Club career.

Coveny began his NSL career at the Melbourne Knights, then moved to Wollongong City, but the majority of his career was spent at South Melbourne in the NSL, and later on, Victorian Premier League. He also spent some time in the A-League, playing for the Newcastle Jets and Wellington Phoenix. On Anzac Day 2009 Coveny scored his 100th goal for South Melbourne FC away at John Ilhan Memorial Reserve against Hume City FC. He retired at the end of the 2009 season.

International career.

Coveny made his full New Zealand debut in a 0–0 draw with Fiji on 19 September 1992. He was included in the New Zealand side for both the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup finals tournament, and the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup finals tournament. He ended his international playing career with 64 A-international caps to his credit, his final cap gained in a 1–1 draw with Estonia on 31 May 2006.  Coveny became New Zealand's highest goal scorer (still a current record in the New Zealand national football team) on 27 May 2006, when he scored twice in the "All Whites" 3–1 victory over Georgia, bringing his total A-international goal tally to 29. and his total including unofficial games to 30 in 71 games, surpassing Jock Newall's long standing record of 28 from only 17 games. In January 2009, Coveny announced his retirement from international football. He was also the games record holder for the All Whites, until Ivan Vicelich passed him in 2009.

Managerial career.

After retiring, Coveny was announced as South Melbourne's manager for the Victorian Premier League 2010 season. After the team failed to make the finals, his contract was not renewed.

Honours.

New Zealand Young Player of the Year: 1992

Vaughan Coveny (born 13 December 1971) is a retired football player who frequently represented New Zealand in international matches. Coveny's senior club career spanned 20 years, with his most notable stint being at South Melbourne during their National Soccer League era. He was primarily a striker although he also played as a winger. After retiring from playing, he pursued a coaching career.

Vaughan Coveny (* 13. prosince 1971) je bývalý novozélandský fotbalový útočník, naposledy hrající za novozélandský klub South Melbourne FC. Profesionální kariéru ukončil v roce 2009, poté hrál za provinční tým Essendon United F.C.


The Dominican Order.

Novice.

Sprenger was admitted as a novice in the Dominican house of Rheinfelden in 1452 and became a zealous reformer. He founded an association of the Confraternity of the Holy Rosary in Strasbourg in 1474.

Theologian.

He became a Master of Theology and then in 1480 Dean of the Faculty of Theology at the University of Cologne and was a popular lecturer.

Inquisitor.

In 1481 he was appointed as an Inquisitor for the Provinces of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, a post that demanded constant traveling through an extensive district.

Associated authorship of "Malleus Maleficarum".

Sprenger was named along with Heinrich Kramer in the 1484 papal bull "Summis desiderantes" of Pope Innocent VIII and reprinted in the infamous "Malleus Maleficarum". All editions after 1519 named Sprenger as Heinrich Kramer's co-author.  It has been claimed that Sprenger cannot be linked to any witch trial, that his personal relationship to Kramer was acrimonious, and that Sprenger used his powerful position whenever he could to make Kramer's life and work as difficult as possible. Some scholars now believe that he became associated with the "Malleus Maleficarum" largely as a result of Kramer's wish to lend his book as much official authority as possible.

Friedrich Spee in Cologne.

In a 1631 work most concerned with innocence, and opposed to the "Malleus Maleficarum", Friedrich Spee attributes authorship of the notorious book to "Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer." Though Spee was Jesuit (not Dominican) and his work was written more than a century after "Malleus Maleficarum", both Spee and Sprenger were professors of theology in Cologne and both travelled extensively in many of the same areas. Some of Spee's fellow professors in Cologne were appalled by Spee's book and thought it should be listed on the papal Index of Forbidden Books. This would suggest that, whether or not Sprenger initially endorsed or opposed the work of Heinrich Kramer, the book carrying Sprenger's name did eventually find a degree of influence among the Catholic theologians in Cologne.

Salem Witch Trials.

The Harvard President and Puritan Increase Mather cited "Sprenger" as a reference to the "Malleus Maleficarum" in an influential witch-phobic work published in 1684, as well as another work published in 1692, the same year as the Salem Witch Trials: "Witches have often (as Sprenger observes) desired that they might stand or fall by this trial by hot iron, and sometimes come off well."

Jacob Sprenger (also James, Jacobi Spregeri, 1436/1438 – 6 December 1495) was a Dominican inquisitor and theologian principally known for his association with an infamous witch-phobic work from 1486, "Malleus Maleficarum". He was born in Rheinfelden, Further Austria, taught at the University of Cologne, and died in 1495 in Strasbourg.

Jakob Sprenger (1435 Rheinfelden, Přední Rakousy – 6. prosince 1495 Štrasburk) byl kněz a údajný spoluautor spisu "Malleus maleficarum" ("Kladiva na čarodějnice").


Exhibits.

The museum includes a multi-media planetarium, as well as four floors of exhibits and displays covering Pennsylvania history from prehistoric times through current events. Visitation averages 315,000 people annually. Among the features are a large collection of artifacts and displays related to the American Civil War, as well as an extensive collection of industrial and technological innovations. Artwork, paintings, dioramas, and other audio-visuals (Blaine) aid in the interpretation. There are over three million objects in the museum's collections. The museum has many exhibits that showcase Pennsylvania history. The state museum divided there exhibits into three different categories; permanent, changing and online exhibits.

History.

On March 28, 1905, Governor Samuel W. Pennypacker signed legislation creating The State Museum of Pennsylvania. The museums purpose during the time was to for the "preservation of objects illustrations the flora and fauna of the state and mineralogy, geology, archaeology, arts and history." The State Museum of Pennsylvania mission statement was influenced by the many other state museums that were already established such as New York, Illinois and Indiana. Later in the year 1905, Governor Pennypacker of Pennsylvania signed Act 481 which is what gave the State Museum their 20,000 start-up money for the museum. March 1, 1907, the museum staff and collection moved into the Executive Office Building. It became part of the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in 1945, and moved to its present building in 1964. It is located adjacent to the State Capitol Building. The building is round and the museum exhibits are located on the ground, first, second, and third floors, with offices of the museum staff and Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission on the fourth and fifth floors. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014.

The State Museum of Pennsylvania is a non-profit museum at 300 North Street in downtown Harrisburg, run by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania through the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission to preserve and interpret the region's history and culture. It is a part of the Pennsylvania State Capitol Complex. While it is officially named the State Museum of Pennsylvania, members of the public, as well as official publications, sometimes refer to the facility as the William Penn Memorial Museum; the museum's central hall features a large statue of Penn.

State Museum of Pennsylvania je neziskové muzeum v Harrisburgu, spravované státem Pensylvánie prostřednictvím Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. Je součástí Pennsylvania State Capitol Complex. Muzeum je obecně známo pod názvem William Penn Memorial Museum podle velké sochy Williama Penna v centrální hale.


Name.

Commonly spelled "Yuri Shatunov" in English, his official website, Shatunov.com, lists his name as "Yuriy" (which is the most precise transliteration of Russian), "Yury," and "Yuri." The English pronunciation of all three is identical. Yuri took his mother's, Vera Shatunova, surname at a young age due to the lack of a relationship with his father, Vasiliy Klimenko.

Personal life.

Shatunov was born on 6 September 1973 in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic of the former (USSR), in the autonomous Republic of Bashkortostan. At the age of three he was abandoned by his father and was raised by his mother. When he was eleven his mother died of heart disease, and he lived with his aunt and maternal grandparents, who soon found themselves unable to cope with his behavior.  Shatunov was sent to "Orenburg Children's Home Number 2" in Orenburg, where he had a reputation for poor behavior, such as running away from the orphanage, playing guitar and singing on the streets to get money and cigarettes, getting into fights, and avoiding work.  Regardless of his troubled childhood, Shatunov sang very well. He met with Sergei Kuznetsov, a music teacher in the orphanage, and they created a band, "Laskoviy Mai" ("Tender May"). In this group they frequently sang about unfortunate love, which was not typical at that time, and was especially unusual for the young band members in their early teens in 1986. This group, in which Shatunov was the frontman, existed from 1986 to 1992, and was very popular in Russia. In 1996, Shatunov moved to Germany, where he went to complete his education, which was unfinished due to his turbulent youth and early career in music, and to learn how to become a music producer.  Shatunov has a wife named Svetlana and two children, a son named Dennis (born 5 September 2006) and a daughter named Estella (born 13 March 2013). Shatunov and Svetlana got married in 2007 in Germany after seven years of dating.  Shatunov is currently busy working on his solo career, and performs frequently in Russia, Germany and in Eastern European countries, as well as some of the former Soviet block countries in Central Asia such as Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

Yuriy "Yura" Vasilevich Shatunov, commonly anglicized as Yuri, Russian:Юрий "Юра" Васильевич Шатунов, is a Russian singer, best known as being the former frontman of the Russian 1980s band Laskoviy Mai (Ласковый май). He was born on 6 September 1973 in the city of Kumertau, Bashkir ASSR, in the former Soviet Union.

Jurij Vasiljevič Šatunov ( "Юрий Васильевич Шатунов"; * 6. září 1973, Kumertau, Sovětský svaz) je ruský zpěvák a sólista skupiny Laskovij Maj.


History.

