History.

According to Owen Davies', a paranormal historian, hauntings in the British Isles were usually attributed to fairies, but today hauntings are usually associated with ghostly or supernatural encounters.In other cultures around the world, various spirits are said to haunt vacant homes and locations. In Middle Eastern countries, for example, jinn are said to haunt such areas. Historically, since most people died in their homes, whether they were mansions or hovels, these homes became natural places for ghosts to haunt, with bedrooms being the most common rooms to be haunted. Many houses gained a reputation for being haunted after they were empty or derelict. Davies explains that "...if people were to fail to occupy a human space, then external forces would move in."

Cultural attitudes on haunted houses.

Haunting is one of the most common paranormal beliefs around the world, according to Benjamin Radford, in his book, "Investigating Ghosts: The Scientific Search for Spirits". He says that almost every town and city has at least one haunted place. He states that, despite over 100 years of investigation, there has not been a "...single verifiable fact about ghosts having been established."  In a 2005 Gallup poll, 37 percent of Americans, 28 percent of Canadians, and 40 percent of Britons expressed the belief that houses could be "haunted". In a 2009 Pew Research Center survey, about 29% of Americans believed they had been in touch with someone who has died. According to results from a Research Co. poll released in 2020, 40% of Canadian women and 25% of Canadian men stated they believe in haunted houses.  In Japan, there is a tradition, linked to Buddhism, of creating obakeyashiki (ghost houses) in August, when it is believed that ancestral spirits may visit. People will go to ghost houses to listen to frightening stories or seek elaborate decorations and costumes to experience shivers as a way to feel cooler in the hot summer temperatures.  The Shanghai Disneyland Park planners decided against building The Haunted Mansion because of the local cultural beliefs about ghosts and hauntings. Building the house would have been considered a mockery of their fear.  In Wuhan, China, the police have built a haunted house to train their police force by testing their nerves. They filled a dilapidated house with faked severed limbs, bones, skulls and a frightening atmosphere that includes lightning and rain. The house is also open to the public.

Proposed causes.

According to Owen Davies' book, "The Haunted, a Social History of Ghosts", "Even the most devout believers in ghosts over the centuries recognized that many hauntings were frauds." In an interview with USA today, Davies states, "For skeptics in the past and present, the house was obviously the center of hauntings because it was where people slept and dreamed of the dead, or where people lay drunk, drugged or hallucinating in their sickbeds." Such basic poltergeist phenomena as rapping or knocking were very easy to orchestrate with the help of accomplices or a variety of ploys. According to science writer Terence Hines, cold spots, creaking sounds, and odd noises are typically present in any home, especially older ones, and "such noises can easily be mistaken for the sound of footsteps by those inclined to imagine the presence of a deceased tenant in their home."  A sensed-presence effect, the feeling that there is someone else present in a room, is known to happen when people experience monotony, darkness, cold, hunger, fatigue, fear, and sleep deprivation.  Skeptical investigator Joe Nickell writes that in most cases he investigated, he found plausible explanations for haunting phenomena, such as physical illusions, waking dreams, and the effects of memory. According to Nickell, the power of suggestion along with confirmation bias plays a large role in perceived hauntings. He states that as a house, inn, or other place becomes thought of as haunted, more and more ghostly encounters are reported and that when people expect paranormal events, they tend to notice conditions that would confirm their expectations. Many places deemed to be haunted are purposefully left in a decrepit condition, with wall paper peeling off, old carpeting, and antique decor.  Toxicologist Albert Donnay believes that chronic exposure to substances such as carbon monoxide, pesticide, and formaldehyde can lead to hallucinations of the type associated with haunted houses. Donnay speculates on the connection between the prevalence of gas lamps, during the Victorian era and start of the 20th century, as well as stories of ghost sightings and hauntings, describing it as the "Haunted House Syndrome". Donnay says that carbon monoxide poisoning has been linked to haunted houses since at least the 1920s. He cites a 1921 journal article about a family who claimed hauntings because they suffered headaches, auditory hallucinations, fatigue, melancholy, and other symptoms which are also associated with carbon monoxide poisoning. In a modern example, Carrie Poppy, a writer and co-host of the podcast "Oh No, Ross and Carrie!", was convinced she was living in a haunted house. She felt she was being watched by a demon, experienced pressure on her chest and auditory hallucinations. Someone on a forum of skeptical paranormal investigators suggested she look into carbon monoxide poisoning. When the gas company arrived, unsafe levels of carbon monoxide were found.  Michael Persinger, an American-Canadian professor of psychology, suggested that perceived apparitions, cold spots, and ghostly touches are perceptual anomalies caused by variations in naturally occurring or man-made magnetic fields. However, a study by psychologist Chris French that attempted to replicate Persinger's findings found no link.

Investigating haunted phenomena.

Investigations of supposed hauntings often result in simple explanations. For example, in an apparent haunted house in Somerset, England, in the eighteenth century, a boy would make the house shake by jumping on a beam in an adjoining property that ran through both houses. In 1857, a twelve-year-old girl confessed to tying her long hair around objects to give them the ghostly appearance of moving on their own. Tina Resch, a Columbian girl who claimed that ghostly and paranormal activity occurred in her home, was photographed throwing a telephone while acting surprised at the sudden poltergeist activity.  Ben Radford, of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, performed an investigation in 2003 on an allegedly haunted house in Buffalo, New York. The owner of the home, called Tom in the article (real names not used), alleged that he felt tapping on his foot at night. As described by Tom, “I get a tapping on my feet, not a repetitive tap, a trying-to-wake-you-up tap... After the tapping, if I don’t pay attention to it, then I feel a kick.” Radford suggests the tapping was likely a case of “hypnagogic hallucination (a sensory illusion that occurs in the transition to sleep), a fairly common phenomenon that can easily lead to misperceptions.” His wife, called Monica (real names not used), also claimed to feel tapping similar to Tom. According to Radford, “that can be explained by suggestion and what psychologists term Folie à deux, when one person (often a spouse) takes on the symptoms of another.” Tom also describes that “ it will kick the bed—it will hit the side of the bed. I feel my whole body move.... Then if I go back to sleep, I start to get a sound sleep, that’s when it kicks again.” Radford suggests his was likely due to restless leg syndrome in which a leg jerk in the middle of the night caused the bed to shake. Radford suggests that the owner's diagnosis of “sleep apnea is even further evidence for this explanation; restless legs (Restless Leg Syndrome) is actually one of the most common symptoms of apnea.” Tom and Monica also heard ghostly music and voices, noises that they recorded from the top of the stairs, causing them to leave their home in fright. Radford conducted an experiment where he set the recording device in the same spot, turned it on, then walked outside with Tom, talking constantly. They returned to the house and listened to the tape. Their conversations could be clearly heard, though muffled. The couple then agreed that what they were hearing in their house previously were outside noises and not noises from the paranormal.  Another test done by Ben Radford in 2009 was to investigate the claim that batteries are drained by ghosts in haunted locations. Radford used a simple method to test this hypothesis. He purchased four sets of identical batteries, sealed them in signed, Ziploc bags and wrapped them securely in strong tape to prevent tampering. He placed half of them in the reputed haunted Wolfe Manor, in Clovis, California, and half in a different location. Twenty four hours later he tested the batteries using a meter and discovered that there was no battery drainage in either location. Radford claims that simple, controlled experiments like this are important and should be conducted by ghost hunters to clearly demonstrate if there is a difference between a supposed haunted location and one that is not haunted.

Famous haunted houses.

A house in Amityville, on Long Island, New York, became the subject of books and films after apparent hauntings following the murder of the DeFeo family. The Lutz family purchased the home for a greatly reduced price but shortly after moving in claimed that doors were ripped open, damaging hinges and bending locks, windows were suddenly opened, green slime oozed from the ceiling and cloven-hooved footprints were left in the snow. The Lutzes remained in the home for only 28 days. In a court case where the Lutzes were sued, they admitted that almost everything in "The Amityville Horror" was fictional.  Borley Rectory, located in England, was considered to be the most haunted house in the world but whose notoriety was deemed to be created (or at least exaggerated) by Harry Price, an expert magician and proven hoaxer.  Casa Loma, located in Toronto, Canada was completed in 1914. There have been rumors of ghosts on the property for many years. It is now a historic house museum and landmark that is decorated as a haunted house at Halloween.  Corvin Castle, in Romania, is considered to be one of the top five haunted places around the world. According to locals, the castle has been haunted by its former occupant, Vlad the Impaler, ever since he was killed in an ambush. It is also said to be haunted by the spirits of people killed within the castle walls.  The Winchester Mystery House, located in San Jose, California, is considered one of the most haunted houses in America, although there are no primary documents for the many ghost stories that exist about the house. They are all anecdotal and usually conflicting and most likely have been embellished with time, especially since Sarah Winchester was an eccentric character who had her strange, complex, confusing design for a home built for almost four decades with builders working 24 hours per day.  Wukang Mansion, a historical house in Shanghai, has a reputation for being haunted because of the number of suicides of famous people, intellects and those persecuted as enemies of the state.

Halloween themed haunted houses.

Halloween themed haunted houses began appearing around the same time as "trick or treat", during the Great Depression, as a way to distract young people whose Halloween pranks had escalated to vandalism and harassment of passersby. These first haunted houses were primitive, being put together by groups of families in their basements. People would travel from home to home to experience a variety of frightening situations, such as hearing weird moans and howls, cardboard cutouts of black cats, damp sponges and hair nets hanging from the ceiling to touch people's faces, hanging fur on the walls of darkened hallways, and having to crawl through long dark tunnels.  In 1972 Jerry Falwell and Liberty University introduced one of the first "hell houses" as an anti-Halloween attraction. Some Christian churches run these, which while being haunted houses, also promote their interpretation of the Christian gospel message. According to "USA Today", in hell houses, "participants walk through several'scenes' depicting the consequences of things like abortion, homosexuality and drunkenness."

