Types and construction.

Chokes are divided into two broad classes:

Audio frequency choke.

Audio frequency chokes (AFC) usually have ferromagnetic cores to increase their inductance. They are often constructed similarly to transformers, with laminated iron cores and an air gap. The iron core increases the inductance for a given volume of the core. Chokes were frequently used in the design of rectifier power supplies for vacuum tube equipment such as radio receivers or amplifiers. They are commonly found in direct-current motor controllers to produce direct current (DC), where they were used in conjunction with large electrolytic capacitors to remove the voltage ripple (AC) at the output DC. A rectifier circuit designed for a choke-output filter may produce too much DC output voltage and subject the rectifier and filter capacitors to excessive in-rush and ripple currents if the inductor is removed. However, modern electrolytic capacitors with high ripple current ratings, and voltage regulators that remove more power supply ripple than chokes could, have eliminated heavy, bulky chokes from mains frequency power supplies. Smaller chokes are used in switching power supplies to remove the higher-frequency switching transients from the output and sometimes from feeding back into the mains input. They often have toroidal ferrite cores.  Some car audio hobbyists use choke coils with car audio systems (specifically in the wiring for a subwoofer, to remove high frequencies from the amplified signal).

Radio frequency choke.

Radio frequency chokes (RFC) often have iron powder or ferrite cores which increases inductance and overall operation. They are often wound in complex patterns (basket winding) to reduce self-capacitance and proximity effect losses. Chokes for even higher frequencies have non-magnetic cores and low inductance.  A modern form of choke used for eliminating digital RF noise from lines is the ferrite bead, a cylindrical or torus-shaped core of ferrite slipped over a wire. These are often seen on computer cables. A typical RF choke value could be 2 millihenries.

Common-mode choke.

The common-mode (CM) choke, where two coils are wound on a single core, is useful for suppression of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI) from power supply lines and for prevention of malfunctioning of power electronics device. It passes differential currents (equal but opposite), while blocking common-mode currents. The magnetic flux produced by differential-mode (DM) currents in the core tend to cancel each other out since the windings are negative coupled. Thus, the choke presents little inductance or impedance to DM currents. Normally this also means that the core will not saturate for large DM currents and the maximum current rating is instead determined by the heating effect of the winding resistance. The CM currents, however, see a high impedance because of the combined inductance of the positive coupled windings.  CM chokes are commonly used in industrial, electrical and telecommunications applications to remove or decrease noise and related electromagnetic interference.

Near magnetic field emission reduction.

When the CM choke is conducting CM current, most of the magnetic flux generated by the windings is confined with the inductor core because of its high permeability. In this case, the leakage flux, which is also the near magnetic field emission of the CM choke is low. However, the DM current flowing through the windings will generate high emitted near magnetic field since the windings are negative coupled in this case. To reduce the near magnetic field emission, a twisted winding structure can be applied to the CM choke. The difference between the balanced twisted windings CM choke and conventional balanced two winding CM choke is that the windings interact in the center of the core open window. When it is conducting CM current, the balanced twisted winding CM inductor can provide identical CM inductance as the conventional CM inductor. When it is conducting DM current, the equivalent current loops will generate inversed direction magnetic fields in space so that they tend to cancel each other.

Measurement for near magnetic field emission.

We need to conduct a current to the inductor and use a probe to measure the near field emission. First, a signal generator, serving as a voltage source, is connected to an amplifier. The output of the amplifier is then connected to the inductor under measurement. To monitor and control the current flowing through the inductor, a current clamp is clamped around the conducting wire. Next, an oscilloscope is connected to the current clamp to measure the current waveform. A probe is then used to measure the flux in the air. Another spectrum analyzer is connected to the probe to collect the data.

In electronics, a choke is an inductor used to block higher-frequency while passing direct current (DC) and lower-frequencies of alternating current (AC) in an electrical circuit. A choke usually consists of a coil of insulated wire often wound on a magnetic core, although some consist of a doughnut-shaped "bead" of ferrite material strung on a wire. The choke's impedance increases with frequency. Its low electrical resistance passes both AC and DC with little power loss, but its reactance limits the amount of AC passed.

Tlumivka je cívka ve tvaru válce nebo prstence (toroidu). V cívce může být vloženo jádro z feromagnetického materiálu, které zvýší indukčnost cívky. Tlumivka akumuluje ve svém magnetickém obvodu elektrickou (elektromagnetickou) energii.


Design.

The telescope consists of 14 elements (yielding 91 baselines), each of which have a horn reflector antenna focusing astrophysical signals into individual receivers (pseudomorphic HFET amplifiers, with a system temperature around 25 K and a physical temperature of 12 K, based on an NRAO design). The separate elements are combined using a correlator to form an aperture synthesis array. The elements are mounted on a tip-table, which is capable of tracking the sky and can tilt up to 35 degrees from the zenith.  The telescope has been used in three different configurations – "compact", "extended" and "super-extended", each of which differ in the separation distance between the elements (the difference between compact and extended is a factor of 2.25), and the size of the antennas. While the compact array has antennas 143mm in diameter, the extended array uses 322mm diameter antennas. This means that the compact array has a primary beam of 4.5 degrees, and a resolution of 30 arcminutes (multipoles between 100 and 800), while the extended array has a primary beam of 2 degrees, a resolution of 12 arcminutes and can hence observe multipoles between 250 and 1500. The extended array is also a factor of 5 more sensitive than the compact array. The super-extended array will be able to measure multipoles up to 3000, and has 550mm antenna mirrors. The front-end amplifiers were also upgraded.  The telescope can be tuned to frequencies between 26 and 36 GHz, with 1.5 GHz bandwidth, meaning that the telescope can carry out observations at different frequencies.  It also includes two 3.7m radio telescopes, also working at 30 GHz, which are dedicated to monitoring foreground sources. These source subtraction dishes were upgraded to more accurate ones following the first series of observations, to allow the monitoring of much weaker sources than previously.  Both the source subtractor dishes, and the VSA itself, are surrounded by large metal ground shields.  As the VSA is an interferometer, it directly measures the angular power spectrum of the CMB, rather than having to construct a map of the sky first.

Results.

The fields observed with the VSA were chosen to minimize the amount of bright radio sources and large clusters in the field (the latter to avoid the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect), as well as to avoid contamination by emission from our galaxy. The radio point sources present in the VSA fields were observed with the Ryle Telescope at 15 GHz, then monitored by the VSA source subtracters during the VSA observations.  In the compact array configuration, the telescope observed three 7×7 degree areas of the sky to high precision in an observing session between August 2000 and August 2001. These observations were taken at the highest frequency of the telescope, centered at 34 GHz, to reduce foreground contamination. Another, larger area of the sky was also observed, but less precisely. The data from these observations were reduced independently at all three involved institutions. The results from these observations were published in a series of four papers in 2003; those by Watson et al., Taylor et al., Scott et al. and Rubino-Martin et al. (see References below). The key results were the power spectra of the Cosmic Microwave Background between multipoles of 150 and 900, and the resulting limits on cosmological parameters when combined with data from observations from other experiments.  The second observing session ran between September 2001 and July 2003, and was using the extended array. The first results from the extended array were published as a Letter in 2003, simultaneously with the first four publications, using data taken up until April 2002. The sections of the sky observed were located within the previously-observed fields, with the measurements being both more accurate and in greater detail. The result was an improved power spectrum of the CMB, going out to a multipole of 1400, and refined cosmological parameters. The second set of results were published in 2004, and consisted of the original observations plus more observations taken in the same regions of the sky, as well as observations in three new regions. This yielded measurements of the CMB power spectra out to l of 1500 much more accurately than previously, and more accurate cosmological parameter estimates.  Observations with the VSA continued until the end of August 2008, using the Super-Extended configuration. Also, the Ryle Telescope has been upgraded to detect lower flux point sources, and the OCRA receiver on a telescope in Poland will be used to more accurately subtract the point sources.

The Very Small Array (VSA) was a 14-element interferometric radio telescope operating between 26 and 36 GHz that is used to study the cosmic microwave background radiation. It was a collaboration between the University of Cambridge, University of Manchester and the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias (Tenerife), and was located at the Observatorio del Teide on Tenerife. The array was built at the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory by the Cavendish Astrophysics Group and Jodrell Bank Observatory, and was funded by PPARC (now STFC). The design was strongly based on the Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope.

Very Small Array je systém čtrnácti radioteleskopů, které pracují v pásmech 26–36 GHz (vlnové délky 1,2–0,83 cm) a zkoumají radiaci kosmického mikrovlnného pozadí. Nachází se na Tenerife, největším z Kanárských ostrovů. Funguje ve spolupráci anglické University of Cambridge a španělského Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias.


Spacecraft and subsystems.

The Boeing-Eastman Kodak proposal was announced by NASA on 20 December 1963. The main bus of the Lunar Orbiter had the general shape of a truncated cone, tall and in diameter at the base. The spacecraft was composed of three decks supported by trusses and an arch. The equipment deck at the base of the craft held the battery, transponder, flight programmer, inertial reference unit (IRU), Canopus star tracker, command decoder, multiplex encoder, traveling-wave tube amplifier (TWTA), and the photographic system. Four solar panels were mounted to extend out from this deck with a total span across of. Also extending out from the base of the spacecraft were a high gain antenna on a boom and a low-gain antenna on a boom. Above the equipment deck, the middle deck held the velocity control engine, propellant, oxidizer, and pressurization tanks, Sun sensors, and micrometeoroid detectors. The third deck consisted of a heat shield to protect the spacecraft from the firing of the velocity control engine. The nozzle of the engine protruded through the center of the shield. Mounted on the perimeter of the top deck were four attitude control thrusters.  Power of 375 W was provided by the four solar arrays containing 10,856 n/p solar cells which would directly run the spacecraft and also charge the 12 A·h nickel-cadmium battery. The batteries were used during the brief periods of occultation when no solar power was available. Propulsion for major maneuvers was provided by the gimballed velocity control engine, a hypergolic 100 pound-force (445 N) thrust Marquardt Corp. rocket motor. Three axis stabilization and attitude control were provided by four one lb-force (four newton) nitrogen gas jets. Navigational knowledge was provided by five sun sensors, the Canopus star sensor, and the inertial navigation system. Communications were via a 10 W transmitter and the directional one meter diameter high-gain antenna for transmission of photographs, and a 0.5 W transmitter and omnidirectional low-gain antenna for other communications. Both transmitters operated in the S band at about 2295 MHz. Thermal control was maintained by a multilayer aluminized Mylar and Dacron thermal blanket which enshrouded the main bus, special paint, insulation, and small heaters.  The photographic system was provided by Eastman Kodak and it was derived from a system, provided by the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), designed for the U-2 and SR-71 reconnaissance planes.  The camera used two lenses to simultaneously expose a wide-angle and a high-resolution image on the same film. The wide-angle, medium resolution mode used an 80 mm F 2.8 Xenotar lens manufactured by Schneider Kreuznach of West Germany. The high-resolution mode used a 610 mm F 5.6 Panoramic lens manufactured by the Pacific Optical Company.  The photographic film was developed in-orbit with a semidry process, and then it was scanned by a photomultiplier for transmission to Earth. This system was adapted under permission of the NRO from the SAMOS E-1 reconnaissance camera, built by Kodak for a short-lived USAF near-realtime satellite imaging project.  Originally, the Air Force had offered NASA several spare cameras from the KH-7 GAMBIT program, but then authorities became concerned over security surrounding the classified cameras, including the possibility of images of the Moon giving away their resolution. Some proposals were made that NASA not publish the orbital parameters of the Lunar Orbiter probes so that the resolution of the images could not be calculated through their altitude. In the end, NASA's existing camera systems, while lower resolution, proved to be adequate for the needs of the mission.

