Early years.

Condorcet was born in Ribemont (in present-day Aisne), descended from the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from the town of Condorcet in Dauphiné, of which they were long-time residents. Fatherless at a young age, he was raised by his devoutly religious mother. He was educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the "Collège de Navarre" in Paris, where he quickly showed his intellectual ability and gained his first public distinctions in mathematics. When he was sixteen, his analytical abilities gained the praise of Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Alexis Clairaut; soon, Condorcet would study under d'Alembert.  From 1765 to 1774, he focused on science. In 1765, he published his first work on mathematics, entitled "Essai sur le calcul intégral", which was well received, launching his career as a mathematician. He went on to publish more papers, and on 25 February 1769, he was elected to the "Académie royale des Sciences". In 1772, he published another paper on integral calculus. Soon after, he met Jacques Turgot, a French economist, and the two became friends. Turgot became an administrator under King Louis XV in 1772 and Controller-General of Finance under Louis XVI in 1774.  Condorcet worked with Leonhard Euler and Benjamin Franklin. He soon became an honorary member of many foreign academies and philosophic societies, including the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1785), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1792) and also in Prussia and Russia.  His political ideas, many in congruity with Turgot's, were criticized heavily in the English-speaking world, however, most notably by John Adams who wrote two of his principal works of political philosophy to oppose Turgot's and Condorcet's unicameral legislature and radical democracy.

Early political career.

In 1774, Condorcet was appointed inspector general of the Paris mint by Turgot. From this point on, Condorcet shifted his focus from the purely mathematical to philosophy and political matters. In the following years, he took up the defense of human rights in general, and of women's and Blacks' rights in particular (an abolitionist, he became active in the Society of the Friends of the Blacks in the 1780s). He supported the ideals embodied by the newly formed United States, and proposed projects of political, administrative and economic reforms intended to transform France.  In 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. Consequently, Condorcet submitted his resignation as Inspector General of the "Monnaie", but the request was refused, and he continued serving in this post until 1791. Condorcet later wrote "Vie de M. Turgot" (1786), a biography which spoke fondly of Turgot and advocated Turgot's economic theories. Condorcet continued to receive prestigious appointments: in 1777, he became Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences, holding the post until the abolition of the Académie in 1793; and, in 1782, secretary of the "Académie française".

Condorcet's paradox and the Condorcet method.

In 1785, Condorcet published his "Essay on the Application of Analysis to the Probability of Majority Decisions", one of his most important works. This work described several now famous results, including Condorcet's jury theorem, which states that if each member of a voting group is more likely than not to make a correct decision, the probability that the highest vote of the group is the correct decision increases as the number of members of the group increases, and Condorcet's paradox, which shows that majority preferences can become intransitive with three or more options – it is possible for a certain electorate to express a preference for A over B, a preference for B over C, and a preference for C over A, all from the same set of ballots.  The paper also outlines a generic Condorcet method, designed to simulate pair-wise elections between all candidates in an election. He disagreed strongly with the alternative method of aggregating preferences put forth by Jean-Charles de Borda (based on summed rankings of alternatives). Condorcet was one of the first to systematically apply mathematics in the social sciences.

Other works.

In 1781, Condorcet wrote a pamphlet, "Reflections on Negro Slavery", in which he denounced slavery. In 1786, Condorcet worked on ideas for the differential and integral calculus, giving a new treatment of infinitesimals – a work which apparently was never published. In 1789, he published "Vie de Voltaire (1789)", which agreed with Voltaire in his opposition to the Church. In 1791, Condorcet, along with Sophie de Grouchy, Thomas Paine, Etienne Dumont, Jacques-Pierre Brissot, and Achilles Duchastellet published a brief journal titled "Le Républicain", its main goal being the promotion of republicanism and the rejection of constitutional monarchy. The journal's theme was that any sort of monarchy is a threat to freedom no matter who is leading and that liberty is freedom from domination.  In 1795, Condorcet had a book published called "Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind". It dealt with theoretical thought on perfecting the human mind and analyzing intellectual history based on social arithmetic. Thomas Malthus wrote "An Essay on the Principle of Population" (1798) partly in response to Condorcet's views on the ""perfectibility of society"."

French Revolution.

Deputy.

Condorcet took a leading role when the French Revolution swept France in 1789, hoping for a rationalist reconstruction of society, and championed many liberal causes. As a result, in 1791 he was elected as a Paris representative in the Legislative Assembly, and then became the secretary of the Assembly.  In April 1792 Condorcet presented a project for the reformation of the education system, aiming to create a hierarchical system, under the authority of experts, who would work as the guardians of the Enlightenment and who, independent of power, would be the guarantors of public liberties. The project was judged to be contrary to the republican and egalitarian virtues, giving the education of the Nation over to an aristocracy of savants. The institution adopted Condorcet's design for the state education system, and he drafted a proposed Bourbon Constitution for the new France.  He advocated women's suffrage for the new government, writing an article for "Journal de la Société de 1789", and by publishing "De l'admission des femmes au droit de cité" ("For the Admission to the Rights of Citizenship For Women") in 1790.  Condorcet was not affiliated with any political party but counted many friends among the Girondins. He distanced himself from them during the National Convention, however, due to his distaste for their factionalism.  At the Trial of Louis XVI, Condorcet, who opposed the death penalty albeit supporting the trial itself, spoke out against the execution of the King during the public vote at the Convention – he proposed to send the king to the galleys.  Condorcet was on the Constitution Committee and was the main author of the Girondin constitutional project. The constitution was not put to vote. When the Montagnards gained control of the Convention, they wrote their own, the French Constitution of 1793. Condorcet criticized the new work, and as a result, he was branded a traitor. On 3 October 1793, a warrant was issued for Condorcet's arrest.

Arrest and death.

The warrant forced Condorcet into hiding. He hid for five (or eight) months in the house of Mme. Vernet, on Rue Servandoni, in Paris. It was there that he wrote "Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain" ("Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit"), which was published posthumously in 1795 and is considered one of the major texts of the Enlightenment and of historical thought. It narrates the history of civilization as one of progress in the sciences, shows the intimate connection between scientific progress and the development of human rights and justice, and outlines the features of a future rational society entirely shaped by scientific knowledge.  On 25 March 1794 Condorcet, convinced he was no longer safe, left his hideout and attempted to flee Paris. He went to seek refuge at the house of Jean-Baptiste Suard, a friend of his with whom he had resided in 1772, but he was refused on the basis that he would be betrayed by one of their residents. Two days later, he was arrested in Clamart and imprisoned in Bourg-la-Reine (or, as it was known during the Revolution, "Bourg-l'Égalité", "Equality Borough" rather than "Queen's Borough") where, after another two days, he was found dead in his cell. The most widely accepted theory is that his friend, Pierre Jean George Cabanis, gave him a poison which he eventually used. However, some historians believe that he may have been murdered (perhaps because he was too loved and respected to be executed). Jean-Pierre Brancourt (in his work "L'élite, la mort et la révolution") claims that Condorcet was killed with a mixture of "Datura stramonium" and opium.  Condorcet was symbolically interred in the Panthéon in 1989, in honour of the bicentennial of the French Revolution and Condorcet's role as a central figure in the Enlightenment. His coffin, however, was empty as his remains, originally interred in the common cemetery of Bourg-la-Reine, were lost during the nineteenth century.

Family.

In 1786 Condorcet married Sophie de Grouchy, who was more than twenty years his junior. Sophie, reckoned one of the most beautiful women of the day, became an accomplished salon hostess as Madame de Condorcet, and also an accomplished translator of Thomas Paine and Adam Smith. She was intelligent and well educated, fluent in both English and Italian. The marriage was a strong one, and Sophie visited her husband regularly while he remained in hiding. Although she began proceedings for divorce in January 1794, it was at the insistence of Condorcet and Cabanis, who wished to protect their property from expropriation and to provide financially for Sophie and their young daughter, Louise 'Eliza' Alexandrine.  Condorcet was survived by his widow and four-year-old Eliza. Sophie died in 1822, never having remarried, and having published all her husband's works between 1801 and 1804. Her work was carried on by Eliza, wife of former United Irishman Arthur O'Connor. The Condorcet-O'Connors published a revised edition between 1847 and 1849.

Gender equality.

Condorcet's work was mainly focused on a quest for a more egalitarian society. This path led him to think and write about gender equality in the Revolutionary context. In 1790, he published ""De l'admission des femmes au droit de cité"" ("On the Admission of Women to the Rights of Citizenship") in which he strongly advocated for women's suffrage in the new Republic as well as the enlargement of basic political and social rights to include women. One of the most famous Enlightenment thinkers at the time, he was one of the first to make such a radical proposal. A visionary, he identified gender as a social construction based on perceived differences in sex and rejected biological determinism as being able to explain gender relations in society. He denounced patriarchal norms of oppression, present at every institutional level, and continuously subjugating and marginalising women. Like fellow Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his book "Emile ou De l'Education" (1762), Condorcet identified education as crucial to the emancipation of individuals. He stated: "I believe that all other differences between men and women are simply the result of education". He saw it as the only solution for women to deconstruct gender roles and promote another kind of masculinity, not based on violence, virility and the subjugation of women but rather on shared attributes such as reason and intelligence. In her book "Essays in the Philosophy of Humanism", Hooks calls this new concept "feminine masculinity", "new models of self–assertion that do not require the construction of an enemy 'other,' be it a woman or the symbolic feminine, for them to define themselves against".  Condorcet's whole plea for gender equality is founded on the recognition that the attribution of rights and authority comes from the false assumption that men possess reason and women do not. This is, according to Nall, an obvious example of an individual practising and advocating this feminist masculinity. As such, women should enjoy the same fundamental "natural right".  Scholars often disagree on the true impact that Condorcet's work had on pre-modern feminist thinking. His detractors point out that, when he was eventually given some responsibilities in the constitutional drafting process, his convictions did not translate into concrete political action and he made limited efforts to push these issues on the agenda. Some scholars on the other hand, believe that this lack of action is not due to the weakness of his commitment but rather to the political atmosphere at the time and the absence of political appetite for gender equality on the part of decision-makers. Along with authors such as Mary Wollstonecraft, d'Alembert or Olympe de Gouges, Condorcet made a lasting contribution to the pre-feminist debate.

