Association football.

In the early days of football, friendlies were the most common type of match. However, since the development of The Football League in England in 1888, league tournaments became established, in addition to lengthy derby and cup tournaments. By the year 2000, national leagues were established in almost every country throughout the world, as well as local or regional leagues for lower level teams; thus the significance of friendly matches has seriously declined since the 19th century.

Club football.

Since the introduction of league football, most club sides play a number of friendlies before the start of each season (called pre-season friendlies). Friendly football matches are considered to be non-competitive and are only used to "warm up" players for a new season/competitive match. There is generally nothing competitive at stake and some rules may be changed or experimented with (such as unlimited substitutions, which allow teams to play younger, less experienced, players, and no cards). Frequently such games take place between a large club and small clubs that play nearby, such as those between Newcastle United and Gateshead.  Although most friendlies are simply one-off matches arranged by the clubs themselves, in which a certain amount is paid by the challenger club to the incumbent club, some teams do compete in short tournaments, such as the Emirates Cup, Teresa Herrera Trophy, International Champions Cup and the Amsterdam Tournament. Although these events may involve sponsorship deals and the awarding of a trophy and may even be broadcast on television, there is little prestige attached to them.

International football.

International teams also play friendlies, generally in preparation for the qualifying or final stages of major tournaments. This is essential, since national squads generally have much less time together in which to prepare. The biggest difference between friendlies at the club and international levels is that international friendlies mostly take place during club league seasons, not between them. This has on occasion led to disagreement between national associations and clubs as to the availability of players, who could become injured or fatigued in a friendly.  International friendlies give team managers the opportunity to experiment with team selection and tactics before the tournament proper, and also allow them to assess the abilities of players they may potentially select for the tournament squad. Players can be booked in international friendlies, and can be suspended from future international matches based on red cards or accumulated yellows in a specified period. Caps and goals scored also count towards a player's career records. In 2004, FIFA ruled that substitutions by a team be limited to six per match in international friendlies in response to criticism that such matches were becoming increasingly farcical with managers making as many as 11 substitutions per match. An international match loses its official status if this regulation is breached.  Matches in multinational football tournaments such as the King's Cup, the Kirin Cup, and the China Cup are usually considered international friendlies by FIFA.

Fundraising game.

In the UK and Ireland, "exhibition match" and "friendly match" refer to two different types of games. The types described above as friendlies are not termed exhibition matches, while annual all-star matches such as those held in the US Major League Soccer or Japan's Japanese League are called exhibition matches rather than friendly matches. A one-off match for charitable fundraising, usually involving one or two all-star teams, or a match held in honor of a player for contribution to his/her club, may also be described as exhibition matches but they are normally referred to as charity matches and testimonial matches respectively.

Bounce game.

A bounce game is generally a non-competitive football match played between two sides usually as part of a training exercise or to give players match practice. Managers may also use bounce games as an opportunity to observe a player in action before offering a contract. Usually these games are played on a training ground rather than in a stadium with no spectators in attendance.

Boxing.

Exhibition fights were once common in boxing. Jack Dempsey fought many exhibition bouts after retiring. Joe Louis fought a charity fight on his rematch with Buddy Baer, but this was not considered an exhibition as it was for Louis' world Heavyweight title. Muhammad Ali fought many exhibitions, including one with Lyle Alzado. In more modern times, Mike Tyson, Julio César Chávez, Jorge Castro, Óscar de la Hoya and Floyd Mayweather Jr. have been involved in exhibition fights.  Although not fought for profit, amateur bouts (usually) and sparring sessions are not considered to be exhibition fights.

Ice hockey.

Prior to the 1917–18 NHL season, an exhibition game was played on December 15, between the Montreal Canadiens and the Montreal Wanderers. The game was played as a benefit to aid victims of the Halifax explosion.  Under the 1995–2004 National Hockey League collective bargaining agreement, teams were limited to nine preseason games. From 1975 to 1991, NHL teams sometimes played exhibition games against teams from the Soviet Union in the Super Series, and in 1978, played against World Hockey Association teams also in preseason training. Like the NFL, the NHL sometimes schedules exhibition games for cities without their own NHL teams, often at a club's minor league affiliate (e.g. Carolina Hurricanes games at Time Warner Cable Arena in Charlotte, North Carolina, home of their AHL affiliate the Charlotte Checkers; Los Angeles Kings games at Citizens Business Bank Arena in Ontario, California, home of their AHL affiliate the Ontario Reign; Montreal Canadiens games at Colisée Pepsi in Quebec City, which has no pro hockey but used to have an NHL team until 1995; Washington Capitals at 1st Mariner Arena in the Baltimore Hockey Classic; Buffalo Sabres at Pegula Ice Arena on the campus of owner Terrence Pegula's "alma mater" Penn State University; various Western Canada teams at Credit Union Centre in Saskatoon, a potential NHL expansion venue). Today, all teams must play six, seven, or eight preseason games. Each preseason game must have at least eight veterans dressed, except during the World Cup of Hockey. In the 1994–95 season and the 2012–13 season, no preseason games were played due to lockouts.  Since the 2000s, some preseason games have been played in Europe against European teams, as part of the NHL Challenge and NHL Premiere series. In addition to the standard preseason, there also exist prospect tournaments such as the Vancouver Canucks' YoungStars tournament and the Detroit Red Wings' training camp, in which NHL teams' younger prospects face off against each other under their parent club's banner.  In 1992, goaltender Manon Rhéaume played in a preseason game for the Tampa Bay Lightning, becoming the first woman to suit up for an all-male pro sports team in North America.  The Flying Fathers, a Canadian group of Catholic priests, regularly toured North America playing exhibition hockey games for charity. One of the organization's founders, Les Costello, was a onetime NHL player who was ordained as a priest after retiring from professional hockey. Another prominent exhibition hockey team is the Buffalo Sabres Alumni Hockey Team, which is composed almost entirely of retired NHL players, the majority of whom (as the name suggests) played at least a portion of their career for the Buffalo Sabres.  American college hockey teams occasionally play exhibition games against Canadian college teams as well as against USA or Canadian national teams. (In men's hockey, the senior national teams are selected from NHL and other pro players, and college teams would be overmatched against those teams even if they were allowed to play them. However, the national under-18 teams are made up of amateurs, allowing college squads to play them.)

Baseball.

The Major League Baseball's preseason is also known as spring training. All MLB teams maintain a spring-training base in Arizona or Florida. The teams in Arizona make up the Cactus League, while the teams in Florida play in the Grapefruit League. Each team plays about 30 preseason games against other MLB teams. They may also play exhibitions against a local college team or a minor-league team from their farm system. Some days feature the team playing two games with two different rosters evenly divided up, which are known as "split-squad" games.  Several MLB teams used to play regular exhibition games during the year against nearby teams in the other major league, but regular-season interleague play has made such games unnecessary. The two Canadian MLB teams, the Toronto Blue Jays of the American League and the Montreal Expos of the National League, met annually to contest the Pearson Cup; this tradition ended when the Expos moved to Washington DC for the 2005 season. Similarly, the New York Yankees played in the Mayor's Trophy Game against various local rivals from 1946 to 1983.  It also used to be commonplace to have a team play an exhibition against Minor League affiliates during the regular season, but worries of injuries to players, along with travel issues, have made this very rare. Exhibitions between inter-city teams in different leagues, like Chicago's Crosstown Classic and New York's Subway Series which used to be played solely as exhibitions for bragging rights are now blended into interleague play. The annual MLB All-Star Game, played in July between players from AL teams and players from NL teams, had long been considered an exhibition match, though between 2003 and 2016 this status was questioned because the league whose team won the All-Star game has been awarded home field advantage for the upcoming World Series (prior to 2003 the leagues alternated which one of them had home field advantage; starting in 2017 the team with the better regular season record would be given home field advantage).  Another exhibition game, the Hall of Fame Game/Classic which was played in Cooperstown, New York on the weekend of inductions to the Baseball Hall of Fame, was also ended in 2008 due to interleague play and teams playing only substitutes.

Basketball.

Professional basketball.

National Basketball Association teams usually play eight preseason games per year, with the number rarely being lower than seven. Today, NBA teams almost always play each other in the preseason but often at neutral sites within their market areas in order to allow those who can't usually make a trip to a home team's arena during the regular season to see a game close to home; for instance, the Minnesota Timberwolves will play games in arenas in North and South Dakota, while the Phoenix Suns schedule one exhibition game outdoors at Indian Wells Tennis Garden in Indian Wells, California, yearly, the only such instance an NBA game takes place in an outdoor venue. Exhibition games have been also been held on occasion outside the US and Canada.  However, from 1971 to 1975, NBA teams played preseason exhibitions against American Basketball Association teams. In the early days of the NBA, league clubs sometimes challenged the legendary barnstorming Harlem Globetrotters, with mixed success. The NBA has played preseason games in Europe and Asia. Beginning in 2015, the league has scheduled NBA Africa Games with players of direct African descent against players from the rest of the league; the NBA has also played against teams in Australia's National Basketball League. In the 2006 and 2007 seasons, the NBA and the primary European club competition, the Euroleague, conducted a preseason tournament featuring two NBA teams and the finalists from that year's Euroleague. In the 1998–99 and 2011–12 seasons, teams were limited to only two preseason games due to lockouts.  The annual NBA All-Star Game is an exhibition game.  Women's National Basketball Association teams play up to three preseasons games per year. WNBA teams will play each other and will also play women's national basketball teams. Most years, the WNBA also stages an All-Star Game, but this game is canceled if pre-empted by major international competitions such as the Olympic Games.

College basketball.

Traditionally, major college basketball teams began their seasons with a few exhibition games. They played traveling teams made up of former college players on teams such as Athletes in Action or a team sponsored by Marathon Petroleum. On occasion before 1992, when FIBA allowed professional players on foreign national teams, colleges played those teams in exhibitions. However, in 2003, the National Collegiate Athletic Association banned games with non-college teams. Some teams have begun scheduling exhibition games against teams in NCAA Division II and NCAA Division III, or even against colleges and universities located in Canada. Major college basketball teams still travel to other countries during the summer to play in exhibition games, although a college team is allowed only one foreign tour every four years and a maximum of ten games in each tour.

