Administrative divisions.

Los Altos consisted of the administrative regions of

First invasion of Rafael Carrera.

On April 2, 1838, in the city of Quetzaltenango, a secessionist group founded the independent State of Los Altos, which sought independence from Guatemala. The most important members of the Liberal Party of Guatemala and liberal enemies of the conservative regime moved to Los Altos, rather than needing to emigrate to El Salvador to live in a pro-liberal state.  The liberals in Los Altos began a harsh criticism of the Conservative government of Rivera Paz; they even had their own newspaper – "El Popular", which contributed to the harsh criticism.  However, Los Altos was the most productive region with most economic activity of the former State of Guatemala; without Los Altos, conservatives lost many benefits that held the hegemony of the State of Guatemala in Central America.  The government of Guatemala tried to reach a peaceful solution, but "altenses", protected by the recognition by the Congress of the Central American Federation, did not accept this. Guatemala's government then resorted to force, sending the commanding general of the army, Rafael Carrera, to subdue Los Altos.  Carrera defeated General Agustín Guzmán when the former Mexican officer tried to ambush him and then went on to Quetzaltenango, where he imposed a harsh and hostile conservative regime for liberals. Calling all council members, he told them flatly that he was behaving kindly to them because it was the first time they had challenged him, but sternly warned them that there would be no mercy if there were to be a second time. General Guzmán and the head of state of Los Altos, Marcelo Molina, were sent to the capital of Guatemala, where they were displayed as trophies of war during a triumphant parade on February 17, 1840. Guzmán was shackled, wounds still bleeding, and riding a mule.

Second invasion of Rafael Carrera.

On March 18, 1840, liberal caudillo Francisco Morazán invaded Guatemala with 1500 soldiers to avenge the insult done in Los Altos and fearing that such action would end liberal efforts to hold together the Central American Federation. Guatemala had a cordon of guards from the border with El Salvador; without telegraph service, men ran carrying last minute messages. With the information from these messengers, Carrera hatched a plan of defense leaving his brother Sotero with troops who presented a slight resistance in the city.  Carrera pretended to flee and led the ragtag army to the heights of Aceituno as only had about four men and the same number of loads rifle, plus two old cannons. The city was at the mercy of the army of Morazán, with bells of their twenty churches ringing for divine assistance. Once Morazán reached the capital, he took it easily and freed Guzman, who immediately left for Quetzaltenango to give the news that Carrera was defeated.  Carrera then took advantage of what his enemies believed and applied a strategy of concentrating fire on the Central Park of the city. His surprise attack tactics caused heavy casualties to the army of Morazán and forced the survivors to fight for their lives. In combat, Morazán's soldiers lost the initiative and their numerical superiority. Furthermore, unaware of their surroundings in the city, Morazan's troops had to fight, carry their dead and care for their wounded while still tired by the long march from El Salvador to Guatemala.  Carrera, by then an experienced military man was able to stand up and defeat Morazán thoroughly. The disaster for the liberal general was complete: aided by Angel Molina who knew the streets of the city, he had to flee with his favorite men, disguised and shouting "Long live Carrera!" through the ravine of "El Incienso" to El Salvador, to save his life.  In his absence Morazán had been relieved as head of state of that country, and he had to embark for exile in Perú. In Guatemala, survivors from his troops were shot without mercy, as Carrera pursued Morazan, whom he failed to catch. This lance definitely sealed the status of General Carrera and marked the decline of Morazán, and forced the conservative criollos to negotiate with Carrera and his revolutionary peasant supporters.  Agustin Guzmán, freed by Morazán when the latter had seemingly defeated Carrera in Guatemala City, had gone back to Quetzaltenango with the good news. The city's liberal criollo leaders rapidly reinstated the Los Altos State and celebrated Morazán's victory. However, as soon as Carrera and the newly reinstated Mariano Rivera Paz heard the news, Carrera went back to Quetzaltenango with his volunteer army to regain control of the rebel liberal state once and for all.  On 2 April 1840, after entering the city, Carrera told the citizens that he had already warned them after he defeated them earlier that year. Then he ordered most of the liberal city hall officials from Los Altos shot. Carrera, then forcibly annexed Quetzaltenango and much of Los Altos back into conservative Guatemala.  After the violent and bloody reinstatement of the State of Los Altos by Carrera in April 1840, Luis Batres Juarros — conservative member of the Aycinena Clan, then secretary general of the Guatemalan government of recently reinstated Mariano Rivera Paz — obtained from the vicar Larrazabal authorization to dismantle the regionalist Church.  Active priests of Quetzaltenango — capital of the would-be-state of Los Altos — Urban Ugarte and José Maria Aguilar, were removed from their parish and likewise the priests of the parishes of San Martin Jilotepeque and San Lucas Tolimán. Larrazabal ordered the priests Fernando Antonio Dávila, Mariano Navarrete and Jose Ignacio Iturrioz to cover the parishes of Quetzaltenango, San Martin Jilotepeque and San Lucas Toliman, respectively.  The defeat of the liberal criollos in Quetzaltenango reinforced Carrera allies' status within the native population of the area, whom he respected and protected as the leader of the peasant revolution.  Taking advantage of the chaos and unsettled situation, the Soconusco region was annexed by Mexico.  In 1844, 1848, and 1849, unsuccessful revolts against the dictatorship of Rafael Carrera briefly reproclaimed the independence of Los Altos.

Carrera's exile and Los Altos.

During his first term as president, Rafael Carrera brought the country back from excessive conservatism to a traditional climate. However, in 1848, the liberals were able to force Rafael Carrera to leave office, after the country had been in turmoil for several months. Carrera resigned of his own free will and left for México. The new liberal regime allied itself with the Aycinena family and swiftly passed a law which they emphatically ordered the execution of Carrera if he dared to return to Guatemalan soil.  In his absence, the liberal criollos from Quetzaltenango — led by general Agustín Guzmán who occupied the city after Corregidor general Mariano Paredes was called to Guatemala City to take over the Presidential office- declared that Los Altos was an independent state once again on 26 August 1848; the new state had the support of Vasconcelos' regime in El Salvador and the rebel guerrilla army of Vicente and Serapio Cruz who were declared enemies of general Carrera. The interim government was led by Guzmán himself and had Florencio Molina and the priest Fernando Davila as his Cabinet members.  On 5 September 1848, the criollo altenses chose a formal government led by Fernando Antonio Martínez. In the meantime, Carrera returned to Guatemala and entered by Huehuetenango, where he met with the native leaders and told them that they had to remain united to prevail. The leaders agreed and slowly the segregated native communities started to develop a new Indian identity under Carrera's leadership. In the meantime, in the eastern part of Guatemala, the Jalapa region became increasingly dangerous; former president Mariano Rivera Paz and rebel leader Vicente Cruz were both murdered there after trying to take over the Corregidor office in 1849.  Upon learning that officer José Víctor Zavala had been appointed as Corregidor in Suchitepéquez, Carrera and his hundred jacalteco bodyguards crossed a dangerous jungle infested with jaguars to meet his former friend. When they met, Zavala not only did not capture him, but agreed to serve under his orders, thus sending a strong message to both liberal and conservatives in Guatemala City, who realized that they were forced to negotiate with Carrera, otherwise they were going to have to battle on two fronts — Quetzaltenango and Jalapa.  Carrera went back to the Quetzaltenango area, while Zavala remained in Suchitepéquez as a tactical maneuver. Carrera received a visit from a Cabinet member of Paredes and told him that he had control of the native population and that he would keep them appeased. When the emissary returned to Guatemala City, he told the president everything Carrera said, and added that the native forces were formidable.  Agustín Guzmán went to Antigua Guatemala to meet with another group of Paredes emissaries; they agreed that Los Altos would rejoin Guatemala, and that the latter would help Guzmán defeat his hated enemy and also build a port on the Pacific Ocean. Guzmán was sure of victory this time, but his plan evaporated when, in his absence, Carrera and his native allies occupied Quetzaltenango. Carrera appointed Ignacio Yrigoyen as Corregidor and convinced him that he should work with the K'iche', Q’anjob’al, and Mam leaders to keep the region under control. On his way out, Yrigoyen murmured to a friend: Now he is the King of the Indians, indeed!  The region is still distinctive, and "Los Altos" is still a nickname for the region of Guatemala around Quetzaltenango. Similarly, the Mexican portion of the former state is known as "Los Altos de Chiapas".

Los Altos (Spanish for "the highlands" or "the heights") was the sixth state of the Federal Republic of Central America, and a short-lived independent republic. Its capital was Quetzaltenango. Los Altos occupied eight departments in the west of present-day Guatemala as well as the Soconusco region in the Mexican state of Chiapas.