Potential backup.

As a backup for Lunar Orbiter program, NASA and the NRO cooperated on the Lunar Mapping and Survey System (LM&SS), based on the KH-7 reconnaissance satellite. Replacing the Lunar Module in the Saturn V, Apollo astronauts would operate LM&SS remotely in lunar orbit. NASA canceled the project in the summer of 1967 after the complete success of the Lunar Orbiters.

Results.

The Lunar Orbiter program consisted of five spacecraft which returned photography of 99 percent of the surface of the Moon (near and far side) with resolution down to. Altogether the Orbiters returned 2180 high resolution and 882 medium resolution frames. The micrometeoroid experiments recorded 22 impacts showing the average micrometeoroid flux near the Moon was about two orders of magnitude greater than in interplanetary space, but slightly less than in the near-Earth environment. The radiation experiments confirmed that the design of Apollo hardware would protect the astronauts from average and greater than average short term exposure to solar particle events.  The use of Lunar Orbiters for tracking to evaluate the Manned Space Flight Network tracking stations and Apollo Orbit Determination Program was successful, with three of the Lunar Orbiters (2, 3, and 5) being tracked simultaneously from August through October 1967. The Lunar Orbiters were all eventually commanded to crash on the Moon before their attitude control fuel ran out so they would not present navigational or communications hazards to later Apollo flights. The Lunar Orbiter program was managed by NASA Langley Research Center at a total cost of roughly $200 million.  Doppler tracking of the five orbiters allowed mapping of the gravitational field of the Moon and discovery of mass concentrations (mascons), or gravitational highs, which were located in the centers of some (but not all) of the lunar maria. Below is the flight log information of the five Lunar Orbiter photographic missions:

Data availability.

The Lunar Orbiter orbital photographs were transmitted to Earth as analog data after onboard scanning of the original film into a series of strips. The data were written to magnetic tape and also to film. The film data were used to create hand-made mosaics of Lunar Orbiter frames. Each LO exposure resulted in two photographs: medium-resolution frames recorded by the 80-mm focal-length lens and high-resolution frames recorded by the 610-mm focal length lens. Due to their large size, HR frames were divided into three sections, or sub-frames. Large-format prints () from the mosaics were created and several copies were distributed across the U.S. to NASA image and data libraries known as Regional Planetary Information Facilities. The resulting outstanding views were of generally very high spatial resolution and covered a substantial portion of the lunar surface, but they suffered from a "venetian blind" striping, missing or duplicated data, and frequent saturation effects that hampered their use. For many years these images have been the basis of much of lunar scientific research. Because they were obtained at low to moderate Sun angles, the Lunar Orbiter photographic mosaics are particularly useful for studying the morphology of lunar topographic features.  Several atlases and books featuring Lunar Orbiter photographs have been published. Perhaps the most definitive was that of Bowker and Hughes (1971); it contained 675 photographic plates with approximately global coverage of the Moon. In part because of high interest in the data and in part because that atlas is out of print, the task was undertaken at the Lunar and Planetary Institute to scan the large-format prints of Lunar Orbiter data. These were made available online as the Digital Lunar Orbiter Photographic Atlas of the Moon.

Data recovery and digitization.

In 2000, the Astrogeology Research Program of the US Geological Survey in Flagstaff, Arizona was funded by NASA (as part of the Lunar Orbiter Digitization Project) to scan at 25 micrometer resolution archival LO positive film strips that were produced from the original data. The goal was to produce a global mosaic of the Moon using the best available Lunar Orbiter frames (largely the same coverage as that of Bowker and Hughes, 1971). The frames were constructed from scanned film strips; they were digitally constructed, geometrically controlled, and map-projected without the stripes that had been noticeable in the original photographic frames. Because of its emphasis on construction of a global mosaic, this project only scanned about 15% of the available Lunar Orbiter photographic frames. Data from Lunar Orbiter missions III, IV and V were included in the global mosaic.  In addition, the USGS digitization project created frames from very high resolution Lunar Orbiter images for several'sites of scientific interest.' These sites had been identified in the 1960s when the Apollo landing sites were being selected. Frames for sites such as the Apollo 12 landing site, the Marius Hills, and the Sulpicius Gallus rille have been released.  In 2007, the Lunar Orbiter Image Recovery Project (LOIRP) began a process to convert the Lunar Orbiter Images directly from the original Ampex FR-900 analog video recordings of the spacecraft data to digital image format, a change which provided vastly improved resolution over the original images released in the 1960s. The first of these restored images were released in late 2008. Almost all of the Lunar Orbiter images have been successfully recovered as of February 2014 and are undergoing digital processing before being submitted to NASA's Planetary Data System.  The above links lead to a whole book on the Lunar Orbiter program. For the HTML one, scroll down to see the table of contents link.

The Lunar Orbiter program was a series of five unmanned lunar orbiter missions launched by the United States from 1966 through 1967. Intended to help select Apollo landing sites by mapping the Moon's surface, they provided the first photographs from lunar orbit and photographed both the Moon and Earth.

Program Lunar Orbiter vytvořila agentura NASA s cílem zajistit sérií sond (družic) podrobné zmapování povrchu Měsíce v letech 1966 až 1967.


History.

Balaklava has changed possession several times during its history. A settlement at its present location was founded under the name of Symbolon () by the Ancient Greeks, for whom it was an important commercial city.  During the Middle Ages, it was controlled by the Byzantine Empire and then by the Genoese who conquered it in 1365. The Byzantines called the town Yamboli and the Genoese named it Cembalo. The Genoese built a large trading empire in both the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, buying slaves in Eastern Europe and shipping them to Egypt via the Crimea, a lucrative market hotly contested with by the Venetians.  The ruins of a Genoese fortress positioned high on a clifftop above the entrance to the Balaklava Inlet are a popular tourist attraction and have recently become the stage for a Medieval festival. The fortress is a subject of Mickiewicz's penultimate poem in his 1826 cycle of "Crimean Sonnets".  In 1475 Cembalo City was conquered by Turks and they rename it to "Balyk-Yuva" (Fish's Nest) which subsequently became Balaklava.  During the Russo-Turkish War, 1768-1774, the Russian troops invaded Crimea in 1771. Thirteen years later, Crimea was definitively annexed by the Russian Empire. After that, Crimean Tatar and Turkish population was forcefully replaced by Greek Orthodox people from the Archipelago. In 1787 the city was visited by Catherine the Great.  The town became famous for the Battle of Balaclava during the Crimean War thanks to the suicidal Charge of the Light Brigade, a British cavalry charge due to a misunderstanding sent up a valley strongly held on three sides by the Russians, in which about 250 men were killed or wounded, and over 400 horses lost, effectively reducing the size of the mounted brigade by two thirds and destroying some of the finest light cavalry in the world to no military purpose. The British poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson immortalized the battle in verse in his "Charge of the Light Brigade".  The balaclava, a tight knitted garment covering the whole head and neck with holes for the eyes and mouth, also takes its name from this settlement, where soldiers first wore them. Also numerous towns founded in English-speaking countries in later parts of the 19th Century were named "Balaklava" (see Balaklava (disambiguation)).  During the Second World War, Balaklava was the southernmost point in the Soviet-German lines.  In 1954 Balaklava, together with the whole Crimea, passed from Russia to Ukraine. In 1957 it was formally incorporated into the municipal borders of Sevastopol by the Soviet government and lost city status. It became part of the independent state of Ukraine in 1991. Today there are over 50 monuments in the town dedicated to the remembrance of military valour in past wars, including the Great Patriotic War, the Crimean War and the Russian Civil War.  Since internationally unrecognised 2014 annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation Balaklava, along with rest of Crimea, is administered by Russia. In 2019 Russian authorities granted Balaklava status of a city within Sevastopol.

Underground submarine base.

One of the monuments is an underground, formerly classified submarine base that was operational until 1993. The base was said to be virtually indestructible and designed to survive a direct atomic impact. During that period, Balaklava was one of the most secret residential areas in the Soviet Union. Almost the entire population of Balaklava at one time worked at the base; even family members could not visit the town of Balaklava without a good reason and proper identification. The base remained operational after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 until 1993 when the decommissioning process started. This process saw the removal of the warheads and low-yield torpedoes. In 1996, the last Russian submarine left the base. The base has since been opened to the public as the Naval museum complex Balaklava.

Balaklava (,,, ) is a settlement on the Crimean Peninsula and part of the city of Sevastopol. It is an administrative center of Balaklava Raion that used to be part of the Crimean Oblast before it was transferred to Sevastopol Municipality. Population:

Balaklava (ukrajinsky a ; ) je sídlo a letovisko na jihozápadním pobřeží Krymu, v Balaklavském zálivu. V minulosti byla samostatným městečkem, od roku 1957 tvoří jeden z rajónů Sevastopolu.


Biography.

Early life.