American football.

Professional football.

The National Football League teams play four preseason games a year, two at home and two away, with the exception of two teams each year who play a fifth game, the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game. These exhibition games, most of which are held in the month of August, are played for the purpose of helping coaches narrow down the roster from the offseason limit of 90 players to the regular-season limit of 53 players. While the scheduling formula is not as rigid for preseason games as they are for the regular season, there are numerous restrictions and traditions that limit the choices of preseason opponents; teams are also restricted on what days and times they can play these games. Split-squad games, a practice common in baseball and hockey, where a team that is scheduled to play two games on the same day splits their team into two squads, are prohibited.  The NFL has played exhibition games in Europe, Japan, Canada, Australia (including the American Bowl in 1999) and Mexico to spread the league's popularity (a game of this type was proposed for China but, due to financial and logistical problems, was eventually canceled). The league has tacitly forbidden the playing of non-league opponents, with the last interleague game having come in 1972 and the last game against a team other than an NFL team (the all-NFL rookie College All-Stars) was held in 1976.  Exhibition games are quite unpopular with many fans, who resent having to pay regular-season prices for two home exhibition games as part of a season-ticket package. Numerous lawsuits have been brought by fans and classes of fans against the NFL or its member teams regarding this practice, but none have been successful in halting it. The Pro Bowl, traditionally played after the end of the NFL season (since 2011 played the week prior to the Super Bowl), is also considered an exhibition game. The Arena Football League briefly had a two-game exhibition season in the early 2000s, a practice that ended in 2003 with a new television contract. Exhibition games outside of a structured season are relatively common among indoor American football leagues; because teams switch leagues frequently at that level of play, it is not uncommon to see some of the smaller leagues schedule exhibition games against teams that are from another league, about to join the league as a probational franchise, or a semi-pro outdoor team to fill holes in a schedule.

College and high school football.

Many college football teams, particularly larger organizations, play a public intramural exhibition game in the spring mainly to promote the team and give new recruits an early chance at public game action. Many of these intramural games are nationally televised, though not to the same level of prominence as intercollegiate play. In college sports the commonly used term for the major scrimmage at the end of spring practice is the "Spring Game."  True exhibition games between opposing colleges at the highest level do not exist in college football; due to the importance of opinion polling in the top level of college football, even exhibition games would not truly be exhibitions because they could influence the opinions of those polled. Intramural games are possible because a team playing against itself leaves little ability for poll participants to make judgments, and at levels below the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), championships are decided by objective formulas and thus those teams can play non-league games without affecting their playoff hopes.  High school football teams frequently participate in controlled scrimmages with other teams during preseason practice, but full exhibition games are rare because of league rules and concerns about finances, travel and player injuries, along with enrollments not being registered until the early part of August in most school districts under the traditional September–June academic term. Some states hold preseason events known as "jamborees" in which several pairs of high school football squads take turns playing one half (usually 24 minutes of game time) to give players some experience before the first official game. Another high school football exhibition contest is the all-star game, which usually brings together top players from a region. These games are typically played by graduating seniors after the regular season or in the summer. Many of these games, which include the U.S. Army All-American Bowl and Under Armour All-America Game, are used as showcases for players to be seen by colleges and increase their college recruiting profile.

Canadian football.

Teams in the Canadian Football League play two exhibition games each year, in June. Exhibition games in the CFL have taken on great importance to coaching staff and players alike in that they are used as a final stage of training camp and regular season rosters are finalized after the exhibition games, which are generally referred to as "pre-season" play.

Rugby union.

During the amateur era, there was only a limited number of rugby union competitions between national teams. Therefore, matches between national teams are never considered "exhibitions" or "friendlies," as they always have Test match status.  National teams sometimes play exhibition matches versus invitational teams like the Barbarian F.C. and Barbarian Rugby Club. Also, rugby union clubs sometimes play preseason matches.

Australian rules football.

Australian rules football has been introduced to a wide range of places around Australia and the world since the code originated in Victoria in 1859. Much of this expansion can be directly attributed to exhibition matches by the major leagues in regions and countries where the code has been played as a demonstration sport.

Auto racing.

Various auto racing organizations hold exhibition events; these events usually award no championship points to participants, but they do offer prize money to participants. The NASCAR Cup Series holds two exhibition events annually – the Advance Auto Parts Clash, held at Daytona International Speedway at the start of the season, and the All-Star Race, held at Charlotte Motor Speedway midway through the season. Both events carry a hefty purse of over US$1,000,000. NASCAR has also held exhibition races at Suzuka Circuit and Twin Ring Motegi in Japan and Calder Park Thunderdome in Australia.  Other historical examples of non-championship races include the Marlboro Challenge in IndyCar racing and the TOCA Touring Car Shootout in the British Touring Car Championship. Until the mid-1980s there were a significant number of non-championship Formula One races.  The National Hot Rod Association Pro Stock teams will have a preseason drag meet held before the traditional start in Pomona. The Pro Stock Showdown is a preseason drag meet held for the Pro Stock teams held at The Strip at Las Vegas Motor Speedway.

An exhibition game (also known as a friendly, a scrimmage, a demonstration, a preseason game, a warmup match, or a preparation match, depending at least in part on the sport) is a sporting event whose prize money and impact on the player's or the team's rankings is either zero or otherwise greatly reduced. In team sports, matches of this type are often used to help coaches and managers select and condition players for the competitive matches of a league season or tournament. If the players usually play in different teams in other leagues, exhibition games offer an opportunity for the players to learn to work with each other. The games can be held between separate teams or between parts of the same team.

Přátelské utkání (také známé jako přípravné utkání či exhibice) je sportovní událost, kde většinou nejsou stanoveny odměny za vítězství, dopad na hráče či tým a jejich postavení v žebříčku je buď nulový, nebo značně snížený (např. se nepočítají žluté a červené karty). V kolektivních sportech jsou zápasy tohoto typu často využívány trenéry a manažery k výběru sestavy a hráčů dle jejich aktuální formy a sehranosti. Pokud hráči hrají v různých ligových soutěžích, přátelské utkání jim umožňuje sehrát se s týmovými kolegy např. pro utkání na mezinárodní úrovni nebo turnaje a poháry. Přátelská utkání mohou být konána mezi jednotlivými týmy, nebo i mezi částmi stejného týmu, např. A týmem a B týmem, či juniorským týmem. Přátelská utkání jsou typickou přípravou např. ve fotbale během zimní či letní přestávky.


Premise.

Set in Chicago, "Chicago Justice" is the fourth series in Dick Wolf's "Chicago" franchise. It follows the State's Attorney team of prosecutors and investigators who work to bring justice to victims.

Production.

Development.

The show was confirmed on January 21 during the 2016 Television Critics Association winter press tour, with the working title "Chicago Law". By March 11, the title was changed to "Chicago Justice". Filming began on March 28 for the backdoor pilot that aired on May 11 as the 21st episode of the third season of "Chicago P.D." The pilot is partially based on historical events and is based on a true story. On May 12, 2016, a day after the backdoor pilot aired on "Chicago P.D.", NBC gave the show a series order. The series premiered on March 1, 2017, concluding a crossover with "Chicago Fire" and "Chicago P.D." It then ran in its scheduled time slot beginning March 5, 2017.

Casting.

Philip Winchester was the first to be cast on February 19, 2016, as Peter Stone, the prosecutor who put Voight in prison years ago. His father is Benjamin Stone, an assistant district attorney on the first four seasons of "Law & Order". Nazneen Contractor joined the series on March 11, 2016, and Joelle Carter on March 14, 2016. "Rocky" alum Carl Weathers joined the cast on March 19 as Cook County State's Attorney Mark Jefferies, while Ryan-James Hatanaka was added to the cast on March 24. Lorraine Toussaint reprised her role in the pilot as defense attorney Shambala Green, who appeared in seven episodes of "Law & Order". Contractor exited the show on July 7, 2016, to join the cast of the CBS police procedural drama "Ransom". On August 25, 2016, Monica Barbaro was added to the cast. On September 28, it was reported that Jon Seda's character Antonio Dawson would move from "P.D." to "Justice", where Antonio would become an investigator for the State's Attorney's office. With this move, Hatanaka departed the series. Richard Brooks reprised his "Law & Order" role of Paul Robinette in the episode "Uncertainty Principle". Tovah Feldshuh appeared on the premiere episode as her "Law & Order" character Danielle Melnick who has become a judge.

Reception.

Critical response.

The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 70% approval rating, with an average rating of 5.21 out of 10 based on 10 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads: ""Chicago Justice"'s first season won't sway procedural nonbelievers, but for fans of the franchise, it marks another solid entry that should satisfy faithful viewers and newcomers alike." On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the show scored 57 out of 100, based on 9 critics, indicating generally "mixed or average reviews".

Home media.

The DVD release of season one was released in Region 1 on September 12, 2017.

Chicago Justice is an American legal drama television series that aired on NBC from March 1 to May 14, 2017. The series was created by Dick Wolf and is the fourth installment of Wolf's "Chicago" franchise. A backdoor pilot aired on May 11, 2016 as part of the third season of "Chicago P.D." before being ordered to series. The show follows the prosecutors and investigators at the Cook County State's Attorney's Office as they navigate their way through Chicago area politics, the legal arena, and media coverage while pursuing justice.

Chicago Justice je americký seriál, který měl premiéru 5. března 2017 na stanici NBC. Jeho tvůrcem je Dick Wolf. Je spin-offem seriálu "Chicago P.D." a již čtvrtým seriálem z franšízy, odehrávající se ve městě Chicago.


Description.

The blue-ringed species are known for their small size, yet the southern variety is hailed as the largest of the genus. As a result, they have been classified as their own species. From arm to arm, most of these octopuses are no larger than 20 centimeters. This is larger by roughly 5 centimeters on average with other varieties of the blue-ringed octopus. When at peace, their coloring is often a drab, mucus like color. However, once it feels sufficiently threatened, the eponymous blue-rings suddenly appear. These octopuses have an average of about 60 rings that have multilayer reflectors that allow them to flash a blue green color. These rings typically appear about 6 weeks after hatching (Mäthger et al.). For the rings to illuminate and glow, the muscles around the rings must contract while the muscles above them must relax (Mäthger et al.). This method of muscle contraction and relaxation has not been seen in other illuminating animals (Mäthger et al.)

