Early life.

Kesha Rose Sebert was born in Los Angeles, California on March 1, 1987. Her mother, Rosemary Patricia "Pebe" Sebert, is a singer-songwriter who co-wrote the 1978 single "Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You" with Hugh Moffatt for Joe Sun, made popular by country music artist Dolly Parton on her 1980 album "Dolly, Dolly, Dolly". Pebe, a single mother, struggled financially while supporting herself, Kesha, and Kesha's older brother Lagan; they relied on welfare payments and food stamps to get by. When Kesha was an infant, Pebe would often have to look after her onstage while performing. Kesha says she has no knowledge of her father's identity. However, a man named Bob Chamberlain who called himself her father approached "Star" in 2011 with pictures and letters, claiming them as proof that they had been in regular contact as father and daughter before she turned 19. Her mother is of German and Hungarian (from Szentes) descent. One of Kesha's great-grandfathers was Polish.  Pebe moved the family to Nashville, Tennessee in 1991 after securing a new publishing deal for her songwriting. Pebe frequently brought Kesha and her brothers along to recording studios and encouraged Kesha to sing when she noticed Kesha's vocal talent. Kesha attended Franklin High School and Brentwood High School, but claimed that she did not fit in, explaining that her unconventional style (such as homemade purple velvet pants and purple hair) did not endear her to other students. She played the trumpet and later the saxophone in the marching band in school, and described herself in an interview with "NPR" as being a diligent student. After attaining a near-perfect score on her SATs, she was accepted to Barnard College, an affiliate college of Columbia University, but instead chose to drop out after three months to pursue her music career.  In addition to taking songwriting classes, Kesha was also taught how to write songs by Pebe, and they would often write together when she returned home from high school. Kesha began recording demos, which Pebe would give to people she knew in the music business. Kesha was also in a band with Lagan. Kesha and Pebe co-wrote the song "Stephen" together when Kesha was 16. Kesha then tracked down David Gamson, a producer that she admired from Scritti Politti, who agreed to produce the song. She dropped out of school at 17, after being convinced by Max Martin to return to Los Angeles to pursue a music career, and earned her GED after. Around this time, Pebe answered an ad from the American reality TV series "The Simple Life", looking for an "eccentric" family to host Paris Hilton and Nicole Richie. The episode featuring the Sebert family aired in 2005. Martin had received one of Kesha's demos from Samantha Cox, Senior Director of Writer/Publisher Relations at Broadcast Music Incorporated, and was impressed. Two of the demos were described in a cover story for "Billboard", the first "a gorgeously sung, self-penned country ballad" and the second "a gobsmackingly awful trip-hop track" where Kesha raps ad lib for a minute when she runs out of lyrics near the end. It was the latter track that attracted attention.

Career.

2005–2009: Career beginnings.

In 2005, at 18, Kesha was signed to the label, Kemosabe Records, and the music publishing company, Prescription Songs. Kemosabe Records is owned by Sony Music Entertainment and is located in Los Angeles, California. Sony Music Entertainment partnered to create Kemosabe Records. Some artists that have signed with Kemosabe Records are Juicy J, Rock City, Zara Larsson, Lil Bibby, Becky G and many others. Kesha later sang background vocals for Paris Hilton's single, "Nothing in This World". Kesha then signed with David Sonenberg's management company, DAS Communications Inc., in 2006. DAS was tasked with obtaining a major label record deal for Kesha in a year's time in exchange for 20 percent of her music income, with her having the option of ending the relationship if they failed. She worked with several writers and producers while at the company and ended up co-writing Australian pop group The Veronicas' single "This Love" with producer Toby Gad. While furthering her career in studio, Kesha earned her living as a waitress. While struggling to get by, she began stylizing her name as 'Ke$ha', explaining the dollar sign as an ironic gesture.  In 2008, Kesha appeared in the video for her friend Katy Perry's single "I Kissed a Girl", and sang background vocals for the song "Lace and Leather", by Britney Spears. DAS soon attracted the attention of songwriter and A&R Kara DioGuardi, who wanted to sign Kesha to Warner Bros. Records. The deal fell through due to her existing contract with Kemosabe. In September that year, she allegedly terminated her contract with DAS. Kesha would appear on rapper Flo Rida's number-one single "Right Round" in early 2009, which exposed her to some mainstream attention. According to the parties present, the collaboration happened by accident; she had simply walked into a recording session for the song and Flo Rida happened to have wanted a female voice on it. It was reported that Flo Rida liked the end result so much that he recorded one more track with Kesha for his album. However, she is not credited for her feature on the United States release of "Right Round" and did not collect any money for the part. She also refused to appear in the video, explaining to men's magazine "Esquire" that she wanted to make a name for herself on her own terms.

2009–2011: Breakthrough, "Animal", and "Cannibal".

After failing to negotiate with Lava Records and Atlantic Records in 2009, Kesha signed a multi-album deal with RCA Records. Having spent the previous 6 years working on material for her debut album, she began putting finishing touches to the album. For the album, she wrote approximately 200 songs. It was certified Platinum in the United States and had sold two million albums worldwide by September of that year. The album's lead single, "Tik Tok", broke the record in the United States for the highest sales week for a single, with 610,000 digital downloads sold in a single week, the highest ever by a female artist since digital download tracking began in 2003. It spent nine weeks at number one in the country and became the longest running number-one by a female artist on her debut single since Debby Boone and "You Light Up My Life" in 1977. As of 2019, "Tik Tok" has sold about 25 million copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling single in digital history and the best-selling digital single in history by a female solo artist. Subsequent singles from the album ("Blah Blah Blah", "Your Love Is My Drug" and "Take It Off") achieved similar commercial success, each reaching the top ten in Australia, Canada, and the United States. Kesha was also featured on two top ten singles by musician Taio Cruz and electropop duo 3OH!3.  Kesha's deliberately unpolished aesthetic and juvenile stage persona, which she described as her own personality "times ten", quickly made her a deeply polarizing figure. Some of her critics found her output to be unsophisticated, while others felt that she was manufactured and lacked credibility. In May 2010, Kesha's former managers from DAS Communications Inc. filed a lawsuit against her, seeking $14 million from her for commissions on her RCA Records deal, alleging that she had extended the deadline for them to get her a major record label contract and squeezed them out of her career. Kesha launched her own lawsuit in October, citing the California-exclusive Talent Agencies Act and asking the California Labor Commissioner to declare her contract with DAS void because it had acted as an unlicensed talent agent while procuring work for her in California, where only licensed agents can do so. The case was settled in 2012 before the release of her second album. Kesha held a benefit concert on June 16, 2010, where all proceeds went to aid victims of the 2010 Tennessee floods in her hometown, Nashville. She raised close to $70,000 from the event. She was a supporting act on the summer North American leg of Rihanna's Last Girl on Earth and was awarded Best New Act at the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards.  In November 2010, "Animal" was re-released with a companion extended play, "Cannibal". The lead single taken from "Cannibal", "We R Who We R", debuted at the top of the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in the United States. With two number ones and four top ten hits (among them her featured spot on 3OH!3's "My First Kiss") Kesha was named Hot 100 Artist of 2010 by "Billboard" magazine, with "Tik Tok" ranked as the best-performing song of the year in the US. The follow-up single from "Cannibal", "Blow", also charted in the top ten on the Hot 100. By June 2011, Kesha had sold almost 21 million digital single downloads in the United States alone. In February 2011, Kesha embarked on her first headlining world tour, the Get Sleazy Tour. The tour was expanded with a summer leg due to the first leg selling out and spanned three continents. Kesha also co-wrote the song "Till the World Ends" for American popstar Britney Spears and was featured on the remix of the song along with Trinidadian rapper Nicki Minaj. After meeting Kesha at the 2010 Grammy Awards and guesting at a number of her concerts, rock singer Alice Cooper asked her to write lyrics for and vocally perform as a devil character on their duet track, "What Baby Wants", on Cooper's album "Welcome 2 My Nightmare" (2011).  Kesha was named rights group Humane Society of the United States's first global ambassador for animal rights, for which she is expected to bring attention to such practices as cosmetics testing on animals and shark finning. Kesha received the Wyler Award presented by The Humane Society as a celebrity or public figure who increases awareness of animal issues via the media. She received the award March 23, 2013, at The 2013 Genesis Awards Benefit Gala. She also appeared alongside rock singer Iggy Pop in a campaign for PETA, protesting the clubbing of baby seals in Canada and later wrote on behalf of the organization to fast food chain McDonald's over the conditions of their slaughterhouses.

