Personal life.

Born in London, England, Ricardo was the third surviving of the 17 children of Abigail Delvalle (1753–1801) and her husband Abraham Israel Ricardo (1733?–1812). His family were Sephardic Jews of Portuguese origin who had recently relocated from the Dutch Republic. His father was a successful stockbroker and Ricardo began working with him at the age of 14. At the age of 21, Ricardo eloped with a Quaker, Priscilla Anne Wilkinson, and, against his father's wishes, converted to the Unitarian faith. This religious difference resulted in estrangement from his family, and he was led to adopt a position of independence. His father disowned him and his mother apparently never spoke to him again.  Following this estrangement he went into business for himself with the support of Lubbocks and Forster, an eminent banking house. He made the bulk of his fortune as a result of speculation on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo. "The Sunday Times" reported in Ricardo's obituary, published on 14 September 1823, that during the Battle of Waterloo Ricardo "netted upwards of a million sterling", a huge sum at the time. He immediately retired, his position on the floor no longer tenable, and subsequently purchased Gatcombe Park, an estate in Gloucestershire, now owned by Princess Anne, the Princess Royal and retired to the country. He was appointed High Sheriff of Gloucestershire for 1818–19.  In August 1818 he bought Lord Portarlington's seat in Parliament for £4,000, as part of the terms of a loan of £25,000. His record in Parliament was that of an earnest reformer. He held the seat until his death five years later.  Ricardo was a close friend of James Mill. Other notable friends included Jeremy Bentham and Thomas Malthus, with whom Ricardo had a considerable debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role of landowners in a society. He also was a member of Malthus' Political Economy Club, and a member of the King of Clubs. He was one of the original members of The Geological Society. His youngest sister was author Sarah Ricardo-Porter (e.g., "Conversations in Arithmetic").

Parliamentary record.

As MP for Portarlington, he voted with the opposition in support of the liberal movements in Naples, 21 February, and Sicily, 21 June, and for inquiry into the administration of justice in Tobago, 6 June. He divided for repeal of the Blasphemous and Seditious Libels Act, 8 May, inquiry into the Peterloo massacre, 16 May, and abolition of the death penalty for forgery, 25 May, 4 June 1821.  He adamantly supported the implementation of free trade. He voted against renewal of the sugar duties, 9 Feb, and objected to the higher duty on East as opposed to West Indian produce, 4 May 1821. He opposed the timber duties. He voted silently for parliamentary reform, 25 Apr 3 June, and spoke in its favour at the Westminster anniversary reform dinner, 23 May 1822. He again voted for criminal law reform, 4 June.  His friend John Louis Mallett commented: "... he meets you upon every subject that he has studied with a mind made up, and opinions in the nature of mathematical truths. He spoke of parliamentary reform and ballot as a man who would bring such things about, and destroy the existing system tomorrow, if it were in his power, and without the slightest doubt on the result... It is this very quality of the man’s mind, his entire disregard of experience and practice, which makes me doubtful of his opinions on political economy."

Death and legacy.

Ten years after retiring and four years after entering Parliament Ricardo died from an infection of the middle ear that spread into his brain and induced septicaemia. He was 51.  He and his wife Priscilla had eight children together including Osman Ricardo (1795–1881; MP for Worcester 1847–1865), David Ricardo (1803–1864, MP for Stroud 1832–1833) and Mortimer Ricardo, who served as an officer in the Life Guards and was a deputy lieutenant for Oxfordshire.  Ricardo is buried in an ornate grave in the churchyard of Saint Nicholas in Hardenhuish, now a suburb of Chippenham, Wiltshire. At the time of his death his assets were estimated at between £675,000–£775,000.

Ideas.

He wrote his first economics article at age 37, firstly in "The Morning Chronicle" advocating reduction in the note-issuing of the Bank of England and then publishing "The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes" in 1810.  He was also an abolitionist, speaking at a meeting of the Court of the East India Company in March 1823, where he said he regarded slavery as a stain on the character of the nation.

Value theory.

Ricardo's most famous work is his "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" (1817). He advanced a labor theory of value:  The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will exchange, depends on the relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production, and not on the greater or less compensation which is paid for that labour.  Ricardo's note to Section VI:  Mr. Malthus appears to think that it is a part of my doctrine, that the cost and value of a thing be the same;—it is, if he means by cost, "cost of production" including profit.

Rent.

Ricardo contributed to the development of theories of rent, wages, and profits. He defined rent as "the difference between the produce obtained by the employment of two equal quantities of capital and labor." Ricardo believed that the process of economic development, which increased land utilization and eventually led to the cultivation of poorer land, principally benefited landowners. According to Ricardo, such premium over "real social value" that is reaped due to ownership constitutes value to an individual but is at best a paper monetary return to "society". The portion of such purely individual benefit that accrues to scarce resources Ricardo labels "rent".

Ricardo's theories of wages and profits.

In his "Theory of Profit", Ricardo stated that as real wages increase, real profits decrease because the revenue from the sale of manufactured goods is split between profits and wages. He said in his "Essay on Profits", "Profits depend on high or low wages, wages on the price of necessaries, and the price of necessaries chiefly on the price of food."

Ricardian theory of international trade.

Between 1500 and 1750 most economists advocated Mercantilism which promoted the idea of international trade for the purpose of earning bullion by running a trade surplus with other countries. Ricardo challenged the idea that the purpose of trade was merely to accumulate gold or silver. With "comparative advantage" Ricardo argued in favour of industry specialisation and free trade. He suggested that industry specialization combined with free international trade always produces positive results. This theory expanded on the concept of absolute advantage.  Ricardo suggested that there is mutual national benefit from trade even if one country is more competitive in every area than its trading counterpart and that a nation should concentrate resources only in industries where it has a comparative advantage, that is in those industries in which it has the greatest competitive edge. Ricardo suggested that national industries which were, in fact, profitable and internationally competitive should be jettisoned in favour of the most competitive industries, the assumption being that subsequent economic growth would more than offset any economic dislocation which would result from closing profitable and competitive national industries.  Ricardo attempted to prove theoretically that international trade is always beneficial. Paul Samuelson called the numbers used in Ricardo's example dealing with trade between England and Portugal the "four magic numbers". "In spite of the fact that the Portuguese could produce both cloth and wine with less amount of labor, Ricardo suggested that both countries would benefit from trade with each other".  As for recent extensions of Ricardian models, see Ricardian trade theory extensions.

Comparative advantage.

Ricardo's theory of international trade was reformulated by John Stuart Mill. The term "comparative advantage" was started by J. S. Mill and his contemporaries.  John Stuart Mill started a neoclassical turn of international trade theory, i.e. his formulation was inherited by Alfred Marshall and others and contributed to the resurrection of anti-Ricardian concept of law of supply and demand and induce the arrival neoclassical theory of value.

New interpretation.

Ricardo's four magic numbers has long been interpreted as comparison of two ratios of labor input coefficients. This interpretation is now considered as erroneous. This point was first made by Roy J. Ruffin in 2002 and examined and explained in detail in Andrea Maneschi in 2004. This is now known as "new interpretation" but it has been mentioned by P. Sraffa in 1930 and by Kenzo Yukizawa in 1974. The new interpretation affords totally new reading of Ricardo's "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" with regards to trade theory.

Protectionism.

Like Adam Smith, Ricardo was an opponent of protectionism for national economies, especially for agriculture. He believed that the British "Corn Laws" – imposing tariffs on agricultural products – ensured that less-productive domestic land would be cultivated and rents would be driven up. Thus, profits would be directed toward landlords and away from the emerging industrial capitalists. Ricardo believed landlords tended to squander their wealth on luxuries, rather than invest. He believed the Corn Laws were leading to the stagnation of the British economy. In 1846, his nephew John Lewis Ricardo, MP for Stoke-upon-Trent, advocated free trade and the repeal of the Corn Laws.  Modern empirical analysis of the Corn Laws yields mixed results. Parliament repealed the Corn Laws in 1846.