The club was founded in 1936 as Red Star and registered to an amateur football association. In 1944, they joined the Royal Belgian Football Association and started playing in the lowest provincial league of West Flanders. Red Star Haasdonk first reached national football in 2000–01, and they finished first of the series in Promotion. They also reached the 2000–01 Belgian Cup round of 32, losing to first division club Gent. After their first season in the third division, they moved to the bigger stadium of defunct club Sint-Niklase SKE, the Puyenbekestadion, changing their name to KV Red Star Waasland.  In 2003–04, they finished first in their series of the third division and promoted for the first time to the second division. In their first season at the second-highest level of football, Red Star Waasland finished 5th and qualified for the final round. The next season, they finished 4th, their best result as of 2010 but did not qualify for the final round. They reached again the round of 32 of the 2005–06 Belgian Cup, losing to neighbours KSK Beveren. In the 2007–08 Belgian Cup, Red Star Waasland reached the round of 16, their best cup result, by eliminating Lokeren. They lost to Anderlecht in the round of 16. The following season, they finished 4th again in the second division. In the summer of 2010 Red Star Waasland changed its name to Waasland-Beveren and moved to the bigger stadium of Beveren, the Freethiel Stadion.  In 2011–12, they finished second in the Belgian second tier league and were promoted to the Belgian Pro League for the 2012–13 season.

Waasland-Beveren is a Belgian association football club located in the municipality of Beveren, East Flanders. They play in the Belgian second division. The club was known as K.V. Red Star Waasland from 2002 until 2010, when they moved to the nearby stadium of defunct club Sint-Niklase and merged with K.S.K. Beveren. Waasland is the region where the towns of Haasdonk (a neighbourhood in Beveren) and Sint-Niklaas are located. KSK Beveren, a former Belgian champion and first division regular, had just finished at the last place in the second division and was struggling with financial problems. The club kept the history and matricule number of KV Red Star Waasland but moved from Sint-Niklaas to Beveren to play in a bigger stadium.

Waasland-Beveren (celým názvem Koninklijke Voetbalclub Red Star Waasland-Sportkring Beveren) je belgický fotbalový klub z města Beveren. Byl založen roku 1936 jako Red Star. Domácím hřištěm je Freethielstadion s kapacitou 13 290 míst. Klubové barvy jsou žlutá a červená.


Youth.

Har-Zion was born in Herzliya in 1934, and was a third generation sabra. His mother, Sarah Goldenberg, had been born in Rishon LeZion to a mother who had been born in Jerusalem to a Sephardi-Jewish family originally from İzmir and a father who had been born in Romania and moved to Palestine with his parents as a child. Har-Zion's father, Eliyahu Horowitz, had moved to Palestine from Russia.  When Har-Zion was three years old, the family moved to Rishpon, where his two sisters Shoshana and Rachel were born. When he was 14, his parents divorced, and Har-Zion moved to kibbutz Ein Harod with his father while his mother and sisters moved to kibbutz Beit Alfa. As a child, Har-Zion spent much of his free time watching nature and taking walks, sometimes crossing the borders of Palestine. In 1949, he was briefly detained by Syrian authorities together with his 13-year-old sister, Shoshana, after being caught in Syrian territory east of Beit She'an.  In 1951, two years later, they were both captured by a shepherd while on the Syrian side of the border. This time they were held prisoner in Damascus, and the two children were only released by the Syrian government after a month of negotiation by the UN and the governments of both countries, making international headlines.  Being the children of divorced parents, Meir and his younger sister Shoshana had developed a deep emotional bond with each other, and had become extremely close, often illegally crossing into neighbouring Arab countries together.  During the 1950s around a dozen Israeli teenagers were killed attempting to illegally reach the ancient city of Petra, which is located 40 km inside Jordan. Such cross-border treks were considered a rite of passage for elite youth. The song "HaSela HaAdom" (The Red Rock), which praised a group killed attempting the trek, was banned.  At the age of 18, Meir and his girlfriend managed to reach Petra at night, after three days of hiking, and crossing the Wadi Musa and climbing Mount Hor and bypassing an unpassable waterfall: they apparently slipped into the ancient city unnoticed, under the cover of darkness, before exploring the Nabatean palaces. This feat made them legendary figures amongst the Israeli youth of the time, for whom Petra had represented an impenetrable citadel. "We had only a compass and a map on a small scale, but that was definitely enough to find our way to Petra," Har-Zion recalled.

Unit 101.

In 1953 he was one of the founding members of Unit 101. He took part in the unit's first operation at the end of August 1953. Sixteen men with two jeeps, two command cars and a reconnaissance aircraft attacked the 'Azazme bedouin camps around the wells at al Auja. Their tents were burnt and anything attempting to reach the water was shot at.  On the night of 14–15 October 1953 around 65 men from Unit 101 joined a larger IDF force in an attack on the village of Qibya, in what became known as the Qibya massacre. Har-Zion commanded one of three squads sent to ambush any reinforcements coming from Ni'lin, Budrus, and Shuqba. In another night time attack, 18–19 December 1953, two Unit 101 squads led by Har-Zion ambushed a car on the Bethlehem to Hebron road. A Lebanese-born doctor serving in the Arab Legion, Mansour Awad, was killed. The Israeli Prime Minister Moshe Sharett was annoyed that he had not been informed about the attack beforehand. Three nights later Har-Zion led a four man squad on a 21-kilometre march to the outskirts of Hebron.  Other missions that Har-Zion took part in included Operation Black Arrow and Operation Elkayam.

890th Paratroop Battalion.

The following year, 26 May 1954, Har-Zion was amongst a ten-man squad from the newly formed 890th Paratroop Battalion, led by its commander Ariel Sharon, which carried out a raid near Khirbet Jinba, south west of Hebron. Two National Guardsmen were killed in an ambush as well as two farmers and two camels. Sharett once again complained about not being informed and suspected that Minister of Defence Pinhas Lavon had not been consulted either.  On 27–28 June 1954 Har-Zion was in a seven man squad led by Major Aharon Davidi that launched a surprise attack on an Arab Legion camp at Azzun, 13 km east of Qalqilya. Three Legionnaires were killed as well as a farmer, Rafi'a Abdel Aziz Omar, who was stabbed to death by Har-Zion to prevent him raising the alarm. On their return to Israeli lines one of the team who had been wounded, Sergeant Yitzhak Jibli, was left behind. On discovering that Sergeant Jibli had been taken prisoner Chief of Staff Moshe Dayan approved a series of hostage taking raids.  On 31 July – 1 August 1954 Har-Zion led a group of ten raiders who attacked two policemen near Jenin, taking one of them prisoner. On their way back they killed a farmer watching his fields. On the 30–31 August 1954 Har-Zion took part in Operation Binyamin 2. This operation was approved by Prime Minister Moshe Sharett and was commanded by Ariel Sharon. The attackers were divided into four groups. The first attacked a school building in the village of Beit Liqya. The other three set ambushes for the expected arrival of reinforcements. Only Har-Zion's group were successful. They had strung a wire across the road with cans of petrol at each end. A car full of soldiers from the Arab Legion drove into the trap. Two were killed, one wounded and three taken prisoner.  Sergeant Yitzhak Jibli was released on 29 October 1954, four months after being wounded and captured.

The Har-Zion Affair.

In the middle of February 1955 Har-Zion's sister, Shoshana, along with her boyfriend Oded Wegmeister from Degania Bet, both 18, were captured, abused and murdered by Bedouin tribesmen from Wadi al-Ghar (the central section of the stream called in Hebrew "Nahal Arugot", which ends at Ein Gedi) while on an illegal cross-border hike across the Judean desert on Jordanian territory. When he heard of her death, Har-Zion was inconsolable and vowed revenge. On March 4, he and three ex-members of the 890th Battalion drove to the Armistice Line with Jordan. In Wadi al-Ghar, 9 km from the border, they captured six Bedouin from the Jahaleen and 'Azazme tribes. The prisoners were interrogated and five of them killed, four with knives and the fifth was shot. One of the dead was 16 years old. The sixth was sent back to his tribe to tell what happened. The men probably had nothing to do with the killing of Har-Zion's sister, and had merely belonged to the same tribes as the murderers. David Ben-Gurion told the cabinet that the Israelis did not know enough Arabic to understand what their prisoners were saying. Sharon wrote that it was "the kind of ritual revenge the Bedouins understood perfectly. But the repercussions of what Har-Zion had done were very 20th century. The Jordanians made a formal complaint to the UN."  On their return, Har-Zion and three of his companions were held in custody for 20 days. They were released without charge, as a result of protection and stonewalling by them and their colleagues in the army, and soon rejoined their old unit. Sharett, who suspected that Dayan had advance knowledge of the raid, and who deplored such actions, noted critically in his diary: ""The dark soul of the Bible has come alive among the sons of Nahalal and 'Ein Harod"".

End of career.

Operation Jonathon, 11–12 September 1956, was an attack by two paratroop companies on Khirbet al-Rahwa police fort, on the Hebron–Beersheba road, in which over 20 Jordanian soldiers and policemen were killed. During the fighting Har-Zion was wounded in the throat and arm. His life was saved by an army doctor who performed a tracheotomy using his pocket-knife while still under fire.  The injuries left Har-Zion unable to continue his army career. He was awarded the Medal of Courage. He had attained the rank of Captain.

1967 and 1973 Wars.

During the 1967 Six-Day War, Har-Zion was called up as captain in the reserves, and despite the use of only one hand, took part alongside the paratroopers in the battle for the Old City of Jerusalem. In one important exploit in the battle, he killed a Jordanian sniper who had been holding up the Israeli advance: after stalking the sniper across a roof-top, he killed him with hand-grenades.  Har-Zion served again as a captain during the Yom Kippur War, on the Golan front, in which he fought deep inside Syrian territory and rescued injured soldiers behind enemy lines.

Writing career.

In 1969 he published his diaries which gave an account of his time as a paratrooper.  Of one of the early attacks he wrote: He also gives an account of the killing of farmer Rafi'a Abdel Aziz Omar during the 27–28 June 1954 operation (details see above):

Late life and death.

