Common names.

Indicative of its familiarity to many people over a large geographic range, "A. negundo" has numerous common names. The names "box elder" and "boxelder maple" are based upon the similarity of its whitish wood to that of boxwood and the similarity of its pinnately compound leaves to those of some species of elder.  Other common names are based upon this maple's similarity to ash, its preferred environment, its sugary sap, a description of its leaves, its binomial name, and so on. These names include "Manitoba maple", "ash-leaf maple", "cut-leaved maple", "three-leaf maple", "ash maple", "sugar maple", "negundo maple", and "river maple".  Names vary regionally. Box elder, boxelder maple, ash-leaved maple, and maple ash are among its common names in the United States. In Canada it is commonly known as Manitoba maple and occasionally as elf maple. in the British Isles it is known as box elder or ashleaf maple. In Russia it is known as American maple () as well as ash-leaf maple ().

Description.

"Acer negundo" is a fast-growing and fairly short-lived tree that grows up to tall, with a trunk diameter of }, rarely up to } diameter. It often has several trunks and can form impenetrable thickets. The typical lifespan of box elder is only 60 years. Under exceptionally favorable conditions, it may live to 100 years.  The shoots are green, often with a whitish to pink or violet waxy coating when young. Branches are smooth, somewhat brittle, and tend to retain a fresh green color rather than forming a bark of dead, protective tissue. The bark on its trunks is pale gray or light brown, deeply cleft into broad ridges, and scaly.  Unlike most other maples (which usually have simple, palmately lobed leaves), "Acer negundo" has pinnately compound leaves that usually have three to seven leaflets. Simple leaves are also occasionally present; technically, these are single-leaflet compound leaves. Although some other maples (such as "Acer griseum", "Acer mandshuricum" and the closely related "A. cissifolium") have trifoliate leaves, only "A. negundo" regularly displays more than three leaflets. The leaflets are about } long and } wide with slightly serrate margins. Leaves have a translucent light green color and turn yellow in the fall.  The yellow-green flowers are small and appear in early spring, with staminate flowers in clusters on slender pedicels and pistillate flowers on drooping racemes } long.  The fruits are paired samaras on drooping racemes, each seed slender, } long, with a } incurved wing; they drop in autumn or they may persist through winter. Seeds are usually both prolific and fertile.  Unlike most other maples, "A. negundo" is fully dioecious and both a male and female tree are needed for reproduction to occur.

Taxonomy.

A few botanists treat boxelder maple in its own distinct genus ("Negundo aceroides") but this is not widely accepted.

Subspecies.

"Acer negundo" is often divided into three subspecies, each of which was originally described as a separate species. These are:  Some authors further subdivide "A. negundo" subsp. "negundo" into a number of regional varieties but these intergrade and their maintenance as distinct taxa is disputed by many. Even the differences between recognized subspecies are probably a matter of gradient speciation.

Distribution and habitat.

"Acer negundo" is native across much of the United States and Canada, and can be found as far south as Guatemala.  Although native to North America, it is considered a weedy species in some areas, such as in parts of the Northeastern United States, and has increased greatly in these areas. In 1928, Joseph Illick, chief forester for the state of Pennsylvania, wrote in "Pennsylvania Trees" that box elder was "rare and localized" in the state. After World War II, box elder's rapid growth made it a popular landscaping tree in suburban housing developments despite its poor form, vulnerability to storm damage, and tendency to attract large numbers of box elder beetles. Intentional cultivation has thus made the tree far more abundant than it once was.  It can quickly colonize both cultivated and uncultivated areas and the range is therefore expanding both in North America and elsewhere. In Europe where it was introduced in 1688 as a park tree it is able to spread quickly and is considered an invasive species in parts of Central Europe, including Germany, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia, and Poland) where it can form mass growth in lowlands, disturbed areas, and riparian biomes on calcareous soils. It has also become naturalized in eastern China and can be found in some of the cooler areas of the Australian continent where it is listed as a pest invasive species.  This species prefers bright sunlight. It often grows on flood plains and other disturbed areas with ample water supply, such as riparian habitats. Human influence has greatly favored this species; it grows around houses and in hedges, as well as on disturbed ground and vacant lots.

Ecology.

Several birds and some squirrels feed on the seeds. The evening grosbeak uses them extensively.  The boxelder bug ("Boisea trivittata") lays its eggs on all maples, but prefers this species, clustering the eggs in bark crevices. The rosy maple moth ("Dryocampa rubicunda") also lays its eggs on the leaves of maple trees, including "Acer negundo". The larvae feed on the leaves, and in very dense populations can cause defoliation.  Small galls are formed on the leaves by a bladder mite, "Aceria negundi". A gall midge, "Contarinia negundinis" joins and enlarges the galls of "Aceria negundi". The midge sometimes creates a separate, tubular gall on the midrib or veins of the undersides of the leaves.  The cottony maple leaf scale, "Pulvinaria acericola", occurs on the foliage of "Acer negundo". A leaf spot fungus, "Septoria negundinis" creates black-ringed lesions on the leaves.

Uses.

Wood.

Although its light, close-grained, soft wood is considered undesirable for most commercial uses, this tree has been considered as a source of wood fiber, for use in fiberboard. There is also some commercial use of the tree for various decorative applications, such as turned items (bowls, stem-ware, pens). Such purposes generally use burl or injured wood, as the injured wood develops a red stain.  The wood has been used for a variety of purposes by Native Americans, such as by the Navajo to make tubes for bellows, by the Cheyenne to make bowls, and by the native peoples of Montana who use the large trunk burls or knots to make bowls, dishes, drums, and pipe stems. The Tewa use the twigs as pipe stems and the Keres make the twigs into prayer sticks.  The Dakota people and the Omaha people make the wood into charcoal, which is used in ceremonial painting and tattooing. The Kiowa burn the wood in the altar fire during the peyote ceremony.  "Acer negundo" was identified as the material used in the oldest extant wood flutes from the Americas. The flutes, excavated by Earl H. Morris in 1931 in Northeastern Arizona, have been dated to 620–670 CE.

Medicinal use.

"Acer negundo" has been used by Native Americans for several medicinal purposes. The Cheyenne burn the wood as incense for making spiritual medicines, and during Sun Dance ceremonies. The Meskwaki use a decoction of the inner bark as an emetic, and the Ojibwa use an infusion of the inner bark for the same purpose.

As food.

The sap has been used to make syrup by Native Americans, including the Dakota, Omaha, Pawnee, the Ponca, Winnebago, Cree, Sioux, and the indigenous people of Montana. The Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache dry scrapings of the inner bark and keep it as winter food, and they also boil the inner bark until sugar crystallizes out of it. The Cheyenne mix the boiled sap with shavings from the inner sides of animal hides and eat them as candy. The Ojibwa mix the sap with that of the sugar maple and drink it as a beverage.

Cultivation.

Although its weak wood, irregular form, and prolific seeding might make it seem like a poor choice for a landscape tree, "A. negundo" is one of the most common maples in cultivation and many cultivars have been developed, such as:

Medical impacts.

Toxicology.

A protoxin present in the seeds of "Acer negundo", hypoglycin A, has been identified as a major risk factor for, and possibly the cause of, a disease in horses, seasonal pasture myopathy (SPM). SPM is an equine neurological disease which occurs seasonally in certain areas of North America and Europe, with symptoms including stiffness, difficulty walking or standing, dark urine and eventually breathing rapidly and becoming recumbent. Ingestion of sufficient quantities of box elder seeds or other parts of the plant results in breakdown of respiratory, postural, and cardiac muscles. The cause of SPM was unknown for centuries despite the disease being well known among affected areas and was only positively determined in the 21st century. It is analogous to Jamaican vomiting sickness in humans, also caused by hypoglycin A.

Allergenicity.

"Acer negundo" pollen is a severe allergen. Pollen is released in winter or spring, varying with latitude and elevation.

Acer negundo, the box elder, boxelder maple, Manitoba maple or ash-leaved maple, is a species of maple native to North America. It is a fast-growing, short-lived tree with opposite, compound leaves. It is sometimes considered a weedy or invasive species, and has been introduced to and naturalized throughout much of the world, including in South America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, much of Europe, and parts of Asia.

Javor jasanolistý ("Acer negundo") je listnatý, dvoudomý, opadavý strom z čeledi mýdelníkovité. Vzhledem k několika odlišnostem od ostatních javorů, popsaných zde níže, je některými autory (mj. 5. díl "Květeny ČR" z r. 1997) považován za samostatný druh javorovec jasanolistý ("Negundo aceroides").


Background and composition.

After attaining huge success with her debut album "...Baby One More Time" (1999) and its singles "...Baby One More Time", "Sometimes", "(You Drive Me) Crazy", "Born to Make You Happy", and "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart", Spears recorded much of her follow-up record "Oops!... I Did It Again" (2000) in November 1999 at the Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. Its title track was written and produced by Max Martin and Rami Yacoub, while background vocals were provided by Martin and Nana Hedin. The track was released on March 27, 2000, by JIVE Records as the lead single from the record.  "Oops!... I Did It Again" is a song that lasts for a duration of three minutes and thirty seconds. It is composed in the key of C minor and is set in time signature of common time, with a moderate tempo of 94 beats per minute. The song has a basic sequence of Cm–A-G as its chord progression, and features a vocal range spanning from C to C. Lyrically, the track discusses a female who toys with her lover's emotions, who mistakes Spears' flirtatiousness with a serious romantic interest. During its bridge, Spears delivers a spoken-word dialogue that references the blockbuster film "Titanic" (1997).

Critical reception.