Technological change.

Ricardo was concerned about the impact of technological change on labor in the short-term. In 1821, he wrote that he had become "convinced that the substitution of machinery for human labour, is often very injurious to the interests of the class of labourers," and that "the opinion entertained by the labouring class, that the employment of machinery is frequently detrimental to their interests, is not founded on prejudice and error, but is conformable to the correct principles of political economy."

Criticism of the Ricardian theory of trade.

Ricardo himself was the first to recognize that comparative advantage is a domain-specific theory, meaning that it applies only when certain conditions are met. Ricardo noted that the theory applies only in situations where capital is immobile. Regarding his famous example, he wrote:"it would undoubtedly be advantageous to the capitalists [and consumers] of England... [that] the wine and cloth should both be made in Portugal [and that] the capital and labour of England employed in making cloth should be removed to Portugal for that purpose."Ricardo recognized that applying his theory in situations where capital was mobile would result in offshoring, and thereby economic decline and job loss. To correct for this, he argued that (i) "most men of property [will be] satisfied with a low rate of profits in their own country, rather than seek[ing] a more advantageous employment for their wealth in foreign nations," and (ii) that capital was functionally immobile.  Ricardo's argument in favour of free trade has also been attacked by those who believe trade restriction can be necessary for the economic development of a nation. Utsa Patnaik claims that Ricardian theory of international trade contains a logical fallacy. Ricardo assumed that in both countries two goods are producible and actually are produced, but developed and underdeveloped countries often trade those goods which are not producible in their own country. In these cases, one cannot define which country has comparative advantage.  Critics also argue that Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage is flawed in that it assumes production is continuous and absolute. In the real world, events outside the realm of human control (e.g. natural disasters) can disrupt production. In this case, specialisation could cripple a country that depends on imports from foreign, naturally disrupted countries. For example, if an industrially based country trades its manufactured goods with an agrarian country in exchange for agricultural products, a natural disaster in the agricultural country (e.g. drought) may cause the industrially based country to starve.  As Joan Robinson pointed out, following the opening of free trade with England, Portugal endured centuries of economic underdevelopment: "the imposition of free trade on Portugal killed off a promising textile industry and left her with a slow-growing export market for wine, while for England, exports of cotton cloth led to accumulation, mechanisation and the whole spiralling growth of the industrial revolution". Robinson argued that Ricardo's example required that economies be in static equilibrium positions with full employment and that there could not be a trade deficit or a trade surplus. These conditions, she wrote, were not relevant to the real world. She also argued that Ricardo's math did not take into account that some countries may be at different levels of development and that this raised the prospect of 'unequal exchange' which might hamper a country's development, as we saw in the case of Portugal.  The development economist Ha-Joon Chang challenges the argument that free trade benefits every country:

Ricardian equivalence.

Another idea associated with Ricardo is Ricardian equivalence, an argument suggesting that in some circumstances a government's choice of how to pay for its spending ("i.e.," whether to use tax revenue or issue debt and run a deficit) might have no effect on the economy. This is due to the fact the public saves its excess money to pay for expected future tax increases that will be used to pay off the debt. Ricardo notes that the proposition is theoretically implied in the presence of intertemporal optimisation by rational tax-payers: but that since tax-payers do not act so rationally, the proposition fails to be true in practice. Thus, while the proposition bears his name, he does not seem to have believed it. Economist Robert Barro is responsible for its modern prominence.

Influence and intellectual legacy.

David Ricardo's ideas had a tremendous influence on later developments in economics. US economists rank Ricardo as the second most influential economic thinker, behind Adam Smith, prior to the twentieth century.  Ricardo became the theoretical father of classical political economy. However, Schumpeter coined an expression "Ricardian vice", which indicates that rigorous logic does not provide a good economic theory. This criticism applies also to most neoclassical theories, which make heavy use of mathematics, but are, according to him, theoretically unsound, because the conclusion being drawn does not logically follow from the theories used to defend it.

Ricardian socialists.

Ricardo's writings fascinated a number of early socialists in the 1820s, who thought his value theory had radical implications. They argued that, in view of labor theory of value, labor produces the entire product, and the profits capitalists get are a result of exploitations of workers. These include Thomas Hodgskin, William Thompson, John Francis Bray, and Percy Ravenstone.

Georgists.

Georgists believe that rent, in the sense that Ricardo used, belongs to the community as a whole. Henry George was greatly influenced by Ricardo, and often cited him, including in his most famous work, Progress and Poverty from 1879. In the preface to the fourth edition, he wrote: ""What I have done in this book, if I have correctly solved the great problem I have sought to investigate, is, to unite the truth perceived by the school of Smith and Ricardo to the truth perceived by the school of Proudhon and Lasalle; to show that laissez faire (in its full true meaning) opens the way to a realization of the noble dreams of socialism; to identify social law with moral law, and to disprove ideas which in the minds of many cloud grand and elevating perceptions.""

Neo-Ricardians.

After the rise of the 'neoclassical' school, Ricardo's influence declined temporarily. It was Piero Sraffa, the editor of the Collected Works of David Ricardo and the author of seminal "Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities", who resurrected Ricardo as the originator of another strand of economics thought, which was effaced with the arrival of the neoclassical school. The new interpretation of Ricardo and Sraffa's criticism against the marginal theory of value gave rise to a new school, now named neo-Ricardian or Sraffian school. Major contributors to this school includes Luigi Pasinetti (1930–), Pierangelo Garegnani (1930–2011), Ian Steedman (1941–), Geoffrey Harcourt (1931–), Heinz Kurz (1946–), Neri Salvadori (1951–), Pier Paolo Saviotti (–) among others. See also Neo-Ricardianism. The Neo-Ricardian school is sometimes seen to be a component of Post-Keynesian economics.

Neo-Ricardian trade theory.

Inspired by Piero Sraffa, a new strand of trade theory emerged and was named neo-Ricardian trade theory. The main contributors include Ian Steedman and Stanley Metcalfe. They have criticised neoclassical international trade theory, namely the Heckscher–Ohlin model on the basis that the notion of capital as primary factor has no method of measuring it before the determination of profit rate (thus trapped in a logical vicious circle). This was a second round of the Cambridge capital controversy, this time in the field of international trade. Depoortère and Ravix judge that neo-Ricardian contribution failed without giving effective impact on neoclassical trade theory, because it could not offer "a genuine alternative approach from a classical point of view."

Evolutionary growth theory.

Several distinctive groups have sprung out of the neo-Ricardian school. One is the evolutionary growth theory, developed notably by Luigi Pasinetti, J.S. Metcalfe, Pier Paolo Saviotti, and Koen Frenken and others.  Pasinetti argued that the demand for any commodity came to stagnate and frequently decline, demand saturation occurs. Introduction of new commodities (goods and services) is necessary to avoid economic stagnation.

Contemporary theories.

Ricardo's idea was even expanded to the case of continuum of goods by Dornbusch, Fischer, and Samuelson This formulation is employed for example by Matsuyama and others.  Ricardian trade theory ordinarily assumes that the labour is the unique input. This is a deficiency as intermediate goods occupies now a great part of international trade. The situation changed after the appearance of's work of 2007. He has succeeded to incorporate traded input goods in his model.  Yeats found that 30% of world trade in manufacturing is intermediate inputs. Bardhan and Jafee found that intermediate inputs occupy 37 to 38% in the imports to the US for the years from 1992 to 1997, whereas the percentage of intrafirm trade grew from 43% in 1992 to 52% in 1997.

Unequal exchange.

Chris Edward includes Emmanuel's unequal exchange theory among variations of neo-Ricardian trade theory. Arghiri Emmanuel argued that the Third World is poor because of the international exploitation of labour.  The unequal exchange theory of trade has been influential to the (new) dependency theory.

Publications.

Ricardo's publications included:  His works and writings were collected in

David Ricardo (18 April 1772 – 11 September 1823) was a British political economist, one of the most influential of the classical economists along with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith and James Mill.

