Early life.

The third of six children, Vaz was born in 1651 at Benaulim, his mother's village in Goa, then known as Portuguese India, part of the Portuguese Empire. His parents, Cristóvão Vaz and Maria de Miranda, were devout Catholics. Cristóvão belonged to a prominent "Naik" family of Sancoale. He was baptised on the eighth day at the Parish Church of St. John the Baptist, Benaulim by its pastor, Jacinto Pereira.  Vaz attended the elementary school in Sancoale. He learned Portuguese in Sancoale and Latin in Benaulim. He was a bright pupil and respected by his teachers and fellow students. He

Ministry in Canara (1681–1684).

Vaz wanted to serve as a missionary in Ceylon, and therefore presented his request to go there to the cathedral chapter, which was administering the diocese following the vacancy created by the death of Brandão on 6 July 1678. However, the cathedral chapter proposed to him to go to Canara instead, where the Padroado authorities in Goa were in conflict with the local authorities belonging to the Sacred Congregation of "Propaganda Fide", the Vatican agency for missionary efforts worldwide. Vaz was appointed the Vicar Forane of Canara by the Padroado in 1681, and sent with the purpose of asserting their jurisdiction against the Propaganda Fide. The chapter also gave him the esteemed title of "Frame of Canara". Upon his arrival, he found the situation of the Roman Catholic Church there to be highly explosive.  The Padroado authorities in Goa were at conflict with those of the Propaganda Fide in Canara, led by the already incumbent Vicar Forane, Bishop Thomas de Castro. The source of the conflict was that De Castro's appointment as Vicar Forane of Canara by Pope Clement X on 30 August 1675 was not recognised by the preceding Padroado archbishop. Consequently, they did not cede the jurisdiction to him despite the pope's letter of appointment.  The Padroado–Propaganda conflict which ensued divided the Catholics of Canara into two sides—those who recognised the authority of the Padroado archbishop in Goa versus those who supported De Castro. Those who recognised the authority of the Padroado were excommunicated by De Castro, while those who recognised the authority of the Propaganda were excommunicated by the Padroado authorities at Goa. Both groups were forbidden from receiving sacraments from the priests of the rival group, on penalty of excommunication.  In a letter dated 14 September 1681, Vaz lamented:"Many in fact believe that the Catholic Church is divided, and that we and the Bishop's priests are not children of the same Mother Church; and that our doctrines and our sacraments are different; and what the ones do, the others destroy. Thus the Catholic Church is much despised and is not acceptable."  With great diplomacy and humility, Vaz met De Castro at Mangalore and

Oratorian.

When Vaz returned to Goa, he spent his time preaching in the surrounding villages. He also joined a group of priests of the archdiocese who had decided to live together in a religious community. The group

Sri Lanka mission (1687–1711).

Hearing of the distressful situation of the Catholics of Ceylon who reportedly had no priests for many years, Vaz desired to go to their rescue. But instead he was named Superior of the Canara Mission, a post which he occupied for three years. In 1686, Vaz obtained permission to give up this office and to proceed to Ceylon. He stopped in the Keladi Kingdom in 1686–1687 for a few months on his way to Ceylon, where helped by his companions, he attended to the spiritual needs of the local Christians. Disguised as a mendicant, he reached the port of Tuticorin on Easter Sunday 1687.

Mannar.

Joseph Vaz and his servant John embarked, with great trepidation as, in keeping with their disguise as labourers, they carried no baggage and the sacred vessels for Mass and an altar stone were concealed about their person. At that time the journey took 3 or 4 days and never more than a week but a very severe storm which burst soon after the ship put to sea delayed its

Jaffna mission.

On landing at Jaffna, Vaz found a strong Calvinist presence. As Catholic priests were banned by the Dutch authorities, he had to travel under the guise of a mendicant and to work in secret. He travelled barefoot as an Indian "sanyasi".  Vaz suffered from acute dysentery, contracted from the terrible travelling conditions. Upon recovering, he began contacting Catholics and hiding from the

Jaffna - his illness.

After many unsuccessful attempts Joseph Vaz and his faithful companion found shelter for the night in an empty shed in the suburbs of the town. As a result of the very severe hardships undergone by him during his journey from Tuticorin, Joseph Vaz found himself unable to sit up the following morning. So John had to go about begging for some nourishment for his master. Before long it was found that he was suffering

Jaffna - after illness.

When Joseph Vaz regained his health sufficiently to start begging from house to house in the town of Jaffna he also tried to identify the houses where Catholics lived. This was no easy matter as no Catholic dared to use a rosary, a cross or a medal publicly and there was no picture, image or crucifix to be seen anywhere. He therefore adopted the expedient of wearing a large Rosary round his neck and observing the effects of this emblem of the Catholic faith on the inmates of the houses at which he begged for alms. Within a few days he spotted several

Sillalai.

After some time the townsfolk of Jaffna who had benefited from the ministrations of Vaz feared that news of his presence might leak out somehow and decided to remove him to a village in the outskirts in which the Catholics would safeguard him. As soon as this decision was made known to them, a trusty bodyguard from Sillalai went to Jaffna and conducted Vaz under cover of darkness to their village. Sillalai which was then entirely Catholic later came to be known as "Little Rome". Because of its smallness and relative unimportance, Sillalai had escaped the attentions of the Dutch; and it was able to preserve the faith intact because it had continued the system of appointing a Catechist to look after the Chapel, baptise the

Puttalam.

This town was then inhabited by a large number of Catholics but although they had a church of their own and were free to profess their religion there had been no Mass or Sacraments or adequate instruction for over 36 years owing

Veuda.

This place was the gateway to Kandy and as all strangers had to obtain the king's authority before proceeding to the royal city, Vaz waited there until authority was obtained by the

Kandy.

Vaz was thereafter imprisoned and kept under very close observation so that his actions may be reported to the King Vimaladharmasurya II. When the king was satisfied that he was a harmless person who spent most of his time in religious devotions and that John was really his servant, he ordered that they be placed in house detention with strict injunctions that they should not leave the premises. Vaz made use of his enforced inactivity to study the Sinhala language. After some time John and he put up a rough shed with an altar and a wooden cross and prayed therein, on their knees, morning, noon and night within sight of the public. On Christmas night of 1691 he said Mass

Miraculous Shower of Rain.

There was at this time a very prolonged drought in Kandy and the customary ceremonies for rain had been performed without avail. Thereupon the King, Vimaladharma Surya, sent some of his Catholic courtiers to Vaz inviting him to pray for rain. Realising that this was more or less a challenge to test his powers of intercession with God, he sent back word that if the king had faith and if it was to the glory of God rain would assuredly come

Kandyan Villages.

His position in Kandy being now secure through the benevolence of the king, Vaz decided to make it his headquarters and sally forth into different parts of the island from time to time, but before doing so he dispatched John to Goa to explain verbally the circumstances in the island and the urgent need of priests. Thereafter he went by himself to

Kandy mission.

In 1692, Vaz settled in Kandy, the capital of the independent Kingdom of Kandy, as his centre of operations. On his arrival, he was deemed to be a Portuguese spy and was imprisoned with two other Catholics. There he learned Sinhala, the local language. They were left alone by the prison guards as long as they didn't try to escape and he built a hut-church and later a proper church dedicated to Our Lady, and began converting other prisoners.  Making the most of his new-found freedom, Vaz made a mission visit to the Dutch-controlled areas and visited Catholics in Colombo. Three missionaries from the Oratory of Goa arrived in 1697 to help him, with the news that Pedro Pacheco, Bishop of Cochin, had appointed Vaz as Vicar General in Ceylon. He was organising the basic mission structure when smallpox broke out in

Smallpox in Kandy.

Towards the middle of 1697 when Vaz returned to Kandy from a visit to Colombo he found a violent outbreak of smallpox in the city. This is a highly infectious disease and looked up in Sri Lanka as a dreaded disease. The first sufferers, mostly slaves and beggars, had been removed and left to die in deserted spots and jungles. Dead bodies were thus found in forests and even on the road sides, thereby, spreading the disease. St.Joseph Vaz and his nephew sought out those abandoned in the woods, accommodated them in huts erected for the purpose, and tended them twice a day carrying food, medicine and clothing collected by them. Each time they washed the patient, cleansed his pustules, administered medicines, fed and clothed him and cleaned up the place, rendering the most menial services for which no persons could be found anywhere either for money or for love. Later, as the work increased, some devout Catholics assisted them. When the number of cases multiplied greatly the King and his Court left the city. The Chiefs and the well-to-do also did the same. Even the common people left as soon as a family member or

Hanwella.

The first Portuguese town visited by Vaz was Hanwella. He found that the descendants of the Portuguese

Malwana.

The next place visited by Vaz was Malwana. It was then a very

Colombo.

Most of the Catholics were in the Pettah named Old City, so Vaz had no need to enter the Fort or The Castle as it was called, where there were very few Catholics. The number and influence of the

Negombo.

Here, there was a very large Catholic population who could not be easily tamed by persecution then or afterwards. The chief Catholic who was in the service of the Dutch but was greatly respected by the king of Kandy was

Manthota.

This was an important Catholic village situated in the centre of a large Catholic population scattered over the district and extending to the Vanni. He ministered for some time, caused chapels to be set up, and Muhuppus

Punarim, Kottiyar, Trincomalee, Batticaloa & Sammanturai.

Before returning to Kandy Vaz visited all these places and at the last four places which belonged to the King of Kandy he set up chapels. During these first visits he limited himself to administering the Sacraments to the Catholics who

Crossing the Flooded Deduru Oya on Foot.

On the way to Puttalam he had to wade across the Deduru Oya but due to floods it could not be crossed on foot; and several parties of merchants had been waiting for several days until the floods subsided. With a prayer on his lips and confidence in

Batticaloa mission.

Joseph Vaz visited Batticaloa in 1710 in order to revive the Catholic faith during the time of Dutch persecution against Catholics. He visited a church

Death.

King Vimaldharna Surya II, Vaz's patron, died in 1707, but Vira Narendra Sinha, his successor, proved to be an even greater supporter. New missionaries arrived in 1708. In 1710, despite health problems, Vaz took another apostolic trip.

Veneration.