Ozerov was born to Nikolai Nikolayevich Ozerov and Nadezhda Ozerova. His mother, a student of the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography, had to leave her studies when she became pregnant. Ozerov's father was an acclaimed opera singer who was awarded the title People's Artist of the Russian SFSR in 1937 and taught in the Moscow Conservatory. His brother, also named Nikolai, was a tennis champion and sports commentator.  After graduating from high school, Ozerov enrolled for the Lunacharsky State Institute of Theatre Arts in September 1939. A month later, he was drafted into the Red Army, where he was trained as a signaler. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union, he held the rank of a Second Lieutenant. Ozerov participated in the Battle of Moscow and in the campaigns for Ukraine and Poland. In 1944, he underwent a staff officers' course in the Frunze Academy. While stationed in the 3rd Belorussian Front, he took part in the Battle of Königsberg as a forward observation officer. In a 2001 interview, he told that the battle had a profound effect on him and he swore that if he will remain alive, he would "tell the story of the great army that fought in the war." After the German surrender in May, Ozerov served in the occupied city until his discharge in October 1945, with the rank of a Major. During the war, Ozerov married a nurse, Raisa Sukhomlina, with whom he had a son, Vladimir. The two later divorced.

Breakthrough.

Soon after demobilization, Ozerov resumed his studies in the Lunacharsky Institute. In 1947, he entered the All-Union Cinematography Institute, where he studied together with Aleksandr Alov, Marlen Khutsiev, Sergei Parajanov and other future Soviet directors. During the same year, he joined the Communist Party. In 1949 he started working as an assistant-director in the Mosfilm studio. While still a student, he made his debut film, "Alexander Pushkin", in 1950. He graduated a year later.  In the beginning of his career, Ozerov directed several documentaries: in 1952, he made the film "In the Nikitsky Botanical Garden" about the eponymous garden. During 1953, together with Sergei Gurov, he co-directed "Arena of the Bold", which presented a live performance by the Soviet Union's young circus artists and starred Oleg Popov, among others. In 1954, he made "At the Gala Evening", showing a concert at the Bolshoi Theater.  Ozerov's first major feature film was the 1955 "Son", revolving around the life of a delinquent youth in Moscow. In 1957, he directed the adventure film "Kochubey", about the last days of the Civil War Cossack hero, Ivan Kochubey. The film, Ozerov's only one to be produced by Lenfilm, received the Prize for Best Musical Score in the 1959 All-Union Film Festival. In the same year, Ozerov first participated in an international production: the Albanian-Soviet film "Fortuna", which he co-directed with Kristaq Dhamo. "Fortuna" was also his first film about the Second World War, dealing with the Albanian partisans' struggle and starring Naim Frashëri. In 1962, he directed the Soviet-Czechoslovak co-production "The High Road", a biographical film on Jaroslav Hašek with Josef Abrhám as the main protagonist.  In addition to his cinematic work, Ozerov was also a Major in the KGB's Seventh Directorate, the department responsible for surveillance. He served as a technical officer. In early 1962, the KGB was monitoring Oleg Penkovsky. Miniature cameras were installed in flower pots on his apartment's window sills. The surveillance team suspected that Penkovsky discovered the cameras and was evading them. Ozerov had personally inspected the house and decided to place other equipment in the balcony above the apartment. Penkovsky was caught and executed during 1963.

Summit.

During the mid-1960s, Ozerov - who was awarded the title 'Honored Artist of the RSFSR' in 1965 - was dismayed by several World War II films made in the West, which he regarded as diminishing the role of the Red Army. At the same time, the Soviet authorities were planning a film in response to "The Longest Day" that would present the official Soviet narrative on the war. Ozerov was selected to direct the new project, the five-part series "Liberation", for which he co-wrote the script. The filming lasted more than four years, from 1967 to 1971. Ozerov had to cope both the tight political supervision of the Soviet establishment and with the technical difficulties of coordinating the battle scenes, that involved 150 tanks and thousands of soldiers. Ozerov's second wife, Dilara, was the films' costumes designer. For his work on "Liberation", he received the Lenin Prize and the Tbilisi All-Union Film Festival Grand Prize at 1972.  Ozerov directed the first part of the documentary "Visions of Eight" on the Munich Olympics, entitled "The Beginning". "Visions of Eight" won the 1973 Golden Globe Award for the Best Documentary Film. In 1974, he was given the title of a People's Artist of the RSFSR.  In 1977, Ozerov directed the ten-hour-long mini-series "Soldiers of Freedom", theatrically released as two 220 minutes feature films, a co-production that involved most of the Eastern Bloc European countries and dealt with the exploits of their contemporary leaders, especially Leonid Brezhnev, during the Second World War. He was granted the title People's Artist of the USSR in the same year, and was a member in the jury of the 30th Cannes Film Festival and the 10th Moscow International Film Festival.  In 1979, Ozerov was selected to be the chief of the Moscow 1980 Olympics Artistic Committee. He directed a series of documentary films dedicated to the games: "Ballad of Sport", "Farewell to the Olympics", "The Olympic Holidays" and "O, Sport - You're the World". For this accomplishment, he was awarded the USSR State Prize in 1981.  In 1985, Ozerov directed another large-scale World War II production, the "Battle of Moscow", released for the 40th Anniversary of Victory Day. The film received the 1986 All-Union Film Festival Grand Prize.

Later years.

In 1989, Ozerov decided to direct one more World War II film, "Stalingrad". Due to the economical situation in the Soviet Union, he had to approach the Warner Bros. for assistance with the budget. The company agreed, but only on condition that American actors would receive major roles. The reluctant Ozerov had to cast Powers Boothe as General Chuikov.  In 1993, the director used footage from "Stalingrad" in the film "Angels of Death", that presented a sniper duel taking place during the battle for the city. The new footage was filmed in Syria. Selected material from all of Ozerov's works on World War II was compiled to create the historical mini-series "Tragedy of the Century". In 1995, Ozerov produced a mini-series, "The Great Commander Georgy Zhukov", consisting of all the scenes in his films that included Zhukov - in all of which he was depicted by Mikhail Ulyanov. In 2001, he received the Russian President's award for contribution to national cinema, dying shortly after. He is buried in the Vvedenskoye Cemetery, alongside his younger brother Nikolai.  His widow founded the Yuri Ozerov War Films Festival in his memory.

Yuri Ozerov (; 26 January 1921 – 16 October 2001) was a Soviet film director and screenwriter. He directed twenty films between 1950 and 1995. Ozerov's works won him many awards, among them the title People's Artist of the USSR which was conferred upon him in 1977.

Jurij Nikolajevič Ozerov (26. ledna 1921, Moskva, Sovětské Rusko – 16. října 2001, Moskva, Rusko) byl ruský herec a filmový režisér. Pocházel z divadelnické rodiny, před válkou vystudoval herectví. V letech 1944 až 1945 působil jako štábní důstojník na generálním štábu Rudé armády. Po Velké vlastenecké válce po své armádní deaktivaci studoval nejprve na moskevské divadelní fakultě, odkud posléze přestoupil na fakultu filmovou. Proslul zejména jakožto režisér rozměrných ruských válečných snímků jako byla filmová epopej "Osvobození" nebo i filmy "Boj o Moskvu", "Vojáci svobody", "Stalingrad" a další.


Biography.

Al-Qaradawi was born in 1926 in Saft Turab village in the Nile Delta, now in Gharbia Governorate, Egypt, into a poor family of devout Muslim peasants. He became an orphan at the age of two, when he lost his father. Following his father's death, he was raised by his uncle. He read and memorized the entire Quran by the time he was nine years old.  He then joined the Institute of Religious Studies at Tanta, and graduated after nine years of study. While in Tanta, Al-Qaradawi first encountered Hassan al Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, when al Banna gave a lecture at his school. Al-Qaradawi has written of the lasting impact of this encounter, describing al Banna as "brilliantly radiating, as if his words were revelation or live coals from the light of prophecy." He moved on to study Islamic Theology at the Al-Azhar University in Cairo, from which he graduated in 1953. He earned a diploma in Arabic Language and Literature in 1958 at the Advanced Arabic Studies Institute. He enrolled in the graduate program in the Department of Quran and Sunnah Sciences of the Faculty of Religion's Fundamentals (Usul al-Din), and graduated with a master's degree in Quranic Studies in 1960. In 1962, he was sent by Al-Azhar University to Qatar to head the Qatari Secondary Institute of Religious Studies. He completed his PhD thesis titled "Zakah and its effect on solving social problems" in 1973 with First Merit and was awarded his PhD degree from Al-Azhar.  In 1977, he laid the foundation for the Faculty of Shari'ah and Islamic Studies in the University of Qatar and became the faculty's dean. In the same year he founded the Centre of Seerah and Sunna Research. He also served at the Institute of Imams, Egypt under the Egyptian Ministry of Religious Endowments as supervisor before moving back to Doha as Dean of the Islamic Department at the Faculties of Shariah and Education in Qatar, where he continued until 1990. His next appointment was in Algeria as Chairman of the Scientific Council of Islamic University and Higher Institutions in 1990–91. He returned to Qatar once more as Director of the Seerah and Sunnah Center at Qatar University, a post he still occupies today.  In 1997, Al-Qaradawi helped found the European Council for Fatwa and Research, a council of important and influential Muslim scholars dedicated to researching and writing fatwas in support of Western Muslim minority communities based in Ireland, and he serves as its head. He also serves as the chairman of International Union for Muslim Scholars (IUMS).  He was imprisoned under King Farouq in 1949, then three times during the reign of former President Gamal Abdul Nasser, until he left Egypt for Qatar in 1961. He returned to Egypt in 2011 in the wake of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution.  Al-Qaradawi is a principal shareholder and former Sharia adviser to Bank Al-Taqwa, a member bank of the Lugano-Switzerland Al-Taqwa group, a bank that the U.S. states finances terrorism and that the UN Security Council had listed as associated with Al Qaeda. On 2 August 2010, the bank was removed from a list of entities and individuals associated with Al Qaeda maintained by the Security Council.  Al-Qaradawi finished 3rd in a 2008 poll on who was the world's leading public intellectual. The poll, Top 100 Public Intellectuals, was of the readers of "Prospect Magazine" (UK) and "Foreign Policy" (United States).

Views and statements.

Religious and sectarian views.

Muslim sects.

Non-Muslims.

Al-Qaradawi has called for dialogue with Non-Muslims. He also puts emphasis on conversations with the West, including Jews, Christians, and secularists. He writes that this effort should differentiate itself from a debate, for the latter does not often result in mutual cooperation. Regarding the rights and citizenship of non-Muslim minorities, Qaradawi has said, "those people who live under the protection of an Islamic government enjoy special privileges. They are referred to as 'the Protected People' (dhimmi)... In modern terminology, dhimmies are 'citizens' of the Islamic state. From the earliest period of Islam to

Apostasy.