2012–2013: "Warrior" and other projects.

Kesha's second studio album, "Warrior", was released on November 30, 2012. She began writing for the album while on her own headlining tour in 2011. The album featured productions from Max Martin, as well as a song by Wayne Coyne, the lead singer of the alternative band The Flaming Lips. Coyne had reached out to Kesha for a collaboration after hearing that she was a fan of the band. Besides working on Kesha's album, they recorded the song "2012 (You Must Be Upgraded)" for the band's album, "The Flaming Lips and Heady Fwends" (2012). To coincide with the release of the album, Kesha released the illustrated autobiography "My Crazy Beautiful Life" through Touchstone Books in November 2012. The first single taken from "Warrior" was "Die Young". The song debuted at number thirteen on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and eventually peaked at number 2. The song also charted across Europe and the English-speaking world and reached the top ten in Australia, Canada, and Belgium.  "C'Mon", the album's second single, underperformed commercially, only peaking at number 27 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and ending her string of top ten hits on the chart. Despite this, "C'Mon" continued Kesha's streak of top ten hits (with nine) on the Mainstream Top 40 Pop Songs chart, also graphed by "Billboard". In July 2013, Kesha started the Warrior Tour, which would support the album. The North American leg was co-headlined with American rapper Pitbull. Kesha's third single from "Warrior", "Crazy Kids", was released in April 2013 and also under-performed, peaking at number 40 on the Hot 100, number 19 on the Mainstream Top 40, yet did achieve massive success in South Korea and Belgium, peaking at numbers 2 and 5 in those countries, respectively. A TV series documentary, "", began airing on MTV also in April 2013.  In July 2013, The Flaming Lips stated their intention of releasing a full-length collaborative album with Kesha, called "Lipsha". However, the project eventually cancelled in the winter of the same year. Kesha sent a message to a fan expressing how it was out of her control and that she wanted to release the material, even for free, saying that she did not care about the money. On October 7, 2013, Kesha and Pitbull released a collaboration, "Timber", which became an international commercial success and Kesha's third number-one and tenth top-ten single on the "Billboard" Hot 100.

2014–2016: Lawsuit and personal struggles.

In January 2014, Kesha checked into rehab for bulimia nervosa, an eating disorder, and began to work on her third studio album. After checking out of rehab she chose to use her birth name in favor of her previous moniker, using a normal "s" in her name instead of the symbol "$". In her August 2014 "Teen Vogue" cover interview, Kesha revealed she had recorded 14 new songs while in rehab. In June 2014, Kesha claimed a seat as an expert in the American television singing competition "Rising Star", alongside American music artists Brad Paisley and Ludacris. In October 2014, Kesha sued producer Dr. Luke for sexual assault and battery, sexual harassment, gender violence, emotional abuse, and violation of California business practices which had occurred over 10 years working together. The lawsuit went on for about a year before Kesha sought a preliminary injunction to release her from Kemosabe Records. On February 19, 2016, New York Supreme Court Justice Shirley Kornreich ruled against this request. On April 6, 2016, Kornreich dismissed the case, saying that even if the allegations of sexual assault were accepted as true, the five-year statute of limitations had run out on the two most specific rape allegations, one occurring in 2005 and the other in 2008.  On August 4, 2015, Kesha signed with American performance rights organization SESAC Inc. Kesha guest starred in the second season of the U.S. television series "Jane the Virgin", which aired on October 12, 2015. The singer played Annabelle, the show's protagonist's hostile neighbor. In December 2015, Kesha revealed that she had formed a country music and classic rock-influenced band called Yeast Infection and performed a live show with the band in Nashville, Tennessee on December 23.

2016–2018: "Rainbow" and touring.

Kesha appeared during Zedd's slot at the 2016 Coachella music festival to perform "True Colors", a track from Zedd's second studio album. The cameo marked her first high-profile public performance since her ongoing legal battle with Dr. Luke. A studio version of the collaboration was released as a single on April 29, 2016. On May 22, 2016, Kesha covered Bob Dylan's song "It Ain't Me Babe" at the 2016 "Billboard" Music Awards. On June 11, 2016, Kesha performed at Pride in the Street in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Afterwards, Kesha embarked on her third worldwide concert tour, the (2016–2017). The tour commenced on July 23, 2016, in Las Vegas, Nevada and ended on July 21, 2017, in Aurora, Illinois, after various shows in China as well. The tour included various covers of songs and several rock and country reworks of Kesha's own hit singles. During this time, it was revealed that Kesha had recorded 22 songs on her own and had given them to her label, was in the process of recording a third studio album.  On July 6, 2017, Kesha released a single, titled "Praying". The single charted successfully at number 6 on the music charts of Australia, selling over 140,000 copies and being certified 2x Platinum in the country. The single charted at number 22 and number 11 in the United States and Canada respectively, and subsequently was certified Platinum in both territories. "Praying" was released as the lead single from Kesha's third studio album, "Rainbow", which was released on August 11, 2017. "Rainbow" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 chart in the United States, becoming her second number-one album in the country, and was the subject of universal acclaim from music critics, with several complimenting the album's feminist angle and uniqueness as well as Kesha's vocal performance and ability to interweave different music genres. Three tracks from "Rainbow" were released as promotional singles ahead of the album's release; "Woman", "Learn to Let Go" and "Hymn", two of which were released with accompanying music videos. "Learn to Let Go" was later released as the second single from the album in November 2017. The album received nominations for Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Pop Solo Performance (for "Praying") at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards, marking Kesha's first Grammy nominations.  To promote "Rainbow", Kesha embarked on the Rainbow Tour (2017–2019), which began on September 26, 2017, in Birmingham, Alabama, and visited North America, Europe, Oceania, and Asia. She furthered promotion by joining a co-headlining concert tour with American rapper Macklemore named The Adventures of Kesha and Macklemore (2018). This tour took place in North America between June 6, 2018 and August 5, 2018. Kesha's documentary film, "Rainbow: The Film", was released on Apple Music on August 10, 2018. The documentary chronicles her stint in rehab for her eating disorder and the creation of "Rainbow". In the same month, Kesha collaborated with British rock band The Struts on the remix of their song "Body Talks", released as a single from their album "Young & Dangerous" (2018). On September 19, 2018, Kesha released her song "Here Comes the Change", which served as a single to promote "On the Basis of Sex" (2018), a biographical film about Ruth Bader Ginsburg. In October 2018, Kesha collaborated, wrote, and performed on the song "Safe" with her younger brother Sage Sebert and rapper Chika, as an homage for the Parkland, Florida school shooting.

2019–present: "High Road".

In February 2019, Kesha hosted on a 4-day-long cruise called Kesha's Weird and Wonderful Rainbow Ride. Sailing on the Norwegian Pearl, the cruise set off in Tampa, Florida and ended in Nassau, Bahamas. Special guests included Wrabel, Jonathan Van Ness, Betty Who, Detox, and Superfruit, among others. On June 2, Kesha released a digital single titled "Rich, White, Straight Men". On July 25, Kesha released the promo single "Best Day" for the film "The Angry Birds Movie 2". On November 7, Kesha officially announced her own cosmetics line in partnership with indie makeup brand Hipdot, "Kesha Rose Beauty", that was released December 6.  "High Road", Kesha's fourth studio album, was released January 31, 2020. The album performed moderately commercially and received positive reviews. Originally slated for December 2019, Kesha released a trailer on October 21, 2019 to confirm the album's title as "High Road". Prior to its release, the album saw the release of four singles: "Raising Hell" featuring Big Freedia, "My Own Dance", "Resentment" featuring Brian Wilson, Sturgill Simpson and Wrabel, and "Tonight".  In February 2020, Kesha's 2010 promotional single "Cannibal" gained viral status following a dance trend using it on the video sharing platform TikTok. Following this, the song became a top 40 single in Canada and a new lyric video for the song was released. While self isolating in her home due to the coronavirus pandemic, Kesha created a song titled "Home Alone". On April 18, 2020, she performed at the benefit event.