Stát Los Altos ("Estado de Los Altos", doslova „horský stát“) byl krátce existující státní útvar na jihozápadě dnešní Guatemaly. Hornatá oblast okolo města Quetzaltenango obývaná kmenem Mam vyhlásila 2. února 1838 odtržení od zbytku Guatemaly a stala se novým členským Středoamerické federativní republiky – odtud přezdívka "„sexto estado“" (šestý stát, vedle Guatemaly, Salvadoru, Hondurasu, Nikaraguy a Kostariky). Stát byl tvořen třemi provinciemi: Totonicapán, Quetzaltenango a Suchitepéquez-Sololá. Prezidentem byl José María Marcelo Molina Mata. V květnu 1839 se federace rozpadla a Los Altos nadále fungovalo jako de facto samostatný stát. Guatemalský samovládce José Rafael Carrera Turcios zahájil tažení za znovudobytí území Los Altos, 29. ledna 1840 ukončil jeho existenci a v dubnu téhož roku nechal popravit zajaté představitele nezávislého státu. Mexiko využilo situace a anektovalo okres Soconusco, který připojilo ke svému státu Chiapas (dodnes se mu říká "Los Altos de Chiapas"). K novému pokusu o odtržení došlo v Quetzaltenangu 5. září 1848, povstání bylo potlačeno 15. května 1849.


Biography.

Early life.

Jamaica Kincaid was born Elaine Potter Richardson in St John's, Antigua, on May 25, 1949. She grew up in relative poverty with her mother, a literate, cultured woman and homemaker, and her stepfather, a carpenter. She was very close to her mother until her three brothers were born in quick succession, starting when Kincaid was nine years old. After her brothers' births, she resented her mother, who thereafter focused primarily on the brothers' needs. Kincaid later recalled,  Our family money remained the same, but there were more people to feed and to clothe, and so everything got sort of shortened, not only material things but emotional things. The good emotional things, I got a short end of that. But then I got more of things I didn't have, like a certain kind of cruelty and neglect.  In a "New York Times" interview, Kincaid also said: "The way I became a writer was that my mother wrote my life for me and told it to me."  Kincaid was educated in the British colonial education system, as Antigua did not gain independence from England until 1981. Although she was intelligent and frequently tested at the top of her class, Kincaid's mother removed her from school at 16 to help support the family when her third and last brother was born, because her stepfather was ill and could no longer provide for the family. In 1966, when Kincaid was 17, her mother sent her to Scarsdale, a wealthy suburb of New York City, to work as an "au pair". After this move, when Kincaid refused to send money home, "she left no forwarding address and was cut off from her family until her return to Antigua 20 years later".

Family.

In 1979, Kincaid married the composer and Bennington College professor Allen Shawn, son of longtime "The New Yorker" editor William Shawn and brother of actor Wallace Shawn. The couple divorced in 2002. They have two children: a son, Harold, the music producer/songwriter Levelsoundz, a graduate of Northeastern University; and a daughter, Annie, who graduated from Harvard and now works in marketing. Kincaid is president of the official Levelsoundz Fan Club.  Kincaid is a keen gardener who has written extensively on the subject. She is a convert to Judaism.

Career overview.

While working as an "au pair", Kincaid enrolled in evening classes at a community college. After three years, she resigned from her job to attend Franconia College in New Hampshire on a full scholarship. She dropped out after a year and returned to New York. In New York City, she started writing for a teenage girls' magazine. She changed her name to Jamaica Kincaid in 1973, when her writing was first published. She described this name change as "a way for [her] to do things without being the same person who couldn't do them — the same person who had all these weights". Kincaid explained that "Jamaica" is an English corruption of what Columbus called Xaymaca, the part of the world that she comes from, and "Kincaid" appeared to go well with "Jamaica". Kincaid became a writer for "The Village Voice" and "Ingénue". Her short fiction appeared in "The Paris Review", and in "The New Yorker", where her novel "Lucy" was originally serialized.  Kincaid is an award-winning writer, whose work has been both praised and criticized for its subject matter because it largely draws upon her own life, and her tone is often perceived as angry. Kincaid counters that many writers draw upon personal experience, so to describe her writing as autobiographical and angry is not valid criticism. Jamaica Kincaid was named the 50th commencement speaker at Bard College at Simon's Rock in 2019.

"The New Yorker".

As a result of her budding writing career and friendship with George W. S. Trow, who wrote many pieces for "The New Yorker" column "The Talk of the Town", Kincaid became acquainted with "New Yorker" editor William Shawn, who was impressed with her writing. He employed her as a staff writer in 1976 and eventually as a featured columnist for "Talk of the Town" for nine years. Shawn's tutelage legitimized Kincaid as a writer and proved pivotal to her development of voice. In all, she was a staff writer for "The New Yorker" for 20 years. She resigned from "The New Yorker" in 1996 when then editor Tina Brown chose actress Roseanne Barr to guest-edit an issue as an original feminist voice. Though circulation rose under Brown, Kincaid was critical of Brown's direction in making the magazine less literary and more celebrity-oriented.  Kincaid recalls that when she was a writer for "The New Yorker", she would often be questioned, particularly by women, on how she was able to obtain her position. Kincaid felt that these questions were posed because she was a young black woman "from nowhere... I have no credentials. I have no money. I literally come from a poor place. I was a servant. I dropped out of college. The next thing you know I'm writing for "The New Yorker", I have this sort of life, and it must seem annoying to people."  "Talk Stories" was later published in 2001 as a collection of "77 short pieces Kincaid wrote for "The New Yorker"'s 'Talk of the Town' column between 1974 and 1983".

Writing.

Her novels are loosely autobiographical, though Kincaid has warned against interpreting their autobiographical elements too literally: "Everything I say is true, and everything I say is not true. You couldn't admit any of it to a court of law. It would not be good evidence." Her work often prioritizes "impressions and feelings over plot development" and features conflict with both a strong maternal figure and colonial and neocolonial influences. Excerpts from her non-fiction book "A Small Place" were used as part of the narrative for Stephanie Black's 2001 documentary, "Life and Debt".  One of Kincaid's contributions according to Henry Louis Gates, Jr, African-American literary critic, scholar, writer, and public intellectual, is that:

Themes.

Kincaid's writing explores such themes as colonialism and colonial legacy, postcolonialism and neo-colonialism, gender and sexuality, renaming, mother-daughter relationships, British and American imperialism, colonial education, writing, racism, class, power, and adolescence. In her most recent novel, "See Now Then", Kincaid also first explores the theme of time.

Tone and style.

Kincaid's unique style has created disagreement among critics and scholars, and as Harold Bloom explains: "Most of the published criticism of Jamaica Kincaid has stressed her political and social concerns, somewhat at the expense of her literary qualities." As works such as "At the Bottom of the" River and "The Autobiography of My Mother" use Antiguan cultural practices, some critics say these works employ magical realism. "The author claims, however, that [her work] is'magic' and'real,' but not necessarily [works] of'magical realism'." Other critics claim that her style is "modernist" because much of her fiction is "culturally specific and experimental". It has also been praised for its keen observation of character, curtness, wit, and lyrical quality. Her short story "Girl" is essentially a list of instructions on how a girl should live and act, but the messages are much larger than the literal list of suggestions. Kincaid makes a list of motherly orders a piece of literature. Derek Walcott, 1992 Nobel laureate, said of Kincaid's writing: "As she writes a sentence, psychologically, its temperature is that it heads toward its own contradiction. It's as if the sentence is discovering itself, discovering how it feels. And that is astonishing, because it's one thing to be able to write a good declarative sentence; it's another thing to catch the temperature of the narrator, the narrator's feeling. And that's universal, and not provincial in any way". Susan Sontag has also commended Kincaid's writing for its "emotional truthfulness," poignancy, and complexity. Her writing has been described as "fearless" and her "force and originality lie in her refusal to curb her tongue". Giovanna Covi describes her unique writing: "The tremendous strength of Kincaid's stories lies in their capacity to resist all canons. They move at the beat of a drum and the rhythm of jazz..." She is described as writing with a "double vision" meaning that one line of plot mirrors another, providing the reader with rich symbolism that enhances the possibilities of interpretation.

Influences.

Kincaid's writing is largely influenced by her life circumstances even though she discourages readers from taking her fiction literally. To do so, according to the writer Michael Arlen, is to be "disrespectful of a fiction writer's ability to create fictional characters". Kincaid worked for Arlen, who would become a colleague at "The New Yorker", as an au pair and is the figure whom the father in "Lucy" is based on. Despite her caution to readers, Kincaid has also said, "I would never say I wouldn't write about an experience I've had."

Reception and criticism.

The reception of Kincaid's work has been mixed. Her writing stresses deep social and even political commentary, as Harold Bloom cites as a reason why the "literary qualities" of her work tend to be less of a focus for critics. Writing for Salon.com, Peter Kurth called Kincaid's work "My Brother" the most overrated book of 1997. Reviewing her latest novel, "See Now Then" (2013), in "The New York Times", Dwight Garner called it "bipolar", "half séance, half ambush" and "the kind of lumpy exorcism that many writers would have composed and then allowed to remain unpublished. It picks up no moral weight as it rolls along. It asks little of us, and gives little in return." Another "New York Times" review describes it as "not an easy book to stomach" but goes on to explain, "Kincaid's force and originality lie in her refusal to curb her tongue, in an insistence on home truths that spare herself least of all." Kate Tuttle addresses this in an article for "The Boston Globe": "Kincaid allowed that critics are correct to point out the book's complexity. "The one thing the book is," she said, "is difficult, and I meant it to be." Some critics have been harsh, such as one review for "Mr Potter" (2002) that reads, "It wouldn't be so hard if the repetition weren't coupled, here and everywhere it occurs, with a stern rebuff to any idea that it might be meaningful." On the other hand, there has been much praise for her writing, for instance: "The superb precision of Kincaid's style makes it a paradigm of how to avoid lots of novelistic pitfalls."