Al-Qaradawi says that apostasy – Muslims leaving Islam – is a grave danger to the Muslim community and that it is the duty of all Muslims "is to combat apostasy in all its forms and wherefrom it comes, giving it no chance to pervade in the Muslim world". In February 2013, Qaradawi stated on Egyptian television that the application of the death penalty for those who leave Islam is a necessity, stating, "If they had gotten rid of the apostasy punishment, Islam wouldn't exist today." Qaradawi also cited several speeches and writings by Muhammad and his followers, such as Surah Al-Ma'idah 5:33, which he quoted as "The punishment of those who wage war against Allah and His apostle is that they should be murdered or crucified." Qaradawi further explained, "... many hadiths, not only one or two, but many, narrated by a number

Political views.

Freedom and democracy.

Al-Qaradawi has spoken in favor of democracy in the Muslim world, speaking of a need for reform of political climates in the Middle East specifically. On 22 February 2011, he

Terrorism.

After the September 11 attacks, al-Qaradawi urged Muslims to donate blood for the victims and said:  He denies that Palestinian suicide bombing attacks constitute terrorism, claiming, "when Palestinians face such unjust aggression, they tend to stem bloodletting and destruction and not to claim the lives of innocent civilians," but qualifies that with "I do agree with those who do not allow such martyr operations to be carried out outside the Palestinian territories."  Al-Qaradawi has suggested the legitimate use of (defensive) suicide bombings against enemy combatants in modern times if the defending combatants have no other means of self-defense. The Oxford-based Malaysian Islamic Scholar, Dr. Afifi al-Akiti, rules that there is

Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Al-Qaradawi condones Palestinian attacks on Israelis only if Israel continues its oppression and averts peace. A resolution issued by The Islamic Fiqh Council affiliated to the Saudi-run Muslim World League in its 14th session, held in Doha (Qatar) on 11–16 January 2003 has upheld his views on the matter. Defending bombings against Israeli civilians, al-Qaradawi told "BBC Newsnight" in 2005 that:  He supports suicide attacks on all Israelis, including women since he views the Israeli society as a "completely military" society that did not include any civilians. He also considers pregnant women and their unborn babies to

Iraq war.

In 2004 the International Union of Muslim Scholars, an organization chaired by al-Qaradawi which counts a great number of prominent individual affiliated to the Muslim Brotherhood and/or Hamas among its members, ruled that "resisting occupation troops in Iraq is a 'duty' on able Muslims in and outside the war-torn country and

Hezbollah.

In 2006, in response to Muslim scholar Abdullah Ibn Jibreen's fatwa declaring that it was forbidden for Muslims to support or pray for Hezbollah because they are Shia, al-Qaradawi said that supporting Hezbollah is a religious duty for all Muslims and that resistance, whether in Palestine or Lebanon, is the most noble act. He added "Shias agree with the Sunnis in the main principles

Arab Spring.

Qaradawi declared his support for the rebels led by the National Transitional Council in the 2011 Libyan civil war, urging Arab nations to recognize them and "to confront the tyranny of the regime in Tripoli". He suggested weapons be sent to the rebels to assist the, and said "Our Islamic nation should stand against injustice and corruption and I urge the Egyptian government to extend a helping hand to Libyan people and not to Gaddafi."  In response to the 2011 Bahrain protests, Qaradawi was reluctant to give support: "The protests in Bahrain are sectarian in nature. The Shias are revolting against the Sunnis." He claimed that Shia protesters attack Sunnis and occupied their mosques. He acknowledged that

Women, gender and other issues.

Commenting on the role women played in social active issues:

Rape.

According to Kamal Badr, Qaradawi advocates that rape victims be protected by society:  Thus, many Muslim scholars, led by Sheikh Al-Qaradawi, have maintained that young Muslim men should hasten

Wife beating.

Al-Qaradawi told "The Guardian" that wife beating was neither "obligatory nor desirable" but that he "accepts it as a method of last resort – though only "lightly"". He stated on Channel 4 News that it was justifiable in certain circumstances but the "ideal was for Muslim men

Female genital mutilation (FGM).

Qaradawi says female genital mutilation surgery is forbidden in Islam. He calls on ending and banned to

Female masturbation.

Qaradawi urged women to not masturbate and

Homosexuality.

On 5 June 2006, on the Al Jazeera program "Sharia and Life", al-Qaradawi (a regular on the program) reiterated orthodox views on homosexuality. When asked about the punishment for people who "practise liwaat (sodomy) or sihaaq (lesbian activity)", al-Qaradawi replied: "The same punishment as any sexual pervert – the same as the fornicator." (MEMRI translation). The punishment for fornication is lashing.  In an interview with "Der Spiegel", Qaradawi said that his attitude towards homosexuality is the same as that found in Christianity. In the interview he stated, "One year ago, there was a demonstration against me in London because I

Stoning.

Al-Qaradawi calls "stoning" un-Islamic for it has nothing to do with Islam at all but laws made by the religion

Honor killing.

Al-Qaradawi says that honor killing is a tradition that was carried out thousands of years ago by ancient civilization; the Romans, the Dark Ages, Chinese

Mawlid (Muhammad's Birthday).

Al-Qaradawi fully supports and advocates Mawlid. He says that to used the birth date of Muhammad in remembrance of his life story is not Bid'ah (Innovation). In fact it's encourage in Islam to do good action (Man Sanna Sunnatun Hassanah) based on a Sahih Hadith. And that Allah (God) himself have said in Al-Qur'an, Chapter 21, Verse 107:  Al-Qaradawi explains that Allah (God) is talking about Muhammad's miracle birth as the verse mentions "sent you". In other words, his presence, his birth, his coming.

Niqab.

Al-Qaradawi says that Niqab (Veil) is not obligatory in Islam. He has pointed out that a woman's face is not an Awrah. He calls those who don the Niqabs as following tradition and culture before

Organ transplant.

At the same time Qaradawi issued a fatwa (edict) that organ transplant from living to a living person is permissible in Islam but through donation as donation is considered charity. As for a dead person, only when the brain stops, the transplant can then be carried out.  In April 2008, at a conference in Qatar titled "Mecca: the Center of the Earth, Theory and Practice", al-Qaradawi advocated the implementation of Mecca Time to replace the Greenwich Meridian as the basis of the world time zone system.  Al-Qaradawi called for a "Day of Anger" over the cartoons, but condemned violent actions in response to them.  Al-Qaradawi is one of the Ulama signatories of the Amman Message, which gives a broad foundation for defining Muslim orthodoxy.  Al-Qaradawi said, "Rushdie disgraced the honor of the Prophet and his family and defiled the values of Islam," but he never backed the fatwa calling for his death.  In 1997, Qaradawi's affiliation with the Muslim Brotherhood led to his expulsion from Egypt, a country where this organisation was at the time prohibited.

Other views.

Al-Qaradawi was a follower of Hasan al-Banna during his youth and a longtime member of the Muslim Brotherhood. He has twice turned down offers to be its leader. In an interview on the Dream channel, al-Qaradawi states the following about his relationship with the Muslim Brotherhood (MB):  On 16 May 2015 al-Qaradawi

Reception in the Muslim world.

Al-Qaradawi, a forefront of contemporary Muslim thinkers and scholars. His vast contributions include more than 80 books and hundreds of articles on different Islamic issues, ranging from the fundamental principles and laws of Islam to the needs and challenges of modern Muslim societies. His knowledge, intellect, moderation and unrelenting efforts to bring Islam to a larger audience have gained him the respect of millions of Muslims and non-Muslims worldwide. His famous Television program Ash-Shariah wal-Hayat (Sharia and Life) has an estimated 700-800 million viewers worldwide.  Despite his fame. In 2012, Qardawi traded barbs with fellow Muslim cleric Abu Abd al-Rahman Ibn Aqil al-Zahiri due to what Ibn Aqil perceived as hypocritical positions of Qardawi during the Arab Spring, a charge he denied.  Pakistani scholar, Muhammad Taqi Usmani stated, "There is no doubt that I—as the lowest student of Islamic Fiqh—with my benefitting from the books of the outstanding Dr al-Qaradāwī to a very large extent, and my supreme wonderment at the majority of [his works], have found myself, in some particular issues, not in agreement with

Controversy.

On Syria and Russia.

Qaradawi stated that Russia is an "enemy of Islam" due to the country's military relations with the Syrian regime.  His remarks drew harsh criticism from Muslims in Russia. According to Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov, "Qaradawi's statements had given rise to amazement among the Muslims of Russia." Kadyrov asserted that

Entry into western countries.

Al-Qaradawi has been banned from entering the United States since 1999 and the United Kingdom since 2008, though he visited London in 2004. The lobby group MEMRI said it helped play a role in the measures. In July

Fatwa controversy with MEMRI.

The Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI) (citing "Asharq Al-Awsat"), alleges that al-Qaradawi issued a Fatwa following the Iraqi insurgency, saying,  All of the Americans in Iraq are combatants, there is no difference between civilians and soldiers, and one should fight them, since the American civilians came to Iraq in order to serve the occupation. The abduction and killing of Americans in Iraq is a [religious] obligation so as to cause them to leave Iraq immediately. The mutilation of corpses [however] is forbidden in Islam.  Al-Qaradawi, however, denies this allegation:  I have not published a Fatwa on this issue. At the Egyptian Journalists' Union

Alcohol fatwa controversy.

Al-Qaradawi issued a fatwa in 2008, stating that the consumption of tiny amounts of alcohol (<0.5% concentration or 5/1000) was acceptable for Muslims. The statement was made regarding energy drinks,

Terrorist allegations.

In October 2004, according to Saudi Arabia's newspaper "The Arab News" based in New York and Jeddah, over 2,500 Muslim intellectuals from 23 countries signed a petition addressed to the United Nations to raise awareness on the use of religion for incitement to violence. Al-Qaradawi was mentioned among "the sheikhs of death," as the signatories defined those who manipulate religion to incite violence, for "providing a religious cover for terrorism." A charge al-Qaradawi dismissed as baseless and slanderous. For his stance, he was against Salafism (Wahhabism) extremist ideology culminating from Saudi Arabia itself.  The sheikh has been banned from entering the U.S. since 1999. In 2008, the UK Home Office stated that al-Qaradawi was denied a visa to enter Britain for medical treatment

Personal life.

Al-Qaradawi was born in Egypt but lives in Qatar. He has three sons and four daughters, three of whom hold

Awards and recognition.

Al-Qaradawi has been awarded by various countries and institutions for his contributions to Islamic society. Among them are  The Qatar Faculty of Islamic Studies, part of the Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development, instituted the "Sheikh Yusuf Al Qaradawi Scholarships" in 2009, awarding them to five students each year for post-graduate studies. It also named after him

Books.