Commercial haunted houses.

The concept of the haunted house was capitalized on as early as 1915 with the Orton and Spooner Haunted House in the Hollycombe Steam Collection (England). The haunted house became a cultural icon when Disneyland's Haunted Mansion was opened in 1969. By the 1970s, commercial haunted houses had sprung up all over the United States in cities like Louisville, Kentucky and Cincinnati, Ohio.  Hollywood slasher films such as "Halloween", "A Nightmare on Elm Street" and "Friday the 13th" had a large influence on commercial haunted houses in the 1980s and 1990s. Many of these houses included characters such as Freddy Krueger and Jason. By 2005, an estimated 3,500 to 5,000 professional haunted attractions operated in the United States.  Japanese commercial haunted houses, or obakeyashiki, are considered to be some of the best in the world. Experiences include being chased by gore-covered zombies, specially themed attractions, such as schools or hospital wards, and houses from which one must escape within 60 minutes or be found by "slaughtering criminals". Claiming to be the world's largest and most frightening haunted house, the Super Scary Labyrinth of Fear at Fuji-Q Highland Amusement Park, in Yamanashi Fujiyoshida-shi Shinnishihara, depicts horrific visual scenes, shrill cries, moans, and smells. It has been visited by over four million people.  Another commercial haunted house, considered to be among the most frightening, is the Netherworld Haunted House; a large, walk-through attraction in the outskirts of Atlanta, Georgia. It features 3D special effects, aerial performers and creepy clowns. People with heart conditions are warned against visiting.

Selling haunted houses.

In the case "Stambovsky v. Ackley", the Supreme Court of New York, Appellate Division, ruled in 1991 that a seller must disclose that a house has a reputation for being haunted because such a reputation may impair the value of the house: In Hong Kong, where superstition is prevalent, people do not want to buy houses where anything unfortunate, especially a death, has occurred. For homes that are thought to be haunted, the prices are usually 15-20% below market value. Listings of so-called haunted houses can be found on the real estate website Squarefoot.com.kh

Short stories and novels.

Legends about haunted houses have long appeared in literature. The earliest surviving report of a haunted house comes from a letter written by Pliny the Younger (61 – c. 112) to his patron Lucias Sura, in which he describes a haunted villa in Athens. Nobody would live in the house until the philosopher Athenodorus (c. 74 BCE – 7 CE) arrived in the city. He was tempted by the low rent and undeterred by the house's reputation so he moved in. The ghost, an old man bound with chains, appeared to Athenodrus during the first night and beckoned to him. The apparition vanished once it reached the courtyard, and Athenodrus carefully marked the spot. The following morning he requested the magistrate to have the spot dug up, where the skeleton of an old man bound with chains was discovered. The ghost never appeared again after the skeleton was given a proper burial.  Stories of haunted houses are also included in the "Arabian Nights", as in the tale of "Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad";  Considered one of the best 20th century books featuring the classic ideal of a haunted house is Shirley Jackson's "The Haunting of Hill House", which was the finalist for the National Book Award in 1959. Other notable works of fiction featuring haunted houses include Henry James' "The Turn of the Screw", Stephen King's "The Shining" and Anne Rivers Siddons' "The House Next Door".

In ghostlore, a haunted house or ghost house is a house or other building often perceived as being inhabited by disembodied spirits of the deceased who may have been former residents or were otherwise connected with the property. Parapsychologists often attribute haunting to the spirits of the dead who have suffered from violent or tragic events in the building's past such as murder, accidental death, or suicide.

Strašidelný dům je dům nebo jiná budova, o kterém se věří, že je obýván duchy zemřelých, kteří mohou být bývalými obyvateli nebo vlastníky. Parapsychologové přisuzují strašení duchům zemřelých nebo jako jev, který je následkem násilných nebo tragických událostí v budově, jako třeba vražda, sebevražda nebo náhlá smrt. Nabízejí se též vysvětlení na bázi Occamovy břitvy, která přisuzují jevy spojované se strašením dezinterpretaci přirozených zvuků v konstrukcích, živým snům, lidské ovlivnitelnosti a přítomnosti toxických látek, které mohou způsobit halucinace.


Geography.

Trencsén county shared borders with the Austrian lands Moravia, Galicia, and Silesia, and the Hungarian counties Árva, Turóc and Nyitra. The county's territory was a strip in the extreme northwestern edge of present-day Slovakia, i.e. the territory between the Czech border, the town of Vágújhely, the Turóc county, the Árva county and the Polish border. The river Vág flowed through the county. Its area was 4456 km2 around 1910.

Capitals.

The capital of Trencsén County was the Trenčín Castle (), and from around 1650 the town of Trencsén.

History.

A predecessor of the Trencsén county maybe existed already in the 9th century, at the time of Great Moravia, with a center in Ducové. In the 10th and 11th century, the county was probably temporarily part of Bohemia and then temporarily of Poland ("castellania Trecen").  The Trencsén county as a Hungarian "comitatus" arose at the end of the 11th century, when most parts of the territory were conquered by the Kingdom of Hungary. Traditionally, the office of hereditary lord lieutenant of Trencsén county was held by the Csák, Cseszneky and Illésházy families.  In the aftermath of World War I, Trencsén county became part of newly formed Czechoslovakia, as recognized by the concerned states in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon. The county as ("Trenčianska župa") continued to exist until 1922, but it had completely different powers, etc.  During the existence of the first Slovak State between 1939 and 1945, Trenčín county was re-created again in 1940, but its territory was slightly extended. After World War II Trenčín county became part of Czechoslovakia again. In 1993, Czechoslovakia was split and Trenčín became part of Slovakia.

Demographics.

1900.

In 1900, the county had a population of 287,665 people and was composed of the following linguistic communities:  Total:  According to the census of 1900, the county was composed of the following religious communities:  Total:

1910.

In 1910, the county had a population of 310,437 people and was composed of the following linguistic communities:  Total:  According to the census of 1910, the county was composed of the following religious communities:  Total:

Subdivisions.

In the early 20th century, the subdivisions of Trencsén county were:

Trencsén county (Latin: "comitatus Trentsiniensis / Trenchiniensis"; Hungarian: "Trencsén (vár)megye"; Slovak: "Trenčiansky komitát / Trenčianska stolica / Trenčianska župa"; ) was an administrative county (comitatus) of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is now in western Slovakia.

Trenčínská župa/stolice, Trenčínský komitát (lat. comitatus Trentsiniensis/Trenchiniensis, maď. Trencsén (vár)megye, nem. Trentschiner Gespanschaft/Komitat) byl jedním z komitátů, stolic a žup Uherského království.


History.

In 1619 the Discalced Augustinians (colloquially referred to as the ""Petits Pères"") established their convent, Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, on three hectares of land they had purchased by the "bourse" (market) of the city, located at the intersection of the Place des Petits-Pères and Rue de la Banque. Notre Dame des Victoires is the former chapel of the Augustinian fathers (Petits-Pères), built in the years 1629–1740.  On December 8, 1629 the foundations were blessed by the Archbishop of Paris, Jean-François de Gondi. The next day, King Louis XIII himself laid the cornerstone in the presence of the Court's'seigneurs' and the city's officials. The construction was funded by King Louis on the condition that it be dedicated to his victory over the Protestants at La Rochelle, which he attributed to the intercession of the Blessed Mother.  The first church being too small, reconstruction commenced in 1656 according to the plans of Pierre Le Muet. Libéral Bruant, Robert Boudin, and Gabriel Leduc oversaw this work. The new church, not yet completed, was consecrated in 1666. Work was finalized in 1737 under the supervision of Sylvain Cartaud. He oversaw the expansion of the nave, the construction of the façade as well as the construction of the transept's striking spherical roof.  The sanctuary is graced by several paintings by the French painter Louis-Michel van Loo (1707–1771).  A large garden and a double-cloister existed at the site until the Revolution. At that time, they were confiscated and fell into disuse. The church was converted into the home of the national lottery and a stock exchange during the Directory, but was returned to the practice of worship under the First Empire.  The remnants of the monastery were destroyed in 1858 and a police station as well as an office for the mayor of the arrondissement were constructed in their place.

19th century.

After 1809 Notre Dame des Victoires became a parish church, but as it was located in a business area, it had few parishioners. The curé Charles-Éléonore Dufriche-Desgenettes thought he had failed in his ministry and wanted to resign his functions in Our Lady of Victories when on the 3 December 1836, during the Consecration of the Mass, he received what he believed to be an instantaneous and complete intellectual infusion of the requirements, rules and activities for the Archconfraternity of the Immaculate Heart of Mary from the Blessed Virgin Mary who also inspired Fr. Desgenettes to consecrate the parish to her Immaculate Heart and to invite men living and working in the parish area to come to a meeting (500 men came to the first meeting).  At the meeting Fr. Desgenettes invited the men to wear a White Scapular with an image of the Immaculate Heart of Mary and the words "SWEET HEART OF MARY BE MY SALVATION" on the front scapular and the symbols and words "REFUGE OF SINNERS, PRAY FOR US" on the back scapular. They initially called this parish men's group: the Confraternity of Our Lady, Refuge of Sinners.. Fr. Desgenettes wrote down his entire inspiration and immediately submitted it to the Holy See. Only two years later, in 1838, Pope Gregory XVI approved and established the Archconfraternity of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. By 1870, there were 22 million members of this Archconfraternity worldwide and a Religious Congregation founded by Saint Anthony Mary Claret, The Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, aka Claretians or Claretian Missionary Fathers (CMF).  Many of the famous French Catholics of the period maintained a connection to the Church. These included Marie-Alphonse Ratisbonne, Ven. Francis Libermann and the refounders of the Holy Ghost Fathers and a whole host of Foreign Missions seminarians and priests, including St. Theophane Venard. Blessed John Henry Newman went there to give thanks for his conversion, which had been the subject of prayer there. Later, the young Therese Martin prayed before the same statue for Our Lady's help in realizing her vocation. Notre-Dame des Victoires was elevated to basilica status in 1927.