Artistry.

Musical style and image.

Kesha wrote or co-wrote every song on her first two albums and considers herself a songwriter primarily, writing for artists including Britney Spears and Miley Cyrus. Along with a mezzo-soprano voice, she possesses a "strong, sneering vibrato", with a distinct yodel-like quality to her voice; she employs actual yodeling on the songs "Tik Tok" and "Cannibal". Having previously done country, pop rock, and electro, she had a clear idea of the synth-pop sound that she wanted for her debut album. The genre was popular at the time, with many of her peers releasing similar output as well. Both of those albums are of the genre with catchy hooks and synthesized productions often compared to pop singer Dev by music critics, creating misunderstandings among the fans of the two. "Party at a Rich Dude's House" and "C U Next Tuesday" have 1980s derived backing, while "Stephen" begins with "Kansas-style vocal harmonies". With the lyrics, "Oh my Nicolas Cage, you're so old / you're prehistoric/ you're like a dinosaur/ D-I-N-O-S-A-you are a dinosaur", "Dinosaur" follows a verse-chorus formula, and has a "cheerleader-type tune" reminiscent of "Hollaback Girl" (2005) by Gwen Stefani and "Girlfriend" (2007) by Avril Lavigne; the song uses the overt symbolism of dinosaurs, carnivory, and other primitive motifs to tell the story of an older man who preys on younger women. According to Kesha, the song is based on true events. While her vocals on "Animal" were heavily processed with auto-tune, often to produce rapid stuttering or over-pitch corrected vocal effects, leading to questions on vocal talent, she expressed confidence in her abilities, showing some of her vocal talent in the ballads "Animal" and "Hungover" on the album.  Kesha's second studio album "Warrior" used considerably less autotune, although it still showed in a number of songs. The album's piano and guitar-driven ballads such as "Love Into The Light", "Wonderland" and "Past Lives" display Kesha's vocal ability. Kesha also uses a trademark talky "white-girl" rapping style with exaggerated discordant phrasing and enunciation. Her vocal technique has led her to be credited as a rapper, a topic she disagreed with until fellow rappers André 3000, Wiz Khalifa, and Snoop Dogg endorsed her. On the subject, she said: "The first time someone called me a rapper, I started laughing. I was shocked, and thought it was hilarious. It's crazy and funny to me." "The New York Times" said Kesha "threatens to become the most influential female rapper of the day, or at least the most popular. Pretending Kesha isn't a rapper is no longer feasible." "Crazy Kids" and "C'Mon" took greater shifts into "party rap". Most of her lyrics chronicle her relationships and partying; the lighthearted subject matter of the latter and her unfiltered language saw many critics criticizing her for releasing frivolous and crass music. Jonah Weiner of "Slate", however, stated that her jarring lyrics allowed her songs to become more memorable. In "Blah Blah Blah" and "Boots & Boys", she objectifies men to poke fun at how male fronted rock bands and rappers can get away with objectifying women and not vice versa. The title track to her debut, "Animal", is more aspirational and is intended to inspire people to embrace their individuality. Much more experimental than "Animal", her second album, "Warrior", contains dubstep elements and explores erotic experiences Kesha encountered with ghosts on the song "Supernatural". Overall, Kesha said the theme of "Warrior" is magic.  Critics praised "Warrior" for its rock music influences, despite the album being deeply rooted in technopop. Applauding the album's rock sound, "Rolling Stone" called the album Kesha's rock manifesto. Rock icons The Flaming Lips, Iggy Pop, and Alice Cooper have collaborated with Kesha, endorsing her as a rock singer. Cooper told "Billboard", "I immediately looked at her and went, 'This girl is not a pop diva. She's a rock singer.' She would much rather be the female Robert Plant than the next Britney Spears." "The A.V. Club" said that "Warrior" proved Kesha a capable vocalist and songwriter. "The Washington Post" said that the album is "pure fun", opining that Kesha can write good hooks despite her sometimes vapid lyricism.

Influences.

Kesha has been influenced by various genres and artists; Madonna, Queen, the Rolling Stones, the Killers, Neutral Milk Hotel, the Black Eyed Peas, Gwen Stefani, Casiotone for the Painfully Alone, Janet Jackson, Michael Jackson, Gary Glitter and Beck have all influenced her music. Her vocal style draws heavily from the song "Tthhee Ppaarrttyy" from the 2007 Justice album Cross. After experimenting with country, pop rock, and electronic music, Kesha stuck with the latter. Thematically, her music generally revolves around escapism, partying, individuality, supernatural moments, rebellion, and grief. Kesha's musical influences also consist of hip hop, punk rock, crunkcore, glam rock, pop, dance music and classic country. Her country influences of Dolly Parton and Johnny Cash come from her mother's country songwriting, while her older brother exposed her to hip-hop and punk bands, Fugazi, Dinosaur Jr. and the Beastie Boys. She credits her straightforward story-based lyrics to her love for the honest storytelling style of country music, while the title track from her debut album was created with music of alternative rock bands The Flaming Lips and Arcade Fire in mind. She singled out the Beastie Boys as a major influence, telling "Newsweek" that she had always wanted to be like them and aspired to make "youthful, irreverent anthems" as well. She called her debut album, "Animal", a homage to the Beastie Boys' "Licensed to Ill" and credited the creation of the rap driven "Tik Tok" to her love for the Beastie Boys' rap music. For her first headlining tour, Kesha wanted to emulate the stage theatrics of Iggy Pop. She listed Pop's "The Idiot" as well as Led Zeppelin and AC/DC as inspirations for her second studio album, "Warrior", intended to feature 1970s rock inspired music. "Warrior", to this effect, includes a collaboration with Pop himself.  She draws inspiration from classic films as well. Her stage makeup is characterized by dramatic glitter makeup at her right eye, inspired by "A Clockwork Orange". The video for "Your Love Is My Drug" features animated sequences inspired by The Beatles' film, "Yellow Submarine", while the Get Sleazy tour was described as having a "post-apocalyptic Mad Max vibe."

Personal life.

Kesha is a vegetarian and is openly bisexual. She also has performed legal commitment ceremonies for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. She talked about her sexual orientation with "Seventeen" magazine in 2013, "I don't love just men. I love people. It's not about a gender." She made a similar statement to "Out" in 2010, when she confessed to simply "liking people": "I wouldn't say I'm gay or straight. I don't like labeling things anyway." In her 2019 "Attitude" article, she goes deeper discussing her sexuality saying: "I have always been attracted to the soul behind a person's eyes. It has never occurred to me to care about a specific gender, or how someone is identifying, to make me wonder about whether or not I'm attracted to them." She has been involved with LGBT activism as well as animal rights. Kesha stated that she was born with a quarter inch vestigial tail. "I had a tail when I was born...they chopped it off and stole my tail...I’m really sad about that story."

Health issues.

On January 3, 2014, Kesha checked into Timberline Knolls Residential Treatment Center, a rehab facility in Lemont, Illinois, for eating disorder treatment. Kesha's mother Pebe Sebert confirmed that Kesha was suffering from the eating disorder bulimia nervosa and that she was struggling with it since she was signed. She also alleged that Dr. Luke was partly the cause of Kesha's eating disorder, saying that Luke had allegedly told her to lose weight after he signed her, comparing the shape of her body to a refrigerator. Sebert asserted that this caused Kesha's disorder to worsen. Kesha completed her treatment on March 6, 2014, after spending two months in rehab.

Spiritual views.