The Idea of Progress.

Condorcet's "Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit" (1795) was perhaps the most influential formulation of the idea of progress ever written. It made the Idea of Progress a central concern of Enlightenment thought. He argued that expanding knowledge in the natural and social sciences would lead to an ever more just world of individual freedom, material affluence, and moral compassion. He argued for three general propositions: that the past revealed an order that could be understood in terms of the progressive development of human capabilities, showing that humanity's "present state, and those through which it has passed, are a necessary constitution of the moral composition of humankind"; that the progress of the natural sciences must be followed by progress in the moral and political sciences "no less certain, no less secure from political revolutions"; that social evils are the result of ignorance and error rather than an inevitable consequence of human nature.  Condorcet's writings were a key contribution to the French Enlightenment, particularly his work on the Idea of Progress. Condorcet believed that through the use of our senses and communication with others, knowledge could be compared and contrasted as a way of analyzing our systems of belief and understanding. None of Condorcet's writings refer to a belief in a religion or a god who intervenes in human affairs. Condorcet instead frequently had written of his faith in humanity itself and its ability to progress with the help of philosophers such as Aristotle. Through this accumulation and sharing of knowledge he believed it was possible for any man to comprehend all the known facts of the natural world. The enlightenment of the natural world spurred the desire for enlightenment of the social and political world. Condorcet believed that there was no definition of the perfect human existence and thus believed that the progression of the human race would inevitably continue throughout the course of our existence. He envisioned man as continually progressing toward a perfectly utopian society. He believed in the great potential towards growth that man possessed.  However, Condorcet stressed that for this to be a possibility man must unify regardless of race, religion, culture or gender. To this end, he became a member of the French Société des Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of the Blacks). He wrote a set of rules for the Society of the Friends of the Blacks which detailed the reasoning and goals behind the organization along with describing the injustice of slavery and put in a statement calling for the abolition of the slave trade as the first step to true abolition.  Condorcet was also a strong proponent of women's civil rights. He claimed that women were equal to men in nearly every aspect and asked why then should they be debarred from their fundamental civil rights; the few differences that existed were due to the fact that women were limited by their lack of rights. Condorcet even mentioned several women who were more capable than average men, such as Queen Elizabeth and Maria-Theresa.

Civic duty.

For Condorcet's republicanism the nation needed enlightened citizens and education needed democracy to become truly public. Democracy implied free citizens, and ignorance was the source of servitude. Citizens had to be provided with the necessary knowledge to exercise their freedom and understand the rights and laws that guaranteed their enjoyment. Although education could not eliminate disparities in talent, all citizens, including women, had the right to free education. In opposition to those who relied on revolutionary enthusiasm to form the new citizens, Condorcet maintained that revolution was not made to last and that revolutionary institutions were not intended to prolong the revolutionary experience but to establish political rules and legal mechanisms that would insure future changes without revolution. In a democratic city there would be no Bastille to be seized. Public education would form free and responsible citizens, not revolutionaries.

Evaluation.

Rothschild (2001) argues that Condorcet has been seen since the 1790s as the embodiment of the cold, rational Enlightenment. However she suggests his writings on economic policy, voting, and public instruction indicate different views both of Condorcet and of the Enlightenment. Condorcet was concerned with individual diversity; he was opposed to proto-utilitarian theories; he considered individual independence, which he described as the characteristic liberty of the moderns, to be of central political importance; and he opposed the imposition of universal and eternal principles. His efforts to reconcile the universality of some values with the diversity of individual opinions are of continuing interest. He emphasizes the institutions of civilized or constitutional conflict, recognizes conflicts or inconsistencies within individuals, and sees moral sentiments as the foundation of universal values. His difficulties call into question some familiar distinctions, for example between French, German, and English-Scottish thought, and between the Enlightenment and the counter-Enlightenment. There was substantial continuity between Condorcet's criticism of the economic ideas of the 1760s and the liberal thought of the early 19th century.  The Lycée Condorcet in the rue du Havre, in the 9th arrondissement of Paris, is named in his honour, as are streets in many French cities.

Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis of Condorcet (; 17 September 1743 – 29 March 1794), known as Nicolas de Condorcet, was a French philosopher and mathematician. His ideas, including support for a liberal economy, free and equal public instruction, constitutional government, and equal rights for women and people of all races, have been said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment and Enlightenment rationalism. He died in prison after a period of flight from French Revolutionary authorities.

Nicolas de Condorcet ["nikola de kondorse"], plným jménem Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, markýz de Condorcet (17. září 1743, Ribemont, Aisne – 28. března 1794, Bourg-la-Reine u Paříže) byl francouzský matematik, osvícenský filosof a liberální demokratický politik, člen Francouzské akademie. Za Velké francouzské revoluce byl od roku 1792 předsedou Zákonodárného shromáždění a zemřel ve vězení.


Armament.

Like their US and Japanese counterparts of that era, the Town-class cruisers were "light cruisers" in the strict terms of the London Treaty, which defined a "light cruiser" as one having a main armament no greater than 6.1 in (155 mm) calibre. All three major naval powers sought to circumvent the limitations on heavy cruiser numbers by building light cruisers that were equal in size and effective power to heavy cruisers. These ships made up for their smaller calibre guns by carrying larger numbers of them.  All of these ships carried BL 6-inch Mk XXIII guns in triple turrets, with the centre gun mounted behind the two outer guns to prevent interference between the shells in flight and to give the gunners more room to work in. The turret roofs had cutouts at the front to allow extreme elevation, originally intended to give the guns an anti-aircraft capability. In practice the guns could not be trained or manually loaded quickly enough for continuous anti-aircraft fire, so the Royal Navy designed the Auto Barrage Unit (ABU) which allowed the guns to be loaded with time-fuzed shells and then fired when the target aircraft reached a set range. These ships were equipped with the HACS AA fire control system for the secondary armament and the Admiralty Fire Control Table for surface fire control of the main armament. The secondary armament consisted of four twin Mk XIX 4-inch turrets, and two quad pom-poms. Additional light anti-aircraft weapons were added during the war and the 4-inch mounts were converted to Remote Power Control (RPC). Postwar the "Birmingham" and "Newcastle" were partially reconstructed in 1949–51 with enclosed bridges, new lattice masts, improved surface fire control and long range radar and an improved but still unreliable version of the Glasshouse Directors with 275 lock and follow radar, with flyplane control for the twin 4 inch guns with elevation speed increased to 15–20 degrees per second, to engage faster jet aircraft. Similar electronic alterations were made to "Sheffield" but it received less structural alteration. "Liverpool" was put into reserve in 1952 to preserve it for potential modernisation and "Glasgow" had a less extensive refit to allow her to be sent quickly if needed in the Suez crisis of 1956. "Birmingham", "Newcastle" and " Sheffield" had the pom pom and 20 mm armament replaced by 40mm Bofors mounts. " Belfast" was fitted with MRS 8 HACDT to combine 40 mm and twin 4 inch AA fire and to permit the use of 40 mm proximity fused ammunition as used by the British Army.

Sub-classes.

"Southampton".

In the mid-1930s, the was the Royal Navy's latest light cruiser design, with the intention that it number six vessels. However, in response to new, heavily armed small cruisers of the United States and Japanese es, the last two planned ships, and, were cancelled and re-ordered as a new, much larger cruiser type, with the new ships named as and. Based on the initial design chosen in November 1933, the estimated cost of the new ships was £2.1m each compared to an estimated cost of £1.6m each for a cruiser.  Initially the class was designated the "M" or "Minotaur" class but was renamed the Town class in November 1934.  Uniquely, the final "Southampton" class cruiser, HMS "Birmingham", was built with a fully flared bow and is easily distinguished by the lack of the prominent knuckle found on her sister-ships. This was due to some elements in the Admiralty being doubtful of the benefits offered by the knuckle design. This modification was introduced during construction in March 1935 but was not continued in the follow-on " Gloucester" class.

"Gloucester".

The subsequent "Gloucester"s, added a second director control tower for two channels of fire at long range against ship or shore targets and better protection against plunging fire with a redesigned deck, an intermediate layer of armour above the magazines and machinery area and received thicker armour on the gun turrets. The extra weight is balanced with extra beam, increased from 64.02ft in the Southampton to 64.10ft in the three Gloucester ships and more propulsion power with 82,000 shp engines to maintain speed and add more electrical generation.

"Edinburgh".

The "Edinburgh" class were longer at compared to, initially to allow an increase in the main armament from twelve 6 in (152 mm) guns in four triple turrets as in the two previous sub-classes, to sixteen 6 in guns in four quadruple turrets. The idea was soon shelved however, due to the difficulties in actually manufacturing an effective quadruple 6 in turret, and so the class reverted to the original main armament design, although improved through a "long trunk" Mk XXIII turret design, which reduced the crew requirements and increased the speed of the ammunition hoists. Four extra 4 in (102 mm) "High Angle Low Angle" guns and eight extra 2-pounder (40 mm) guns and further armour protection were added instead.  Additional ships using the design of "Belfast" were considered by the Admiralty in 1940 but were eventually rejected.

Later improvements.