Al-Qaradawi has authored more than 120 books and his academic style and objective thought are considered to be some of the main characteristics of his works. His most famous work is "The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam". Professor Mustafa al-Zarqa declared that owning a copy of it was "the duty of every Muslim family".

"Fiqh al-Zakat".

His book "Fiqh al-Zakat" is considered by some as the most comprehensive work in the area of zakat. Abul Ala Maududi commented on it as "the book of this century in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh)" The prominent Deobandi Islamic scholar Muhammad Taqi Usmani, said this about the work:  The first book that read in its entirety of his works is his valuable book Fiqh al-Zakat, and I

"Fiqh al-Jihad".

His book "Fiqh al-Jihad" has been widely commented on. "The Guardian" writes:  This book has also been

Major works.

Yusuf al-Qaradawi wrote many books, some of which were translated into English: Amongst his dozens of works in Arabic, we cite:  He has also published some excerpts of his poetry in the book "Nafahat wa Lafahat". Al-Qaradawi has also been the subject of the book "The Global Mufti: The Phenomenon of Yusuf al-Qaradawi" published by Columbia University Press. He is also profiled as one of the leading liberal voices in contemporary Islam in Charles Kurzman's book "Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook", published by Oxford University Press.

Yusuf al-Qaradawi (; or "Yusuf al-Qardawi"; born 9 September 1926) is an Egyptian Islamic theologian based in Doha, Qatar, and chairman of the International Union of Muslim Scholars. His influences include Hassan al-Banna, Abul A'la Maududi and Naeem Siddiqui. He is best known for his programme الشريعة والحياة, "al-Sharīʿa wa al-Ḥayāh" ("Sharia and Life"), broadcast on Al Jazeera, which has an estimated audience of 40-60 million worldwide. He is also known for IslamOnline, a website he helped to found in 1997 and for which he serves as chief religious scholar.

Jusúf Abdalláh al-Karadáví (; první jméno též Jusuf, příjmení též al-Qaradáwí aj., anglickým přepisem Yusuf al-Qaradawi nebo Yusuf Al Qaradawi, * 9. září 1926) je egyptský islámský teolog, právník, kazatel a publicista. Své komentáře vysílá prostřednictvím pravidelného pořadu na televizní stanici al-Džazíra a předpokládá se, že jeho pořad sleduje cca 60. milionů lidí. Patří k nejvlivnějším učencům a morálním autoritám islámského světa. Schvaluje sebevražedné atentáty proti lidem, které považuje za nepřátele islámu.


History.

As Howard Staunton observed, "In the earlier ages of chess, the board was simply divided into sixty-four squares, without any difference of colour". The checkering of the squares was a European innovation, introduced in the thirteenth century.  The convention of White having the first move is much more recent than that. François-André Danican Philidor in the original (1749) edition of his famous treatise "Analyse du jeu des Échecs" cited one game in which Black moved first. Johann Horny, in a book published in Germany in 1824, wrote that Black moves first. Phillip Sergeant wrote in his book "A History of British Chess" of the great Alexander McDonnell (1798–1835), remembered today for his series of matches with Labourdonnais: He preferred to have Black, as first player as well as second... this was a common fad in his day, which persisted with a great number of players, as a study of the "Chess Players' Chronicle" and other magazines shows. In the Immortal Game (Anderssen-Kieseritzky, offhand game, London 1851), one of the most famous games in history, Anderssen had the Black pieces but moved first. He also took the Black pieces but moved first in the sixth, eighth, and tenth games of his famous 1858 match against Paul Morphy. Each of those games began 1.a3 e5 2.c4, when Anderssen was effectively playing the Sicilian Defense with an extra tempo.  As late as the mid-to-late 19th century, the practice of White moving first had not yet become standard. George Walker in his popular treatise "The Art of Chess-Play: A New Treatise on the Game of Chess" (4th edition 1846), set forth the rules of London's St. George's Chess Club in June, 1841. "Law III" provided that the player who moved first had the choice of color; if the players played more games at the same sitting, the first move would alternate, but each player would continue to use the same colored pieces as he had in the first game. Staunton observed in 1871 that "many players still cultivate the foolish habit of playing exclusively with one colour."  On October 19, 1857, Mr. Perrin, the Secretary of the New York Chess Club, informed those assembled at the First American Chess Congress that he had received a letter from Johann Löwenthal, a leading English master, "suggesting the advisableness of always giving the first move in public games, to the player of the white pieces." Löwenthal also wrote that London's chess clubs had adopted a new rule that White always moves first. The club evidently did not follow Löwenthal's advice, since in its match the following year against its Philadelphia counterpart, Philadelphia played White in both games, but moved first only in the second game.  Chess historian Robert John McCrary writes that the earliest rule he has found requiring that White move first is Rule 9 given on page 126 of the New York, 1880 tournament book, which specified, "In each round the players shall have the first move alternately; in the first game it shall be determined by lot. The one having the move, in every case, is to play with the white pieces." McCrary observes: Prior to that, it had gradually become conventional, over a number of years, to have White move first in published analysis, and by about 1862 to have White move first in all published games. But it was evident that players could in many cases choose Black when they had the first move, even if the published game-score indicated that White had moved first.  Three years after the example cited by McCrary, the "Revised International Chess Code" issued at the London 1883 tournament (one of the strongest in history) provided that the player who won by lot the right to move first had the choice of color.  In 1889 Wilhelm Steinitz, the first World Champion, wrote that "In all international and public Chess matches and tournaments... it is the rule for the first player to have the white men". Emanuel Lasker, the second World Champion, stated in "Lasker's Manual of Chess" (first published in 1927) that "White makes the first move".

First-move advantage.

There has been a debate among chess players since at least 1846 about whether playing first gives White a significant advantage. Statistical analysis shows that White scores between 52 and 56 percent at most levels of play, with White's margin increasing as the standard of play improves.

In chess, the player who moves first is referred to as "White" and the player who moves second is referred to as "Black". Similarly, the pieces that each conducts are called, respectively, "the white pieces" and "the black pieces". The pieces are often not literally white and black, but some other colors (usually a light color and a dark color, respectively). The 64 squares of the chessboard, which is colored in a checkered pattern, are likewise referred to as "white squares" or "light squares" on the one hand, and "black squares" or "dark squares" on the other. In most cases, the squares are not actually white and black, but a light color and a contrasting dark color. For example, the squares on plastic boards are often off-white ("buff") and green, while those on wood boards are often light brown and dark brown.

V šachu se začínající hráč označuje jako bílý a druhý hráč jako černý. Hráči se střídají po tahu. Pojmenování vzniklo po kontrastní barvě figur a šachovnice. Barvy figur často nejsou přímo bílé a černé (kupříkladu "bílé" figury jsou často světle hnědé), jako bílý se tedy označuje ta světlejší barva a jako černý ta tmavší. Pole šachovnice však většinou barevně odpovídají.


Geography.

Montluçon is located in the northwest of the Allier department near the frontier of the Centre-Val de Loire and Nouvelle Aquitaine regions.  Montluçon is linked with surrounding regions and towns via four main road axes, plus the highway A71 from Orléans to Clermont-Ferrand; through a railway linking in the North Vierzon then Paris (3-5h). Formerly the canal de Berry linked Montluçon towards the north.  Montluçon is south of Bourges, from Paris, from Clermont-Ferrand, (3h) from Lyon, (2h) from Limoges and from the Atlantic coast.  Montluçon is close to the "Méridienne verte" (an architectural project marking the Paris meridian) and to the Greenwich meridian.  Montluçon is also close to the geographic centre of Metropolitan France.

History.

Early history.

Montluçon was built in the Middle Ages. The first mention of a place called "Monte Lucii" (Mont de Lucius) dates from the eleventh century. Guillaume, son of Archambaud IV of Bourbon, built the castle in a defensible position on a small rocky hill on a bend in the Cher River.  The town, which formed part of the duchy of Bourbon, was taken by the English in 1171, and by Philip Augustus in 1181; the English were finally driven out in the 14th century.  In the 14th century, Louis II de Bourbon re-built the castle and walls. Montluçon and other Bourbon lands reverted to the French crown in 1529, and Henry IV further improved the defenses.  Montluçon became the administrative seat of the area in 1791, then entered the industrial era thanks to the presence of coalpits distant in Commentry, the Canal de Berry in 1830 and the railway in 1864. These transport links allowed the import of ore and export of coal, wood and manufactured goods. The population grew from 5000 inhabitants in 1830 to 50 000 in 1950.

World War II.

During the Second World War, the Germans occupied the Dunlop tyre plant (even though Montluçon was in the free zone) to exploit the research laboratory to synthesize rubber, since natural rubber could not be imported by the Nazis. The manufacturing of tyres for Luftwaffe aircraft was also of interest for the Nazis.  For this reason, the Allies bombed the site on 12–16 September 1943, as well as part of the nearby town Saint-Victor, causing 36 deaths and injuring more than 250 civilians.  A notable act of resistance occurred in the city on January 6, 1943 when a mob of citizens overran guards supervising a massive deportation of men to Germany in accordance with the "Service de Travail Obligatoire" (Obligatory Work Service) plan that sent able Frenchmen to fill vacancies in German factories during the war. All the men who were to be deported managed to escape into the countryside, evading the forced industrial service awaiting them in the Reich.

Post-World War II.

Since 1945, traditional industry (blast furnaces and glassware) has declined. Today Montluçon has chemical industries, tyre manufacture (Dunlop), and electronics (Sagem), and more recently a technopole at La Loue was established for high-tech companies.  New Zealand-born Australian Nancy Wake, the most decorated woman of World War II, led her small army of resistance fighters in the countryside around Montluçon. On March 11, 2013 Nancy Wake's ashes were scattered in a small wood outside Montluçon. The ceremony was followed by a civic reception in the town. Wake died in August 2011, aged 98.

Transportation.

Air.

There is a small airport from Montluçon (Montluçon - Guéret Airport) with flights mainly for Paris, and a smaller aerodrome in Montluçon itself (Montluçon - Domérat Aerodrome). The nearest international airports are Clermont-Ferrand Airport and Limoges Airport.

Road.

Montluçon is linked to French and European road networks, by three major routes:

Rail.

The Gare de Montluçon-Ville railway station is served by three main passenger rail lines.

City buses.

Montluçon's local buses are run by Maelis.

Sights.