Kesha believes in God, writing for "Lenny Letter" that she views "God [as] nature and space and energy and the universe. My own interpretation of spirituality isn't important, because we all have our own. What matters is that I have something greater than me as an individual that helps bring me peace." According to her "Paper", "Homophobia and false piety eventually alienated [her] from Christianity and she's since settled on a non-denominational cocktail of meditation, mindfulness, and astrology." Kesha said she is occasionally a nihilist. She is "obsessed with religion."

Tours.

Headlining  Co-headlining  Supporting

Kesha Rose Sebert (; born March 1, 1987) (formerly stylised as Ke$ha) is an American singer, songwriter, rapper, and actress. In 2005, at age 18, Kesha was signed to Kemosabe Records. Her first major success came in early 2009 after she was featured on American rapper Flo Rida's number-one single "Right Round".

Kesha Rose Sebert, známější jako Kesha nebo také Ke$ha (* 1. března 1987, Los Angeles, Kalifornie, USA) je americká zpěvačka a skladatelka. Známou se stala v roce 2009 společnou skladbou s rapperem "Flo Rida", později se svým debutovým albem "Animal".


History.

The original Lego Mindstorms Robotics Invention System was born out of a collaboration between The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the Lego group. In 1985, Kjeld Kirk Kristiansen, then Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of The Lego Group, heard of the work of MIT's Seymour Papert and was struck by how similar his goals of learning through building were to those of The Lego Group's newly formed educational division. The Lego Group began a partnership with Papert's Media Lab, funding their research and sharing ideas. Born out of this collaboration (and the work of Papert and collaborator Mitchel Resnik's Epistemology and Learning group) was the idea to have children use the LOGO programming language to command Lego brick robots of their own design connected to a computer. In 1988 the Media Lab created a Lego Brick compatible computer that could be used to control a robot without connection to a desktop computer. There was interest within The Lego Group to commercialize this Brick compatible computer as soon as personal computers became widespread, and in 1996 The Lego Group began developing this computer into what would eventually be known as the Robotics Invention System.  In 1996, the newly formed Home Learning division of Lego Education began developing Media Lab's “Grey Brick” into an official product. At the same time, Media Lab was working with the Epistemology and learning group to develop a version of the “Grey Brick” specifically for classroom instructions and the collaboration between these three organizations led to two separate versions of the brick computer: The Lego Group's Robotics Command eXplorer (RCX) and Media Lab's “Red Brick”. The Liquid Crystal Diode (LCD) display that the two bricks share was specifically requested by teachers interviewed by the Epistemology and Research group, in order to give readouts of the status of the motors or sensors in real time. Both bricks also ran programs created through the use of visual programming, the RCX using a coding software based on MIT's LOGO Blocks. The Mindstorms’ project development team had to redevelop the language after finding out it was too complicated for the target audience (10-14-year-old boys) which caused them to miss the original 1997 launch date. Lego Mindstorms’ Robotic Invention System 1.0 was released in September 1998.

Pre-Mindstorm.

Before Mindstorms, Lego had previously done some experimentation with robotic sets. One of the main foundations of these sets was the Lego Technic system and its 4.5 V and later 9 V system for electrical peripherals that had been evolving through the 1980s.

Computer Interfaces.

One of the first examples of programmable Lego was the LEGO Interface-A adapter, used for the educational-only Lego Dacta TC-Logo system. These sets from the mid-late 1980s provided a dedicated hardware interface to control the Lego Technic 4.5 V system using a computer, and for the first time it introduced electric Lego sensors. This interface was controlled from an IBM-PC or Apple-IIe by the use of a special version of Logo, a simple programming language designed for use in children's education. In the mid-1990s, the Lego Dacta Control Lab released as a follow-up for Lego 9 V system, using a standard serial port rather than a custom hardware interface card. This move also introduced new 9 V sensors, which would later become a key component for the first-generation Mindstorms sets. It is worth noting that the Control Lab had dedicated ports for active and passive sensors, while later products like first generation Mindstorms provided support for both kinds on the same ports.

Technic Control Center.

The control center (1990) was the first programmable standalone Lego product, in the sense of being able to store sequence-based programs and run them. It featured three output ports and manual control, and it was only capable of storing linear sequences of manual input plus timing information. It could store up to two programs at once.  The manual controls could be used to independently control the three motors. To record a program; the controller had to be put in programming mode, and then any manual control would be recorded to the program. Pauses could also be included in a program. When the recording was done, the controller could successfully recall and execute any manual action done during the recording. The executing program could be set to loop infinitely.

Cybermaster.

Cybermaster was mainly sold in Europe and Australia/New Zealand and was available for a short time in the United States via the Lego Club magazines. It was aimed at an older audience as an early attempt of merging with robotics and Lego.  The brick shares many, especially software, features with the RCX but differs in appearance and technical specifications: one output (plus two built-in) and four sensors.  Despite its obvious limitations it has a number of advantages over its 'big brother', the RCX.  This makes it very useful for various mobile platforms and performing advanced motion/positioning tasks.  It talks the same protocol as the RCX but cannot communicate directly to it (due to IR vs RF) but with a repeater (a computer with 2 serial ports and a simple program) they can communicate indirectly.

Codepilot.

Sold as part of the Barcode Truck kit. This unit was the first programmable brick (or Pbrick). It features a single motor, a single touch sensor and a light sensor. It is programmed by setting it to 'learn' and using the light sensor to feed barcoded commands. The command set is very limited. Since barcode is just a series of variances in light, this form of command entry was dubbed VLL (Visual Light Link) and has been used in several later Lego models.

Robotics Discovery Set and Droid/Darkside Developer Kit.

The Robotics Discovery Set was a more affordable and simpler package than the Robotics Invention Set. Instead of being based on the RCX, it had its own programmable brick called the Scout. An even simpler version of the Scout would be featured in two Star-Wars themed Mindstorms sets as well.

Scout.

Lego also released a blue computer called the "Scout", which has 2 sensor ports, 2 motor ports (plus one extra if linked with a Micro Scout using a fiber optic cable), and a built in light sensor, but no PC interface. It comes with the Robotics Discovery Set. The Scout can be programmed from a collection of built-in program combinations. In order to program the Scout, a user must enable "power mode" on it. The Scout can store one program.  The Scout is based on a Toshiba microcontroller with 32 KB of ROM and 1 KB of RAM, where about 400 bytes are available for user-programs. Due to the extremely limited amount of RAM, many predefined subroutines were provided in ROM. The Scout only supports passive external sensors, which means that only touch, temperature and other unpowered sensors can be used. The analog-to-digital converters used in the Scout only have a resolution of 8 bits in contrast to the 10-bit converters of the RCX.  There was a plan for Lego to create a booster set that allows you to program the Scout from a computer with a software such as RCX code. However, due to the complexity of this project, it was abandoned.  The RCX can control the Scout brick using the "Send IR Message" program block. The RCX does all of the controlling, and therefore can be programmed with the PC, while the Scout accepts commands. The Scout brick must have all of its options set to "off".

Micro Scout.

The Micro Scout was added as an entry level to Lego robotics. It is a very limited Pbrick with a single built-in light sensor and a single built-in motor. It has seven built-in programs and can be controlled by a Scout, Spybotics or RCX unit using VLL. Like the Scout, the Micro Scout is also based on a microcontroller from Toshiba.  The unit was sold as part of the Droid Developer Kit (featuring R2-D2) and later the Darkside Developer Kit (featuring an AT-AT Imperial Walker).

Robotics Invention System.

The main core of the first generation of Mindstorms sets were the Robotics Invention System sets. These were based around the RCX (Robotic Command eXplorers) brick, and the 9 V LEGO Technic peripherals available at the time. It also includes three touch-sensors and an optical sensor, using the technology from the earlier 9 V sensors from the pre-Mindstorms sets.

RCX.