David Ricardo (18. dubna 1772 Londýn – 11. září 1823 Londýn) byl britský politický ekonom, jeden z nejvlivnějších klasických ekonomů spolu s Thomasem Malthusem, Jamesem Millem a Adamem Smithem, na jehož dílo Ricardo navázal. Jeho teorie výrazně přispěly k rozvoji ekonomického myšlení. Světově známý je pro svou teorii komparativní výhody, která je dodnes základem obhajoby mezinárodního obchodu a stala se též základem pro rozvoj dalších ekonomických teorií.


Biography.

Born in Hrachovec, Moravia, Franziskus Bauer received the Sacrament of Confirmation in 1852, and studied at the seminary at the Faculty of Theology in Olomouc. He received the first tonsure and minor orders on December 14, 1859. Following his elevation to the subdiaconate (December 20, 1862) and the diaconate (February 28, 1863), Bauer was ordained to the priesthood on July 19, 1863, for the Archdiocese of Olomouc.  He then served as a cooperator, and later second chaplain in the parish of Wischau, for the archdiocese until February 1865, whence he began teaching at the Theological Faculty of Olomouc. Bauer finished his studies in 1869, obtaining his doctorate in theology on June 30 of that year. He became Dean of the Theological Faculty in 1869 as well. He became a professor at the University of Prague on September 19, 1873, and later the Rector of the Archiepiscopal Seminary of Prague in 1879.  On July 3, 1883, Bauer was appointed Bishop of Brno by Pope Leo XIII. He received his episcopal consecration on the following August 15 from Cardinal Archbishop Friedrich Egon von Fürstenberg of Olomouc, with Bishops Gustav von Belript-Tissac and Karol Prucha serving as co-consecrators. Bauer was later named Archbishop of Olomouc on May 10, 1904. In virtue of this position, he was also prince, duke of Hotzenplotz, counselor to the emperor, and senator.  Pope Pius X created him Cardinal Priest of "S. Girolamo degli Schiavoni" in the consistory of November 27, 1911. Although eligible, Bauer did not participate in the 1914 papal conclave due to ill health.  The Cardinal died in Olomouc, at age 74. He is buried in the metropolitan cathedral of Olomouc.

Franziskus von Sales Bauer (January 26, 1841 – November 25, 1915) was an Austro-Hungarian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of Brno (1882 - 1904) and later Archbishop of Olomouc from 1904 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1911. He was also deputy of Moravian Diet.

František Saleský kardinál Bauer, německy "Franz Salentin von Sales Bauer", pokřtěn jako František Karel (26. ledna 1841 Hrachovec – 25. listopadu 1915 Olomouc), byl český katolický duchovní a teolog, 8. biskup brněnský (1882–1904) a 8. arcibiskup olomoucký (1904–1915).


Classification.

"L. monocytogenes" is a Gram-positive, non-spore-forming, motile, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It is catalase-positive and oxidase-negative, and expresses a beta hemolysin, which causes destruction of red blood cells. This bacterium exhibits characteristic tumbling motility when viewed with light microscopy. Although "L. monocytogenes" is actively motile by means of peritrichous flagella at room temperature (20−25 °C), the organism does not synthesize flagella at body temperatures (37 °C).  The genus "Listeria" belongs to the class Bacilli and the order Bacillales, which also includes "Bacillus" and "Staphylococcus". "Listeria" currently contains 10 species: "L. fleischmannii, L. grayi, L. innocua, L. ivanovii, L. marthii, L. monocytogenes, L. rocourtiae, L. seeligeri, L. weihenstephanensis ", and "L. welshimeri." "L. denitrificans", previously thought to be part of the genus "Listeria", was reclassified into the new genus "Jonesia". Both "L. ivanovii" and "L. monocytogenes" are pathogenic in mice, but only "L. monocytogenes" is consistently associated with human illness. The 13 serotypes of "L. monocytogenes" can cause disease, but more than 90% of human isolates belong to only three serotypes: 1/2a, 1/2b, and 4b. "L. monocytogenes" serotype 4b strains are responsible for 33 to 35% of sporadic human cases worldwide and for all major foodborne outbreaks in Europe and North America since the 1980s.

History.

"L. monocytogenes" was first described by E.G.D. Murray in 1924 based on six cases of sudden death in young rabbits, and published a description with his colleagues in 1926. Murray referred to the organism as "Bacterium monocytogenes" before Harvey Pirie changed the genus name to "Listeria" in 1940. Although clinical descriptions of "L. monocytogenes" infection in both animals and humans were published in the 1920s, it was not recognized as a significant cause of neonatal infection, sepsis, and meningitis until 1952 in East Germany. Listeriosis in adults was later associated with patients living with compromised immune systems, such as individuals taking immunosuppressant drugs and corticosteroids for malignancies or organ transplants, and those with HIV infection.  "L. monocytogenes" was not identified as a cause of foodborne illness until 1981, however. An outbreak of listeriosis in Halifax, Nova Scotia, involving 41 cases and 18 deaths, mostly in pregnant women and neonates, was epidemiologically linked to the consumption of coleslaw containing cabbage that had been contaminated with "L. monocytogenes"-contaminated sheep manure. Since then, a number of cases of foodborne listeriosis have been reported, and "L. monocytogenes" is now widely recognized as an important hazard in the food industry.

Pathogenesis.

Invasive infection by "L. monocytogenes" causes the disease listeriosis. When the infection is not invasive, any illness as a consequence of infection is termed febrile gastroenteritis. The manifestations of listeriosis include sepsis, meningitis (or meningoencephalitis), encephalitis, corneal ulcer, pneumonia, and intrauterine or cervical infections in pregnant women, which may result in spontaneous abortion (second to third trimester) or stillbirth. Surviving neonates of fetomaternal listeriosis may suffer granulomatosis infantiseptica — pyogenic granulomas distributed over the whole body — and may suffer from physical retardation. Influenza-like symptoms, including persistent fever, usually precede the onset of the aforementioned disorders. Gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, may precede more serious forms of listeriosis or may be the only symptoms expressed. Gastrointestinal symptoms were epidemiologically associated with use of antacids or cimetidine. The onset time to serious forms of listeriosis is unknown, but may range from a few days to 3 weeks. The onset time to gastrointestinal symptoms is unknown, but probably exceeds 12 hours. An early study suggested that "L. monocytogenes" is unique among Gram-positive bacteria in that it might possess lipopolysaccharide, which serves as an endotoxin. Later, it was found to not be a true endotoxin. "Listeria" cell walls consistently contain lipoteichoic acids, in which a glycolipid moiety, such as a galactosyl-glucosyl-diglyceride, is covalently linked to the terminal phosphomonoester of the teichoic acid. This lipid region anchors the polymer chain to the cytoplasmic membrane. These lipoteichoic acids resemble the lipopolysaccharides of Gram-negative bacteria in both structure and function, being the only amphipathic polymers at the cell surface.  "L. monocytogenes" has D-galactose residues on its surface that can attach to D-galactose receptors on the host cell walls. These host cells are generally M cells and Peyer's patches of the intestinal mucosa. Once attached to this cells, "L. monocytogenes" can translocate past the intestinal membrane and into the body.  The infective dose of "L. monocytogenes" varies with the strain and with the susceptibility of the victim. From cases contracted through raw or supposedly pasteurized milk, one may safely assume that, in susceptible persons, fewer than 1,000 total organisms may cause disease. "L. monocytogenes" may invade the gastrointestinal epithelium. Once the bacterium enters the host's monocytes, macrophages, or polymorphonuclear leukocytes, it becomes bloodborne (sepsis) and can grow. Its presence intracellularly in phagocytic cells also permits access to the brain and probably transplacental migration to the fetus in pregnant women. This process is known as the "Trojan Horse mechanism". The pathogenesis of "L. monocytogenes" centers on its ability to survive and multiply in phagocytic host cells. It seems that "Listeria" originally evolved to invade membranes of the intestines, as an intracellular infection, and developed a chemical mechanism to do so. This involves a bacterial protein internalin (InlA/InlB), which attaches to a protein on the intestinal cell membrane "cadherin" and allows the bacteria to invade the cells through a zipper mechanism. These adhesion molecules are also to be found in two other unusually tough barriers in humans — the blood-brain barrier and the fetal–placental barrier, and this may explain the apparent affinity that "L. monocytogenes" has for causing meningitis and affecting babies "in utero". Once inside the cell, "L. monocytogenes" rapidly acidifies the lumen of the vacuole formed around it during cell entry to activate listeriolysin O, a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin capable of disrupting the vacuolar membrane. This frees the pathogen and gives it access to the cytosol of the cell, where it continues its pathogenesis. Motility in the intracellular space is provided by actin assembly-inducing protein, which allows the bacteria to use the host cell's actin polymerization machinery to polymerize the cytoskeleton to give a "boost" to the bacterial cell so it can move in the cell. The same mechanism also allows the bacteria to travel from cell to cell.