The subject of his beatification was first urged upon the consideration of the Holy See about 1737 by Francisco de Vasconcellos, S.J., Bishop of Cochin, who also claimed jurisdiction over Ceylon. The process was begun in Goa, and a number of miracles were registered. But the non-fulfilment of certain essential formalities led Pope Benedict XIV to cancel the proceedings, with an order, however, that they should be re-instituted. The Apostolic Delegate of the East Indies, Ladislaus Zaleski (1852–1925), who was resident in Kandy, kept hearing reports. He was a great admirer of Joseph Vaz, did his own research, and published a multi-issued biography of him.  The beatification process was resumed later and completed in 1953 by the Archdiocese of Goa and Daman. On 21 January 1995, he

Legacy.

So far the only school named in honor of Vaz is the Joseph Vaz College of Wennappuwa, Sri Lanka, which was founded in January 1935 by the Marist Brothers (initiated 1933). In Goa there is a school named St.Joseph Vaz,

References.

Vida do Venerble Jose Vaz- Rev. Fr. Sebastian do Rego,1747 Life of Blessed Joseph Vaz, Apostle of Sri Lanka – Rev. Fr. S.G. Perera ( S.J.) 1942 History of the Miracles Cross of Old Goa – Rev. Fr. John Perira(S.F.X) 1982 Life & Achievements of Blessed Joseph Vaz- Rev. Fr. Cosme Jose Costa 1996 (S.F.X) 1982 The Dutch Period volume 1 – Rev. Fr. V. Perniola (S.J.) The Dutch Period volume 11 – Rev. Fr. V. Perniola (S.J.) A Glistening wake of the Life of Venerable Fr. Joseph Vaz- Rev. Fr. Jos Claude Lawrence (O.M.I.)1981 The Sanciticity of Father Joseph Vaz –Rev. Fr. W.L.A. Don Peter,1990 Though Storm & Tempest a Biography of Blessed Joseph Vaz- The Apostle of Ceylon – Most Rev. Dr. Mons. L.M. Zaleski (1897) Life of Ven. Fr. Joseph Vaz – Rev. Fr. Phip Caspersz ( O.S.B.) Historical Sketches - Rev. Fr. S.G. Perera ( S.J.) Oratorian Mission- Rev. Fr. S.G. Perera ( S.J.) Positio, Sacra Cowgregatuio pro Sanctorum Officium Historiu Beatificationis in Canowizationis Servi Dei IOSEPH VAZ- Fr. Joe Ven. Fr. Joseph Vaz – Rev. Fr. Pio Ciampa ( S.J.) To the Rescue of Sri Lanka – Rev. Fr. Joseph Aloysius (O.M.I.) Studies in Ceylon Church History –Rev. Fr. W.L.A. Don Peter Blessed Joseph Vaz, The Man, His Mission, His Message –Rev. Fr. Denis G. Pereira St. Anne’s of Talavila – Most Rev. Dr. Edmund Peiris (O.M.I.) The Story of the Rosary in Ceylon – Rev. Fr. S. Thommanupillai (O.M.I.),1958 207 Stories of Blessed Joseph Vaz– Rev. Fr. Romualdo Robin Rodrigues – (2005) Blessed Joseph Vaz- A Creative Missionary A Head of His Time - Rev. Fr. Manuel Gomes (2010) Star in the East -–Rev. Fr. W.L.A. Don Peter,1995 Joseph Vaz – India’s First & Greatest Missionary – R. H. Lesser 1992 Joseph Vaz, Apostle of Sri Lanka – Jean Olwen Maynard,2001 The Apostle of Ceylon- Tr Ambrose Cator 1913 A Saint for the New India – Charles Gasbarri, 1961

St. Joseph Vaz, CO, (Konkani: "Sant Zuze Vaz"; Portuguese: "São José Vaz"; "Punidha Yosap Vaz"; "Santha Juse Vaz Munithuma, Sri Lankawe Aposthuluvaraya"), (21 April 165116 January 1711) was an Oratorian priest and missionary in Sri Lanka, then known as Ceylon.

Joseph Vaz (21. dubna 1651, Benaulim – 16. ledna 1711, Kandy) byl indický oratoriánský kněz a misionář na Srí Lance.


With Wilco.

Kotche wound up joining Wilco because of Jim O'Rourke, who originally caught him playing a show with Edith Frost. He went on to make several records with O'Rourke including two Loose Fur albums (O’Rourke, Kotche and Jeff Tweedy). Throughout Kotche's career with Wilco ("Yankee Hotel Foxtrot", the Grammy award-winning "A Ghost is Born", "The Wilco Book" companion CD, "", "Sky Blue Sky", "Wilco (The Album)", "The Whole Love", "Star Wars", and "Schmilco") and his solo projects, he has treated the drumset as a multiple percussion instrument including home-made instruments, pitched percussion, various found objects such as scrap metal and hubcaps and orchestral instruments.

Other work.

Kotche has also collaborated on several other side projects with members of Wilco and others, including an ongoing band with Darin Gray called On Fillmore, cellist Fred Lonberg-Holm, members of the band Nickel Creek, percussionists David Cossin, Tim Barnes and Chris Corsano, and many others. He has appeared on over 70 recordings to date.  Kotche collaborated with the Kronos Quartet on a piece written for them along with drumset titled Anomaly, premiered at the San Francisco Jazz Festival in October 2007. And in 2011 he worked with So Percussion on a series of pieces called Drumkit Quartets as part of Meet the Composer's Three City Dash. In 2006, he released "Mobile", which he started working on in various hotel rooms during Wilco tour when he couldn't practice the drums.  Kotche has also collaborated with Chicago contemporary chamber music sextet Eighth Blackbird.  In 1997, Kotche began collaborating with Portland, OR folk singer/songwriter Bill Santen a.k.a. "Birddog". Kotche recorded three CDs and toured with Birddog until 2001. Birddog's debut release, The Trackhouse, the Valley, the Liquor Store Drive Thru, was produced by Elliott Smith and Paul K.  Circa 2013, Kotche performed Reach Out I'll Be There on a tuned array of common kitchen items in the Delta Faucet division of Masco's "Instrumental Touch" commercial for their touch-sensing line of faucets.

Education.

Kotche went to Lake Park High School in Roselle, IL, where he was a member of the drum line in the Lake Park Marching Band, and later the University of Kentucky, where he honed his musical skill and technique and obtained a bachelor's degree in music performance. Glenn was also a member of The Cavaliers Drum and Bugle Corps from Rosemont, Illinois in 1989, playing in the snare line. He received the Distinguished Alumnus Award from UK's College of Fine Arts in 2007.

Discography.

Group recordings.

Wilco:  "'Birddog:"'  On Fillmore:  Loose Fur:  The Minus 5:  Fred Lonberg-Holm Quartet:  7 Worlds Collide:  Andrew Bird:

Glenn Kotche (born December 31, 1970 in Roselle, Illinois, United States) is an American drummer and composer, best known for his involvement in the band Wilco. He was named the 40th greatest drummer of all time by Gigwise in 2008.

Glenn Kotche (* 31. prosince 1970) je americký bubeník. V roce 2000 nahradil původního bubeníka Kena Coomera ve skupině Wilco. Spolu s Jimem O'Rourkem a Jeffem Tweedym téhož roku založil skupinu Loose Fur, která v letech 2003 a 2006 vydala dvě studiová alba. Rovněž vystupoval se skupinou The Minus 5 a spolupracoval s dalšími hudebníky, mezi které patří například Simon Joyner, Phil Selway a Sean Watkins. Rovněž vydal několik sólových alb.


Biography.

Born to a noble family of Petro Yakymovych Drahomanov who was of a Cossack descent, Mykhailo Drahomanov started his education at home, then studied at the Hadiach school, Poltava senior school and Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. He was also an uncle of Ukrainian poet Larysa Kosach (Lesya Ukrainka) and brother of Olha Drahomanova-Kosach (Olena Pchilka). Drahomanov's uncle, Yakiv Drahomanov, was a member of the Decembrist movement and political prisoner for participating in the secret Society of United Slavs. His wife was the famous actress Ludmila Dragomanova. The couple had one daughter, Lidia Shishmanova.  During the transfer of Taras Shevchenko's remains from Saint Petersburg to Taras Hill, Drahomanov gave a speech over his tomb when it stopped in Kyiv.  Drahomanov lectured at Kyiv University from 1870 to 1875, but because of the repressions against the Ukrainian movement peaking up in 1876 with Ems Ukaz was forced to leave the Russian Empire and emigrated to Geneva. In emigration he continued his political, scholarly and publishing activities. In 1885–95, he was a professor at the University of Sofia to his son-in-law Ivan Shishmanov. Drahomanov wrote the first systematic political program for the Ukrainian national movement. He himself defined his political convictions as "ethical socialism," and was deeply impressed by socialist literature as a teenager.

Hromada and Socialism.

Drahomanov was one of leaders of Kyiv hromada (later known as the Old Hromada), while continuing to pursue his academic career. Being a member of the Russian Geographic society, he established contacts with Ukrainians of Austria (in Galicia). Under his influence, the Academic Circle in Lemberg (Lviv) adopted the Ukrainian democratic platform. As a victim of anti-Ukrainian repressive measures by the Russian government, in 1875 Drahomanov was fired from the Kyiv University.  In 1876 Drahomanov became a spokesman of Hromada abroad (Western Europe) while settling in Geneva, Switzerland. Between 1878-1882 he published a Ukrainian political magazine "Hromada" and number of Russophone pamphlets. Drahomanov also created a Ukrainian socialist organization the Geneva Circle. In 1886 his political stance became not aligned with the political views of Hromada, which resulted in a rift between then, and the society in Ukraine losing its financial support.

Legacy.

The lasting legacy of Drahomanov can be discerned in the whole Ukrainian tradition of leftist political parties and political activism. He personally influenced a handful of younger Ukrainian intellectuals in Habsburg Galicia in the late 1870s, first of all Ivan Franko and Mykhailo Pavlyk, both of whom accepted his ideas although reworked them later according to their own mould. In 1890 these intellectuals founded the first Ukrainian political party - Ruthenian-Ukrainian Radical Party. The program-maximum of this party was socialist and therefore the party can be seen as one of the first socialist parties in Eastern Europe.  Drahomanov tried to popularize an orthographic reform, called the "Drahomanivka" after him.  In 1991, the "Kyivan State Pedagogical University Named After Mykhaylo Drahomanov" in Kyiv was founded on the basis of the former "Kyivan State Pedagogical University Named After Maxim Gorky". In 1997, the university was granted "National University"-status.

Mykhailo Petrovych Drahomanov (; September 18, 1841 in Hadiach – July 2, 1895 in Sofia) was a Ukrainian political theorist, economist, historian, philosopher, ethnographer and public figure in Kyiv.

