publishers Carroll & Graf and Overlook Press have used the title "Non-Stop".

Nonstop je sci-fi román, poprvé vydaný roku 1958, jehož autorem je Brian Wilson Aldiss. V originále se román jmenuje "Non-stop", ačkoliv několik jeho vydání v USA nese titul "Starship" (Vesmírná loď). Nonstop je přímo inspirován románem Sirotci oblohy od Roberta A. Heinleina a dá se považovat za jeho rozšíření.


History.

Disney XD was launched on February 13, 2009 at 12:00 a.m. Eastern Time, with the "Phineas and Ferb" episode "Dude, We're Getting the Band Back Together" being the first show to air on the channel. The channel debuted its first original series, "Aaron Stone", at 7:00 p.m. New animated series included in the channel's initial lineup were "Kid vs. Kat" and "Jimmy Two-Shoes".  The network took over the channel space of Toon Disney, an animation-focused channel that debuted on April 18, 1998, which eventually launched a live-action/animation block called Jetix in 2004. Jetix channels outside of the United States were relaunched under the Disney XD banner starting with the France-based service on April 1, 2009. Many of the channel's programs – particularly animated series – previously aired on Toon Disney, mainly as part of the Jetix programming block, which ran on Toon Disney until that channel's shutdown. Disney XD carries the same name as an unrelated mini-site and media player on Disney.com, which stood for Disney Xtreme Digital, though it has been stated that the "XD" in the channel's name does not have an actual meaning.  The channel's first original television movie, "Skyrunners", premiered on November 27, 2009. On April 1, 2012, Disney XD launched a block called "Marvel Universe", as a result of Disney's 2009 acquisition of Marvel Entertainment. By June 2014, Disney XD agreed to a multi-picture development deal with Two 4 the Money and MarVista Entertainment with MarVista having global rights.  On November 17, 2016, it was announced that the "Pokémon" anime series would be moving to Disney XD from its previous broadcaster, Cartoon Network. The twentieth season, "", was the first season to air and was first broadcast as a sneak peek on December 5, 2016. "Pokémon" began its regular broadcast on May 12, 2017.  On August 12, 2017, Disney XD premiered a reboot of "DuckTales". In 2018, through a series of promos and news announcements, Disney announced that four of Disney XD's most popular original series, "Star vs. the Forces of Evil", "Milo Murphy's Law", "DuckTales", and "", would be moving their premieres over to Disney Channel, while Disney XD would continue to air re-runs.

Programming.

Disney XD's schedule consists largely of animated and live-action programs aimed at pre-teens and young teenagers. Disney XD content is a mixture of original series as well as programs inherited from sister network Disney Channel. In addition to full-length live-action and animated original series, the channel also debuts short series similar to those seen on Disney Channel during commercial breaks (such as "Two More Eggs"), which serve as filler for programs scheduled to end during the half-hour and last usually around one to three minutes.  New episodes of original series are usually aired at 7:00AM (ET). In addition, Disney XD airs original made-for-TV movies from Disney Channel and theatrically released feature films, but unlike Disney Channel, Disney XD typically does not air these movies in prime time; instead, films generally air during the early evening hours at 6:00 p.m. Eastern Time with double features airing a few times a week.  Unlike Disney Channel (and similarly, fellow sister network Disney Junior)—whose advertising comes in the form of program promotions, underwriter sponsorships, and interstitials for Disney films, home video, and game releases produced by the channel—Disney XD operates as an advertiser-supported service running traditional television commercials in addition to promotions for the channel's shows.

Sports.

The channel also airs a youth-oriented "plays of the week" countdown segment called "SportsCenter High-5", which is produced by ESPN's "SportsCenter" and airs periodically between shows. On January 27, 2019, the 2019 Pro Bowl aired on Disney XD, with the event becoming the first long-form sporting event that the network ever aired (it was also simulcast on ESPN, ESPN Deportes, and ABC).

International channels.