The RCX is based on the Single-bit Renesas H8/300 microcontroller, including 32 KB of ROM for low-level IO functions, along with 32 KB of RAM to store high-level firmware and user programs. The RCX is programmed by uploading a program using a dedicated infrared interface. After the user uploads a program, the RCX can run it on its own without needing access to a computer. Programs may take use of three sensor input ports and three 9 V output ports, in addition to the IR interface, enabling several RCX bricks to communicate. A built-in LCD can display the battery level, the status of the input/output ports, which program is selected or running, and other information.  Version 1.0 RCX bricks feature a power adapter jack rather than solely batteries. In version 2.0 (as well as later 1.0s included in the RIS 1.5), the power adapter jack was removed. Power-adapter equipped RCX bricks were popular for stationary robotics projects (such as robot arms) or for controlling Lego model trains. In the latter context, the RCX might be programmed with Digital Command Control (DCC) software to operate multiple wired trains.  The IR interface on the RCX is able to communicate with Spybots, Scout Bricks, Lego Trains, and the NXT (using a third-party infrared link sensor). The RCX 1.0 IR receiver carrier frequency is 38.5 kHz, while the RCX 2.0 IR carrier frequency is 76 kHz. Both versions can transmit on either frequency. The RCX communicates with a computer using a Serial or USB IR tower. As the RCX is discontinued, support for the interface is limited on more recent operating systems than Windows XP.  All versions of the RCX have a unique number printed on it, which could be registered on the now-defunct Lego Mindstorms RCX website. This was necessary to obtain technical support. The first RCX produced is marked "000001" and was on display at the Mindstorms 10th Anniversary event.

Expansion Packs.

Six expansion-packs were made for the Robotics Invention System. Most expansion sets contains more parts and instructions, while other expansion sets were more ambitious. These sets include:  Notable sets include the Ultimate Accessory Set, containing more sensors and an IR remote-control for sending commands to the RCX. Another notable set, Vision Command, came with a Lego Camera and dedicated software. This software was capable of detecting different lightings, motion, and colors.

Lego Mindstorms NXT.

Lego Mindstorms NXT was a programmable robotics kit released by Lego in July 2006, replacing the first-generation LEGO Mindstorms kit. The kit consists of 577 pieces, including: 3 servo motors, 4 sensors (ultrasonic, sound, touch, and light), 7 connection cables, a USB interface cable, and the NXT Intelligent Brick. The Intelligent Brick is the "brain" of a Mindstorms machine. It lets the robot autonomously perform different operations. The kit also includes NXT-G, a graphical programming environment that enables the creation and downloading of programs to the NXT. The software also has instructions for 4 robots; Alpha-Rex (a humanoid), Tri-Bot (a car), Robo-Arm T-56 (a robotic arm), and Spike (a scorpion)

Lego Mindstorms NXT Educational Version.

This is the educational version of the NXT set from Lego Education, which is made for school use. Software was sold separately (but can be downloaded for free now), and the Education Resource Set for the best use. It includes a light sensor, an ultrasonic sensor, a sound sensor, three lamps and a pair of touch sensors. The first set consists of about 400 pieces, and the extra set consists of about 600 pieces. The Education Version is most suited for those who have older versions of Mindstorms sets around, mostly thanks to its three converter cables.

Lego Mindstorms NXT 2.0.

The Lego Mindstorms NXT 2.0 was launched on 5 August 2009. It contains 619 pieces (includes sensors and motors), two Touch Sensors, an Ultrasonic Sensor, and introduced a new Color Sensor. The NXT 2.0 uses Floating Point operations whereas earlier versions use Integer operation. The kit costs around US$280.

Lego Mindstorms EV3.

The Lego Mindstorms EV3 is the third generation Lego Mindstorms product. EV3 is a further development of the NXT. The system was released on September 1, 2013. The LEGO MINDSTORMS EV3 set includes motors, sensors, the EV3 programmable brick, 550+ LEGO Technic elements and a remote control. The EV3 can be controlled by smart-devices. It can boot an alternative operating system from a microSD card, which makes it possible to run ev3dev, a Debian-based operating system.

Use in education.

Mindstorms kits are also sold and used as an educational tool, originally through a partnership between Lego and the MIT Media Laboratory. The educational version of the products is called "Mindstorms for schools" or "Mindstorms Education", and later versions comes with the ROBOLAB GUI-based programming software, developed at Tufts University using the National Instruments LabVIEW as an engine. In addition, the shipped software can be replaced with third party firmware and/or programming languages, including some of the most popular ones used by professionals in the embedded systems industry, like Java and C. One of the differences between the educational series, known as the "Challenge Set", and the consumer series, known as the "Inventor Set", is that it includes another touch sensor and several more gearing options. However, there are several other standouts between the two versions that one may not recognize unless doing a side by side analysis of what each offers. The version sold through LEGO Education is designed for a deeper level of learning or teaching that often happens in a classroom or school setting. The LEGO Education version comes with support called the Robot Educator. This includes 48 tutorials to walk the learner through the basics of coding to more sophisticated and complex concepts such as data logging. This resource to support the learner and/or educator are not included in the retail version of Mindstorms. It's always a good idea to reach out to a LEGO Education consultant to inquire of other differences as there are several more. The retail version was designed for more of a home/toy use vs the educator model was designed to support deeper learning with extra resources and pieces to do so. This is why the LEGO Education Mindstorms contains more sensors and parts than the retail version.

Community.

There is a strong community of professionals and hobbyists of all ages involved in the sharing of designs, programming techniques, creating third-party software and hardware, and contributing of other ideas associated with Lego Mindstorms. The Lego Mindstorms system/website is organized much like a wiki, harnessing the creative potential and collaborative efforts of participants. Lego also encourages sharing and peering by making software code available for downloading and by holding various contests and events.

Lego Mindstorms is a hardware and software structure which is produced by Lego for the development of programmable robots based on Lego building blocks. Each version of the system includes an intelligent "brick" computer that controls the system, a set of modular sensors and motors, and Lego parts from the Technic line to create the mechanical systems.

LEGO Mindstorms je řada programovatelných robotických stavebnic vyráběných firmou Lego. První verze Lego Mindstorms byla vydána na trh v roce 1998 pod názvem Robotics Invention System (RIS). Nejnovější verze Lego Mindstorms ev3 pochází z 1. srpna 2013.


Area of a parabola.

To explain Archimedes' method today, it is convenient to make use of a little bit of Cartesian geometry, although this of course was unavailable at the time. His idea is to use the law of the lever to determine the areas of figures from the known center of mass of other figures. The simplest example in modern language is the area of the parabola. Archimedes uses a more elegant method, but in Cartesian language, his method is calculating the integral  which can easily be checked nowadays using elementary integral calculus.  The idea is to mechanically balance the parabola (the curved region being integrated above) with a certain triangle that is made of the same material. The parabola is the region in the "x"-"y" plane between the "x"-axis and "y" = "x" as "x" varies from 0 to 1. The triangle is the region in the "x"-"y" plane between the "x"-axis and the line "y" = "x", also as "x" varies from 0 to 1.  Slice the parabola and triangle into vertical slices, one for each value of "x". Imagine that the "x"-axis is a lever, with a fulcrum at "x" = 0. The law of the lever states that two objects on opposite sides of the fulcrum will balance if each has the same torque, where an object's torque equals its weight times its distance to the fulcrum. For each value of "x", the slice of the triangle at position x has a mass equal to its height "x", and is at a distance "x" from the fulcrum; so it would balance the corresponding slice of the parabola, of height "x", if the latter were moved to "x" = −1, at a distance of 1 on the other side of the fulcrum.  Since each pair of slices balances, moving the whole parabola to "x" = −1 would balance the whole triangle. This means that if the original uncut parabola is hung by a hook from the point "x" = −1 (so that the whole mass of the parabola is attached to that point), it will balance the triangle sitting between "x" = 0 and "x" = 1.  The center of mass of a triangle can be easily found by the following method, also due to Archimedes. If a median line is drawn from any one of the vertices of a triangle to the opposite edge "E", the triangle will balance on the median, considered as a fulcrum. The reason is that if the triangle is divided into infinitesimal line segments parallel to "E", each segment has equal length on opposite sides of the median, so balance follows by symmetry. This argument can be easily made rigorous by exhaustion by using little rectangles instead of infinitesimal lines, and this is what Archimedes does in On the Equilibrium of Planes.  So the center of mass of a triangle must be at the intersection point of the medians. For the triangle in question, one median is the line "y" = "x"/2, while a second median is the line "y" = 1 − "x". Solving these equations, we see that the intersection of these two medians is above the point "x" = 2/3, so that the total effect of the triangle on the lever is as if the total mass of the triangle were pushing down on (or hanging from) this point. The total torque exerted by the triangle is its area, 1/2, times the distance 2/3 of its center of mass from the fulcrum at "x" = 0. This torque of 1/3 balances the parabola, which is at a distance -1 from the fulcrum. Hence, the area of the parabola must be 1/3 to give it the opposite torque.  This type of method can be used to find the area of an arbitrary section of a parabola, and similar arguments can be used to find the integral of any power of "x", although higher powers become complicated without algebra. Archimedes only went as far as the integral of "x", which he used to find the center of mass of a hemisphere, and in other work, the center of mass of a parabola.