Upon its release, "Oops!... I Did It Again" received generally favorable reviews from music critics. Writing for "Entertainment Weekly", David Browne called it "ludicrously derivative" of Spears' debut single "...Baby One More Time", and commented that it "amounts to nothing so much as a jailbait manifesto". Lennat Mak of the Asian division of MTV complimented the song as "a perfect 10 on the "wow" scale, with the wacky "Jack-Rose" dialogue", referencing the "Titanic" spoken lyrics.  A reviewer from "NME" compared the structure of the recording to '80s-style riffs of Michael Jackson and further described the track as a "harder, carbon copy" of "...Baby One More Time" that is "easily as good as her breakthrough single". Robert Christgau recognized "Oops!... I Did It Again" and Spears' rendition of "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" as his "choice cuts" from the parent album, Writing for "Rolling Stone", Rob Sheffield compared the track musically to Barbra Streisand's "Woman in Love" and lyrically to The Smiths' "I Started Something I Couldn't Finish", and complimented it for being "terrific" and displaying "a violently ambivalent sexual confusion her audience can relate to". Andy Battaglia of "Salon" described the track as a "sweetly sadistic companion piece to the masochism lite lurking beneath her debut '...Baby One More Time'".  "Oops!... I Did It Again" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2001 ceremony, but lost to "I Try" by Macy Gray. The track was additionally nominated for the Favorite Song at the 2001 Kids' Choice Awards broadcast on Nickelodeon, but lost to "Who Let the Dogs Out?" by the Baha Men.

Chart performance.

In the United States, "Oops!... I Did It Again" peaked at number nine on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It additionally peaked at numbers 1 and 27 on the "Billboard" Pop Songs and Adult Pop Songs component charts. In Canada, the track topped the Canadian Hot 100 for six weeks. It topped the singles charts in both Australia and New Zealand, and was certified platinum in the former country for reaching sales of 70,000 copies.  "Oops!... I Did It Again" enjoyed success throughout Europe, and peaked atop the European Hot 100 Singles chart. It also peaked at number one on the UK Singles Chart, and was certified Platinum for exceeding sales of 600,000 copies. As of June 2015, the song has sold 476,000 copies in the country. The song reached number two in Austria, where it was additionally recognized with platinum certification for sales of 15,000 units. It respectively peaked at numbers one and three on the Wallonia and Flanders charts in Belgium, and also respectively reached numbers one and two in Denmark and Finland.  "Oops!... I Did It Again" reached number four in France, and number two in both Germany and Ireland. In Germany, the single additionally received a gold certification, signifying sales of 250,000 units. It additionally topped singles charts in Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. The song was awarded gold certifications in the Netherlands and Switzerland, respectively marking sales of 40,000 and 15,000 copies, and attained platinum certification in Sweden for reaching sales of 20,000 units. As of May 2020, the single has generated over 240 million streams in the US.

Music video.

An accompanying music video for "Oops!... I Did It Again" was directed by Nigel Dick and was filmed in Universal City, California. It was choreographed by Tina Landon. During its production, Spears was struck in the head by a falling camera and began bleeding. Spears' mother Lynne (who was present) suggested that she might have suffered from a concussion, though she received four stitches and continued work after resting for four hours. Spears created the concept for the clip, commenting that "[she wanted] to be on Mars, dancing on Mars" and "[wanted] to be in a red jumpsuit". The final product premiered on April 10, 2000, on an episode of MTV's "Making the Video".  The music video begins with a brief scene of an astronaut on Mars uncovering a stone slate featuring the cover of the album "Oops!... I Did It Again". A scientist back on Earth sees it through a video transmitter and says, "Cute. What is it?" As the astronaut replies, "Oh, it's cute alright. It couldn't be...", the ground begins to shake as a large stage rises from the ground. Spears, with her hair ironed straight, then descends from a platform onto a stage in a red bodysuit as the track begins to play. As she continues to sing and dance, she suspends the astronaut mid-air above her. Interspersed throughout the video are scenes of Spears wearing a midriff-baring white top and skirt, lying barefoot on a white web pad with backup dancers on the ground around her. During its bridge, Spears does a flip in the air to where the astronaut is and appears in a white jacket, short black leather skirt, and leather boots. As a symbol of his love for her, the astronaut gifts Spears with the Heart of the Ocean, the blue diamond from the blockbuster film "Titanic" (1997). She questions that she "thought the old lady [Rose] dropped it into the ocean in the end", to which he responds, "Well, baby, I went down and got it for you". Spears comments "Aww, you shouldn't have" and walks away, the astronaut shrugs and leaves (this spoken interlude is also heard on the record). The video concludes as Spears and her performers continue to dance.  At the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards, the music video for "Oops!... I Did It Again" was nominated for the Best Female Video, Best Dance Video, the Best Pop Video, and the Viewer's Choice. However, she lost in each of the four categories.

Live performances.

The first performance of "Oops I Did It Again" was on March 8, 2000, during the Crazy 2k Tour in Pensacola, Florida. In May 2000, Spears performed "Oops!... I Did It Again" during several television performances, including "All That", "The Rosie O'Donnell Show", "Saturday Night Live", "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", "Total Request Live", and the two-hour concert special "Britney Live". The following month, she appeared in an additional television special, titled "Britney Spears in Hawaii". In collaboration with McDonald's, Spears and NSYNC filmed a commercial for the fast-food chain, where they lip-synced to "Oops!... I Did It Again" and "Bye Bye Bye", respectively.  On September 7, Spears performed "Oops!... I Did It Again" and her rendition of "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" by The Rolling Stones at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards, where she notably tore off her black suit to unveil a more provocative, flesh-colored two-piece. "Entertainment Weekly" included the performance on its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, describing "the pre-breakdown pop tart, then just 19 years old, writhing and shaking her moneymaker in nude-colored rhinestone spandex" to be "pure kitsch bliss".  Spears has performed "Oops!... I Did It Again" on three of her eight concert tours. She premiered the song on the Crazy 2k Tour and later included the track as the encore to her Oops!... I Did It Again Tour in 2000, where it was performed with special effects involving fire. In 2001, it was featured as the opening to her Dream Within a Dream Tour. In 2004, Spears sang "Oops!... I Did It Again" during The Onyx Hotel Tour, held in support of her fourth studio album "In the Zone". The track was reworked with "...Baby One More Time" as a jazz-style performance.  "Oops!... I Did It Again" would not be performed by Spears for nine years until it was included on the setlist of her Las Vegas residency show at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino.

Legacy.

Since its release, "Oops!... I Did It Again" has been covered on numerous occasions. In 2001, German singer Max Raabe recorded a cabaret version of the song with Palast Orchester for their album "Super Hits". Finnish melodic death metal band Children of Bodom also recorded a cover of the song for their album "Skeletons in the Closet" (2009), while Rochelle released three eurodance hi-NRG renditions of the track. Richard Thompson covered the song on his album "1000 Years of Popular Music" (2006), and in addition included a medieval-style version titled "Marry, Ageyn Hic Hev Donne Yt".  "Oops!... I Did It Again" has been featured on several television series. In 2004, it was included on the soundtrack for the sitcom "Will & Grace". Irish pop rap duo Jedward performed the song live during the sixth series of the British version of "The X Factor" in 2009. During the episode "Britney/Brittany" for "Glee" in 2010, Brittany Pierce (portrayed by Heather Morris) mimicked Spears as she danced in a red catsuit while performing her later single "I'm a Slave 4 U". The song itself was later performed by Rachel Berry (portrayed by Lea Michele) during the episode "Britney 2.0" in 2012. While of tour with her band The Scene, Selena Gomez covered "Oops!... I Did It Again" during their We Own the Night Tour in 2011.  Cover versions of the song appear on the video games "Dance Dance Revolution Extreme 2" (2005), Karaoke Revolution Volume 3 (2004), and "Just Dance 4" (2012), while Spears' original version is included on Singstar as DLC and her own video game "Britney's Dance Beat". In 2005, the comedy website Super Master Piece released parody version of "Oops!... I Did It Again" titled "Oops I Did It Again!: The Original", which they jokingly labeled as the original recording by Louis Armstrong on April 1932 in Chicago, Illinois; their version was actually recorded by Shek Baker. The track has also been parodied under the title "Oops! I Farted Again" by producer Bob Rivers.  In 2013, it was reported that "Oops!... I Did It Again" and "...Baby One More Time" has been used by the British Navy to scare off pirates near Somalia. "Oops!... I Did It Again" is referenced in the lyrics of Peeping Tom's 2006 single "Mojo" and Fall Out Boy's 2017 single "Young and Menace".  Anne Marie referenced the song on the chorus of her single "2002". Miley Cyrus' "Mother's Daughter" music video pays homage to the red latex suit Spears wore in the "Oops!... I Did It Again" music video.  In 2015, Postmodern Jukebox covered the song in the jazz style of Marilyn Monroe, with Haley Reinhart singing lead. The video amassed more than 28 million views by June 2020.

Credits and personnel.

Credits adapted from the liner notes of "Oops!... I Did It Again".

"Oops!... I Did It Again" is a song by American singer Britney Spears, from her second album of the same name. It was released on March 27, 2000, by Jive Records as the lead single from the album. The song was written and produced by Max Martin and Rami Yacoub. "Oops!... I Did It Again" is a song that lyrically speaks of a female who views love as a game, and she decides to use that to her advantage by playing with her lover's emotions. Its bridge features a dialogue which references the blockbuster film "Titanic" (1997).

Oops!... I Did It Again "(Ups, udělala jsem to zase)" je první píseň ze stejnojmenného alba Američanky Britney Spears, který vyšel v roce 2000.


Launch and initial berthing.

"Unity" was carried into orbit as the primary cargo of the on STS-88, the first Space Shuttle mission dedicated to assembly of the station. On December 6, 1998, the STS-88 crew mated the aft berthing port of "Unity" with the forward hatch of the already orbiting Zarya module. (Zarya was a mixed Russian-US funded and Russian-built component launched a few days before aboard a Russian Proton rocket from Baikonur, Kazakhstan.) This was the first connection made between two station modules.

Connecting modules and visiting vehicles.

"Unity" has two axial and four radial Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) ports. In addition to connecting to the "Zarya" module, "Unity" connects to the U.S. "Destiny" Laboratory Module (added on STS-98), the Z1 truss (an early exterior framework for the station added on STS-92), the PMA-3 (also added on STS-92), and the "Quest" Joint Airlock (added on STS-104). During STS-120 the "Harmony" module was temporarily berthed to the port-side hatch of "Unity". "Tranquility", with its multi-windowed cupola, was attached to "Unity"'s port side during the STS-130 mission, and PMM Leonardo was added to the nadir hatch during STS-133.  In addition, the "Leonardo" and "Raffaello" Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules were each berthed to "Unity" on multiple missions.

Details.