All were heavily modified during the Second World War and after the Korean War;, and had one aft turret replaced by two quad 40 mm Bofors guns during the Second World War, since there was insufficient space to fit the needed extra anti-aircraft guns and retain the turret. This was not a problem in the "Edinburgh"s, because they were longer and had more room. They still had substantial modifications to their weaponry, including addition of 40 mm Bofors guns. The addition of radar equipment during the Second World War aided the ships' combat effectiveness.

Service.

The first Town-class ship was launched in 1936 and commissioned in 1937, just two years before the outbreak of war. The class saw much service during the Second World War and took part in many famous actions, such as the sinking of the. Four,,,, and, were sunk during the war. The surviving ships continued in active service to the end of the 1950s, some seeing action during the Korean War. The last Town-class ship to be scrapped was "Sheffield" in 1967. One ship of the Town-class — — remains, moored on the River Thames in London as a museum-ship of the Imperial War Museum, a role she has performed since 1971.

The Town class was a 10-ship class of light cruisers of the Royal Navy. The Towns were designed to the constraints imposed by the London Naval Treaty of 1930. The ships were built in three distinct sub-classes, the "Southampton", "Gloucester" and "Edinburgh" classes respectively, each sub-class adding on further weaponry.

Třída Town byla desetičlenná třída lehkých křižníků pro Royal Navy, jejíž první loď byla spuštěna na vodu roku 1936. Třídu "Town" dělíme na podtřídy "Southampton", "Gloucester" a "Edinburgh", které se od sebe lišily výzbrojí.


Mark VII 1950–1954.

The Mark VII chassis came from the Jaguar Mark V and the wheelbase remained the same at. The new model's body looked more streamlined, with integrated headlights and mudguards, a two-piece windscreen, and longer rear overhang. As on the Mark V, the rear wheels were partially covered by removable spats.  Whereas the Mark V had a prewar pushrod engine originally developed by the Standard Motor Company, the Mark VII was powered by the newly developed XK engine. First seen in production form in the 1948 XK120, the 3442 cc DOHC straight-six provided, the same as in the XK120, and the saloon's claimed top speed was over 100 mph (160 km/h).  When the car was being developed Jaguar thought it would find most of its customers overseas, mainly because UK car tax at that time penalised buyers of larger-engined cars. However it went into production just as Britain's postwar economic austerity began to ease, and in 1951 the car's enthusiastic reception in both the British and American markets prompted Jaguar to relocate production to larger premises, at the Browns Lane plant, which had been built for wartime production as a shadow factory and was now available for immediate use.  The published performance figures for the Mark VII were based on the standard 8:1 compression ratio, but as this was unsuitable for the UK market's low-octane Pool petrol a 7:1 engine was optional. British motoring magazines tested the car's performance with the higher compression ratio, using the Ostend to Brussels autoroute in Belgium, where 80 octane fuel was available. A Mark VII tested by "The Motor" in 1952 had a top speed of, accelerated from 0– in 13.7 seconds and returned. The test car cost £1693 including taxes.  In 1952 the Mark VII became the first Jaguar to be offered with automatic transmission.  By the time the model was upgraded to M specification in 1954, 20,908 had been produced.

Mark VII M 1954–1956.

The Mark VII M was launched at the British International Motor Show in October 1954. Although the engine continued with the same capacity and 8:1 compression ratio now given high-lift cams it was uprated to, giving the car a claimed top speed of 104 mph (167 km/h).  The four-speed manual gearbox remained the standard fitting but was now constant mesh and fitted with closer ratios, while the Borg Warner automatic, hitherto available only on exported Mark VIIs, now became optional for British buyers. Larger torsion bars were fitted to the front suspension. Flasher-type traffic indicators replaced semaphore arms. Distinguishing the Mark VII M from its predecessor, circular grilles over the horns were installed below the headlights in place of the former integrated auxiliary lamps, which were moved slightly further apart up-rated and mounted on the bumper. Both bumpers now wrapped further around the sides of the car. New large tail lamps with built-in reflectors now incorporated direction indicators. New headlamps were given Le Mans type diffuser glasses. Seats were now full length and incorporated Dunlopillo.  In 1956, with the advent of the Suez Crisis Britain anticipated fuel rationing, and bubble cars appeared on the streets. Jaguar switched focus to their smaller saloons (the Mark I 2.4 had been introduced in 1955), and neither the Mark VII M nor any of its increasingly powerful but fuel-thirsty successors would match the production volumes of the original Jaguar Mark VII. Nevertheless, before it was superseded by the Mark VIII, the Mark VII M achieved 10,061 sales during its two-year production run.

Racing and rallying.

Both variants of the Mark VII won race victories, and an M version won a Monte Carlo Rally.  In 1954 Jaguar built a lightweight Mark VII M which, although intended for racing, never participated in contemporary events. Road-registered KRW 621, it had magnesium body panels, D-type engine, Dunlop disc brakes and modified suspension.  Factory-entered Mark VIIs won the Daily Express International Trophy Production Touring Car race at Silverstone five years running, and twice took the top three places. Stirling Moss won in 1952 and 1953; Ian Appleyard in 1954, with Tony Rolt and Stirling Moss 2nd and 3rd; Mike Hawthorn in 1955, from his teammates Jimmy Stewart and Desmond Titterington in 2nd and 3rd; and Ivor Bueb in 1956, with Belgian journalist and racing driver Paul Frère taking 4th.  In January 1956 a Mark VII M driven by Ronnie Adams, Frank Biggar, and Derek Johnstone won the Monte Carlo Rally.  In August 1956, at Road America, in Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin, Paul Goldsmith's Mark VII averaged 59.2 mph to win a 100-mile NASCAR Grand National race for cars up to 3500 cc.

The Jaguar Mark VII is a four-door luxury car produced by Jaguar Cars of Coventry from 1951 to 1956. Launched at the 1950 British International Motor Show as the successor to the Jaguar Mark V, it was called the Mark VII because there was already a Bentley Mark VI on the market. A version of the Jaguar Mark V with the XK engine had been designated as the Mark VI, but it is thought that only two were built.

Jaguar Mark VII byl luxusní automobil vyráběný britskou automobilkou Jaguar Cars od roku 1950 do roku 1954. Jeho předchůdcem byl model Mark V, nástupcem pak od roku 1956 model Mark VIII.


Receptors involved in platelet adhesion to collagen.

Membrane glycoproteins GPIa/IIa, GPVI and probably GPIV as well, function as receptors engaged in platelet adhesion to collagen. The leading role in the elimination of high-stress injury is taken by the GPIb-IX-V complex.

Interactions of the platelet surface glycoproteins.

The binding of von Willebrand factor (vWF) results in conformational changes within the GPIb-V-IX complex. In consequence, this complex activates GPIIb / IIIa membrane glycoproteins, allowing them to bind fibrinogen. Fibrinogen molecules then interconnect the platelets, serving as the basis for platelet aggregation. In the absence of fibrinogen, the platelets are joined by vWF due to its ability to bind the activated GPIIb / IIIa complex.

Membrane glycoproteins.

Glycoprotein Ib-IX-V complex (GPIb-IX-V).

This transmembrane glycoprotein complex is composed of four subunits: GPIbα, GPIbβ, GPV and GPIX. Each of them has a variable number of leucine-rich repeats. GPIbα and GPIbβ are linked by disulfide bridges, while the GPV and GPIX associate non-covalently with the complex. The GPIbα subunit bears the binding site for von Willebrand factor (vWF), α-thrombin, leukocyte integrin αMβ2 and P-selectin. The binding between GPIbα and vWF mediates the capture of platelets to the injured vascular wall. The deficiency in glycoprotein Ib-IX-V complex synthesis leads to Bernard–Soulier syndrome.

Glycoprotein VI (GPVI).

Glycoprotein VI is one of the immunoglobulin superfamily type I transmembrane glycoproteins. It is an important collagen receptor involved in collagen-induced platelet activation and adhesion. It plays a key role in their procoagulant activity and subsequent thrombin and fibrin formation. Its procoagulant function may contribute to arterial or venous thrombosis. The FCR pathway of GPVI activation involves γ chain (GPVI transmembrane domain associates with γ chain FCR), Src kinase FYN / LYN, and LAT adaptor protein, all participating in phospholipase C activation.

Glycoprotein Ia / IIa complex (GPIa / IIa = integrin αβ).

This is a receptor for collagen type I and IV. It consists of two subunits (α and β). The α subunit includes a domain homologous to von Willebrand factor domain binding to collagen. The β subunit has four cysteine-rich regions and a structure similar to other β-integrins. The interaction with collagen leads to stabilization of the platelets. The surface expression of this complex shows high variability, particularly in relation to the polymorphism of GPIa subunit gene. Different opinions exist on the importance of C - T point mutation at position 807, which is believed to be associated with the risk of myocardial infarction or ischemic stroke.

Glycoprotein IIb / IIIa complex (GPIIb / IIIa = integrin αβ).

This complex interacts with fibrinogen and thus plays an important role in platelet aggregation and adhesion to endothelial surfaces. Activation of this complex initiates the platelet aggregation and the formation of primary platelet plug, a fibrin clot. The IIb / IIIa complex is a major platelet membrane component. There are as many as 50 000 copies. The α (GPIIb) is composed of two subunits linked by disulfide bridges. The β (GPIIIa) forms a single polypeptide chain. These subunits form Ca - dependent complex on the surface of platelet membrane in a 1:1 ratio.  Fibrinogen sites recognized by glycoprotein IIb / IIIa complex:  This complex also binds vWF, fibronectin and vitronectin. In the resting state the contact between the two protein subunits (necessary for the complex activation) is prevented by aggregin, which disables their contact necessary for the complex activation. The complex can be activated by ADP. When bound to ADP, conformational changes occur within the aggregin molecule and consequently, it dissociates from the two subunits. Furthermore, the complex can be activated by thrombin. Thrombin binding to its receptor activates protein kinase C and increases the level of inositol triphosphate. Consequently, there is a release of calcium ions that activate calpain. Calpain cleaves aggregin, and thus allows for joining of the two subunits. Deficiency in the IIb / IIIa complex is described as Glanzmann's thrombasthenia. Patients completely lack the ability to aggregate platelets.