During the latter part of his life he lived in "Ahuzat Shoshana", a farm built on a hilltop above the Jordan Valley, just north and in sight of kibbutz Beit Alfa, right next to the ruins of the Crusader castle of Belvoir. The farm is named after his sister and her name is written on the gate to the farm. Har-Zion was married and had four children. He became a right-wing writer and patron to movements such as Homesh First. In 2005, he published criticisms of his former colleague Ariel Sharon for his policy of disengagement from Gaza. Har-Zion died on March 14, 2014 from natural causes at the age of 80.  Har-Zion was buried in Kochav Hayarden Park. His funeral was attended by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, President Shimon Peres, Defense Minister Moshe Ya'alon, and other ministers and dignitaries.

Articles.

Obituary: "Celebrated IDF Soldier Meir Mar-Zion DIes at 80", "Tabletmag.com", March 14, 2014.

Meir Har-Zion (; February 25, 1934 – March 14, 2014) was an Israeli military commando. As a key member of Unit 101, he was highly praised by Chief of Staff Moshe Dayan who described him as "the finest of our commando soldiers, the best soldier ever to emerge in the IDF". Ariel Sharon described him as "the elite of the elite." His three-year military career was ended by injuries sustained in battle. The character of Ari Ben-Canaan in Leon Uris's novel "Exodus" is generally believed to have been based on Har-Zion.

Me'ir Har-Cijon (hebrejsky: מאיר הר ציון; 1934, Herzlija, Britský mandát Palestina − 14. března 2014) byl izraelský voják. Byl klíčovým členem speciální jednotky 101, později sloužil u 890. výsadkářské brigády, se kterou byla sloučena. Jeho vojenskou kariéru ukončila závažná zranění, která utrpěl roku 1955 při operaci Jonathon.


Premise.

The first season follows S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson as he puts together a small team of agents to handle strange new cases. They investigate Project Centipede and its leader, "The Clairvoyant", eventually uncovering that the organization is backed by the terrorist group Hydra, which has infiltrated S.H.I.E.L.D. In the second season, following the destruction of S.H.I.E.L.D. in "", Coulson becomes director of the organization and is tasked with rebuilding it while dealing with Hydra, a faction of anti-superhuman S.H.I.E.L.D. agents, and a newly revealed superhuman race called the Inhumans.  During the third season, Coulson begins a secret mission to assemble the Secret Warriors, a team of Inhumans, as Hydra restores its ancient Inhuman leader Hive to power. After the defeat of Hive and Hydra, S.H.I.E.L.D. is made a legitimate organization once again with the signing of the Sokovia Accords. In the fourth

Production.

Development.

After The Walt Disney Company purchased Marvel Entertainment in 2009, they announced that a Marvel Television division was being formed under Jeph Loeb. In the following months, various pilots based on comics from Marvel's catalog went into development. In July 2012, Marvel Television entered into discussions with ABC to make a new series set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, though at that point it was undecided what it would be. The series was described as "'a kernel of an idea' with a number of scenarios being explored, including a high-concept cop show." The next month, it was announced that "Marvel's The Avengers" director Joss Whedon, creator of other television shows such as "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and "Firefly", would be involved in the series' development.  In August 2012, ABC ordered a pilot for a series called "S.H.I.E.L.D." to be written and directed by Joss Whedon, with Jed Whedon and Maurissa Tancharoen also writing. Disney CEO Bob Iger greenlit the series after watching the Marvel One-Shot short film "Item 47". In April 2013, ABC announced that the series would be titled "Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", and it was officially picked up for a full

Writing.

Bell explained that he, Jed Whedon, and Tancharoen supervise all of the series' creative decisions, often consulting with Loeb. When the showrunners are writing the series, one person can write a script while the other two break stories, so that a story can be broken every few weeks. If the executive producers sign off on a story, a member of the series' writers room then produces an outline, gets notes on it from the showrunners, writes a full script, gets notes on it from ABC and the production crew, and then goes to set to produce the episode.  In January 2013, Joss Whedon deflected any direct influences from other series, such as the efforts of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully in "The X-Files", and explained that while the show would involve people with powers and the spectacle of science-fiction storytelling, it would focus on "the peripheral people...the people on the edges of the grand adventures." As the series began to introduce more powered individuals, Bell noted that audiences "seem to respond to powered people on the show and while it's not going to take over and

Casting.

In October 2012, a casting sheet for five lead roles was sent out. At the New York Comic Con, Joss Whedon, Kevin Feige, and Clark Gregg announced that Gregg would be reprising his role as agent Phil Coulson from "Iron Man", "Iron Man 2", "Thor", "The Avengers", and the Marvel One-Shots in the pilot, and would "headline" the series. Actress Ming-Na Wen was cast as Melinda May. The next month, Elizabeth Henstridge and Iain De Caestecker were cast as Jemma Simmons and Leo Fitz, respectively, while newcomer Brett

Design.

Costumes.

Betsy Heimann was the costume designer for the pilot, but left the series because of film commitments. Assistant costume designer Ann Foley took over for subsequent episodes, and worked closely with Tancharoen to create "very strong, different characters" whose "looks evolve along with the show." Foley also brought on concept artists Phillip Boutte Jr. and Josh Shaw to assist with the design process. Foley watched every MCU film, paying special attention to "The Avengers", and was also inspired by such films as "Skyfall" and "". In October 2016, Foley said that she was specifically following the aesthetic of "", "So any costume has to

Practical effects.

The series' props department is led by Scott Bauer. The pilot introduces the Incapacitating Cartridge Emitting Railgun, or ICER, tranquilizer weapons often used by the agents, with Joss Whedon having Bauer design "sci-fi"-looking guns, including a large rifle-like weapon. The series' further portrayal of the ICERs was more subtle, with Bauer using airsoft guns that are safe to shoot others with over a small distance. ICER-specific muzzle flashes are then added by the visual effects

Title sequence.

Throughout the series, "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." "[became] known for its signature use of changing title cards" to reflect the storyline being told and would define "a specific era of the series". The third season introduces a new title sequence for the series, replacing the one that appeared in the first two seasons. The title sequence in "4,722 Hours" is drastically different from the design introduced for the third season, with the series' title in the episode's typeface silently fading onto the screen over the back drop of the planet Simmons is stranded on. The fourth season sees new series title cards for the "Ghost Rider" and

Filming.

Production for the pilot took place almost entirely in Los Angeles to accommodate Joss Whedon's schedule, while the rest of the series is primarily filmed in Culver City, California. Additional filming has also taken place around the world, including in Paris, France, Stockholm,

Visual effects.

FuseFX serves as the lead visual effects vendor for "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", with additional work by Pixomondo, Cosa, Greenhaus GFX, Lion VFX, and Synaptic. The series sees an average of 80 to 150 visual effects shots per episode, with 10 to 12 days to work on the effects for one episode once background plates have been received from filming. This equates to approximately 2000 visual effects shots per season. Mark Kolpack serves as visual effects supervisor for the series. David Altenau was the in-house supervisor at FuseFX for "Pilot" through

Music.

Bear McCreary confirmed that he would compose music for the series in July 2013. Unlike on some of his previous scores, ABC and Marvel allowed McCreary to work with a full symphonic orchestra, typically featuring 50 or 70 players, with over 90 for "important" episodes. Complex synthesizer programming was also used, to give the score "a modern edge". Since "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." was the first MCU television series, McCreary felt there was "a sense that it had to connect" to the consistent orchestra sound of the films, but viewed through a television lens. McCreary composes on average 30 minutes of music per episode. Creating the main theme for the series, which McCreary also saw as Coulson's theme, was a process which took a lot of collaboration with the executive producers, who wanted a specific sound—"something big, that...belonged in the Marvel Cinematic Universe" but

Marvel Cinematic Universe tie-ins.

In July 2013, Jed Whedon said the series would work in tandem with the Marvel films, both past and upcoming, to weave in between the films, and to "try to make them more rewarding on both ends." He explained that each Marvel project is intended to stand alone first before there is any interweaving, and noted that the series has to work with the film division and be aware of their plans so as not to interfere when introducing someone or something to the universe. Bell elaborated that this was preferable so that people who do not watch the films can still follow the series, and vice versa. He stated that "ABC and Marvel both want the series to be able to make sense on its own", but that it was beneficial for the films to have the series fill in any "gaps" for them, due to having to be "big" and moving "quickly through a lot of huge pieces", unlike television which has time to deal with more nuances.  In January 2016, Joss Whedon noted that this process "unfortunately just means the TV show gets, you know, leftovers." He stated that, for example, the series' creative team

Marketing.

Social media accounts for the series were set up in January 2013, months before ABC officially ordered it, "a rarity for a pilot." By May 17, 2013, "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." was the top new show of the television season in terms of social media activity, with the series' official Twitter account having over 46,000 followers and its official Facebook page having close to half a million likes. Many cast and crew members "live tweet" each episode, with J. August Richards noting that this brings instant feedback from viewers, and allows the crew to "watch the audience take that journey" in real time.  For the final six episodes of the first season, Marvel began the "" initiative, in which a different image was released each Thursday before a new episode, depicting a first look at a key event from the upcoming episode. Bell stated that the initiative was a way to tie the series back to its comics roots, and was thought of at the beginning of the first season. The production team tried to pair specific artists to the teaser posters based on their previous work and how it connected to the themes and emotion of the intended episode. For the second season, the series returned as "The Art of Evolution", with an image for each of the final

Release.

Broadcast.

"Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." airs in the United States on ABC, in 720p high definition and 5.1 surround sound, despite delivering the episodes to ABC in 1080p. The first season aired on Tuesdays at 8pm EST for the first season, and starting with the second season, the series aired on Tuesdays at 9pm EST, before moving to the 10pm time slot on Tuesdays for the fourth season. For its fifth season, the series aired on Fridays at 9pm EST, on Fridays at 8pm EST for season six, and will

Home media.

The complete first season was first released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 9, 2014, with the complete second season released on September 18, 2015, as an Amazon.com exclusive. On Netflix in the United States, the first season became available for streaming

Reception.