Ex Voto.

Notre-Dame-des-Victoires is famous for the ex voto offerings left there by the faithful. Over 37,000 devotional plaques, silver and gold hearts, as well as military decorations, have been left at the Basilica. The faithful leave these items at the Basilica in thanksgiving for favors believed to have been received from the Blessed Mother. The Basilica once served as a stational church along the pilgrimage route to Compostela. As such, many of the ex voto offerings have been left by faithful unable to make the long journey to the Shrine of Compostela itself.

Located at 6, rue Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris, Notre-Dame-des-Victoires is one of ten minor basilicas located in the Île-de-France region of France. The closest Metro station is 'Bourse'.

Bazilika Panny Marie Vítězné (fr. "Basilique Notre-Dame-des-Victoires") je katolická bazilika minor ve 2. obvodu v Paříži na náměstí "Place des Petits-Pères".


Theory.

Citizen journalism, as a form of alternative media, presents a "radical challenge to the professionalized and institutionalized practices of the mainstream media".  According to Flew, there have been three elements critical to the rise of citizen journalism: open publishing, collaborative editing, and distributed content. Mark Glaser said in 2006: ...people without professional journalism training can use the tools of modern technology and the global distribution of the Internet to create, augment or fact-check media on their own or in collaboration with others.  In "What is Participatory Journalism?" (2003), J. D. Lasica classifies media for citizen journalism into the following types:  The literature of citizen, alternative, and participatory journalism is most often situated in a democratic context and theorized as a response to corporate news media dominated by an economic logic. Some scholars have sought to extend the study of citizen journalism beyond the developed Western world, including Sylvia Moretzsohn, Courtney C. Radsch, and Clemencia Rodríguez. Radsch, for example, wrote that "Throughout the Arab world, citizen journalists have emerged as the vanguard of new social movements dedicated to promoting human rights and democratic values."

Theories of citizenship.

According to Vincent Campbell, theories of citizenship can be categorized into two core groups: those that consider journalism "for" citizenship, and those that consider journalism "as" citizenship.  The classical model of citizenship is the base of the two theories of citizenship. The classical model is rooted in the ideology of informed citizens and places emphasis on the role of journalists rather than on citizens.  The classical model has four main characteristics:  The first characteristic upholds the theory that journalism is "for" citizens. One of the main issues with this is that there is a normative judgement surrounding the amount and nature of information that citizens should have as well as what the relationship between the two should be. One branch of journalism "for" citizens is the "monitorial citizen" (coined by Michael Schudson). The "monitorial citizen" suggests that citizens appropriately and strategically select what news and information they consume. The "monitorial citizen" along with other forms of this ideology conceive individuals as those who do things with information to enact change and citizenship. However, this production of information does not equal to an act of citizenship, but instead an act of journalism. Therefore, citizens and journalists are portrayed as distinctive roles whereas journalism is used by citizens "for" citizenship and conversely, journalists serve citizens.  The second theory considers journalism "as" citizenship. This theory focuses on the different aspects of citizen identity and activity and understands citizen journalism as directly constituting citizenship. The term "liquid citizenship" (coined by Zizi Papacharissi) depicts how the lifestyles that individuals engage in allow them to interact with other individuals and organizations, which thus remaps the conceptual periphery of civic, political, and social. This "liquid citizenship" allows the interactions and experiences that individuals face to become citizen journalism where they create their own forms of journalism. An alternative approach of journalism as citizenship rests between the distinction between "dutiful" citizens and "actualizing" citizens. "Dutiful" citizens engage in traditional citizenship practices, while "actualizing" citizens engage in non-traditional citizenship practices. This alternative approach suggests that "actualizing" citizens are less likely to use traditional media and more likely to use online and social media as sources of information, discussion, and participation. Thus, journalism in the form of online and social media practices become a form of citizenship for actualizing citizens.  Criticisms have been made against citizen journalism, especially from among professionals in the field. Citizen journalists are often portrayed as unreliable, biased and untrained as opposed to professionals who have "recognition, paid work, unionized labour and behaviour that is often politically neutral and unaffiliated, at least in the claim if not in the actuality".

History.

The idea that every citizen can engage in acts of journalism has a long history in the United States. The contemporary citizen journalist movement emerged after journalists began to question the predictability of their coverage of events such as the 1988 U.S. presidential election. Those journalists became part of the public, or civic, journalism movement, which sought to counter the erosion of trust in the news media and the widespread disillusionment with politics and civic affairs.  Initially, discussions of public journalism focused on promoting journalism that was "for the people" by changing the way professional reporters did their work. According to Leonard Witt, however, early public journalism efforts were "often part of'special projects' that were expensive, time-consuming, and episodic. Too often these projects dealt with an issue and moved on. Professional journalists were driving the discussion. They would have the goal of doing a story on welfare-to-work (or the environment, or traffic problems, or the economy), and then they would recruit a cross-section of citizens and chronicle their points of view. Since not all reporters and editors bought into this form of public journalism, and some outright opposed it, reaching out to the people from the newsroom was never an easy task." By 2003, in fact, the movement seemed to be petering out, with the Pew Center for Civic Journalism closing its doors.  Traditionally, the term "citizen journalism" has had a history of struggle with deliberating on a concise and mutually agreed upon definition. Even today, the term lacks a clear form of conceptualization. Although the term lacks conceptualization, alternative names of the term are unable to comprehensively capture the phenomenon. For example, one of the interchangeable names with "citizen journalism" is "user-generated content" (UGC). However, the issue with this alternative term is that it eliminates the potential civic virtues of citizen journalism and considers it to be stunted and proprietorial.  With today's technology the citizen journalist movement has found new life as the average person can capture news and distribute it globally. As Yochai Benkler has noted, "the capacity to make meaning to encode and decode humanly meaningful statements and the capacity to communicate one's meaning around the world, are held by, or readily available to, at least many hundreds of millions of users around the globe." Professor Mary-Rose Papandrea, a constitutional law professor at Boston College, notes in her article, "Citizen Journalism and the Reporter's Privilege," that:  A recent trend in citizen journalism has been the emergence of what blogger Jeff Jarvis terms hyperlocal journalism, as online news sites invite contributions from local residents of their subscription areas, who often report on topics that conventional newspapers tend to ignore. "We are the traditional journalism model turned upside down," explains Mary Lou Fulton, the publisher of the Northwest Voice in Bakersfield, California. "Instead of being the gatekeeper, telling people that what's important to them 'isn't news', we're just opening up the gates and letting people come on in. We are a better community newspaper for having thousands of readers who serve as the eyes and ears for the Voice, rather than having everything filtered through the views of a small group of reporters and editors."

Citizen journalists.

According to Jay Rosen, citizen journalists are "the people formerly known as the audience," who ""were" on the receiving end of a media system that ran one way, in a broadcasting pattern, with high entry fees and a few firms competing to speak very loudly while the rest of the population listened in isolation from one another— and who "today" are not in a situation like that "at all".... The people formerly known as the audience are simply the public made realer, less fictional, more able, less predictable."  Abraham Zapruder, who filmed the assassination of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy with a home-movie camera, is sometimes presented as an ancestor to citizen journalists. Egyptian citizen Wael Abbas was awarded several international reporting prizes for his blog Misr Digital (Digital Egypt) and a video he publicized of two policemen beating a bus driver helped lead to their conviction.  During 9/11 many eyewitness accounts of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center came from citizen journalists. Images and stories from citizen journalists close to the World Trade Center offered content that played a major role in the story.  In 2004, when the 9.1-magnitude underwater earthquake caused a huge tsunami in Banda Aceh Indonesia and across the Indian Ocean, a weblog-based virtual network of previously unrelated bloggers emerged that covered the news in real-time, and became a vital source for the traditional media for the first week after the tsunami. A large amount of news footage from many people who experienced the tsunami was widely broadcast, as well as a good deal of "on the scene" citizen reporting and blogger analysis that was subsequently picked up by the major media outlets worldwide.  Subsequent to the citizen journalism coverage of the disaster and aftermath, researchers have suggested that citizen journalists may, in fact, play a critical role in the disaster warning system itself, potentially with higher reliability than the networks of tsunami warning equipment based on technology alone which then require interpretation by disinterested third parties.  The microblog Twitter played an important role during the 2009 Iranian election protests, after foreign journalists had effectively been "barred from reporting". Twitter delayed scheduled maintenance during the protests that would have shut down coverage in Iran due to the role it played in public communication.  Social media platforms such as blogs, YouTube, and Twitter encourage and facilitate engagement with other citizens who participate in creating content through commenting, liking, linking, and sharing. The majority of the content produced by these amateur news bloggers was not original content, but curated information monitored and edited by these various bloggers. There has been a decline in the amateur news blogger due to social media platforms that are much easier to run and maintain, allowing individuals to easily share and create and content.  Wikimedia Foundation hosts a participatory journalism web site, Wikinews. The website allows contributors to write news which undergo a peer review prior to publications in some language editions (English, German, Russian) but not in others (Norwegian).

Citizen journalism in a worldwide context.

India.

"the world’s biggest democracy", India has a broad media landscape expanding at "double-digit growth rates" in comparison to the West. Issues surrounding human rights violations, violence against women and everyday witness accounts. Most notably, images shared on Twitter during the 2008 Mumbai attacks is an example of citizen journalism in India.

Iraq.

In 2004 Daylight Magazine sent a box of disposable cameras to be distributed to civilians living in Baghdad and Fallujah. These were published in May 2004 along with the work of seminal documentarians such as Susan Meiselas, Roger Hutchings and etc. In June 2004 Fred Ritchen and Pixel Press teamed up with Daylight to create a touring exhibition of the images and captions which went to various institutions around the United States including: The Council on Foreign Relations, The Center for Photography Woodstock, New York University, Union College, Michigan University, and Central Michigan University before being donated to the Archive of Documentary Art at Duke University.