Jamaica Kincaid (; born May 25, 1949) is an Antiguan-American novelist, essayist, gardener, and gardening writer. She was born in St. John's, Antigua (part of the twin-island nation of Antigua and Barbuda). She lives in North Bennington, Vermont (in the United States), during the summers, and is Professor of African and African American Studies in Residence at Harvard University during the academic year.

Jamaica Kincaid, rozená Elanie Potter Richardson (* 25. května 1949 Saint John's, Antigua) je antigujská spisovatelka a esejistka žijící a působící ve Spojených státech amerických. Narodila se na ostrově Antigua, který je součástí ostrovního státu Antigua a Barbuda. V současnosti žije v North Benningtonu ve státě Vermont. Působí jako profesorka anglické literatury na univerzitě Claremont McKenna College v Clermontu. Za své dílo získala řadu ocenění, mimo jiné Guggenheimovy ceny za beletrii. Její tvorba je však často kritizována pro svoji vysokou míru zloby, částečně způsobenou vysokou mírou autobiografičnosti. Patří k významným představitelkám karibské exilové literatury.


Early life.

Kauffman was born at Chur in Graubünden, Switzerland. Her family moved to Morbegno in 1742, then Como in Lombardy in 1752 at that time under Austrian rule. In 1757 she accompanied her father to Schwarzenberg in Vorarlberg/Austria where her father was working for the local bishop. Her father, Joseph Johann Kauffmann, was a relatively poor man but a skilled Austrian muralist and painter, who was often traveling for his work. He trained Angelica and she worked as his assistant, moving through Switzerland, Austria, and Italy. Angelica, a child prodigy, rapidly acquired several languages from her mother, Cleophea Lutz, including German, Italian, French and English. She also showed talent as a musician and was forced to choose between opera and art. She quickly chose art as a Catholic priest told Kauffman that the opera was a dangerous place filled with "seedy people." By her twelfth year she had become known as a painter, with bishops and nobles being her sitters.  In 1754, her mother died and her father decided to move to Milan. Later visits to Italy of long duration followed. She became a member of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze in 1762. In 1763 she visited Rome, returning again in 1764. From Rome she passed to Bologna and Venice, everywhere feted for her talents and charm. Writing from Rome in August 1764 to his friend Franke, Winckelmann refers to her popularity; she was then painting his picture, a half-length; of which she also made an etching. She spoke Italian as well as German, he says, and expressed herself with facility in French and English - one result of the last-named accomplishment being that she became a popular portraitist for British visitors to Rome. "She may be styled beautiful," he adds, "and in singing may vie with our best virtuosi". In 1765, her work appeared in England in an exhibition of the Free Society of Artists. She moved to England shortly after and established herself as a leading artist.

Years in Great Britain.

While in Venice, Kauffman was persuaded by Lady Wentworth, the wife of the British ambassador, to accompany her to London. One of the first pieces she completed in London was a portrait of David Garrick, exhibited in the year of her arrival at "Mr Moreing's great room in Maiden Lane." The rank of Lady Wentworth opened society to her, and she was everywhere well received, the royal family especially showing her great favor. Her firmest friend, however, was Sir Joshua Reynolds. In his pocket-book her name as "Miss Angelica" or "Miss Angel" appears frequently; and in 1766 he painted her, a compliment which she returned by her "Portrait of Sir Joshua Reynolds". Another instance of her intimacy with Reynolds is to be found in her variation of Guercino's "Et in Arcadia ego", a subject which Reynolds repeated a few years later in his portrait of Mrs Bouverie and Mrs Crewe.  In 1767 Kauffman was seduced by an imposter going under the name Count Frederick de Horn, whom she married, but they were separated the following year. It was probably owing to Reynolds's good offices that she was among the signatories to the petition to the king for the establishment of the Royal Academy. In its first catalogue of 1769 she appears with "R.A." after her name (an honour she shared with one other woman, Mary Moser); and she contributed the "Interview of Hector and Andromache", and three other classical compositions. She spent several months in Ireland in 1771, as a guest of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and undertook a number of portrait commissions there. Her notable Irish portraits include those of Philip Tisdall, the Attorney General for Ireland, and his wife Mary, and of Henry Loftus, 1st Earl of Ely and his family, including his niece Dorothea Monroe, the most admired Irish beauty of her time. It appears that among her circle of friends was Jean-Paul Marat, then living in London and practising medicine, with whom she may have had an affair. Her friendship with Reynolds was criticized in 1775 by fellow Academician Nathaniel Hone, who courted controversy in 1775 with his satirical picture "The Conjurer". It was seen to attack the fashion for Italian Renaissance art and to ridicule Sir Joshua Reynolds, leading the Royal Academy to reject the painting. It also originally included a nude caricature of Kauffman in the top left corner, which he painted out after she complained to the academy. The combination of a little girl and an old man has also been seen as symbolic of Kauffman and Reynolds's closeness, age difference, and rumoured affair.  From 1769 until 1782 Kauffman was an annual exhibitor with the Royal Academy, sending sometimes as many as seven pictures, generally on classical or allegoric subjects. One of the most notable was "Leonardo expiring in the Arms of Francis the First" (1778).  In 1773 she was appointed by the Academy with others to decorate St Paul's Cathedral, a scheme that was never carried out, and it was she who, with Biagio Rebecca, painted the Academy's old lecture room at Somerset House.

History painting.

While Kauffman produced many types of art, she identified herself primarily as a history painter, an unusual designation for a woman artist in the 18th century. History painting was considered the most elite and lucrative category in academic painting during this time period and, under the direction of Sir Joshua Reynolds, the Royal Academy made a strong effort to promote it to a native audience more interested in commissioning and buying portraits and landscapes. Despite the popularity that Kauffman enjoyed in British society, and her success there as an artist, she was disappointed by the relative apathy of the British towards history painting. Ultimately she left Britain for the continent, where history painting was better established, held in higher esteem and patronized.  History painting, as defined in academic art theory, was classified as the most elevated category. Its subject matter was the representation of human actions based on themes from history, mythology, literature, and scripture. This required extensive learning in biblical and Classical literature, knowledge of art theory and a practical training that included the study of anatomy from the male nude. Most women were denied access to such training, especially the opportunity to draw from nude models; yet Kauffman managed to cross the gender boundary to acquire the necessary skill to build a reputation as a successful history painter who was admired by colleagues and eagerly sought by patrons.

Later years in Rome.

In 1781, after her first husband's death (she had been long separated from him), she married Antonio Zucchi (1728–1795), a Venetian artist then resident in England. Shortly afterwards she retired to Rome, where she befriended, among others, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe; yet, always restive, she wanted to do more and lived for 25 years with much of her old prestige.  In 1782, Kauffman's father died, as did her husband in 1795. In 1794, she painted, "Self-Portrait Hesitating Between Painting and Music", in which she emphasizes the difficult choice in choosing painting as her sole career, in dedication to her mother's death. She continued at intervals to contribute to the Royal Academy in London, her last exhibit being in 1797. After this she produced little, and in 1807 she died in Rome, being honored by a splendid funeral under the direction of Canova. The entire Academy of St Luke, with numerous ecclesiastics and virtuosi, followed her to her tomb in Sant'Andrea delle Fratte, and, as at the burial of Raphael, two of her best pictures were carried in procession.

Legacy.

By 1911, rooms decorated with her work were still to be seen in various quarters. At Hampton Court was a portrait of the duchess of Brunswick; in the National Portrait Gallery, a self-portrait (NPG 430).  There were other pictures by her in Paris, at Dresden, in the Hermitage at St Petersburg, in the Alte Pinakothek at Munich, in Kadriorg Palace, Tallinn (Estonia) and in the Joanneum Alte Galerie at Graz. The Munich example was another portrait of herself, and there was a third in the Uffizi at Florence. A few of her works in private collections were exhibited among the Old Masters at Burlington House.  Kauffman is also well known by the numerous engravings from her designs by Schiavonetti, Francesco Bartolozzi and others. Those by Bartolozzi especially found considerable favour with collectors. Charles Willson Peale (1741–1827), artist, patriot, and founder of a major American art dynasty, named several of his children after notable European artists, including a daughter, Angelica Kauffman Peale.  A biography of Kauffman was published in 1810 by. The book was also the basis of a romance by Léon de Wailly (1838) and it prompted the novel contributed by Anne Isabella Thackeray to the "Cornhill Magazine" in 1875 entitled "Miss Angel".

The Angelika Kauffmann Museum.

The Angelika Kauffmann Museum in Schwarzenberg, Vorarlberg (Austria) was established in 2007. The annually changing exhibitions focus on different aspects and themes of her artistic work. In the 2019 exhibition "Angelika Kauffmann – Unknown Treasures from Vorarlberg Private Collections", many of her paintings were shown to the public for the first time, as a large parts of her oeuvre are owned by private collectors. The museum is housed in the so-called "Kleberhaus", an old farmhouse in the typical architectural style of the region.