Nomenclature.

Like other species of the blue-ringed octopus, this variety is named for the vibrant blue rings that it displays when agitated.

Range and habitat.

Found along the southern coasts of Australia, "H. maculosa" inhabits crevasses and cracks in the rocky reefs signature to this section of the Australian coast. In addition, the octopus enjoys a proximity to the plentiful forests of seagrass.

Behavior.

Despite their highly toxic venom, southern blue-ringed octopuses tend to be passive and relatively harmless unless provoked. They generally only use their toxins when hunting or when provoked. These creatures are nocturnal, primarily active at night. They can jet out water to move more efficiently as well. In addition, it was found that southern blue-ringed octopuses have at least slightly more acute olfaction (smell) sense which may affect choice in mate (see Breeding, below). Burrowing is also normal of this species.

Diet.

The prey of "H. maculosa" consists mostly of lobsters, crabs, shrimp, and shellfish, as well as the occasional small fish. "H. maculosa" makes use of its venom for feeding purposes. It pins down and injects it through its beak. This totally paralyzes its prey, often killing it outright. This readies it for feeding. Another tactic it uses to hunt is releasing its venom as a mist into a location where its prey is commonly found. Their prey swim into the venom and become paralyzed, allowing for an attack.

Life span and reproduction.

"H. maculosa" has a very short life span with a large importance placed on reproduction. The average life span of a southern blue ringed octopus is around seven months. The octopus reaches sexual maturity at around four months old, at which time it focuses its last few months of life towards copulation and breeding. Both genders of this species are promiscuous, as they only have a limited set of gametes. The mating ritual of H. maculosa usually begins with the female initiating reproduction by changing color and posture. The male then mounts the female, inserts the hectocotylus under the mantle of the female, and releases the sperm into the female’s oviduct. For this type of octopus, there is approximately a two-month window in which a female acquires and stores sperm from multiple males. She then carries the eggs with her, as opposed to depositing them somewhere stationary. During this time period, the mother rarely moves unless disturbed. When she is forced to move, she uses only two arms for locomotion. The female also does not eat during this time period. Because of this, the mother dies shortly after the eggs have hatched. It is highly unlikely that the male or female would live beyond one year. This unusual octopus maternal care system seems to be an advanced evolutionary development of the species. While this may seem strange, females only reproduce once in their lifetime, so it is vital to them that their egg clutch survives. Once hatched, the H. maculosa grow very rapidly. The southern blue-ringed octopus also differs from other marine invertebrates in that there is no planktonic stage. The young begin hunting around one month of age- they are said to be venomous from birth, while their blue rings don’t appear until six weeks after hatching. It was found in a study by Morse and Zenger that as size of the octopus increased, so too did willingness to mate. Same-sex attempts at mating were frequently noted, which implies distinguishing between male and female is difficult even for the octopus. It is also possible females use some form of refined sense of smell to single out attractive mates.

Mate and paternity choice.

Many studies have been done on how southern blue-ringed octopuses choose their mates and if females can choose the sperm used to fertilize her eggs (Morse et al., 2018). Researchers have been interested in this topic specifically because the female can only reproduce once in her lifetime and because she can store the sperm of her many mates (Oceana). Researchers have hypothesized that there may be cryptic female choice or sperm competition (Morse et al., 2018). In the paper, Mating Behavior and Postcopulatory Fertilization Patterns in the Southern Blue-Ringed Octopus Hapalochlaena Maculosa, the authors study did not find that females choose the male sperm that will fertilize their eggs, though the "male that obtained less paternity than expected was in fact the female's full-sibling brother (Morse et al.)." Although this study did not find female selection of sperm, a separate study did find that females are picky about who they mate with. In the paper, Nocturnal Mating Behaviour and Dynamic Male Investment of Copulation Time in the Southern Blue-Ringed octopus, Hapalochlaena Maculosa (Cephalopoda: Octopodidae), Morse et al., found that females were more willing to mate with males that were larger and males that were larger attempted to mate more than smaller males. The same study also found that males would spend less time mating with females that they had already mated with.

Venom.

What makes this octopus famous is its venom. Saliva glands of the southern blue-ringed octopus produce the deadly neurotoxin, maculotoxin. The Neurotoxin, TTX, is secreted in the posterior salivary gland, which is located in the intestinal blood system of the octopus. This may provide the toxin into its bloodstream. The toxin has also been found in the eggs of this octopus. The method of poisoning is still not fully understood, but it is assumed that H. maculosa either inject the toxin into the water surrounding their prey through their saliva mixed with the toxin, or they directly bite their prey or predator with the beak-like mouth. It is fatal to humans. Various references in popular culture depict the southern blue-ringed octopus as a nefarious seadevil lying in wait to attack humans with its deadly toxins. In actuality, the venom is primarily used in hunting or for defense. There are no reported cases of unprovoked aggression towards humans. No antivenom exists.

Conservation.

There are currently no known conservation efforts for the southern blue-ringed octopus. This being said, it is likely that H. maculosa play an important role in their ecosystem, perhaps by controlling crustacean populations, so any efforts to conserve this species would be expected to benefit other species in the same habitat. It is also suggested that because the dispersal ability of H. maculosa is limited, connectivity between different populations of the species is especially vulnerable to habitat fragmentation or geographic barriers.

The southern blue-ringed octopus ("Hapalochlaena maculosa") is one of three (or perhaps four) highly venomous species of blue-ringed octopuses. It is most commonly found in tidal rock pools along the south coast of Australia. As an adult, it can grow up to long (top of the mantle to the tip of the arms) and on average weighs. They are normally a docile species, but they are highly venomous, possessing venom capable of killing humans. Their blue rings appear with greater intensity when they become aggravated or threatened.

Chobotnice skvrnitá ("Hapalochlaena maculosa") je druh chobotnice patřící do čeledi chobotnicovití (Octopodidae) a rodu "Hapalochlaena". Vyskytuje se ve vodách jižní Austrálie. Mezi chobotnicemi je malým druhem, měřícím okolo 20 cm. Zbarvení má tmavohnědé až tmavožluté s nahnědlými skvrnami, je-li chobotnice podrážděná, skvrny ztmavnou a uvnitř se objeví jasně modré kruhy či kruhovité obrazce, které navíc mohou působit pulzujícím dojmem. Jedná se o formu aposematismu, tedy upozornění živočichů v okolí na její jedovatost. Bakterie v zadních slinných žlázách chobotnice produkují tetrodotoxin a další jedy paralyzující činnost svalů. Otrava může nastat jak při kousnutí, tak i při případné konzumaci, protože jedovaté mohou být i další tkáně. Otrava je smrtelná i pro člověka.


Digital systems.

Word processing and desktop publishing programs for personal computers such as—Microsoft Word, Microsoft Publisher, WordPerfect, QuarkXPress, Adobe InDesign, Adobe FrameMaker, Adobe Illustrator, and Adobe Photoshop—use differing methods of adjusting letter-spacing. What is common to most systems is that the default letter-spacing is zero, using the character widths and kerning information built into the font itself.  Although digital type sets tighter on average than metal type, this results primarily from the more ready availability of kerning, rather than any design choice inherent in the technology. However, digital type does allow for negative sidebearings, which were uncommon in metal type due to the difficulty in cutting a "kern" in the original sense.  In the days of machine-implemented lead typesetting, such as Linotype machines and the Monotype System, letter-spacing had to be uniform. In modern digital page-layout software, high-end applications all use relative measurements proportional to the size of the type. QuarkXPress uses units of 1/200 of an em, and the competing Adobe InDesign uses 1/1000 of an em. Thus, in QuarkXPress a tracking setting of 3 opens text noticeably, while in InDesign a tracking setting of 3 is barely noticeable.

Legibility.

The amount of letter-spacing in text affects legibility. Tight letter-spacing, especially in small text sizes, can diminish legibility. The addition of minimal letter-spacing can often increase the legibility and readability. Adding whitespace around the characters allows the individual characters to emerge and be recognized more quickly. Adding too much space, however, may isolate individual letters and make it harder for the reader to perceive whole words and phrases, which reduces readability.  Wide letter-spacing, beyond relaxed book composition, can look affected and earned the opprobrium of Frederic Goudy: "Men who would letterspace blackletter would shag sheep." When quoted, "shag" is often bowdlerised as "steal". Goudy's pronouncement inspired the title of "Stop Stealing Sheep", an introduction to typography that Spiekermann co-authored.  In the days of hot metal typesetting, "letter-spacing" required adding horizontal space between letters of words set in metal type, in increments of a minimum of 1⁄2 point. Some publishers and typesetters avoided letter-spacing because it was costly in materials and labor. Letter-spacing required by-hand insertion of copper (1⁄2 pt.), brass (1 pt.), and printer's "lead" (2 pt.) spaces between individual pieces of type or between matrices. Despite the cost, letter-spacing was used in print advertising and book publishing. It was also used for very short phrases set in capital letters or small caps, to avoid the phrases appearing too black compared to the rest of the page.

Letter-spacing with fixed spaces.

Letter-spacing may also refer to the insertion of fixed spaces, as was commonly done in hand-set metal type to achieve letter-spacing. This is a more mechanical method which relies less upon spacing and kerning tables resident in each typeface and accessed and used when letterspacing is applied universally. Fixed spaces include a hair space, thin space, wordspace, en-space, and em-space. An en-space is equal to half the current point size, and an em-space is the same width as the current point size.

Changing the kerning perception.

A visually pleasing result, even with no "kerning control", can be achieved with some control of the space between letters.  Example on webpages: with CSS1, a standard of 1996, the letter-spacing property (illustrated) offer some control for "lost" or "enhance" "kerning perception"—kerning can be simulated with non-uniform spacing between letters. Only with the standard CSS3, font-kerning property arrives with a complete control of kerning. In the meantime the web-designers used the workaround of letter-spacing, mainly to enhance spaced-texts of titles and banners.