GPV / IIIa (GPV / IIa = integrin αβ).

This is a heterodimer. Its α subunit is 36% identical to the GPIIb subunit. This complex is located mainly on endothelial cells but also on smooth muscle cells, macrophages and platelets. Its main function is in the adhesion of cells to the extracellular matrix components.

Platelet membrane glycoproteins are surface glycoproteins found on platelets (thrombocytes) which play a key role in hemostasis. When the blood vessel wall is damaged, platelet membrane glycoproteins interact with the extracellular matrix.

Membránové glykoproteiny na krevních destičkách (trombocytech) mají klíčový význam pro hemokoagulaci. Při poškození cévní stěny destičky interagují pomocí svých glykoproteinových receptorů s komponenty extracelulární matrix.


Description.

The following description was created by combining descriptions of "Medusandra" and "Peridiscus" by John Hutchinson with descriptions of "Soyauxia", "Peridiscus", and "Whittonia" by Clemens Bayer.  Peridiscaceae are small trees or erect shrubs. The leaves are stipulate, alternate, and simple, with margins that are entire or remotely crenulate ("Medusandra"). The petiole is pulvinate, at its apex, sometimes obscurely so. The stipules are in the axils of the leaves, sometimes enclosing an axillary bud.  The inflorescence is a cluster of axillary racemes or spikes, the clusters often being reduced to a pair of racemes or to a single raceme. The flowers are bisexual and actinomorphic. The sepals are 4 to 7 in number, and free, that is, separate from each other. "Medusandra" and "Soyauxia" have five petals. "Peridiscus" and "Whittonia" have none.  "Medusandra" lacks a nectary disk and has five stamens, inserted opposite the petals, and alternating with five long, hairy staminodes. In the others, the stamens are numerous and arranged in a ring around the nectary disk. The anthers are tetrathecal in "Medusandra" and "Soyauxia"; bithecal in "Peridiscus" and "Whittonia".  The perianth parts are attached below the ovary. The ovary is therefore superior, but appears half-inferior in "Peridiscus" because the ovary is embedded in the large, fleshy disk. The gynoecium consists of three or four carpels, united to form a unilocular ovary. The placentation is apical, with two ovules at the apex of each carpel. The ovary has a central column in "Medusandra" and "Soyauxia". Each carpel bears a stylulus and these are well separated at the apex of the ovary.  The fruit is one-seeded; a capsule in "Medusandra" and "Soyauxia"; a drupe in "Peridiscus" and "Whittonia".

History.

George Bentham established the genus "Peridiscus" in 1862, naming its only species "Peridiscus lucidus". He placed it in a group which he called "Tribus Flacourtieae" and which later would be known as the family Flacourtiaceae. Bentham wrote no etymology for this name, but it is generally believed that the name refers to the fact that the stamens are attached along the outer edge of the nectary disk.  Daniel Oliver established the genus "Soyauxia" in 1880 for "Soyauxia gabonensis", placing it in the family Passifloraceae. He named it for the German botanist and plant collector Hermann Soyaux, saying "Mons. Soyaux, now settled in the Gaboon, well deserves that his name should be associated with one of his interesting discoveries in that region".  The family Flacourtiaceae was, as Hermann Sleumer said, a fiction, and "Peridiscus" was, from the outset, one of its most doubtful members. Recognizing its distinctiveness, João Kuhlmann segregated it into its own family in 1947.  In 1952, John Brenan named and described "Medusandra", erecting a new family, Medusandraceae to accommodate it. In 1953, Brenan transferred "Soyauxia" from Passifloraceae to Medusandraceae, but few others agreed with his classification. In 1954, John Hutchinson and John McEwen Dalziel followed Brenan's treatment in the second edition of their "Flora of West Tropical Africa". Hutchinson, however, soon recanted, explaining in some detail why he thought that "Medusandra" and "Soyauxia" were not related.  In 1962, Noel Y. Sandwith named and described "Whittonia". In an accompanying article, Charles Russell Metcalfe discussed its close relationship to "Peridiscus". For four decades thereafter, Peridiscaceae was viewed as a family of uncertain taxonomic position, containing two genera.  In the year 2000, a DNA sequence for the "rbcL" gene of "Whittonia" was produced and used in a molecular phylogenetic study of the eudicots. This study placed Peridiscaceae in a clade with Elatinaceae and Malpighiaceae, a very surprising and unexpected result. On the basis of this phylogeny, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group placed Peridiscaceae in Malpighiales when they published the APG II system of plant classification in 2003. It was soon found that the "rbcL" sequence for "Whittonia" was a chimera, formed by DNA from unidentified plants that had contaminated the sample. No subsequent attempt to extract DNA from "Whittonia" has been made.  In 2004, using DNA from "Peridiscus", it was shown that Elatinaceae and Malpighiaceae are indeed sister families and that Peridiscaceae belong to Saxifragales. "Medusandra" and "Soyauxia", meanwhile, were listed in APG II in an appendix entitled "TAXA OF UNCERTAIN POSITION".  DNA from "Soyauxia" was eventually obtained, and in 2007, it was shown that "Soyauxia" is most closely related to "Peridiscus" and, presumably, "Whittonia". Since this result has a good morphological basis, "Soyauxia" was duly transferred to Peridiscaceae. This study also found strong statistical support for the inclusion of Peridiscaceae in Saxifragales, but no strong support for any particular position within that order.  In 2008, in a study employing a large amount of chloroplast DNA data, as well as some mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, it was shown that Peridiscaceae is sister to the rest of Saxifragales.  It had been suspected that "Medusandra" might belong somewhere in Malpighiales, but a phylogeny of that order, generated in 2009, placed "Medusandra" in Saxifragales. The authors had included "Medusandra" and a few other members of Saxifragales in their outgroup, finding strong support for a clade of ["Medusandra" + ("Soyauxia" + "Peridiscus")]. When the APG III system was published in October 2009, Peridiscaceae was expanded to include "Medusandra" and "Soyauxia". John Brenan, 57 years before, had been prescient in his perception of a relationship between "Medusandra" and "Soyauxia".

Phylogeny.

The phylogeny is diagrammed as a phylogenetic tree below. The relationships shown are from Wurdack and Davis (2009) except for the position of "Whittonia", for which no DNA sequences are known. "Peridiscus" and "Whittonia" are undoubtedly sister taxa due to their many shared morphological characters.

Peridiscaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Saxifragales. Four genera comprise this family: "Medusandra, Soyauxia, Peridiscus", and "Whittonia"., with a total of 12 known species. It has a disjunct distribution, with "Peridiscus" occurring in Venezuela and northern Brazil, "Whittonia" in Guyana, "Medusandra" in Cameroon, and "Soyauxia" in tropical West Africa. "Whittonia" is possibly extinct, being known from only one specimen collected below Kaieteur Falls in Guyana. In 2006, archeologists attempted to rediscover it, however, it proved unsuccessful.

Peridiscaceae je čeleď vyšších dvouděložných rostlin z řádu lomikamenotvaré ("Saxifragales") Je to malá čeleď zahrnující asi 10 druhů ve 4 rodech. Jsou to stromy s jednoduchými listy a drobnými květy. Dva druhy rostou na severovýchodě Jižní Ameriky, ostatní v tropické západní Africe. Jednotlivé rody této čeledi byly v minulosti řazeny do různých čeledí.


Biography.

Early life.

Ivan Vladislav was the son of Aron, the brother of Emperor Samuel (r. 997–1014) of the Cometopuli dynasty. In 976 or 987 Samuel ordered his brother Aron executed for treason together with his entire family near Razmetanitsa. Ivan Vladislav was the only survivor, being spared through the intercession of his cousin, Samuel's son Gavril Radomir. His life during the subsequent decades and until his accession is unknown.

Assumption of power.

By 1015, Bulgaria had been embroiled in almost thirty years of war with the Byzantine Empire, and Gavril Radomir had succeeded Samuel, who died on 6 October 1014 after the disastrous Battle of Kleidion. However, from the outset Radomir's position was insecure: Ivan Vladislav, as a son of the elder of the Cometopouli brothers, could lay claim on the throne based on seniority. During that time the Byzantine Emperor Basil II campaigned deep into Bulgarian territory. He retook the previously lost town of Voden (Edessa) and laid siege to the massive fortress of Maglen, situated to the north-west. Gavril Radomir did not have enough forces and was unable to interfere and could only watch the course of the events from the nearby Lake Ostrovo. His inability to cope with the Byzantine threat aroused discontent among the nobility and Ivan Vladislav became their chosen leader. The fall of Maglen sealed Gavril Radomir's fate—in the late summer of 1015, while hunting near Ostrovo (Arnissa), he was murdered by his cousin, perhaps at the behest of Byzantine agents. Ivan Vladislav then seized the Bulgarian throne and took steps to ensure his position against potential rivals.

First months of reign.