The upper town, on the right bank of the Cher, consists of steep, narrow, winding streets, and preserves several buildings of the 15th and 16th centuries. The lower town, traversed by the Cher, is the industrial zone.  The church of Notre-Dame dates from the fourteenth century, the church of St Pierre partly from the 12th. The town hall, with a library, occupies the site of an old Ursuline convent, and two other convents are used as a college and hospital. Overlooking the town is the castle rebuilt by Louis II, Duke of Bourbon, and taken by Henry IV during the French Wars of Religion; it serves as a barracks.

International relations.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Montluçon is twinned with:

Miscellaneous.

Administration: Montluçon is a sub-prefecture and has courts, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce and several schools (general public, private, commercial).  Sport:

Personalities.

Montluçon was the birthplace of:

Montluçon (; ) is a commune in central France on the Cher river. It is the largest commune in the Allier department, although the department's préfecture is located in the smaller town of Moulins. Its inhabitants are known as "Montluçonnais". The town is in the traditional province of Bourbonnais and was part of the mediaeval duchy of Bourbon.

Montluçon (okcitánsky: "Montluçon" [munljyˈsu / məljyˈsu]) je město ve Francii. Leží v regionu Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, départementu Allier. Je centrem arrondissementu Montluçon. V roce 2011 zde žilo 38 166 obyvatel, kteří se nazývají "Montluçonnais". Městem protéká řeka Cher. Montluçon láká turisty především svým zachovalým středověkým historickým jádrem.


Overview.

The rubric "cultural" anthropology is generally applied to ethnographic works that are holistic in spirit, oriented to the ways in which culture affects individual experience, or aim to provide a rounded view of the knowledge, customs, and institutions of a people. "Social" anthropology is a term applied to ethnographic works that attempt to isolate a particular system of social relations such as those that comprise domestic life, economy, law, politics, or religion, give analytical priority to the organizational bases of social life, and attend to cultural phenomena as somewhat secondary to the main issues of social scientific inquiry.  Sociocultural anthropology, which we understand to include linguistic anthropology, is concerned with the problem of difference and similarity within and between human populations. The discipline arose concomitantly with the expansion of European colonial empires, and its practices and theories have been questioned and reformulated along with processes of decolonization. Such issues have re-emerged as transnational processes have challenged the centrality of the nation-state to theorizations about culture and power. New challenges have emerged as public debates about multiculturalism, and the increasing use of the culture concept outside of the academy and among peoples studied by anthropology. These are not "business-as-usual" times in the academy, in anthropology, or in the world, if ever there were such times.  Questions about cultural processes and theorizing about "human nature" escape the boundaries of anthropology as a discipline. The major paradigms framing cultural difference and human universals are profoundly contested; migrations, political collapses and social reorganizations transform the context in which the production of cultural meanings and theories of culture have been embedded and reproduced. For many of us, this is a moment in which it is necessary to take up the sort of broad challenges with which our disciplinary predecessors struggled – to redefine the field of inquiry and research in relation to debates that have enormous significance in our own lives and those of the people we study.

Sociocultural anthropology is a portmanteau used to refer to social anthropology and cultural anthropology together. Some universities, such as Boston University and New York University, link them together into one major of study.

Kulturní a sociální antropologie je společenská věda, která se zabývá lidskými kulturami, jejich vznikem a vývojem, srovnáváním různých kultur a významem kultury pro člověka. Na rozdíl od sociologie však vychází od jednotlivce a klade důraz na to, jak lidé svým kulturám a společnostem sami rozumějí. Proto se zajímá také o historii a místní tradice.


Overview.

The Big Crunch scenario hypothesized that the density of matter throughout the universe is sufficiently high that gravitational attraction will overcome the expansion which began with the Big Bang. The FLRW cosmology can predict whether the expansion will eventually stop based on the average energy density, Hubble parameter, and cosmological constant. If the metric expansion stopped, then contraction will inevitably follow, accelerating as time passes and finishing the universe in a kind of gravitational collapse.  A more specific theory called "Big Bounce" proposes that the universe could collapse to the state where it began and then initiate another Big Bang, so in this way the universe would last forever, but would pass through phases of expansion (Big Bang) and contraction (Big Crunch).  Experimental evidence in the late 1990s and early 2000s (namely the observation of distant supernovae as standard candles, and the well-resolved mapping of the cosmic microwave background) led to the conclusion that the expansion of the universe is not being slowed by gravity but is instead accelerating. The 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to researchers who contributed to making this discovery.  However, Roger Penrose advances a general relativity based theory (called the conformal cyclic cosmology) in which the universe expands until all the matter decays and is turned to light. Since nothing in the universe would have any time or distance scale associated with it, it becomes identical with the Big Bang (resulting in a type of Big Crunch which becomes the next Big Bang, thus starting the next cycle).

The Big Crunch is a hypothetical scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the expansion of the universe eventually reverses and the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the cosmic scale factor to reach zero, an event potentially followed by a reformation of the universe starting with another Big Bang. The vast majority of evidence indicates that this theory is not correct. Instead, astronomical observations show that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, rather than being slowed by gravity, suggesting that a Big Chill or Big Rip are far more likely to occur.

Velký křach (též Velký krach) je označení pro model budoucího vývoje vesmíru, který počítá s tím, že se jeho rozpínání zastaví a přejde ve smršťování, které nevyhnutelně skončí zánikem veškeré hmoty v singularitě.


Development of the character.

The origins of the character of Ded Moroz predates Christianity as a Slavic wizard of winter. According to some sources in Slavic mythology, Ded Moroz, back then also called Morozko or Ded, is a snow demon. However, before the Christianity of Rus' the term demon had no negative connotation. Like with many other mythical figures only over time demons were attributed negative characteristics.  Under the influence of Orthodox traditions, the character of Ded Moroz was transformed. Since the 19th century the attributes and legend of Ded Moroz have been shaped by literary influences. The play "Snegurochka" by Aleksandr Ostrovsky was influential in this respect, as was Rimsky-Korsakov's "Snegurochka" with libretto based on the play. By the end of the 19th century Ded Moroz became a popular character. Following the Russian Revolution, Christmas traditions were actively discouraged because they were considered to be "bourgeois and religious". Similarly, in 1928 Ded Moroz was declared "an ally of the priest and "kulak"". Nevertheless, the image of Ded Moroz took its current form during Soviet times, becoming the main symbol of the New Year's holiday (Novy God) that replaced Christmas. Some Christmas traditions were revived following the famous letter by Pavel Postyshev, published in "Pravda" on December 28, 1935. Postyshev believed that the origins of the holiday, which were pre-Christian, were less important than the benefits it could bring to Soviet children.

In modern Russia.

Ded Moroz is very popular in modern Russia. In 1998, the town of Veliky Ustyug in Vologda Oblast, Russia was declared the home of the Russian Ded Moroz by Yury Luzhkov, then Mayor of Moscow. Between 2003 and 2010, the post office in Veliky Ustyug received approximately 2,000,000 letters from within Russia and from all over the world for Ded Moroz. On January 7, 2008, then President Putin of the Russian Federation visited Ded Moroz' residence in the town of Veliky Ustyug as part of the Russian Orthodox Christmas Eve celebration.  The western Santa Claus made inroads in the Russian Federation during the "turbulent" 1990s when Western culture increased its penetration into the post-Soviet Russia. The resurgence of Russia in the early 21st century brought about a renewed emphasis on the basic Slavic character of Ded Moroz. This included the Russian Federation and subordinate governments sponsoring courses about Ded Moroz every December, with the aim of establishing appropriate Slavic norms for Ded Moroz and Snegurochka ("Snow Maiden" - Ded Moroz' granddaughter) roles for the New Year holiday. People playing Ded Moroz and Snegurochka now typically make appearances at children's parties during the winter holiday season, distributing presents and fighting off the wicked witch, Baba Yaga, who children are told wants to steal the gifts.  In November and December 2010, Ded Moroz was one of the candidates in the running for consideration as a mascot for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia.

Variations of Ded Moroz in ethnic minority groups of Russia.

Many ethnic minorities have for linguistic reasons other names for Ded Moroz or even have their own culture-equivalent counterparts to Ded Moroz. For example, in Bashkir Ded Moroz is known as "Ҡыш бабай" ("Qïš babay", literally: "Winter Old Man"), in Tatar it has similar spelling "Qış Babay" ("Кыш бабай") with the same meaning. In Nenets he is known as "Yamal Iri" ("Grandfather of Yamal"). The Yakut indigenous people have their own counterpart to Ded Moroz, which is called "Chys Khaan" ("Master of Cold").

International relations of Ded Moroz.

Ded Moroz, and on occasion the Belarus "Dzied Maroz", are presented in the media as being in on-going détente with various counterparts from other cultures, such as the Estonian Santa Claus ("Jõuluvana" or "Old man of Christmas"), the Finnish Santa Claus ("Joulupukki" or "Yule Goat"), and other Santa Claus, Father Christmas, and Saint Nicholas figures.<ref name="Estonia/Russia: Santa Claus Shakes Hands With Father Frost – Jan 1, 2006"></ref> The détente efforts portrayed have included one-on-one meetings, group meetings and friendly competitions, such as the annual November Santa Claus championships of Celle, Germany.

GLONASS Tracks Ded Moroz.

In November 2009, for the first time, the Russian Federation offered competition to NORAD Tracks Santa with GLONASS Tracks Ded Moroz, which purports to use GLONASS (GLObal NAvigation Satellite System or "the Russian GPS") to track Ded Moroz on New Year's Eve (according to the Gregorian Calendar).  The Russian-language website provides "real-time tracking" of Ded Moroz, "news" of Ded Moroz throughout the year, a form to send e-mail to Ded Moroz, photos, videos, streaming audio of Russian songs, poems and verses from children's letters to Ded Moroz, information on Veliky Ustyug in Vologda Oblast (considered to be Ded Moroz's hometown) and opportunities to enter competitions and win prizes.

Regional differences and controversies.

There are equivalents of Ded Moroz and Snegurochka all over the former USSR, as well as the countries once in the so-called Eastern bloc and in the former Yugoslavia. After the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, some of these countries made efforts to move away from Soviet and Russian heritage toward their own ancient traditions.

Armenia.

The Armenian name for Ded Moroz is Dzmer Pap, literally Grandfather Winter. His loyal granddaughter Dzyunanushik, whose name means Snow Sweetie, or Snow Anush (a popular Armenian female name), is another counterpart of Snegurochka. The tradition was set throughout the times of the Russian Empire after the Russo-Persian War (1826-1828), when Eastern Armenia was joined to Russia according to the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay.  For almost 160 years of influence Dzmer Pap and Dzyunanushik have hardly changed their appearance or behavior: they come in red, blue or white winter fur coats and, bringing presents to children, expect them to sing songs or recite poems. They are parts of New Year and Christmas matinées and shows in Armenia. In the recent decades well-off parents have developed a tradition to invite Dzmer Pap and Dzyunanushik to their children.