Mychajlo Petrovyč Drahomanov (Ukrajinsky: Михайло Петрович Драгоманов; 3. září 1841 – 2. července 1895) byl ukrajinský politický teoretik, ekonom, historik, filozof, anarchista a etnograf. Narodil se do urozené rodiny kozáckého původu. Drahomanov začal nejprve studovat doma, poté na škole v Haďači, na střední škole v Poltavě a nakonec na Kyjevské univerzitě. Byl strýcem básnířky Larysy Kosachové (Lesja Ukrajinka) a bratr Olhy Drahomanové-Kosachové (Olena Pčilková).


Satellite craters.

By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Aratus.  The following craters have been renamed by the IAU.

Aratus CA.

This three-pronged feature is located in western Mare Serenitatis. It is formed from a merged group of depressions in the lunar surface, and may be a volcanic vent. The dimensions are with an estimated depth.  The three elongated depressions have been given individual names:  Two small craters in the vicinity of Aratus CA have also been assigned names: Manuel is just beyond the eastern tip of Vallis Krishna, while Yoshi is just beyond the western tip of Vallis Christel. Manuel is very difficult to see, even on high-resolution photos.  The five names listed above first appeared on the Defense Mapping Agency's Topophotomaps 42A4/S1 and 42A4/S2 and were approved by the IAU in 1976. Because of a ban on the use of lettered crater names that was in effect at the time those maps were prepared, Aratus CA was given the provisional new name Lorca. The name Lorca was never approved by the IAU, despite notations to the contrary on Defense Mapping Agency maps LM-41 and LM-42, and the former name Aratus CA (which had first appeared on LAC-42, published in 1965 ) was officially re-adopted by the IAU in 2006.  Trending to the north from Aratus CA is a wrinkle ridge in the surface that has been designated Dorsum Owen. To the east is a longer, parallel wrinkle-ridge named Dorsum von Cotta. Further to the north-northeast is Linné, surrounded by a bright skirt of high-albedo material. About the same distance to the southwest is the Montes Haemus mountain range at the edge of the lunar mare.  The selenographic colongitude of this grouping at dawn is 349°.

Aratus is a small lunar impact crater located on the highland to the south and east of the rugged Montes Apenninus range. It is a circular, cup-shaped crater with a relatively high albedo. It was named after Greek astronomer Aratus of Soli. To the east is the Mare Serenitatis, and to the southwest is the somewhat larger crater Conon. North-northeast of Aratus is the landing site of the Apollo 15 mission, just beyond Mons Hadley Delta.

Aratus je nevelký impaktní kráter nacházející se nedaleko severovýchodního úpatí pohoří Montes Apenninus (Apeniny) na přivrácené straně Měsíce. Má průměr 10,6 km, pojmenován je podle starořeckého básníka Arata. Má pravidelný kruhový tvar a malou plochu dna.


Powers.

As the Russian legislature, all laws must be voted in the Federal Assembly before they are signed into law. All bills, even those proposed by the Federation Council, must first be considered by the State Duma. Upon adoption by a majority of the full State Duma membership, a draft law is considered by the Federation Council, which has fourteen days to place the bill on its calendar. The Federation Council cannot make changes in bills passed by the Duma and can either approve or reject them. If the Federation Council rejects a bill passed by the State Duma, the two chambers may form a conciliation commission to work out a compromise version of the legislation. If two chambers cannot reach a compromise, or the Duma insists on passing the bill "as is", the veto of the Federation Council can be overridden, if two thirds of the Duma's constitutional composition vote in favor of the bill.  The State Duma and the Federation Council usually meet separately. Joint sessions are organized when:

Parliamentary centre.

In the mid 2000s it was suggested that the Parliamentary centre of the State Duma and Federation Council be combined into one building. In 2012, the idea was supported by President Dmitry Medvedev. Reasons cited for the construction of a new building included the cramped nature of the parliament members' current offices, the remote locations of these offices split across ten locations in Moscow, and the desire of the government to move the bodies away from the city centre to reduce traffic congestion.  Various areas of Moscow were examined to serve as the new parliamentary center: Kutuzovsky Prospekt, Frunzenskaya embankment, "Moscow City", Tushino airfield, Krasnaya Presnya, Moskvoretskaya embankment, Park Museon and the Sofia embankment. In September 2014, the Mnyovniki floodplain was selected, a decision which was protested by ecologists.  The design of the new building was to be decided on the basis of an architectural competition. The parliamentarians, however, disagreed on aesthetic decisions between candidates in the competition, which were not resolved when the contest was conducted a second time.  Financing issues caused complications. Originally, the Parliamentary center was to be funded by private investors, who would in turn receive ownership of a building currently belonging to the State Duma and the Federation Council, as well as permits to tear it down and replace the building with their own development projects (such as hotels). An objection to this plan was lodged by architectural critic Grigory Revzin, arguing that the State Duma is located in the building of the Council of Labor and Defense which was designed by Arkady Langman and built in 1935, rendering the existing State Duma building an architectural monument, which would be protected by the state and cannot be demolished.  Work on the parliamentary center is to begin in 2020.

The Federal Assembly () is the national legislature of the Russian Federation, according to the Constitution of Russian Federation (1993). It was preceded by the Supreme Soviet.

Federální shromáždění Ruské federace (rusky: Федера́льное Собра́ние) je dle ruské ústavy (od roku 1993) národním zákonodárným orgánem Ruské federace. Předseda federálního shromáždění je po prezidentovi federace a premiérovi třetí nejvýznamnější funkcí. Zastupuje prezidenta v případech, kdy není schopen vykonávat svou funkci či se jeho úřad uvolní.


Claimed periodicity of mass extinctions.

In 1984, paleontologists David Raup and Jack Sepkoski published a paper claiming that they had identified a statistical periodicity in extinction rates over the last 250 million years using various forms of time series analysis. They focused on the extinction intensity of fossil families of marine vertebrates, invertebrates, and protozoans, identifying 12 extinction events over the time period in question. The average time interval between extinction events was determined as 26 million years. At the time, two of the identified extinction events (Cretaceous–Paleogene and Eocene–Oligocene) could be shown to coincide with large impact events. Although Raup and Sepkoski could not identify the cause of their supposed periodicity, they suggested a possible non-terrestrial connection. The challenge to propose a mechanism was quickly addressed by several teams of astronomers.  In 2010, Melott & Bambach re-examined the fossil data, including the now-improved dating, and using a second independent database in addition to that Raup & Sepkoski had used. They found evidence for a signal showing an excess extinction rate with a 27-million-year periodicity, now going back 500 million years, and at a much higher statistical significance than in the older work.

Development of the Nemesis hypotheses.

Two teams of astronomers, Daniel P. Whitmire and Albert A. Jackson IV, and Marc Davis, Piet Hut, and Richard A. Muller, independently published similar hypotheses to explain Raup and Sepkoski's extinction periodicity in the same issue of the journal "Nature". This hypothesis proposes that the Sun may have an undetected companion star in a highly elliptical orbit that periodically disturbs comets in the Oort cloud, causing a large increase of the number of comets visiting the inner Solar System with a consequential increase of impact events on Earth. This became known as the "Nemesis" or "Death Star" hypothesis.  If it does exist, the exact nature of Nemesis is uncertain. Muller suggests that the most likely object is a red dwarf with an apparent magnitude between 7 and 12, while Daniel P. Whitmire and Albert A. Jackson argue for a brown dwarf. If a red dwarf, it would exist in star catalogs, but it would only be confirmed by measuring its parallax; due to orbiting the Sun it would have a low proper motion and would escape detection by older proper motion surveys that have found stars like the 9th-magnitude Barnard's star. (The proper motion of Barnard's star was detected in 1916.) Muller expects Nemesis to be discovered by the time parallax surveys reach the 10th magnitude.  Muller, referring to the date of a recent extinction at 11 million years before the present day, posits that Nemesis has a semi-major axis of about and suggests it is located (supported by Yarris, 1987) near Hydra, based on a hypothetical orbit derived from original aphelia of a number of atypical long-period comets that describe an orbital arc meeting the specifications of Muller's hypothesis. Richard Muller's most recent paper relevant to the Nemesis theory was published in 2002. In 2002, Muller speculated that Nemesis was perturbed 400 million years ago by a passing star from a circular orbit into an orbit with an eccentricity of 0.7.  In 2010, and again in 2013, Melott & Bambach found evidence for a signal showing an excess extinction rate with a 27-million-year periodicity. However, because Nemesis is so distant from the Sun, it is expected to be subject to perturbations by passing stars, and therefore its orbital period should shift by 15–30%. The existence of a sharp 27-million year peak in extinction events is therefore inconsistent with Nemesis.

Orbit of Sedna.

The trans-Neptunian object Sedna has an extra-long and unusual elliptical orbit around the Sun, ranging between 76 and 937 AU. Sedna's orbit takes about 11,400 years to complete once. Its discoverer, Michael Brown of Caltech, noted in a "Discover" magazine article that Sedna's location seemed to defy reasoning: "Sedna shouldn't be there", Brown said. "There's no way to put Sedna where it is. It never comes close enough to be affected by the Sun, but it never goes far enough away from the Sun to be affected by other stars." Brown therefore postulated that a massive unseen object may be responsible for Sedna's anomalous orbit. This line of inquiry eventually led to the hypothesis of Planet Nine.  Brown has stated that it is more likely that one or more non-companion stars, passing near the Sun billions of years ago, could have pulled Sedna out into its current orbit. In 2004, Kenyon forwarded this explanation after analysis of Sedna's orbital data and computer modeling of possible ancient non-companion star passes.

Past, current, and pending searches for Nemesis.