After assuming the throne, Ivan Vladislav immediately sent a delegation to Basil II, which arrived five days after the fall of Maglen. In his letter, Ivan Vladislav notified Basil that he had personally murdered Gavril Radomir and had seized all the power in the country and promised Basil deep humility and obedience, an act of submission which some in the nobility supported. After Ivan Vladislav firmly secured his hold on the throne, however, he openly declared to be against any kind of compromise with the Byzantines and quickly began to follow the determined policy of his predecessors against the ongoing Byzantine conquest. Basil II soon understood that Ivan Vladislav's letter was a ruse and plotted a retaliatory action, bribing the "kavkhan" Theodore, who was in Byzantine captivity, to murder the Bulgarian ruler. Theodore in turn paid a trusted man in Ivan Vladislav's employ to commit the murder, but in the event the assassin actually killed Theodore himself. In the meantime Basil II continued his march, forcing the Bulgarian emperor to retreat to the Albanian mountains, and advanced into the heart of the Bulgarian state. The Byzantines took the capital Ohrid and burned the imperial palaces; news, however, arrived that Ivan Vladislav had laid siege to Dyrrhachium and that to the south the Bulgarian general Ibatzes had defeated the Byzantine rear army near Bitola. With his supply routes cut, Basil II had to retreat back to Thessalonica leaving a small garrison in Ohrid, which was swiftly retaken by the Bulgarians. Back in his base at Mosynopolis, Basil divided the Byzantine army to harass the areas of Strumitsa and Sofia. In January 1016 the Byzantine emperor returned to Constantinople.

Consolidation.

Meanwhile, Ivan Vladislav consolidated his positions in the mountains of Albania and Macedonia. As early as October 1015 he began the reconstruction of many strongholds destroyed during the war, including the fortress at Bitola (as testified in the Bitola inscription). In 1016 he invited his vassal Prince Jovan Vladimir of Doclea, who was married to Gabriel Radomir's sister Theodora Kosara, to come to his court. The emperor probably desired to seize the prince and so secure his western flank. The Prince was determined to attend the invitation of Tsar, but his wife Theodora Kosara did not trust the murderer of her brother, and fearing for her husband's life persuaded him not to go. Ivan Vladislav however vowed not to threaten his vassal's life, and sent him a golden cross as a proof of good will. Jovan Vladimir still hesitated, saying that God was nailed to a wooden not golden cross, but Ivan Vladislav repeated his vow and gave him a guarantee of safe-conduct, also guaranteed by the Bulgarian patriarch David. Eventually Jovan Vladimir travelled to the court of the Tsar in Prespa, but upon his arrival on 22 May, he was immediately beheaded, and the emperor refused to allow the burial of his body. It was not until a number of miraculous events related to the corpse of the prince were observed that Vladislav returned the body to Kosara.  In the spring of 1016 Basil II led his armies along the Struma valley and besieged the strong fortress of Pernik. The fort's defence was headed by the capable commander Krakra, who remained loyal to the Bulgarian cause. As all the previous attempts against Pernik, the 88-day siege was a failure, costing the Byzantines many casualties before they were forced to retreat south and regroup at Mosynopolis.

Fighting in 1017.

In the early days of 1017 the Byzantine emperor renewed his campaigns. He sent David Arianites and Constantine Diogenes to pillage along the River Vardar and captured the castle of Longos. After that he marched south and besieged Kastoria. Under the walls of the town Basil II received messages from Tzitzikios, the Byzantine "strategos" of Dorostolon (Silistra), that Ivan Vladislav had sent Krakra to negotiate assistance from the Pechenegs and that they were crossing the Danube. The Byzantine emperor immediately abandoned the siege and hurried northwards, but in the vicinity of Lake Ostrovo he learned that the Pechenegs were unwilling to risk war. Returning south, Basil II captured Setina, where Samuel used to have a palace and acquired for himself the large amount of provisions that were stored there. Ivan Vladislav, who was closely monitoring the Byzantine movements, ambushed the troops who were under the command of Constantine Diogenes, who would have perished had not Basil II come to relieve him. According to John Skylitzes, the Emperor charged alone in front of his army to Diogenes' rescue. When the Bulgarians saw him, they shouted "Run, the Emperor" ("") and retreated in panic. Contented with their victory, the Byzantines moved on to Voden and returned to Constantinople.

Death.

In the early 1018 Ivan Vladislav besieged Dyrrhachium, but in February he was killed under the walls of the city. The accounts of his death are contradictory. According to some he became victim of a plot and was killed by his servants; according to others, he perished in battle. The Bulgarian additions to the Skylitzes Chronicle are more detailed, saying that Ivan Vladislav dueled with the "strategos" of Dyrrhachium, the "patrikios" Niketas Pegonites, on horseback, and while fighting, two Byzantine infantrymen from the audience rushed to the emperor and wounded him mortally in the belly. A later Byzantine historian claimed that the duel was fair and Pegonites stabbed Ivan Vladislav in the chest with his spear, killing him instantly. The Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja reports an altogether different story: while having a meal in his camp, the emperor was attacked by an unknown soldier, in whom Ivan Vladislav seemed to have recognized the murdered Jovan Vladimir. Terrified, he cried for help but no one rushed to his rescue and the unknown soldier mortally wounded the Bulgarian ruler.  His death marked the effective end of the Bulgarian Empire. Ivan Vladislav's sons were young and inexperienced, and even the strongest Bulgarian leaders doubted the advisability of further resistance. Upon learning of the death of the Tsar, Basil II left Constantinople. In Adrianople he was met by the brother of Krakra who acknowledged Byzantine authority. His example was followed by the larger part of the Bulgarian nobility who pledged loyalty to Basil II, giving up their fortresses. In Serres, Krakra along with the commanders of 35 castles met the emperor and surrendered, and in Strumitsa he received a message sent by the Empress-dowager Maria to negotiate the surrender of the capital and the country. Basil II richly awarded those who surrendered, allowing them to keep their lands, wealth and titles. Short-lived resistance continued under Ivan Vladislav's eldest son Presian and his brothers, but they also surrendered by the end of 1018.

Legacy.

Living more than one hundred years after Ivan Vladislav, the historian known as the Priest of Duklja, who wrote from a Dukljan perspective, was outraged by the murder of Jovan Vladimir, and wrote that after the Tsar died, he was "forever connected with the angels of Satan". Many modern Bulgarian historians, including Vasil Zlatarski, also criticize the emperor, claiming that his actions hastened the fall of Bulgaria and that instead of raising the morale of the nation he turned into a murderer and was unable to cope with the intrigues and the corruption in court. Steven Runciman is also critical of the emperor, noting that his assassination of Gavril Radomir unleashed a general confusion where each noble started looking out for his own personal interests, but nevertheless credits him with "a considerable ruthless energy". Jordan Andreev is more favourable to Ivan Vladislav, noting that he had reasons for his acts—he had to revenge the murder of his family according to the old Bulgarian pagan beliefs, but he only killed Gavril Radomir and his wife without harming the rest of Gavril Radomir's family. He had to cope with Jovan Vladimir who, as a husband of one of Samuel's daughters, was a threat to his position, and had also attempted a compromise with the Byzantines. According to Andreev, Ivan Vladislav's struggle to defend the Bulgarian state and his heroic death serve to mitigate his ill deeds. He cites a Byzantine historian who claimed that during Ivan Vladislav's reign the Byzantine state "hanged in the balance, because that barbarian like Goliath resisted the Romans and they were all despaired by that invincible foe." The Polish historian Kazimierz Zakrzewski also writes with sympathy for the last ruler of the First Empire, in light of the fact that Ivan Vladislav managed to sustain a guerilla war which he skilfully ran until his death.  Ivan Vladislav Point on Rugged Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria.

Family.

Ivan Vladislav married Maria, possibly the daughter of Tsar Boris II of Bulgaria and a Byzantine noblewoman, by whom he left progeny. Maria was named "zoste patrikia" by Basil II, and the descendants of Ivan Vladislav entered Byzantine service, becoming part of the Byzantine nobility and forming close ties with the Komnenos clan in particular. Both his daughter Catherine and an unnamed (possibly Anna) granddaughter married (future) Byzantine emperors. His second son Alusian took part in the Uprising of Petar Delyan against Byzantine rule but eventually betrayed the Bulgarian cause.  Maria and Ivan Vladislav had several children, including:

Ivan Vladislav ( ) ruled as emperor (tsar) of Bulgaria from August or September 1015 to February 1018. The year of his birth is unknown; he was born at least a decade before 987, but probably not much earlier than that.

Ivan Vladislav byl bulharský car v letech 1015–1018. Roku 1015 zavraždil svého bratrance Gabriela Radomíra a prohlásil se carem. Záhy po získání titulu nechal zabít i Gabrielovu manželku Irenu a také oslepit jejich nejstaršího syna. Nadále, podobně jako jeho předchůdci Samuel a Gabriel, vedl válku s byzantskou říší, proti které se pokusil poštvat Pečeněhy, ti ale byli v Podunají poraženi byzantskou armádou.


Organization and function.

Membership.

The CNT says of its membership, "We make no distinction at the time of admission, we require only

Objectives.

As a union organization, and in accordance with its bylaws, the aims of the CNT are to "develop a sense of solidarity among workers" hoping to improve their conditions under the current social system, and prepare them for future emancipation, when the means of production have been socialized, to practice mutual aid amongst CNT collectives, and maintain relationships with other like-minded groups, hoping for

Structure.

The organisational structure of the CNT is based on direct democracy.

Industrial union and various posts union.

The industrial unions (sometimes referred to as "branch unions") form the base structure of the CNT. Each industrial union groups together workers of different crafts within an industry. When there are fewer than 25 people working in one particular industry, a various posts union is formed for that industry, rather than multiple industry unions. A various posts union can include workers from different crafts and industries; it requires a minimum of five people. If this number cannot be reached, four or fewer workers can form a confederal group. Due to the small size of the CNT, a majority of its unions are various posts unions.  The decision-making power of the industry and various posts unions resides in the union assembly: decisions are taken by all of the workers of the union in question via a system of direct democracy and consensus. These assemblies may address any number of issues, whether "local, provincial, regional, national or international".