Azerbaijan.

In Azerbaijani, Ded Moroz is known as "Şaxta Baba" ("Grandfather Frost") and his companion Snegurochka is known as "Qar Qızı" ("Snow Girl"). In the predominantly Muslim but secular country, where Christians are a very small minority, this tradition remains very popular. "Şaxta Baba" brings gifts to children at New Year celebrations, however "Qar Qızı" is rarely present at the festivities.

Belarus.

Ded Moroz is "Dzied Maroz" () in Belarusian language. He is not a historical folkloric Belarusian character, but was a replacement of the local Śviaty Mikałaj – whom Soviet authorities disapproved for its Christian origins.  The official residence of "Dzied Maroz" in Belarus is declared to be in Bialowieza Forest.

Bulgaria.

The Bulgarian name of Santa Claus is Дядо Коледа ("Dyado Koleda", Grandfather Koleda), with "Dyado Mraz" (Дядо Мраз, "Grandfather Frost") being a similar Russian-imported character lacking the Christian connotations and thus popular during Communist rule. However, he has been largely forgotten since 1989, when "Dyado Koleda" again returned as the more popular figure.

Former Yugoslavia.

In socialist Yugoslavia (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and Slovenia) the character who was said to bring gifts to children was called "Grandfather Frost" (Bosnian: "Djed Mraz" or "Djeda Mraz"; Croatian: "Djed Mraz"; Macedonian: Дедо Мраз ("Dedo Mraz"); Montenegrin: "Đed Mraz"; Serbian: Деда Мраз ("Deda Mraz"); Slovenian: "Dedek Mraz"). He was said to bring gifts for the New Year because public celebration of Christmas was frowned upon during communism.  In Croatia after the breakup of Yugoslavia, "Djed Mraz" was labeled communist creation and "Djed Božićnjak" (literally: "Grandfather Christmas") was introduced. Attempts were made in the mass media and advertising to replace "Djed Mraz" with "Djed Božićnjak". After 1999 the names of "Djed Mraz" and "Djed Božićnjak" became more or less synonymous, including in their use on public television. In some families "Djed Mraz" is still said to brings gifts at New Year. In Croatia, children also get presents on December 6. Due to historical influence of Austrian culture in parts of Croatia, presents are also said to be brought by a traditional figure called "Sveti Nikola" ("Saint Nicholas") who closely resembles "Djed Mraz" or "Djed Božićnjak", except for the fact that he is accompanied by Krampus who takes misbehaving children away, another character from Central European folklore. In some religious families, little Jesus (Isusek, Mali Isus, Kriskindl) is said to brings gifts at Christmas instead of "Djed Božićnjak". Also, in some parts of Dalmatia the gifts are brought by Sveta Lucija ("Saint Lucy")..

Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

Ayaz Ata is the Kazakh and Kyrgyz name for Ded Moroz.

Mongolia.

Since the introduction and familiarization of Russian culture during the socialist era, Mongolia has been celebrating the New Year's festivities as a formal holiday. "Өвлийн өвгөн" (Grandfather Winter) is the Mongolian equivalent of Ded Moroz, who brings children and adult alike gifts on New Year's Eve.

Poland.

While there is no traditional analog of Ded Moroz in Polish folklore, there was an attempt to introduce him as "Dziadek Mróz" during the communist period. Communists, opposed to religion in general, considered Christmas and traditional "Święty Mikołaj" (Saint Nicholas) "ideologically hostile". Therefore, propaganda attempted to replace him with Dziadek Mróz. Authorities often insisted on using the figure in schools and preschools during celebrations and events for children. This was also supposed to create an illusion of cultural links with the Soviet Union.

Romania.

In 1948, after the Communists gained power in Romania, it was decided that Christmas should not be celebrated. December 25 and December 26 became working days and no official celebrations were to be held. As a replacement for "Moş Crăciun" (Father Christmas), a new character was introduced, "Moş Gerilă" (literally "Old Man Frosty", a Romanian language adaptation of the Russian Ded Moroz). He was said to bring gifts to children on December 31.  Officially, the New Year's Day celebrations began on 30 December, which was named the Day of the Republic, since it was the day when King Mihai I of Romania abdicated in 1947.  After the Romanian Revolution of 1989, "Moş Gerilă" lost his influence, being replaced by "Moş Crăciun".

Sakha Republic.

Chys Khan is known as the master of cold, accompanied by the snow maiden Khaarchana.

Slovenia.

In Slovenia, the name "Ded Moroz" was translated from Russian as "Dedek Mraz" (literally, "Grandpa Frost"). "Dedek Mraz" is depicted as a slim man wearing a grey leather coat, which has fur inside and is decorated outside, and a round dormouse fur cap. This version of the character is based on traditional imagery, especially as depicted by Maksim Gaspari in images commissioned in 1952. Although the name was translated literally from the Soviet figure, other names for the character were also considered: "Sneženi mož" ("the Snow Man") and "oca Triglav" ("Daddy Triglav"). A female figure names "babica Zima" (Grandma Winter) was also proposed. Initially he was said to live in Siberia, but with the Informbiro crisis and the schism between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union his home was relocated to Mt. Triglav, Slovenia's (and also Yugoslavia's) highest peak. Public processions featuring the character began in Ljubljana in 1953. The notion of Grandpa Frost was ideologically useful because it served to reorient the December/January holidays away from religion (Saint Nicholas Day and Christmas) and towards the secular New Year. After the ousting of Communism at the beginning of the 1990s, two other "good old men" (as they are currently styled in Slovenian) reappeared in public: "Miklavž" ("Saint Nicholas") is said to bring presents on December 6, and "Božiček" ("Christmas man"; usually depicted as Santa Claus) on Christmas Eve. St. Nicholas has had a strong traditional presence in Slovenian ethnic territory and his feast day remained celebrated in family circles throughout the Communist period. Until the late 1940s it was also said in some areas of Slovenia that Christkind (called "Jezušček" ("little Jesus") or "Božiček") brought gifts on Christmas Eve. Slovenian families have different preferences regarding their gift-giver of choice, according to political or religious persuasion. Slovenian popular culture depicts Grandpa Frost, Saint Nicholas and Santa Claus as friends and has also started blending attributes of the characters, for example, mention of Santa's reindeer is sometimes mingled into the Grandpa Frost narrative at public appearances. Due to his non-religious character and strong institutionalization, Grandpa Frost continues to retain a public presence.

Tajikistan.

In Tajikistan the tradition of Ded Moroz has continued. In Tajik, Ded Moroz is known as "Boboi Barfi" ("Grandfather Snow"), and Snegurochka is called "Barfak" ("Snowball").  In 2012, a young man dressed as Ded Moroz was stabbed to death in Dushanbe by a crowd shouting "You infidel!". The murder was motivated by religious hatred, according to the Tajik police.  On 11 December 2013, Saidali Siddiqov, the first deputy head of the Committee for TV and Radio-broadcasting under the Government of Tajikistan, announced in an interview that "Father Frost, his maiden sidekick Snegurochka (Maiden Snow), and New Year’s tree will not appear on the state television this year, because these personages and attributes bear no direct relation to our national traditions, though there is no harm in them". However next day this was denounced, and planned celebrations did include these despite objections of some religious figures.

Ukraine.

Since the breakup of the USSR and especially in the recent years, there has been a shift from Ded Moroz, which came to be associated with the Soviet-era heritage, to more traditional Saint Nicholas (Святий Миколай, "Sviatyi Mykolai"), which used to be more popular in Western Ukraine. There were rumors that Ded Moroz imagery was discouraged by the authorities due to conflict with Russia. The Ukrainian Ministry of Culture refuted this.

Uzbekistan.

In 2012, Uzbekistan, a largely Muslim nation, moved away from celebrating Christmas and its historical characters.

Ded Moroz (, "Ded Moroz" ;, "Dzyed Maróz";, "Did Moróz"; Russian diminutive, "Dédushka Moróz"; / "Deda Mraz"; / "Dyado Mraz"; ; ; ; Morozko ()) is a legendary figure similar to Father Christmas and Santa Claus who has his roots in Slavic paganism mythology. The tradition of Ded Moroz is mostly spread in East Slavic countries and is an important part of Russian culture. Although at the beginning of the Soviet era communists banned Ded Moroz he soon became an important part of the Soviet culture. The literal translation is "Grandfather Frost".

Děda Mráz ( "Děd Maroz") je zosobnění ruské legendy ve slovanské mytologii. Představuje období zimy nebo kováře. Jeho bratrem je bůh Vichr. U východních Slovanů je to stařec, který jezdí na saních se spřežením bílých koní a přináší zimní počasí. O pravoslavných Vánocích se mu proto obětovala kaše nebo kyselo. Původně však byl krutým a zlým pohanským božstvem, Velkým Starcem Severu, vládcem ledového chladu a sněhové bouře, která mrazí.


Etymology.

The name of the site in the XIV century was "Petras Albas", Latin for "white stones." The original name devolved into the current one.

History.

The monastery was founded by King James II of Aragon for his wife Elisenda de Montcada in 1326. It housed a community of Poor Clares, mostly members of noble families. The queen gave the monastery a series of privileges, including the direct protection of the city of Barcelona, through the Consell de Cent ("Council of the Hundred"), who had the task to defend it in case of danger. Elisenda also built a palace annexed to the monastery, where she lived after her husband's death in 1327. She died there in 1367. The remains of the palace were discovered in the 1970s.  During the Catalan Revolt (1640), the nuns were expelled, but later returned. A small number of nuns still reside in the complex. The monastery was declared a national monument in 1991.

Overview.

Originally the monastery (built in white stone, "pertas albes" in Catalan, whence its denomination) was defended by a line of walls, of which today only two towers and one gate remain.  The church has a single nave, with rib vaults and a polygonal apse, and houses a Gothic retablo by Jaume Huguet. The façade is characterized by a large rose window. The cloister has three floors, and a length of 40 meters, with a central garden of orange trees and palms. It is formed by wide arches on columns, whose capitals are decorated with the emblems of the Kings of Aragon and the House of Montcada. The sepulchre of Queen Elisenda, in alabaster stone, is located in one of the cloister's wings.  Also notable is the Chapel of St. Michael, housing several fresco paintings by Ferrer Bassa. Dating to 1346, they show the influence of the Italian painter Giotto.  The former dormitory previously housed a permanent exhibition of painters such as Rubens, Canaletto, Tintoretto, Velázquez and Beato Angelico ("Virgin of the Humility", one of his masterworks).