In typography, letter-spacing, also referred to as tracking by typographers, refers to an optically consistent degree of increase (or sometimes decrease) of space between letters to affect visual density in a line or block of text.

Prostrkání (prostrkaně p r o s t r k á n í nebo lépe prostrkání) je způsob vyznačení textu, který se používal zejména v době psacích strojů, které neuměly psát polotučné nebo kurzivní varianty písmen. Spočívá ve zvětšení mezipísmenných mezer (na psacím stroji ovšem vložení celé mezery). Používat tuto metodu se dnes nedoporučuje (přesto se s ní často setkáváme i v oficiálních dokumentech Úřadu vlády ČR např. v podobě kombinovaného ztučnění a prostrkání mezerami); pokud je to však nezbytné (např. ve slovnících apod. tiskovinách, kde je třeba mnoha typů vyznačování), platí pro prostrkávání přesná pravidla. Pro prostrkání je třeba užít speciální funkce, nelze prostrkávat mezerami: to způsobí potíže při formátování textu, při fulltextovém vyhledávání atd.


History.

Piast Poland.

Chojnice was founded around 1205 (although the date is considered to be estimate) in Gdańsk Pomerania (Pomeralia), a duchy ruled at the time by the Samborides, who had originally been appointed governors of the province by Bolesław III Wrymouth of Poland. Gdańsk Pomerania had been part of Poland since the 10th century, with few episodes of autonomy, yet under Swietopelk II, who came into power in 1217, it gained independence in 1227. The duchy extended roughly from the river Vistula in the east, to the rivers Łeba or Grabowa in the west, and from the rivers Noteć and Brda in the south-west and south, to the Baltic Sea in the north. By 1282 the duchy had returned to Poland.  The town's name is Polish in origin and comes from the name of the river Chojnica (today named Jarcewska Struga) that was located near the town. The name first appears in written documents in 1275.

State of the Teutonic Order (1309–1466).

In 1309 the Teutonic Knights took over the town, and Chojnice became part of the State of the Teutonic Order. Under Winrich von Kniprode the defensive capabilities and inner structures of the town were improved considerably. Around the middle of the 14th century the stone church of St. John was built. At the same time the Augustinians from the town of Stargard in Pomerania settled in the town; they opened their monastery in 1365. Textile production flourished, and between 1417-1436 Konitz became an important centre for textile production.  During the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War, in 1410, the town was briefly occupied by Polish troops. On 18 September 1454 the Polish army of King Casimir IV Jagiellon lost the Battle of Chojnice. Shortly before the end of the Thirteen Years' War the troops of the Teutonic Order, led by Captain Kaspar Nostiz von Bethes, surrendered the town in 1466 to the Polish army, after a three-month siege.

Kingdom of Poland (1466–1772).

After the 2nd Treaty of Thorn Chojnice became part of Poland in 1466. In the same year the city council accepted the Protestant reformation officially, and Protestants took over the parish church. The Roman Catholic priest Jan Siński died in the following turmoil. In 1620 the first Jesuits came into the town and began the Counter Reformation. In the year 1627 a fire destroyed parts of the town. During the Second Northern War (against Sweden, 1655–1660) the Battle of Chojnice (1656) was fought. The town suffered heavily from the siege, plundering and fire, especially in 1657. A large fire destroyed the town again in 1742.

Prussia (1772–1871) and German Empire (1871–1920).

After the first partition of Poland the town became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1772. In 1864 a telegraph connection to Stettin began operation. In 1868 the town was connected to the railway network. This improved industrial development quite considerably. In 1870 a gas power plant was installed. The town was connected in 1873 by the railway to Dirschau (Tczew) and in 1877 by railway to Stettin. In 1886 a new hospital was built in the town. A new railway line to Nakel (Nakło) was opened in 1894. In the year of 1900 the town obtained both a water supply system and an electricity power plant. In 1902 a railway line to Berent (Kościerzyna) was opened. During the time span 1900–1902 the Konitz ritual murder case & antisemitic pogrom took place. In 1909 a sewage system was installed in the town. In 1912 the "Gazeta Chojnicka", the first Polish language newspaper, appeared in the town.

Poland (1920–1939).

After the regulations of the Treaty of Versailles had become effective in 1920, Chojnice together with 62% of West Prussia was integrated into the Second Polish Republic, and Polish troops entered the town. In 1932 a regional museum was opened in Chojnice. Chojnice experienced the heaviest Germanization in the Prussian partition of Poland. A local citizen, Barbara Stammowa, symbolically broke shackles on the balcony of city town hall - in revenge Nazis murdered her in 1939 when the town was re-occupied by Germany.

World War II and Nazi occupation (1939–1945).

During the Nazi invasion of Poland Wehrmacht troops occupied Chojnice on September 1, 1939, in the morning at 4:45 o'clock. This invasion gave rise to the Battle of Chojnice.  From the beginning of the German occupation, German militiamen attack their Jewish and Polish neighbors. On 26 September 1939 forty people were shot, followed by a priest and 208 psychiatric patients. From late October 1939 through early 1940, mass executions were conducted by SS and Police as part of an "action against the intelligentsia". In total, by January 1940 900 Poles and Jews from Chojnice and its surrounding villages were killed.  Hans Kruger - a Nazi activist - became a judge in Chojnice, and during his rule executions of the local population followed

Chojnice since 1945.

In February 1945 the Red Army captured the town. During the fighting about 800 soldiers died, and the town centre was heavily damaged. After the end of World War II Polish authorities began the reconstruction of the city.  In 2002 a new, modern hospital was opened on the north-west outskirts of the town.

Attractions.

The Museum of History and Ethnography in Chojnice opened in 1932. It was damaged during World War II and reopened in 1960.  The town also has a number of medieval and early modern buildings, including several churches. One of the most prominent of those is the.

Population.

The population of Chojnice has increased generally since the 18th century. However World War I and World War II, reduced the town's population. When the regulations of the Treaty of Versailles became effective in 1920, many Germans left the town. The influence of World War II is evident in the 1948 census showing that the population was reduced by 1,900 people compared to 1933. After World War II Germans inhabitants either fled or were expelled from the city.

Geography.

Climate.

Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "". (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).

Sport.

Chojniczanka Chojnice is based in the town.

International relations.

Chojnice is twinned with:

External links.

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Chojnice (; Kashubian/Pomeranian: "Chònice"; ) is a town in northern Poland with approximately 40,447 inhabitants (2011), near the Tuchola Forest. It is the capital of the Chojnice County.

Chojnice (německy "Konitz", kašubsky/pomořansky "Chònice") je město pomořského vojvodství a centrum chojnického okresu ležící v Polsku, přibližně 120 km jihovýchodně od města Gdaňsk. V roce 2016 zde žilo necelých 40 000 obyvatel.


Etymology.

"Kale" originates from Northern Middle English "cale" (compare Scots "kail") for various cabbages. The ultimate origin is Latin "caulis" 'cabbage'.

History.

Kale originated in the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor, where it was cultivated for food beginning by 2000 BC at the latest. Curly-leaved varieties of cabbage already existed along with flat-leaved varieties in Greece in the 4th century BC. These forms, which were referred to by the Romans as Sabellian kale, are considered to be the ancestors of modern kales.  The earliest record of cabbages in western Europe is of hard-heading cabbage in the 13th century. Records in 14th-century England distinguish between hard-heading cabbage and loose-leaf kale.  Russian kale was introduced into Canada, and then into the United States, by Russian traders in the 19th century. USDA botanist David Fairchild is credited with introducing kale (and many other crops) to Americans, having brought it back from Croatia, although Fairchild himself disliked cabbages, including kale. At the time, kale was widely grown in Croatia mostly because it was easy to grow and inexpensive, and could desalinate soil. For most of the twentieth century, kale was primarily used in the United States for decorative purposes; it became more popular as an edible vegetable in the 1990s due to its nutritional value.  During World War II, the cultivation of kale (and other vegetables) in the U.K. was encouraged by the Dig for Victory campaign. The vegetable was easy to grow and provided important nutrients missing from a diet because of rationing.

Cultivation.

Kale is usually an annual plant grown from seed with a wide range of germination temperatures. It is hardy and thrives in wintertime, and can survive in temperatures as low as –15° Celsius. Kale can become sweeter after a heavy frost.

Cultivars.

One may differentiate between kale varieties according to the low, intermediate, or high length of the stem, along with the variety of leaf types. The leaf colours range from light green to green, to dark green and violet-green, to violet-brown.  Classification by leaf type: Because kale can grow well into winter, one variety of "rape kale" is called ""hungry gap"" after the period in winter in traditional agriculture when little else could be harvested. An extra-tall variety is known as "Jersey kale" or "cow cabbage". "Kai-lan" or "Chinese kale" is a cultivar often used in Chinese cuisine. In Portugal, the bumpy-leaved kale is mostly called "couve galega" (Galician kale or Portuguese Cabbage).

Ornamental kale.

Many varieties of kale and cabbage are grown mainly for ornamental leaves that are brilliant white, red, pink, lavender, blue or violet in the interior of the rosette. The different types of ornamental kale are peacock kale, coral prince, kamone coral queen, color up kale and chidori kale. "Ornamental kale" is as edible as any other variety, but potentially not as palatable. Kale leaves are increasingly used as an ingredient for vegetable bouquets and wedding bouquets.

Nutritional value.

Raw kale is composed of 84% water, 9% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 1% fat (table). In a serving, raw kale provides of food energy and a large amount of vitamin K at 3.7 times the Daily Value (DV) (table). It is a rich source (20% or more of the DV) of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin B6, folate, and manganese (see table "Kale, raw"). Kale is a good source (10–19% DV) of thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, vitamin E and several dietary minerals, including iron, calcium, potassium, and phosphorus (see table "Kale, raw"). Boiling raw kale diminishes most of these nutrients, while values for vitamins A, C, and K, and manganese remain substantial (see table "Kale, cooked").

Phytochemicals.

Kale is a source of the carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin (tables). As with broccoli and other cruciferous vegetables, kale contains glucosinolate compounds, such as glucoraphanin, which contributes to the formation of sulforaphane, a compound under preliminary research for its potential to affect human health.  Boiling kale decreases the level of glucosinate compounds, whereas steaming, microwaving or stir frying does not cause significant loss. Kale is high in oxalic acid, the levels of which can be reduced by cooking.  Kale contains high levels of polyphenols, such as ferulic acid, with levels varying due to environmental and genetic factors.