Federations and confederations.

Unlike organizations that are organized from the top down, the CNT organises itself in an anarchistic fashion, from the bottom up, through different levels of confederations, following the Principle of Federation. The reason for favoring this structure is intended to limit homogeneity in committees, and keep them from having politics or programs. It is also intended to minimize the power of individuals who may be more active in the organization.

Congress of the CNT.

Direct representatives of the industry and various posts unions attend the CNT Congress with agreements from their own assemblies, independently from the local and regional levels. Among its duties, the Congress has to decide upon the CNT general line of action, and can appoint new National Committees. Since the foundation of the CNT in 1910 and the initial

"Plenarias" and plenary assemblies.

The meetings of the various committees (local, regional, national) are called "plenarias". Plenarias cannot take decisions, only develop technical and administrative issues, as they are constituted by committees without decision-making powers.  Another method of

Parallel Structures.

Relationship with the ICL.

The International Confederation of Labor (ICL, CIT in Spanish) founded on 2018 in Parma, is a transnational organization which consists

Other organisms.

Voting.

The CNT generally avoids bringing matters to a vote, preferring consensus decision-making, which it considers to be more in tune with its anarchist principles. While pure consensus is plausible for individual base unions, higher levels of organizations cannot completely avoid the need for some type of vote, which is always done openly by a show of hands.  The CNT attempts to minimize this problem by a system

Methods.

The CNT is rooted in three basic principles: workers' self-management or "autogestión", federalism and mutual aid, and considers that work conflicts must be settled between employers and employees without the action of such intermediaries as official state organisms or professional unionists. This is why the union criticizes union elections and works councils as means of control for managers, preferring workers' assemblies, union sections and direct action. Also, when possible, the CNT avoids taking legal action through the courts. Administrative positions in the union rotate

History.

The early years.

The Spanish anarchist movement lacked a stable national organization during its early years. The anarchist Juan Gómez Casas described the evolution of the anarchist organization prior to the creation of the CNT:  At the beginning of the 20th century there was a consensus among anarchists that a new national labor organization was necessary, to bring coherence and strength to the movement. During the Bourbon restoration (1874–1931), carried out by the traditional and dynastic parties represented by Cánovas del Castillo and Mateo Sagasta, a large portion of the workers' movement united around the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party as a political force, and around the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT, "Workers' General Union") for collective bargaining purposes. There were also republican movements with a stronger parliamentary emphasis, which was supported by a portion

Peak of the CNT.

From 1918 on the CNT grew stronger. Around that time, panic spread among employers, giving rise to the practice of "pistolerismo" (employing thugs to intimidate active unionists), causing a spiral of violence which significantly affected the trade union. These "pistoleros" were known to have killed 21 union leaders in 48 hours.  The CNT had an outstanding role in the events of the "La Canadiense" general strike, which paralyzed 70% of industry in Catalonia in 1919, the year the CNT reached a membership of 700,000. The Government settled the

The Second Republic.

After the fall of the monarchy in 1931, the CNT offered minimal support to the Second Republic. This support decreased progressively during the years between 1931 and 1933 because of constant confrontations with the republican authorities in the successive general strikes. The end of that period was marked by so-called revolutions of January and December, both of which were swiftly suppressed by the government. In those days the CNT functioned primarily in Catalonia, but was also gaining importance in other regions, such as Andalusia and Aragon (where it

The Civil War.

1936.

After periods of clandestine operation followed by other shorter periods of legalization, in 1936 the CNT was finally legalized, and would remain legal until the end of the Civil War. During the war, the union collaborated with other republican groups opposed to the Nationalists. As the war developed, members of the CNT came to form part of the government of the Republic, holding various ministries and high positions within the administration.  In Barcelona, the anarchists managed the majority of the functions of society, collectivizing a large part of the activity of the city, as George Orwell described:  Across the border from Catalonia in the nominally Republican eastern portion of the divided Aragon, the republican state

1937.

Halfway through February 1937, a congress took place in Caspe with the purpose of creating the Regional Federation of Collectives of Aragon. 456 delegates, representing more than 141,000 collective members, attended the congress. The congress was also attended by delegates of the National Committee of the CNT.  At a plenary session of the CNT in March 1937, the national committee asked for a motion of censure to suppress the Aragonese Regional Council. The Aragonese regional committee threatened to resign, which thwarted the censure effort. Though there had always been disagreements, that spring also saw a great escalation in confrontations between the CNT-FAI and the Communists. In Madrid, Melchor Rodríguez, who was then a member of the CNT, and director of prisons in Madrid, published accusations that the Communist

1938–1939.

In April 1938, Juan Negrín was asked to form a government, and included Segundo Blanco, a member of the CNT, as minister of education, and by this point, the only CNT member left in the cabinet. At this point, many in the CNT leadership were critical of participation in the government, seeing it as dominated by the Communists. Prominent CNT leaders went so far as to refer to Blanco as "sop of the libertarian movement" and "just one more Negrínist." On the other side, Blanco was responsible for installing other CNT members into the ministry of education, and stopping the spread of "Communist propaganda" by the ministry.  In March 1939, with the war nearly over, CNT leaders participated in the National Defense Council's coup overthrowing the government of the Socialist Juan Negrín. Those involved included the CNT's Eduardo Val and José Manuel González Marín serving on the council, while Cipriano Mera's 70th Division provided military support, and Melechor Rodríquez became mayor of Madrid. The council attempted to negotiate a peace with General Francisco Franco, though he granted virtually none of their demands.

The CNT during the Spanish State.

In 1939 the "Law of Political Responsibilities" outlawed the CNT and expropriated its assets. At that time the organization had a million members and a large infrastructure. According to one estimate, roughly 160,000–180,000 members of the CNT were killed by the Franco government.  The CNT acted clandestinely inside Spain during the Franco years, as well as conducting activities from exile, and some members kept on fighting the Spanish State until 1948 through the guerrilla actions of "maquis". There was much disagreement amongst factions of the CNT during these years. There was a major split after the National Committee inside Spain chose to support members of the Republican government in exile, while members of the Libertarian Movement in Exile

During the "transition".

After Franco's death in November 1975 and the beginning of Spain's transition to democracy, the CNT was the only social movement to refuse to sign the 1977 Moncloa Pact, an agreement amongst politicians, political parties, and trade unions to plan how to operate the economy during the transition. In 1979, the CNT held its first congress since 1936 as well as several mass meetings, the most remarkable one in Montjuïc. Views put forward in this congress would set the pattern for the CNT's line of action for the following decades: no participation in union elections, no acceptance of state subsidies, no acknowledgment of works councils, and support of union sections.  In this first congress, held in Madrid, a minority sector in favor of union elections split from the CNT, initially calling themselves CNT Valencia Congress (referring to the alternative congress held

Current status.

The number of members currently in the CNT is not known. The regions with the largest CNT membership are the Centre (Madrid and surrounding area), the North (Basque country), Andalucía,

Symbols and culture.

The CNT, owing to its interests in the radical transformation of society, has sought to make free knowledge and culture accessible to workers, a task which has been developed through the support of the anarchist academies. The School of Anarchist Militants was an institution which, by means of anarchist pedagogy, sought to ensure that "groups of teenagers could acquire the knowledge and the personal responsibility essential to work in collectives such as those of entertainers and accountants." Through the Anselmo Lorenzo Foundation, the CNT manages its cultural heritage, edits books, and organizes conferences and colloquies. Also, some sections of the CNT have supported and promoted Esperanto.  The flag of the CNT is the traditional flag of anarcho-syndicalism, which joins diagonally the red color of the labour movement and the black color of anarchism, as a negation of nationalism and reaffirmation of internationalism.  The anthem of the CNT is "A las barricadas" ("To the Barricades"), written by the Polish poet Wacław Święcicki with music by Józef Pławiński in 1883. Święcicki and Pławiński's work, called "Warszawianka", was given Spanish lyrics by Valeriano Orobón Fernández and published with some musical arrangements for mixed choir by Ángel Miret in 1933. Several postage stamps were issued by the CNT during the Spanish Civil War. Other surviving artifacts of this period are posters, movie tickets, and other objects related to the companies which were collectivized during the Spanish Revolution of 1936.  George Orwell fought in the Spanish Civil War in the militia of Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), a revolutionary Trotskyist party (and therefore opposed to the Soviet Union line) whose militants were allied with the CNT during the revolution and to which Andrés Nin belonged. Orwell described in his book "Homage to Catalonia" the time during which Barcelona rose up with the CNT and anarchism. In the ninth chapter of his book, Orwell commented that "As far as my purely personal preferences went I would have liked to join the Anarchists."  In Ernest Hemingway's 1940 book "For Whom the Bell Tolls", Maria's fascist captors print U.H.P. on her forehead with iodine after cutting her hair.  Robert Capa photographed the death of the Valencian Columna Alcoiana militiaman Federico Borrell García during the Spanish Civil War in the snapshot called ""Death of a Loyalist Soldier"". This photograph has become a famous image which shows the calamity of war.  In 1936, the film industry was collectivized and produced short films such as "En la brecha" ("In the Gap", 1937). The CNT has been portrayed in recent Spanish filmmaking by the Vicente Aranda's film "Libertarias" (1996), which shows a group of militiamen (and especially militiawomen) at the Aragon front during the Spanish Civil War.

The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (; CNT) is a Spanish confederation of anarcho-syndicalist labour unions, which was long affiliated with the International Workers' Association (AIT). When working with the latter group it was also known as CNT-AIT. Historically, the CNT has also been affiliated with the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (); thus, it has also been referred to as the CNT-FAI. Throughout its history, it has played a major role in the Spanish labor movement.

Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (šp. Národní konfederace práce, zkr. CNT) je španělské anarchosyndikalistické revoluční odborové hnutí založené v roce 1910. CNT je členem federace Mezinárodní asociace pracujících.


Early life.

Jeffrey Leon Bridges was born on December 4, 1949, in Los Angeles, California. He is the son of actor Lloyd Bridges (1913–1998) and actress and writer Dorothy Bridges (née Simpson; 1915–2009). His older brother Beau Bridges (born 1941) is also an actor. He has a younger sister Lucinda, and had another brother named Garrett who died of sudden infant death syndrome in 1948. His maternal grandfather was an immigrant from Liverpool in England.  Bridges and his siblings were raised in the Holmby Hills section of Los Angeles. He shared a close relationship with his brother Beau, who acted as a surrogate father when their father was working. He graduated from University High School in 1967. At age 17, he toured with his father in a stage production of "Anniversary Waltz", then moved to New York City where he studied acting at the Herbert Berghof Studio. He also served in the United States Coast Guard Reserve as a Boatswain's mate from 1967–1975 in San Luis Obispo, California, ending his service as a petty officer second class.

Career.

Film.

Bridges made his first screen appearance at the age of almost two years in "The Company She Keeps" in 1951. In his youth, Bridges and brother Beau made occasional appearances on their father's show "Sea Hunt" (1958–1961) and the CBS anthology series, "The Lloyd Bridges Show" (1962–1963). In 1969, he played Cal Baker, a Jobs Corps crew member, in the TV series "Lassie" episode "Success Story". In 1971, he played the lead role Mike in the TV movie "In Search of America". His first major role came in the 1971 film "The Last Picture Show", for which he garnered a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He co-starred in the 1972 critically acclaimed neo-noir boxing film "Fat City", directed by John Huston. In 1973 he starred as Junior Jackson in the film "The Last American Hero" based on the true story of NASCAR driver Junior Johnson. He was nominated again for Best Supporting Actor for his performance opposite Clint Eastwood in the 1974 film "Thunderbolt and Lightfoot". In 1976, he starred as the protagonist Jack Prescott in the first remake of "King Kong", opposite Jessica Lange. This film was a commercial success, earning $90 million worldwide, more than triple its $23 million budget, and also winning an Academy Award for special effects.  One of his better-known roles was in the 1982 science fiction film "Tron", in which he played Kevin Flynn, a video game programmer (a role he reprised in late 2010 with the sequel ""). The same year (1982), he also starred in "Kiss Me Goodbye", an American romantic comedy film directed by Robert Mulligan that also starred Sally Field. He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in 1984, for playing the alien in "Starman". He was also acclaimed for his roles in the thriller "Against All Odds" (1984) and the crime drama "Jagged Edge" (1985). His role in "Fearless" (1993) is thought by some critics to be one of his best performances. One critic dubbed it a masterpiece; Pauline Kael wrote that he "may be the most natural and least self-conscious screen actor that has ever lived". In 1994, he starred as Lt. Jimmy Dove in the action film "Blown Away", opposite Tommy Lee Jones and Forest Whitaker. His real life father Lloyd Bridges also featured in the film, playing the uncle of Bridges' character. The film managed to recoup $30 million of its $50 million budget at the box office. It was up against another explosive-themed film, "Speed", which had been released a few weeks before Bridges' film. On July 11, 1994, Bridges received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the motion picture industry. The star is located at 7065 Hollywood Boulevard. In 1998, he starred as what is arguably his most famous role, The Dude, in the Coen brothers' film "The Big Lebowski".  In 2000, he received his fourth Academy Award nomination, for his role in "The Contender". He also starred in the 2005 Terry Gilliam film "Tideland", his second with the director (the first being 1991's "The Fisher King"). He shaved his trademark mane of hair to play the role of Obadiah Stane in the 2008 Marvel comic book adaptation "Iron Man". In July 2008, at the San Diego Comic-Con International, he appeared in a teaser for "", shot as concept footage for director Joseph Kosinski; this developed into a full 3D feature release in 2010.  Bridges is one of the youngest actors ever to be nominated for an Academy Award (1972, age 22, Best Supporting Actor, "The Last Picture Show"), and one of the oldest ever to win (winning the Best Actor in 2010 at age 60 for "Crazy Heart"). "Crazy Heart" also won him the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Drama, and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role.  Bridges received his sixth Academy Award nomination for his role in "True Grit", a collaboration with the Coen brothers in which he starred alongside Matt Damon, Josh Brolin, Barry Pepper, and Hailee Steinfeld. Both the film and Bridges' performance as Rooster Cogburn, were critically praised. Bridges lost to Colin Firth, whom he had beaten for the Oscar in the same category the previous year. In 2016, Bridges appeared in the film "Hell or High Water", for which he received his seventh Academy Award nomination.

Music.

Referring to his career as an actor and his passion for music, Bridges says, "I dug what an actor did, but it took me a while to feel it, to truly appreciate the craft and the preparation. Plus, I was still playing music a lot, and I guess I had a hard time choosing: was I an actor or a musician, or could I be both?"  Bridges studied piano at a young age, strongly encouraged by his mother. While working on the 1980 film "Heaven's Gate", he often played guitar with his co-star, singer-songwriter Kris Kristofferson, between takes. His character in "Crazy Heart", Bad Blake, was later based partly on Kristofferson. In 1982 he did the voice of Prince Lír in the animated film The Last Unicorn, and in that role sang on two songs, one being a duet with Mia Farrow. He released his debut album "Be Here Soon" on January 1, 2000. In 2005, Bridges, known as "The Dude" in the film "The Big Lebowski", showed up at a Lebowski Fest in Los Angeles singing and playing the film's theme song written by Bob Dylan, "Man in Me".  On January 15, 2010, Bridges performed the song "I Don't Know" from "Crazy Heart" on "The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien". In the film "The Contender", in which he co-starred, Bridges recorded a version of Johnny Cash's standard "Ring of Fire" with Kim Carnes that played over the pivotal opening credits. In February 2010, he was among the nearly 80 musicians to sing on the charity-single remake of "We Are the World". On October 24, 2010, Bridges appeared at Neil Young's annual "Bridge School Benefit" concert and played a set with singer-songwriter Neko Case.  On April 19, 2011, Country Music Television announced that Bridges had signed a recording contract with Blue Note Records/EMI Music Group. He worked with producer T-Bone Burnett and released his second album, "Jeff Bridges," on August 16, 2011. On November 5, 2011, Bridges played Austin City Limits in support of this album.  In 2015 he sang on album Strangers Again with Judy Collins singing a duet of the musical tune from Candide by Leonard Bernstein called Make Our Garden Grow.  In 2015, Bridges released an ambient/spoken-word album entitled "Sleeping Tapes". All proceeds from the album go directly to Bridges' charity No Kid Hungry.  Bridges plays many guitars, including the Gretsch Chet Atkins Country Gentlemen Model G6122-1959.

Other work.

Author.

In 2013, Bridges wrote "The Dude and the Zen Master" with Bernie Glassman. Bridges found himself at a party with Glassman and Ram Dass and their conversation led to discussing the parallels between "The Dude" from "The Big Lebowski" and Zen Buddhism. The book was formed from what has been described as a "transcript of a five-day "hang" on a Montana ranch."

Photography.

Bridges has been an amateur photographer since high school and began taking photographs on film sets during "Starman", at the suggestion of co-star Karen Allen. Since 1980, he began photographing on and off set shots with his favorite camera, a Widelux F8. He published many of these photographs online and published a book in 2003 entitled, "Pictures: Photographs by Jeff Bridges".

Narrator.

Bridges narrated the documentary "Lost in La Mancha" (2002), about the making of a Terry Gilliam retelling of "Don Quixote", tentatively titled "The Man Who Killed Don Quixote", which would have starred Johnny Depp as Sancho Panza and Jean Rochefort as the quixotic hero. Bridges had previously appeared in Gilliam's "The Fisher King". Bridges also narrated the documentaries National Geographic's "Lewis & Clark: Great Journey West" (2002, IMAX), Discovery Channel's "Raising the Mammoth" (2000), and ABC's "Heroes of Rock and Roll" (1979). He voiced the character Big Z in the animated picture "Surf's Up". He also hosted VH1's "Top 100 Greatest Albums of Rock and Roll" series in 2001. In the Year 2016 He narrated the Movie Dream Big. Bridges has performed TV commercial voiceover work as well, including Hyundai's 2007 "Think About It" advertising campaign as well as the Duracell advertisements in the "Trusted Everywhere" campaign.  On December 18, 2010, Bridges hosted NBC's "Saturday Night Live"; he had hosted the show before in 1983 with his brother, Beau. With the December 18, 2010, episode, Bridges beat Sigourney Weaver's record for longest gap between hosting appearances on "SNL" (Weaver had a 24-year gap between her first time hosting in 1986 and her second time hosting in 2010 while Bridges had a 27-year gap between his first appearance in 1983 and his most recent one, also in 2010).

Personal life.

Bridges married Susan Geston in 1977. They met while filming "Rancho Deluxe", on a ranch where Geston was working as a waitress. They have three daughters: Isabelle Annie (born August 6, 1981), Jessica Lily "Jessie" (born June 14, 1983), Haley Roselouise (born October 17, 1985), and granddaughter Grace (born March 31, 2011) from Isabelle.  Bridges has studied Buddhism. He meditates for half an hour before beginning work on a film set. He has learned Transcendental Meditation.

Philanthropy.