Viewership and ratings.

In the United States, the premiere episode of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." earned a 4.7/14 rating in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic, with 12.12 million total viewers, making it the biggest network drama debut in four years. Though the series debuted to strong ratings against its competition, "NCIS", its ratings declined considerably over the following two months, though it remained Tuesday's top show among men 18–49, and overall was the No. 3 show among upscale young adults behind "Modern Family" and "The Big Bang Theory". It also enjoyed DVR recordings that, according to "TV Guide", were "through the roof".  In March 2016, Alisha Grauso of "Forbes" discussed the series and its ratings, describing the show as having "never quite been the ratings hit for ABC that the network had hoped it would be... It's hard enough to write a film script that fits within the continuity of the larger Marvel Cinematic Universe, even harder to do it with a full-length TV season that

Critical response.

For the first season, the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 88% approval rating, with an average rating of 7.83/10 based on 72 reviews. The website's consensus reads, ""Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." is sure to please comic book fans, but the strong ensemble and brisk pacing help to make this better-than-average superhero show accessible to non-fanboys as well." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a "generally favorable" score of 74 based on 33 reviews.  The second season has a 91% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 7.66/10 based on 32 reviews. The website's consensus reads, ""Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." relaxes into itself during its sophomore season, mitigating the show's growing pains by focusing on characters while amping up narrative thrills." The third season has a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with

Analysis.

The way that the series is affected by the events of "Captain America: The Winter Soldier" has been called "miraculous", with Terri Schwartz at Zap2it writing "the fact that the movie so influenced the show is game-changing in terms of how the mediums of film and television can be interwoven", while Mary McNamara of the "Los Angeles Times" stated that "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." "faces a future of perpetual re-invention, and that puts it in the exhilarating first car of television's roller-coaster ride toward possible world domination." The fact that the series also depicts the rebuilding of S.H.I.E.L.D. in the MCU has also been highlighted, with Merrill Barr, reviewing "Beginning of the End" for "Forbes", saying "what Marvel's daring to say with this season finale is 'everything we do matters, and you need to pay attention to all of it.'"  The series' introduction of the Inhumans was seen by Oliver Sava of "The A.V. Club" as making "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." an essential part of the MCU and Marvel Studios' plans, with the connections between the series and the films previously having always

Accolades.

"The Atlantic" named "4,722 Hours"

Spin-offs.

"Marvel's Most Wanted".

By April 2015, Marvel was developing a spin-off series of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." Developed by Bell and writer Paul Zbyszewski, it would star Palicki and Blood. ABC passed on the project by May 7, 2015, when they announced their series renewals and cancellations, and

"Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Slingshot".

A six-part digital series, "Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Slingshot", was revealed on December 6, 2016, to debut on ABC.com on December 13, 2016. It follows Elena "Yo-Yo" Rodriguez on

"Ghost Rider".

In May 2019, Hulu ordered "Marvel's Ghost Rider" to series, with Ingrid Escajeda set as showrunner and executive producer alongside Zbyszewski and Loeb. Gabriel Luna was set to reprise his role of Robbie Reyes / Ghost Rider from the fourth season of "Agents of

Other media.

At the 2014 San Diego Comic Con International, Marvel Comics announced an ongoing series titled "S.H.I.E.L.D.", to be set in the mainstream Marvel Universe and written by Mark Waid, beginning December 2014. Featuring art by a rotating group of artists including Carlos Pacheco, Alan Davis, and Chris Sprouse, the series is led by Agent Phil Coulson, and sees the canonical introduction of the characters Melinda May, Jemma Simmons, and Leo Fitz—who originated from the television series—to the Marvel comics universe, who Waid noted would be given "the Marvel Universe spin." Waid described the series as "done-in-one. Coulson and his team have a mission, and if we need someone for a mission, everyone in the Marvel Universe is available as a potential Agent." Waid added that though the comic does not share events with the television series, it will maintain the characters' relationships and personalities. Marc Guggenheim relaunched the comic as "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." for Marvel Comics' All-New, All-Different Marvel line, and introduced the television series' character Grant Ward to the Marvel comic universe in May 2016.  In September 2015, it was announced that Phil Coulson, Daisy Johnson / Quake, Deathlok, Melinda May, Bobbi Morse, Lincoln Campbell, Sif, Raina and Gordon would appear in the "" mobile role-playing video game. Their inclusion in the game was done to promote the start of the third season, as well as to allow Marvel to "extend storylines and build on backstories to engage fans in a brand-new experience," according to Marvel Games creative director Bill Rosemann. In March 2016, de Caestecker and Henstridge reprised their roles as Fitz and Simmons, respectively, in the episode "Lizards", of the animated series "Ultimate Spider-Man vs the Sinister 6". Also in the month, "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." downloadable content was revealed for "Lego Marvel's Avengers". The content consisted of a mission based "on the events leading up to the season two finale", which involved facing Jiaying and Daisy in Afterlife while rescuing agents, as well as going up against Gordon and Cal Johnson who have occupied the S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier. The content includes the playable characters Daisy Johnson, Leo Fitz, Agent Koenig, Melinda May, Bobbi Morse, Jemma Simmons, Cal Johnson / Mr. Hyde, Deathlok, Gordon, Grant Ward, Jiaying, Lincoln, and Raina, as well as the airplane 'The Bus'. Ming-Na Wen reprised her role as Melinda May to provide new dialogue for the content.

Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., or simply Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., is an American television series created for ABC by Joss Whedon, Jed Whedon, and Maurissa Tancharoen, based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement, and Logistics Division), a peacekeeping and spy agency in a world of superheroes. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the continuity of the franchise's films and other television series. The series is produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy Productions, with Jed Whedon, Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell serving as showrunners.

Agenti S.H.I.E.L.D. (v anglickém originále Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. nebo jednoduše Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.) je americký televizní seriál vytvořený pro stanici ABC od Josse Whedona, Jeda Whedona a Maurissy Tancharoen založen na marvelovské špionážní agentuře S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement and Logistics Division). Seriál je produkován ABC Studios, Marvel Television a Mutant Enemy a je posazen do marvelovského filmového světa. Seriál je časově zařazen po událostech ve filmech Avengers a Iron Man 3. Seriál pojednává o agentech špionážní agentury S.H.I.E.L.D., jejich misích a podobně. Hlavní postavou seriálu je agent Phil Coulson, kterého znovu hraje Clark Gregg.


United States at the 2014 Winter Olympics

Medalists.

The following U.S. competitors won medals at the games. In the by discipline sections below, medalists' names are bolded.

Alpine skiing.

The United States has qualified a total quota of twenty athletes in alpine skiing. The full list of the U.S. alpine skiing team was officially announced on January 27, 2014.

Biathlon.

Based on their performance at the 2012 and 2013 Biathlon World Championships, the United States qualified 5 men and 5 women. The full list of U.S. biathlon team was officially announced on January 12, 2014.

Cross-country skiing.

The team was named on January 22, 2014.

Curling.

Based on results from the 2012 World Women's Curling Championship and the 2013 World Women's Curling Championship, the USA has qualified their women's team as one of the seven highest ranked nations. The USA has also qualified their men's team through the Olympic qualification event.  The United States men's curling team curls out of the Duluth Curling Club in Duluth, Minnesota.  "Monday, February 10, 7:00 pm"  "Tuesday, February 11, 2:00 pm"  "Wednesday, February 12, 9:00 am"  "Thursday, February 13, 2:00 pm"  "Friday, February 14, 9:00 am" "Friday, February 14, 7:00 pm"  "Sunday, February 16, 9:00 am"  "Sunday, February 16, 7:00 pm"  "Monday, February 17, 2:00 pm"  The United States women's curling team curls out of the Madison Curling Club in Madison, Wisconsin.  "Monday, February 10, 2:00 pm"  "Tuesday, February 11, 9:00 am"  "Tuesday, February 11, 7:00 pm"  "Wednesday, February 12, 2:00 pm"  "Thursday, February 13, 7:00 pm" "Friday, February 14, 2:00 pm"  "Saturday, February 15, 7:00 pm"  "Sunday, February 16, 2:00 pm"  "Monday, February 17, 9:00 am"

Freestyle skiing.

Only 26 of the 34 quota places earned could be filled. The 11 slopestyle and halfpipe skiers who earned their Olympic berths at the qualifying events were named to the team on January 18, 2014, and the rest of the team was named on January 21, 2014.

Ice hockey.

Men's tournament.

The United States qualified a men's team by being one of the 9 highest ranked teams in the IIHF World Ranking following the 2012 World Championships.  The United States was drawn into Group A.

Women's tournament.

The women's team qualified by being one of the 5 highest ranked teams in the IIHF World Ranking following the 2012 Women's World Championships.  The United States was drawn into Group A.

Luge.

Based on world rankings between November 1, 2013, and December 31, 2013, the United States has qualified 10 athletes.

Nordic combined.

United States has qualified a total of four athletes and a spot in the team relay. The full Nordic combined team was officially announced on January 22, 2014.

Short track speed skating.

Based on their performance at World Cup 3 and 4 in November 2013, the United States qualified 5 men and 3 women. The members of the team were decided at the US Olympic trials from January 2–5, 2014. Kyle Carr was the 5th man selected to the team but he did not skate in any individual distances or in the relay

Skeleton.

The skeleton team was named on January 18, 2014.

Ski jumping.

The team was named on January 22, 2014.

Snowboarding.

The final members of the freestyle team and the alpine team was named on January 21, 2014. The snowboard cross team was named on January 25, 2014.

Speed skating.

Based on the results from the fall World Cups during the 2013–14 ISU Speed Skating World Cup season, the United States earned start quotas in each distance and the members of the team were decided following the 2014 U.S. Olympic Long Track Trials from December 27 to January 1. A team of 17 was announced after the trials. This was the first Winter Olympics since 1984 that the American long track speed skating team failed to win an Olympic medal.