Culinary uses.

As a snack product.

Flavored "kale chips" have been produced as a potato chip substitute.

Regional uses.

Europe.

In the Netherlands, a traditional winter dish called "boerenkoolstamppot" is a mix of curly kale and mashed potatoes, sometimes with fried bacon, and served with rookworst ("smoked sausage").  In Northern Germany, there is a winter tradition known as "Kohlfahrt" ("kale trip"), where a group of people will go on a hike through the woods during the day before gathering at an inn where kale is served, usually with bacon and Kohlwurst ("kale sausage"). Kale is considered a Northern German staple and comfort food.  In Italy, cavolo nero kale is an ingredient of the Tuscan soup ribollita.  A traditional Portuguese soup, "caldo verde", combines pureed potatoes, diced kale, olive oil and salt. Additional ingredients can include broth and sliced, cooked spicy sausage.  In Scotland, kale provided such a base for a traditional diet that the word in some is synonymous with food. To be "off one's kail" is to feel too ill to eat.  In Ireland, kale is mixed with mashed potatoes to make the traditional dish "colcannon". It is popular on Halloween, when it may be served with sausages.

In literature.

The "Kailyard" school of Scottish writers, which included J. M. Barrie (creator of Peter Pan), consisted of authors who wrote about traditional rural Scottish life ("kailyard" = 'kale field'). In Cuthbertson's book "Autumn in Kyle and the charm of Cunninghame", he states that Kilmaurs in East Ayrshire was famous for its kale, which was an important foodstuff. A story is told in which a neighbouring village offered to pay a generous price for some kale seeds, an offer too good to turn down. The locals agreed, but a gentle roasting on a shovel over a coal fire ensured that the seeds never germinated.

Kale (), or leaf cabbage, belongs to a group of cabbage ("Brassica oleracea") cultivars grown for their edible leaves, although some are used as ornamentals. Kale plants have green or purple leaves, and the central leaves do not form a head (as with headed cabbage). Kales are considered to be closer to wild cabbage than most of the many domesticated forms of "Brassica oleracea".

Kapusta kadeřavá je odrůda druhu brukev zelná ("Brassica oleracea"). Jde o dvouletou bylinu pěstovanou jako jednoletka, u které se sklízejí mladé listy a stonky. Nazývá se také kadeřávek neboli jarmuz. Je to listová zelenina s vysokými výnosy zkadeřených nebo i hladkých listů, které mají obdobné využití jako kapusta. Kapusta kadeřavá je nejvíce podobná původnímu planému druhu. Používá se i jako rostlina dekorativní, může mít košťál vysoký až 3 metry.


Growth.

It is a perennial plant with short spreading roots, erect to decumbent stems high, with fine, threadlike, glaucous blue-green leaves long and broad. The flowers are similar to those of the snapdragon, long, pale yellow except for the lower tip which is orange, borne in dense terminal racemes from mid summer to mid autumn. The flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees. The fruit is a globose capsule long and broad, containing numerous small seeds.

Ecology.

The plant is widespread on ruderal spots, along roads, in dunes, and on disturbed and cultivated land.  Because the flower is largely closed by its underlip, pollination requires strong insects such as bees and bumblebees ("Bombus" species).  The plant is food plant for a large number of insects such as the sweet gale moth ("Acronicta euphorbiae"), mouse moth ("Amphipyra tragopoginis"), silver Y ("Autographa gamma"), "Calophasia lunula", gorgone checkerspot ("Charidryas gorgone carlota"), toadflax pug ("Eupithecia linariata"), satyr pug ("Eupithecia satyrata"), "Falseuncaria ruficiliana", bog fritillary ("Boloria eunomia"), "Pyrrhia umbra", brown rustic ("Rusina ferruginea"), and "Stenoptilia bipunctidactyla".  It may be mildly toxic to livestock.

Fossil record.

Seeds of the common toadflax, were identified from the Hoxnian interglacial strata at Clacton. Records have also come from the Weichselian glaciation strata in Essex, Huntingdonshire, Surrey and North Wales. This evidence makes the native status of the plant in Britain quite evident despite the very strong association that it has today with waste places and man-made habitats.

Cultivation and uses.

While most commonly found as a wildflower, toadflax is sometimes cultivated for cut flowers, which are long-lasting in the vase. Like snapdragons ("Antirrhinum"), they are often grown in children's gardens for the "snapping" flowers which can be made to "talk" by squeezing them at the base of the corolla.  The plant requires ample drainage, but is otherwise adaptable to a variety of conditions. It has escaped from cultivation in North America where it is common on roadsides and in poor soils, where it has now naturalized in many U.S. states and Canadian provinces.  Despite its reputation as a weed, like the dandelion, this plant has also been used in folk medicine for a variety of ailments. A tea made from the leaves was taken as a laxative and strong diuretic as well as for jaundice, dropsy, and enteritis with drowsiness. For skin diseases and piles, either a leaf tea or an ointment made from the flowers was used. In addition, a tea made in milk instead of water has been used as an insecticide. It is confirmed to have diuretic and fever-reducing properties.

Other names.

"Linaria acutiloba" Fisch. ex Rchb. is a synonym. Because this plant grows as a weed, it has acquired a large number of local colloquial names, including brideweed, bridewort, butter and eggs (but see "Lotus corniculatus"), butter haycocks, bread and butter, bunny haycocks, bunny mouths, calf's snout, Continental weed, dead men's bones, devil's flax, devil's flower, doggies, dragon bushes, eggs and bacon (but see "Lotus corniculatus"), eggs and butter, false flax, flaxweed, fluellen (but see "Kickxia"), gallweed, gallwort, impudent lawyer, Jacob's ladder (but see "Polemonium"), lion's mouth, monkey flower (but see "Mimulus"), North American ramsted, rabbit flower, rancid, ransted, snapdragon (but see "Antirrhinum"), wild flax, wild snapdragon, wild tobacco (but see "Nicotiana"), yellow rod, yellow toadflax.

Linaria vulgaris (common toadflax, yellow toadflax, or butter-and-eggs) is a species of toadflax ("Linaria"), native from Europe to Siberia and Central Asia. It has also been introduced and is now common in North America.

Lnice květel ("Linaria vulgaris" Mill.) je hojně rozšířená vytrvalá bylina z čeledi jitrocelovité ("Plantaginaceae"), v dřívějších taxonomických systémech před nástupem fylogenetiky řazená do čeledi krtičníkovité.


History.

Early history.

The see was established at Octodurum, now called Martigny, the capital of the Roman province of Alpes Poeninae. The first authentically historical bishop was Saint Theodore/Theodolus (died in 391), who was present at the Council of Aquileia in 381. He founded the Abbey of Saint-Maurice, with a small church in honor of Saint Maurice, martyred there c. 300, when he united the local hermits in a common life, thus beginning the Abbey of Saint-Maurice, the oldest north of the Alps. Theodore rebuilt the church at Sion, which had been destroyed by Emperor Maximinus at the beginning of the 4th century. At first the new diocese was a suffragan of the archdiocese of Vienne; later it became suffragan of Tarentaise.  In 589 the bishop, St. Heliodorus, transferred the see to Sion, leaving the low-lying, flood-prone site of Octodurum, where the Drance joins the Rhone. Though frequently the early bishops were also abbots of Saint-Maurice, the monastic community was jealously watchful that the bishops should not extend their jurisdiction over the abbey. Several of the bishops united both offices: Wilcharius (764-780), previously Archbishop of Vienne, whence he had been driven by the Moors; St. Alteus, who received from the pope a bull of exemption in favor of the monastery (780); Aimo II, son of Count Humbert I of Savoy, who entertained Leo IX at Saint-Maurice in 1049.

The prince-bishops.

About 999, the last king of Upper Burgundy, Rudolph III, granted the Countship of Valais to Bishop Hugo (998-1017); this union of the spiritual and secular powers made the prince-bishop the most powerful ruler in the valley of the Upper Rhone, the region called the Valais. Taking this donation as a basis, the bishops of Sion extended their secular power, and the religious metropolis of the valley became also the political centre. However, the union of the two powers was the cause of violent disputes in the following centuries. For, while the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishop, as Bishop of Sion, extended over the whole valley of the Rhone above Lake Geneva, the Countship of Valais included only the upper part of the valley, reaching to the confluence of the Trient and the Rhone. The attempts of the bishops of Sion to carry their secular power farther down the Rhone were bitterly and successfully opposed by the abbots of Saint-Maurice, who had obtained large possessions in Lower Valais.  The medieval bishops of Sion were generally appointed from the younger sons of noble families of Savoy and Valais and often drew the resources of the see into the feuds of these families. Moreover, the bishops were vigorously opposed, as a matter of principle, by the petty feudal nobles of Valais, each in their fortified castle on rocky heights, seeking to evade the supremacy of the bishop who was at the same time count and prefect of the Holy Roman Empire. Especially in the 14th and 15th centuries, the benefactors in these traditional struggles were often the rich peasant communities of Upper Valais, which were called later the "Sieben Zehnden" (the "seven tithings"), who exacted increasing political rights as the price of support, beginning with the success of the rebellion of 1415–1420. Bishop William IV of Raron (1437-1457) was obliged to relinquish civil and criminal jurisdiction over the "sieben Zehnten" by the Treaty of Naters in 1446, while a revolt of his subjects compelled Bishop Jost of Silinen (1482-1496) to flee from the diocese. In 1428-1447, the Valais witch trials raged through the area.  The bishops of Sion minted their own money from earliest times, possibly from as early as the Carolingian era, and certainly from the 11th century. In the early 17th century, the Seven Tithings began to mint their own coin, which was vigorously opposed by the bishops until they finally had to cede temporal power to the Republic in 1634.  Sion and the district of the Valais were constantly drawn into wider struggles. Walter II of Supersaxo (1457-1482) had taken part in the battles of the Swiss against Charles the Bold of Burgundy and his ally, the Duke of Savoy, and in 1475 they drove the House of Savoy from Lower Valais. Linked to the Old Swiss Confederacy since the 15th century, the Valais region was for long divided between the French party (typified by Georg of Supersaxo) and the Burgundian-Milanese alliance, to which a powerful personage, Cardinal Matthaeus Schiner (1465-1522), bishop of Sion, had thrown his support. Schiner feared French supremacy enough to place the military force of the diocese at the disposal of the pope and in 1510 brought about an alliance for five years between the Swiss Confederacy and the Roman Church, only to end up as one of the biggest losers in the Swiss defeat at Marignano in 1515, in which the bishop fought himself. In return for his support, Julius II made Schiner a cardinal and in 1513 accepted direct control of the see, which gave the Bishops of Sion much of the authority of an archbishop. The defeat at Marignano and the arbitrary rule of his brothers led to a revolt of Schiner's subjects; in 1518 he was obliged to flee the diocese.