Essential space station resources such as fluids, environmental control and life support systems, electrical and data systems are routed through "Unity" to supply work and living areas of the station. More than 50,000 mechanical items, 216 lines to carry fluids and gases, and 121 internal and external electrical cables using six miles of wire were installed in the "Unity" node. It is made of aluminium and stainless steel. During the space station construction, a crew member placed two speed limit signs on the hatch (leading into the FGB) in 2003, noting the orbital velocity in mph and km/h.  Prior to its launch aboard "Endeavour", conical Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs) were attached to the aft and forward berthing mechanisms of "Unity". "Unity" and the two mating adapters together weighed about. The adapters allow the docking systems used by the Space Shuttle and by Russian modules to attach to the node's hatches and berthing mechanisms. PMA-1 now permanently attaches "Unity" to "Zarya", while PMA-2 provided a Shuttle docking port. Attached to the exterior of PMA-1 are computers, or multiplexer-demultiplexers (MDMs), which provided early command and control of "Unity". "Unity" also is outfitted with an early communications system that allows data, voice and low data rate video with Mission Control Houston, to supplement Russian communications systems during the early station assembly activities. PMA-3 was attached to "Unity"s nadir berthing mechanism by the crew of STS-92.

Other nodes.

The two remaining station connecting modules, or nodes, were manufactured in Italy by Alenia Aerospazio, as part of an agreement between NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). "Harmony" (also known as Node 2) and "Tranquility" (also known as Node 3) are slightly longer than "Unity", measuring almost long in total. In addition to their six berthing ports, each can hold eight International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs). Unity, in comparison, holds just four ISPRs. ESA built Nodes 2 and 3 as partial payment for the launch aboard the Shuttle of the "Columbus" laboratory module, and other ESA equipment.

The Unity connecting module, also known as Node 1, is the first U.S.-built component of the International Space Station. It connects the Russian and United States segments of the station, and is where crew eat meals together.

Unity (původně Node 1) je americký modul Mezinárodní vesmírné stanice. Slouží jako přechodový modul, který spojuje moduly Zarja, Destiny, Quest Joint Airlock Module a Node 3. Je na něm také upevněna příhradová konstrukce ITS-Z1.


Geology.

Formation.

The eruption was unexpected, and almost certainly began some days before it became apparent at the surface. The sea floor at the eruption site is below sea level, and at this depth volcanic emissions and explosions would be suppressed, quenched and dissipated by the water pressure and density. Gradually, as repeated flows built up a mound of material that approached sea level, the explosions could no longer be contained, and activity broke the surface.  The first noticeable indications of volcanic activity were recorded at the seismic station in Kirkjubæjarklaustur, Iceland from 6 to 8 November, which detected weak tremors emanating from an epicentre approximately west-south-west at a distance of, the location of Surtsey. Another station in Reykjavík recorded even weaker tremors for ten hours on 12 November at an undetermined location, when seismic activity ceased until 21 November. That same day, people in the coastal town of Vík away noticed a smell of hydrogen sulphide. On 13 November, a fishing vessel in search of herring, equipped with sensitive thermometers, noted sea temperatures SW of the eruption center were higher than surrounding waters.

Eruption at the surface.

At 07:15 UTC on 14 November 1963, the cook of "Ísleifur II", a trawler sailing these same waters, spotted a rising column of dark smoke southwest of the boat. The captain thought it might have been a boat on fire, and ordered his crew to investigate. Instead, they encountered explosive eruptions giving off black columns of ash, indicating that a volcanic eruption had begun to penetrate the surface of the sea. By 11:00 the same day, the eruption column had reached several kilometres in height. At first the eruptions took place at three separate vents along a northeast by southwest trending fissure, but by the afternoon the separate eruption columns had merged into one along the erupting fissure. Over the next week, explosions were continuous, and after just a few days the new island, formed mainly of scoria, measured over in length and had reached a height of.  As the eruptions continued, they became concentrated at one vent along the fissure and began to build the island into a more circular shape. By 24 November, the island measured about. The violent explosions caused by the meeting of lava and sea water meant that the island consisted of a loose pile of volcanic rock (scoria), which was eroded rapidly by North Atlantic storms during the winter. However, eruptions more than kept pace with wave erosion, and by February 1964, the island had a maximum diameter of over.  The explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions caused by the easy access of water to the erupting vents threw rocks up to a kilometre (0.6 mi) away from the island, and sent ash clouds as high as up into the atmosphere. The loose pile of unconsolidated tephra would quickly have been washed away had the supply of fresh magma dwindled, and large clouds of dust were often seen blowing away from the island during this stage of the eruption.  The new island was named after the fire jötunn Surtur from Norse mythology ("Surts" is the genitive case of "Surtur", plus -ey, "island"). Three French journalists representing the magazine "Paris Match" notably landed there on 6 December 1963, staying for about 15 minutes before violent explosions encouraged them to leave. The journalists jokingly claimed French sovereignty over the island, but Iceland quickly asserted that the new island belonged to it.

Permanent island.

By early 1964, though, the continuing eruptions had built the island to such a size that sea water could no longer easily reach the vents, and the volcanic activity became much less explosive. Instead, lava fountains and flows became the main form of activity. These resulted in a hard cap of extremely erosion-resistant rock being laid down on top of much of the loose volcanic pile, which prevented the island from being washed away rapidly. Effusive eruptions continued until 1965, by which time the island had a surface area of.  On 28 December 1963, submarine activity to the northeast of Surtsey caused the formation of a ridge high on the sea floor. This seamount was named Surtla, but never reached sea level. Eruptions at Surtla ended on 6 January 1964, and it has since been eroded from its minimum depth of below sea level.

Subsequent volcanic activity.

In 1965, the activity on the main island diminished, but at the end of May that year an eruption began at a vent off the northern shore. By 28 May, an island had appeared, and was named Syrtlingur (Little Surtsey). The new island was washed away during early June, but reappeared on 14 June. Eruptions at Syrtlingur were much smaller in scale than those that had built Surtsey, with the average rate of emission of volcanic materials being about a tenth of the rate at the main vent. Activity was short-lived, continuing until the beginning of October 1965, by which time the islet had an area of. Once the eruptions had ceased, wave erosion rapidly wore the island away, and it disappeared beneath the waves on 24 October.  During December 1965, more submarine activity occurred southwest of Surtsey, and another island was formed. It was named Jólnir, and over the following eight months it appeared and disappeared several times, as wave erosion and volcanic activity alternated in dominance. Activity at Jólnir was much weaker than the activity at the main vent, and even weaker than that seen at Syrtlingur, but the island eventually grew to a maximum size of in height, covering an area of, during July and early August 1966. Like Syrtlingur, though, after activity ceased on 8 August 1966, it was rapidly eroded, and dropped below sea level during October 1966.  Effusive eruptions on the main island returned on 19 August 1966, with fresh lava flows giving it further resistance to erosion. The eruption rate diminished steadily, though, and on 5 June 1967, the eruption ended. The volcano has been dormant ever since. The total volume of lava emitted during the three-and-a-half-year eruption was about one cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi), and the island's highest point was above sea level at that time.  Since the end of the eruption, erosion has seen the island diminish in size. A large area on the southeast side has been eroded away completely, while a sand spit called "Norðurtangi" (north point) has grown on the north side of the island. It is estimated that about of material has been lost due to erosion—this represents about a quarter of the original above-sea-level volume of the island. Its maximum elevation has diminished to.

Recent development.

Following the end of the eruption, scientists established a grid of benchmarks against which they measured the change in the shape of the island. In the 20 years following the end of the eruption, measurements revealed that the island was steadily subsiding and had lost about one metre in height. The rate of subsidence was initially about per year but slowed to a year by the 1990s. It had several causes: settling of the loose tephra forming the bulk of the volcano, compaction of sea floor sediments underlying the island, and downward warping of the lithosphere due to the weight of the volcano.  Volcanoes in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago are typically monogenetic, and so the island is unlikely to be enlarged in the future by further eruptions. The heavy seas around the island have been eroding it ever since the island appeared, and since the end of the eruption almost half of its original area has been lost. The island currently loses about of its surface area each year.

Future.

As a suspected part of the Iceland plume, this island is unlikely to disappear entirely in the near future. The eroded area consisted mostly of loose tephra, easily washed away. Most of the remaining area is capped by hard lava flows, which are much more resistant to erosion. In addition, complex chemical reactions within the loose tephra within the island have gradually formed highly erosion resistant tuff material, in a process known as palagonitization. On Surtsey this process has happened quite rapidly, due to high temperatures not far below the surface.  Estimates of how long Surtsey will survive are based on the rate of erosion seen up to the present day. Assuming that the current rate does not change, the island will be mostly at or below sea level by 2100. However, the rate of erosion is likely to slow as the tougher core of the island is exposed: an assessment assuming that the rate of erosion will slow exponentially suggests that the island will survive for many centuries. An idea of what it will look like in the future is given by the other small islands in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago, which formed in the same way as Surtsey several thousand years ago, and have eroded away substantially since they were formed.

Biology.

Settlement of life.

A classic site for the study of biocolonisation from founder populations that arrive from outside ("allochthonous"), Surtsey was declared a nature reserve in 1965, while the eruption was still in active progress. Today only a few scientists are permitted to land on Surtsey; the only way anyone else can see it closely is from a small plane. This allows the natural ecological succession for the island to proceed without outside interference. In 2008, UNESCO declared the island a World Heritage Site, in recognition of its great scientific value.

Plant life.

In the spring of 1965, the first vascular plant was found growing on the northern shore of Surtsey, mosses became visible in 1967, and lichens were first found on the Surtsey lava in 1970. Plant colonisation on Surtsey has been closely studied, the vascular plants in particular as they have been of far greater significance than mosses, lichens and fungi in the development of vegetation.  Mosses and lichens now cover much of the island. During the island's first 20 years, 20 species of plants were observed at one time or another, but only 10 became established in the nutrient-poor sandy soil. As birds began nesting on the island, soil conditions improved, and more vascular plant species were able to survive. In 1998, the first bush was found on the island—a tea-leaved willow ("Salix phylicifolia"), which can grow to heights of up to. By 2008, 69 species of plant had been found on Surtsey, of which about 30 had become established. This compares to the approximately 490 species found on mainland Iceland. More species continue to arrive, at a typical rate of roughly 2–5 new species per year.

Birds.