Searches for Nemesis in the infrared are important because cooler stars comparatively shine more brightly in infrared light. The University of California's Leuschner Observatory failed to discover Nemesis by 1986. The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) failed to discover Nemesis in the 1980s. The 2MASS astronomical survey, which ran from 1997 to 2001, failed to detect a star, or brown dwarf, in the Solar System. If Nemesis exists, it may be detected by Pan-STARRS or the planned LSST astronomical surveys.  In particular, if Nemesis is a red dwarf or a brown dwarf, the WISE mission (an infrared sky survey that covered most of our solar neighborhood in movement-verifying parallax measurements) was expected to be able to find it. WISE can detect 150-kelvin brown dwarfs out to 10 light-years. But the closer a brown dwarf is, the easier it is to detect. Preliminary results of the WISE survey were released on April 14, 2011. On March 14, 2012, the entire catalog of the WISE mission was released. In 2014 WISE data ruled out a Saturn or larger-sized body in the Oort cloud out to ten thousand AU.  Calculations in the 1980s suggested that a Nemesis object would have an irregular orbit due to perturbations from the galaxy and passing stars. The Melott & Bambach work shows an extremely regular signal, inconsistent with the expected irregularities in such an orbit. Thus, while supporting the extinction periodicity, it appears to be inconsistent with the Nemesis hypothesis, though of course not inconsistent with other kinds of substellar objects. According to a 2011 NASA news release, "recent scientific analysis no longer supports the idea that extinctions on Earth happen at regular, repeating intervals, and thus, the Nemesis hypothesis is no longer needed."

Nemesis is a hypothetical red dwarf or brown dwarf, originally postulated in 1984 to be orbiting the Sun at a distance of about 95,000 AU (1.5 light-years), somewhat beyond the Oort cloud, to explain a perceived cycle of mass extinctions in the geological record, which seem to occur more often at intervals of 26 million years., more than 1800 brown dwarfs have been identified. There are actually fewer brown dwarfs in our cosmic neighborhood than previously thought. Rather than one star for every brown dwarf, there may be as many as six stars for every brown dwarf. The majority of solar-type stars are single. The previous idea stated half or perhaps most stellar systems were binary, trinary, or multiple-star systems associated with clusters of stars, rather than the single-star systems that tend to be seen most often. In a 2017 paper, Sarah Sadavoy and Steven Stahler argued that the Sun was likely part of a binary system at the time of its formation, leading them to suggest "there probably was a Nemesis, a long time ago". Such a star would have separated from this binary system over four billion years ago, meaning it could not be responsible for the more recent perceived cycle of mass extinctions, Douglas Vakoch told "Business Insider", adding that "If the sun really was part of a binary star system in its early days, its early twin deserves a benign name like Companion, rather than the threatening Nemesis."

Nemesis („hvězda smrti“, podle řecké bohyně pomsty a odplaty Nemesis) je astronomický koncept, který vzešel z pozorování údajných pravidelných vymírání v dějinách života na Zemi, odkrytých v geologickém záznamu. Podle paleontologů Davida M. Raupa a Jacka Sepkoskiho, kteří s teorií v roce 1983 přišli, může za pravidelně se opakující vymírání s periodou kolem 26 milionů let neznámá hvězda, která obíhá kolem našeho Slunce a v těchto obdobích vždy gravitačně způsobí přísun asteroidů a komet, které se pak se Zemí mohou srazit. Geofyzik Luis Walter Alvarez a jeho spolupracovníci spočítali, že by se muselo jednat o hnědého nebo červeného trpaslíka ve vzdálenosti as 1,5 - 3 světelné roky od Slunce. Dosud však žádná takto blízká hvězda nebyla nalezena a dnes se od konceptu Nemesis upouští. Pravděpodobně žádná taková temná hvězda neexistuje (stejně jako periodicita ve vymírání, která je zřejmě jen důsledkem statistické chyby), a tak nejbližší hvězdou zůstává jiný červený trpaslík Proxima Centauri ve vzdálenosti 4,22 světelného roku. O Nemesis nicméně vzniklo množství románů a filmových či komiksových zpracování.


Early life.

Peckham came from a humble family, possibly from Patcham in East Sussex. He was born about 1230 and was educated at Lewes Priory. About 1250, he joined the Franciscan order at Oxford. He then went to the University of Paris, where he studied under Bonaventure and became regent master, or official lecturer, in theology. While at Paris, he wrote a "Commentary on Lamentations", which sets out two possible sermons.  For years Peckham taught at Paris, where he was in contact with many of the leading scholars of his time, including Thomas Aquinas. He famously debated Aquinas on at least two occasions during 1269 and 1270, during which Peckham defended the conservative theological position, and Thomas put forth his views on the soul. The Thomist doctrine of the unity of form was condemned after these debates. His theological works later were used by his pupil Roger Marston who in turn inspired Duns Scotus.  Peckham also studied other fields, however; and was guided by Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon's views on the value of experimental science. Where Peckham met Bacon is not known, but it would have been at either Paris or Oxford. Bacon's influence can be seen in Peckham's works on optics (the "Perspectiva communis") and astronomy. In the field of optics, Peckham was influenced by Euclid, Pseudo-Euclid, Aristotle, Augustine, al-Kindi, Avicenna, Alhazen, Grosseteste, and Roger Bacon. Of these, historian David Lindberg argues, "Alhazen is by far the most significant, and Peckham could speak of his intention to 'follow in the footsteps' of the author".

Return to England.

Reorganization of the archdiocese.

About 1270, he returned to England to teach at Oxford, and was elected provincial minister of the Franciscans in England in 1275. He did not long remain in that post, being summoned to Rome as "lector sacri palatii," or theological lecturer at the papal palace. It is likely that he composed his "Expositio super Regulam Fratrum Minorum", a work that included information on preaching, a subject that Peckham felt was of great importance. In 1279 he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by Pope Nicholas III who had prohibited the election of Robert Burnell, Edward I's preferred candidate. He was provided (appointed by the pope to the see) on 25 January 1279 and consecrated on 19 February 1279.  Peckham laid stress on discipline, which often resulted in conflict with his clergy. His first episcopal act was calling a council at Reading in July 1279 to implement ecclesiastical reform, but Peckham's specifying that a copy of "Magna Carta" should be hung in all cathedral and collegiate churches offended the king as an unnecessary intrusion into political affairs. Another ruling was on non-residence of clergy in their livings. The only exception Peckham was prepared to make on non-residence was if the clerk needed to go abroad to study. At the Parliament of Winchester in 1279, the archbishop compromised and Parliament invalidated any regulation of the council dealing with royal policies or power. The copies of Magna Carta were taken down. One reason the archbishop may have backed down was that he was in debt to the Italian banking family of the Riccardi, who also were bankers to Edward and the pope, and Peckham was under threat of excommunication from the pope unless he repaid the loans.  However, Peckham worked hard to reorganise the estates of the diocese, and held an inquiry in 1283 through 1285 into the revenues of the see. He set up administrative structures in the manors that divided them into seven administrative groups. Peckham, though, was almost continually in debt, and because he was a Franciscan, he had no personal property to help with his living expenses. He had inherited the diocesan debts that his predecessor had allowed to accumulate, and never managed to clear them.

Relations with the Welsh.

Notwithstanding his other actions, Peckham's relations with the king were generally good, and Edward sent him on a diplomatic mission to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in Wales. In 1282 he attempted to mediate between the Welsh and King Edward, but given that Edward would not budge on the main issues, it was a hopeless mission. In the end, Peckham excommunicated some of the Welsh who were resisting Edward, not unsurprising given Peckham's views of the Welsh. Peckham visited the Welsh dioceses as part of his tour of all his subordinate dioceses. While there, Peckham criticised the Welsh clergy for their unchaste lives, conspicuous consumption, and heavy drinking. He also found the Welsh clergy to be uneducated, although he did order a Welsh-speaking suffragan bishop to be appointed to help with pastoral duties in the diocese of Coventry and Lichfield. Peckham also criticised the Welsh people as a whole, contrasting their pastoral economy with the farming-based economy of England, and finding the Welsh to be lazy and idle.  As part of his diplomatic duties, Peckham wrote to Llywelyn, and in those letters the archbishop continued his criticisms of the Welsh people, this time condemning their laws as contrary to both the Old and New Testament. Peckham was particularly offended that Welsh laws sought to get parties to homicides or other crimes to settle their differences rather than the process of English law which condemned the criminal.  Peckham also had problems with his subordinate Thomas Bek, who was Bishop of St David's in Wales. Bek tried to revive a scheme to make St David's independent from Canterbury, and to elevate it to metropolitan status. This had originally been put forth by Gerald of Wales around 1200, but had been defeated by the actions of Hubert Walter, then the Archbishop of Canterbury. Bek did not manage even the four-year fight that Gerald had managed, for Peckham routed him quickly.

Ecclesiastical matters.

Skirmishes with Edward over clerical privileges, royal power, Peckham's use of excommunication, and ecclesiastical taxation continued, but in October 1286, Edward issued a writ entitled "Circumspecte Agatis" which specified what types of cases the ecclesiastical courts could hear. These included moral issues, matrimonial issues, disputes about wills and testaments, the correction of sins, and slander and physical attacks on the clergy.  Peckham was very strict in his interpretations of canon law, and once wrote to Queen Eleanor that her use of loans from Jewish moneylenders to acquire lands was usury and a mortal sin. He also felt that Welsh laws were illogical and conflicted with Biblical teachings. He also mandated that the clerical tonsure worn by the clergy should not just include the top of the head, but also have the nape and over the ears shaved, which allowed the clergy to be easily distinguished from the laity. To help with this, the archbishop also forbade the clergy from wearing secular clothing, especially military garb. He also forbade an effort by the Benedictine order in England to reform their monastic rule, to allow more time for study and for more education for the monks. Peckham's reason was that they were against custom, but he may also have had concerns that these reforms would have drawn recruits away from the Franciscans.  At an ecclesiastical council held at Lambeth in 1281, Peckham ordered the clergy to instruct their congregations in doctrine at least four times a year. They were to explain and teach the Articles of Faith, the Ten Commandments, the Works of Mercy, the Seven Deadly Sins, the Seven Virtues and the Sacraments. This command was issued as a canon, or law, of the council, and the group is known as the Lambeth Constitutions. Even later these constitutions were collected as the Ignorantia sacerdotum. The six doctrines comprised the minimum theological knowledge the archbishop considered necessary for the laity to know. The constitutions, which were originally in Latin, were the basis and inspiration for pastoral and devotional works throughout the remainder of the Middle Ages, and were eventually translated into English in the 15th century.  The crime of "plurality," or pluralism, which was the holding by one cleric of two or more benefices, was one of Peckham's targets, as were clerical absenteeism and laxity in the monastic life. His main method of fighting these was a system of "visitation" of his subordinate dioceses and religious houses, which he used with an unprecedented frequency. This often resulted in conflicts over whether or not the archbishop had jurisdiction to conduct these visits, but Peckham was also papal legate, which added a layer of complexity to the resulting disputes. The numerous legal cases that resulted from his visitation policy strengthened the archiepiscopal court at the expense of the lower courts. Peckham also fought with Thomas de Cantilupe, Bishop of Hereford over the right to visit subordinate clergy. The quarrel involved an appeal over the jurisdiction of the archbishop, that Thomas sent to Rome in 1281, but Thomas died before the case could be decided. Peckham also decreed that the clergy should preach to their flocks at least four times a year.  Peckham often was in conflict with his subordinate bishops, mainly because of his efforts to reform them, but Peckham's own attitude and handling of his clergy contributed to the problem. He once wrote to Roger de Meyland, the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield "These things need your attention, but you have been absent so long that you seem not to care. We therefore order you, on receipt of this letter, to take up residence in your diocese, so that—even if you are not competent to redress spiritual evils—you may at least minister to the temporal needs of the poor." The historian Richard Southern says that Peckham's disputes with his suffragan bishops were "conducted in an atmosphere of bitterness and perpetual ill-will", which probably owed something to a "petulant strain in Peckham's character". Peckham's conflicts started because his own ideals were those of a Franciscan, but most of his clergy were concerned with more mundane and materialistic affairs. These strains between the archbishop and his subordinates were intensified by clashes over ecclesiastical and secular authority, as well as Edward's great need for income.  Archbishop John Peckham was a notable anti-semite. On 19 August 1282, in a letter to Richard Gravesend, Bishop of London, he ordered the Bishop to compel the Jews of London, using every instrument of ecclesiastical censure, to destroy all their synagogues except one within a brief time period to be determined by the Bishop. In a second letter he congratulates the Bishop because the "Judaica perfidia" is being overcome by the bishop's attention and vigilance.