Maria Anna Angelika Kauffmann (30 October 1741 – 5 November 1807), usually known in English as Angelica Kauffman, was a Swiss Neoclassical painter who had a successful career in London and Rome. Remembered primarily as a history painter, Kauffmann was a skilled portraitist, landscape and decoration painter. She was, along with Mary Moser, one of the two female founding members of the Royal Academy in London in 1768.

Angelica Maria Anna Katarina Kauffmanová (30. října 1741, Chur – 5. listopadu 1807, Řím) byla švýcarská malířka období neoklasicismu. Malovala obrazy především s alegorickými, mytologickými a historickými tématy.


History.

Argentan is situated near the Orne River. Although the region was heavily populated during the Gallo Roman period the town is not mentioned until 1025–1026. The toponym comes from the Gaulish words ("silver") and ("market"). The town grew in importance during the Middle Ages.  Throughout the Middle Ages, Argentan alternated between prosperity and destruction, as English forces occupied the city several times. The Plantagenets had considered this town as one of the most important of Normandy.  During the reign of Louis XIV, Colbert set Alençon against Argentan in an economic competition on lace making. Thus, the "point d'Argentan" ("Argentan stitch") and the "point d'Alençon" ("Alençon stitch") were created. Argentan became a very important town for traditional industry. It also gained in religious importance with the building of a Benedictine Abbey and two churches, "Saint-Martin" and "Saint-Germain". Several mansions ("hôtels particuliers") were also built.  During World War I, the French 104th Infantry Regiment/14th Infantry Brigade was stationed at Argentan. It participated in the battle of Verdun in 1916.  During World War II, the city was almost totally destroyed. On 5 June 1944, on the eve of the Allied D-Day landing on the beaches of Normandy, the city suffered an important air raid in which the train station was destroyed. The city suffered further damage when it was bombed on 6 and 7 June by B-17 and B-24 bombers of the U.S. Eighth Air Force. The greatest part of the city was, however, left in ruins two and half months later, at the end of August, during the battle of the Argentan-Falaise Pocket. The U.S. Third Army, under the command of general George S. Patton liberated Argentan after eight days of violent combat against the German 9th Panzer Division and the 2nd SS Panzer Division "Das Reich". The U.S. 80th Infantry Division liberated the city in the morning of 20 August.

Residents.

Argentan was the birthplace of:

Twin towns - sister cities.

Argentan is twinned with:

Argentan () is a commune and the seat of two cantons and of an arrondissement in the Orne department in northwestern France.

Argentan je francouzská obec v departementu Orne v regionu Normandie, asi 55 km vzdušnou čarou jižně od Caen a 175 km západně od Paříže.


History.

Rumors about the began shortly after the announcement of the iPhone 4S, though detailed leaks did not emerge until June 2012. On July 30, 2012, reports pinpointed the dates on which the iPhone 5 would be unveiled and released, along with some accurate predictions of its features. On September 4, 2012, Apple announced they would be hosting an event at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco on September 12, 2012. A shadow of the numeral 5 was featured in the invitations sent to the media, suggesting that the next iPhone would be unveiled at the event.  At the unveiling, Apple announced the iPhone 5 and also introduced new iPod Nano and iPod Touch models. They also stated that pre-orders would be accepted starting September 14, 2012. Over two million pre-orders were received within 24 hours. Initial demand for the new phone exceeded the record set by its predecessor, the iPhone 4S, by selling over 5 million units in the first three days. On November 30, 2012, Apple added an unlocked version of the iPhone 5 to their online US store, with the 16 GB model starting at US$649.  The iPhone 5 was officially discontinued by Apple on September 10, 2013, with the announcement of its successors, the iPhone 5s and the iPhone 5C. While the 5C shared almost the same internal hardware as the iPhone 5, the 5C used a lower-cost poly-carbonate plastic case in place of the original 5's aluminum form. The introduction of the 5C deviated from Apple's previous market strategy, where the previous iPhone model would remain in production, but sold at a lower price point below the new model.  On April 28, 2014, Apple initiated an out of warranty recall program to replace any failing power buttons of iPhone 5 models which were manufactured prior to March 2013 at no cost. On August 23, 2014, Apple announced a program to replace batteries of iPhone 5 models that "may suddenly experience shorter battery life or need to be charged more frequently" which were sold between September 2012 and January 2013.

Litigation.

Following the release of the iPhone 5, Samsung announced that it was filing a lawsuit against Apple for infringing eight of its patents. The case was scheduled to begin in 2014. In a statement, Samsung said it had "little choice but to take the steps necessary to protect our innovations and intellectual property rights". Litigation between the two involving patent infringement has been ongoing and is being fought in several court cases around the world.

Production.

The components and labor required to construct the most basic iPhone 5 are estimated to cost US$207, which is US$19 more than the cost of components for the corresponding iPhone 4S model. The LTE module in the iPhone 5 alone costs $34, $10 more than the cellular module in the iPhone 4S. Similarly, screens used in the iPhone 5 cost $44, which is $7 more than the screen of its predecessor. Mashable noted that the profit margin of selling each device is "huge" as the iPhone 5 retails for US$649.  After the announcement of the device, a lack of supply was evident. This was due to a shortage of components such as the screen. Reports emerged, stating that Sharp was unable to ship the screen before the debut of the iPhone 5, and other manufacturers reported that it was difficult to keep up with demand. As a result, the number of pre-orders rose due to the uncertainty of stock at retail stores, and the delivery dates for pre-orders were postponed to dates that were after the initial release date of the device.

Quality control inspectors strike.

China Labor Watch, a New York State–based NGO, reported that "three to four thousand" Foxconn workers who work at the iPhone 5 production plant in Zhengzhou stopped working on October 5, 2012. The strikes occurred after Apple implemented a stricter quality standard on their products, which includes a 0.02 mm restriction on indentations inflicted during production, and imposed demands related to scratches on frames and back covers. The strikes were also attributed to the employer forcing employees to work on a public holiday. The report stated training was inadequate for quality demands expected and led to employees producing products that did not meet standards. During the strike, conflicts between quality control inspectors and employees resulted in brawls. China Labor Watch also claimed that concerns raised by inspectors were not addressed by factory management. Foxconn spokesmen admitted that a micromanagement problem exists, but also said that there were only 300 to 400 workers absent and the conflicts did not influence production processes. In November 2012 Foxconn chairman Terry Gou reported that the delay in production was due to undisclosed difficulties in assembly.

Features.

Operating system and software.

The features iOS, Apple's mobile operating system. The user interface of iOS is based on the concept of direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures. Interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and buttons. Interaction with the OS includes gestures such as "swipe", "tap", "pinch", and "reverse pinch", all of which have specific definitions within the context of the iOS operating system and its multi-touch interface. Internal accelerometers are used by some applications to respond to shaking the device (one common result is the undo command) or rotating it vertically (one common result is switching from portrait to landscape mode).  The iPhone 5 is shipped with iOS 6, which was released on September 19, 2012. Many of the's features that work specifically with the included iOS 6.0 operating system only worked in certain territories on release. Apple has said this is a rolling program, which will take longer to implement across more regions.  The phone can act as a hotspot, sharing its internet connection over WiFi, Bluetooth, or USB, and also accesses the App Store, an online application distribution platform for iOS developed and maintained by Apple. The service allows users to browse and download applications from the iTunes Store that were developed with Xcode and the iOS SDK and were published through Apple.  The can play music, movies, television shows, ebooks, audiobooks, and podcasts and can sort its media library by songs, artists, albums, videos, playlists, genres, composers, podcasts, audiobooks, and compilations. Options are always presented alphabetically, except in playlists, which retain their order from iTunes. Users can rotate their device horizontally to landscape mode to access Cover Flow. Like on iTunes, this feature shows the different album covers in a scroll-through photo library. Scrolling is achieved by swiping a finger across the screen. Alternatively, headset controls can be used to pause, play, skip, and repeat tracks. On the iPhone 5, the volume can be changed with the included Apple Earphones, and the Voice Control feature can be used to identify a track, play songs in a playlist or by a specific artist, or create a Genius playlist.  Like the iPhone 4s, the iPhone 5 has Siri, that allows the user to operate the iPhone by spoken commands. The software was improved in iOS 6 to include the ability to make restaurant reservations, launch apps, dictate Facebook or Twitter updates, retrieve movie reviews and detailed sports statistics.  On the, texting can be aided by the voice assistant, which converts speech to text. In addition to regular texting, messaging on the supports iMessage, a specialized instant messaging program and service that allows unlimited texting to other Apple devices running iOS 5 or later. This supports the inclusion of content such as images and sound in text messages, integration with the device's voice-controlled software assistant, and read acknowledgments for sent messages. Input to the device comes from a keyboard displayed on the multi-touch screen or by voice-to-text by speaking into the microphone. Entered text is supported by predictive and suggestion software; there is a multi-language spell-checker which recognizes many regional accents of different languages.  iOS 6 features several new and/or updated apps, which includes Apple Maps and Passbook. Apple's built-in Maps app, which replaced the former Maps app powered by Google Maps, had been universally derided and lacked many features present in competing maps apps. It uses Apple's new vector-based engine that eliminates lag, making for smoother zooming. New to Maps is turn-by-turn navigation spoken directions, 3D views in some major cities and real-time traffic. iOS 6 is able to retrieve documents such as boarding passes, admission tickets, coupons and loyalty cards through its new Passbook app. An iOS device with Passbook can be scanned under a reader to process a mobile payment at locations that have compatible hardware. The app has context-aware features such as notifications for relevant coupons when in the immediate vicinity of a given store.  Facebook comes integrated through Apple's native apps with iOS 6. Facebook features can be directly accessed from within native apps such as Calendar which can sync Facebook events, or use Facebook's like button from within the Apple App Store.  New privacy settings are available to the user. In addition to location services, the following have been added in iOS 6: photos (already partially restricted in iOS 5), contacts (address book), calendars, reminders, Bluetooth sharing, Twitter, Facebook, and Sina Weibo. iOS 6 also comes with a "Limit ad tracking" user control in the general settings menu to allow users the option to prevent targeted advertising. Apple's Advertising Identifier replaces the company's existing Unique Device Identification (UDID) standard. Advertising networks not yet using Apple's Advertising Identifier device identifier standard would not be affected, although Apple will require the standard in the future.