First proposition in the palimpsest.

Consider the parabola in the figure to the right. Pick two points on the parabola and call them "A" and "B".  Suppose the line segment "AC" is parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Further suppose that the line segment "BC" lies on a line that is tangent to the parabola at "B". The first proposition states:  Let "D" be the midpoint of "AC". Construct a line segment "JB" through "D", where the distance from "J" to "D" is equal to the distance from "B" to "D". We will think of the segment "JB" as a "lever" with "D" as its fulcrum. As Archimedes had previously shown, the center of mass of the triangle is at the point "I" on the "lever" where "DI" :"DB" = 1:3. Therefore, it suffices to show that if the whole weight of the interior of the triangle rests at "I", and the whole weight of the section of the parabola at "J", the lever is in equilibrium.  Consider an infinitely small cross-section of the triangle given by the segment "HE", where the point "H" lies on "BC", the point "E" lies on "AB", and "HE" is parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Call the intersection of "HE" and the parabola "F" and the intersection of "HE" and the lever "G". If the whole weight of the triangle rests at "I", it exerts the same torque on the lever "JB" as it does on "HE". Thus, we wish to show that if the weight of the cross-section "HE" rests at "G" and the weight of the cross-section "EF" of the section of the parabola rests at "J", then the lever is in equilibrium. In other words, it suffices to show that "EF" :"GD" = "EH" :"JD". But that is a routine consequence of the equation of the parabola. Q.E.D.

Volume of a sphere.

Again, to illuminate the mechanical method, it is convenient to use a little bit of coordinate geometry. If a sphere of radius 1 is placed with its center at "x" = 1, the vertical cross sectional radius formula_2 at any "x" between 0 and 2 is given by the following formula:  The mass of this cross section, for purposes of balancing on a lever, is proportional to the area:  Archimedes then considered rotating the triangular region between "y" = 0 and "y" = "x" and "x" = "2" on the "x"-"y" plane around the "x"-axis, to form a cone. The cross section of this cone is a circle of radius formula_5  and the area of this cross section is  So if slices of the cone and the sphere "both" are to be weighed together, the combined cross-sectional area is:  If the two slices are placed together at distance 1 from the fulcrum, their total weight would be exactly balanced by a circle of area formula_9 at a distance "x" from the fulcrum on the other side. This means that the cone and the sphere together, if all their material were moved to "x = 1", would balance a cylinder of base radius 1 and length 2 on the other side.  As "x" ranges from 0 to 2, the cylinder will have a center of gravity a distance 1 from the fulcrum, so all the weight of the cylinder can be considered to be at position 1. The condition of balance ensures that the volume of the cone plus the volume of the sphere is equal to the volume of the cylinder.  The volume of the cylinder is the cross section area, formula_9 times the height, which is 2, or formula_11. Archimedes could also find the volume of the cone using the mechanical method, since, in modern terms, the integral involved is exactly the same as the one for area of the parabola. The volume of the cone is 1/3 its base area times the height. The base of the cone is a circle of radius 2, with area formula_11, while the height is 2, so the area is formula_13. Subtracting the volume of the cone from the volume of the cylinder gives the volume of the sphere:  The dependence of the volume of the sphere on the radius is obvious from scaling, although that also was not trivial to make rigorous back then. The method then gives the familiar formula for the volume of a sphere. By scaling the dimensions linearly Archimedes easily extended the volume result to spheroids.  Archimedes argument is nearly identical to the argument above, but his cylinder had a bigger radius, so that the cone and the cylinder hung at a greater distance from the fulcrum. He considered this argument to be his greatest achievement, requesting that the accompanying figure of the balanced sphere, cone, and cylinder be engraved upon his tombstone.

Surface area of a sphere.

To find the surface area of the sphere, Archimedes argued that just as the area of the circle could be thought of as infinitely many infinitesimal right triangles going around the circumference (see Measurement of the Circle), the volume of the sphere could be thought of as divided into many cones with height equal to the radius and base on the surface. The cones all have the same height, so their volume is 1/3 the base area times the height.  Archimedes states that the total volume of the sphere is equal to the volume of a cone whose base has the same surface area as the sphere and whose height is the radius. There are no details given for the argument, but the obvious reason is that the cone can be divided into infinitesimal cones by splitting the base area up, and the each cone makes a contribution according to its base area, just the same as in the sphere.  Let the surface of the sphere be "S". The volume of the cone with base area "S" and height "r" is formula_15, which must equal the volume of the sphere: formula_16. Therefore, the surface area of the sphere must be formula_17, or "four times its largest circle". Archimedes proves this rigorously in On the Sphere and Cylinder.

Curvilinear shapes with rational volumes.

One of the remarkable things about the "Method" is that Archimedes finds two shapes defined by sections of cylinders, whose volume does not involve "π", despite the shapes having curvilinear boundaries. This is a central point of the investigation—certain curvilinear shapes could be rectified by ruler and compass, so that there are nontrivial rational relations between the volumes defined by the intersections of geometrical solids.  Archimedes emphasizes this in the beginning of the treatise, and invites the reader to try to reproduce the results by some other method. Unlike the other examples, the volume of these shapes is not rigorously computed in any of his other works. From fragments in the palimpsest, it appears that Archimedes did inscribe and circumscribe shapes to prove rigorous bounds for the volume, although the details have not been preserved.  The two shapes he considers are the intersection of two cylinders at right angles, which is the region of ("x", "y", "z") obeying:  and the circular prism, which is the region obeying:  Both problems have a slicing which produces an easy integral for the mechanical method. For the circular prism, cut up the "x"-axis into slices. The region in the "y"-"z" plane at any x is the interior of a right triangle of side length formula_20 whose area is formula_21, so that the total volume is:  which can be easily rectified using the mechanical method. Adding to each triangular section a section of a triangular pyramid with area formula_23 balances a prism whose cross section is constant.  For the intersection of two cylinders, the slicing is lost in the manuscript, but it can be reconstructed in an obvious way in parallel to the rest of the document: if the x-z plane is the slice direction, the equations for the cylinder give that formula_24 while formula_25, which defines a region which is a square in the "x"-"z" plane of side length formula_26, so that the total volume is:  And this is the same integral as for the previous example.

Other propositions in the palimpsest.

A series of propositions of geometry are proved in the palimpsest by similar arguments. One theorem is that the location of a center of mass of a hemisphere is located 5/8 of the way from the pole to the center of the sphere. This problem is notable, because it is evaluating a cubic integral.

The Method of Mechanical Theorems (), also referred to as The Method, is considered one of the major surviving works of the ancient Greek polymath Archimedes. "The Method" takes the form of a letter from Archimedes to Eratosthenes, the chief librarian at the Library of Alexandria, and contains the first attested explicit use of "indivisibles" (sometimes referred to as infinitesimals). The work was originally thought to be lost, but in 1906 was rediscovered in the celebrated Archimedes Palimpsest. The palimpsest includes Archimedes' account of the "mechanical method", so-called because it relies on the law of the lever, which was first demonstrated by Archimedes, and of the center of mass (or centroid), which he had found for many special shapes.