Disney XD, similarly born of a merger between Jetix and Toon Disney, is available around the world.  As of January 6, 2019, Disney XD was closed down in Australia and New Zealand with the shows moving to Disney Channel. In India, the channel was rebranded as Marvel HQ on January 9, 2019. On October 1, 2019 Disney XD closed in Italy following the non-renewal of the contract by Sky.  The Spanish and German versions were closed on April 1, 2020, after the launch of Disney+. The French version was closed on April 7, 2020.

Disney XD is an American multinational pay television channel which is owned by the Walt Disney Television unit of The Walt Disney Company through Disney Channels Worldwide. Aimed primarily at children ages 6–15, its programming consists of original first-run television series, current and former original series and made-for-TV films from sister network Disney Channel, theatrically-released films, and acquired programs from other distributors, including "" and "Beyblade Burst", along with a primetime block of programming involving competitive gaming.

Disney XD je další televizní kanál z rodiny Walt Disney Company. Specializuje se převážně na chlapce ve věku od 11 do 16 let. Vysílá převážně akční seriály, ale nechybí ani filmy z produkce Disney. Kanál nahradil televizi Jetix.


First autopilots.

In the early days of aviation, aircraft required the continuous attention of a pilot to fly safely. As aircraft range increased, allowing flights of many hours, the constant attention led to serious fatigue. An autopilot is designed to perform some of the tasks of the pilot.  The first aircraft autopilot was developed by Sperry Corporation in 1912. The autopilot connected a gyroscopic heading indicator and attitude indicator to hydraulically operated elevators and rudder. (Ailerons were not connected as wing dihedral was counted upon to produce the necessary roll stability.) It permitted the aircraft to fly straight and level on a compass course without a pilot's attention, greatly reducing the pilot's workload.  Lawrence Sperry (the son of famous inventor Elmer Sperry) demonstrated it in 1914 at an aviation safety contest held in Paris. Sperry demonstrated the credibility of the invention by flying the aircraft with his hands away from the controls and visible to onlookers. Elmer Sperry Jr., the son of Lawrence Sperry, and Capt Shiras continued work on the same autopilot after the war, and in 1930 they tested a more compact and reliable autopilot which kept a US Army Air Corps aircraft on a true heading and altitude for three hours.  In 1930, the Royal Aircraft Establishment in the United Kingdom developed an autopilot called a pilots' assister that used a pneumatically-spun gyroscope to move the flight controls.  The autopilot was further developed, to include e.g. improved control algorithms and hydraulic servomechanisms. Adding more instruments such as radio-navigation aids made it possible to fly at night and in bad weather. In 1947 a US Air Force C-54 made a transatlantic flight, including takeoff and landing, completely under the control of an autopilot. Bill Lear developed his F-5 automatic pilot and automatic approach control system, and was awarded the Collier Trophy for 1949.  In the early 1920s, the Standard Oil tanker "J.A. Moffet" became the first ship to use an autopilot.  The Piasecki HUP-2 Retriever was the first production helicopter with an autopilot.  The lunar module digital autopilot of the Apollo program was an early example of a fully digital autopilot system in spacecraft.

Modern autopilots.