Design.

Apple emphasized the improved build quality of the iPhone 5 at its press event. The frame used in previous versions was redesigned to use an aluminum composite frame. The and used stainless steel instead of aluminium due to Steve Jobs' preference for the metal which he thought, "looks beautiful when it wears".  The is 18% thinner, 20% lighter, and has 12% less overall volume than its predecessor, the iPhone 4s. The phone's aluminum body is thick. At the September 2012 conference Apple claimed it was the thinnest smartphone in the world at 7.6 mm, though that claim was disputed as the Chinese Oppo Finder was thinner and some other smartphones could be considered to be thinner, depending upon where thickness is measured. The Oppo Finder measured at its thinnest point and at its thickest point making it overall thinner than the iPhone. This design was used three times, first with the iPhone 5 in 2013, then with the 5S in 2013, and finally with the first-generation iPhone SE in 2016.

Hardware.

The uses a system on chip (SoC), called the Apple A6. The SoC comprises a 1.3 GHz dual-core processor, 1 GB of RAM and a tri-core PowerVR SGX543MP4 running at 266 MHz.<ref name="Geekbench test (28/9)"></ref> The's operating memory (LPDDR2-1066 eDRAM) was doubled, from 512 MB to 1 GB. Storage capacities available are fixed at 16, 32 or 64 GB, the same as the 4s; plug-in memory cards are not supported. The two color options are black (with black glass and slate-colored metal trim), and white (with white ceramic and silver-colored metal trim); again the same color options (though differently implemented) as its predecessor the 4s had. The iPhone 5 retains the 8 megapixel back camera on the iPhone 4s, but has improved low-light performance, and has a 40% faster photo capture than its predecessors, while having a purple hue when a strong source of light is present in the photograph. The front camera, which is accessible through the FaceTime and camera app has a lower resolution, at 1.2 megapixels. The rechargeable lithium-ion battery with a charge capacity of 1440mAh is built in and cannot be replaced by the user; it is rated at ≤225 hours of standby time and ≤8 hours of talk time. There are three separate models of the phone available: one supporting CDMA and two GSM versions. This can have knock-on effects for which version of the device will actually work in which countries/regions. The phone takes a nano-SIM, smaller than the micro-SIM of the and.  Hardware benchmarking conducted using Geekbench and GLBenchmark validates several claims that Apple included on their website and mentioned at the unveiling of the device, these include two times faster and two times the graphics performance. In the Geekbench overall hardware assessment, the iPhone 5 received a score that was approximately 2.5 times higher than the iPhone 4s. The benchmark conducted using GLBenchmark for the iPhone 5 returned a score that was 2 times better than the iPhone 4s. The result was however inconsistent as a 3D graphics benchmark assessment using Passmark returned a score that was only approximately 1.45 times better than the iPhone 4s. Battery life assessments conducted by AnandTech concluded that the battery life is shorter on the iPhone 5 than its predecessor when performing certain tasks, however when performing other tasks the iPhone 5 battery outlasts the iPhone 4s.  The Retina Display is 1,136 × 640 pixels with an aspect ratio of almost exactly 16:9, (minus one extra row of horizontal pixels). With a diagonal of 4" it has a display size of 6.7 square inches, compared to 5.7 in iPhone 4 and 4s. The pixel density remains the same as the 4s model, which is 326 pixels per inch. Screen icons of the iPhone 5 are arranged in a matrix of six rows of four icons each. The increased screen size allows the sixth row of icons to be added to the five rows that were present in the iPhone 4. In-cell touch sensor technology from Sharp slims the screen which allows for a thinner phone. The screen's color saturation is 44% greater than its predecessor.  There are three microphones (placed on the front, side and back) for noise cancellation and video calls.  On April 28, 2014, Apple initiated an out of warranty recall program to replace any failing power buttons of iPhone 5 models which were manufactured prior to March 2013 at no cost.  On August 23, 2014, Apple announced a program to replace batteries of iPhone 5 models that "may suddenly experience shorter battery life or need to be charged more frequently" which were sold between September 2012 and January 2013.

Accessories.

The, as well as the iPod Touch (5th generation), iPod Nano (7th generation), iPad (4th generation), and iPad Mini feature a new dock connector named Lightning, which replaces the 30-pin Apple Dock connector introduced in 2003 by Apple on the iPod (3rd generation). The Apple Lightning connector has eight pins and all signaling is digital. This new connector is smaller than the previous one, helping the to be slimmer than its predecessors. Apple Lightning cables have duplicate pins on two sides of each plug, so it can be inserted either way round. Various accessories will be available to convert the Apple Lightning connector to the older 30-pin Apple Dock connector or USB, although not all old accessories will work, as not all signals are available, in particular video output and the iPod Out feature for BMW automobiles.  Earphones known as Apple EarPods are included with the iPhone 5 and other devices announced at the Apple media event on September 12, 2012. They superseded earphones that were included with previous generation iPhones and iPods. According to technology commentators, the redesign of the earphones is aimed to improve sound quality by allowing air to travel in and out more freely. Apple states that the redesign of their earphones allows it to "rival high-end headphones that cost hundreds of dollars more". Reviews by Gizmodo and TechRadar reported that although the redesigned earphones sounded better than its predecessor, reviewers felt that quality of sound produced is poor.

Network compatibility.

AT&T, Verizon, and Sprint offer LTE access in the US, while in the UK, only EE and Three are able to offer LTE access. On March 26, 2013, T-Mobile announced they would begin carrying the iPhone 5, making it the first iPhone to be available on all four nationwide carriers in the United States. The T-Mobile version of the iPhone features a modified version of the A1428 iPhone 5 model enabling Advanced Wireless Services (AWS) support. All carriers in Canada selling the have their own LTE networks, including Rogers Wireless, Fido Solutions, Bell Mobility, Virgin Mobile Canada, Telus Mobility and Koodo Mobile.  42 officially recognized bands exist for LTE, however rollouts are coalescing around the more-popular bands, based on what historically has been made available in specific regions. In Europe, bands available for LTE include, 2.6 GHz (the 3G-expansion band) and 800 MHz (cleared of analogue TV), with 1,800 MHz appearing in a few places including the UK. In Germany, the only carrier network supported is that of T-Mobile with its 1,800 MHz band allocated to LTE. Some countries in Europe, including Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and others—will not be able to offer LTE connectivity via the iPhone 5 to their customers on their current LTE networks, as they have already deployed LTE in the 2.6 GHz band, which the iPhone 5 does not support. In November 2012, a representative of Swisscom reported that the iPhone 5 only supports LTE on networks that have been tested and certified by Apple.  Unlike the iPhone 4s, which was the only "world phone" produced by Apple, there are three versions of the iPhone 5, which differ by the frequency used. All three work on 2G GSM/GPRS and 3G UMTS/EDGE networks on both the 800 and 1900 MHz bands used in the Americas, and the 900 and 1800 MHz bands used elsewhere. The CDMA A1429 model works on CDMA networks, such as that of Sprint and Verizon. Another version supports LTE only on the 1700/2100 MHz AWS band, and the 700 MHz band recovered after the conversion to digital television in the US (channels 52 to 56), currently the only network that supports the band is AT&T. GSM A1429 supports several other LTE bands available in other countries, such as LTE bands 1, 3, 5.

Reception.

Critical reception.