Death and legacy.

A number of manuscripts of Peckham's works on philosophy and biblical commentary remain extant. Queen Eleanor persuaded him to write for her a scholarly work in French, which was later described as "unfortunately rather a dull and uninspired little treatise." His poem "Philomena" is considered one of the finest poems written in its time.  Peckham died on 8 December 1292 at Mortlake and was buried in the north transept, or the Martyrdom, of Canterbury Cathedral. His heart, however, was buried with the Franciscans under the high altar of their London church, Greyfriars, London. His tomb still survives. He founded a college at Wingham, Kent in 1286, probably a college of canons serving a church.

Works.

A number of his works have survived, and some have appeared in print in various times:  Peckham is the earliest Archbishop of Canterbury to have his registers, the principal records of archiepiscopal administration, held at Lambeth Palace Library.

John Peckham (c. 1230 – 8 December 1292) was Archbishop of Canterbury in the years 1279–1292. He was a native of Sussex who was educated at Lewes Priory and became a Friar Minor about 1250. He studied at the University of Paris under Bonaventure, where he would later teach theology. From his teaching, he came into conflict with Thomas Aquinas, with whom he debated on two occasions. Known as a conservative theologian, he opposed Aquinas' views on the nature of the soul. Peckham also studied optics and astronomy, and his studies in those subjects were particularly influenced by Roger Bacon and Alhazen.

John Peckham (nebo Johan Pecham), (1220 nebo 1225 – 8. prosince 1292) byl františkánský profesor univerzit v Paříži a v Oxfordu, známý také jako "doctor ingeniosus" (nadaný, obdařený, hlubokomyslný učitel), teolog, matematik, básník, arcibiskup z Canterbury, oponent svatého Tomáše Akvinského a představitel tzv. "středověkého augustinismu".


Theory.

The theoretical frame at the heart of processual archaeology is cultural evolutionism. Processual archaeologists are, in almost all cases, cultural evolutionists. It is from this perspective that they believe they can understand past cultural systems through the remains they left behind. This is because processual archaeologists adhere to Leslie White's theory that culture can be defined as the exosomatic (outside the body) means of environmental adaptation for humans. In other words, they study cultural adaptation to environmental change rather than the bodily adaptation over generations, which is dealt with by evolutionary biologists. This focus on environmental adaptation is based on the cultural ecology and multilinear evolution ideas of anthropologists such as Julian Steward. As exosomatic adaptation, culture is determined by environmental constraints. The result of this is that processual archaeologists propose that cultural change happens within a predictable framework and seek to understand it by the analysis of its components. Moreover, since that framework is predictable, then science is the key to unlocking how those components interacted with the cultural whole. What this all means to processual archaeologists is that cultural changes are driven by evolutionary "processes" in cultural development, which will be adaptive relative to the environment and therefore not only understandable, but also scientifically predictable once the interaction of the variables is understood. Thus one should be able to virtually completely reconstruct these "cultural processes." Hence came the name "processual archaeology". Its practitioners were also called "new archaeologists".  Methodologically, the advocates of the New Archaeology had to come up with ways of analyzing the archaeological remains in a more scientific fashion. The problem was that no framework for this kind of analysis existed. There was such a dearth of work in this area that it led Willey and Phillips to state in 1958, "So little work has been done in American archaeology on the explanatory level that it is difficult to find a name for it". Different researchers had different approaches to this problem. Lewis Binford felt that ethno-historical information was necessary to facilitate an understanding of archaeological context. Ethno-historical (history of peoples) research involves living and studying the life of those who would have used the artifacts - or at least a similar culture. Binford wanted to prove that the Mousterian assemblage, a group of stone artifacts from France during the ice age, was adapted to its environment, and so Binford spent time with the Nunamiut of Alaska, a people living in conditions very similar to those of France during the period in question. Binford had a good deal of success with this approach, and though his specific problem ultimately eluded complete understanding, the ethno-historical work he did is constantly referred to by researchers today and has since been emulated by many.  The new methodological approaches of the processual research paradigm include logical positivism (the idea that all aspects of culture are accessible through the material record), the use of quantitative data, and the hypothetico-deductive model (scientific method of observation and hypothesis testing).  During the late 1960s and into the 1970s, archaeologist Kent Flannery began championing the idea that Systems theory could be used in archaeology to attack questions of culture from an unbiased perspective. Systems theory has proved to be a mixed bag for archaeology as a whole. It works well when trying to describe "how" elements of a culture interact, but appears to work poorly when describing "why" they interact the way that they do. Nevertheless, Systems Theory has become a very important part of processualism, and is perhaps the only way archaeologists can examine other cultures without interference from their own cultural biases.  As an instance, in the field of paleolinguistics, Colin Renfrew, in re-examining Proto-Indo-European language and making a case for the spread of Indo-European languages through neolithic Europe in connection with the spread of farming, outlined three basic, primary processes through which a language comes to be spoken in a specific area: initial colonization, replacement and continuous development. From some obvious reasoning he proceeded to some radically new conclusions.

Further theoretical development.

In 1973, the processualist David Clarke of Cambridge University would publish an academic paper in "Antiquity" claiming that as a discipline, archaeology had moved from its original "noble innocence" through to "self-consciousness" and then onto "critical self-consciousness", a symptom of which was the development of the New Archaeology. As a result, he argued, archaeology had suffered a "loss of innocence" as archaeologists became sceptical of the work of their forebears. Clarke's paper would later be described as "one of the seminal statements of the New Archaeology, by one of its leading proponents" in Britain, if not elsewhere, by the archaeologists Caroline Malone and Simon Stoddart.  Processualism's development transformed archaeology, and is sometimes called the "New Archaeology." With few notable exceptions such as Boston University, universities in America classify archaeology as a sub-discipline of anthropology, while in Europe it is thought to be a subject more like historical studies. It is important to analyze which sciences are close kin because such analysis highlights the questions of what archaeology ought to study and in what ways. Like the other social scientists, the New Archaeologists or processualists wanted to utilize scientific methodology in their work. Archaeology, and in particular archaeology of the historical period, has sometimes been allied more with humanities disciplines such as Classics. The question of where to put archaeology as a discipline, and its concomitant issues of what archaeology ought to study and which methods it ought to use, likely played no small part in the emergence of post-processualism in Europe.

Legacy.

In his 2010 book on archaeological theory, Matthew Johnson- then of the University of Southampton, now at Northwestern University- argued that despite the intervening 40 years since its development, the "intellectual questions" first posed by processualism remained "absolutely central" to archaeology.

Criticism.

Processual archaeologist David L. Clarke suggested that the New Archaeology would face particular opposition from amateurs, historical archaeologists and practical excavators but argued that such individuals would still benefit from the theory's adoption.  Processualism began to be critiqued soon after it emerged, initiating a theoretical movement that would come to be called post-processualism. Post-processualist critics consider the main weaknesses of processual archaeology:  Writing in 1987, the archaeologist Christopher Chippindale of Cambridge University spoke on the view of processualism at that time, putting it in the context of the 1960s, when he stated that:

Processual archaeology (formerly, the New Archaeology) is a form of archaeological theory that had its genesis in 1958 with the work of Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips, "Method and Theory in American Archaeology," in which the pair stated that "American archaeology is anthropology or it is nothing" (Willey and Phillips, 1958:2), a rephrasing of Frederic William Maitland's comment: "My own belief is that by and by anthropology will have the choice between being history and being nothing." The idea implied that the goals of archaeology were, in fact, the goals of anthropology, which were to answer questions about humans and human society. That was a critique of the former period in archaeology, the cultural-history phase in which archaeologists thought that any information that artifacts contained about past people and past ways of life would be lost once the items became included in the archaeological record. All they felt could be done was to catalogue, describe, and create timelines based on the artifacts.

Procesuální archeologie (také nová archeologie) je teoretický směr v archeologii, který vznikl počátkem 60. let v USA, jako reakce na kulturně-historický přístup. Jeho zastánci věří, že důslednou aplikací vědeckých metod jsme schopni za archeologickým záznamem postihnout a rekonstruovat živou kulturu. Procesualismus do archeologie vnesl principy a myšlenky inspirované přírodními vědami, přijal za svoji jejich systematičnost a rozvinul tak metodologický potenciál celé vědy. Součástí archeologického bádání se staly statistika, modelování dat, chemické a fyzikální analýzy, inovovány byly metody stratigrafie a exkavační techniky. Procesualisté tak navázali těsnější vazby s empirickými vědami, zejména s antropologií. Věnovali se především studiu ekonomických faktorů, technologie, ekologie a sociální organizace.


Overview and definition.