The expansion of bird life on the island has both relied on and helped to advance the spread of plant life. Birds use the plants for nesting material, but also continue to assist in the spreading of seeds, and fertilize the soil with their guano. Birds first began nesting on Surtsey three years after the eruptions ended, with fulmar and guillemot the first species to set up home. Twelve species are now regularly found on the island.  A gull colony has been present since 1984, although gulls were seen briefly on the shores of the new island only weeks after it first appeared. The gull colony has been particularly important in developing the plant life on Surtsey, and the gulls have had much more of an impact on plant colonisation than other breeding species due to their abundance. An expedition in 2004 found the first evidence of nesting Atlantic puffins, which are extremely common in the rest of the archipelago.  As well as providing a home for some species of birds, Surtsey has also been used as a stopping-off point for migrating birds, particularly those en route between Europe and Iceland. Species that have been seen briefly on the island include whooper swans, various species of geese, and common ravens. Although Surtsey lies to the west of the main migration routes to Iceland, it has become a more common stopping point as its vegetation has improved. In 2008, the 14th bird species was detected with the discovery of a common raven's nest.  According to a 30 May 2009 report, a golden plover was nesting on the island with four eggs.

Marine life.

Soon after the island's formation, seals were seen around the island. They soon began basking there, particularly on the northern spit, which grew as the waves eroded the island. Seals were found to be breeding on the island in 1983, and a group of up to 70 made the island their breeding spot. Grey seals are more common on the island than harbour seals, but both are now well established. The presence of seals attracts orcas, which are frequently seen in the waters around the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago and now frequent the waters around Surtsey.  On the submarine portion of the island, many marine species are found. Starfish are abundant, as are sea urchins and limpets. The rocks are covered in algae, and seaweed covers much of the submarine slopes of the volcano, with its densest cover between below sea level.

Other life.

Insects arrived on Surtsey soon after its formation, and were first detected in 1964. The original arrivals were flying insects, carried to the island by winds and their own power. Some were believed to have been blown across from as far away as mainland Europe. Later insect life arrived on floating driftwood, and both live animals and carcasses washed up on the island. When a large, grass-covered tussock was washed ashore in 1974, scientists took half of it for analysis and discovered 663 land invertebrates, mostly mites and springtails, the great majority of which had survived the crossing.  The establishment of insect life provided some food for birds, and birds in turn helped many species to become established on the island. The bodies of dead birds provide sustenance for carnivorous insects, while the fertilisation of the soil and resulting promotion of plant life provides a viable habitat for herbivorous insects.  Some higher forms of land life are now colonising the soil of Surtsey. The first earthworm was found in a soil sample in 1993, probably carried over from Heimaey by a bird. However, the next year earthworms were not found. Slugs were found in 1998, and appeared to be similar to varieties found in the southern Icelandic mainland. Spiders and beetles have also become established.

Human impact.

The only significant human impact is a small prefabricated hut which is used by researchers while staying on the island. The hut includes a few bunk beds and a solar power source to drive an emergency radio and other key electronics. There is also an abandoned lighthouse foundation. All visitors check themselves and belongings to ensure no seeds are accidentally introduced by humans to this ecosystem. It is believed that some young boys tried to introduce potatoes, which were promptly dug up once discovered. An improperly handled human defecation resulted in a tomato plant taking root which was also destroyed. In 2009 a weather station for weather observations and a webcam were installed on Surtsey.

Surtsey ("Surtr's island" in Icelandic, ) is a volcanic island located in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the southern coast of Iceland. At, Surtsey is the southernmost point of Iceland. It was formed in a volcanic eruption which began below sea level, and reached the surface on 14 November 1963. The eruption lasted until 5 June 1967, when the island reached its maximum size of. Since then, wave erosion has caused the island to steadily diminish in size:, its surface area was. The most recent survey (2007) shows the island's maximum elevation at above sea level.

Surtsey [] je novodobý sopečný ostrov vzdálený přibližně 32 kilometrů jižně od Islandu. Vznikl vulkanickými erupcemi v roce 1963, které trvaly až do roku 1967. Od té doby získal legislativní ochranu a stal se předmětem soustavného výzkumu vědců z několika oborů (geologie, biologie, ornitologie atd.) jako přírodní laboratoř. Surtsey vznikl v "podmořské sopečné oblasti Vestmannaeyjar". Spadá pod správní oblast Vestmannaeyjar.


Etymology.

The word "emerald" is derived (via and ), from Vulgar Latin: "esmaralda"/"esmaraldus", a variant of Latin "smaragdus", which was borrowed via (smaragdos; "green gem") from a Semitic language.

Properties determining value.

Emeralds, like all colored gemstones, are graded using four basic parameters–the four "C"s of connoisseurship: "color", "clarity," "cut" and "carat weight". Normally, in the grading of colored gemstones, color is by far the most important criterion. However, in the grading of emeralds, clarity is considered a close second. A fine emerald must possess not only a pure verdant green hue as described below, but also a high degree of transparency to be considered a top gemstone.  In the 1960s, the American jewelry industry changed the definition of "emerald" to include the green vanadium-bearing beryl. As a result, "vanadium emeralds" purchased as emeralds in the United States are not recognized as such in the UK and Europe. In America, the distinction between traditional emeralds and the new vanadium kind is often reflected in the use of terms such as "Colombian emerald".

Color.

In gemology, color is divided into three components: "hue", "saturation", and "tone". Emeralds occur in hues ranging from yellow-green to blue-green, with the primary hue necessarily being green. Yellow and blue are the normal secondary hues found in emeralds. Only gems that are medium to dark in tone are considered emeralds; light-toned gems are known instead by the species name "green beryl". The finest emeralds are approximately 75% tone on a scale where 0% tone is colorless and 100% is opaque black. In addition, a fine emerald will be saturated and have a hue that is bright (vivid). Gray is the normal saturation modifier or mask found in emeralds; a grayish-green hue is a dull-green hue.

Clarity.

Emeralds tend to have numerous inclusions and surface-breaking fissures. Unlike diamonds, where the loupe standard, i.e. 10× magnification, is used to grade clarity, emeralds are graded by eye. Thus, if an emerald has no visible inclusions to the eye (assuming normal visual acuity) it is considered flawless. Stones that lack surface breaking fissures are extremely rare and therefore almost all emeralds are treated ("oiled", see below) to enhance the apparent clarity. The inclusions and fissures within an emerald are sometime described as "jardin" (French for "garden"), because of their mossy appearance. Imperfections are unique for each emerald and can be used to identify a particular stone. Eye-clean stones of a vivid primary green hue (as described above), with no more than 15% of any secondary hue or combination (either blue or yellow) of a medium-dark tone, command the highest prices. The relative non-uniformity motivates the cutting of emeralds in cabochon form, rather than faceted shapes. Faceted emeralds are most commonly given an oval cut, or the signature emerald cut, a rectangular cut with facets around the top edge.

Treatments.

Most emeralds are oiled as part of the post-lapidary process, in order to fill in surface-reaching cracks so that clarity and stability are improved. Cedar oil, having a similar refractive index, is often used in this widely adopted practice. Other liquids, including synthetic oils and polymers with refractive indexes close to that of emeralds, such as "Opticon", are also used. These treatments are typically applied in a vacuum chamber under mild heat, to open the pores of the stone and allow the fracture-filling agent to be absorbed more effectively. The U.S. Federal Trade Commission requires the disclosure of this treatment when an oil treated emerald is sold. The use of oil is traditional and largely accepted by the gem trade, although oil treated emeralds are worth much less than un-treated emeralds of similar quality. Other treatments, for example the use of green-tinted oil, are not acceptable in the trade. Gems are graded on a four-step scale; "none", "minor", "moderate" and "highly" enhanced. These categories reflect levels of enhancement, not "clarity". A gem graded "none" on the enhancement scale may still exhibit visible inclusions. Laboratories apply these criteria differently. Some gemologists consider the mere presence of oil or polymers to constitute enhancement. Others may ignore traces of oil if the presence of the material does not improve the look of the gemstone.

Emerald mines.

Emeralds in antiquity were mined in Egypt at locations on Mount Smaragdus since 1500 BCE, and India, and Austria since at least the 14th century CE. The Egyptian mines were exploited on an industrial scale by the Roman and Byzantine Empires, and later by Islamic conquerors. Mining ceased with the discovery of the Colombian deposits; only ruins remain.  Colombia is by far the world's largest producer of emeralds, constituting 50–95% of the world production, with the number depending on the year, source and grade. Emerald production in Colombia has increased drastically in the last decade, increasing by 78% from 2000 to 2010. The three main emerald mining areas in Colombia are Muzo, Coscuez, and Chivor. Rare "trapiche" emeralds are found in Colombia, distinguished by ray-like spokes of dark impurities.  Zambia is the world's second biggest producer, with its Kafubu River area deposits (Kagem Mines) about southwest of Kitwe responsible for 20% of the world's production of gem-quality stones in 2004. In the first half of 2011, the Kagem Mines produced 3.74 tons of emeralds.  Emeralds are found all over the world in countries such as Afghanistan, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Canada, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, France, Germany, India, Italy, Kazakhstan, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Russia, Somalia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Tanzania, the United States, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In the US, emeralds have been found in Connecticut, Montana, Nevada, North Carolina, and South Carolina. In Canada, in 1997 emeralds were discovered in the Yukon.

Origin determinations.

Since the onset of concerns regarding diamond origins, research has been conducted to determine if the mining location could be determined for an emerald already in circulation. Traditional research used qualitative guidelines such as an emerald's color, style and quality of cutting, type of fracture filling, and the anthropological origins of the artifacts bearing the mineral to determine the emerald's mine location. More recent studies using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy methods have uncovered trace chemical element differences between emeralds, including ones mined in close proximity to one another. American gemologist David Cronin and his colleagues have extensively examined the chemical signatures of emeralds resulting from fluid dynamics and subtle precipitation mechanisms, and their research demonstrated the chemical homogeneity of emeralds from the same mining location and the statistical differences that exist between emeralds from different mining locations, including those between the three locations: Muzo, Coscuez, and Chivor, in Colombia, South America.

Synthetic emerald.