Not all of the passenger aircraft flying today have an autopilot system. Older and smaller general aviation aircraft especially are still hand-flown, and even small airliners with fewer than twenty seats may also be without an autopilot as they are used on short-duration flights with two pilots. The installation of autopilots in aircraft with more than twenty seats is generally made mandatory by international aviation regulations. There are three levels of control in autopilots for smaller aircraft. A single-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the roll axis only; such autopilots are also known colloquially as "wing levellers," reflecting their single capability. A two-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the pitch axis as well as roll, and may be little more than a wing leveller with limited pitch oscillation-correcting ability; or it may receive inputs from on-board radio navigation systems to provide true automatic flight guidance once the aircraft has taken off until shortly before landing; or its capabilities may lie somewhere between these two extremes. A three-axis autopilot adds control in the yaw axis and is not required in many small aircraft.  Autopilots in modern complex aircraft are three-axis and generally divide a flight into taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise (level flight), descent, approach, and landing phases. Autopilots exist that automate all of these flight phases except taxi and takeoff. An autopilot-controlled landing on a runway and controlling the aircraft on rollout (i.e. keeping it on the centre of the runway) is known as a CAT IIIb landing or Autoland, available on many major airports' runways today, especially at airports subject to adverse weather phenomena such as fog. Landing, rollout, and taxi control to the aircraft parking position is known as CAT IIIc. This is not used to date, but may be used in the future. An autopilot is often an integral component of a Flight Management System.  Modern autopilots use computer software to control the aircraft. The software reads the aircraft's current position, and then controls a flight control system to guide the aircraft. In such a system, besides classic flight controls, many autopilots incorporate thrust control capabilities that can control throttles to optimize the airspeed.  The autopilot in a modern large aircraft typically reads its position and the aircraft's attitude from an inertial guidance system. Inertial guidance systems accumulate errors over time. They will incorporate error reduction systems such as the carousel system that rotates once a minute so that any errors are dissipated in different directions and have an overall nulling effect. Error in gyroscopes is known as drift. This is due to physical properties within the system, be it mechanical or laser guided, that corrupt positional data. The disagreements between the two are resolved with digital signal processing, most often a six-dimensional Kalman filter. The six dimensions are usually roll, pitch, yaw, altitude, latitude, and longitude. Aircraft may fly routes that have a required performance factor, therefore the amount of error or actual performance factor must be monitored in order to fly those particular routes. The longer the flight, the more error accumulates within the system. Radio aids such as DME, DME updates, and GPS may be used to correct the aircraft position.

Control Wheel Steering.

An option midway between fully automated flight and manual flying is Control Wheel Steering (CWS). Although it is becoming less used as a stand-alone option in modern airliners, CWS is still a function on many aircraft today. Generally, an autopilot that is CWS equipped has three positions: off, CWS, and CMD. In CMD (Command) mode the autopilot has full control of the aircraft, and receives its input from either the heading/altitude setting, radio and navaids, or the FMS (Flight Management System). In CWS mode, the pilot controls the autopilot through inputs on the yoke or the stick. These inputs are translated to a specific heading and attitude, which the autopilot will then hold until instructed to do otherwise. This provides stability in pitch and roll. Some aircraft employ a form of CWS even in manual mode, such as the MD-11 which uses a constant CWS in roll. In many ways, a modern Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft in Normal Law is always in CWS mode. The major difference is that in this system the limitations of the aircraft are guarded by the flight computer, and the pilot cannot steer the aircraft past these limits.

Computer system details.

The hardware of an autopilot varies from implementation to implementation, but is generally designed with redundancy and reliability as foremost considerations. For example, the Rockwell Collins AFDS-770 Autopilot Flight Director System used on the Boeing 777 uses triplicated FCP-2002 microprocessors which have been formally verified and are fabricated in a radiation-resistant process.  Software and hardware in an autopilot are tightly controlled, and extensive test procedures are put in place.  Some autopilots also use design diversity. In this safety feature, critical software processes will not only run on separate computers and possibly even using different architectures, but each computer will run software created by different engineering teams, often being programmed in different programming languages. It is generally considered unlikely that different engineering teams will make the same mistakes. As the software becomes more expensive and complex, design diversity is becoming less common because fewer engineering companies can afford it. The flight control computers on the Space Shuttle used this design: there were five computers, four of which redundantly ran identical software, and a fifth backup running software that was developed independently. The software on the fifth system provided only the basic functions needed to fly the Shuttle, further reducing any possible commonality with the software running on the four primary systems.

Stability augmentation systems.