Regulation of pathogenesis.

"L. monocytogenes" can act as a saprophyte or a pathogen, depending on its environment. When this bacterium is present within a host organism, quorum sensing and other signals cause the up-regulation of several virulence genes. Depending on the location of the bacterium within the host organism, different activators up-regulate the virulence genes. SigB, an alternative sigma factor, up-regulates "Vir" genes in the intestines, whereas PrfA up-regulates gene expression when the bacterium is present in blood. "L. monocytogenes" also senses the entry to host by examining available nutrient sources. For example L-glutamine, an abundant nitrogen source in the host, induces the expression of virulence genes in "L. monocytogenes". Little is known about how this bacterium switches between acting as a saprophyte and a pathogen; however, several noncoding RNAs are thought to be required to induce this change.

Pathogenicity of lineages.

"L. monocytogenes" has three distinct lineages, with differing evolutionary histories and pathogenic potentials. Lineage I strains contain the majority of human clinical isolates and all human epidemic clones, but are underrepresented in animal clinical isolates. Lineage II strains are overrepresented in animal cases and underrepresented in human clinical cases, and are more prevalent in environmental and food samples. Lineage III isolates are very rare, but significantly more common in animal than human isolates.

Detection.

The Anton test is used in the identification of "L. monocytogenes"; instillation of a culture into the conjunctival sac of a rabbit or guinea pig causes severe keratoconjunctivitis within 24 hours.  "Listeria "species grow on media such as Mueller-Hinton agar. Identification is enhanced if the primary cultures are done on agar containing sheep blood, because the characteristic small zone of hemolysis can be observed around and under colonies. Isolation can be enhanced if the tissue is kept at 4 °C for some days before inoculation into bacteriologic media. The organism is a facultative anaerobe and is catalase-positive and motile. "Listeria" produces acid, but not gas, when fermenting a variety of carbohydrates. The motility at room temperature and hemolysin production are primary findings that help differentiate Listeria from Corynebacterium.  The methods for analysis of food are complex and time-consuming. The present U.S. FDA method, revised in September 1990, requires 24 and 48 hours of enrichment, followed by a variety of other tests. Total time to identification takes five to seven days, but the announcement of specific nonradiolabelled DNA probes should soon allow a simpler and faster confirmation of suspect isolates.  Recombinant DNA technology may even permit two- to three-day positive analysis in the future. Currently, the FDA is collaborating in adapting its methodology to quantitate very low numbers of the organisms in foods.

Treatment.

When listeric meningitis occurs, the overall mortality may reach 70%, from sepsis 50%, and from perinatal/neonatal infections greater than 80%. In infections during pregnancy, the mother usually survives. Reports of successful treatment with parenteral penicillin or ampicillin exist. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole has been shown effective in patients allergic to penicillin.  A bacteriophage, "Listeria phage P100", has been proposed as food additive to control "L. monocytogenes". Bacteriophage treatments have been developed by several companies. EBI Food Safety and Intralytix both have products suitable for treatment of the bacterium. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a cocktail of six bacteriophages from Intralytix, and a one-type phage product from EBI Food Safety designed to kill "L. monocytogenes". Uses would potentially include spraying it on fruits and ready-to-eat meat such as sliced ham and turkey.

Use as a transfection vector.

Because "L. monocytogenes" is an intracellular bacterium, some studies have used this bacterium as a vector to deliver genes "in vitro". Current transfection efficiency remains poor. One example of the successful use of "L. monocytogenes" in "in vitro" transfer technologies is in the delivery of gene therapies for cystic fibrosis cases.

Cancer treatment.

"Listeria monocytogenes" is being investigated as a cancer immunotherapy for several types of cancer.  A live attenuated "Listeria monocytogenes" cancer vaccine, ADXS11-001, is under development as a possible treatment for cervical carcinoma.

Epidemiology.

Researchers have found "Listeria monocytogenes" in at least 37 mammalian species, both domesticated and feral, as well as in at least 17 species of birds and possibly in some species of fish and shellfish. Laboratories can isolate "Listeria monocytogenes" from soil, silage, and other environmental sources. "Listeria monocytogenes" is quite hardy and resists the deleterious effects of freezing, drying, and heat remarkably well for a bacterium that does not form spores. Most "Listeria monocytogenes" strains are pathogenic to some degree.

Routes of infection.

"Listeria monocytogenes" has been associated with such foods as raw milk, pasteurized fluid milk, cheeses (particularly soft-ripened varieties), hard-boiled eggs, ice cream, raw vegetables, fermented raw-meat sausages, raw and cooked poultry, raw meats (of all types), and raw and smoked fish. Most bacteria can survive near freezing temperatures, but cannot absorb nutrients, grow or replicate; however, "L. monocytogenes" has the ability to grow at temperatures as low as 0 °C which permits exponential multiplication in refrigerated foods. At refrigeration temperature, such as 4 °C, the amount of ferric iron can affect the growth of "L. monocytogenes".

Infectious cycle.

The primary site of infection is the intestinal epithelium, where the bacteria invade nonphagocytic cells via the "zipper" mechanism. Uptake is stimulated by the binding of listerial internalins (Inl) to E-cadherin, a host cell adhesion factor, or Met (c-Met), hepatocyte growth factor. This binding activates certain Rho-GTPases, which subsequently bind and stabilize Wiskott Aldrich syndrome protein (WAsp). WAsp can then bind the Arp2/3 complex and serve as an actin nucleation point. Subsequent actin polymerization creates a "phagocytic cup", an actin-based structure normally formed around foreign materials by phagocytes prior to endocytosis. The net effect of internalin binding is to exploit the junction-forming apparatus of the host into internalizing the bacterium. "L. monocytogenes" can also invade phagocytic cells (e.g., macrophages), but requires only internalins for invasion of nonphagocytic cells.  Following internalization, the bacterium must escape from the vacuole/phagosome before fusion with a lysosome can occur. Three main virulence factors that allow the bacterium to escape are listeriolysin O (LLO-encoded by "hly") phospholipase A (encoded by "plcA") and phospholipase B ("plcB"). Secretion of LLO and PlcA disrupts the vacuolar membrane and allows the bacterium to escape into the cytoplasm, where it may proliferate.  Once in the cytoplasm, "L. monocytogenes" exploits host actin for the second time. ActA proteins associated with the old bacterial cell pole (being a bacillus, "L. monocytogenes" septates in the middle of the cell, thus has one new pole and one old pole) are capable of binding the Arp2/3 complex, thereby inducing actin nucleation at a specific area of the bacterial cell surface. Actin polymerization then propels the bacterium unidirectionally into the host cell membrane. The protrusion formed may then be internalized by a neighboring cell, forming a double-membrane vacuole from which the bacterium must escape using LLO and PlcB. This mode of direct cell-to-cell spread involves a cellular mechanism known as paracytophagy.