Metody vytváření matematických teorémů je dílo řeckého matematika a fyzika Archiméda. Toto dílo je prvním, ve kterém je doložený součet nekonečně geometrické řady. Archimédova práce byla ztracena až do roku 1906, kdy byl objeven Archimédův palimpsest.


Life.

Gerard was born in Cremona in northern Italy. Dissatisfied with the philosophies of his Italian teachers, Gerard went to Toledo. There he learned Arabic, initially so that he could read Ptolemy's "Almagest", which had a traditionally high reputation among scholars, but which, before his departure to Castile, was not yet known in Latin translation. The first Latin translation was made, from the Greek around 1160 in Sicily. Although we do not have detailed information of the date when Gerard went to Castile, it was no later than 1144.  Toledo, which had been a provincial capital in the Caliphate of Cordoba and remained a seat of learning, was safely available to a Catholic like Gerard, since it had been conquered from the Moors by Alfonso VI of Castile in 1085. Toledo remained a multicultural capital, insofar as its rulers protected the large Jewish and Muslim quarters, and kept their trophy city an important centre of Arab and Hebrew culture. One of the great scholars associated with Toledo was Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra, Gerard's contemporary. The Muslim and Jewish inhabitants of Toledo adopted the language and many customs of their conquerors, embodying Mozarabic culture. The city was full of libraries and manuscripts, and was one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.  In Toledo Gerard devoted the remainder of his life to making Latin translations from the Arabic scientific literature.

Gerard's translations.

Gerard of Cremona's Latin translation of the Arabic version of Ptolemy's "Almagest" made c. 1175 was the most widely known in Western Europe before the Renaissance. Unbeknownst to Gerard, an earlier translation of the "Almagest" had already been made in Sicily from the original Greek c. 1160 under the aegis of Henricus Aristippus, although this version was not as widely used in the Middle Ages as Gerard's version. George of Trebizond and then Johannes Regiomontanus retranslated it from the Greek original in the fifteenth century. The "Almagest" formed the basis for Western astronomy until it was eclipsed by the theories of Copernicus.  Gerard edited for Latin readers the "Tables of Toledo", the most accurate compilation of astronomical data ever seen in Europe at the time. The "Tables" were partly the work of Al-Zarqali, known to the West as Arzachel, a mathematician and astronomer who flourished in Cordoba in the eleventh century.  Al-Farabi, the Islamic "second teacher" after Aristotle, wrote hundreds of treatises. His book on the sciences, "Kitab lhsa al Ulum," discussed classification and fundamental principles of science in a unique and useful manner. Gerard rendered it as "De scientiis" ("On the Sciences").  Gerard translated Euclid’s "Geometry" and Alfraganus's "Elements of Astronomy".  Gerard also composed original treatises on algebra, arithmetic and astrology. In the astrology text, longitudes are reckoned both from Cremona and Toledo.  In total, Gerard of Cremona translated 87 books from the Arabic language, including such originally Greek works as Ptolemy's "Almagest", Archimedes' "On the Measurement of the Circle", Aristotle's "On the Heavens", and Euclid's "Elements of Geometry"; and such originally Arabic works as al-Khwarizmi's "On Algebra and Almucabala", Jabir ibn Aflah's "Elementa astronomica", and works by al-Razi (Rhazes). Gerard of Cremona was also creator of anatomical terms. The Latin translation of the "Calendar of Córdoba", entitled "Liber Anoe", has also been attributed to Gerard.

A second Gerard Cremonensis.

Some of the works credited to Gerard of Cremona are probably the work of a later Gerard Cremonensis, working in the thirteenth century, who was also known as Gerard de Sabloneta (Sabbioneta). The later Gerard focused on translating medical texts rather than astronomical texts, but the two translators have understandably been confused with one another. His translations from works of Avicenna are said to have been made by order of the emperor Frederick II.  Other treatises attributed to the "Second Gerard" include the "Theoria" or "Theorica planetarum", and versions of Avicenna’s "Canon of Medicine"— the basis of the numerous subsequent Latin editions of that well-known work — and of the "Almansor" of al-Razi ("Rhazes" in Latin-speaking Europe). The attribution of the "Theorica" to Gerard of Sabbionetta is not well supported by manuscript evidence and should not be regarded as certain.

Gerard of Cremona (Latin: "Gerardus Cremonensis"; c. 1114 – 1187) was an Italian translator of scientific books from Arabic into Latin. He worked in Toledo, Kingdom of Castile and obtained the Arabic books in the libraries at Toledo. Some of the books had been originally written in Greek and were unavailable in Greek or Latin in Europe at the time. Gerard of Cremona is the most important translator among the Toledo School of Translators who invigorated medieval Europe in the twelfth century by transmitting the Arabs' and ancient Greeks' knowledge in astronomy, medicine and other sciences, by making the knowledge available in Latin. One of Gerard's most famous translations is of Ptolemy's "Almagest" from Arabic texts found in Toledo.

Gerard z Cremony ( "Gerardo da Cremona", "Gerardus Cremonensis", 1114 Cremona – 1187 Toledo) byl lombardský překladatel arabských vědeckých a filosofických děl, jež se nacházela v arabských knihovnách v Toledu opuštěných následkem reconquisty. Nejznámější je jeho překlad Ptolemaiova díla "Almagest". Významný je také jako překladatel Aristotelových děl.


Origin and design.

Visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston had hoped the "Enterprise"'s destruction in "The Search for Spock" would open the door to designing a new model for future films. However, producers for "" (1986) decided to have the crew return to a duplicate of their previous ship. Although a new model was not created, it took ILM more than six weeks to restore and repaint the ship to appear as the new USS "Enterprise", NCC-1701-A. Although the original bridge set had been refurbished and repainted to serve as the bridge for the "Enterprise"-A, it was scrapped in favor of a completely new bridge set for the fifth film. The sleek "Okudagrams" created for this "Enterprise"-A bridge, were later adopted in subsequent films and television spin-offs. When production began on "" (1987–1994), several interior "Enterprise" sets, such as the bridge, were redressed for use on the television show. Later, some "Next Generation" sets, such as the "Enterprise"-D's engine room and conference room, were modified to depict interiors of the "Enterprise"-A.

Depiction.

The "Constitution"-class starship "Enterprise"-A was commissioned in 2286, at the end of the events depicted in "" and is the second "Constitution"-class Federation starship to carry the name "Enterprise". While the ship's history before its recommissioning as "Enterprise" has never been officially stated, several non-canon sources (such as the AMT/Ertl Model kit documentation) have claimed it to formerly be USS "Yorktown" (NCC-1717); others cite it as the newly built (but not yet commissioned) former USS "Ti-Ho" (NCC-1798), or the also newly built USS "Atlantis". The ship is placed under the command of newly demoted Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner), who is "punished" for his and his crew's actions in the rescue of Spock (Leonard Nimoy) in "", but allowed to resume command due to their rescue of Earth in "". It replaces the original "Enterprise" (NCC-1701), destroyed in "Star Trek III". Though outwardly identical to its refitted and updated predecessor, in its debut, the new ship is beset with teething problems and Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott and Commander Uhura are shown making numerous repairs and reconfigurations to the new ship before deployment. In "", the ship is dispatched to rescue hostages on Nimbus III. The Vulcan renegade Sybok (Laurence Luckinbill) and his followers hijack the ship and take it to a planet at the center of the galaxy, where Kirk and his crew eventually regain control of the ship. Several novels and comics explore the six-year period between the fifth and sixth films. In "", "Enterprise" escorts Klingon chancellor Gorkon (David Warner) to a peace summit on Earth. The renegade Klingon general Chang (Christopher Plummer), assisted by traitors aboard "Enterprise", makes it appear that "Enterprise" had fired on the chancellor's vessel. The Klingons take Kirk and Leonard McCoy (DeForest Kelley) prisoner; Spock and "Enterprise" crew disregard Starfleet orders and instead rescue Kirk and McCoy. "Enterprise" encounters and, with aid from Captain Sulu and the USS "Excelsior", destroys Chang's ship, and the crew protects the Federation President from an assassination attempt.  There is no canon information about the ship's fate beyond "Star Trek VI". In the epilogue of "", Uhura had stated they received a communication from Starfleet Command that ordered "Enterprise" to report to space dock to be decommissioned. However, she may have been speaking only of the ship's original crew members as Captain James T. Kirk previously stated his crew was due to stand down in three months, while Spock noted this would be his last voyage on "Enterprise" as a member of her crew; and Captain Kirk states in his closing log entry the ship "will become the care of another crew," but no further information is given. Documentation provided with the Bandai model states that the ship was displayed in the Starfleet Museum at Memory Alpha. According to the non-canon novel "The Ashes of Eden", written by William Shatner, Starfleet Commander-in-Chief Androvar Drake orders "Enterprise"-A decommissioned and destroyed during war games and weapons testing, but the Chal government intervenes. Ultimately, "Enterprise" is destroyed to prevent Drake's completion of a disastrous personal agenda.