United Kingdom.

Citizen Journalism provides a platform for individuals to be considered and acknowledged on a global scale. The circulation of information and news does not fully divulge the accurate perceptions of what is going on in the world. For instance, On Our Radar contains reporting mechanisms and trained residents that reveal their voices while questioning the reluctance journalism has when considering what voices are heard and are not, based in London. On Our Radar has undertaken in making the voices in Sierra Leone heard in regards to Ebola, revealing that it contained easy access to vital sources of information and opened more opportunities for questions and reports.  Depending on the country one resides in, as societies evolve, grow, and depend more on online media outlets there is an increase of informed individuals, especially with topics regarding politics and government news. Through such evolution, citizen journalism has the capability to reach an audience that has not had the privilege of receiving higher education and still remain informed about what is surrounding them and their respective country. As demonstrated in light of demanding and distorted information given to the mass public and cleared by strong demonstrations of the capabilities of citizen journalism. Citizen journalism is a platform that provides a solution to the mistrust the public has towards the government as discrepancies arise from governmental statements and actions.

China.

Citizen journalism has created much change and influence within Chinese media and society in which its online activity is very much controlled. The interconnection built from citizen journalism and mainstream journalism in China has allotted politically and socially charged information to be distributed to promote progressive changes and serves as national sentiments. In doing so, the mass public of China has the opportunities to move around the controlled and monitored online presence and the information it contains.  Citizen journalists face many repercussions when unpackaging the truth and reach domestic and global audiences. Most if not all of these repercussions result from government officials and law enforcement from the journalists respective countries. Citizen journalists are needed and depended on by the mass public but are viewed as an imminent threat to their governments. The public has had the resources to pursue this level of journalism from their surroundings and based on real life perspectives that lack censorship and influence from a higher entity. The various forms citizen journalism is formed has outdated many news and media sources as result of the authentic approach citizen journalists carry out.  In the context of China and the national pandemic rooted from the coronavirus, many voices were censored and limited when it came to citizen journalists. This occurred in the process of visually and vocally documenting the social climate of China in regards to the coronavirus. For instance, a citizen journalist who is chinese posted videos of Wuhan, China as the outbreak had been spreading globally. As a result the journalist was stopped and detained by the police and was not released for two months. In sharing their experience being detained after being released the tone it was expressed in was marketed. This citizen journalist experience is one amongst more of who were similarly detained and censored.

Criticisms.

Objectivity.

Citizen journalists also may be activists within the communities they write about. This has drawn some criticism from traditional media institutions such as "The New York Times", which have accused proponents of public journalism of abandoning the traditional goal of objectivity. Many traditional journalists view citizen journalism with some skepticism, believing that only trained journalists can understand the exactitude and ethics involved in reporting news. See, e.g., Nicholas Lemann, Vincent Maher, and Tom Grubisich.  An academic paper by Vincent Maher, the head of the New Media Lab at Rhodes University, outlined several weaknesses in the claims made by citizen journalists, in terms of the "three deadly E's", referring to ethics, economics, and epistemology.  An analysis by language and linguistics professor, Patricia Bou-Franch, found that some citizen journalists resorted to abuse-sustaining discourses naturalizing violence against women. She found that these discourses were then challenged by others who questioned the gendered ideologies of male violence against women.

Quality.

An article in 2005 by Tom Grubisich reviewed ten new citizen journalism sites and found many of them lacking in quality and content. Grubisich followed up a year later with, "Potemkin Village Redux." He found that the best sites had improved editorially and were even nearing profitability, but only by not expensing editorial costs. Also according to the article, the sites with the weakest editorial content were able to expand aggressively because they had stronger financial resources.  Another article published on Pressthink examined Backfence, a citizen journalism site with three initial locations in the D.C. area, which reveals that the site has only attracted limited citizen contributions. The author concludes that, "in fact, clicking through Backfence's pages feels like frontier land -– remote, often lonely, zoned for people but not home to any. The site recently launched for Arlington, Virginia. However, without more settlers, Backfence may wind up creating more ghost towns."  David Simon, a former "Baltimore Sun" reporter and writer-producer of the television series "The Wire" criticized the concept of citizen journalism—claiming that unpaid bloggers who write as a hobby cannot replace trained, professional, seasoned journalists. An editorial published by "The Digital Journalist" web magazine expressed a similar position, advocating to abolish the term "citizen journalist", and replacing it with "citizen news gatherer". While the fact that citizen journalists can report in real time and are not subject to oversight opens them to criticism about the accuracy of their reporting, news stories presented by mainstream media also misreport facts occasionally that are reported correctly by citizen journalists. As low as 32% of the American population have a fair amount of trust in the media.

Effects on traditional journalism.

Journalism has been affected significantly due to citizen journalism. This is because citizen journalism allows people to post as much content as they want, whenever they want. In order to stay competitive, traditional news sources are forcing their journalist to compete. This means that journalist now have to write, edit and add pictures into their content and they must do so at a rapid pace, as it is perceived by news companies that it's essential for journalist to produce content at the same rate that citizens can post content on the internet. This is hard though, as many news companies are facing budget cuts and cannot afford to pay journalists the proper amount for the amount of work they do. Despite the uncertainties of a job in journalism and rising tuition costs there has been a 35% increase in journalism majors throughout the past few years according to Astra Taylor in her book "The People's Platform".

Legal repercussions.

Edward Greenberg, a New York City litigator, notes higher vulnerability of unprofessional journalists in court compared to the professional ones: The view stated above does not mean that professional journalists are fully protected by shield laws. In the 1972 Branzburg v. Hayes case the Supreme Court of the United States invalidated the use of the First Amendment as a defense for reporters summoned to testify before a grand jury. In 2005, the reporter's privilege of Judith Miller and Matthew Cooper was rejected by the appellate court.

Possible future.

Citizen journalism increased during the last decade of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first century, associated with the creation of the internet which introduced new ways in communicating and engaging news. Due to this shift in technology, individuals were able to access more news than previously and at a much faster rate. This larger quantity also made it so there was a larger variety of sources which people were able to consume media and news.  Natalie Fenton discusses the role of citizen journalism within the digital age and has three characteristics associated with the topic: speed and space, multiplicity and poly-centrality, and interactivity and participation.  With technological advancements, individuals were able to participate increasingly in journalism. Pictures or videos could be uploaded online in a matter of minutes and this paved the way for social media to grow as a strong producer in the industry. The introduction of technologies such as the smartphone increased the ability to access the internet. Many large corporations have shifted their focus toward online presence, such as Facebook or YouTube. New technologies such as virtual reality may open new avenues that media companies and individuals alike will be able to exploit for journalism.

Proponents and facilitators.

Dan Gillmor, the former technology columnist for the "San Jose Mercury News", founded a nonprofit, the Center for Citizen Media, (2005–2009) to help promote it.  Professor Charles Nesson, William F. Weld Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and the founder of the Berkman Center for Internet & Society, chairs the Advisory Board for Jamaican citizen journalism startup On the Ground News Reports.  In March 2014, blogger and survivalist author James Wesley Rawles launched a web site that provides free press credentials for citizen journalists called the Constitution First Amendment Press Association (CFAPA). According to David Sheets of the Society for Professional Journalists, Rawles keeps no records on who gets these credentials.  Maurice Ali founded one of the first international citizen journalist associations, the International Association of Independent Journalists Inc. (IAIJ), in 2003. The association through its President (Maurice Ali) published studies and articles on citizen journalism, attended and spoken at UNESCO and United Nations events as advocates of citizen journalism worldwide.

Citizen journalism (also known as participatory journalism, democratic journalism, guerrilla journalism or street journalism) is based upon public citizens "playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and information." Similarly, Courtney C. Radsch defines citizen journalism "as an alternative and activist form of news gathering and reporting that functions outside mainstream media institutions, often as a response to shortcomings in the professional journalistic field, that uses similar journalistic practices but is driven by different objectives and ideals and relies on alternative sources of legitimacy than traditional or mainstream journalism". Jay Rosen offers a simpler definition: "When the people formerly known as the audience employ the press tools they have in their possession to inform one another." The underlying principle of citizen journalism is that ordinary people, not professional journalists, can be the main creators and distributors or news. Citizen journalism should not be confused with: community journalism or civic journalism, both of which are practiced by professional journalists; collaborative journalism, which is the practice of professional and non-professional journalists working together; and social journalism, which denotes a digital publication with a hybrid of professional and non-professional journalism.

Občanský žurnalismus (také participativní, účastnický, demokratický, amatérský, street nebo guerrilový žurnalismus) je forma zpravodajství, které nevytvářejí profesionální novináři, ale občané-účastníci významné události. Podmínkou pro uplatnění takových příspěvků v internetovém, televizním, rozhlasovém a tištěném zpravodajství jsou technologické prostředky (chytré telefony s fotoaparátem, rychlé bezdrátové sítě), které i amatérovi umožní rychlý přenos fotografií, videí a textu. Občané – účastnící se nečekané události, na rozdíl od profesionálů, jsou schopni podat prakticky okamžitou zprávu agenturám či přímo médiím.


Route description.