Listeria monocytogenes is the species of pathogenic bacteria that causes the infection listeriosis. It is a facultative anaerobic bacterium, capable of surviving in the presence or absence of oxygen. It can grow and reproduce inside the host's cells and is one of the most virulent foodborne pathogens: 20 to 30% of foodborne listeriosis infections in high-risk individuals may be fatal. Responsible for an estimated 1,600 illnesses and 260 deaths in the United States annually, listeriosis ranks third in total number of deaths among foodborne bacterial pathogens, with fatality rates exceeding even "Salmonella" spp. and "Clostridium botulinum". In the European Union, listeriosis follows an upward trend that began in 2008, causing 2,161 confirmed cases and 210 reported deaths in 2014, 16% more than in 2013. Listeriosis mortality rates are also higher in the EU than for other foodborne pathogens.

Listeria monocytogenes je malá grampozitivní, pohyblivá nesporulující bakterie z čeledi Listeriaceae. Jako saprofyt a epifyt kolonizuje trávicí trakt člověka i zvířat, žije také ve vodě, bahně nebo půdě, je schopna kontaminovat potraviny a krmiva a jako potenciální patogen je původce onemocnění lidí i zvířat, listeriózy. V Evropě a USA způsobuje listerie nejvíce úmrtí ze všech známých potravinových patogenů.


Arrows original version.

The song was originally recorded and released by Arrows in 1975 on Rak Records, with Merrill on lead vocals and guitar and Mickie Most producing. Merrill wrote the music and lyrics. In an interview with Songfacts, Merrill said he wrote the song as "a knee-jerk response to the Rolling Stones' 'It's Only Rock 'n Roll (But I Like It)'." This version was first released as a B-side, but was soon re-recorded and flipped to A-side status on a subsequent pressing of the record. Arrows performed the song in 1975 on the Muriel Young-produced show "45", after which Young offered Arrows a weekly UK television series, "Arrows", which was broadcast on ITV starting in March 1976.

Joan Jett version.

Joan Jett saw the Arrows perform "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" on their weekly UK television series "Arrows" while she was touring England with the Runaways in 1976. She first recorded the song in 1979 with two of the Sex Pistols, Steve Jones and Paul Cook. This first version was released on vinyl in 1979 on Vertigo records as a B-side to "You Don't Own Me". In 1981, Jett re-recorded the song, this time with her band, the Blackhearts. This recording became a U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100 number-one single for seven weeks.

Music video.

The black-and-white music video for "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" received heavy play by the fledgling MTV network. It featured Jett and the Blackhearts traveling to a small, dingy bar and then exciting the drunken crowd by performing the song and yelling out its chorus. A snippet of Jett's 1981 hit "Bad Reputation" can be heard at the beginning of the video. The video was originally in color, but it was converted to black and white because Jett hated the look of her red leather jumpsuit in color.  In 1993 Joan Jett & the Blackhearts made another music video for the song as part of the "Wayne's World 2" soundtrack. The video consisted of scenes from the movie, with Mike Myers and Dana Carvey, mixed with footage of Jett and her band in a faux concert filmed at Irving Plaza in NYC. At one point during the filming, one person was introduced to the crowd as having been in the original video as he set up to stage dive for that take. The song was again released as a single by Warner/Reprise with "Activity Grrrl" as the B-side.

Popularity.

Jett's version has received many rankings, including:

Britney Spears version.

Background, release and composition.

"I Love Rock 'n' Roll" was the fourth European single by pop singer Britney Spears from the album "Britney", released on 27 May 2002. The song was used in her 2002 movie "Crossroads", in which Spears' character Lucy performs it in a karaoke bar. Spears said of the song, "They asked me to sing karaoke in the movie "Crossroads" and I've actually sung I Love Rock 'n' Roll in a lot of clubs that I've been to." Spears has publicly stated that the original song is one of her favorites. She listened to the original Arrows Mickie Most-produced version just before she recorded the song, according to Jive A&R representative Steve Lunt. The scratches performed on this version were performed by Corey Chase at Hit Factory Miami. When promoting the single's release, Spears mistakenly attributed the hit version of the song to Pat Benatar instead of Joan Jett.

Reception.

Critical.

Spears' cover was met with mostly favorable reviews. "NME"s Ted Kessler wrote that Britney "still works best when making a good pop cheese and dance sandwich: there's the ace Rodney Jerkins-produced version of Joan Jett's 'I Love Rock 'n' Roll', which does exactly what is says on the tin." "Rolling Stone"s Barry Walters wrote that "producer Rodney Jerkins' hip-hop blaspheming of Joan Jett's "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" doesn't go as far as it should (is a Limp Bizkit remix in its future?), but it certainly beats what her earlier studio architects did to those Sonny and Cher ("The Beat Goes On" on "...Baby One More Time") and Stones ("(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" on "Oops!... I Did It Again") songs." Another positive reception came from PopMatters's editor Nikki Tranter, who enjoyed that the song is "different from the average run-of-the-mill pop offering," and praised that "she does strange justice to the tune, vamping up her vocals and turning out something, that while silly and camp, is actually a fun listen." In contrast, David Browne wrote for "Entertainment Weekly" that "her remake is neither imaginative (it simply xeroxes Joan Jett's arrangement) nor all that believable."

Commercial.

"I Love Rock 'n' Roll" charted moderately upon release, reaching the top twenty in most regions. The song was moderately successful in the UK, where it peaked at #13 (which, at the time, was Spears' lowest peak for a single released there, until "Radar" only managed to reach #46 in 2009, and then "I Wanna Go", which peaked at #111). The single sold a total of 65,000 copies. It was also certified Gold in Australia.

Promotion.

Directed by Chris Applebaum, the music video for "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" shows Spears with her own band, a stack of speakers and flashing lights. The video begins in black and white and switches to and from color throughout. It was shot at The Inn, a bar in Long Beach, New York. The video was ranked at #2 on the 100 Best Videos of 2002 list during MTV Latin America's countdown. A "Director's Cut" version of the video was later leaked, containing previously unseen scenes.  The song was performed live during Spears' Dream Within a Dream Tour (2001–02). In 2016, it was added to the revamped set list of her Las Vegas residency show, (2016–17), marking the first time Spears performed the song in 14 years. During the performance, Britney Spears rode a mechanical electric guitar, which simulated a mechanical bull, as it rotated on stage. The same prop electric guitar had been used during her Femme Fatale Tour (2011) for a segment in which she covered the song "Burning Up" by Madonna. At the 2016 Billboard Music Awards, the song was performed as part of a medley.

Alex Gaudino and Jason Rooney version.

A cover version by Alex Gaudino and Jason Rooney was released in 2008.

LadBaby version.

In December 2019, English blogger LadBaby released a comedy version of the song with a sausage roll theme as a charity single whose profits went to The Trussell Trust. The single's cover is based on "Abbey Road"'s cover. The song peaked at number one on the UK Singles Chart.

Background.

In December 2019, LadBaby announced his bid for the Official Christmas Number one. As with their last release "We Built This City", all proceeds from the single went to The Trussell Trust. He said, "We were blown away by the support we received on our Christmas Number 1 single last year and how far that money has gone into changing the lives of families living in poverty across the UK. We're continually looking for ways we can support food bank charity the Trussell Trust further as the size of the problem still facing so many adults (and children) is huge and we ALL need to do whatever we can to say goodbye to poverty once and for all in the UK! If we can use our social media presence for good by singing about sausage rolls, giving people something to smile about and helping families eat this year, then why wouldn’t we. Officially, the most unanticipated single of the decade...AGAIN!"

Charts.

On December 20, 2019, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number one, claiming the Christmas number one with 93,000 chart sales and with 85,000 of that total coming via downloads. It was also the fastest-selling download since Artists for Grenfell version of "Bridge over Troubled Water" in June 2017. LadBaby became the third act to have two consecutive Christmas number one singles and the first to have two successive novelty Christmas number ones in the UK. After reaching number one, LadBaby said, "How have we done this again? It’s the best feeling in the world - it's a Christmas miracle yet again! Thank you everybody for supporting us once again, and all for an amazing cause. It's going to the Trussell Trust – to the 14 million people living in poverty in the UK. Who doesn’t love a sausage roll at Christmas?"