Both hydrothermal and "flux-growth" synthetics have been produced, and a method has been developed for producing an emerald overgrowth on colorless beryl. The first commercially successful emerald synthesis process was that of Carroll Chatham, likely involving a lithium vanadate flux process, as Chatham's emeralds do not have any water and contain traces of vanadate, molybdenum and vanadium. The other large producer of flux emeralds was Pierre Gilson Sr., whose products have been on the market since 1964. Gilson's emeralds are usually grown on natural colorless beryl seeds, which are coated on both sides. Growth occurs at the rate of 1 mm per month, a typical seven-month growth run produces emerald crystals 7 mm thick.  Hydrothermal synthetic emeralds have been attributed to IG Farben, Nacken, Tairus, and others, but the first satisfactory commercial product was that of Johann Lechleitner of Innsbruck, Austria, which appeared on the market in the 1960s. These stones were initially sold under the names "Emerita" and "Symeralds", and they were grown as a thin layer of emerald on top of natural colorless beryl stones. Later, from 1965 to 1970, the Linde Division of Union Carbide produced completely synthetic emeralds by hydrothermal synthesis. According to their patents (attributable to E.M. Flanigen), acidic conditions are essential to prevent the chromium (which is used as the colorant) from precipitating. Also, it is important that the silicon-containing nutrient be kept away from the other ingredients to prevent nucleation and confine growth to the seed crystals. Growth occurs by a diffusion-reaction process, assisted by convection. The largest producer of hydrothermal emeralds today is Tairus, which has succeeded in synthesizing emeralds with chemical composition similar to emeralds in alkaline deposits in Colombia, and whose products are thus known as “Colombian created emeralds” or “Tairus created emeralds”. Luminescence in ultraviolet light is considered a supplementary test when making a natural versus synthetic determination, as many, but not all, natural emeralds are inert to ultraviolet light. Many synthetics are also UV inert.  Synthetic emeralds are often referred to as "created", as their chemical and gemological composition is the same as their natural counterparts. The U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has very strict regulations as to what can and what cannot be called a "synthetic" stone. The FTC says: "§ 23.23(c) It is unfair or deceptive to use the word "laboratory-grown", "laboratory-created", "[manufacturer name]-created", or "synthetic" with the name of any natural stone to describe any industry product unless such industry product has essentially the same optical, physical, and chemical properties as the stone named."

In culture and lore.

Emerald is regarded as the traditional birthstone for May as well as the traditional gemstone for the astrological sign of Cancer.  One of the quainter anecdotes about emeralds was told by the 16th-century historian Brantôme, who referred to the many impressive emeralds the Spanish under Cortez had brought back to Europe from Latin America. On one of Cortez's most notable emeralds he had the text engraved, "Inter Natos Mulierum non sur-rexit mayor" ("Among those born of woman there hath not arisen a greater," Matthew 11:11) which referred to John the Baptist. Brantôme considered engraving such a beautiful and simple product of nature sacrilegious and considered this act the cause for Cortez's loss of an extremely precious pearl (to which he dedicated a work, "A beautiful and incomparable pearl"), and even for the death of King Charles IX of France, who died soon afterward.  The chief deity of one of India's most famous temples, the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, is the goddess Meenakshi, whose idol is traditionally thought to be made of emerald.

Emerald is a gemstone and a variety of the mineral beryl (BeAl(SiO)) colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. Beryl has a hardness of 7.5–8 on the Mohs scale. Most emeralds are highly included, so their toughness (resistance to breakage) is classified as generally poor. Emerald is a cyclosilicate.

Smaragd, chemický vzorec Be(Al,Cr)SiO (hlinitokřemičitan berylnatý), je šesterečný minerál. Jeho název je pravděpodobně semitského původu. Smaragd je nejznámější a nejcennější odrůdou minerálu berylu.


Implementation.

On a system that offers a desktop environment, a window manager in conjunction with applications written using a widget toolkit are generally responsible for most of what the user sees. The window manager supports the user interactions with the environment, while the toolkit provides developers a software library for applications with a unified look and behavior.  A windowing system of some sort generally interfaces directly with the underlying operating system and libraries. This provides support for graphical hardware, pointing devices, and keyboards. The window manager generally runs on top of this windowing system. While the windowing system may provide some window management functionality, this functionality is still considered to be part of the window manager, which simply happens to have been provided by the windowing system.  Applications that are created with a particular window manager in mind usually make use of a windowing toolkit, generally provided with the operating system or window manager. A windowing toolkit gives applications access to widgets that allow the user to interact graphically with the application in a consistent way.

History and common use.

The first desktop environment was created by Xerox and was sold with the Xerox Alto in the 1970s. The Alto was generally considered by Xerox to be a personal office computer; it failed in the marketplace because of poor marketing and a very high price tag. With the Lisa, Apple introduced a desktop environment on an affordable personal computer, which also failed in the market.  The desktop metaphor was popularized on commercial personal computers by the original Macintosh from Apple in 1984, and was popularized further by Windows from Microsoft since the 1990s., the most popular desktop environments are descendants of these earlier environments, including the Aero environment used in Windows Vista and Windows 7, and the Aqua environment used in macOS. When compared with the X-based desktop environments available for Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and FreeBSD, the proprietary desktop environments included with Windows and macOS have relatively fixed layouts and static features, with highly integrated "seamless" designs that aim to provide mostly consistent customer experiences across installations.  Microsoft Windows dominates in marketshare among personal computers with a desktop environment. Computers using Unix-like operating systems such as macOS, Chrome OS, Linux, BSD or Solaris are much less common; however, there is a growing market for low-cost Linux PCs using the X Window System or Wayland with a broad choice of desktop environments. Among the more popular of these are Google's Chromebooks and Chromeboxes, Intel's NUC, the Raspberry Pi, etc.  On tablets and smartphones, the situation is the opposite, with Unix-like operating systems dominating the market, including the iOS (BSD-derived), Android, Tizen, Sailfish and Ubuntu (all Linux-derived). Microsoft's Windows phone, Windows RT and Windows 10 are used on a much smaller number of tablets and smartphones. However, the majority of Unix-like operating systems dominant on handheld devices do not use the X11 desktop environments used by other Unix-like operating systems, relying instead on interfaces based on other technologies.

Desktop environments for the X Window System.

On systems running the X Window System (typically Unix-family systems such as Linux, the BSDs, and formal UNIX distributions), desktop environments are much more dynamic and customizable to meet user needs. In this context, a desktop environment typically consists of several separate components, including a window manager (such as Mutter or KWin), a file manager (such as Files or Dolphin), a set of graphical themes, together with toolkits (such as GTK+ and Qt) and libraries for managing the desktop. All these individual modules can be exchanged and independently configured to suit users, but most desktop environments provide a default configuration that works with minimal user setup.  Some window managerssuch as IceWM, Fluxbox, Openbox, ROX Desktop and Window Makercontain relatively sparse desktop environment elements, such as an integrated spatial file manager, while others like evilwm and wmii do not provide such elements. Not all of the program code that is part of a desktop environment has effects which are directly visible to the user. Some of it may be low-level code. KDE, for example, provides so-called KIO slaves which give the user access to a wide range of virtual devices. These I/O slaves are not available outside the KDE environment.  In 1996 the KDE was announced, followed in 1997 by the announcement of GNOME. Xfce is a smaller project that was also founded in 1996, and focuses on speed and modularity, just like LXDE which was started in 2006. A comparison of X Window System desktop environments demonstrates the differences between environments. GNOME and KDE were usually seen as dominant solutions, and these are still often installed by default on Linux systems. Each of them offers:  In the early 2000s, KDE reached maturity. The Appeal and ToPaZ projects focused on bringing new advances to the next major releases of both KDE and GNOME respectively. Although striving for broadly similar goals, GNOME and KDE do differ in their approach to user ergonomics. KDE encourages applications to integrate and interoperate, is highly customizable, and contains many complex features, all whilst trying to establish sensible defaults. GNOME on the other hand is more prescriptive, and focuses on the finer details of essential tasks and overall simplification. Accordingly, each one attracts a different user and developer community. Technically, there are numerous technologies common to all Unix-like desktop environments, most obviously the X Window System. Accordingly, the freedesktop.org project was established as an informal collaboration zone with the goal being to reduce duplication of effort.  As GNOME and KDE focus on high-performance computers, users of less powerful or older computers often prefer alternative desktop environments specifically created for low-performance systems. Most commonly used lightweight desktop environments include LXDE and Xfce; they both use GTK+, which is the same underlying toolkit GNOME uses. The MATE desktop environment, a fork of GNOME 2, is comparable to Xfce in its use of RAM and processor cycles, but is often considered more as an alternative to other lightweight desktop environments.  For a while, GNOME and KDE enjoyed the status of the most popular Linux desktop environments; later, other desktop environments grew in popularity. In April 2011, GNOME introduced a new interface concept with its version 3, while a popular Linux distribution Ubuntu introduced its own new desktop environment, Unity. Some users preferred to keep the traditional interface concept of GNOME 2, resulting in the creation of MATE as a GNOME 2 fork.

Examples of desktop environments.

The most common desktop environment on personal computers is Microsoft Windows' built-in interface. It was titled Luna in Windows XP, Aero in Windows Vista and Windows 7, Metro in Windows 8 and 8.1, and Fluent in Windows 10. Also common is Aqua, included with Apple's macOS.  Mainstream desktop environments for Unix-like operating systems use the X Window System, and include KDE, GNOME, Xfce, and LXDE, any of which may be selected by users and are not tied exclusively to the operating system in use.  A number of other desktop environments also exist, including (but not limited to) CDE, EDE, GEM, IRIX Interactive Desktop, Sun's Java Desktop System, Jesktop, Mezzo, Project Looking Glass, ROX Desktop, UDE, Xito, XFast. Moreover, there exists FVWM-Crystal, which consists of a powerful configuration for the FVWM window manager, a theme and further adds, altogether forming a "construction kit" for building up a desktop environment.  X window managers that are meant to be usable stand-alone — without another desktop environment — also include elements reminiscent of those found in typical desktop environments, most prominently Enlightenment. Other examples include OpenBox, Fluxbox, WindowLab, Fvwm, as well as Window Maker and AfterStep, which both feature the NeXTSTEP GUI look and feel. However newer versions of some operating systems make self configure.  The Amiga approach to desktop environment was noteworthy: the original Workbench desktop environment in AmigaOS evolved through time to originate an entire family of descendants and alternative desktop solutions. Some of those descendants are the Scalos, the Ambient desktop of MorphOS, and the Wanderer desktop of the AROS open source OS. WindowLab also contains features reminiscent of the Amiga UI. Third-party Directory Opus software, which was originally just a navigational file manager program, evolved to become a complete Amiga desktop replacement called Directory Opus Magellan.  There is the Workplace Shell that runs on IBM OS/2 or eComStation.  The BumpTop project is an experimental desktop environment. Its main objective is to replace the 2D paradigm with a "real-world" 3D implementation, where documents can be freely manipulated across a virtual table.