Kelvin timeline.

"Enterprise" (NCC-1701-A) was already under construction at the time of its predecessor's arrival at Starbase Yorktown. Following the destruction of its predecessor, its crew was reassigned to the NCC-1701-A after its completion.  A new design for "Enterprise" NCC-1701-A appears in "Star Trek Beyond", designed by Sean Hargreaves. Hargreaves, who also designed the swarm ships and USS "Franklin" for the film, stated that he was given the brief to "beef up the neck and arms" on the Ryan Church design.

USS "Enterprise" NCC-1701-A (or "Enterprise"-A, to distinguish it from other vessels with the same name) is a fictional starship in three "Star Trek" films. It made its debut in the final scene of the 1986 film "".

USS "Enterprise s registračním číslem NCC-1701-A (často zvána Enterprise"-A) je fiktivní hvězdná loď ze světa Star Treku patřící k Hvězdné flotile. Poprvé se objevila ve filmu "", v následujících dvou filmech "" a "" již hrála hlavní roli.


History.

Colonial and Revolutionary period.

The area which was formally named McIntosh County was originally settled by the British in 1721 with the construction of Fort King George, which was part of a set of forts built as a buffer between the British colonies to the north and Spanish Florida to the south, under the direction of General James Oglethorpe. New Inverness (later named Darien) was founded in 1736 by Scottish Highlanders who were enticed to move to Georgia by General Oglethorpe. In 1760 the British built Fort Barrington on the north side of the Altamaha River about 12 miles (19 km) northwest of present-day Darien. It was used for decades as a transportation and communication center up and down coastal Georgia. The County split off from Liberty County in 1793. The new county was named "McIntosh" for its most famous family, which included Lachlan McIntosh, who was a general in the Continental Army. The McIntosh clan in Darien dates back to 1736.

Civil War period.

Few Georgia counties suffered during the Civil War as much as McIntosh County. The agricultural loss of the planters and plantations was devastating. Even the lumber industry was destroyed, along with the once-thriving seaport town of Darien, Georgia which was the result of the "total war" tactics of James Montgomery in June 1863.

Reconstruction.

From the end of the Civil war to Georgia's 1907 disenfranchisement laws, McIntosh County was a base of black political power in the state. “Tunis Campbell was the highest-ranking and most influential African American politician in nineteenth-century Georgia,” according to the "New Georgia Encyclopedia". In March 1865, Tunis G. Campbell Sr. was put in supervision of land claims at the Freedmen's Bureau for a group of Georgia barrier islands, including Sapelo in McIntosh County. After the land in question was returned to plantation owners by President Andrew Johnson, “Campbell quickly purchased 1,250 acres at Belle Ville in McIntosh County and there established an association of black landowners to divide parcels and profit from the land.”  After the military registration carried out in early 1867, 600 black people and 307 white people were on the voter rolls in McIntosh. In late 1867, Campbell was elected as one of two delegates from the second senatorial district – Liberty, McIntosh, and Tattnall counties – to Georgia's constitutional convention. In April 1868, Campbell was elected as the state senator for the second district, and his son Tunis G. Campbell Jr. was elected as state representative for McIntosh County. While both Campbells were among the black legislators expelled later in 1868, they were able to return to office in 1871; Campbell Sr. left office in 1872, while Campbell Jr. served until 1874.  Campbell Sr. also served as the Vice President of the Georgia Republican Party. As an elected official, “Campbell [Sr.] organized a black power structure in McIntosh County that protected freed people from white abuses, whether against their bodies or in labor negotiations,” and he was rumored to be protected by a 300-person militia. In fact, that power structure lasted for decades, as evidenced by the fact that the county had three black representatives from 1875 to 1907: Amos R. Rodgers (1878-9), Lectured Crawford (1886-7, 1890-1, 1900-1), and William H. Rogers (1902-7).

Civil rights period.

Despite its large number of black residents, McIntosh County politics continued to be dominated by whites well into the 1970s, even following the federal civil rights legislation of the previous decade. In September 1975, the Georgia Legal Services Program, on behalf of local NAACP members, filed suit in US District Court, alleging that women and blacks were systematically excluded from grand juries responsible for appointing members to the McIntosh County Board of Education. The following May, plaintiffs and county officials reached an agreement providing for random jury selection.  In 1977, the NAACP filed separate suits against McIntosh County and the City of Darien, alleging improper districting for county and city commission seats. The county settled out of court, agreeing to redraw its commission boundaries to include a black-majority district. The NAACP lost its suit against the city, but this decision was remanded and reversed in 1979 by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit.  "Praying for Sheetrock: A Work of Nonfiction" () by Melissa Fay Greene narrates the events surrounding the civil rights movement in McIntosh County, particularly the demise of Sheriff Thomas H. Poppell and the 1978 election of black rights activist Thurnell Alston to the county commissioner.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (26.1%) is water.  The vast majority of McIntosh County is located in the Ogeechee Coastal sub-basin of the larger Ogeechee basin. The entire southwestern border of the county is located in the Altamaha River sub-basin of the basin by the same name.

Transportation.

Traffic signals.

McIntosh County is noteworthy for being the only county in its area having no cycled traffic lights. There are two flashing lights in the county, however. One is at the four-way stop intersection of US-17 and GA-99 in Eulonia, and the other is at the intersection of US-17 and First Street in downtown Darien. There have been discussions in Darien of placing a traffic signal at the intersection of GA-251 and US-17, as well as at the Interstate 95 exit ramps on GA-251, as traffic flow has increased in Darien in recent years. However, no definite plans have been made in regards to potential future traffic signals.

Railroads.

McIntosh County is also one of just a handful of counties in Georgia that no longer has an active railroad. The short-lived Georgia Coast and Piedmont Railroad once ran along present-day SR 99 and SR 57 but was removed by 1919. The more recent Seaboard Coast Line Railroad ran north to south along the western part of the county, through Townsend for most of the twentieth century. However, the track from Riceboro in Liberty County to Seals in Camden County was removed by CSX in the late 1980s, leaving McIntosh County without any railroad track. Evidence of the railroad corridor can still be seen in many areas, though.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 14,333 people, 5,971 households, and 4,010 families residing in the county. The population density was. There were 9,220 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 61.5% white, 35.9% black or African American, 0.4% American Indian, 0.3% Asian, 0.1% Pacific islander, 0.6% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.6% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 11.4% were Irish, 6.5% were English, 6.5% were American, and 6.0% were German.  Of the 5,971 households, 28.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.5% were married couples living together, 14.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 32.8% were non-families, and 28.4% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.91. The median age was 44.4 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $39,075 and the median income for a family was $51,765. Males had a median income of $35,473 versus $25,607 for females. The per capita income for the county was $20,964. About 11.2% of families and 16.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.7% of those under age 18 and 13.3% of those ages of 65 or over.

McIntosh County is a county located in the U.S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,333. The county seat is Darien.

McIntosh je okres (county) amerického státu Georgie založený v roce 1793. Správním střediskem je město Darien. Leží na jihovýchodě Georgie, u pobřeží Atlantského oceánu.