The received mainly positive reviews from commentators and reviewers. Tim Stevens from "Engadget" praised the for its high resolution screen surpassing that of the, which he considered to be one of the best phone screens available on the market. Stevens was critical of the new connector, which is incompatible with devices and cables that use the superseded 30-pin connector, although the "LA Times" reported that this was a change necessary to make the device smaller than its predecessor. Engadget agreed that Apple fulfilled most of the promises stated on its website, such as "better battery performance", "two times the graphics performance" and "two times faster." David Pogue of "The New York Times" considered the 4-inch Retina display a "nice but not life-changing change", and praised the Lightning connector for its size, sturdiness, and reversibility, while noting its lack of support for older accessories, remarking that "Apple has a long history of killing off technologies, inconveniently and expensively, that the public had come to love". Technology columnist Ed Baig of "USA Today" was impressed that Apple had met the public's "lofty expectations" for the iPhone 5 in a competitive market. In a repair-ability review, iFixit found the iPhone 5 easier to disassemble and repair than its predecessor.  "Wired" reported that the iPhone 5 design, carried on in the iPhone 5s and first-generation iPhone SE, was regarded as "long been the golden child of Apple phone design and a benchmark for phones in general", while the succeeding iPhone 6/6S design was less critically acclaimed as it "felt a little bit wrong, as though you were holding a slick $650 bar of soap". "Wired" described the iPhone 5 as "elegance rooted in the way the aluminum and glass work together. It felt streamlined, yet substantial, which is different from the iPhone 6, which feels substantial in size alone. Plus, unlike the ubiquitous rounded corners of the 6, the iPhone 5 didn't really look like anything else on the market at the time". However, the iPhone 5's design was not suited to scaling up, in contrast to the iPhone 6/6S which could better accommodate the growing consumer trend towards larger screen sizes and indeed spawned the 6/6S Plus phablet models.

Criticism.

Reviewers and commentators were critical of the new Maps app that replaced Google Maps in iOS 6. It had been reported to contain errors such as misplacement of landmark tags, directing users to incorrect locations and poor satellite images. Nine days after Maps' release, Apple issued a statement apologizing for the frustration it had caused customers and recommending that they try alternate mapping services.

Errors.

Gizmodo editor Diaz discussed the correspondence between Apple and a reader about purple flare in pictures taken on iPhone 5 camera. Apple's response to the issue was that it is normal and advised the customer to aim the camera away from bright light sources when taking photos. Tests conducted by TechCrunch indicate that the problem existed on the iPhone 4s but was more distinct and pronounced on the iPhone 5. Consumer Reports found that the purple haze effect occurred on several other manufacturers' phones including the Samsung Galaxy S III and Motorola Droid Razr Maxx, and that it was not less pronounced on the iPhone 4s. The report concluded that digital cameras in general, including higher-end SLRs, can all suffer from lens flare in which a purple-tinted effect was not uncommon.

Problems.

There were anecdotal claims of the iPhone 5's coating chipping off, exposing the bright aluminium underneath. Apple executive's response to email correspondence from an affected customer summarized that it was normal for aluminum to scratch. The term "scuffgate", a reference to "antennagate" which affected the iPhone 4, was applied by various sources such as CNET, Yahoo News, and All Things Digital to describe the scuffing issue.  Some users reported on the Internet that the white model leaked light behind the screen, though the issue was not unique to the iPhone 5, as it also affected other Apple devices.

Commercial reception.

Techcrunch reported that the sold out twenty times faster than the 4 and 4s models. Apple said that they were "blown away by the customer response". Phil Schiller, Apple's vice-president of worldwide marketing, said that over two million orders had been received in the first 24 hours. AT&T said that the was the fastest-selling iPhone the company had ever offered, selling over five million units on launch weekend and exceeding the supply available. The release and sale of the iPhone 5 has also slowed down the growth of Android according to market share reports released by Kantar Worldpanel ComTech. During the first 16 days after the phone's initial release it comprised over 20% of all phones sold in that period.  J.P. Morgan's chief economist, Michael Feroli said that "sales of could boost annualized US GDP growth by $3.2 billion, or $12.8 billion at an annual rate." Shortly after the announcement of the iPhone 5 and preceding the launch, Apple's stock price rose to a record $705.07, but within three months fell to $507.48. According to the analysis of Eric Savitz, Apple's stock decline and resulting losses were not the result of any issue with the new Maps application, but disappointed investors. He points to initial hardware sales of only five million, compared to projections up to twice that, as the primary cause.  Since the release of the iPhone 5, discounts on previous generation iPhones have enabled Apple to maintain a market lead in the United States and Japan, but the iPhone continued to lag behind the combined total of Android phones in the global market.

The iPhone 5 is a smartphone that was designed and marketed by Apple Inc. It is the 6th generation iPhone, succeeding the iPhone 4S and preceding both the iPhone 5S and 5C. It was formally unveiled as part of a press event on September 12, 2012, and subsequently released on September 21, 2012. The iPhone 5 was the first iPhone to be announced in September, and setting a trend for subsequent iPhone releases, the first iPhone to be completely developed under the guidance of Tim Cook and the last iPhone to be overseen by Steve Jobs. The iPhone 5's design was used three times, first with the iPhone 5 itself in 2012, then with the 5S in 2013, and finally with the first-generation iPhone SE in 2016.

iPhone 5 je smartphone od firmy Apple Inc., který byl představen jako nástupce modelu "iPhone 4S" (v pořadí se již jedná o 6. iPhone firmy Apple 4. generace iPhonu) 12. září 2012. Do prodeje se "iPhone 5" dostal 21. září 2012 (předobjednávky Apple přijímal od 14. září 2012). Prodej "iPhone 5" byl oficiálně ukončen 10. září 2013, tedy po necelém roce prodeje, kdy byl nahrazen modely "5C" / "5S" (starší model "4S" však v prodeji zůstal, spolu s novými modely). Jedná se o první iPhone, který používá konektor Lightning, místo staršího 30-pinového konektoru.


History.

The first reference to slate extraction at Penrhyn is from 1570, when the quarry is mentioned in a Welsh poem. The quarry was developed in the 1770s by Richard Pennant, later Baron Penrhyn. Much of his early working was for local use only as no large scale transport infrastructure was developed until Pennant's involvement. From then on, slates from the quarry were transported to the sea at Port Penrhyn on the narrow gauge Penrhyn Quarry Railway built in 1798, one of the earliest railway lines. In the 19th century the Penrhyn Quarry, along with the Dinorwic quarry, dominated the Welsh slate industry.  In 1868 eighty workers were sacked for failing to vote for George Douglas-Pennant, the son of the owner, in the general election.

The "Great Strike".

The quarry is significant in the history of the British Labour Movement as the site of two prolonged strikes by workers demanding better pay and safer conditions. The first strike lasted eleven months in 1896. The second began on 22 November 1900 and lasted for three years. Known as "The Great Strike of Penrhyn", this was the longest dispute in British industrial history. During the strike, the community was divided between those who laid down their tools and those who crossed the picket line. Many locals wrote ""Nid oes bradwr yn y tŷ hwn"" or "There is no traitor in this house" in their front windows.  William John Parry, one of the founders of the North Wales Quarrymen's Union, and an alderman in Bethesda, organised a co-operative to take over several other local quarries and employ locked-out Penrhyn quarrymen. He eventually included Pantdreiniog, Moel Faban and Tanybwlch quarries in his operation, all on the north side of the town.  In the longer term the dispute cast the shadow of unreliability on the North Welsh slate industry, causing orders to drop sharply and thousands of workers to be laid off.  In 2003, on the centenary of the strike, the Transport and General Workers' Union unveiled a plaque in memory of those who participated.

Recent history.

From 1963 until 2007 the quarry was owned and operated by Alfred McAlpine PLC.  In 2007 it was purchased by Kevin Lagan (an Irish businessman who is the owner and chairman of the Lagan Group) and renamed Welsh Slate Ltd. Kevin Lagan and his son Peter (MD of Lagan Building Solutions Ltd) are now directors of Welsh Slate Ltd which also includes the Oakeley quarry in Blaenau Ffestiniog, the Cwt Y Bugail quarry and the Pen Yr Orsedd quarry. The Lagan Group was itself acquired by the Leicestershire-based Breedon Group in 2018.  A part of the site no longer in use for slate extraction is the site of a new adventure tourism facility operated by Zipworld. The zip line Velocity 2 flies above an abandoned flooded quarry.  Welsh slate such as that quarried at Penrhyn was designated by the International Union of Geological Sciences as a 'Global Heritage Stone Resource' early in 2019 in recognition of its significant contribution to world architectural heritage.

The Penrhyn quarry is a slate quarry located near Bethesda, North Wales. At the end of the nineteenth century it was the world's largest slate quarry; the main pit is nearly long and deep, and it was worked by nearly 3,000 quarrymen. It has since been superseded in size by slate quarries in China, Spain and the USA. Penrhyn is still Britain's largest slate quarry but its workforce is now nearer 200.

Břidlicový důl Penrhyn se nachází v blízkosti obce Bethesda v severním Walesu. Koncem devatenáctého století šlo o největší břidlicový důl na světě. Hlavní jáma je téměř 1,6 km dlouhá a 370 m hluboká; v době největší slávy zde pracovalo více než 3000 zaměstnanců. Později byly otevřeny větší doly v Číně, Španělsku a Spojených státech amerických. Penrhyn je dodnes největším britským břidlicovým dolem, ale pracuje zde již jen kolem dvou set zaměstnanců.


Signs and symptoms.