SR 14 begins as a continuation of the Lewis and Clark Trail Scenic Byway in downtown Vancouver at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I-5, Washington Street, and C Street, located on the first exit on I-5 north of the Interstate Bridge, which provides access to Portland, Oregon. The four-lane freeway travels eastward, between the Columbia River and the Seattle Subdivision of the BNSF Northern Transcon route to the south and Pearson Field to the north, and intersects Southeast Columbia Way in a single-point urban interchange, providing access to the Vancouver National Historic Reserve Historic District. SR 14 continues southeast through suburban Vancouver, intersecting Riverside Drive in a partial cloverleaf interchange, Lieser Road in a diamond interchange, and Ellsworth Avenue in a partial diamond interchange, before reaching a partial cloverleaf interchange with I-205 north of the Glenn L. Jackson Memorial Bridge, providing access to eastern suburbs of Portland.  SR 14 travels east through an interchange with Southeast 164th Avenue before leaving Vancouver, heading towards Camas. The freeway intersects Southeast 192nd Avenue in unincorporated Clark County before entering the city of Camas at an interchange with its business route on 6th Avenue. SR 14 narrows to two lanes on Lady Island and enters downtown Camas after crossing the Camas Slough. The highway serves as a four-lane freeway bypass of Camas and travels through two partial double roundabout interchanges with SR 500, which travels northwestward to Orchards, and 2nd Street in Washougal. SR 14 continues east past the Steigerwald Lake, Franz Lake, and Pierce national wildlife refuges, all located within Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area in Clark and Skamania counties. The highway also passes the Bonneville Dam in North Bonneville and the Bridge of the Gods before reaching Stevenson, the county seat of Skamania County. SR 14 leaves Stevenson traveling eastwards through the community of Carson River Valley and a series of tunnels along the Columbia River before crossing over the White Salmon River into Klickitat County near Underwood. The highway intersects SR 141 Alternate and the Hood River Bridge, unsigned SR 35, before reaching the cities of White Salmon and Bingen, where it passes the local Amtrak station and travels through a junction with SR 141. SR 14 continues east and crosses the Klickitat River into Lyle and forms the southern terminus of SR 142, which travels northeast towards Goldendale. The highway travels east to a junction with US 197 near Dallesport and to Wishram, passing its Amtrak station. SR 14 leaves the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area west of Maryhill, where the highway intersects its spur route and US 97, forming a short concurrency with the latter. SR 14 continues northeast along the Columbia Hills and the Columbia River into Benton County, reaching a junction with SR 221 in Paterson. The highway ends at a diamond interchange with I-82 and US 395 northeast of Plymouth, located north of the Umatilla Bridge.  Every year, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume. This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic (AADT), which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. In 2012, WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 14 was east of its interchange with I-205 in Vancouver, serving 72,000 vehicles, while the least busiest section of the highway was in Maryhill, serving 500 vehicles. SR 14 between Vancouver and Maryhill is designated as part of the National Highway System for its whole length, classifying it as important to the national economy, defense, and mobility. WSDOT designates the same corridor as a Highway of Statewide Significance, which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington.

History.

The first highway that traveled through the Columbia River Gorge was surveyed in 1905 at a cost of $15,000 (equivalent to $ in ) by the state of Washington as a wagon road connecting Washougal in Clark County to Lyle in Klickitat County that was designated as secondary State Road 8. State Road 8 was extended east from Lyle to Maryhill and northeast to the county seat of Goldendale in 1907. The secondary highway, named the North Bank Highway, was re-aligned in 1913 to follow closer to the Columbia River and was extended west to Vancouver and east to Mabton via Satus Pass. State Road 8 was co-signed with US 830 after the United States Numbered Highways were approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) on November 11, 1926, also creating a short concurrency with US 97.  The North Bank Highway was constructed with macadam pavement and was dedicated from Lyle to Dallesport in 1934, shortly before State Road 8 was re-designated as PSH 8 and the Evergreen Highway in 1937, traveling east from Vancouver to Mayhill and north to Yakima. SSH 8E, a branch of PSH 8, was also established in 1937 and ran east from PSH 8 in Maryhill to Paterson and north to PSH 3 in Prosser. SSH 8E was replaced by the Maryhill–Kennewick branch of PSH 8 in 1943, amidst proposals to extend the Evergreen Highway to the Tri-Cities in 1949. US 197, a spur of US 97, was created in 1952 and became concurrent with US 830 and PSH 8 from the Dallesport area to a junction with its parent route in Maryhill. A section of the winding PSH 8 between Maryhill and Roosevelt was replaced with a new highway running along the north bank of the river in June 1964.  PSH 8 was replaced fully by US 830 during the 1964 state highway renumbering, but US 830 was decommissioned in 1968 before the new state routes were codified. SR 14, previously on the route of US 12, was established in 1968 and remains the designation for the Evergreen Highway. The concurrency with US 197 was removed by WSDOT in 1980, but was not recognized by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials until their general meeting in September 2006. The eastern terminus of SR 14 was moved south from Kennewick in 1985 to an interchange with I-82 that was completed in 1981.

Spur route.

SR 14 has a spur route in Maryhill that connects the eastbound lane of the main highway to US 97 northbound. The spur route was established in 1991 during a re-alignment of the two highways in Maryhill and, during its annual AADT survey, WSDOT calculated that 1,400 vehicles used the highway in 2012.

State Route 14 (SR 14) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Washington. The highway travels east-west on the north side of the Columbia River, opposite Interstate 84 (I-84) to the south in Oregon. SR 14 forms a section of the Lewis and Clark Trail Scenic Byway and begins at an interchange with I-5 in Vancouver. The highway travels east as a four-lane freeway through Camas and Washougal and intersects I-205. SR 14 continues east as a two-lane highway through Clark, Skamania, Klickitat, and Benton counties before it ends at an interchange with I-82 and U.S. Route 395 (US 395) near Plymouth.

Washington State Route 14, také známá jako Silnice Lewise a Clarka, je státní silnice v americkém státě Washington. Měří téměř 300 kilometrů a spojuje Interstate 5, konkrétně město Vancouver a mezistátní dálnici Interstate 82 a státní silnici U.S. Route 395 jižně od Kennewicku a severně od státní hranice s Oregonem.


Early life.

He was born in Saint-Calais (Sarthe) to a family from the adjacent commune of St. Gervais. He was educated at the Seminary of Le Mans. He was ordained priest on 20 September 1879.  After his ordination he worked in the diocese of Le Mans from 1879 until 1898. He was editor of "Semaine du fidèle" in 1888. He served as Vicar general of the diocese of Le Mans from 1898 until 1901.

Episcopate.

Pope Leo XIII appointed him Bishop of Verdun on 18 April 1901. Verdun was one of only two French cities where the bishop was not obliged to leave his palace following the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State.  He was promoted to the Archbishop of Bourges in 1909. He spent until 1916 in Bourges until he was transferred to Archbishop of Rouen on 13 March 1916.

Cardinalate.

He was created Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Aquiro (deaconry elevated pro hac vice to title) in the consistory of December 4, 1916.  He was transferred to become Archbishop of Paris on 13 December 1920. He took part in the 1922 papal conclave that elected Pope Pius XI. Dubois played a conciliatory role in relations with French authorities. He established an ordinariate (under auxiliary bishop Emmanuel Chaptal, a descendant of Jean-Antoine Chaptal) to co-ordinate, thereby increasing French clerical control of the work of foreign language Catholic chaplaincies in Paris. He remained Archbishop of Paris until his death in 1929. He is buried in Notre-Dame de Paris.

Anecdote.

When the existence of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople was under threat from the Turkish Government, and the incumbent patriarch forced to leave the country, he led an unofficial mission on behalf of the French Government. The British Government reacted to this incident by sending a naval squadron, thus giving rise to the Perote saying (Pera was the diplomatic and cosmopolitan quarter of Constantinople) "les Anglais ont envoyé de l'acier et les Français Dubois".

Louis-Ernest Dubois (1 September 1856 – 23 September 1929) was a Roman Catholic Cardinal and Archbishop of Paris. He played a leading role in the period of adjustment to the separation of Church and State in France.

Louis-Ernest Dubois (1. září 1856 Saint-Calais – 23. září 1929 Paříž) byl francouzský římskokatolický kněz, biskup ve Verdunu (1901–1909), arcibiskup v Bourges (1909–1916), v Rouenu (1916–1920) a arcibiskup pařížský (1920–1929). V roce 1916 byl jmenován kardinálem.


History.

ChemSec was founded in 2002 by the Swedish offices of the World Wide Fund for Nature and Friends of the Earth, the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation and Nature and Youth. ChemSec is funded by governments and private grant-making trusts and foundations.  ChemSec argued in favour of tighter controls on chemicals in Europe under REACH, publishing analyses which contradicted industry estimates of the economic impact of the legislation. Since REACH entered into force ChemSec has continued to press for stricter chemicals regulation in the EU, arguing in favour of increasing the number of chemicals restricted under the RoHS Directive and in 2008 publishing the first version of the SIN List, a campaign tool to accelerate implementation of REACH and to help businesses identify hazardous substances.  Between 2005 and 2007 ChemSec worked with Eastern European NGOs on strengthening chemicals management and legislation in those countries. From 2006-2008, ChemSec worked with African and Asian NGOs on poverty and human rights issues relating to chemicals. In 2010 ChemSec was commissioned to produce a research report on flow of information in the electronics supply chain for the International Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM) programme within the United Nations Environment Program.

Guiding principles.

ChemSec’s stated objectives are to “bridge the gap between decision-makers, industry, NGOs and scientists and offer expertise and guidance on chemical management policies in order to get progressive chemicals legislation.” ChemSec also works with companies to secure their support for progressive chemicals legislation and reduce their use of hazardous chemicals by substituting harmful substances for safer ones. ChemSec’s interpretation of “progressive” chemicals policy incorporates the principles of precaution, substitution, polluter pays and right-to-know.

European chemicals regulation.

REACH.

Influencing REACH was a priority for ChemSec until the regulation was passed in 2006. ChemSec argued in favour of stricter controls on chemical use on the basis of commercial advantages and scientific evidence of benefits to human and environmental health.  ChemSec’s research with the Global Development and Environmental Institute at Tufts University, Boston, into the costs of implementing REACH formed the basis of a 2004 Nordic Council of Ministers study, which concluded that the chemicals industry was overestimating the costs of changes to the new chemicals regulation in Europe.  In 2006, the European Parliament commissioned ChemSec to produce a further report on the implications of REACH for developing countries. The report concluded that concerns about the potential for REACH to interfere with trade patterns were largely unfounded.