Many programs focus on delivering a capability to change, and are normally designed to deliver the organisation's strategy or business transformation. Program management also emphasizes the coordinating and prioritizing of resources across projects, managing links between the projects and the overall costs and risks of the program.  According to one source, "a Program is a group of related projects managed in a coordinated manner to obtain benefits and control NOT available from managing them individually. Programs may include elements of related work outside of the scope of the discrete projects in the program... Some projects within a program can deliver useful incremental benefits to the organization before the program itself has completed."  An alternative source (the UK Office of Government Commerce) uses the following definition, "a programme is a temporary flexible organisation structure created to coordinate, direct and oversee the implementation of a set of related projects and activities in order to deliver outcomes and benefits related to an organisations strategic objectives. A programme is likely to have a life that spans several years. "  The different spellings are relevant, Program is the US spelling and Programme is the UK spelling. The differences are far greater than spelling and reflect different philosophies. The US approach is focused on internal controls and delivery of complex projects and has grown our of the project industry, the UK approach is more focused on the achievement of all aspects of achieving a strategic objective and has grown out of the strategic change industry. This leads to inherent differences in the approach.There is no suggestion that either approach is right or wrong, in fact, they are complimentary in many ways.  Program management may provide a layer above the management of projects and focuses on selecting the best group of projects, defining them in terms of their objectives and providing an environment where projects can be run successfully. Program managers should not micromanage, but should leave project management to the project managers. However, program management might need to deal with interdependencies, conflicts and resource or knowledge sharing among the projects it manages.  In public sector work in Europe, the term normally refers to multiple change projects: projects that are designed to deliver benefits to the host organization. For example, the Office of Government Commerce for the UK government. An alternative to the Office of Government Commerce's methodology for program management is that of the private sector Project Management Institute.  Many organizations only run one program at a time, a program containing all their projects. In Project Management Institute terminology, this is more likely to be a project portfolio than a program. Some larger organizations may have multiple programs each designed to deliver a range of improvements. Some organizations use the concept of Systems Engineering where others use program management.

Comparison with project management.

There are the two different views of how programs differ from projects. In one view, projects deliver outputs, discrete parcels or "chunks" of change; programs create outcomes. In this view, a project might deliver a new factory, hospital or IT system. By combining these projects with other deliverables and changes, their programs might deliver increased income from a new product, shorter waiting lists at the hospital or reduced operating costs due to improved technology. The other view is that a program is nothing more than either a large project or a set (or portfolio) of projects. In this second view, the point of having a program is to exploit economies of scale and to reduce coordination costs and risks. The project manager's job is to ensure that their project succeeds. The program manager, on the other hand, is concerned with the aggregate outcome(s) or end-state result(s) of the collection of projects in a particular program. For example, in a financial institution a program may include one project that is designed to take advantage of a rising market and another that is designed to protect against the downside of a falling market. The former seeks to leverage the potential upside; the latter to limit the possible downside. Consider a simple analogy: Fix-A-Flat®. This highly pressurized aerosol product injects a leak sealant into a punctured tire to stop the outflow of air (project A) and concurrently re-inflates the tire (project B), resulting together in the outcome that is a tire that is once again functional (the program comprised projects A and B).  According to the view that programs deliver outcomes but projects deliver outputs, program management is concerned with doing the right projects. The program manager has been described as 'playing chess' and keeping the overview in mind, with the pieces to be used or sacrificed being the projects. In contrast, project management is about doing projects right. And also according to this view, successful projects deliver on time, to budget and to specification, whereas successful programs deliver long term improvements to an organization. Improvements are usually identified through benefits. An organization should select the group of programs that most take it towards its strategic aims while remaining within its capacity to deliver the changes. On the other hand, the view that programs are simply large projects or a set of projects allows that a program may need to deliver tangible benefits quickly.  According to one source, the key difference between a program and a project is the finite nature of a project - a project must always have a specific end date, else it is an ongoing program.  One view of the differences between a program and a project in business is that:  Another view and another successful way of managing does not see any of the factors listed above as distinguishing projects from programs, but rather sees the program as being about portfolio management. On this view, program management is about selecting projects, adjusting the speed at which they run, and adjusting their scope, in order to the maximize the value of the portfolio as a whole, and as economic or other external conditions change. Still, some emphasize that whereas a portfolio consists of independent projects, a program is a collection of interdependent projects, adding a dimension of complexity to the management task.  Yet another view is that a program management is nothing more than a large, complex project, where the integration aspect of project management is more important than in smaller projects. Integration management is a key feature of the Project Management Institute's approach to project management. Yet again, some accept there is a distinction related to interdependencies between the elements of a project and a program. In this view, a program is a comparably loosely coupled system, whereas large, complex projects are tightly coupled. This difference makes the project program a more ambiguous task to manage, with more uncertainty, reflecting a higher degree of freedom and a management task more open to exploit opportunities as they arise or the program management becomes aware of them.  In practice it is not clear that there is a clear-cut distinction. Projects (or programs) vary from small and simple to large and complex; what needs to be a managed as a program in one culture or organization may be managed as a project in another.

References.

Managing Successful Programmes, Rod Sowden et al. (TSO, 2007) & (TSO 2011), p156

Program management or programme management is the process of managing several related projects, often with the intention of improving an organization's performance. In practice and in its aims, program management is often closely related to systems engineering, industrial engineering, change management, and business transformation. In the defense sector, it is the dominant approach to managing very large projects. Because major defense programs entail working with contractors, it is often called acquisition management, indicating that the government buyer acquires goods and services by means of contractors.

Program je skupina souvisejících projektů, jejichž společné a koordinované řízení přináší výhody ve srovnání s jejich samostatným řízením. Programy mohou zahrnovat další související činnosti, které nejsou součástí projektů zahrnutých do programu. Další zdroje kladou v definici programu důraz na účel sdružování projektů,kterým je dosažení vytyčeného strategického cíle, nebo i více cílů. Program a jeho řízení pak poskytuje prostor pro realizaci strategií a podnikatelských iniciativ.


History.

Origins.

There is no exact date on record when the principality was formed; it was likely an evolutionary process. In 862 Polotsk was first mentioned in the Primary Chronicle as a town within the realm of the Novgorod Rus', alongside Murom and Beloozero. Initially the Principality of Polotsk was governed by a local dynasty, and not by an appointed governor from Kiev. Local statehood was a result of local political evolution in the Early East Slavs' tribal union of Krivichs.  The second time Polotsk was mentioned was a full century later, in 980, when its ruler was a Varangian warlord, Ragnvald or Rogvolod. The chronicle reports that he arrived to Polotsk "from overseas", a routine phrase to designate Varangians. Rogvolod was an active player in the power struggle in Rus': the estimated population of Polotsk in the late 10th century reached 6,000, which allowed significant manpower for an army.  In 972, after the prince of Kiev, Sviatoslav I, died, there was a power struggle between his two sons: prince of Novgorod Vladimir and prince of Kiev Yaropolk. Both had hoped for political and military support from Polotsk. In order to achieve this, Vladimir proposed to Rogneda, Rogvolod's teenage daughter. She declined, thus making Polotsk an ally of Yaropolk. Vladimir then waged war against Polotsk. According to colorful legends recorded in the Primary Chronicle, he took the city, raped Rogneda in front of her parents, then killed her entire family and burnt down the city. Rogneda was taken to Kiev to be Vladimir's wife. Thus the local dynasty was exterminated.  After Vladimir converted to Christianity in 988 and took Anna Porphyrogeneta as his wife, he had to divorce all his previous wives, including Rogneda. She entered the convent and took the name Anastasia, then she and her son Izyaslau and were exiled back to the lands of Polotsk – first to Iziaslav, and later to Polotsk. Thus the principality was restored but with the most senior branch of the Rurik dynasty on the local throne. Since this time, the lands of the principality became Christian (Eastern Orthodox).

Striving for independence.

In 1001 Izyaslav was succeeded by his son, Bryachislav of Polotsk. Under his rule, Polotsk attempted to distance itself from Kiev. Tensions were exacerbated by the fact that, under the East Slavic house law, since Izyaslav predeceased his father and never reigned in Kiev, his descendants from the House of Polotsk forfeited their dynastic rights to the Kievan throne. In 1020 Bryachislav sacked Novgorod but then lost it to his uncle, Yaroslav the Wise, and had to give up some of his other possessions.  For two following centuries, the Principality of Polotsk was controlled by descendants of Izyaslau. All other lands of Kievan Rus' were under control of princes who were descendants of Yaroslav the Wise. The golden age of medieval Polotsk is associated with the rule of Bryachislav's son, Vseslav (1044–1101). He profited from the civil wars in Kiev in order to assert his own independence and run the affairs of the principality separately. During this time Polotsk became a centre of trade serving as a transit location between other lands of Kievan Rus' and Scandinavia. It also asserted its independent status balancing between Kiev, Novgorod, and the Varangians. Contemporary Norse sagas described the town as the most heavily fortified in all of Kievan Rus'. Most of the time, descendants of Izyaslav ruled the Principality of Polatsk independently of the Grand Prince of the Rus', only formally recognizing the power of the Rurikides. After the late 10th century, Polotsk was also successful in colonizing the lands of its western neighbours, the ancestors of today's Latvians and Lithuanians. In the early 13th century, Teutonic knights seized power over the former from the hands of Polotsk, but the historical ties with the latter proved much stronger and lasted for 700 more years, although the leading role in this “marriage” soon shifted to the other side. The last pagans of Europe, brave and skillful warriors, Lithuanians initially served Polotsk as auxiliary troops in its wars with the Teutonic knights and other East Slavic principalities; but from 1183 they refused obedience to the metropoly and established their own state.  The Cathedral of Saint Sophia in Polotsk – built by Vseslav between 1044 and 1066 – was a symbol of the independent-mindedness of Polotsk, rivaling churches of the same name in Novgorod and Kiev and referring to the original "Hagia Sophia" in Constantinople (and thus to claims of imperial prestige, authority, and sovereignty).

Decline.

After his defeat at the Battle on the river Nemiga and temporary imprisonment, Vseslav died, and the principality was divided between his surviving sons. Polotsk was splintered between various smaller fiefs – the Principality of Minsk, Principality of Vitebsk, Principality of Druck, Principality of Jersika, and Principality of Koknese. Local princes waged wars against each other trying to assert control over Polotsk. At last the rulers of Vitebsk emerged victorious. For short periods of time, the neighbouring Principality of Smolensk also claimed control over some lands of the principality.  Beginning in the mid-12th century there were changes in the lands to the west of the Principality. The fortress of Riga became the main military basis of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. In 1209 German crusaders conquered the principalities of Jersika and Koknese in the southeast of today's Latvia, which had previously been under control of Polotsk, forcing Polotsk to permit free travel to German merchants in 1212 and ending Livonian tributes. In 1227 Smolensk ceded Polotsk by treaty to the city of Riga.  Annals affirming the alliance and united military campaigns policy of Polotsk and Lithuania. For example, The Chronicle of Novgorod informs about "Izyaslav had been set to be Knyaz in Luki and covered Novgorod from the Lithuanians" in 1198 while Luki is situated on the east from Polotsk. The Principality of Polotsk escaped the Mongol invasion of Rus' in 1237–1239. However, pagan Lithuanians began consolidating lands of the principality, and in 1240 Polotsk became a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It officially became part of Lithuania in 1307, though it retained some degree of local autonomy until the 1390s. Then the principality was abolished and became part of the Połock Voivodeship.