The Reformation.

The new doctrines of the Reformation found little acceptance in Valais, although preachers were sent into the canton from Bern, Zurich, and Basel. In 1529 Bishop Adrian I of Riedmatten (1529-1548), the cathedral chapter, and the "sieben Zehnten" formed an alliance with the Catholic cantons of the Confederation, to maintain and protect the Catholic faith against the efforts of the Reformed cantons. On account of this alliance Valais aided in gaining the victory of the Catholics over the followers of Zwingli at Kappel am Albis in 1531; this victory saved the remaining possessions of the Roman Catholic Church in Switzerland. The abbots of Saint-Maurice opposed all religious innovations as energetically as did Bishops Adrian I of Riedmatten, Hildebrand of Riedmatten (1565-1604), and Adrian II of Riedmatten (1604-1613), so that the whole of Valais remained ostensibly Catholic. Both Adrian II and his successor Hildebrand Jost (1613-1638) were again involved in disputes with the "sieben Zehnten" in regard to the exercise of the rights of secular supremacy, which were finally settled in 1630, when the Bishops relinquished their territorial rule.

The impact of the French Revolution.

The secular power of the bishops was brought to an end by the French Revolution. In 1798 Valais, after an heroic struggle against the supremacy of France, was incorporated into the Helvetic Republic, and Bishop John Anthony Blatter (1790-1817) retired to Novara. During the sway of Napoleon Valais was separated from Switzerland in 1802 as the Rhodanic Republic, and in 1810 was annexed by France. Most of the monasteries were suppressed.

The diocese in the 19th century.

In 1814 Valais threw off French supremacy, when the Allies entered the territory; in 1815 it joined Switzerland as one of the cantons. As partial compensation for the loss of his secular power, the bishop received a post of honour in the Diet of the canton and the right to four votes. Disputes often arose as the Constitution of 1815 of the canton gave Upper Valais political predominance in the cantonal government, notwithstanding the fact that its population was smaller than that of Lower Valais. This led in 1840 to a civil war with Lower Valais, where the "Young Swiss" party, hostile to the Church, were in control. The party friendly to the Church conquered, it is true, and the influence of the Church over teaching was, at first, preserved, but on account of the defeat of the Sonderbund, with which Valais had united, a radical Government gained control in 1847. The new administration at once showed itself unfriendly to the Church, secularized many church landed properties, and wrung large sums of money from the bishop and monasteries. When in 1856 the moderate party gained the cantonal election, negotiations were begun with Bishop Peter Joseph von Preux (1843-1875), and friendly relations were restored between the diocese and the canton. In 1880 the two powers came to an agreement as to the lands taken from the Church in 1848; these, so far as they had not been sold, were given back for their original uses.

Recent history.

In modern times the bishop and the government have been on friendly terms, under the Constitution of 1907 that, while it declared the Catholic religion to be the religion of the canton, forbade any union of spiritual and secular functions.

The library of the cathedral chapter.

The library of Sion is known above all for its 120 Medieval codices, dating from the mid-9th century to the late 15th century, some richly illuminated, published by Josef Leisibach and Albert Jörger. The library was in the care of the sacristan of the cathedral chapter of canons. He also was responsible for the security of the treasury. From the 12th century, the chapter was responsible for the Bishop's chancelry and kept the archives; doubtless there was a modest scriptorium. The library was enriched by donations from canons and in the 15th century from bishops: Guillaume VI de Rarogne (1437-1451), Jost de Silenen (1482-1496) and above all Walter Supersaxo (1457-1482) who possessed a rich library of canon law.

The Diocese of Sion (,, ) is a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical territory in the canton of Valais, Switzerland. It is the oldest bishopric in the country and one of the oldest north of the Alps. The history of the Bishops of Sion, of the Abbey of St. Maurice of Valais as a whole are inextricably intertwined.

Diecéze sionská (sittenská) (latinsky: "Dioecesis Sedunensis") je římskokatolická diecéze ve Švýcarsku bezprostředně podřízená Sv. Stolci, která zahrnuje většinu území švýcarského kantonu Valais (Wallis; bez území spadajícího pod správu územního opatství Saint Maurice d'Agaune a bez obce Saint-Gingolph) a Okres Aigle v kantonu Vaud.


Early life.

Randolph was born in Tazewell Hall, Williamsburg, Virginia, to a prominent family. His parents were Sir John Randolph, the son of William Randolph, and Susanna Beverley, the daughter of Peter Beverley; his brother was John Randolph. Peyton Randolph was 16 when his father died.  Randolph attended the College of William & Mary, and later studied law at Middle Temple at the Inns of Court in London, becoming a member of the bar in 1743. He lived his adulthood in Williamsburg.

Political career.

Randolph returned to Williamsburg and was appointed Attorney General of the Colony of Virginia the next year.  He served several terms in the Virginia House of Burgesses, beginning in 1748. It was Randolph's dual roles as attorney general and as burgess that would lead to an extraordinary conflict of interest in 1751.  The new governor, Robert Dinwiddie, had imposed a fee for the certification of land patents, which the House of Burgesses strongly objected to. The House selected Peyton Randolph to represent their cause to Crown authorities in London. In his role as attorney general, though, he was responsible for defending actions taken by the governor. Randolph left for London, over the objections of Governor Dinwiddie, and was replaced for a short time as attorney general by George Wythe. Randolph resumed his post on his return at the behest of Wythe as well as officials in London, who also recommended the Governor drop the new fee.  In 1765, Randolph found himself at odds with a freshman burgess, Patrick Henry, over the matter of a response to the Stamp Act. The House appointed Randolph to draft objections to the act, but his more conservative plan was trumped when Henry obtained passage of five of his seven Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions. This was accomplished at a meeting of the House in which most of the members were absent, and over which Randolph was presiding in the absence of the Speaker.  Randolph resigned as king's attorney (attorney general) in 1766, as fellow Burgesses elected him as their Speaker upon the death of his relative, the powerful Speaker John Robinson. Sitting as the General Court, they also appointed Randolph one of the executors (with George Wythe and Edmund Pendleton) of the former speaker's estate, which was a major financial scandal. As friction between Britain and the colonies progressed, Randolph grew to favor independence. In 1769 the House of Burgesses was dissolved by the Governor, Norborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt, in response to its actions against the Townshend Acts. In 1773, Randolph chaired the Virginia committee of correspondence. The next Governor, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, also dissolved the House of Burgesses in 1774 when it showed solidarity with Boston, Massachusetts, following the Boston Port Act. Afterwards, Randolph chaired meetings of the first of five Virginia Conventions of former House members, principally at a Williamsburg tavern, which worked toward responses to the unwelcome tax measures imposed by the British government. On March 21, 1775, he was president of the Second Virginia Convention in Richmond that debated independence (the site of Patrick Henry's famous "give me liberty" speech). In April, Randolph negotiated with Lord Dunmore for gunpowder removed from the Williamsburg arsenal during the Gunpowder Incident, which was a confrontation between the Governor's forces and Virginia militia, led by Patrick Henry. The House of Burgesses was called back by Lord Dunmore one last time in June 1775 to address British Prime Minister Lord North's Conciliatory Resolution. Randolph, who was a delegate to the Continental Congress, returned to Williamsburg to take his place as Speaker. Randolph indicated that the resolution had not been sent to the Congress (it had instead been sent to each colony individually in an attempt to divide them and bypass the Continental Congress). The House of Burgesses rejected the proposal, which was also later rejected by the Continental Congress. Randolph was thus the last Speaker of the House of Burgesses (their role was replaced by the Virginia Conventions and later the House of Delegates in 1776). Randolph also served as the president of the Third Virginia Convention in July 1775, which as a legislative body elected a Committee of Safety to act as the colony's executive since Lord Dunmore had abandoned the capital and took refuge on a British warship. Edmund Pendleton would succeed Randolph as president of the later conventions.  Virginia selected Randolph as one of its delegates to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1774 and 1775. Fellow delegates elected him their president (Speaker) of both the First Continental Congress (which requested that King George III repeal the Coercive Acts) as well as Second Continental Congress (which extended the Olive Branch Petition as a final attempt at reconciliation). However, Randolph fell ill during each term. Henry Middleton of South Carolina succeeded him as president from his resignation on October 22, 1774, until his return on May 10, 1775. He was again elected President of Congress, but Randolph left for Virginia four days later and was succeeded as President by John Hancock. Randolph returned as a Virginia delegate but suffered a five-hour-long fit of apoplexy and died while dining with Thomas Jefferson in Philadelphia on October 22, 1775.

Death and legacy.

His remains were returned to Williamsburg and were interred at the chapel of the College of William and Mary. Because the Continental Congress assumed governmental duties for the American colonies as a whole, such as appointing ambassadors, some consider Randolph to have been the first President of the United States, even though he died before the Declaration of Independence.  The Continental Congress honored Randolph by naming one of the first naval frigates as the USS "Randolph", as well by naming a fort at the junction of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers as Fort Randolph.  Randolph County, North Carolina, Randolph, Massachusetts, and Randolph County, Indiana, were named to honor the colonial statesman.  During World War II, the early "Essex"-class aircraft carrier USS "Randolph" (CV-15) was named for him. Furthermore, the Peyton Randolph House in Colonial Williamsburg was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1970.