Other cover versions.

"I Love Rock 'n' Roll" has been covered and sampled by artists such as:

"I Love Rock 'n' Roll" is a rock song written by Alan Merrill and Jake Hooker and first recorded by the Arrows in 1975. It is best known for its 1982 cover version by Joan Jett & the Blackhearts, which was released as the first single from her album of the same name. Jett's rendition became her highest-charting hit, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming the No. 3 song for 1982. The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, representing two million units shipped to stores. Jett's version was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2016.

Fanoušek (z angličtiny "fanatic", zkráceně "fan", ženskou podobou je fanynka) je osoba projevující náklonnost k určitému subjektu (např. sportovnímu týmu, hudební skupině či celému oboru lidské činnosti), který podporuje a doufá v jeho úspěchy a rozvoj. Původ ze slova "fanatic" není náhodný, někteří z fanoušků totiž pro subjekt své náklonnosti dokážou obětovat vše ostatní a v jeho podpoře se chovají skutečně až fanaticky.


History.

Prehistory.

The keyhole-shaped Ōyasuba Kofun is the largest kofun in the Tohoku region. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 2000.

Classical and feudal period.

Until the Meiji Restoration, the area of Fukushima prefecture was part of what was known as Mutsu Province.  The Shirakawa Barrier and the Nakoso Barrier were built around the 5th century to protect 'civilized Japan' from the 'barbarians' to the north. Fukushima became a Province of Mutsu after the Taika Reforms were established in 646.  In 718, the provinces of Iwase and Iwaki were created, but these areas reverted to Mutsu some time between 722 and 724.  The Shiramizu Amidadō is a chapel within the Buddhist temple Ganjō-ji in Iwaki. It was built in 1160 and it is a National Treasure. The temple, including the paradise garden is an Historic Site.

Contemporary period.

This region of Japan is also known as Michinoku and Ōshū.  The Fukushima Incident, a political tumult, took place in the prefecture after Mishima Michitsune was appointed governor in 1882.

2011 earthquake and subsequent disasters.

The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and the resulting Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster caused significant damage to the prefecture, primarily but not limited to the eastern Hamadōri region.

Earthquake and tsunami.

On Friday, March 11, 2011, 14:46 JST, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurred off the coast of Miyagi Prefecture. Shindo measurements throughout the prefecture reached as high as 6-upper in isolated regions of Hama-dōri on the eastern coast and as low as a 2 in portions of the Aizu region in the western part of the prefecture. Fukushima City, located in Naka-dōri and the capital of Fukushima Prefecture, measured 6-lower.  Following the earthquake there were isolated reports of major damage to structures, including the failure of Fujinuma Dam as well as damage from landslides. The earthquake also triggered a massive tsunami that hit the eastern coast of the prefecture and caused widespread destruction and loss of life.  In the two years following the earthquake, 1,817 residents of Fukushima Prefecture had either been confirmed dead or were missing as a result of the earthquake and tsunami.

Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.

In the aftermath of the earthquake and the tsunami that followed, the outer housings of two of the six reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Ōkuma exploded followed by a partial meltdown and fires at three of the other units. Many residents were evacuated to nearby localities due to the development of a large evacuation zone around the plant. Radiation levels near the plant peaked at 400 mSv/h (millisieverts per hour) after the earthquake and tsunami, due to damage sustained. This resulted in increased recorded radiation levels across Japan. On April 11, 2011, officials upgraded the disaster to a level 7 out of a possible 7, a rare occurrence not seen since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. Several months later, officials announced that although the area nearest the melt down were still off limits, areas near the twenty kilometer radial safe zone could start seeing a return of the close to 47,000 residents that had been evacuated.

Geography.

Fukushima is both the southernmost prefecture of Tōhoku region and the prefecture of Tōhoku region that is closest to Tokyo. With an area size of 13,784 km it is the third-largest prefecture of Japan, behind Hokkaido and Iwate Prefecture. It is divided by mountain ranges into three regions called (from west to east) Aizu, Nakadōri, and Hamadōri.  Fukushima city is located in the Fukushima Basin's southwest area and nearby mountains. Aizuwakamatsu is located in the western part of Fukushima Prefecture, in the southeast part of Aizu basin. Mount Bandai is the highest mountain in the prefecture with an elevation of.. Mount Azuma-kofuji is an active stratovolcano that is tall with many onsen nearby. Lake Inawashiro is the 4th largest lake of Japan () in the center of the prefecture.  The coastal Hamadōri region lies on the Pacific Ocean and is the flattest and most temperate region, while the Nakadōri region is the agricultural heart of the prefecture and contains the capital, Fukushima City. The mountainous Aizu region has scenic lakes, lush forests, and snowy winters.  As of April 1, 2012, 13% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely Bandai-Asahi, Nikkō, and Oze National Parks; Echigo Sanzan-Tadami Quasi-National Park; and eleven Prefectural Natural Parks.

Cities.

Thirteen cities are located in Fukushima Prefecture:

Towns and villages.

These are the towns and villages in each district:

Economy.

The coastal region traditionally specializes in fishing and seafood industries, and is notable for its electric and particularly nuclear power-generating industry, while the upland regions are more focused on agriculture. Thanks to Fukushima's climate, various fruits are grown throughout the year. These include pears, peaches, cherries, grapes, and apples. As of March 2011, the prefecture produced 20.6% of Japan's peaches and 8.7% of cucumbers.  Fukushima also produces rice, that combined with pure water from mountain run-offs, is used to make sake. Some sakes from the region are considered so tasteful that they are served to visiting royalty and world leaders by hosts.  Lacquerware is another popular product from Fukushima. Dating back over four hundred years, the process of making lacquerware involves carving an object out of wood, then putting a lacquer on it and decorating it. Objects made are usually dishes, vases and writing materials.

Culture.

Legend has it that an ogress, Adachigahara, once roamed the plain after whom it was named. The Adachigahara plain lies close to the city of Fukushima.  Other stories, such as that of a large, strong, red cow that carried wood, influenced toys and superstitions. The Aka-beko cow is a small, red papier-mâché cow on a bamboo or wooden frame, and is believed to ease child birth, bring good health, and help children grow up as strong as the cow.  Another superstitious talisman of the region is the "okiagari ko-boshi", or self-righting dharma doll. These dolls are seen as bringers of good luck and prosperity because they stand right back up when knocked down.  "Miharu Koma" are small, wooden, black or white toy horses painted with colorful designs. Depending upon their design, they may be believed to bring things like long life to the owner.  Kokeshi dolls, while less symbolic, are also a popular traditional craft. They are carved wooden dolls, with large round heads and hand painted bodies. Kokeshi dolls are popular throughout many regions of Japan, but Fukushima is credited as their birthplace.

Notable festivals and events.

The Nomaoi Festival horse riders dressed in complete samurai attire can be seen racing, chasing wild horses, or having contests that imitate a battle. The history behind the festival and events is over one thousand years old.  During the Waraji Festival, a large (12-meter, 38-ft) straw sandal built by locals is dedicated to a shrine. There is also a traditional Taiwanese dragon dance, or "Ryumai", performed by Taiwanese visitors.  The Aizu festival is a celebration of the time of the samurai. It begins with a display of sword dancing and fighting, and is followed by a procession of around five hundred people. The people in the procession carry flags and tools representing well-known feudal lords of long ago, and some are actually dressed like the lords themselves.  A reflection of a long ago time of war, the Taimatsu Akashi Festival consists of men and women carrying large symbolic torches lit with a sacred fire to the top of Mt. Gorozan. Accompanied by drummers, the torchbearers reach the top and light a wooden frame representing an old local castle and the samurai that lived there. In more recent years the festival has been opened up so that anyone wanting to participate may carry a small symbolic torch along with the procession.