The Principality of Polotsk (; ; ), also known as the Duchy of Polotsk or the Polotskian Rus', was a medieval principality of the Early East Slavs. The origin and date of state establishment is uncertain. Rus' Chronicles mention Polotsk being conquered by Vladimir the Great, and thereafter it became associated with the Rurik dynasty and Kievan Rus'.

Polocké knížectví (bělorusky По́лацкае кня́ства, rusky По́лоцкое кня́жество), bylo slovanské knížectví v povodí západní Dviny, Bereziny a Němenu.Bylo prvním významným státním útvarem na území dnešního Běloruska (a částečně dnešního Lotyšska) a kolébkou běloruské státnosti. Hlavním městem byl Polock, jež je v pramenech (Nestorově letopise, či též Pověsti dávných let) poprvé zmiňován roku 860. Podléhalo mu ještě patnáct dalších měst, mezi nimi Vitebsk, Minsk, Orša, Zaslav, Borisov, Braslav, Lukoml či Lahojsk. Na východě hraničilo s krivičským knížectvím, na jihu s turovským knížectvím, které vzniklo na území Dregovičů.


Life.

Szendzielarz was born in Stryj (Austrian Partition, now Lviv Oblast, Ukraine), then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and from 1919 to 1939 in Poland, into the family of a railway worker. After graduating from primary school in Lwów, he attended a biological-mathematical "gymnasium" in Lwów and then Stryj. After graduating, he volunteered for the Polish Army and completed Infantry Non-commissioned officer School in Ostrów Mazowiecka (1932), then Cavalry NCO School in Grudziądz. He was promoted to lieutenant and transferred to Wilno, where he assumed command of a squadron in the 4th Uhlan Regiment.

World War II.

With his unit he took part in the 1939 September Campaign. His unit was attached to the Wilno Cavalry Brigade under General Władysław Anders, part of the Prusy Army. After retreating from northern Poland, the forces of Gen. Anders fought their way towards the city of Lwów and the Romanian Bridgehead. However, in the area of Lublin Szendzielarz's unit was surrounded and suffered heavy losses. Soon afterwards Szendzielarz was taken prisoner of war by the Soviets, but he managed to escape to Lwów, where he lived for a short period under a false name. He tried to cross the Hungarian border to escape from Poland and reach the Polish Army being formed in France, but failed and finally moved with his family to Wilno.  In Wilno, Szendzielarz started working on various posts under false names. In mid-1943 he joined the Home Army under the nom de guerre "Łupaszka", after Jerzy Dąbrowski, and in August he started organizing his own partisan group in the forests surrounding the city. Soon the unit was joined by local volunteers and the remnants of a unit of Antoni Burzyński ("Kmicic"), destroyed by Soviet Partisans and the Wehrmacht. By September, the unit was 700 men strong and was officially named the V Vilnian Home Army Brigade ("V Wileńska Brygada Armii Krajowej").  "Łupaszko's" unit fought against the German army and SS units in the area of southern Wilno Voivodeship, but was also frequently attacked by the Soviet Partisans paradropped in the area by the Red Army. In April 1944, Zygmunt Szendzielarz was arrested by the Lithuanian police and handed over to the Gestapo. Łupaszko was free in the same month under circumstances that remain unclear. In reprisal actions his brigade captured several dozen German officials and sent several threatening letters to Gestapo but it remains unknown if and how these contributed to his release.

Operation Ostra Brama.

In August, the commander of all Home Army units in the Wilno area, Gen. Aleksander "Wilk" Krzyżanowski, ordered all six brigades under his command to prepare for Operation Tempest — a planned all-national rising against the German forces occupying Poland. In what became known as Operation Ostra Brama, Brigade V was to attack the Wilno suburb of Zwierzyniec in cooperation with advancing units of the 3rd Belorussian Front. However, Łupaszko, for fear of being arrested with his units by the NKVD and killed on the spot, disobeyed orders and moved his unit to central Poland. Wilno was liberated by Polish and Soviet forces, and the Polish commander was then arrested by the Soviets and the majority of his men were sent to Gulags and sites of detention in the Soviet Union.  It is uncertain why Szendzielarz was not court-martialed for desertion. Most likely it was in fact General "Wilk" himself who ordered Łupaszko's unit away the Wilno area, due to Łupaszko long having been involved in fighting with Soviet partisans and Wilk not wanting to provoke the Red Army. Regardless, after crossing into the Podlasie and Białystok area in October, the brigade continued the struggle against withdrawing Germans in the ranks of the Białystok Home Army Area. Zygmunt Szendzielarz, the commander of the 5th Brigade, was responsible for the massacres in the area on several Lithuanian and Belarussian Villages. Łupaszko's unit remained in the forests and he decided to await the outcome of Russo-Polish talks held by the Polish Government in Exile. Meanwhile, the unit was reorganized and captured enough equipment to fully arm 600 men with machine guns and machine pistols.

After World War II.

After the governments of the United Kingdom and United States broke the pacts with Poland and accepted the communist "Polish Committee of National Liberation" as the provisional government of Poland, Łupaszka restarted hostilities—this time against the new oppressor, in the ranks of Wolność i Niezawisłość organization. However, after several successful actions against the NKVD units in the area of Białowieża Forest, it became apparent that such actions would result in a total destruction of his unit.  In September 1945, Zygmunt Szendzielarz moved with a large part of his unit to Gdańsk-Oliwa, where he remained underground while preparing his unit for a new partisan offensive against the Soviet-backed communist authorities of Poland. On April 14, 1946, Szendzielarz finally mobilized his unit and headed for the Tuchola Forest, where he started operations against the forces of the Internal Security Corps, Urząd Bezpieczeństwa and the communist authorities. Łupaszko was hoping that in the spring of 1946 the former Western Allies of Poland would start a new war against the Soviet Union and that the Polish underground units could prove useful in liberating Poland. However, when he realized that no such war was planned he decided to disband his unit. He saw further fight as a waste of blood of his men and decided to retire from open fight against the communists.  After several years underground, he was arrested by the UB on June 28, 1948, in Osielec near Nowy Targ. After more than two years of brutal interrogation and torture in Warsaw's Mokotów Prison he was sentenced to death on November 2, 1950 by the Soviet-controlled court martial in Warsaw. He was executed on February 8, 1951, together with several other Home Army soldiers. Szendzielarz was 40 years old. His body was buried in an undisclosed location. During a 2013 exhumation Szendzielarz's remains were recovered and identified as one of roughly 250 bodies buried in a mass grave at the so-called Meadow at Warsaw's Powązki Military Cemetery.

Posthumous history.

After Łupaszko's death, communist authorities accused him of many crimes, from the crimes against humanity to robbery and common theft. In 1988 Szendzielarz was posthumously promoted to "rotmistrz" and awarded the "Virtuti Militari", Poland's highest military decoration, by Kazimierz Sabbat, the President of Poland in exile.  After the fall of communism, in 1993, Szendzielarz was rehabilitated and declared innocent of all charges. On 2007 Polish president Lech Kaczyński posthumously awarded Szendzielarz with the order of Polonia Restituta.

Dubinki Massacre.

The Course.

On June 23, 1944, the 5th Home Army Brigade of Vilnius attacked the fortified village of Dubinki, which was inhabited by Lithuanian military settlers, capturing a bunker defended by Lithuanian policemen By surprise. The resistance against Polish Partisans also was broken. Having the list of collaborators with the occupier they began to action to avenge the death of the residents of Glinciszek. In Dubinki between 21 and 27 inhabitants of the village died, including women and children.  The actions were done to avenge the deaths of Poles in the village of Glinciszek. On the 20 June 1944 a Lithuanian unit of the Schutzmannschaft murdered 39 Poles in Glinciszek, including women and children. The action was also provoked by the actions of Lithuanian units on the civilian population in Pawłów, Adamowszczyźn, and Sieńkowszczyźn.  Dubinki became the target of the attack due to many of the policemen, and their families, responsible for the Glinciszek crime living there. According to Paweł Rokicki, the actions in Dubinki are a warcrime, and the deaths of the civilians were intentional.

Discrepancies.

There are varying accounts of the actions that took place. According to one Zygmunt Szendzielarz told his troops to avenge after hearing about what happened in Glincieszek, and by doing so disregarded the order of his superiors.. According to other accounts it was part of a larger order that was supposed to demonstrate the strength of the Polish units. However no evidence of such an order exists.

Zygmunt Szendzielarz (12 March 1910 – 8 February 1951) was the commander of the Polish 5th Wilno Brigade of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa), nom de guerre "Łupaszka". He was executed in the notorious Mokotów Prison as one of anti-communist so-called Cursed soldiers following the Soviet takeover of Poland at the end of World War II.

Zygmunt Szendzielarz (také známý jako "Łupaszka"; 12. března 1910 – 8. února 1951) byl velitelem polské 5. Wilno Home armádní brigády.


Life.

Ogiński was born in Guzów in Mazovia (west of Warsaw) in the Kingdom of Poland. His father, Andrzej, was a Polish-Lithuanian nobleman from the Ogiński family and governor of Troki, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. His mother, Paulina Szembek (1740–1797), was the daughter of Polish magnate, Marek Szembek, whose ancestors were Austrian, and Jadwiga Rudnicka, who was of Lithuanian descent. His first introduction to music arose during a visit to relatives at Słonim where Michał Kazimierz Ogiński had a contemporary European theatre that hosted opera and ballet productions. Michał Kleofas received an Enlightenment gentleman's education. He studied music with Osip Kozlovsky and took violin lessons from Giovanni Battista Viotti and Pierre Baillot.

Career.