The United States competed at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia, from February 7 to 23, 2014. Team USA consisted of 230 athletes competing in all 15 sports.

Spojené státy americké na Zimních olympijských hrách 2014 reprezentovalo 230 sportovců v 15 druzích sportu, kteří se účastnili her ve dnech 7.–23. února 2014.


History.

Preceding events.

Two kingdoms: León and Castile.

Towards unification.

The Kingdom of León arose out of the Kingdom of Asturias. The Kingdom of Castile appeared initially as a county of the Kingdom of León. From the second half of the 10th century to the first half of the 11th century it changed hands between León and the Kingdom of Navarre. In the 11th century it became a kingdom in its own right.  The two kingdoms had been united twice previously:

Occupation of western Navarre.

From 1199 to 1201 under Alfonso VIII the Castilian king's armies invaded the Kingdom of Navarre, annexing thereafter Álava, Durangaldea and Gipuzkoa, including San Sebastián and Vitoria (Gasteiz). However, these western Basque territories saw their Navarrese charters confirmed under Castilian rule.

Crown of Castile from the rule of Ferdinand III until the ascension of Charles I.

Union of the two kingdoms under Ferdinand III.

Ferdinand III received the Kingdom of Castile from his mother, Queen Berengaria of Castile granddaughter of Sancho III in 1217, and the Kingdom of León from his father Alfonso IX of León son of Ferdinand II in 1230. From then on the two kingdoms were united under the name of the Kingdom of León and Castile, or simply as the Crown of Castile. Ferdinand III later conquered the Guadalquivir Valley, while his son Alfonso X conquered the Kingdom of Murcia from Al-Andalus, further extending the area of the Crown of Castile. Given this, the kings of the Crown of Castile traditionally styled themselves "King of Castile, León, Toledo, Galicia, Murcia, Jaén, Córdoba, Seville, and Lord of Biscay and Molina", among other possessions they later gained. The heir to the throne has been titled Prince of Asturias since the 14th century.

Union of the "Cortes" and the legal code.

Almost immediately after the union of the two kingdoms under Ferdinand III, the parliaments of Castile and León were united. It was divided into three estates, which corresponded with the nobility, the church and the cities, and included representation from Castile, León, Galicia, Toledo, and the Basque Provinces. Initially the number of cities represented in the Cortes varied over the next century, until John I permanently set those that would be allowed to send representatives ("procuradores"): Burgos, Toledo, León, Sevilla, Córdoba, Murcia, Jaén, Zamora, Segovia, Ávila, Salamanca, Cuenca, Toro, Valladolid, Soria, Madrid and Guadalajara (with Granada added after its conquest in 1492).  Under Alfonso X, most sessions of the Cortes of both kingdoms were held jointly. The Cortes of 1258 in Valladolid comprised representatives of Castile, Extremadura and León (""de Castiella e de Estremadura e de tierra de León"") and those of Seville in 1261 of Castile, León and all other kingdoms (""de Castiella e de León e de todos los otros nuestros Regnos""). Subsequent Cortes were celebrated separately, for example in 1301 that of Castile in Burgos and that of León in Zamora, but the representatives demanded that the parliaments be reunited from then on.  Although the individual kingdoms and cities initially retained their individual historical rights-including the Old Fuero of Castile (Viejo Fuero de Castilla) and the different "fueros" of the municipal councils of Castile, León, Extremadura and Andalucía-a unified legal code for the entire new kingdom was created in the Siete Partidas (c. 1265), the Ordenamiento de Alcalá (1248) and the Leyes de Toro (1505). These laws continued to be in force until 1889, when a new Spanish civil code, the Código Civil Español, was enacted.

Spanish languages and universities.

In the 13th century there were many languages spoken in the Kingdoms of León and Castile among them Castilian, Leonese, Basque and Galician-Portuguese. But, as the century progressed, Castilian gained increasing prominence as the language of culture and communication- one example of this is the "Cantar de Mio Cid".  In the last years of the reign of Ferdinand III, Castilian began to be used for some important documents, such as the Visigothic Code, the basis of the legal code for Christians living in Muslim Cordova, but it was during the reign of Alfonso X that it became the official language. Henceforth all public documents were written in Castilian, likewise all translations of Arabic legal and government documents were made into Castilian instead of Latin.  Some scholars think that the substitution of Castilian for Latin was due to the strength of the new language, whereas others consider that it was due to the influence of Hebrew-speaking intellectuals who were hostile towards Latin, the language of the Christian Church.  In 1492, under the Catholic Monarchs, the first edition of the "Grammar of the Castilian Language" by Antonio de Nebrija was published. Castilian was eventually carried to the Americas in the 16th century by the conquistadors. Because of Castilian's importance in the land ruled by the Spanish Crown, the language is also known as Spanish.  Furthermore, in the 13th century many universities were founded where instruction was in Castilian, such as the Leonese University of Salamanca, the Castilian "Estudio General" of Palencia and the University of Valladolid, which were among the first universities in Europe.

Ascension of the Trastámara dynasty.

On the death of Alfonso XI a dynastic conflict started between his sons, the "Infantes" Peter (Pedro) and Henry, Count of Trastámara, which became entangled in the Hundred Years' War (between England and France). Alfonso XI had married Maria of Portugal with whom he had his heir, the "Infante" Peter. However, the King also had many illegitimate children with Eleanor of Guzman, among them the above-mentioned Henry, who disputed Peter's right to the throne once the latter became king.  In the resulting struggle, in which both brothers claimed to be king, Pedro allied himself with Edward, Prince of Wales, "the Black Prince". In 1367, the Black Prince defeated Henry II's allies at the Battle of Nájera, restoring Pedro's control of the kingdom. The Black Prince, seeing that the king would not reimburse his expenses, left Castile. Henry, who had fled to France, took advantage of the opportunity and recommenced the fight. Henry finally was victorious in 1369 in the Battle of Montiel, in which he had Peter killed.  In 1371 the brother of the Black Prince, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, married Constance, Peter's daughter. In 1386, he claimed the Crown of Castile in the name of his wife, the legitimate heir according to the Cortes de Seville of 1361. He arrived in A Coruña with an army and took the city. He then moved on to occupy Santiago de Compostela, Pontevedra and Vigo. He asked John I, Henry II's son, to give up the throne in favor of Constance.  John declined but proposed that his son, the "Infante" Henry, marry John of Gaunt's daughter Catherine. The proposal was accepted, and the title Prince of Asturias was created for Henry and Catherine. This ended the dynastic conflict, strengthened the House of Trastámara's position and created peace between England and Castile.

Relations with the Crown of Aragon during the 14th century.

During the reign of Henry III royal power was restored, overshadowing the much powerful Castilian nobility. In his later years Henry delegated some of his power to his brother Ferdinand I of Antequera, who would be regent, along with his wife Catherine of Lancaster, during the childhood of his son John II. After the Compromise of Caspe in 1412, Ferdinand left Castile to become King of Aragon.  Upon the death of his mother, John II at the age of 14, took to the throne and married his cousin Maria of Aragon. The young king entrusted his government to regent Álvaro de Luna, the most influential person in court and allied with the lesser nobility, the cities, the clergy, and the Jews. This brought together the mutual dislikes of the king shared by the greater Castilian nobility and the Aragonese "Infantes", sons of Ferdinand I of Antequera, who sought to control the Castilian crown. This eventually led to war in 1429 and 1430 between the two kingdoms. Álvaro de Luna won the war and expelled the Aragonese "Infantes" from Castile.

Second Conflict of Succession.

Henry IV unsuccessfully tried to re-establish the peace with the nobility that his father, John II, had shattered. When his second wife, Joan of Portugal, gave birth to Infanta Joanna, it was claimed that she was the result of an affair of the Queen with Beltrán de la Cueva, one of the King's chief ministers.  The King, besieged by riots and the demands of the nobles, had to sign a treaty in which he named as his successor his half-brother Alfonso, leaving Infanta Joanna out of the line of succession. After the death of Alfonso in an accident, Henry IV signed the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando with his half-sister Isabella I in which he named her heiress in return for her marrying a prince chosen by him.

Catholic Monarchs: Union with the Crown of Aragon.