Peyton Randolph (September 10, 1721 – October 22, 1775) was a planter and public official from the Colony of Virginia. He served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses, president of Virginia Conventions, and the first President of the Continental Congress.

Peyton Randolph (10. září 1721 Williamsburg – 22. října 1775 Filadelfie) byl americký politik a právník, první předseda Kontinentálního kongresu.


Early life.

Parker was born in Fort Jackson, South Carolina. She is the youngest of four children, born to Caroline Louise (née Morell) and John Morgan Parker, a judge who served in the U.S. Army. Her ancestry includes Swedish (from her maternal grandfather), English, Scottish, Irish, German, and Dutch. Because of her father's career, Parker spent parts of her childhood in Tennessee and Texas, as well as in Thailand, Germany, and France. She described her childhood as "profoundly unhappy," further noting that, "My parents did everything they could; I had books, clothes, a home and a warm bed, but I was never happy." She graduated from Marcos de Niza High School in Tempe, Arizona. Parker majored in drama at the University of North Carolina School of the Arts and graduated in 1986.

Acting career.

1980s.

Parker got her start in acting with a role on the soap opera "Ryan's Hope". In the late 1980s, Parker moved to New York. After a few minor roles, she made her Broadway debut in a production of Craig Lucas' "Prelude to a Kiss", playing the lead role of Rita, in 1990. She moved with the production when it transferred from its origin Off-Broadway. Parker won the Clarence Derwent Award for her performance and was nominated for a Tony Award (although she did not play the role when the film was made). In 1989 she was in the film "Longtime Companion", a film starring Campbell Scott, Bruce Davison and Dermot Mulroney about the emergence and devastation of the AIDS epidemic.

1990s.

Parker starred with Kevin Kline in "Grand Canyon" (1991); with Kathy Bates, Mary Stuart Masterson, and Jessica Tandy in "Fried Green Tomatoes" (1991); with Susan Sarandon and Tommy Lee Jones in "The Client" (1994); with John Cusack in "Bullets over Broadway" (1994); and with Drew Barrymore and Whoopi Goldberg in "Boys on the Side" (1995), as a woman with AIDS. Parker's next role was in a movie adaptation of another Craig Lucas play, "Reckless" (1995), alongside Mia Farrow, followed by Jane Campion's "The Portrait of a Lady" (1996), which also starred Nicole Kidman, Viggo Mortensen, Christian Bale, John Malkovich and Barbara Hershey. In addition, she appeared alongside Matthew Modine in Tim Hunter's "The Maker" (1997). Parker's theater career continued when she appeared Off-Broadway in Paula Vogel's 1997 critical smash "How I Learned to Drive", with David Morse. She received the 1997 Lucille Lortel Award, Outstanding Actress, and 1997 Obie Award, Performance for her performance.  In the late 1990s, she appeared in several independent films, including "Let the Devil Wear Black" and "The Five Senses". She starred alongside Sidney Poitier in the 1999 movie "The Simple Life of Noah Dearborn".

2001–2003.

On December 7, 2003, HBO aired a six-and-a-half-hour adaptation of Tony Kushner's acclaimed Broadway play "Angels in America", directed by Mike Nichols. Parker played Harper Pitt, the Mormon, Valium-addicted wife of a closeted lawyer. For her performance, Parker received the Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award, both for Best Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film.

2004–2006.

In 2004, Parker appeared in the comedy "Saved!" and a television film called "Miracle Run", based on the true story of a mother of two sons with autism, as well as appearing in the lead role in Craig Lucas' "Reckless" on Broadway. The production, directed by Mark Brokaw, earned Parker another nomination for a Tony Award for Best Actress in 2005.  In November 2005, Parker was the subject of a career exhibition at Boston University, where memorabilia from her career were donated to the University's library. In 2006, Parker received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy, given by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association, for her lead role in "Weeds". In that category, she defeated the four leads of "Desperate Housewives". She dedicated the award to the late John Spencer, known for his work as Leo McGarry on "The West Wing". After receiving the award, Parker stated: "I'm really in favor of legalizing marijuana. I don't think it's that controversial."

2007 to present.

In March 2007, Parker played the lead role in the television film "The Robber Bride". She then portrayed Zerelda Mimms in the Andrew Dominik film "The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford", which opened in cinemas in September 2007. Parker appeared alongside Brad Pitt, Casey Affleck, Sam Rockwell, and Garret Dillahunt. In August 2007, Parker continued her role in the third season of "Weeds".  Parker appeared in 2008's "The Spiderwick Chronicles" and in Off-Broadway's Playwrights Horizons production in the New York premiere of "Dead Man's Cell Phone", a new play by Sarah Ruhl, alongside Drama Desk Award winner Kathleen Chalfant.  She filmed the Donna Vermeer film "Les Passages" alongside Julie Delpy. Following this, she returned to work on the fifth season of "Weeds". Parker took the lead role in the Roundabout Theatre Broadway revival of the play "Hedda Gabler", running from January through March 29, 2009. The play garnered a series of negative reviews.  Parker starred opposite Bruce Willis in the film "Red", an adaptation of the comic book miniseries of the same name. The film was released on October 15, 2010. In 2011, Parker became the host for the tenth season of the PBS documentary series "Independent Lens". In 2013 she played roles in both "Red 2" and "R.I.P.D." She appeared in the Broadway Manhattan Theatre Club production of the play "The Snow Geese" by Sharr White at the Samuel J. Friedman Theatre from October 24 through December 15, 2013. The play was directed by Daniel J. Sullivan and also starred Danny Burstein and Victoria Clark.  Parker starred in the play by Simon Stephens, "Heisenberg", produced Off-Broadway by the Manhattan Theatre Club. The play, directed by Mark Brokaw, opened on June 2, 2015. The play extended its run, closing on July 11, 2015. The play transferred to Broadway at the Samuel J. Friedman Theatre, with previews starting on September 20, 2016, officially opening on October 13, with Parker and Denis Arndt reprising their roles.  She stars on Broadway in the Adam Rapp play "The Sound Inside" at Studio 54 starting on September 14, 2019 in previews, officially on October 17. She performed in the world premiere of the play in June to July 2018 at the Williamstown Theatre Festival.  She will appear in the Broadway revival by the Manhattan Theatre Club of "How I Learned to Drive", which will open at the Samuel J. Friedman Theatre on March 27, 2020 in previews. David Morse co-stars with direction by Mark Brokaw. This production unites Parker, Morse and Brokaw from the original 1997 production.

Writing career.

Since 2007, Parker has contributed articles to "Esquire" magazine. In November 2015, Scribner Books, an imprint of Simon & Schuster, published her memoir in letters titled "Dear Mr. You."

Personal life.

From 1996 to November 2003, Parker dated actor Billy Crudup. Parker was seven months pregnant with their son, William Atticus Parker, born in 2004, when Crudup ended their relationship by leaving Parker for actress Claire Danes. William's godmother is actress Susan Sarandon.  In December 2006, Parker began dating actor Jeffrey Dean Morgan, whom she met on the set of "Weeds". On February 12, 2008, Parker and Morgan announced their engagement, only to break up the following April.  In September 2007, Parker adopted a baby girl, Caroline Aberash Parker, from Ethiopia.  In 2013, Parker was honored for her work with Hope North, an organization that works in the educating and healing of young victims in Uganda's civil war. The actress began her involvement with the organization after meeting a former victim of Uganda's civil war.  Parker lives in Brooklyn Heights.  Parker practices transcendental meditation. She says: "I'd always heard about Transcendental Meditation, and I thought, maybe that's the way back in for me. I learned TM and it changed everything". She also participates in a charity dinner for veteran victims of post-traumatic stress disorder organized by the David Lynch Foundation with Tom Hanks.

Mary-Louise Parker (born August 2, 1964) is an American actress and writer. After making her stage debut as Rita in a Broadway production of Craig Lucas's "Prelude to a Kiss" in 1990 (for which she received a Tony Award nomination), Parker came to prominence for film roles in "Grand Canyon" (1991), "Fried Green Tomatoes" (1991), "The Client" (1994), "Bullets over Broadway" (1994), "Boys on the Side" (1995), "The Portrait of a Lady" (1996), and "The Maker" (1997). Among stage and independent film appearances thereafter, Parker received the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for her portrayal of Catherine Llewellyn in David Auburn's "Proof" in 2001, among other accolades. Between 2001 and 2006, she recurred as Amy Gardner on the NBC television series "The West Wing", for which she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2002. She received both the Golden Globe and Primetime Emmy Awards for her portrayal of Harper Pitt on the acclaimed HBO television miniseries "Angels in America" in 2003.

Mary-Louise Parkerová (nepřechýleně Mary-Louise Parker; 2. srpna 1962, Fort Jackson, Jižní Karolína, USA) je americká herečka, dvakrát oceněná Zlatým glóbusem. Je známá díky rolím Sarah Rossové v "Red" (2010), i "Red 2" (2013) a jako Nancy Botwinová v seriálu "Tráva" (2005–2012). Za roli v seriálu získala Zlatý glóbus a tři nominace na Cenu Emmy.


Career.

Jean skates in every distance for the Canadian team and is a member of the national short track relay team. He helped the team to a silver at the 2007 World Championships. As well Jean skated to a bronze at the recent 2009 World Championships. Olivier Jean is a member of the Canadian team and relay team in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Jean qualified for the 1500m final on February 13 after judges ruled he was interfered with during his semi-final heat. Jean would go on to finish 4th in the final just missing out on a medal. On February 26, he won a gold medal in the 5000 m relay along with Charles Hamelin, François Hamelin, François-Louis Tremblay and Guillaume Bastille.  At the 2012 World Championships Jean won gold in the 500 m, he followed this with a gold medal in the men's relay final where he skated the anchor leg. He also won his first overall medal at the World Championships when he finished with the bronze.  During the 2011 World Team Championships Jean was the victim of a bizarre sabotage event, when American Simon Cho damaged his skate blade after the United States were already eliminated. This caused the Canadians to be unable to skate for gold, leaving them in the bronze position. The events came to light at an inquiry into the actions of U.S. coach Jae Su Chun in 2012.  At the 2017 World Speed Skating Championships in Gangneung, South Korea Jean won a bronze medal at the mass start event.