A stability augmentation system (SAS) is another type of automatic flight control system; however, instead of maintaining the aircraft on a predetermined attitude or flight path, the SAS will actuate the aircraft flight controls to dampen out aircraft buffeting regardless of the attitude or flight path. SAS can automatically stabilize the aircraft in one or more axes. The most common type of SAS is the yaw damper which is used to eliminate the Dutch roll tendency of swept-wing aircraft. Some yaw dampers are integral to the autopilot system while others are stand-alone systems.  Yaw dampers usually consist of a yaw rate sensor (either a gyroscope or angular accelerometer), a computer/amplifier and a servo actuator. The yaw damper uses yaw rate sensor to sense when the aircraft begins a Dutch roll. A computer processes the signals from the yaw rate sensor to determine the amount of rudder movement that is required to dampen out the Dutch roll. The computer then commands the servo actuator to move the rudder that amount. The Dutch roll is dampened out and the aircraft becomes stable about the yaw axis. Because Dutch roll is an instability that is inherent to all swept-wing aircraft, most swept-wing aircraft have some sort of yaw damper system installed.  There are two types of yaw dampers: series yaw dampers and parallel yaw dampers. The servo actuator of a parallel yaw damper will actuate the rudder independently of the rudder pedals while the servo actuator of a series yaw damper is clutched to the rudder control quadrant and will result in pedal movement when the system commands the rudder to move.  Some aircraft have stability augmentation systems that will stabilize the aircraft in more than a single axis. The Boeing B-52, for example, requires both pitch and yaw SAS in order to provide a stable bombing platform. Many helicopters have pitch, roll and yaw SAS systems. Pitch and roll SAS systems operate much the same way as the yaw damper described above; however, instead of dampening out Dutch roll, they will dampen pitch and roll oscillations or buffeting to improve the overall stability of the aircraft.

Autopilot for ILS landings.

Instrument-aided landings are defined in categories by the International Civil Aviation Organization, or ICAO. These are dependent upon the required visibility level and the degree to which the landing can be conducted automatically without input by the pilot.  CAT I – This category permits pilots to land with a decision height of and a forward visibility or Runway Visual Range (RVR) of. Autopilots are not required. CAT II – This category permits pilots to land with a decision height between and and a RVR of. Autopilots have a fail passive requirement.  CAT IIIa -This category permits pilots to land with a decision height as low as and a RVR of. It needs a fail-passive autopilot. There must be only a 10 probability of landing outside the prescribed area.  CAT IIIb – As IIIa but with the addition of automatic roll out after touchdown incorporated with the pilot taking control some distance along the runway. This category permits pilots to land with a decision height less than 50 feet or no decision height and a forward visibility of in Europe (76 metres, compare this to aircraft size, some of which are now over long) or in the United States. For a landing-without-decision aid, a fail-operational autopilot is needed. For this category some form of runway guidance system is needed: at least fail-passive but it needs to be fail-operational for landing without decision height or for RVR below.  CAT IIIc – As IIIb but without decision height or visibility minimums, also known as "zero-zero". Not yet available on commercial airliners, but may be available in the near future.  Fail-passive autopilot: in case of failure, the aircraft stays in a controllable position and the pilot can take control of it to go around or finish landing. It is usually a dual-channel system.  Fail-operational autopilot: in case of a failure below alert height, the approach, flare and landing can still be completed automatically. It is usually a triple-channel system or dual-dual system.

Radio-controlled models.

In radio-controlled modelling, and especially RC aircraft and helicopters, an autopilot is usually a set of extra hardware and software that deals with pre-programming the model's flight.

An autopilot is a system used to control the trajectory of an aircraft, marine craft or spacecraft without constant manual control by a human operator being required. Autopilots do not replace human operators, but instead they assist them in controlling the vehicle. This allows them to focus on broader aspects of operations such as monitoring the trajectory, weather and systems.

Autopilot je technické zařízení, které je během letu, plavby či jízdy schopné ovládat stroj (např. letadlo, vrtulník, kosmickou loď a jiné) bez asistence lidské posádky.