RoHS.

In 2010, ChemSec secured support from some manufacturers for their proposals to restrict the use of brominated flame retardants and PVC in electronic goods under the RoHS Directive. Although the EU rejected immediate restriction of specific substances, new measures to restrict substances likely to produce hazardous pollutants were included in the recast of the legislation.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals.

In 2011, ChemSec proposed a set of chemicals whose use should be legally restricted for their potential to disrupt hormone signalling. The move, via ChemSec’s SIN List initiative, coincides with EU plans over 2011-2012 to develop accepted regulatory criteria for endocrine disruptors (EDCs) and further restrict their use.

Substitution of hazardous chemicals.

SIN List.

The SIN (Substitute It Now!) List is a list of chemicals evaluated by ChemSec as meeting EU criteria for being Substances of Very High Concern (SVHCs) under article 57 of REACH and whose use in future is therefore likely to be legally restricted. There is evidence from meetings in the European Parliament that the SIN List, in particular the addition of EDCs in 2011, is influencing which substances are being prioritised for the REACH process.

Socially responsible investment.

The potential for legal restrictions on chemical use increasing costs associated with reformulating products and modifying processes has resulted in SIN List data being used by investment analysis firms concerned with Socially Responsible Investment, to aid in calculating financial risk posed by companies’ sustainability profiles. In 2012 ChemSec presented a criteria catalogue to enable financial investors to evaluate the performance of the chemical industry., and in 2013 ChemSec published a list of the European companies producing SIN List chemicals.

SUBSPORT.

To address the challenge of replacing hazardous substances with chemicals which have a genuine pedigree of safety, ChemSec is involved in the SUBSPORT project, an internet portal collating legal information and case studies on substitution, and databases of hazardous substances and their alternatives.

Business relations.

In 2004, ChemSec established its business group as a forum for multinational corporations to discuss chemicals management, develop initiatives for reducing the use of hazardous substances and advocate for progressive chemicals policy in Europe. In 2011 the group had the following members:  ChemSec has published reports presenting arguments from companies in favour of stricter chemicals regulation under REACH and tougher restrictions on halogenated compounds under the RoHS Directive, as described in a number of business position statements.

International networks and development.

In 2006, ChemSec surveyed and advocated for improved chemicals management and handling in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. In 2008, ChemSec and the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation administered a small-grant funding programme in Africa and Asia to support NGO projects to reduce harm from toxic chemicals and promote safer chemicals management.  In 2011, ChemSec published a United Nations Environment Programme Study on Information on Chemicals in Products (CiP), part of data for developing recommendations to the International Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM), the decision-making body of the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM).  ChemSec is a member of the International POPs Elimination Network, working on the Stockholm Convention, and a member of Health Care Without Harm and the European Environmental Bureau.

The International Chemical Secretariat (ChemSec) is a governmental funded organisation founded in Sweden in 2002 to advocate in favour of stricter regulatory controls on potentially hazardous chemicals and to work with businesses on reducing the production and use of hazardous substances in their products and supply chains. ChemSec disclosed a profit of 1.56 Mio SEK for the financial year 2018. ChemSec maintains the SIN List, identifying hazardous substances likely to be restricted under EU REACH regulation.

ChemSec (International Chemical Secretariat, Mezinárodní sekretariát pro chemické látky) je nevládní organizace založená ve Švédsku v roce 2002 s cílem podpory přísnější kontroly nebezpečných chemických látek.


Plot.

After a government agency makes first contact with aliens in 1961, alien refugees live in secret on Earth by disguising themselves as humans. Men in Black (MIB) is a secret agency that polices these aliens, protects Earth from extraterrestrial threats and uses memory-erasing neuralyzers to keep alien activity a secret. MIB agents have their former identities erased while retired agents are neuralyzed. After an operation to arrest an alien criminal named Mikey near the Mexican border by Agents K and D, the latter decides that he is too old for his job, prompting the former to neuralyze him so he can retire.  Meanwhile, NYPD officer James Darrell Edwards III pursues an unnaturally fast and agile suspect into the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. Impressed, K interviews James about his encounter, then neuralyzes him and leaves him a business card with an address. Edwards goes to the address and undergoes a series of tests, for which he finds unorthodox solutions, including a rational hesitation in a targeting test. While the other candidates, who are military-grade, are neuralyzed, K offers Edwards a position with the MIB. Edwards accepts and his identity and civilian life are erased as he becomes Agent J.  In upstate New York, an alien illegally crash-lands on Earth, kills a farmer named Edgar and uses his skin as a disguise. Tasked with finding a device called "The Galaxy", the Edgar alien goes into a New York restaurant and finds two aliens (disguised as humans) who are supposed to have it in their possession. He kills them and takes a container from them but is angered to find only diamonds inside. After learning about the incident in a tabloid magazine, K investigates the crash landing and concludes that Edgar's skin was taken by a "bug", a species of aggressive cockroach-like aliens. He and J head to a morgue to examine the bodies the bug killed. Inside one body (which turns out to be a piloted robot) they discover a dying Arquillian alien, who says that "to prevent war, the galaxy is on Orion's belt". The alien, who used the name "Rosenberg", was a member of the Arquillian royal family; K fears his death may spark a war.  MIB informant Frank the Pug explains that the missing galaxy is a massive energy source housed in a small jewel. J deduces that the galaxy is hanging on the collar of Rosenberg's cat, Orion, which refuses to leave the body at the morgue. J and K arrive just as the bug takes the galaxy and kidnaps the coroner, Laurel Weaver. Meanwhile, an Arquillian battleship fires a warning shot in the Arctic and delivers an ultimatum to the MIB: return the galaxy within a "galactic standard week", in an hour of Earth time, or they will destroy Earth.  The bug arrives at the observation towers of the 1964-1965 New York World's Fair New York State Pavilion at Flushing Meadows, which disguise two real flying saucers. Once there, Laurel escapes the bug's clutches when it accidentally drops her. It activates one of the saucers and tries to leave Earth, but K and J shoot it down and the ship crashes into the Unisphere. The bug sheds Edgar's skin and swallows J and K's guns. K provokes it until he too is swallowed. The bug tries to escape on the other ship, but J slows it down by taunting it and crushing cockroaches, angering it. K blows the bug apart from the inside, having found his gun inside its stomach. J and K recover the galaxy and relax, thinking the whole ordeal over, only for the still living upper half of the bug to pounce on them from behind, but Laurel kills it with J's gun.  At the MIB headquarters, K tells J that he has not been training him as a partner, but a replacement. K bids J farewell before J neuralyzes him at his request; K returns to his civilian life, and Laurel becomes J's new partner, L. Following this, the entire galaxy is revealed to be a marble just like the one around the neck of the cat, Orion—being used to play marbles by a gigantic alien.

Production.

Development.

The film is loosely based on Lowell Cunningham and Sandy Carruthers's comic book "The Men in Black". Producers Walter F. Parkes and Laurie MacDonald optioned the rights to "The Men in Black" in 1992, and hired Ed Solomon to write a very faithful script. Parkes and MacDonald wanted Barry Sonnenfeld as director because he had helmed the darkly humorous "The Addams Family" and its sequel "Addams Family Values". However, Sonnenfeld was attached to "Get Shorty" (1995), so they instead approached Les Mayfield to direct, as they had heard about the positive reception to his remake of "Miracle on 34th Street"; they actually saw the film later and decided he was inappropriate. As a result, "Men in Black" was delayed so as to allow Sonnenfeld to make it his next project after "Get Shorty".  Much of the initial script drafts were set underground, with locations ranging from Kansas to Washington, D.C. and Nevada. Sonnenfeld decided to change the location to New York City, because the director felt New Yorkers would be tolerant of aliens who behaved oddly while disguised. He also felt much of the city's structures resembled flying saucers and rocket ships. One of the locations Sonnenfeld thought perfect for the movie was a giant ventilation structure for the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel, which became the outside of the MIB headquarters.

Filming.

Principal photography began in March 1996. Many last-minute changes ensued during production. First, the scene where James Edwards chasing a disguised alien was to be filmed at the Lincoln Center, but the New York Philharmonic decided to charge the filmmakers for using their buildings, prompting Sonnenfeld to film the scene at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum instead. Then, five months into the shoot, Sonnenfeld decided that the original ending, with a humorous existential debate between Agent J and the Bug, was unexciting and lacking the action that the rest of the film had. Five potential replacements were discussed. One of these had Laurel Weaver being neuralyzed and K remaining an agent. Eventually it boiled down to the Bug eating K and fighting J, replacing the animatronic Bug Rick Baker's crew had developed with a computer-generated Bug with an appearance closer to a cockroach. The whole action sequence cost an extra $4.5 million to the filmmakers.  Further changes were made during post-production to simplify the plotline involving the possession of the tiny galaxy. The Arquillians would hand over the galaxy to the Baltians, ending a long war. The Bugs need to feed on the casualties and steal the galaxy in order to continue the war. Through changing of subtitles, the images on M.I.B.'s main computer and Frank the Pug's dialogue, the Baltians were eliminated from the plot. Earth goes from being potentially destroyed in the crossfire between the two races into being possibly destroyed by the Arquillians themselves to prevent the Bugs from getting the galaxy. These changes to the plot were carried out when only two weeks remained in the film's post-production, but the film's novelization still contains the Baltians.

Design and visual effects.