In computing, a desktop environment (DE) is an implementation of the desktop metaphor made of a bundle of programs running on top of a computer operating system that share a common graphical user interface (GUI), sometimes described as a graphical shell. The desktop environment was seen mostly on personal computers until the rise of mobile computing. Desktop GUIs help the user to easily access and edit files, while they usually do not provide access to all of the features found in the underlying operating system. Instead, the traditional command-line interface (CLI) is still used when full control over the operating system is required.

Desktopové prostředí ( "desktop environment") je v informatice grafické uživatelské rozhraní (GUI), jehož základem je pracovní plocha. Plocha (angl. "desktop") je volný prostor na obrazovce, který má připomínat desku pracovního stolu, na kterou lze umisťovat a pomocí myši podle potřeby přesouvat ikony, panely, okna apod.


Geography.

The modern council area borders, in a clockwise direction, the council areas of Edinburgh, the Scottish Borders, North and South Lanarkshire, and Falkirk. The traditional county bordered Midlothian to the south-east, Lanarkshire to the south-west and Stirlingshire to the west. Its border with Midlothian was formed by the Briech Water, from its source until it reached the Almond, and it then followed the Almond to the Firth of Forth (except by Livingston, where Midlothian intruded about a mile past the Almond to include the hamlets of Howden, Craigshill, and Pumpherston). The western border was formed first by the Drumtassie Burn and then by the Avon. It had an area of 120 sq. miles (310 km), making it the third smallest of Scotland's 33 counties and smaller than the modern council area.  Geologically, most of the area is underlaid by Carboniferous sedimentary rocks running in strips from north to south. The eastern and southern rocks are the oldest and least useful. Further west is a large field of shale oil, then sedimentary and basalt rocks supplying silica sand, and then coal. The area rises from lowlands in the north to the Pentland Hills in the southeast, while the southwest is moorland. Cairnpapple Hill is the highest peak at 312 m (1,024 ft), making it the lowest county top in Scotland. Two thirds of the land is agricultural, while a tenth is urban. Significant watercourses include the Almond and the Union Canal, while the main bodies of water are Linlithgow Loch, Dundas Loch, Humbie Reservoir, Lochcote Reservoir, Beecraigs Loch and Bangour Reservoir. The small island of Inchgarvie near the Forth Bridge lies within the historic borders of the county.

Boundaries.

The creation of the modern council area drastically altered West Lothian's boundaries. Significant towns not included in the modern county are the coastal burghs of Bo'ness and Queensferry and the town of Kirkliston. Large parts of the southern urban area of Livingston, which were historically within Midlothian, were however transferred to West Lothian.

History.

West Lothian was extensively settled in prehistoric times, and several ancient burial sites have been uncovered, such as at Cairnpapple Hill. There are remains of hillforts on Cockleroy, Peace Knowe, Bowden, Cairnpapple, and Binns Hills. The area was anciently inhabited by Britons of the tribe known as the Votadini or Gododdin. By 83 AD, southern Scotland had been conquered by Romans, who built a road from their fort at Cramond to the eastern end of the Antonine Wall, as well as forts in West Lothian (of which Castle Greg is a known example). The Romans withdrew roughly two centuries later, and the area was left to the Britons until the arrival of Anglo-Saxons in the fifth and sixth centuries, who brought Lothian under the rule of the Kingdom of Northumbria. In later centuries the region was regularly overrun by Gaelic-speaking Scots, and it became permanently part of the Kingdom of Scotland in the 11th century.  Scotland was split into sheriffdoms, what would later become counties, in the reign of David I. The first known reference to a sheriff of Linlithgow occurs in a charter dating from the reign of his successor Malcolm IV. For a time West Lothian became a constabulary, but it seems to have been made a sheriffdom again during the reign of James III.  In pre-industrial times West Lothian was almost entirely agricultural. In the way of heavy industry there was a silver mine at Cairnpapple, a cotton mill at Blackburn, paper mills at Linlithgow, and shallow coal mines around Bathgate and Whitburn. The county was radically changed by the Industrial Revolution,(from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840) with the opening of deep-pit iron, coal, and shale oil mines, as well as foundries and brickworks. Many of the houses built for the expanding population were shoddy, necessitating the building of thousands of council houses in the latter part of the 20th century, especially at Livingston, which had historically been a minor village. The bings produced by the mining industry, 19 of which still stand in West Lothian, were at first considered blights, but now are thought of as monuments to Scotland's industrial past, and a representation of one appears on the council's coat of arms. Heavy industry declined after the Second World War, and the last shale oil mine closed in 1962.

Government and politics.

County.

The county of West Lothian or of Linlithgowshire contained six burghs: Armadale, Bathgate, Bo'ness, Linlithgow, Queensferry, and Whitburn. Areas outside the burghs were administered as districts, of which there were also six: Borrowstounness, Linlithgow, Queensferry, Torphichen & Bathgate, Uphall, and Whitburn & Livingston.  The county was also split into twelve parishes; these were not used for administrative purposes after 1929.

District.

The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 abolished the counties, burghs, and districts, instead creating a system of regions and districts. West Lothian was made a district of Lothian region but lost the burgh of Bo'ness and the district of Bo'ness to Falkirk district of Central Region, the burgh of Queensferry and the district of Kirkliston and part of Winchburgh to Edinburgh district of Lothian Region. It gained East Calder and West Calder districts from Midlothian. The two-tier system was abolished by the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, and the district of West Lothian was made a unitary council area.

Parliamentary representation.

The West Lothian question, referring to whether Scottish, Welsh, and Northern Irish MPs should be allowed to vote on English laws, is so named because it was supposedly first raised by Tam Dalyell while he was MP for West Lothian.

Settlements.

Settlements in modern West Lothian but which were not historically part of the county.

"All of the following areas were historically in Midlothian:"  See also the pages of the West Lothian Archaeological Trust

West Lothian (; ) is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, and one of its historic counties. The county, which was also known as Linlithgowshire, was bounded geographically by the Avon to the west and the Almond to the east. The modern council area occupies a larger area, with areas in the west transferred to Falkirk and areas in the east transferred to Edinburgh following local government reforms in the late 20th century. It did however gain areas from Midlothian.

Západní Lothian (, ) je správní oblast Skotska, ležící západně od města Edinburgh. Stejně jako ostatní správní jednotky vznikla v roce 1996, kdy se utvořilo nové správní rozdělení.


History.

20th century.

As a child Dieter Strasilla, inspired by Otto Lilienthal, practiced gliding around Berchtesgaden and in the 1960s he began parapente experiments (also with his brother Udo in USA) in Germany and Switzerland, parachute-skiing in 1972 and later perfected a kiteskiing system using self-made paragliders and a ball-socket swivel allowing the pilot to kitesail upwind or uphill, but also to take off into the air at will, swivelling the body around to face the right way.  Kiteskiers began kiteskiing on many frozen lakes and fields in the US midwest and east coast. Lee Sedgwick and a group of kiteskiers in Erie, PA were early ice/snow kiteskiers. In 1982 Wolf Beringer started developing his shortline Parawing system for skiing and sailing. This was used by several polar expeditions to kite-ski with sleds, sometimes covering large distances. Ted Dougherty began manufacturing 'foils' for kiteskiing and Steve Shapson of Force 10 Foils also began manufacturing 'foils' using two handles to easily control the kite. In the mid-1980s Shapson, while icesailing, took out an old two line kite and tried to ski upwind on a local frozen lake in Wisconsin. Shapson demonstrated the sport of 'kiteskiing' in Poland, Germany, Switzerland and Finland. He also used grass skis to kiteski on grassy fields. Early European kiteskiers were Keith Stewart and Theo Schmidt, who also were among the first to waterski with kites. American Cory Roeseler together with his father William developed a Kiteski system for waterskiing and began winning in windsurf races featuring high following winds, such as in the gorge of the Columbia river. The following terms describe the sport of 'Traction Kiting' or some refer to as 'Power Kiting': Kite buggying, kite skiing, kitesurfing and kite landboarding.  In the mid-1980s e.g. some alpine skiers used a rebridled square parachute to ski upwind on a frozen bay in Erie, PA. In the late 1990s small groups of French and North American riders started pushing the boundaries of modern freestyle snowkiting. The Semnoz crew from France began hosting events at the Col du Lautaret and other European sites where the mountainous terrain lent itself to "paragliding" down the hills. In North America, riders were mainly riding snow-covered lakes and fields where tricks were being done on the flat ground, jumps, rails and sliders.

21st century.

The 2000s have seen a giant leap forward in snowkite-specific technologies, skill levels and participants in every possible snow-covered country. The development of snowkite specific, de-powerable, foil kites have allowed snowkiters to explore further and push the limits of windpowered expeditions. Recent crossings in record times of large snowfields and even Greenland have been accomplished through the use of snowkites.  On the forefront of extreme freestyle snowkiting, dedicated snowkiting communities from Utah to Norway are pushing the freestyle envelope and documenting their efforts through films like Something Stronger and Dimensions, and Snowkite Magazine which is available as a digital magazine. The extreme envelope of snowkiting freestyle and back country is being pushed by Chasta, a French kiter sponsored by Ozone Kites now based in New Zealand.  Better equipment, safety practices, community know-how and qualified instructors are readily available in many areas, allowing people to learn properly and safely through different means than trial and error. The sport is currently being enjoyed by kiters of all ages and in a wide variety of activities ranging from mellow jaunts on a lake, to kitercross events, from multi-day expeditions, to flying off mountains, from freestyle jib tricks, to huge cliff jumps as well as endurance and course racing.  On 20 January 2007, during the Antarctic summer, Team N2i became the first people to reach the Antarctic pole of inaccessibility without powered aid, using kite skiing as their primary means of propulsion.  There is a small segment of kiters that participate in GPS speed competitions where kiters record speed data on a GPS unit and submit it to a coordinating body for comparison to other kiter's speeds. In the Stormboarding world wide speed ranking Joe Levins, an American kiter, was the first to reach 70 mph/112 km/h in 2008. In 2009 Christopher Krug, an American kiter sponsored by Peter Lynn Kiteboarding pushed the envelope further to a speed of 73.5 mph/118 km/h.  On 5 June 2010, Canadian Eric McNair-Landry and American-French Sebastian Copeland kite-skied in 24 hours to set a distance world record. The team completed the first partial east to west crossing of Antarctica using kites, a distance of over 4,000 kilometers via Pole of Inaccessibility research station and the South Pole over 82 days in 2011–12.