Signs and symptoms of CDI range from mild diarrhea to severe life-threatening inflammation of the colon.  In adults, a clinical prediction rule found the best signs to be significant diarrhea ("new onset of more than three partially formed or watery stools per 24-hour period"), recent antibiotic exposure, abdominal pain, fever (up to 40.5 °C or 105 °F), and a distinctive foul odor to the stool resembling horse manure. In a population of hospitalized patients, prior antibiotic treatment plus diarrhea or abdominal pain had a sensitivity of 86% and a specificity of 45%. In this study with a prevalence of positive cytotoxin assays of 14%, the positive predictive value was 18% and the negative predictive value was 94%.  In children, the most prevalent symptom of a CDI is watery diarrhea with at least three bowel movements a day for two or more days, which may be accompanied by fever, loss of appetite, nausea, and/or abdominal pain. Those with a severe infection also may develop serious inflammation of the colon and have little or no diarrhea.

Cause.

Infection with "C. difficile" bacteria are responsible for "C. difficile" diarrhea.

"C. difficile".

Clostridia are anaerobic motile bacteria, ubiquitous in nature, and especially prevalent in soil. Under the microscope, they appear as long, irregular (often drumstick- or spindle-shaped) cells with a bulge at their terminal ends. Under Gram staining, "C. difficile" cells are Gram-positive and show optimum growth on blood agar at human body temperatures in the absence of oxygen. When stressed, the bacteria produce spores that are able to tolerate extreme conditions that the active bacteria cannot tolerate.  "C. difficile" may become established in the human colon; it is present in 2–5% of the adult population.  Pathogenic "C. difficile" strains produce multiple toxins. The most well-characterized are enterotoxin ("Clostridium difficile" toxin A) and cytotoxin ("Clostridium difficile" toxin B), both of which may produce diarrhea and inflammation in infected patients, although their relative contributions have been debated. Toxins A and B are glucosyltransferases that target and inactivate the Rho family of GTPases. Toxin B (cytotoxin) induces actin depolymerization by a mechanism correlated with a decrease in the ADP-ribosylation of the low molecular mass GTP-binding Rho proteins. Another toxin, binary toxin, also has been described, but its role in disease is not fully understood.  Antibiotic treatment of CDIs may be difficult, due both to antibiotic resistance and physiological factors of the bacteria (spore formation, protective effects of the pseudomembrane). The emergence of a new and highly toxic strain of "C. difficile" that is resistant to fluoroquinolone antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, said to be causing geographically dispersed outbreaks in North America, was reported in 2005. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta warned of the emergence of an epidemic strain with increased virulence, antibiotic resistance, or both.  "C. difficile" is transmitted from person to person by the fecal-oral route. The organism forms heat-resistant spores that are not killed by alcohol-based hand cleansers or routine surface cleaning. Thus, these spores survive in clinical environments for long periods. Because of this, the bacteria may be cultured from almost any surface. Once spores are ingested, their acid-resistance allows them to pass through the stomach unscathed. Upon exposure to bile acids, they germinate and multiply into vegetative cells in the colon.  In 2005, molecular analysis led to the identification of the "C. difficile" strain type characterized as group BI by restriction endonuclease analysis, as North American pulse-field-type NAP1 by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and as ribotype 027; the differing terminology reflects the predominant techniques used for epidemiological typing. This strain is referred to as "C. difficile" BI/NAP1/027.

Risk factors.

Antibiotics.

"C. difficile" colitis is associated most strongly with the use of these antibiotics: fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins, and clindamycin.  Some research suggests the routine use of antibiotics in the raising of livestock is contributing to outbreaks of bacterial infections such as "C. difficile".

Healthcare environment.

People are most often infected in hospitals, nursing homes, or other medical institutions, although infection outside medical settings is increasing. Individuals can develop the infection if they touch objects or surfaces that are contaminated with feces and then touch their mouth or mucous membranes. Healthcare workers could possibly spread the bacteria to patients or contaminate surfaces through hand contact. The rate of "C. difficile" acquisition is estimated to be 13% in patients with hospital stays of up to two weeks, and 50% with stays longer than four weeks.  Long-term hospitalization or residence in a nursing home within the previous year are independent risk factors for increased colonization.

Acid suppression medication.

Increasing rates of community-acquired CDI are associated with the use of medication to suppress gastric acid production: H2-receptor antagonists increased the risk 1.5-fold, and proton pump inhibitors by 1.7 with once-daily use and 2.4 with more than once-daily use.

Other.

As a result of suppression of healthy bacteria, via a loss of bacterial food source, prolonged use of an elemental diet increases the risk of developing "C. difficile" infection. Low serum albumin levels is a risk factor for the development of "C. difficile" infection and when infected for severe disease. The protective effects of serum albumin may be related to the capability of this protein to bind "C. difficile" toxin A and toxin B, thus impairing entry into enterocytes.

Pathophysiology.

The use of systemic antibiotics, including broad-spectrum penicillins/cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, and clindamycin, causes the normal microbiota of the bowel to be altered. In particular, when the antibiotic kills off other competing bacteria in the intestine, any bacteria remaining will have less competition for space and nutrients. The net effect is to permit more extensive growth than normal of certain bacteria. "C. difficile" is one such type of bacterium. In addition to proliferating in the bowel, "C. difficile" also produces toxins. Without either toxin A or toxin B, "C. difficile" may colonize the gut, but is unlikely to cause pseudomembranous colitis. The colitis associated with severe infection is part of an inflammatory reaction, with the "pseudomembrane" formed by a viscous collection of inflammatory cells, fibrin, and necrotic cells.

Diagnosis.

Prior to the advent of tests to detect "C. difficile" toxins, the diagnosis most often was made by colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy. The appearance of "pseudomembranes" on the mucosa of the colon or rectum is highly suggestive, but not diagnostic of the condition. The pseudomembranes are composed of an exudate made of inflammatory debris, white blood cells. Although colonoscopy and sigmoidoscopy are still employed, now stool testing for the presence of "C. difficile" toxins is frequently the first-line diagnostic approach. Usually, only two toxins are tested for—toxin A and toxin B—but the organism produces several others. This test is not 100% accurate, with a considerable false-negative rate even with repeat testing.

Cytotoxicity assay.

"C. difficile" toxins have a cytopathic effect in cell culture, and neutralization of any effect observed with specific antisera is the practical gold standard for studies investigating new CDI diagnostic techniques. Toxigenic culture, in which organisms are cultured on selective media and tested for toxin production, remains the gold standard and is the most sensitive and specific test, although it is slow and labor-intensive.

Toxin ELISA.

Assessment of the A and B toxins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for toxin A or B (or both) has a sensitivity of 63–99% and a specificity of 93–100%. Previously, experts recommended sending as many as three stool samples to rule out disease if initial tests are negative, but evidence suggests repeated testing during the same episode of diarrhea is of limited value and should be discouraged. "C. difficile" toxin should clear from the stool of previously infected patients if treatment is effective. Many hospitals only test for the prevalent toxin A. Strains that express only the B toxin are now present in many hospitals, however, so testing for both toxins should occur. Not testing for both may contribute to a delay in obtaining laboratory results, which is often the cause of prolonged illness and poor outcomes.

Other stool tests.

Stool leukocyte measurements and stool lactoferrin levels also have been proposed as diagnostic tests, but may have limited diagnostic accuracy.

PCR.

Testing of stool samples by real-time polymerase chain reaction is able to detect "C. difficile" about 93% of the time and when positive is incorrectly positive about 3% of the time. This is more accurate than cytotoxigenic culture or cell cytotoxicity assay. Another benefit is that the result can be achieved within three hours. Drawbacks include a higher cost and the fact that the test only looks for the gene for the toxin and not the toxin itself. The latter means that if the test is used without confirmation, overdiagnosis may occur. Repeat testing may be misleading, and testing specimens more than once every seven days in people without new symptoms is highly unlikely to yield useful information.

Prevention.

Self containment by housing people in private rooms is important to prevent the spread of "C. difficile" between patients. Contact precautions are an important part of preventing the spread of C. difficile. C. difficile does not often occur in people who are not taking antibiotics so limiting use of antibiotics decreases the risk.

Antibiotics.

The most effective method for preventing CDI is proper antimicrobial prescribing. In the hospital setting, where CDI is most common, nearly all patients who develop CDI are exposed to antimicrobials. Although proper antimicrobial prescribing is highly recommended, about 50% of antimicrobial use is considered inappropriate. This is consistent whether in the hospital, clinic, community, or academic setting. A decrease in CDI by limiting antibiotics or by limiting unnecessary antimicrobial prescriptions in general, both in an outbreak and nonoutbreak setting has been demonstrated to be most strongly associated with reduced CDI. Further, reactions to medication may be severe: CDI infections were the most common contributor to adverse drug events seen in U.S. hospitals in 2011. In some regions of the UK, reduced used of fluoroquinolone antibiotics seems to lead to reduced rates of CDI.

Probiotics.

Some evidence indicates probiotics may be useful to prevent infection and recurrence. Treatment with "Saccharomyces boulardii" in those who are not immunocompromised with "C. difficile" also may be useful. Initially, in 2010, the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommended against their use due to the risk of complications. Subsequent reviews, however, did not find an increase in adverse effects with treatment, and overall treatment appears safe and moderately effective in preventing Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea.

Infection control.