Production designer Bo Welch designed the MIB headquarters with a 1960s tone in mind, because that was when their organization is formed. He cited influences from Finnish architect Eero Saarinen, who designed a terminal at John F. Kennedy International Airport. As the arrival point of aliens on Earth, Welch felt the headquarters had to resemble an airport.  Rick Baker was approached to provide the prostethic and animatronic aliens, many of whom would have more otherworldly designs instead of looking humanoid. For example, the reveal of Gentle Rosenberg's Arquillian nature went from a man with a light under his neck's skin to a small alien hidden inside a human head. Baker would describe "Men in Black" as the most complex production in his career, "requiring more sketches than all my previous movies together". Baker had to have approval from both Sonnenfeld and Spielberg: "It was like, 'Steven likes the head on this one and Barry really likes the body on this one, so why don't you do a mix and match?' And I'd say, because it wouldn't make any sense." Sonnenfeld also changed a lot of the film's aesthetic during pre-production: "I started out saying aliens shouldn't be what humans perceive them to be. Why do they need eyes? So Rick did these great designs, and I'd say, 'That's great — but how do we know where he's looking?' I ended up where everyone else did, only I took three months." The maquettes built by Baker's team would later be digitized by Industrial Light & Magic, who was responsible for the visual effects and computer-generated imagery, for more mobile digital versions of the aliens.

Music.

Two different soundtracks for the film were released in the U.S.: a score soundtrack featuring music composed by Danny Elfman and an of songs used in and inspired by the film, featuring Will Smith's original song "Men in Black" based on the film's plot. In the U.K., only the album was released.  Elfman's music was called "rousing" by the Los Angeles Times. Variety called the film a technical marvel, giving special credit to "Elfman’s always lively score." Elfman was nominated for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score at the 70th Academy Awards for his score.  Elvis Presley's cover of "Promised Land" is featured in the scene where the MIB's car runs on the ceiling of Queens–Midtown Tunnel.

Release.

Marketing.

In advance of the film's theatrical release, its marketing campaign included more than 30 licensees. Galoob was the first to license, in which they released various action figures of the film's characters and aliens. Ray-Ban also partnered the film with a $5–10 million television campaign. Other promotional items included Hamilton Watches and Procter & Gamble's Head & Shoulders with the tagline "Keeping the Men in Black in black".  An official comic adaptation was released by Marvel Comics. The film also received a third-person shooter developed by Gigawatt Studios and published by Gremlin Interactive, which was released to lackluster reviews in October 1997 for the PC and the following year for the PlayStation. Also, a very rare promotional PlayStation video game system was released in 1997 with the Men in Black logo on the CD lid. Three months after the film's release, an based on "Men in Black", produced by Columbia TriStar Television alongside Adelaide Productions and Amblin Television, began airing on The WB's Kids' WB programming block, and also inspired several games. A "" role-playing game was also released in 1997 by West End Games.

Home media.

"Men in Black" was first released on videocassette on November 25, 1997. Its home video release was attached to a rebate offer on a pair of Ray-Ban Predator-model sunglasses. The film was re-released in a collector's series on videocassette and DVD on September 5, 2000, with the DVD containing several bonus features including an interactive editing workshop for three different scenes from the film, extended storyboards, conceptual art, and a visual commentary track with Tommy Lee Jones and director Barry Sonnenfeld; an alternate two-disc version was also released that had a fullscreen version on the first disc. The Deluxe Edition was also released on DVD in 2002. A Blu-ray edition was released on June 17, 2008. The entire "Men in Black" trilogy was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray on December 5, 2017 in conjunction with the film's 20th anniversary.

Reception.

Critical response.

On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92% based on 89 reviews, and an average score of 7.47/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Thanks to a smart script, spectacular set pieces, and charismatic performances from its leads, "Men in Black" is an entirely satisfying summer blockbuster hit." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 71 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.  Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, praising the film as "a smart, funny and hip adventure film in a summer of car wrecks and explosions." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film three stars out of four, giving particular praise to the film's self-reflective humor and Rick Baker's alien creature designs. Janet Maslin, reviewing for "The New York Times", wrote the film "is actually a shade more deadpan and peculiar than such across-the-board marketing makes it sound. It's also extraordinarily ambitious, with all-star design and special-effects talent and a genuinely artful visual style. As with his "Addams Family" films and "Get Shorty," which were more overtly funny than the sneakily subtle "Men in Black," Mr. Sonnenfeld takes offbeat genre material and makes it boldly mainstream."  Writing for "Variety", Todd McCarthy acknowledged the film was "witty and sometimes surreal sci-fi comedy" in which he praised the visual effects, Baker's creature designs and Elfman's musical score. However, he felt the film "doesn't manage to sustain this level of inventiveness, delight and surprise throughout the remaining two-thirds of the picture." Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" graded the film a C+, writing ""Men in Black" celebrates the triumph of attitude over everything else — plausibility, passion, any sense that what we're watching actually matters. The aliens, for all their slimy visual zest, aren't particularly scary or funny (they aren't allowed to become characters), and so the joke of watching Smith and Jones crack wise in their faces quickly wears thin." John Hartl of "The Seattle Times", claimed the film "is moderately amusing, well-constructed and mercifully short, but it fails to deliver on the zaniness of its first half." While he was complimentary of the film's first half, he concluded "somewhere around the midpoint they run out of energy and invention. Even the aliens, once they stop their shape-shifting ways and settle down to appear as themselves, begin to look familiar."

Box office.

"Men in Black" grossed $250.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $338.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $589.3 million.  Despite its grosses, writer Ed Solomon has said that Sony claims the film has never turned a profit, which is attributed to Hollywood accounting.

Accolades.

"Men in Black" won the Academy Award for Best Makeup, and was also nominated for Best Original Score and Best Art Direction. It was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy.  On "Empire" magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Movies of All Time, "Men in Black" placed 409th. Following the film's release, Ray-Ban stated sales of their Predator 2 sunglasses (worn by the organization to deflect neuralyzers) tripled to $5 million.  American Film Institute Lists

Men in Black is a 1997 American science fiction action comedy film directed by Barry Sonnenfeld, produced by Walter F. Parkes and Laurie MacDonald and written by Ed Solomon. Loosely based on "The Men in Black" comic book series created by Lowell Cunningham and Sandy Carruthers, the film stars Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones as two agents of a secret organization called the Men in Black, who supervise extraterrestrial lifeforms who live on Earth and hide their existence from ordinary humans. The film featured the creature effects and makeup of Rick Baker and visual effects by Industrial Light & Magic.

Muži v černém je americká akční komedie založená na stejnojmenném komiksu od Malibu Comics / Marvel Comics. Film natočil režisér Barry Sonnenfeld v roce 1997. V hlavních rolích Tommy Lee Jones a Will Smith. Film získal cenu Oscar za nejlepší masky.


Engines.

Available only in the Japanese market is the SR20VET that produces 206 kW (280 ps) and is used in the X-Trail GT. The Australian model is powered by a QR25DE 2.5 L four cylinder engine initially producing 132 kW (177 hp). From January 2006, the Australian spec engine was detuned to 123 kW (169 hp). Also available is the QR20DE four cylinder engine, producing 103 kW (140 hp) or 110 kW (150 hp) with manual or automatic transmission.  The biggest selling engine in the United Kingdom is the YD22DDTi, a 2.2 litre turbocharged common rail diesel.  The X-Trail has had three model revisions, the Series 1 and Series 2 (using Nissan FF-S platform) and the Series 3 (using Nissan/Renault C platform). There were various cosmetic and engineering changes made between Series 1 and 2, but the Series 3 T31 is all new despite a similar appearance with new engines apart from the 2.5L which has been retained.

First generation (T30; 2000).

The T30 series X-Trail was unveiled at the September 2000 Paris Motor Show. It uses the Nissan FF-S platform, shared with the Nissan Almera and the Nissan Primera. It entered production in October, and sales in Japan commenced in November 2000.  The X-Trail was sold in Canada for the model years of 2005 and 2006 (but Nissan Canada continued to market it until 2007), and in Mexico since 2003. It has been sold in the Philippines since the middle of 2003. In 2007 Nissan introduced the newly remodeled X-Trail T31 model major interior and exterior changes and two turbo diesel 2.0 CC turbo inter-cooler offering 150 bhp or 177bhp with greater fuel efficiency this was the most comprehensive redesign until the release of a completely new X-Trail in 2013 T-32  In the United Kingdom, the first generation car was available in S, Sport and SE+ between launch and 2004. There was also a FatFace model in 2005, also for the United Kingdom, which was based on the model Sports. They made 1998 of them to celebrate the year FatFace was set up. The trim levels were then revised to SE, Sport, SVE and T-Spec.  In Australia, it was available in standard ST, mid spec ST-S, high spec Ti and luxury spec Ti-L, with limited editions ST-X, ST-R, ST-S 40th anniversary models. At this point, all models in the United Kingdom were equipped with full electric windows, electricity adjustable door mirrors (on SVE and T-Spec they were electrically folding also), climate control, single CD player, four airbags and remote central locking.  While in Australia all models were equipped with full electric windows, electric mirrors (electric folding on Ti-L), single CD player, two airbags and remote central locking. ST-S adds ST on sunroof and 16" alloy wheels. Ti adds ST on climate control, six disk CD player, fog lamps and 16" alloy wheels, and Ti-L adds Ti on leather and electric seats, sunroof, and optional DVD player. Limited edition ST-R adds ST on light emitting roof racks, with "ST-S 40th Anniversary" adding fog lamps to original ST-S.  2007 Nissan released its completely upgraded X-Trail T31. Nissan replacing the Nissan X-Trail T30. This new newly redesigned T31 X-Trail offers 3 motor options petrol and 2 diesel fuel efficient diesel replacing the old 2.2 CC dCI with 2.0 CC dCI 150bhp and 177bhp. This new design once again put Nissan ahead of its competitors offering a sleek new body and more power with many more options.

GT.

From mid 2002 to 2009, Nissan launched a special edition X-Trail equipped with the SR20VET petrol turbocharged engine, which produces. Named the X-Trail GT, it was offered only in Japan.