In October 1469 Isabella I and Ferdinand II, heir to the throne of Aragon, married in secret in the "Palacio de los Vivero" in Castilian Valladolid. The consequence was a dynastic union of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 when Ferdinand ascended to the Aragonese throne. This union however was not effective until the reign of his grandson Charles I (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). Ferdinand and Isabella were related and had married without papal approval. Although Isabella wanted to marry Ferdinand, she refused to proceed with the marriage until she received a Papal dispensation. Consequently, Ferdinand's father forged a papal dispensation for the two to marry. Isabella believed that the dispensation was authentic and the marriage went ahead. A genuine papal dispensation arrived afterwards. Later Pope Alexander VI bestowed upon them the title of "'los Reyes Católicos'" ('the Catholic Monarchs').  Henry IV, half brother of Isabella, considered the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella as breaking the treaty of "Tratado de los Toros de Guisando" under which Isabella would ascend to the Castilian throne on his death only if her suitor was approved by him. Henry wanted to ally Castile with Portugal or France rather than Aragon. He therefore decided to name his daughter Infanta Joanna as heiress to the throne rather than Isabella I. When he died in 1474 the War of the Castilian Succession broke out over who would ascend to the throne. It lasted until 1479 when Isabella and her supporters came out victorious. After Isabella's victory in the civil war and Ferdinand's ascension to the Aragonese throne the two crowns were united under the same monarchs. However, this was a personal union and both kingdoms remained administratively separate to some extent, each maintaining largely its own laws; both parliaments remained separate, the only common institution would be the Inquisition. Despite their titles of "Monarchs of Castile, Leon, Aragon and Sicily" Ferdinand and Isabella reigned over their respective territories, although they also took decisions together. Its central position, larger territorial area (three times greater than that of Aragon) and larger population (4.3 million as opposed to the 1 million in Aragon) led to Castile becoming the dominating partner in the union.  As a result of the "Reconquista" (Reconquest) the Castilian aristocracy had become very powerful. The monarchs needed to assert their authority over the nobility and the clergy. With this end in mind they founded a law enforcement body, the "Consejo de la Hermandad", more commonly known as the "Santa Hermandad" (the Holy Brotherhood), which was staffed and funded by the municipalities. They also took further measures against the nobility, destroying feudal castles, prohibiting private wars and reducing the power of the "Adelantados" (a governor-like military office in regions recently conquered). The monarchy incorporated military orders under the "Consejo de las Órdenes" in 1495, reinforced royal judicial power over the feudal one and transformed the "Audiencias" into the supreme judicial bodies. The crown also sought to better control the cities, and so in 1480 in the Cortes of Toledo it created the "corregidores", representatives of the crown, which supervised the city councils. In religion, they reformed religious orders and sought unity of the various sections of the church. They pressured Jews to convert to Catholicism, in some cases persecuted by the Inquisition. Finally in 1492, the monarchs decided that those who would not convert would be expelled. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 70,000 people were expelled from Castile. From 1502 onwards, they began to convert the Muslim population.  Between 1478 and 1497 the monarchs' forces conquered the three Canary Islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife. On 2 January 1492 the monarchs entered Granada's Alhambra marking the completion and end of the "Reconquista". Also in 1492, the Christopher Columbus maritime expedition claimed the newly found lands in the Americas for the Crown of Castile and began the New World conquests. In 1497 Castile conquered Melilla on the north coast of North Africa. After Castile's conquest of the Kingdom of Granada, its politics turned towards the Mediterranean, and Castile militarily helped Aragon in its problems with France, culminating in the reconquest of Naples for the Crown of Aragon in 1504. Later that same year, Isabella died, on November 26.

Period of regency – Joanna I.

Upon Isabella I's death 1504, the crown passed to her daughter Joanna, who was married to Philip of Austria (nicknamed 'Philip the Handsome'). But Isabella knew of her daughter's possible mental health incapacities ("and so nicknamed 'Juana la Loca' or 'Joanna the Mad' ") and named Ferdinand as regent in the case that Joanna "didn't want to or couldn't fulfil her duties". In the 'Salamanca Agreement' of 1505, it was decided that the government would be shared by Philip I, Ferdinand V and Joanna. However, poor relations between Phillip, who was supported by the Castilian nobility, and Ferdinand resulted in Ferdinand renouncing his regent's powers in Castile in order to avoid an armed conflict.  Through the "Concordia de Villafáfila" of 1506, Ferdinand returned to Aragon and Phillip was recognized as King of Castile, with Joanna a co-monarch. In the Treaty of Villafáfila in 1506 King Ferdinand the Catholic renounced not only the government of Castile in favour of his son-in-law Philip I of Castile but also the lordship of the Indies, withholding a half of the income of the kingdoms of the Indies. Joanna of Castile and Philip immediately added to their titles the kingdoms of Indies, Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea. Phillip died and Ferdinand returned in 1507 once again to be regent for Joanna. Her isolated confinement-imprisonment in the Santa Clara Convent at Tordesillas, to last over fifty years until death, began with her father's orders in 1510.  In 1512 a joint Castilian-Aragonese force invaded Navarre and most of the Kingdom of Navarre south of the Pyrenees was annexed to Castile.

Crown of Castile within Habsburg Spain.

Charles I.

Charles I received the Crown of Castile, the Crown of Aragon and the empire through a combination of dynastic marriages and premature deaths:  Charles I was not well received in Castile. This was partly because he was a foreign-born king (born in Ghent), and even before his arrival in Castile he had granted important positions to Flemish citizens and had used Castilian money to fund his court. The Castilian nobility and the cities were on the verge of an uprising to defend their rights. Many Castilians favoured the king's younger brother Ferdinand, who grew up in Castile, and in fact the Council of Castile opposed the idea of Charles as King of Castile.  In 1518 the Castilian parliament in Valladolid named the Wallonian Jean de Sauvage as its president. This caused angry protests in the parliament, which rejected the presence of foreigners in its deliberations. Despite threats, the parliament led by Juan de Zumel representing Burgos, resisted and forced the king to respect the laws of Castile, remove all foreigners from important governmental posts, and learn to speak Castilian. After taking his oath, Charles received a subsidy of 600,000 ducats.  Charles was conscious of the fact that he had options to become emperor and needed to impose his authority over Castile to gain access to its riches for his imperial goals. The riches from the Americas came through Castile which was one of the more dynamic, rich, and advanced territories in Europe in the 16th century. It started to realise that it could become immersed within an empire. This, added to the broken promise of Charles, only increased hostility towards the king. In 1520 in Toledo Parliament rejected a further subsidy for the king. Parliament in Santiago de Compostela reached the same decision. Finally, when Parliament was held in A Coruña, many members were bribed and others denied entry, with the result that the subsidy was approved. Those members who voted in favour were attacked by the Castilian people and their houses were burned. Parliament was not the only opposition which Charles would come up against. When he left Castile in 1520, the Castilian War of the Communities broke out. "Los comuneros" were defeated one year later (1521). After their defeat, Parliament was reduced to a merely consultative body.

Imperial policies of Philip II.

Philip II continued the politics of Charles I, but unlike his father he made Castile the core of the Spanish Empire, centralising all administration in Madrid. The other Spanish regions maintained certain degree of autonomy, being governed by a Viceroy.  In fact, since the reign of Charles I the financial burden of the empire had fallen mainly on Castile, but under Philip II the cost quadrupled. During his reign, as well as increasing existing taxes he created some new ones, among them the "excusado" in 1567. That same year Philip ordered the proclamation of the "La Pragmática"; an act whereby all Moriscos had to abandon all Moorish traditions and become true Catholics. This edict limited religious, linguistic and cultural freedom of the Morisco population and provoked the Morisco Revolt (1568–1571), which was put down by John of Austria.  Castile entered a phase of recession in 1575; Spain as a whole followed, which provoked the suspension of wages (the third of his reign). In 1590 the "Cortes" approved the "millones"; a new tax on food. This exhausted Castilian cities and hindered the economy. In 1596, pay was once again suspended.

Later Habsburgs.

In the previous kingdoms, positions in national institutions were filled by educated gentlemen. Philip II's administrators would normally come from either the University of Alcalá or the University of Salamanca. After Philip III the nobility once again asserted their right to govern the country. In order to show that there was a new order ruling there was a cleansing of the blood of Spain. Religious persecution led Philip to declare the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609.  Faced with the collapse of the Exchequer, in order to maintain the hegemony of Philip IV's Spanish Empire, the Count-Duke of Olivares, the king's favourite (valido) from 1621 to 1643, tried to introduce a series of reforms. Among these was the "Unión de Armas", the creation of a new army of 140,000 reservists. Every territory within the kingdom contributed citizens proportionally in order to maintain the force. His aims of union did not work and the Spanish Crown continued as a confederation of kingdoms.  Luis Méndez de Haro took over from Olivares as favourite Philip IV between 1659 and 1665. This was in order to alleviate interior conflicts sparked off by his predecessor (revolts in Portugal, Catalonia and Andalusia) and achieve peace in Europe.  Upon the death of Philip IV in 1665, and with the incapacity of Charles II to govern, Spain suffered an economic slowdown and battles for power between the different 'favourites'. The death of Charles II in 1700 without descendants provoked the War of the Spanish Succession.  After the war, all the territories were unified as a single country under the Crown of Spain.

Spanish territorial divisions within the Crown of Castile.

Overseas.

North – "Septentrional"  South – "Meridional"

The Crown of Castile was a medieval polity in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and, some decades later, the parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then Castilian king, Ferdinand III, to the vacant Leonese throne. It continued to exist as a separate entity after the personal union in 1469 of the crowns of Castile and Aragon with the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs up to the promulgation of the Nueva Planta decrees by Philip V in 1715.

Kastilská koruna neboli Koruna kastilská (španělsky "Corona de Castilla", latinsky "Corona Castellae"), případně Koruna Kastilie, je pojmenování středověkého a novověkého státu na Pyrenejském poloostrově. Jako vznik Kastilské koruny jako historické územní jednotky se běžně označuje poslední a definitivní unie Kastilského a Leónského království v roce 1230. V tomto roce nastoupil kastilský král Ferdinand III. na uvolněný leónský trůn (ke kterému patřila i Galicijské a Asturské království). Kastilská koruna se v roce 1479 spojila s Aragonskou korunou v podobě sňatku tzv. katolických Veličenstev Ferdinanda II. Aragonského a Isabely Kastilské.


Early life.

Wilcox was born February 15, 1855, on the island of Maui. His father, Captain William Slocum Wilcox (1814–1910) was a native of Newport, Rhode Island. His mother was a native of Maui, named Kalua. She was the daughter of Makole and Haupa. Makole was the great grandson of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. Wilcox's grandmother, Haupa was descended from Umi-a-Liloa of Maui (not to be confused with the king of Hawaii Island) and Lonomakaihonua.  He attended Haleakala Boarding School in the town of Makawao. Upon completion of his studies, Wilcox became a teacher at a Maui country school. In 1880, Wilcox was elected to the royal legislature in Honolulu on the island of Oahu. He represented the citizens of Wailuku and its neighboring Maui towns.

Military career.

In 1881, King David Kalākaua selected Wilcox and two other part-Hawaiian young men to study at the Royal Military Academy at Turin in the Kingdom of Italy as a part of the Education of Hawaiian Youths Abroad program. By the time he completed his training in 1885, he achieved the rank of sublieutenant of artillery. Impressed with his military skills, Italian officials sent Wilcox to the Royal Application School for Engineer and Artillery Officers.