Rigorous infection protocols are required to minimize this risk of transmission. Infection control measures, such as wearing gloves and noncritical medical devices used for a single person with CDI, are effective at prevention. This works by limiting the spread of "C. difficile" in the hospital setting. In addition, washing with soap and water will eliminate the spores from contaminated hands, but alcohol-based hand rubs are ineffective. These precautions should remain in place among those in hospital for at least 2 days after the diarrhea has stopped.  Bleach wipes containing 0.55% sodium hypochlorite have been shown to kill the spores and prevent transmission between patients. Installing lidded toilets and closing the lid prior to flushing also reduces the risk of contamination.  Those who have CDIs should be in rooms with other people with CDIs or by themselves when in hospital.  Common hospital disinfectants are ineffective against "C. difficile" spores, and may promote spore formation, but disinfectants containing a 10:1 ratio of water to bleach effectively kill the spores. Hydrogen peroxide vapor (HPV) systems used to sterilize a patient room after discharge have been shown to reduce infection rates and to reduce risk of infection to subsequent patients. The incidence of CDI was reduced by 53% or 42% through use of HPV. Ultraviolet cleaning devices and housekeeping staff especially dedicated to disinfecting the rooms of patients infected with "C. difficile" after discharge may be effective.

Treatment.

Carrying "C. difficile" without symptoms is common. Treatment in those without symptoms is controversial. In general, mild cases do not require specific treatment. Oral rehydration therapy is useful in treating dehydration associated with the diarrhea.

Medications.

Several different antibiotics are used for "C. difficile", with the available agents being more or less equally effective.  Vancomycin or fidaxomicin by mouth are the typically recommended for mild, moderate, and severe infections. They are also the first-line treatment for pregnant women, especially since metronidazole may cause birth defects. Typical vancomycin is taken four times a day by mouth for 10 days. It may also be given rectally if the person develops an ileus.  Fidaxomicin is tolerated as well as vancomycin, and may have a lower risk of recurrence. Fidaxomicin has been found to be as effective as vancomycin in those with mild to moderate disease, and it may be better than vancomycin in those with severe disease. Fidaxomicin may be used in those who have recurrent infections and have not responded to other antibiotics. Metronidazole by mouth is recommended as an alternative treatment only for "C. difficile" infections when the affected person is allergic to first-line treatments, is unable to tolerate them, or has financial difficulties preventing them from accessing them. In fulminant disease vancomycin by mouth and intravenous metronidazole are commonly used together.  Medications used to slow or stop diarrhea, such as loperamide, have been thought to have the potential to worsen "C. difficile" disease, and they are not generally recommended. Evidence to support worse outcomes with use however is poor. Cholestyramine, an ion exchange resin, is effective in binding both toxin A and B, slowing bowel motility, and helping prevent dehydration. Cholestyramine is recommended with vancomycin. A last-resort treatment in those who are immunosuppressed is intravenous immunoglobulin. Monoclonal antibodies against "C. difficile" toxin A and "C. difficile" toxin B are approved to prevent recurrence of "C. difficile" infection including bezlotoxumab.

Probiotics.

Evidence to support the use of probiotics in the treatment of active disease is insufficient.

Stool transplant.

Fecal microbiota transplant, also known as a stool transplant, is roughly 85% to 90% effective in those for whom antibiotics have not worked. It involves infusion of the microbiota acquired from the feces of a healthy donor to reverse the bacterial imbalance responsible for the recurring nature of the infection. The procedure replenishes the normal colonic microbiota that had been wiped out by antibiotics, and re-establishes resistance to colonization by "Clostridioides difficile". Side effects, at least initially, are few.  Some evidence looks hopeful that fecal transplant can be delivered in the form of a pill. They are available in the United States, but are not FDA-approved as of 2015.

Surgery.

In those with severe "C. difficile" colitis, colectomy may improve the outcomes. Specific criteria may be used to determine who will benefit most from surgery.

Recurrent infection.

Several treatment options exist for recurrent "C difficile" infection. For the first episode of recurrent "C difficile" infection, the 2017 IDSA guidelines recommend oral vancomycin at a dose of 125 mg four times daily for 10 days if metronidazole was used for the initial episode. If oral vancomycin was used for the initial episode, then a prolonged oral vancomycin pulse dose of 125 mg four times daily for 10-14 days followed by a taper (twice daily for one week, then every two to three days for 2-8 weeks) or fidaxomicin 200 mg twice daily for 10 days. For a second recurrent episode, the IDSA recommends options including the aforementioned oral vancomycin pulse dose followed by the prolonged taper; oral vancomycin 125 mg four times daily for 10 days followed by rifaximin 400 mg three times daily for 20 days; fidaxomicin 200 mg twice daily for 10 days, or a fecal microbiota transplant.

Prognosis.

After a first treatment with metronidazole or vancomycin, "C. difficile" recurs in about 20% of people. This increases to 40% and 60% with subsequent recurrences.

Epidemiology.

"C. difficile" diarrhea is estimated to occur in eight of 100,000 people each year. Among those who are admitted to hospital, it occurs in between four and eight people per 1,000. In 2011, it resulted in about half a million infections and 29,000 deaths in the United States.  Due in part to the emergence of a fluoroquinolone-resistant strain, "C. difficile"-related deaths increased 400% between 2000 and 2007 in the United States. According to the CDC, ""C. difficile" has become the most common microbial cause of healthcare-associated infections in U.S. hospitals and costs up to $4.8 billion each year in excess health care costs for acute care facilities alone."

History.

Ivan C. Hall and Elizabeth O'Toole first named the bacterium "Bacillus difficilis" in 1935, choosing its specific epithet because it was resistant to early attempts at isolation and grew very slowly in culture. André Romain Prévot subsequently transferred it to the genus "Clostridium", which made its binomen "Clostridium difficile". Its combination was later changed to "Clostridiodes difficile" after being transferred to the new genus "Clostridioides".  Pseudomembranous colitis first was described as a complication of "C. difficile" infection in 1978, when a toxin was isolated from patients suffering from pseudomembranous colitis and Koch's postulates were met.

Etymology and pronunciation.

The genus name is from the Greek "klōstēr" (), "spindle", and the specific name is from Latin "difficile", "difficult, obstinate", chosen in reference to fastidiousness upon culturing.  Regarding the pronunciation of the current and former genus assignments, "Clostridioides" is and "Clostridium" is. Both genera still have species assigned to them, but this species is now classified in the former. Via the norms of binomial nomenclature, it is understood that the former binomial name of this species is now an alias.  Regarding the specific name, is the traditional norm, reflecting how medical English usually pronounces naturalized New Latin words (which in turns largely reflects traditional English pronunciation of Latin), although a restored pronunciation of is also sometimes used (the classical Latin pronunciation is reconstructed as ). The specific name is also commonly pronounced, as though it were French, which from a prescriptive viewpoint is a "mispronunciation" but from a linguistically descriptive viewpoint cannot be described as erroneous because it is so widely used among health care professionals; it can be described as "the non-preferred variant" from the viewpoint of sticking most regularly to New Latin in binomial nomenclature, which is also a valid viewpoint, although New Latin specific names contain such a wide array of extra-Latin roots (including surnames and jocular references) that extra-Latin pronunciation is involved anyway (as seen, for example, with "Ba humbugi", "Spongiforma squarepantsii", and hundreds of others).

Clostridioides difficile" infection (CDI or C-diff), also known as Clostridium difficile" infection, is a symptomatic infection due to the spore-forming bacterium "Clostridioides difficile". Symptoms include watery diarrhea, fever, nausea, and abdominal pain. It makes up about 20% of cases of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Complications may include pseudomembranous colitis, toxic megacolon, perforation of the colon, and sepsis. "Clostridioides difficile" infection is spread by bacterial spores found within feces. Surfaces may become contaminated with the spores with further spread occurring via the hands of healthcare workers. Risk factors for infection include antibiotic or proton pump inhibitor use, hospitalization, other health problems, and older age. Diagnosis is by stool culture or testing for the bacteria's DNA or toxins. If a person tests positive but has no symptoms, the condition is known as "C. difficile" colonization rather than an infection. Prevention efforts include terminal room cleaning in hospitals, limiting antibiotic use, and handwashing campaigns in hospitals. Alcohol based hand sanitizer does not appear effective. Discontinuation of antibiotics may result in resolution of symptoms within three days in about 20% of those infected. The antibiotics metronidazole, vancomycin or fidaxomicin, will cure the infection. Retesting after treatment, as long as the symptoms have resolved, is not recommended, as the person may remain colonized. Recurrences have been reported in up to 25% of people. Some tentative evidence indicates fecal microbiota transplantation and probiotics may decrease the risk of recurrence. "C. difficile" infections occur in all areas of the world. About 453,000 cases occurred in the United States in 2011, resulting in 29,000 deaths. Global rates of disease increased between 2001 and 2016. "C difficile" infections occur more often in women than men. The bacterium was discovered in 1935 and found to be disease-causing in 1978. In the United States, healthcare-associated infections increase the cost of care by US$1.5 billion each year.

Pseudomembranózní kolitida je zánět tlustého střeva s tvorbou pablán, který má již závažnější průběh. Nález těchto ostrůvkovitých pablán je patognomický pro "Clostridium difficile". Pablány je možné v tračníku zachytit pouze v době plně rozvinutého onemocnění. Pozorovat je můžeme endoskopicky nebo je lze vidět pouhým okem při operaci střeva, případně pitvě.