Taiwan.

In 2003, Taiwanese Nissan distributor Yulon launched the Nissan X-Trail with a major design difference in the front end compared to the international version to fit the taste of the Taiwanese market. The design was done by Yulon Asia Technical Center under Yulon-Nissan Motors. The model was sold until 2006, when it received a minor facelift with new front bumper, grilles, headlamps, and LED tail lamps.  Due to the late facelift, Yulon-Nissan skipped the second generation X-Trail and continued the production of the facelifted Taiwanese Nissan X-Trail until 2008 and was replaced by the American imported first generation Nissan Rogue. The X-Trail nameplate did not return until 2015 when the third generation Nissan X-Trail returned and continued to be domestically produced in Taiwan.  In 2006, Nissan Canada launched a Nissan X-Trail Bonavista Edition commercial, featuring a Nissan dealer speaking in an incomprehensible Newfoundland accent. The commercial itself backfired when Bonavista Mayor Betty Fitzgerald claimed it had portrayed people in Bonavista as people who cannot speak properly. To further expose the commercial's lack of linguistic authenticity, CBC News reported the sales rep was played by an actor from Cape Breton. That commercial was parodied by a local car dealer in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, in a radio advert that takes shots at Ontario marketing companies and Premier Dalton McGuinty's "nondescript" personality.

Gallery.

Pre-facelift styling Post-facelift styling Taiwanese market pre-facelift styling Taiwanese market facelift styling

Second generation (T31; 2007).

The 2008 Nissan X-Trail had its public debut at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2007, and went on sale in Japan in August 2007, Europe in the third quarter of that year, and Australia and Mexico towards the end of the year. Slightly larger than the previous model, it is based on the Nissan C platform. The second generation was not sold in the United States and Canada, where it was instead replaced by the Rogue.  The X-Trail GT SR20VET petrol turbocharged engine was not offered in the second generation X-Trail, due to the 2005 Japan vehicle emissions control. In September 2008, the 20GT became available in Japan, equipped with the M9R, a 2.0 litre turbocharged common rail diesel engine developed jointly with Renault. This was the first diesel X-Trail offered in the Japanese domestic market.  A facelift second generation was released in Japan in July 2010. The Nissan X-Trail Platinum, with special features not seen on any other X-Trail, was released in a limited run of 200 vehicles for the United Kingdom in January 2012.  The second generation was replaced in October 2013, when the third generation X-Trail was unveiled in Japan. Only petrol engine variants were initially offered for Japan, with the diesel-engined second generation continuing to be available for the domestic market.  The second generation was released in Malaysia in 2010, where it was fully imported from Indonesia. Only one variant was made available, which consisted of the MR20DE engine paired to a CVT transmission. The facelift version was made available in Malaysia in April 2013.

Gallery.

Dongfeng Fengdu MX6.

In March 2015, models went on sale in China from Dongfeng Nissan Passenger Vehicle Company (DFL-PV), badged as Dongfeng Fengdu MX6, with 4WD and 2WD models available. The 2.0 litre MR20DE engine is standard along with a six speed manual or CVT gearbox. Trim levels are Standard, Excellence and Premium. Prices started from 122,800 to 169,800 yuan ($19,760 – 27,330). The Dongfeng Fengdu MX6 is a rebadged version of the Nissan X-Trail T31, featuring restyled front and rear bumpers produced by Zhengzhou-Nissan, and branded under the Dongfeng-Fengdu sub-brand of Dongfeng Motor Corporation.

Third generation (T32; 2013).

Based on the jointly developed Nissan/Renault Common Module Family (CMF) platform architecture, the third generation model incorporates styling cues from the Qashqai, Murano, and Patrol. Japanese production of the third generation X-Trail originates from the Nissan Motor Kyushu Co., Ltd. factory. Production also began in Saint Petersburg, Russia.  The vehicle was unveiled at the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show and was inspired by the Hi-Cross Concept, followed by the 43rd Tokyo Motor Show 2013, and the 2014 Geneva Motor Show.

Markets.

Asia.

Japanese sales commenced on December 11, 2013. Early models include MR20DD engine with Idling Stop (20S, 20X, 20X Emergency Brake package, 20X X-TREMER X, 20X Emergency Brake Package X-TREMER X), XTRONIC CVT, ALL MODE 4X4-i system for 4WD models, 2 or 3 (except 20S) rows of seats.  Autech Japan produced the X-TRAIL X-TREMER Package Stretched (2014): a concept vehicle based on Nissan X-Trail 20X X-TREMER X, with accessory parts and dedicated paint along with bold exterior features such as over fenders. The vehicle was unveiled at the 2014 Tokyo Auto Salon.  Chinese models went on sale from Dongfeng Nissan Passenger Vehicle Company (DFL-PV) in the end of March 2014.  On September 12, 2014, prior to the Indonesia International Motor Show 2014, Nissan Motor Indonesia launched the third generation Nissan X-Trail. It is only available with three rows of seats in five variants: 2.0 MT, 2.0 CVT with the MR20DD engine, 2.5 CVT using the QR25DE engine, X-Trail XTREMER based on X-Trail 2.5 CVT and X-Trail Hybrid.  It is manufactured in Purwakarta, Indonesia primarily for domestic demand and was also launched in Thailand in November 2014 and it is manufactured in Samut Prakan, Thailand for Thai domestic demand. In December 2014, Autech Japan produced the limited edition X-TRAIL 20X BLACK X-TREMER X for the JDM.  In the Philippines, the third generation X-Trail was launched on 19 September 2014 during the 5th Philippine International Motor Show and is offered in two variants; 2.0L 2WD CVT and 2.5L 4WD CVT. The facelifted X-Trail was launched in the Philippines in September 2017. Engine choices remained the same as the pre-facelift model. It was also launched in Thailand in February 2019 where consumers had the choice between several variants powered by either a 2.5L petrol engine or a 2.0L hybrid powertrain.  The facelifted X-Trail was also launched in Indonesia on July 18, 2019 at the 27th Gaikindo Indonesia International Auto Show, and went on sale in August 2019. It is only available in VL trim and powered by a 2.5L petrol engine with CVT.  In April 2015, Nissan announced that an X-Trail hybrid with claimed fuel economy of 4.9 l/100 km was coming to Japan.  For the Malaysian market, the third generation X-Trail was launched in January 2015 with two variants: 2.0L 2WD (CVT) or 2.5L 4WD (CVT). Since launch, various editions have been made available namely Impul, Aero Edition and X-Tremer. All the various editions were/are sold alongside the regular X-Trail and like the regular X-Trail are available with either a 2.0L 2WD or 2.5L 4WD.  In March 2019, bookings were opened for the facelifted X-Trail with a media preview happening in March 2019 as well. The facelifted X-Trail has been available in Malaysia since April 2019.and available with four variants: 2.5S 2WD, 2.5V 4WD, 2.0V 4WD Hybrid and 2.0VL 4WD Hybrid.

Australia.

Australian models went on sale in March 2014 with both petrol and diesel variants: ST 2.0 2WD 6-speed Manual, ST, ST-L and Ti 2.5 CVT and TS 1.6 dCi 2WD CVT, TS 1.6 dCi 4WD CVT, TL 1.6 dCi 2WD CVT and TL 1.6 dCi 4WD 6-speed manual. On ST and ST-L 2.5, third row seats are available. European models went on sale in July 2014, with the only engine available being a Renault sourced 1.6 dCi R9M diesel engine with CVT or 6-speed Manual.

Facelift.

For 2017, the Nissan X-Trail has been facelifted, with restyled headlights and taillights which includes, restyled twin LED projector headlamps with High intensity discharge and LED Daytime Running Lights, which is now offered on SL trim levels with the Premium Package, while S, SV trim levels, and the SL trim levels without the Premium Package offers Halogen Headlamps with LED daytime running lights, and LED taillights are available on all trim levels. The 2.5L engine with 170 hp carries over from the previous model.  The new X-Trail went on sale in October 2016, and also has exterior and interior colours. A hybrid version of the vehicle premiered in January 2017 (Limited Availability) for the 2017 model year.  The hybrid features regenerative braking, pure drive hybrid emblems, energy monitor, hybrid battery status, under floor storage area replacing Divide-N-Hide@ Cargo System, a 2.0 litre four cylinder gasoline engine (power: 141 hp and torque: 141 lb-ft) and Xtronic CVT combined with an electric motor (power: 40 hp) and Lithium-Ion battery, for a combined power of 176 hp.  The Lithium-Ion battery is located below the thick flooring of the under floor cargo storage area. The X-Trail Hybrid is available in two trim levels, SV and SL, but the Nissan X-Trail Hybrid will not be available with Third Row Seating (Family Package) and Divide-N-Hide@ Cargo System, due to the Lithium-Ion battery.

Production.

On October 27, 2016, Nissan Motor Corporation announced the production of the next X-Trail at NMUK. In February 2019, these plans were cancelled, with production planned to remain in Japan, citing concerns about Brexit related uncertainty. The declining popularity of diesel cars was another factor.  Nissan's Sunderland plant in the United Kingdom has been in operation since 1986, and has around 7,000 employees. Sunderland will continue to manufacture several Nissan models and the company reaffirmed its commitment to manufacture the new Qashqai for 2020 at the plant in the United Kingdom.  Both Nissan and British officials confirmed that no jobs would be lost due to the modified arrangement, which will see production of the X-Trail moved to Kyushu.

The is a compact crossover SUV produced by the Japanese automaker Nissan since 2000. In third generation, it is a three row SUV.

Nissan X-Trail je crossover vyráběný od roku 2001 japonskou automobilkou Nissan. Patří mezi první crossovery této značky a na trhu se začal prodávat ve stejné době jako některá další konkurenční SUV – Suzuki Grand Vitara, Ford Escape, Hyundai Tucson, Honda CR-V a Toyota RAV4.