Tourism.

Tsuruga castle, a samurai castle originally built in the late 14th century, was occupied by the region's governor in the mid-19th century, during a time of war and governmental instability. Because of this, Aizuwakamatsu was the site of an important battle in the Boshin War, during which 19 teenage members of the Byakkotai committed ritual seppuku suicide. Their graves on Mt. Iimori are a popular tourist attraction.  Kitakata is well known for its distinctive Kitakata ramen noodles and well-preserved traditional storehouse buildings, while Ōuchi-juku in the town of Shimogo retains numerous thatched buildings from the Edo period.  Mount Bandai, in the Bandai-Asahi National Park, erupted in 1888, creating a large crater and numerous lakes, including the picturesque 'Five Coloured Lakes' (Goshiki-numa). Bird watching crowds are not uncommon during migration season here. The area is popular with hikers and skiers. Guided snowshoe tours are also offered in the winter.  The Inawashiro Lake area of Bandai-Asahi National Park is Inawashiro-ko, where the parental home of Hideyo Noguchi (1876–1928) can still be found. It was preserved along with some of Noguchi's belongings and letters as part of a memorial. Noguchi is famous not only for his research on yellow fever, but also for having his face on the 1,000 yen note.  The Miharu Takizakura is an ancient weeping higan cherry tree in Miharu, Fukushima. It is over 1,000 years old.

Food.

Fruits. Fukushima is known as a "Fruit Kingdom" because of its many seasonal fruits, and the fact that there is fruit being harvested every month of the year. While peaches are the most famous, the prefecture also produces large quantities of cherries, nashi (Japanese pears), grapes, persimmons, and apples.  Fukushima-Gyu is the prefecture's signature beef. The Japanese Black type cattle used to make Fukushima-Gyu are fed, raised, and processed within the prefecture. Only beef with a grade of 2 or 3 can be labeled as "Fukushima-Gyu" (福島牛)  Ikaninjin is shredded carrot and dried squid seasoned with soy sauce, cooking sake, mirin, etc. It is a local cuisine from the northern parts of Fukushima Prefecture. It is primarily made from the late autumn to winter in the household.  Kitakata Ramen is one of the Top 3 Ramen of Japan, along with Sapporo and Hakata. The base is a soy-sauce soup, as historically soy sauce was readily available from the many storehouses around the town. Niboshi (sardines), tonkotsu (pig bones) and sometimes chicken and vegetables are boiled to make the stock. This is then topped with chashu (thinly sliced barbeque pork), spring onions, fermented bamboo shoots, and sometimes narutomaki, a pink and white swirl of cured fish cake.  Mamador is the prefecture's most famous confection. The baked good has a milky red bean flavor center wrapped in a buttery dough. The name means “People who drink mothers’ milk" in Spanish. It is produced by the Sanmangoku Company.  Creambox is prefecture's second famous confection. It is a sweet bread with a thick milk bread and white milk-flavored cream. It is sold in Koriyama City at many bakery and school purchases. The selling price is usually around 100 yen, and in some rare cases, the dough is round. Since it looks simple and does not change much from normal bread when viewed from above, some processing may be performed on the cream, there are things that put almonds or draw the character's face with chocolate  Sake. The Fukushima Prefecture Sake Brewers Cooperative is made up of nearly 60 sake breweries. Additionally, the Annual Japan Sake Awards has awarded the prefecture the most gold prizes of all of Japan for four years running as of 2016.

Notable people.

Junko Tabei, the first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest, and the first woman to ascend all Seven Summits by climbing the highest peak on every continent.  Takeshi Suzuki, an alpine skier and Paralympic athlete.  Yoshihide Muroya, an aerobatics pilot and race pilot.  Toshiyuki Nishida, an actor best known for his fishing comedy series, Tsuribaka Nisshi ("The Fishing Maniac's Diary").  Mazie K. Hirono, US Senator and former Lieutenant Governor for Hawaii, was born in Fukushima Prefecture in 1947, and moved to Hawaii in 1955.  Hideyo Noguchi, the doctor who contributed to knowledge in the fight against syphilis and yellow fever. The Japanese government created the Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize in his honor. This was first awarded in May 2008.  Seishiro Okazaki (January 28, 1890 – July 12, 1951) was a Japanese American healer, martial artist, and founder of Danzan-ryū jujitsu. Born in Kakeda, Date County in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan, he immigrated to Hawaii in 1906.

Fukushima Prefecture (;, ) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region. The capital is the city of Fukushima.

Prefektura Fukušima (: 福島県, "Fukušima-ken") je jednou ze 47 prefektur Japonska. Nachází se v regionu Tóhoku na ostrově Honšú. Hlavním městem je Fukušima.


Plot.

The whole story is set in Ruthenia. This region is forgotten, and people here are very poor and their only livelihood is the forests, where they say God lives and where there are a variety of enchanted places where even the wildlife won't approach. The novel writes two separate stories- the legend of Nikola and his real life - that blend together. The book is an allegory for legitimate justice and people's desire for freedom.  The plot of the book begins with the war, when the young Nikola Šuhaj and his German friend escape from a POW Camp and hide in the hut of a Russian woman. There, they concoct a potion that makes from them bulletproof. On the second day, however, they discover that the Russian woman was a witch, kill her, and flee. They then go their separate ways, never to be seen again. After the war, Nikola returned home to his native village of Koločava, where he lives with Eržika, his girlfriend. After the war Kolocava is in ruins, and the people begin rioting, looting the local notary and Jewish shops, hoping depose the mayor and will establish a new order. The next day the government sends an armed escort of soldiers who establish order. At this moment, however, Nikola becomes the feared robber of legend. The government attempts to catch and apprehend him. Once a price is put on his head, however, a friend of his betrays him and kills him with an ax in a meadow. The friend never receives the reward promised. Nikola is buried at the cemetery of Koločava without tombstones and without a coffin, but his legend lives on in the local forests.

Nikola Šuhaj loupežník is a Czech novel by Ivan Olbracht. It was first published in 1933. The story takes place in Carpathian Ruthenia, especially after, but including the duration of the World War One.

Nikola Šuhaj loupežník (1933) je románová balada českého spisovatele Ivana Olbrachta. Příběh se odehrává v Podkarpatské Rusi zejména po, ale z počátku i během první světové války.


Statutory obligations.

Poczta Polska acts as a designated operator. i.e. operator who is responsible for providing public postal services, which for common good are provided in a uniform manner at affordable prices. The Post has the responsibility to provide, five days a week within the area of the entire country, services including clearance, sorting, transport and delivery of letters, including registered letters and declared-value letters, up to 2 kg; postal parcels, including the declared-value parcels, up to 10 kg (parcels sent from abroad may weigh up to 20 kg); and postal items for the visually impaired persons up to 7 kg. In addition, it must enable the sender, at his request, to receive the document confirming the receipt of the registered parcels.

History.