In 1984, Bridges and other entertainment industry leaders founded the End Hunger Network aimed at encouraging, stimulating and supporting action to end childhood hunger. He supported President Obama's initiative to End Childhood Hunger by 2015. In November 2010, Bridges became spokesman for the No Kid Hungry campaign of the organization Share our Strength. Its goal is to present and undertake a state-by-state strategy to end childhood hunger in the United States by 2015. Bridges also supports environmental causes and organizations such as the Amazon Conservation Team.

Jeffrey Leon Bridges (born December 4, 1949) is an American actor, singer, and producer. He comes from a prominent acting family and appeared on the television series "Sea Hunt" (1958–60), with his father, Lloyd Bridges and brother, Beau Bridges. He has won numerous accolades, including the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Otis "Bad" Blake in the 2009 film "Crazy Heart", one of seven Academy Awards nominations.

Jeffrey Leon „Jeff“ Bridges (* 4. prosince 1949 v Los Angeles v Kalifornii, USA) je americký herec a hudebník. Mezi jeho nejvýznamnější filmy patři "Poslední představení" (v originále "The Last Picture Show"), "Tron", "Starman", "Báječní Bakerovi hoši (The Fabulous Baker Boys)", "Král rybář (The Fisher King)", "Beze strachu (Fearless)", "Big Lebowski", "Kandidáti (The Contender)" a "Iron Man".


Early life.

Gashimov was born on 24 July 1986 in Baku. He was the son of a retired army colonel who served at the Defense Ministry of Azerbaijan.

Chess career.

In 2010, Gashimov won the Reggio Emilia chess tournament.

Team competitions.

Gashimov played for Azerbaijan in the Chess Olympiads of 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2008. He played in the gold medal-winning Azerbaijani team at the European Team Chess Championship in Novi Sad in 2009, alongside Shakhriyar Mamedyarov, Teimour Radjabov, Rauf Mammadov and Gadir Guseinov, previously winning bronze medal in 2007. In 2010, however, he did not represent his country at the Chess Olympiad in Khanty-Mansiysk due to a conflict with the national chess federation and former team coach Zurab Azmaiparashvili.

Playing style.

Gashimov was known as a particularly strong blitz chess player.  At the peak of his playing career, he revived the fortunes of the Modern Benoni, an opening that had become unpopular at the top level of chess, and used it to get good results against strong grandmasters, including even the leading players of the time, such as Alexander Grischuk (see #Notable games).

Personal life.

He was known to enjoy football, table tennis and pool. He was also an avid fan of Jackie Chan movies. He was managed by his older brother Sarkhan, an IT manager who is also a master-level chess player.

Death and aftermath.

Death.

Doctors diagnosed Gashimov with epilepsy when he fell ill in February 2000, and shortly afterwards, discovered a brain tumor. While receiving treatment for the brain tumor in a hospital in Heidelberg, Germany, Gashimov died in the early hours of 11 January 2014. He had been inactive from chess since playing in the Tata Steel Chess Tournament in January 2012. He was buried at the Alley of Honor in Baku.

Reaction.

Chess grandmasters and sports professionals around the world reacted to Gashimov's death. Teimour Radjabov, one of Gashimov's closest teammates, said that he could not find "words to explain the deepest sorrow".  Nigel Short described Gashimov as "a brilliant player and great guy." Former world champion Garry Kasparov said he was "deeply saddened", and found it "remarkable considering the medical obstacles he faced" that he made it to the top ten in the FIDE rating list. Magnus Carlsen described Gashimov as "one of the most talented and original players I've met. He was always friendly with everyone and always smiling. I have many good memories with him from tournaments, especially in the Amber tournaments."  Tributes also came from famous chess players such as Shakhriyar Mamedyarov, Hikaru Nakamura, Levon Aronian, Alexandra Kosteniuk, Judit Polgár, Sergey Karjakin and many others. One minute of silence was held at the 76th Tata Steel Chess Tournament and during all tournaments held in Baku in January 2014.  Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev said, "Vugar Gashimov's services to the Azerbaijani sports are unmatched. Vugar Gashimov made an incomparable contribution to development of Azerbaijan's chess school, and glorified the country with his brilliant victories."

Legacy.

The first Gashimov Memorial took place in Şəmkir in April 2014, with participants Magnus Carlsen, Fabiano Caruana, Shakhriyar Mamedyarov, Teimour Radjabov, Sergey Karjakin, Hikaru Nakamura, Étienne Bacrot, Wang Hao, Rauf Mamedov, Qadir Huseynov, Pavel Eljanov, Radosław Wojtaszek, Alexander Motylev, Eltaj Safarli, Nijat Abasov and Vasif Durarbayli.  On 24 July 2014, a monument was unveiled on his grave in Baku.

Vugar Gashimov (; 24 July 1986 – 11 January 2014) was an Azerbaijani chess grandmaster. He was a noted player of blitz chess. At his peak ranking he was No. 6 in the world, achieved in November 2009.

Vugar Gašimov (; 24. července 1986, Baku − 10. ledna 2014) byl ázerbájdžánský šachový mezinárodní velmistr. Vugar Gašimov se stal mezinárodním mistrem roku 1998 a mezinárodním velmistrem roku 2002. Třikrát zvítězil v Mistrovství Ázerbájdžánu v šachu v letech 1995, 1996 a 1998). Čtyřikrát získal stříbrnou medaili na Mistrovství Evropy juniorů v letech 1996, 1998, 1999 a 2000. Roku 2005 zvítězil v "Acropolis International Chess Tournament" a v letech 2007 a 2008 vyhrál "Open International de Cappelle-la-Grande".


Types of devices.

Ultrasonic.

Ultrasonic devices operate through emitting short wavelength, high frequency sound waves that are too high in pitch to be heard by the human ear (generally accepted to be frequencies greater than 20,000 Hz). Humans are usually unable to hear sounds higher than 20 kHz due to physiological limitations of the cochlea, though there is considerable variation between individuals, especially at such high frequencies. Some animals, such as bats, dogs, and rodents, can hear well into the ultrasonic range. Some insects, such as grasshoppers and locusts, can detect frequencies from 50,000 Hz to 100,000 Hz, and lacewings and moths can detect ultrasound as high as 240,000 Hz produced by insect-hunting bats. Contrary to popular belief, birds cannot hear ultrasonic sound. Some smartphone applications attempt to use this technology to produce high frequency sounds to repel mosquitoes and other insects, but the claims of effectiveness of these applications and of ultrasonic control of pest creatures in general has been questioned. The ultrasonic repeller has several inconvenient side effects in addition to its questionable effectiveness.

Radio wave pest control.

The concept of radio wave (RW) or radio frequency (RF) to control the behavior of living organisms has shown promise. According to Drs. Juming Tang and Shaojin Wang at Washington State University (WSU) with colleagues at the University of California-Davis and USDA's Agricultural Research Service in Parlier, California, since RF energy generates heat through agitation of bound water molecules, it generates heat through ionic conduction and agitation of free water molecules in insects. As a result, more thermal energy is converted in insects.  RF treatments control insect pests without negatively affecting food stuffs and storage locations. RF treatments may serve as a non-chemical alternative to chemical fumigants for post-harvest pest control in commodities (such as almonds, pecans, pistachios, lentils, peas, and soybeans), reducing the long-term impact on the environment, human health, and competitiveness of agricultural industries.

Ultrasound studies.

In 2003, the Federal Trade Commission required Global Instruments, the maker of the Pest-A-Cator/Riddex series of electromagnetic pest control devices, to discontinue any claims for their efficacy until they are backed by credible scientific evidence. This ban continues to be in effect.  In 2007 a Cochrane report reviewed by the Infectious Diseases Group determined that there was no evidence based on 10 field studies, in which ultrasonic repellent devices had been put to the test to suggest that EMRs had any repellent effect on mosquitoes, and therefore no evidence to support their promotion. They advised discontinuing further randomized controlled trials due to field studies showing no promise in the effort to combat malaria.

Effects on animals.

Effects on rodents.

Based on a review of tests of six commercial products, a report made at the University of Lincoln, Nebraska in 1995 concluded that all the devices, when evaluated at a range of frequencies and decibel levels, were insufficient in repelling rodents. The EPA pursued legal action against purveyors of the products, and none were subsequently marketed as a result of fines against the manufacturers.

Safety.

Professor Tim Leighton at the Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, University of Southampton, U.K. produced an 83-page paper entitled "What is Ultrasound?" (2007), in which he expressed concern about the growth in commercial products which exploit the discomforting effects of in-air ultrasound (to pests for whom it is within their audible frequency range, or to humans for whom it is not, but who can experience unpleasant subjective effects and, potentially, shifts in the hearing threshold). Leighton claims that commercial products are often advertised with cited levels which cannot be critically accepted due to lack of accepted measurement standards for ultrasound in air, and little understanding of the mechanism by which they may represent a hazard. However, there has not yet been sufficient research to confirm or deny a link between invisible ultrasound and hearing problems in humans.  The UK's independent Advisory Group on Non-ionising Radiation (AGNIR) produced a 180-page report on the health effects of human exposure to ultrasound and infrasound in 2010. The UK Health Protection Agency (HPA) published their report, which recommended an exposure limit for the general public to airborne ultrasound sound pressure levels (SPL) of 70 dB (at 20 kHz), and 100 dB (at 25 kHz and above).

Electronic pest control is the name given to any of several types of electrically powered devices designed to repel or eliminate pests, usually rodents or insects. Since these devices are not regulated under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act in the United States, the EPA does not require the same kind of efficacy testing that it does for chemical pesticides.

Elektronické odpuzovače škůdců jsou přístroje (zařízení) určené k odpuzování škůdců z venkovních nebo vnitřních prostor. Elektronické odpuzovače generují zvukový nebo ultrazvukový signál, pomocí kterého vytvářejí pro škůdce nehostinné prostředí.