The Monastery of Pedralbes is a Gothic monastery in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It is now a museum, housing permanent exhibitions on its own art and legacy as well as third-party special exhibitions from time to time. The Chapel of St. Michael was restored and re-opened in 2018.

Klášter byl založen roku 1326 aragonskou královnou Elisendou a byly do něj povolány sestry z Řádu svaté Kláry. Dominantou stavby je především křížová chodba a také gotický náhrobek zakladatelky.


Biography.

Ildefonso Falcones is the son of a lawyer and homemaker. He had a career as a rider at the age of 17, becoming the Junior Champion of Spain in show jumping, as well as excelling in field hockey. His career in sports ended with his father's death that same year. He studied at the College of San Ignacio's Jesuits in Spain. After which, he began his university studies, attempting to earn degrees in economics and law. He eventually decided to drop his studies in economics to balance his studies of law with a job at a bingo in Barcelona.  He currently practices law at his own law firm, located in the Ensanche district of Barcelona. And although he previously started his work in literature, for the past few years he has had to balance his work with his passion for writing books. It took him 5 years to finish his first novel.  Ideologically, he has always been a supporter of the People's Party. He supported Mariano Rajoy in 2008, the then People's Party candidate to the general elections of Spain, in a political act in the Santa Maria del Mar church together with other leaders of the People's Party of Catalonia, like Dolors Nadal and Daniel Sirera.  In 2015, Ildefonso Falcones was accused of defrauding the Spanish Treasury of 1,4 million euros between 2009 and 2011 by transferring the copyrights of his works to companies based outside of Spain. In 2016, the case was dismissed when the judge considered that the sale of the copyright for his first novel was in 2004, two years before its editorial success, showing that there was no intent to commit a "fraudulent and malicious manoeuver by said action". However, by February 2018 he was facing those charges again, which could attract a prison sentence of 9 years.

Ildefonso Falcones de Sierra (born 1958) is a Spanish lawyer and writer from Barcelona. He became famous with the historical thriller "Cathedral of the Sea", published in 2006, and set in medieval Barcelona. His second novel is "La mano de Fátima" (2009), his third "La Reina Descalza" (2013).

Ildefonso Falcones de Sierra (* 1959 v Barcelona) je španělský právník specializující se na občanské právo a autor historických románů "Katedrála moře", "Ruka Fátimy" a nejnověji "Bosá Královna". Momentálně je nejpřekládanějším španělským autorem v zahraničí – jeho dvou předcházejících románů se prodalo více než 8 miliónů výtisků ve více než 43 zemích a získal za ně mnoho prestižních ocenění. Je ženatý a má čtyři děti.


History.

In 1910 British physicist J. J. Thomson observed a release of positive ions and neutral atoms from a solid surface induced by ion bombardment. Improved vacuum pump technology in the 1940s enabled the first prototype experiments on SIMS by Herzog and Viehböck in 1949, at the University of Vienna, Austria. In the mid-1950s Honig constructed a SIMS instrument at RCA Laboratories in Princeton, New Jersey. Then in the early 1960s two SIMS instruments were developed independently. One was an American project, led by Liebel and Herzog, which was sponsored by NASA at GCA Corp, Massachusetts, for analyzing moon rocks, the other at the University of Paris-Sud in Orsay by R. Castaing for the PhD thesis of G. Slodzian. These first instruments were based on a magnetic double focusing sector field mass spectrometer and used argon for the primary beam ions. In the 1970s, K. Wittmaack and C. Magee developed SIMS instruments equipped with quadrupole mass analyzers. Around the same time, A. Benninghoven introduced the method of static SIMS, where the primary ion current density is so small that only a negligible fraction (typically 1%) of the first surface layer is necessary for surface analysis. Instruments of this type use pulsed primary ion sources and time-of-flight mass spectrometers and were developed by Benninghoven, Niehuis and Steffens at the University of Münster, Germany and also by Charles Evans & Associates. The Castaing and Slodzian design was developed in the 1960s by the French company CAMECA S.A.S. and used in materials science and surface science. Recent developments are focusing on novel primary ion species like C, ionized clusters of gold and bismuth, or large gas cluster ion beams (e.g., Ar). The sensitive high resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) is a large-diameter, double-focusing SIMS sector instrument based on the Liebl and Herzog design, and produced by Australian Scientific Instruments in Canberra, Australia.

Instrumentation.

A secondary ion mass spectrometer consists of (1) a primary ion gun generating the primary ion beam, (2) a primary ion column, accelerating and focusing the beam onto the sample (and in some devices an opportunity to separate the primary ion species by Wien filter or to pulse the beam), (3) high vacuum sample chamber holding the sample and the secondary ion extraction lens, (4) a mass analyser separating the ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio, and (5) a detector.

Vacuum.

SIMS requires a high vacuum with pressures below 10 Pa (roughly 10 mbar or torr). This is needed to ensure that secondary ions do not collide with background gases on their way to the detector (i.e. the mean free path of gas molecules within the detector must be large compared to the size of the instrument), and it also prevents surface contamination by adsorption of background gas particles during measurement.

Primary ion source.

Three types of ion guns are employed. In one, ions of gaseous elements are usually generated with duoplasmatrons or by electron ionization, for instance noble gases (Ar, Xe), oxygen (O, O, O), or even ionized molecules such as SF (generated from SF) or C (fullerene). This type of ion gun is easy to operate and generates roughly focused but high current ion beams. A second source type, the surface ionization source, generates Cs primary ions. Cesium atoms vaporize through a porous tungsten plug and are ionized during evaporation. Depending on the gun design, fine focus or high current can be obtained. A third source type, the liquid metal ion gun (LMIG), operates with metals or metallic alloys, which are liquid at room temperature or slightly above. The liquid metal covers a tungsten tip and emits ions under influence of an intense electric field. While a gallium source is able to operate with elemental gallium, recently developed sources for gold, indium and bismuth use alloys which lower their melting points. The LMIG provides a tightly focused ion beam (<50 nm) with moderate intensity and is additionally able to generate short pulsed ion beams. It is therefore commonly used in static SIMS devices.  The choice of the ion species and ion gun respectively depends on the required current (pulsed or continuous), the required beam dimensions of the primary ion beam and on the sample which is to be analyzed. Oxygen primary ions are often used to investigate electropositive elements due to an increase of the generation probability of positive secondary ions, while caesium primary ions often are used when electronegative elements are being investigated. For short pulsed ion beams in static SIMS, LMIGs are most often deployed for analysis; they can be combined with either an oxygen gun or a caesium gun during elemental depth profiling, or with a C or gas cluster ion source during molecular depth profiling.

Mass analyzer.

Depending on the SIMS type, there are three basic analyzers available: sector, quadrupole, and time-of-flight. A sector field mass spectrometer uses a combination of an electrostatic analyzer and a magnetic analyzer to separate the secondary ions by their mass-to-charge ratio. A quadrupole mass analyzer separates the masses by resonant electric fields, which allow only the selected masses to pass through. The time of flight mass analyzer separates the ions in a field-free drift path according to their velocity. Since all ions possess the same kinetic energy the velocity and therefore time of flight varies according to mass. It requires pulsed secondary ion generation using either a pulsed primary ion gun or a pulsed secondary ion extraction. It is the only analyzer type able to detect all generated secondary ions simultaneously, and is the standard analyzer for static SIMS instruments.

Detector.

A Faraday cup measures the ion current hitting a metal cup, and is sometimes used for high current secondary ion signals. With an electron multiplier an impact of a single ion starts off an electron cascade, resulting in a pulse of 10 electrons which is recorded directly. A microchannel plate detector is similar to an electron multiplier, with lower amplification factor but with the advantage of laterally-resolved detection. Usually it is combined with a fluorescent screen, and signals are recorded either with a CCD-camera or with a fluorescence detector.

Detection limits and sample degradation.

Detection limits for most trace elements are between 10 and 10 atoms per cubic centimetre, depending on the type of instrumentation used, the primary ion beam used and the analytical area, and other factors. Samples as small as individual pollen grains and microfossils can yield results by this technique.  The amount of surface cratering created by the process depends on the current (pulsed or continuous) and dimensions of the primary ion beam. While only charged secondary ions emitted from the material surface through the sputtering process are used to analyze the chemical composition of the material, these represent a small fraction of the particles emitted from the sample.

Static and dynamic modes.

In the field of surface analysis, it is usual to distinguish "static SIMS" and "dynamic SIMS". Static SIMS is the process involved in surface atomic monolayer analysis, or surface molecular analysis, usually with a pulsed ion beam and a time of flight mass spectrometer, while dynamic SIMS is the process involved in bulk analysis, closely related to the sputtering process, using a DC primary ion beam and a magnetic sector or quadrupole mass spectrometer.

Applications.

The COSIMA instrument onboard Rosetta was the first instrument to determine the composition of cometary dust in situ with secondary ion mass spectrometry during the spacecraft's 2014-2016 close approaches to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko.  SIMS is used for quality assurance purposes in the semiconductor industry and for the characterization of natural samples from this planet and others. More recently, this technique is being applied to nuclear forensics.

Secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) is a technique used to analyze the composition of solid surfaces and thin films by sputtering the surface of the specimen with a focused primary ion beam and collecting and analyzing ejected secondary ions. The mass/charge ratios of these secondary ions are measured with a mass spectrometer to determine the elemental, isotopic, or molecular composition of the surface to a depth of 1 to 2 nm. Due to the large variation in ionization probabilities among different materials, SIMS is generally considered to be a qualitative technique, although quantitation is possible with the use of standards. SIMS is the most sensitive surface analysis technique, with elemental detection limits ranging from parts per million to parts per billion.

Hmotnostní spektrometrie sekundárních iontů,, zkráceně SIMS, je technika sloužící k analýze složení povrchů pevných látek a tenkých vrstev pomocí vyprašování povrchu bombardujícími ionty a shromažďováním (analyzováním) vyražených sekundárních iontů. Sekundární ionty emitované z povrchu materiálu pomocí "vyprašovacího" procesu se používají k analýze chemického složení materiálu. Tyto částice však představují jen malý zlomek částic emitovaných ze vzorku. Sekundární ionty se měří hmotnostním spektrometrem určující prvkové, izotopové, nebo molekulární složení povrchu. SIMS je jedna z nejcitlivějších analýz povrchů, která je schopna detekovat prvky, i když jsou přítomny řádově jen v nanometrových oblastech.