2018 Olympics.

Now solely focused on long track speed skating, Jean after finishing in the top 16 in the mass start event at the 2017–18 ISU Speed Skating World Cup, pre-qualified for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea.

Olivier Jean (born March 15, 1984) is a three time Olympian who represented Canada in both short track and long track speed skating. Olivier Jean is a gold medalist from Vancouver 2010 Olympic Games in the men's 5000m relay. Canadian short track speed skater racing internationally from 2002 to 2015 and switched to long track speed skating competing internationally from 2015 to 2018. Olivier competed at his second Olympic Games in Sochi 2014 in short track speed skating, and for his third games switched to long track speed skating competing in the mass start at the 2018 Pyeongchang Olympic Games. He is a well-known figure for his dreadlocks and for listening to reggae, which he says makes him skate faster.

Olivier Jean (* 15. března 1984 Terrebonne, Québec) je kanadský shorttrackař a rychlobruslař. V short tracku závodí ve Světovém poháru od roku 2006. Na světových šampionátech získal několik medailí (včetně čtyř zlatých), především ze závodů štafet na 5000 m a z individuálních startů na trati 500 m. Zúčastnil se Zimních olympijských her 2010, kde s kanadskou štafetou získal zlatou medaili, byl čtvrtý na 1500 m a devátý na 500 m. Na ZOH 2014 dosáhl nejlépe šesté příčky se štafetou, dále byl devátý na 1000 m a třináctý na 500 m.


History.

The position was first established as the Chief Secretary of the North Korea Bureau of the Communist Party of Korea (Korean: 조선공산당 북조선분국 책임비서) on 13 October 1945 during the conference of Communist Party of Korea members in northern Korea. Kim Yong-bom was elected as the first chief secretary. He was succeeded by Kim Il-sung, who was elected as chief secretary on 18 December 1945 at the third enlarged executive committee meeting of the North Korea Bureau of the Communist Party of Korea.  On 28 August 1946, the North Korean Bureau of the Communist Party of Korea and the New People’s Party of Korea were merged to form the Workers’ Party of North Korea during its 1st Congress. The position of Chairman of the Central Committee of the Workers’ Party of North Korea (Korean: 북조선로동당 중앙위원회 위원장) was also created to lead the new party. Kim Tu-bong, the chairman of the New People’s Party of Korea, was elected as the chairman and was re-elected in March 1948 during the 2nd Congress.  On 30 June 1949, the Workers’ Party of North Korea and the Workers’ Party of South Korea merged to form the Workers’ Party of Korea. The position of Chairman of the Central Committee of the Workers’ Party of Korea (Korean: 조선로동당 중앙위원회 위원장) was also created. Kim Il-sung, who was a vice chairman of the WPNK central committee, was elected as chairman and was re-elected in April 1956 during the 3rd WPK Congress and in September 1961 during the 4th WPK Congress.  On 12 October 1966, the position of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Workers’ Party of Korea (Korean: 조선로동당 중앙위원회 총비서) was created at the 14th plenary meeting of the 4th WPK Central Committee. Kim Il-sung was elected by the meeting as general secretary and was re-elected in November 1970 at the 5th WPK Congress and in October 1980 at the 6th WPK Congress.  Kim Il-sung held the position of general secretary until his death on 8 July 1994. Following this, the post was left vacant until 1997.  From late September until early October 1997, conferences of various WPK organizations were held to recommend the election of Kim Jong-il as general secretary. Kim Jong-il is the designated successor of Kim Il-sung. At that point, Kim Jong-il held the party positions of Political Bureau Presidium member and WPK central committee secretary.  On 8 October 1997, the Central Committee and the Central Military Commission issued a special communique stating that Kim Jong-il was elected to the position of General Secretary of the Workers’ Party of Korea (Korean: 조선로동당 총비서).  On 28 September 2010, Kim Jong-il was re-elected as WPK general secretary at the 3rd WPK Conference. The conference also amended the Charter of the Workers’ Party of Korea to state that the WPK general secretary is the ex officio Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Workers’ Party of Korea.  Kim Jong-il died on 17 December 2011 and the position of general secretary was left vacant.  The WPK held its 4th Conference on 11 April 2012. It declared Kim Jong-il as the eternal General Secretary of the Workers’ Party of Korea (Korean: 영원한 조선로동당 총비서). The WPK Charter was revised to create the First Secretary of the Workers’ Party of Korea (Korean: 조선로동당 제1비서) as the new highest party position.  Kim Jong-un was elected as first secretary on 11 April 2012 during the 4th WPK Conference. Kim Jong-un is the designated successor of Kim Jong-il. Prior to his election as WPK first secretary, Kim Jong-un held the party positions of Central Military Commission vice chairman and Central Committee member.  On 9 May 2016, the 7th WPK Congress created the Chairman of the Workers’ Party of Korea as the new highest party position. Kim Jong-un was elected by the congress as the WPK chairman.

Vice Chairmen.

Vice Chairmen of the party are: Pak Kwang-ho, Pak Thae-song, Thae Jong-su, An Jong-su, and Choe Hwi.

The Chairman of the Workers’ Party of Korea (Korean: 조선로동당 위원장) is the head of the Workers’ Party of Korea (WPK), the ruling political party in North Korea. Party Chairman is the first priority political position of Supreme Leader.

Předseda Korejské strany práce (korejsky: 조선로동당 위원장; hanča: 朝鮮勞動黨 委員長) je úřad nejvyššího představitele Korejské strany práce. Od května 2016, kdy 7. stranický sjezd přijal nové označení úřadu, jej zastává severokorejský vůdce Kim Čong-un.


Climate and glaciation.

The area has a desert climate, with nighttime temperatures below freezing and precipitation less than 29±14 mm in the local summer that quickly sublimates away, resulting in a lack of surface runoff and a barren landscape. The mean annual temperature is -2±4 degrees Celsius. The area is persistently very windy. The snowline altitude in the area is, higher than the Pleistocene altitude of. 55 small relic glaciers with surfaces of less than exist above with moraines visible above. In 2000 a total ice surface of was reported on Tres Cruces.

Geology.

The whole complex has been active for 1.5 mya and has generated two large scale pyroclastic eruptions, a first one 1.5 mya occurred on the western side of the volcano. It is fairly thin and covers Pliocene lavas. Otherwise, rhyodacitic lava flows, lava domes and various ash and tephra deposits also belong to this volcano. The three main volcanoes of the massif - Tres Cruces Sur (), Tres Cruces Centro () and Tres Cruces Norte () formed along a local fault zone. Tres Cruces Sur and Tres Cruces Centro are the sixth and eleventh highest mountains in South America.  The massif delimits the Salar de Maricunga and has an extent of. The principal edifices are small but steep, rising above their bases. The northern cone is glacially eroded and has a crater wide. The central edifice has a crater and is inclined westward. The southern edifice is formed from an older western structure (0.8±0.5 mya) with two small craters and a glacial cirque, and an eastern edifice with a summit lava dome wide and basal lava flows. A cirque cuts the dome on the southeastern side and contains a small glacier. The whole edifice and the adjacent Miocene El Plateado volcano, as well as the western flank of neighbouring Ojos del Salado volcano, are covered with a thick layer of pumiceous ash fall, probably produced by the collapse of an eruption column. Pliocene volcanic chain Cristi (2.5±1.3 mya), Lemp (2.8±0.3 mya) and Rodrigo (adakites 4.4 mya) north and Puntiagudo south is largely buried beneath the massif. Tomographic analysis of the area has indicated the presence of a large high-attenuation zone in the crust beneath Tres Cruces and the neighbouring Ojos del Salado volcano, which may indicate ongoing or incipient melting of the underlying crust.

Lava domes.

Two minor lava domes La Espinilla and El Indio are present. La Espinilla formed within the crater ( deep and wide) of an explosive eruption. This dome is wide and high and formed 168±6 ka K-Ar. El Indio is located on the side of La Espinilla away from the main massif and is larger and older (350±40 ka K-Ar) than Espinilla. Other older lava domes lie on the western flank (2.1±0.3 ka K-Ar).  A major dacitic lava dome ( thick and covering a surface of ) lies on the northwestern side of the massif, the vent is buried by younger deposits. The lava display flow banding and column jointing and has been K-Ar dated 1.4±0.4 mya.

Recent activity.

Activity in the southernmost volcano has been dated at 280,000±22,000 years ago. The complex is linked to the eruption of the Tres Cruces ignimbrite 67,000 years ago, also known as Pampa Blanca. This ignimbrite is well exposed in the valley which separates the Tres Cruces and Ojos del Salado volcanoes, assuming thicknesses of with a basal flow thick. There is evidence for three large glaciations on the mountain, the middle of which predates the Eemian warm period.  The youngest activity occurred 28,000 years ago and formed the summit lava dome of the southernmost volcano. Tres Cruces may have erupted during the Holocene; a tephra layer found in the Fiambalá region east of the volcano and dated to 1400-1270 and 1270–980 years before present may have originated at Nevado Tres Cruces. This eruption strongly affected the environment and societies of the Fiambalá area.

Hazards.

The volcano has an approximate rock generation rate of, lower than other arc associated volcanoes. Nevertheless, with eruptive episodes being separated by gaps of about 40,000 years between the last episodes, dangerous eruptive activity in the future is possible. However, the region surrounding the volcano is thinly populated, so major damage to infrastructure or danger to human life is unlikely.

Nevado Tres Cruces is a massif of volcanic origin in the Andes Mountains on the border of Argentina and Chile. It has two main summits, Tres Cruces Sur at and Tres Cruces Centro at and a third more minor summit, Tres Cruces Norte. Tres Cruces Sur is the sixth highest mountain in the Andes. The area was first surveyed in 1883 by Francisco San Román and the Nevado Tres Cruces National Park was established in 1994.

Tres Cruces je horský masiv vulkanického původu v Andách. Leží ve střední části chilsko-argentinských And, na chilsko-argentinské státní hranici, přibližně 20 kilometrů východně od hory Ojos del Salado. Západně od horského masivu se nachází chilský národní park "Nevado Tres Cruces". Tres Cruces je šestá nejvyšší hora Ameriky.