Planned rebellion of 1888.

In 1888, the Reform Party (which later became the Hawaii Republican Party) took power in the Hawaiian Kingdom. Through what was called the Bayonet Constitution, they removed most political authority from the monarch, and placed income and property requirements on voters limiting the electorate to only wealthy native Hawaiians, Americans, and Europeans. The Reform Party ended costly programs such as Wilcox's training in Italy. On August 29, 1887, Wilcox received his orders to return home. Returning to Hawaii in October with his wife Gina Sobrero, a baroness closely related to Italy's Colonna family, he began a short-lived career as a surveyor. He had now lost confidence that Kalākaua was strong enough to protect the interests of the Hawaiian people. Wilcox along with Charles Wilson and Sam Nowlein, planned a coup d'état to replace Kalākaua with his sister Liliuokalani, but the plot was never executed. On February 11, 1888, Wilcox left Hawaii intending to return to Italy with his wife.

Rebellion of 1889.

Instead of returning to Italy, Wilcox took up residence in San Francisco, California, and worked as a surveyor while his wife Gina earned extra money teaching French and Italian. When he decided to return to Hawaii in the spring of 1889, Gina refused to go with him, and took their daughter back to Italy.  Wilcox planned and this time executed another attempt to force King Kalākaua to sign a new constitution to replace the 1887 Document on July 30, 1889. Kalākaua, apparently aware of the plot, avoided the palace, afraid that the rebellion would replace him with his sister Liliuokalani. Thus stymied, Wilcox was finally confronted by the Honolulu Rifles militia unit. After a pitched battle, Wilcox surrendered. In October 1889, he was tried for treason before judge Albert Francis Judd but acquitted by the jury. Being one of the few leaders to stand up to the conservative royalist Reform Party earned him respect among the people. The American minister John L. Stevens, who called Wilcox a "half breed", wrote: "The trial is tending plainly to show that the Hawaiians are numerously in sympathy with Wilcox." He helped form a new political party called the "National Reform Party" which advocated restoring power to the monarch. Wilcox was again elected to the royal legislature where he served from 1890 to 1893 representing the island of Oahu. However, the conservatives in the original Reform Party, backed by the economic resources of the "Big Five" industrial corporations remained in power.  In 1891, King Kalākaua died and his sister Liliuokalani became ruling monarch, swearing to uphold the 1887 Constitution. Wilcox was angered that Queen Liliuokalani did not choose him to be in her government, and he then formed his own National Liberal Party in November 1891. Although he did not explicitly advocate ending the Monarchy, the party advocated restoring power to the people even if it meant a republican form of government. After the elections of February 1892, when only 14,000 people were allowed to vote, letters and petitions demanded reforms to the Constitution of the Kingdom. On May 20, 1892, Wilcox and associates were arrested and charged with conspiring to set up a republic. A month later the charges were dropped and he was released.  Back in the Legislature, he backed a measure that would strip power from the cabinet, and by August 1892, the ministers had resigned. Wilcox founded a newspaper called ""The Liberal"" from September 1892 to April 1893. He edited the section in the Hawaiian language while an English language section had several other editors. The paper attacked the extravagant lifestyle enjoyed by the Royal Family while the common people were suffering the effects of an economic slowdown.  On November 1, 1892, Queen Liliuokalani appointed a new cabinet, and two hours later the Legislature (including Wilcox) voted to remove them from office. On November 8, 1892, a new government acceptable to the Legislature was formed. Wilcox no longer directly attacked the Queen, but advocated modernization, and was quoted in the ""San Francisco Examiner"" that "...we should take some steps to secure commercial and political protection from some foreign country."  By the end of 1892, ""The Liberal"" expressed support for the Queen. On January 12 another vote of no confidence allowed the Queen to appoint another cabinet of monarchists. On January 14 Liliuokalani suspended the Legislature and told the cabinet to sign a new proposed constitution that would restore political power back to her. The cabinet advised against it, and delayed any action. On January 17, 1893, the Committee of Safety, backed by the Honolulu Rifles militia unit took over the palace by force. During this time Wilcox, who was then a politician, was requested by Liliuokalani for his previous training in artillery to be put in command of the field pieces of the Royal Guard as they prepared themselves to defend the Queen. Before any shots were fired, Queen Liliuokalani surrendered to avoid bloodshed.

Rebellion of 1895.

Following the overthrow, "The Liberal" resumed publication January 25, 1893. The English language editor Clarence Ashford supported the Provisional Government of Hawaii, and expressed the view that the Queen had brought about her own downfall. On January 28 the paper argued for becoming a state of the United States, but protested the lack of any native Hawaiians as leaders of the new government. Neither the monarchy nor the provisional government was a representative democracy. Editorials in February proposed becoming part of the state of California, which would enable popular elections.  However, the "Big Five" who dominated the economy wanted to avoid statehood, since as a territory they would not be subject to the American labor laws. They depended on cheap labor for their sugarcane plantations in Hawaii for example. By March 1893 American President Grover Cleveland decided against annexation anyway. "The Liberal" attacked the efforts of Princess Kaiulani when she travelled to America to argue for supporting re-instating the monarchy. Wilcox applied for a position in the new government but was denied. The newspaper shut down on April 15, 1893. Rumors circulated that Wilcox was preparing to proclaim a liberal republic.  The leaders of the overthrow proclaimed their own Republic of Hawaii on July 4, 1894. By the end of the year, royalists were planning a counter-revolution to restore Liliuokalani. The key conspirators were Sam Nowlein, head of the Queen's guard, Charles T. Gulick, advisor to both Kalākaua and Liliuokalani, and William H. Rickard, a sugar planter of British parentage. They needed a military leader, and approached Wilcox. At first he hesitated, but since he was frustrated with lack of progress on annexation as well as spurned by the republic, he agreed to lead the forces into battle.  Royalist and republican forces clashed at the base of Diamond Head on January 6 and 7, 1895, and in Mōiliili on January 7. Mānoa was the scene of battle on January 9. Casualties were minor, and only C. L. Carter, a member of a prominent island family, was killed. The royalists were quickly routed and Wilcox spent several days in hiding before being captured. All royalist leaders had been arrested by January 16, when Liliuokalani was taken into custody at Washington Place and imprisoned in Iolani Palace. Wilcox was arrested and tried for treason. This time he was convicted on February 23, 1895, and was sentenced to death with five other leaders. Some were freed due to giving testimony against the others, and his sentence was commuted to 35 years in prison. On January 1, 1898, he was pardoned by Sanford B. Dole, President of the Republic, who had previously made pressured Liliʻuokalani to abdicate in exchange for his life and freedom, as well as for the lives of the others who had been sentenced to death.

Congress.

On July 4, 1898, by passing the Newlands Resolution, the United States officially annexed Hawaii, and Republic President Dole appointed provisional Governor. The Hawaiian Organic Act of April 30, 1900, created the office of delegate to Congress for the newly organized Territory of Hawaii. Wilcox organized an election campaign for the office. Helping transform previously anti-annexation native Hawaiian political clubs into the Hawaiian Independent Party (later called the Home Rule Party of Hawaii), he advocated for "Equal rights for the People." Opponents accused him of bigamy since his first marriage in Italy had been annulled only by the Roman Catholic Church. The Republican Party of Hawaii nominated wealthy rancher and former cabinet minister Samuel Parker, and the Democratic Party of Hawaii nominated Prince David Kawānanakoa. Wilcox easily won the election to the 57th United States Congress. He hoped that his seat in the national capital in Washington, D.C. could be used to advocate for native Hawaiians, a community that he feared would be neglected by the American government. Asked to contribute a short autobiography for the Congressional Directory, instead of the usual bland list of credentials, he described himself as "an indefatigable and fearless leader for his countrymen." He called the current government of the Hawaii Territory "the Dole oligarchy." Later versions of his biography removed the editorial remarks.  However, on his arrival, he quickly found himself an outsider. English was his second language, and his populist rhetoric gave him few allies in Congress, which dealt with slow deal-making. His service was also clouded by charges that he did not support the US effort in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War. Wilcox served in Congress for one term, from November 6, 1900, to March 3, 1903.  Although he was also endorsed by the Democratic Party in the 1902 election, he was defeated by Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaole of the Republican Party.

Family and personal life.

Wilcox married two noble women. His first wife was an Italian Baroness and his second wife a Hawaiian princess. Wilcox's first wife was Baronessa Gina Sobrero, eldest daughter of Baron Lorenzo Sobrero of Piedmont and Princess Vittoria Colonna di Stigliano of Naples. His daughter from his first marriage died shortly after his breakup with Baronessa Gina Sobrero. On August 20, 1896, Wilcox married Theresa Owana Kaohelelani Laanui (1860–1944), who was descended from a brother of King Kamehameha I. They had a son and a daughter, Robert Kalanikupuapaikalaninui Keōua Wilcox (1893–1934) and Virginia Kahoa Kaahumanu Kaihikapumahana (1895–1954). Another daughter Elizabeth Kaakaualaninui died young in 1898.  In 1900 Wilcox converted to Roman Catholicism and was baptized.

Memorials.

The same year he left Congress, Wilcox ran for high sheriff of Honolulu. Wilcox had been in declining health for sometime, while making a campaign speech he suffered a hemorrhage, and died a few days later on October 23, 1903. He was buried at the Honolulu Catholic Cemetery. In 1993, a bronze statue of Wilcox was unveiled at Fort Street Mall,. The inscription says "He was regarded by many of his countrymen as a national hero". The statue now stands prominently in downtown Honolulu at Wilcox Park, also named in his honor in 1989, at the centennial of the "Wilcox Rebellion".