Technique and Ride.

Snowkiting is very similar to windsurfing in technique. It is harder to maintain balance than with basic snowboarding, since the hands and arms have to control the kite and thus are not completely available for balance. However, the balance issue can be somewhat offset by the up-and-forward force generated by the kite.  With previous snowboard models, it was necessary to minimize side cuts to avoid inadvertently riding upwind. This happens because in leaning back to be a counterweight against the force of the kite, the heels of the snowkiter naturally dig into the snow, causing the board to turn upwind. Modern reverse camber snowboards have addressed this problem.  There are specialized equipment for snowkiting. They have a radius of 100-150m, skis for snowkiting are 215cm long, snowkiteboards have a length of 200cm. Rotational snowboard bindings that go between the board and traditional boot binding are becoming popular among snow kiters. The rotational binding relieves stress in the ankles and knees often associated with snowkiting.

Terrain.

Kite Boarding is practical on very many areas, as long as there is a significant amount of wind to keep the kite up. It is not always used on slopes, and can in fact be used with no slope, or even an upwards slope, as long as there is enough wind to offset the drag incurred. It can prove more difficult to have any riding time when you go on a steeper slope, as the wind can be blocked and or become turbulent passing over the peak of the hill, causing the kite to behave erratically and even fall or be pushed to the ground.

Snowkiting or kite skiing is an outdoor winter sport where people use kite power to glide on snow or ice. The skier uses a kite to give them power over large jumps. The sport is similar to water-based kiteboarding, but with the footwear used in snowboarding or skiing. The principles of using the kite are the same, but in different terrain. In the early days of snowkiting, foil kites were the most common type; nowadays many kiteboarders use inflatable kites. However, since 2013, newly developed racing foil kites seem to dominate speed races and expedition races, like Red Bull Ragnarok (held on the Norwegian Hardangervidda plateau) and the Vake mini-expedition race (held at Norway's most northern Varanger peninsula). Snowkiting differs from other alpine sports in that it is possible for the snowkiter to travel uphill and downhill with any wind direction. Like kiteboarding, snowkiting can be very hazardous and should be learned and practiced with care. Snowkiting is becoming increasingly popular in places often associated with skiing and snowboarding, such as Russia, Canada, Iceland, France, Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Sweden and the Northern and Central United States. The sport is becoming more diverse as adventurers use kites to travel great distances and sports enthusiasts push the boundaries of freestyle, big air, speed and back country exploration.

Snowkiting (nebo též kite skiing) je velmi mladý zimní outdoorový adrealinový sport podobný vodní variantě zvané kitesurfing. Za použití tažného draka se jezdec uvádí do pohybu po sněhové pláni na lyžích či snowboardu. Na rozdíl od sjezdového lyžování či snowboardingu je tento sport možné provozovat na rovině (zasněžené pláně, mírné svahy, zasněžená zamrzlá jezera). Plochý terén je dokonce vhodnější než kopce díky stabilnějšímu větru, přesto někteří pokročilí snowkiteři preferují jízdu v horách, kde členitý terén poskytuje širší možnosti. Někdy se používá tažný drak jako pomůcka při freeridingu (tzn. jízdě ve volném terénu) - snowboardista či lyžař se nechá drakem vytáhnout do kopce, nahoře draka sbalí a sjede dolů.


Production and processing.

Rooibos is usually grown in the Cederberg, a small mountainous area in the region of the Western Cape province of South Africa.  Generally, the leaves undergo an oxidation (often termed "fermentation" in common tea processing terminology). This process produces the distinctive reddish-brown colour of rooibos and enhances the flavour. Unoxidised "green" rooibos is also produced, but the more demanding production process for green rooibos (similar to the method by which green tea is produced) makes it more expensive than traditional rooibos. It carries a malty and slightly grassy flavour somewhat different from its red counterpart.

Use.

Rooibos tea is commonly prepared in the same manner as black tea, usually without or with a little milk, and/or sugar or honey. Other methods include a slice of lemon and using honey instead of sugar to sweeten. It is also served as espresso, lattes, cappuccinos or iced tea.

Chemical composition.

As a fresh leaf, rooibos contains a high content of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), which is lost when made into tea.  Rooibos tea does not contain caffeine and has low tannin levels compared to black tea or green tea. Rooibos contains polyphenols, including flavanols, flavones, flavanones, dihydrochalcones, aspalathin and nothofagin.  The processed leaves and stems contain benzoic and cinnamic acids.

Grading.

Rooibos grades are largely related to the percentage "needle" or leaf to stem content in the mix. A higher leaf content results in a darker liquor, richer flavour and less "dusty" aftertaste. The high-grade rooibos is exported and does not reach local markets, with major consumers being the EU, particularly Germany, where it is used in creating flavoured blends for loose-leaf tea markets.

History.

Three species of the Borboniae group of "Aspalathus", namely "A. angustifolia", "A. cordata" and "A. crenata", were once used as tea. These plants have simple, rigid, spine-tipped leaves, hence the common name'stekeltee'. The earliest record of the use of "Aspalathus" as a source of tea was that of Carl Peter Thunberg, who wrote about the use of "A. cordata" as tea: "Of the leaves of "Borbonia cordata" the country people make tea" (Thunberg, July 1772, at Paarl). This anecdote is sometimes erroneously associated with rooibos tea ("Aspalathus linearis").  Archaeological record suggests that the "Aspalathus linearis" could have been utilised by humans many thousands of years ago. Although the indigenous pastoralists and hunter-gatherers could have used this plant, it does not imply that they made the beverage we know as rooibos tea in precolonial times. The traditional method of harvesting and processing rooibos (for making rooibos infusion or decoction tea) could have, at least partly, originated in precolonial times. However, it does not necessarily follow that San and Khoikhoi utilised this method to prepare a beverage that they consumed for pleasure, as tea.  The earliest available ethnobotanical records of rooibos tea originate in the late 19th century. No Khoi or San vernacular names of the species have been recorded. Several authors have assumed that the tea originated from the local inhabitants of the Cederberg. Apparently, rooibos tea is a traditional drink of Khoi-descended people of the Cederberg (and "poor whites"). However, this tradition has not been traced further back than the last quarter of the 19th century.  Traditionally, the local people would climb the mountains and cut the fine, needle-like leaves from wild rooibos plants. They then rolled the bunches of leaves into hessian bags and brought them down the steep slopes using donkeys. Rooibos tea was traditionally processed by beating the material on a flat rock with a heavy wooden pole or club or a large wooden hammer.  The historical record of rooibos uses in precolonial and early colonial times is mostly a record of absence. Colonial-era settlers could have learnt about some properties of the "Aspalathus linearis" from pastoralists and hunter-gatherers of the Cederberg region. The nature of that knowledge was not documented. Given the available data, the origin of rooibos tea can be viewed in the context of the global expansion of tea trade and the colonial habit of drinking Chinese and later Ceylon tea. In this case, the rooibos infusion or decoction served as a local replacement for the expensive Asian product.  It appears that both the indigenous (San and Khoikhoi) and the colonial inhabitants of rooibos-growing areas contributed to the traditional knowledge of rooibos in some way. For instance, medicinal uses might have been introduced before the eighteenth century, by Khoisan pastoralists or San hunter-gatherers. And the utilisation of the "Aspalathus linearis" for making tea, including the production processes, such as bruising and oxidising the leaves, are more likely to have been introduced in colonial times, by settlers accustomed to drinking Asian tea or its substitutes.  In 1904, Benjamin Ginsberg ran a variety of experiments at Rondegat Farm, finally curing rooibos. He simulated the traditional Chinese method of making Keemun by fermenting the tea in barrels. The major hurdle in growing rooibos commercially was that farmers could not germinate the rooibos seeds. The seeds were hard to find and impossible to germinate commercially. Medical doctor by profession and business partner to Ginsberg, Pieter Lafras Nortier ascertained that seeds require a process of scarification before planting in acidic, sandy soil.  By the late 1920s, growing demand for the tea led to problems with supply of the wild rooibos plants. As a remedy, Dr Pieter Lefras Nortier, district surgeon in Clanwilliam and avid naturalist, proposed to develop a cultivated variety of rooibos to be raised on appropriately situated land. Nortier worked on cultivation of the rooibos species in partnership with farmers Oloff Bergh and William Riordan, and with encouragement from Benjamin Ginsberg.  Bergh harvested a large amount of rooibos in 1925 on his farm Kleinvlei, in the Pakhuis Mountains. Dr Nortier collected seeds in the Pakhuis Mountains (Rocklands) and in a large valley called Grootkloof and these first selected seeds are known as the Nortier-type and Redtea-type.  In 1930 Nortier began conducting experiments with the commercial cultivation of the rooibos plant. Dr Nortier cultivated the first plants at Clanwilliam on his farm Eastside and on the farm Klein Kliphuis. The tiny seeds were very difficult to come by. Dr Nortier paid the local villagers £5 per matchbox of seeds collected. An aged Khoi woman found an unusual seed source: having chanced upon ants dragging seed, she followed them back to their nest and, on breaking it open, found a granary.  Dr. Nortier's research was ultimately successful and he subsequently showed all the local farmers how to germinate their own seeds. The secret lay in scarifying the seed pods. Dr Nortier placed a layer of seeds between two mill stones and ground away some of the seed pod wall. Thereafter the seeds were easily propagated. Over the next decade the price of seeds soared to an astounding £80 a pound, the most expensive vegetable seed in the world, as farmers rushed to plant rooibos. Today, the seed is gathered by special sifting processes. Dr Nortier is today accepted as the father of the rooibos tea industry.  The variety developed by Nortier has become the mainstay of the rooibos industry enabling it to expand and create income and jobs for inhabitants of rooibos-growing regions. Thanks to Nortier's research, rooibos tea became an iconic national beverage and then a globalised commodity. Rooibos tea production is today the economic mainstay of the Clanwilliam district. In 1948 The University of Stellenbosch awarded Dr Nortier an Honorary Doctorate D.Sc (Agria) in recognition for his valuable contribution to South African agriculture.