Aged only 20, Ogiński was chosen as an envoy of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He served as an adviser to King Stanisław August Poniatowski and supported him during the Great Sejm of 1788–1792. In 1788 he received the Order of Saint Stanislaus and in 1789 - the Order of the White Eagle, Poland's highest order. In 1790 he was dispatched as a diplomatic representative to the United Kingdom, where he met with Lord Mansfield who warned him about the danger posed by the tri-partite powers about to dismember the Kingdom of Poland. After 1790, he was sent to The Hague as a diplomatic representative of Poland to the Netherlands and was Polish agent in Constantinople and Paris. In 1793, he was nominated to the office of Vice-Treasurer of Lithuania.  During the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794, Ogiński commanded his own unit. After the insurrection was suppressed, he emigrated to Constantinople and later to France, where he sought support for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At that time he saw the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw by the Emperor as a stepping stone to eventual full independence of the Commonwealth. He dedicated his only opera, "Zelis et Valcour", to Napoleon. In 1810, Ogiński withdrew from political activity in exile and, disappointed with Napoleon, returned to Vilnius. Adam Jerzy Czartoryski introduced him to Tsar Alexander I, who made Ogiński a Russian Senator. Ogiński tried in vain to convince the Tsar to reconstitute the former Commonwealth. Disillusioned, he moved abroad in 1815. He died in Florence in 1833.  As a composer, he is best known for his polonaise "Farewell to My Homeland" ("Pożegnanie Ojczyzny"), written in 1794 in the Zalesie region (then part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, today in Belarus), on the occasion of his emigration after the suppression of the Kościuszko Uprising. This piece, with its unreservedly melancholic melodies and fantasia-like passages, can be considered among the earliest examples of romantic music.

Works.

Ogiński admired French and Italian opera. He was a violinist, and played the clavichord and the balalaika. He began composing marches and military songs in the 1790s that gained popularity among the rebels of 1794. He composed some 20 polonaises, piano pieces, mazurkas, marches, romances and waltzes.  Some of his other popular works and compositions include:

Michał Kleofas Ogiński (25 September 176515 October 1833) was a Polish diplomat and politician, Grand Treasurer of Lithuania, and a senator of Tsar Alexander I. He was also a composer of early Romantic music.

Michał Kleofas Ogiński (25. září 1765, Guzów – 15. říjen 1833, Florencie) byl polský hudební skladatel, diplomat a politik. Tvořil zejména klavírní skladby (polonézy, mazurky). Známý je i jeho spis "Listy o muzyce". Za osobnost svých dějin ho považují jak Poláci, tak Litevci i Bělorusové.


19th and early 20th centuries.

Political term for poor farmers.

The term characterized farmers having a red neck caused by sunburn from hours working in the fields. A citation from <time>1893</time> provides a definition as "poorer inhabitants of the rural districts... men who work in the field, as a matter of course, generally have their skin stained red and burnt by the sun, and especially is this true of the back of their necks". Hats were usually worn and they protected that wearer's head from the sun, but also provided psychological protection by shading the face from close scrutiny. The back of the neck however was more exposed to the sun and allowed closer scrutiny about the person's background in the same way callused working hands could not be easily covered.  By 1900, "rednecks" was in common use to designate the political factions inside the Democratic Party comprising poor white farmers in the South. The same group was also often called the "wool hat boys" (for they opposed the rich men, who wore expensive silk hats). A newspaper notice in Mississippi in August 1891 called on rednecks to rally at the polls at the upcoming primary election:  By <time>1910</time>, the political supporters of the Mississippi Democratic Party politician James K. Vardaman—chiefly poor white farmers—began to describe themselves proudly as "rednecks", even to the point of wearing red neckerchiefs to political rallies and picnics.  Linguist Sterling Eisiminger, based on the testimony of informants from the Southern United States, speculated that the prevalence of pellagra in the region during the great depression may have contributed to the rise in popularity of the term; red, inflamed skin is one of the first symptoms of that disorder to appear.

Coal miners.

The term "redneck" in the early 20th century was occasionally used in reference to American coal miner union members who wore red bandanas for solidarity. The sense of "a union man" dates at least to the 1910s and was especially popular during the 1920s and 1930s in the coal-producing regions of West Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania. It was also used by union strikers to describe poor white strikebreakers.

Late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Writers Edward Abbey and Dave Foreman also use "redneck" as a political call to mobilize poor rural white Southerners. "In Defense of the Redneck" was a popular essay by Ed Abbey. One popular early Earth First! bumper sticker was "Rednecks for Wilderness". Murray Bookchin, an urban leftist and social ecologist, objected strongly to Earth First!'s use of the term as "at the very least, insensitive". However, many Southerners have proudly embraced the term as a self-identifier. Similarly to Earth First!'s use, the self-described "anti-racist, pro-gun, pro-labor" group Redneck Revolt have used the term to signal its roots in the rural white working-class and celebration of what member Max Neely described as "redneck culture".

As political epithet.

According to Chapman and Kipfer in their "Dictionary of American Slang", by 1975 the term had expanded in meaning beyond the poor Southerner to refer to "a bigoted and conventional person, a loutish ultra-conservative". For example, in 1960 John Bartlow Martin expressed Senator John F. Kennedy should not enter the Indiana Democratic presidential primary because the state was "redneck conservative country". Indiana, he told Kennedy, was a state "suspicious of foreign entanglements, conservative in fiscal policy, and with a strong overlay of Southern segregationist sentiment". Writer William Safire observes it is often used to attack white Southern conservatives, and more broadly to degrade working class and rural whites that are perceived by urban progressives to be insufficiently progressive. At the same time, some white Southerners have reclaimed the word, using it with pride and defiance as a self-identifier.

Outside the United States.

Historical Scottish Covenanter usage.

In Scotland in the 1640s, the Covenanters rejected rule by bishops, often signing manifestos using their own blood. Some wore red cloth around their neck to signify their position, and were called rednecks by the Scottish ruling class to denote that they were the rebels in what came to be known as The Bishop's War that preceded the rise of Cromwell. Eventually, the term began to mean simply "Presbyterian", especially in communities along the Scottish border. Because of the large number of Scottish immigrants in the pre-revolutionary American South, some historians have suggested that this may be the origin of the term in the United States.  Dictionaries document the earliest American citation of the term's use for Presbyterians in <time>1830</time>, as "a name bestowed upon the Presbyterians of Fayetteville [North Carolina]".

Roman Catholics.

In Northern England during the 19th and 20th centuries, Roman Catholics were known as rednecks.

South Africa.

The exact Afrikaans equivalent,, is used as a disparaging term for English people and South Africans of English descent, in reference to their supposed naïveté as later arrivals in the region in failing to protect themselves from the sun.

Redneck is a derogatory term chiefly but not exclusively applied to white Americans perceived to be crass and unsophisticated, closely associated with rural whites of the Southern United States. Its usage is similar in meaning to "cracker" (especially regarding Texas, Georgia, and Florida), "hillbilly" (especially regarding Appalachia and the Ozarks), and "white trash" (but without the last term's suggestions of immorality). In Britain the "Cambridge Dictionary" definition states: "a poor, white person without education, esp. one living in the countryside in the southern US, who is believed to have prejudiced ideas and beliefs. This word is usually considered offensive." People from the white South sometimes jocularly call themselves "rednecks" as insider humor.

Redneck (doslova "rudý krk") je označení pro chudého bílého obyvatele jižní části Spojených států amerických, nejčastěji venkovana (původně často jen farmáře). Většinou je vnímáno hanlivě, podobně jako české "vidlák". Jako "rednecks" bývají označováni málo liberálně smýšlející (homofobní a rasističtí) běloši z Jihu, jejichž chování je "buranské" či "hulvátské". Další vlastností přisuzovanou redneckům je ultrakonzervativnost a bigotnost. Někteří jižané ovšem označení redneck vzali za své a s hrdostí se tak sami nazývají.


Biography.

Megadeth.

Dave Mustaine referred to Poland as "an amazing guitar player—he can play circles around me".

2000s.

In 2009, Poland formed OHMphrey, a side-project with Robby Pagliari of OHM, and Jake Cinninger, Kris Myers, and Joel Cummins of progressive rock band Umphrey's McGee.  In 2019, Poland appeared on the track "Hammer (Comes Down)", on Megadeth bassist David Ellefson's solo release "Sleeping Giants", with Mark Tremonti, Thom Hazaert, Dave McClain and Joey Radziwill of Sacred Reich, and Flotsam and Jetsam vocalist Eric AK. It was later announced Poland had signed to Ellefson's revived Combat Records, who would release a 30th Anniversary Edition of his landmark solo debut Return to Metalopolis in 2020. The expanded 2 CD/LP configuration, features a remastered version of the original LP, with 4 new tracks, and material from the independently released, out of print 2007 release "Return To Metalopolis Live". It was later announced in 2020 that Poland would tour Australia and Japan, with David Ellefson and Thom Hazaert, supporting Ellefson's eponymous solo band.  In January 2020, Poland was inducted into the Metal Hall of Fame, alongside Geoff Tate, Don Dokken, Joe Satriani, Steve Vai, Prong (band), Graham Bonnett, and more. Poland was inducted by Thom Hazaert and former Machine Head guitarist Phil Demmel who joined Poland for a performance of "Peace Sells", with Butcher Babies bassist Ricky Bonazza, and Dead By Wednesday drummer Opus Lawrence and guitarist Dave Sharpe, who also tour with Megadeth bassist David Ellefson and Hazaert in Ellefson's eponymous "Sleeping Giants" solo band. Poland also performed "Paranoid" at the induction, with Vai, Satriani, and Tate.

Chris Poland (born December 1, 1957) is an American guitarist who was part of the thrash metal band Megadeth. He is also the guitarist of the instrumental rock/jazz fusion bands OHM and OHMphrey.

Chris Poland (* 1. prosince 1957) je americký kytarista. V roce 1984 se stal členem kapely Megadeth, ale zanedlouho spolupráci se skupinou přerušil. Vrátil se ještě roku 1985 a v kapele vydržel do roku 1987. Hrál na albech "Killing Is My Business... And Business Is Good!" (1985) a "Peace Sells... But Who's Buying?" (1986). Jako studiový hudebník s ní opět hrál v roce 2004, kdy nahrál kytarové party na desku "The System Has Failed". V devadesátých letech hrál s projektem Damn the Machine a rovněž se začal věnovat vydávání sólových alb. Roku 2015 se podílel na albu "Space Fusion Odyssey" hudebníka Nika Turnera. Jako host hrál na nahrávkách skupin Lamb of God a Queensrÿche. Řadu let rovněž hraje se skupinou OHM.