Robert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox (February 15, 1855 – October 23, 1903), nicknamed the Iron Duke of Hawaii, was a Native Hawaiian revolutionary soldier and politician. He led uprisings against both the government of the Hawaiian Kingdom under King Kalākaua and the Republic of Hawaii under Sanford Dole, what are now known as the Wilcox rebellions. He was later elected the first delegate to the United States Congress for the Territory of Hawaii.

Robert Kalanihiapo William Wilcox (15. února 1855, Maui, Havajské království — 23. října 1903, Honolulu, Havajské ostrovy) byl havajský politik. Proslul jako charizmatický řečník a radikální zastánce práv původních obyvatel souostroví.


Timeline.

Mobile operating system milestones mirror

Current software platforms.

These operating systems often run atop baseband or other real time operating systems that handle hardware aspects of the phone.

Partly open source.

Android.

Android (based on the modified Linux kernel) is a mobile operating system developed by Google. The base system is open-source (and only the kernel copyleft), but the apps and drivers which provide functionality are increasingly becoming closed-source. Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for general purpose computers (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) personal computers (PCs). Although the Android operating system is free and open-source software, in devices sold, much of the software bundled with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is proprietary software and closed source.  Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged with Android 4.0. The current Android version is Android 10, released on September 3, 2019. Android's release versions starting from 1.5 and until 9 are named after sweets or dessert items:

Chrome OS.

Chrome OS is an operating system designed by Google that is based on the Linux kernel and uses the Google Chrome web browser as its principal user interface. As a result, Chrome OS primarily supports web applications. Google announced the project in July 2009, conceiving it as an operating system in which both applications and user data reside in the cloud: hence Chrome OS primarily runs web applications.  Due to increase

Sailfish OS.

Sailfish OS is from Jolla. It is open source with GNU General Public License (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is proprietary software (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI.  After Nokia abandoned

Tizen.

Tizen (based on the Linux kernel) is a mobile operating system hosted by Linux Foundation, together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of Intel and Samsung.  Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, In-Vehicle Infotainment (IVI) devices, however currently it mainly focus on wearable and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and

KaiOS.

KaiOS is from Kai. It is based on Firefox OS/Boot to Gecko. Unlike most mobile operating systems which focus on smartphones, KaiOS was developed mainly for feature phones, giving these access to more advanced technologies usually found on smartphones, such as app stores and Wi-Fi/4G capabilities.  It is a mix of closed-source and open-source components.<ref name="KaiOS/B2G repository"></ref> FirefoxOS/B2G was released under the permissive MPL 2.0. It does not redistribute itself under the same license, so KaiOS is now presumably proprietary (but still mostly open-source, publishing its source code). KaiOS is not entirely proprietary, as it uses the copyleft GPL Linux kernel also used in Android.

Fully open-source, entirely permissive licenses.

Fuchsia.

Fuchsia is a capability-based, real-time operating system (RTOS) currently being developed by Google. It was first discovered as a mysterious code post on GitHub in August 2016, without any official announcement. In contrast to prior Google-developed operating systems such as Chrome OS and Android, which are based on Linux kernels, Fuchsia is based on a new microkernel called "Zircon", derived from "Little Kernel", a small operating system

LiteOS.

LiteOS is a lightweight open source real-time operating system which is part of Huawei's "1+2+1" Internet of Things solution, which is similar to Google Android Things and Samsung Tizen. It is released under the permissive BSD 3-clause license. Huawei LiteOS features lightweight, low-power, fast-response, multi-sensor collaboration, multi-protocol interconnect connectivity, enabling IoT terminals to quickly access the network. Huawei LiteOS will make intelligent hardware development easier. Thereby accelerating the realization of the interconnection of all things. Currently LiteOS are introduce to the consumer market with the Huawei Watch GT series and smartbands.  Current LiteOS version list:

Fully open-source, mixed copyleft and permissive licenses.

PureOS.

PureOS is a Debian GNU/Linux derivative using only free software meeting the Debian Free Software Guidelines, mainly the copyleft GPL. PureOS is endorsed by Free Software Foundation as one of the freedom-respecting operating systems. It is developed by Purism, and

Ubuntu Touch.

Ubuntu Touch is from Canonical Ltd.. It is open source and uses the GPL license. Ubuntu Touch as an OS is built using the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an LXC container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android., the desktop environment of Ubuntu Touch is planned to be available as

Plasma mobile.

Plasma Mobile is a Plasma variant for smartphones. Plasma Mobile runs on Wayland and it is compatible with Ubuntu Touch applications, PureOS applications, and eventually Android applications via KDE's Shashlik project

PostmarketOS.

PostmarketOS is based on the Alpine Linux GNU/Linux distribution.

LuneOS.

LuneOS is a modern reimplementation of the Palm/HP webOS interface.

Closed source.

iOS.

iOS (formerly named iPhone OS) was created by Apple Inc. It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers. It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source Darwin operating system. The iPhone, iPod Touch, iPad and second or third-generation Apple TV all use iOS, which is derived from macOS.  Native third

iPadOS.

iPadOS is a tablet operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. specifically for their iPad line of tablet computers. It was

watchOS.

watchOS is the operating system of the Apple Watch, developed by Apple Inc. It is based on the iOS operating system and has many similar features. It was released on April 24, 2015, along with the Apple

Windows 10.

Windows 10 (not to be confused with Windows 10 Mobile—see below) is a personal computer operating system developed and released by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating systems. It was released on July 29, 2015. Just like its predecessors, it was designed to run across multiple Microsoft product such as PCs and Tablets. The Windows user interface was revised to handle transitions between a mouse-oriented interface and a touchscreen-optimized interface based on available input devices — particularly on 2-in-1 PCs.  Windows 10 also introduces the universal apps, expanding on Metro-style apps, these apps can be designed to run across multiple Microsoft product families with nearly identical code — including PCs, tablets, smartphones, embedded systems, Xbox One, Surface Hub and Mixed Reality.  Current Windows 10 version list:

Under maintenance only.

BlackBerry 10.

BlackBerry 10 (based on the QNX OS) is from BlackBerry. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and only runs on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry.  One of the dominant platforms in the world in late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue to support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3. Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development.  Current BlackBerry 10 version list:

Discontinued software platforms.

Open source.

CyanogenMod.

CyanogenMod was a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It was a custom ROM that was co-developed by the CyanogenMod community. The OS did not include any proprietary apps unless the user installed them. Due to its open source nature, CyanogenMod allowed Android users who could no longer obtain update support from their manufacturer to continue updating their OS version to the latest one based on official releases from Google AOSP and heavy theme customization. The last version of the OS was CyanogenMod 13 which was based on Android Asus  On December 24, 2016, CyanogenMod announced on their blog that they would no longer be releasing any CyanogenMod updates. All development moved to LineageOS.

Firefox OS.

Firefox OS (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from Mozilla. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the Mozilla Public License built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like

MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin.

MeeGo was from non-profit organization The Linux Foundation. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona, Nokia and Intel both unveiled "MeeGo", a mobile operating system that combined Moblin and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer

webOS.

webOS was developed by Palm. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the Palm Pre. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the Veer and the Pre 3) and a tablet (the TouchPad) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued, but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem. HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features. On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of webOS to LG Electronics, who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog.

Closed source.

BlackBerry OS.

In 1999, Research In Motion released its first BlackBerry devices, providing secure real-time push-email communications on wireless devices. Services such as BlackBerry Messenger provide the integration of all communications into a single inbox. In

Symbian.

The Symbian platform was developed by Nokia for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending

Bada.

Bada platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code

Palm OS.

Palm OS/Garnet OS was from Access Co. It is closed source and proprietary. webOS

Microsoft.

Market share.

Usage.

In 2006, Android and iOS did not exist and only 64 million smartphones were sold. In 2018 Q1, 383.5 million smartphones were sold and global market share was 85.9% for Android and 14.1% for iOS.  According to StatCounter web use statistics (a proxy for all use), smartphones (alone without tablets) have majority use globally, with desktop computers used much less (and Android in particular more popular than Windows). Use varies however by continent with smartphones way more popular in the biggest continents, i.e. Asia, and the desktop still more popular in some, though not in North America.  The desktop is still popular in many countries (while overall down to 44.9% in the first quarter of 2017), smartphones are more popular even in many developed countries (or about to be in more). A few countries on any continent are desktop-minority; European countries (and some in South America, and a few, e.g. Haiti, in North America; and most in Asia and Africa) are smartphone-majority, Poland and Turkey highest with 57.68% and 62.33%, respectively. In Ireland, smartphone use at 45.55% outnumbers desktop use and mobile as a whole gains majority when including the tablet share at 9.12%. Spain is also slightly desktop-minority.  The range of measured

By operating system.

A mobile operating system is an operating system for mobile phones, tablets, smartwatches, 2-in-1 PCs (that can be convert to a laptop mode or detach and work as a tablet mode) or other mobile devices. While computers such as typical laptops are'mobile', the operating systems usually used on them are not considered mobile ones, as they were originally designed for desktop computers that historically did not have or need specific "mobile" features. This distinction is becoming blurred in some newer operating systems that are hybrids made for both uses.

Mobilní operační systém je speciální operační systém určený především pro mobilní zařízení, jako jsou smartphony, tablety, PDA, komunikátory a kapesní počítače. Některé sofistikovanější, jako je Android, se používají i ve vestavěných zařízeních, osobních počítačích, apod. Tyto operační systémy jsou obvykle silně spjaty s hardwarovou stránkou zařízení. Systém je většinou nahrán na zvláštní interní a standardně nepřepisovatelné paměti. Různými způsoby lze dosáhnout přepsání této paměti (tzv. flashnutí) a uživatel může původní systém přemazat. Jednoduché telefony používají jednoduché tovární OS šité na míru většinou slabšímu hardware.