US trademark controversy.

In 1994, Burke International registered the name "Rooibos" with the US Patent and Trademark Office, thus establishing a monopoly on the name in the United States at a time when it was virtually unknown there. When the plant later entered more widespread use, Burke demanded that companies either pay fees for use of the name, or cease its use. In 2005, the American Herbal Products Association and a number of import companies succeeded in defeating the trademark through petitions and lawsuits; after losing one of the cases, Burke surrendered the name to the public domain.

Legal protection of the name rooibos.

The South African Department of Trade and Industry issued final rules on 6 September 2013 that protects and restricts the use of the names "rooibos", "red bush", "rooibostee", "rooibos tea", "rooitee" and "rooibosch" in that country, so that the name cannot be used for things not derived from the "Aspalathus linearis" plant. It also provides guidance and restrictions for how products which include rooibos, and in what measures, should use the name "rooibos" in their branding.

Threat from climate change.

The rooibos plant is endemic to a small part of the western coast of the Western Cape province of South Africa. It grows in a symbiotic relationship with local micro-organisms. Scientists speculate that climate change may threaten the future survival of the plant. Some claim that increasing temperatures and decreasing rainfall may result in the extinction of the plant within the next century.

Rooibos ( ; ; "Aspalathus linearis"), meaning'red bush'; is a broom-like member of the plant family Fabaceae that grows in South Africa's fynbos.

Rooibos je nápojem připravovaným z keře nazývaného čajovec kapský ("Aspalathus linearis") z čeledi bobovitých. Již po mnoho generací je tento nápoj populární v Jižní Africe, jeho popularita se rozšířila i do řady zemí celého světa.


History of the Springfield building.

The Naismith Hall of Fame was established in 1959 by Lee Williams, a former athletic director at Colby College. In the 1960s, the Basketball Hall of Fame struggled to raise enough money for the construction of its first facility. However, during the following half-decade the necessary amount was raised, and the building opened on Feb. 17, 1968, less than one month after the National Basketball Association played its 18th All-Star Game. The Basketball Hall of Fame's Board named four inductees in its first year. In addition to honoring those who contributed to basketball, the Hall of Fame sought to make contributions of its own. In 1979, the Hall of Fame sponsored the Tip-Off Classic, a pre-season college basketball exhibition. This Tip-Off Classic has been the start to the college basketball season ever since, and although it does not always take place in Springfield, Massachusetts, generally it returns every few years.  In the 17 years that the original Basketball Hall of Fame operated at Springfield College, it drew more than 630,000 visitors. The popularity of the Basketball Hall of Fame necessitated that a new facility be constructed, and in 1985, an $11 million facility was built beside the scenic Connecticut River in Springfield. As the new hall opened, it also recognized women for the first time, with inductees such as Senda Berenson Abbott, who first introduced basketball to women at Smith College. During the years following its construction, the Basketball Hall of Fame's second facility drew far more visitors than ever anticipated, due in large part to the increasing popularity of the game but also to the scenic location beside the river and the second Hall's interesting modern architecture.  In 2002, the Basketball Hall of Fame moved again—albeit merely 100 yards south along Springfield's riverfront—into a $47 million facility designed by renowned architects Gwathmey Siegel & Associates. The building's architecture features a metallic silver, basketball-shaped sphere flanked by two similarly symmetrical rhombuses. The dome is illuminated at night and features 80,000 square foot (7,400 m2), including a Subway sandwich shop, and an extensive gift shop. The second Basketball Hall of Fame was not torn down; rather it was converted into an LA Fitness health club. The current Basketball Hall of Fame features Center Court, a full-sized basketball court on which visitors can play. Inside the building there are a game gallery, many interactive exhibits, several theaters, and an honor ring of inductees. A large theater for ceremonies seats up to 300. The honorees inducted in 2002 included the Harlem Globetrotters and Magic Johnson, a five-time NBA champion, three-time NBA finals MVP and Olympic gold medalist.  As of 2011, the current Basketball Hall of Fame has greatly exceeded attendance expectations, with basketball fans traveling to the Hall of Fame from all over the world. Despite the new facility's success, a logistical problem remains for the Basketball Hall of Fame and the City of Springfield. The two entities (including the entire riverfront area) are wholly separated by the Interstate 91 elevated highway—one of the eastern United States' busiest highways—which, essentially, inhibits foot-traffic and other interaction between the Basketball Hall of Fame and Springfield's increasingly lively Metro Center. Both the Hall and Springfield have made public statements about cooperating further so as to facilitate even more business and recreational growth for both; however the placement and height of Interstate 91 remains a physical obstacle. Urban planners at universities such as UMass Amherst have called for the I-91 to be moved, or to be re-configured so as to be pedestrian-friendly to Hall of Fame visitors. In 2015 however, the first major construction project on I-91 in 45 years began with no major alterations made to its location, although an additional exit was constructed to provide better access to downtown and the new MGM Springfield complex and provide easier access to the riverfront and Hall of Fame. In 2010, the Urban Land Institute announced a plan to make the walk between Springfield's Metro Center and the Hall of Fame (and riverfront) easier. This project was completed soon after the renovation of I-91 in the summer of 2019.

Criteria for induction.

In contrast to the Soccer and the National Baseball Halls of Fame, Springfield honors international and American professionals, as well as American and international amateurs, making it arguably the most comprehensive Hall of Fame among major American sports. From 2011 to 2015 seven committees were, and as of 2016 six committees are employed to both screen and elect candidates. Four of the committees screen prospective candidates:  Since 2011, the Veterans and International Committees also vote to directly induct one candidate for each induction class.  Three committees were formed in 2011 to directly elect one candidate for each induction class:  Individuals who receive at least seven votes from the North American Screening Committee or five votes from one of the other screening committees in a given year are eligible to advance to an Honors Committee, composed of 12 members plus rotating groups of 12 specialists (one group for female candidates, one group for international candidates, and one group for American and veterans candidates) who vote on each candidate. Each screening committee has a limited number of candidates it may submit to the Honors Committee—10 from the North American Committee, and two from each of the other committees. Any individual receiving at least 18 affirmative votes (75% of all votes cast) from the Honors Committee is approved for induction into the Hall of Fame. As long as the number of candidates receiving sufficient votes from a screening committee is not greater than the number of finalists that the committee is permitted to submit, advancement to the Honors Committee is generally pro forma, although the Hall's Board of Trustees may remove from consideration any candidate who "has damaged the integrity of the game of basketball".  To be considered for induction by a screening committee, a player, retired coach, or referee must be fully retired from that role for at least three full seasons. The waiting period had originally been five years, but was changed to four years in December 2015, and to three seasons in December 2017. Prior to the induction class of 2018, referees had been eligible for induction after 25 years of full-time service, even if still active. Changes to the criteria for consideration of active coaches were also announced as part of the 2017 changes. Currently, coaches become eligible upon 25 years of full-time service at the high school level or above, or three seasons after retirement. Effective with the class of 2020, active coaches must meet the years of service requirement and be at least 60 years old. No years of service criterion is required for those who have made a "significant contribution to the game of basketball". Sportswriters and commentators are elected as full-fledged members, in contrast to the Baseball Hall of Fame that places them in separate wings from the "real" Hall of Fame.

Controversy.

Controversy has arisen over aspects of the Hall's voting procedures, including voter anonymity. While sportswriter voters of other major sports' Halls of Fame openly debate their choices, the Naismith Hall process is not transparent. The Hall has also been criticized for a tendency to enshrine active collegiate coaches and relatively obscure players while omitting some accomplished players and coaches.

Inductees.

Since 1959, 395 coaches, players, referees, contributors, and teams have been inducted, with the most recent class entering on September 8, 2018. John Wooden, Lenny Wilkens, Bill Sharman, and Tom Heinsohn have each been inducted as both player and coach (Wooden in 1960 and 1973, Sharman in 1976 and 2004, Wilkens in 1989 and 1998, and Heinsohn in 1986 and 2015). John McLendon has been inducted as both coach and contributor, entering in 1979 as a contributor and 2016 as a coach.  On three occasions, the Hall has inducted new classes without honoring a player – 1965, 1968, and 2007.

Other Hall awards.

In conjunction with the Final Four of each year's NCAA Division I men's and women's basketball tournaments, the Naismith Hall gives out several awards to college basketball athletes:  For men, the Hall presents awards to the top players in Division I at each of the five standard basketball positions.  Each of the award winners is chosen by a Hall of Fame selection committee, plus the award's namesake.  The Hall, in cooperation with the Women's Basketball Coaches Association, presents analogous awards for the top Division I women's players at each position. One has been awarded since 2000; the others were first presented in 2018.  As with the men's awards, the selection committee for the women's awards includes each award's namesake.  The Hall also formerly presented the Frances Pomeroy Naismith Award to two college seniors—one male player no taller than, and one female player no taller than —determined to have been the nation's best student-athletes. The men's award, given since 1969, was voted on by the National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC), and the women's, given since 1984, by members of the Women's Basketball Coaches Association. Both awards were discontinued after the 2012–13 season.

The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame is an American history museum and hall of fame, located at 1000 Hall of Fame Avenue in Springfield, Massachusetts. It serves as basketball's most complete library, in addition to promoting and preserving the history of basketball. Dedicated to Canadian-American physician and inventor of the sport James Naismith, it was opened and inducted its first class in 1959.

Basketball Hall of Fame ("Basketbalová síň slávy") je organizace, která oceňuje celoživotní přínos pro světový basketbal u hráčů, trenérů, rozhodčích a dalších osob spojených s tímto sportem. Nese jméno zakladatele basketbalu – Jamese Naismitha.