The basis for the postal organization was the trading postal service, which derived from the merchants' need to communicate on commercial matters. These merchants were from Germany, and later on also from Italy, therefore most active relationships were maintained with them. In the 14th and 15th centuries Cracow was communicating with German towns through messengers, who were remunerated by commercial confraternities. The best designed trading post of this type was owned by the Fugger family who at the end of the 15th century established their factories in Cracow. Initially they were used for the trade of copper. With time, though, they started to also deal with financing operations. The Fugger Post was primary used only for the maintenance of communications between these factories and the central office in Augsburg. In later years, its services were used by the king Sigismund I of Poland, the queen Bona Sforza and the vice-chancellor Piotr Tomicki.  The second serious trading postal service was the Seweryn Boner's post. Boner's banking house kept permanent agents who facilitated the forwarding of the correspondence of private persons. Seweryn Boner, in agreements with the Thurn und Taxis family post, tried to establish a regular postal service in Cracow, which was enabled on a small scale, however the enterprise was closed down after his death. The death of the Polish queen Bona Sforza in 1557 was the factor that influenced the emergence of the Polish Post, because King Sigismund II Augustus had to maintain permanent and regular correspondence with Italy in order to collect his inheritance. On the 18 October 1558 the monarch granted the right for the establishment and management of the post to the Italian Prospero Provana. The services of this post, which ran from Cracow to Venice, could also be used by private persons, despite the fact that the costs of its maintenance were borne by the crown. Provana, however, started a conflict with the Thurn und Taxis family, who controlled postal communications in Austria, Hungary and Italy. This resulted after four years in the withdrawal of the benefit granted to Provan.  On 11 July 1562 the king concluded a New agreement with Krzysztof Taxis, the executive director of the imperial post in Vienna, on the basis of which, he acquired all posts in Poland, establishing the institution under the name of Poczta Polska (Polish Post), i.e. Royal post. It was composed of the Italian post (Cracow-Vienna-Venice) and Lithuanian Post (Cracow-Warsaw-Vilnius). The postal messenger left Cracow each Sunday morning, arrived in Vienna on Wednesday and then left for Venice, where he arrived after seven days journey. The courier set off to Lithuania each week on Wednesday, in order to arrive in Vilnius after a week's journey. Therefore, the letter from Cracow to Venice took 10 days and from Cracow to Vilnius 7 days. The postal charge amounted to 3 grosz from 1 lot of weight of private parcel. The king's and court's parcels were free of charge, but the monarch paid yearly subsidy for the benefit of the post in the amount of 1500 thalers (1200 for the Italian post, 300 for the Lithuanian post). This amount was collected in instalments from the Cracow duty. The director, who received the total income from the post, in return had to take care of the maintenance and its supplies. Although the Polish post under the management of a new director created new extensive and proper international connection, the contract with Taxis was terminated after two years due to various intrigues.  Italian Piotr Maffon, a Cracow bourgeois, became a new postmaster, who on 9 January 1564 was granted a special right to run the postal service within a period of five years. Within this period a significant regress of this institution was indicated, among all, there was lack of permanent connection with Venice. Due to this fact, the contract with Maffon was terminated before the deadline and Sebastian Montelupi, who was one of the richest Cracow bourgeois, applied for the position of the postmaster. He was granted a relevant privilege on 18 November 1568, however, he took up a position of the postmaster only under the extended privilege of 22 June 1569. As of the date of taking up the post, referred to as “royal post”, by Sebastian Montelupi, its initial development phase finished. Montelupi's Royal Post was responsible for delivering the parcels to the king once a week, when the ruler was residing in any location within the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, or once every three weeks when he was residing in Lithuania. The route to Venice was operated every 15 days and to Vilnius every 17 days. For his services Montelupi received 1300 thalers yearly and used the payments for private consignments. Furthermore, the royal carriages were also at his disposal. The Montelupi Kamienica located in Cracow at Rynek Główny no. 7 was the principal office of the post office.

Museums.

The following postal museums function:

Functioning of the Polish Post at the postal market.

In 2009 the Polish Post recorded losses of 190 million PLN, in 2008 – 215 million PLN. According to the management board of the Polish Post, the popularisation of electronic invoices may bring Polish Post losses in the amount of 170–200 million PLN. In September 2010 the Polish Post jointly with the Ministry of Justice, one of its most important clients, launched the pilot project consisting in electronic confirmation of the receipt of registered mail At present, the Polish Post has been consistently implementing changes, thanks to which even on negative trends at the traditional postal market, the majority of financial parameters improved. This was achieved despite lower revenue than in 2010. Polish Post gross financial result in 2011 increased with 154% in comparison with 2010 and reached 159 million PLN. Gross turnover profitability of the Polish Post in 2011 amounted to 2.5 proc. This reflects the increase of 1.5 percentage point in comparison with the 2010. In 2009 this indicator was negative and amounted to (-) 2.3 proc.  In 2012 the control of the Supreme Chamber of Control (NIK) indicated that the organization of work of postal facilities is not adjusted to the needs of consumers using its services. The Post Office to an insufficient extent implemented restructuring strategic and the total amount spent on it reached 8 million PLN, and the results of implementation were not verified – whole management board relied on reporting assurances from regional branches, therefore many reforms are of illusory nature. The Post Office also spent 13 million PLN on information system, which did not work.  The Supreme Chamber of Control emphasized, however, that since 2010 the Company undertook restructuring measures, which allowed creating the profit for 2011 in the amount of 105.8 million PLN. In July 2011 a new Board was appointed; its main task is the development of the company and the implementation of key restructuring initiatives. The Polish Post plans to carry out the change of the image and organization of work of its facilities, in order to change them into places friendly for customers, offering the unproblematic sale of postal and financial services. New Management Board of the Company puts the emphasis on the development of parcel and courier services as well as offers of the so-called e-services, combining traditional forms of communication with the use of modern technologies.  Gross financial result of the Group in 2012 amounted to 163 million PLN, whereas from the comparable perspective, which takes into account pension contribution with 2 percentage points, is closer to 230 million PLN, which means the increase with 7% compared to 2011. Net ROE indicator for the Group reached 8.8% and is almost 100% higher than the result from 2010. At the same time, the Polish Post reduces costs – in comparison with the previous year there was a reduction of costs to more than 170 million PLN. In 2012 total development investments and investments in staff in the Polish Post amounted to more than 150 million PLN. Further details are given in the annual report of the Company for 2012.  The Polish Post wants to allocated more than 1.3 billion PLN until 2017 for financing of the investment plan, including capital investments in strategic areas. Up to 85% of capital expenditures will be financed from the company's own resources. The company opts for the development of the parcel market, modern banking and insurance services, logistics, and digital communication. After 9 months in 2013 the volume of services provided by the Polish Post are 12% higher in comparison with the corresponding period in 2012; the volume of domestic courier services was higher with almost 60 proc. than in the previous year.  In October 2013 the Polish Post launched a new tool, thanks to which the clients can buy and print from the Internet the postal stamps or send letters and postcards, which will be delivered in the paper form by the postman. This is possible thanks to the Internet platform operating under the brand name Envelo. It is a solution that enables the use of postal services at any place and time. It is an element of building of the post office 3.0. The Polish Post Digital Services (pol. Poczta Polska Usługi Cyfrowe) company is responsible for the implementation.  In 2013, the Polish Post Group managed to improved its financial results (compared to previous year, with the exclusion of human capital development investments) despite lower by 3.4% revenue, which exceeded 6.5 billion PLN. Lower revenue was compensated by cost reductions, which in 2013 fell by 4% to 6.3 billion PLN. In accounting terms the costs were lower by 2.5% and reached 6.4 billion zł. Comparable gross profit of the Group in 2013 amounted to nearly 200 million PLN, with less than 160 million PLN in previous year. Book gross profit of the Polish Post Group reached in 2013 94 million PLN.  In 2013, Polish Post has earmarked 250 million PLN for development investments (compared to 190 million in the years 2011 to 2012), including modernization of logistics (car fleet development) and sales network, as well as development of information technology and capital investment. In subsequent years, Polish Post plans further increase in investment spending. Polish Post managed to reduce Group's operating costs by more than 160 million PLN. Investments in human capital in 2013 amounted to 217 million PLN, over 100 million PLN more than in 2012. Year 2013 was, despite adverse market trends, the fourth consecutive year in which Polish Post reported positive financial result.

Competition.

The Polish Post for years has been systematically losing the monopoly for various types of consignments. Until the end of 2012 it availed from the legal benefit of having the reserved area, which gave it the exclusive rights to provide services, receive and deliver parcels weighing up to 50 g. At the same time, until the 24 September 2008 the owners and administrators of buildings had the responsibility to replace letter boxes, which are owned by the Polish Post, with European letter boxes available for all postal operators. In 2012 the works concerning the amendment of the Postal Law Act were completed and after the liquidation of the formal monopoly the actual monopoly, e.g. in case of official mail is declining in favor of competitors like InPost.

Poczta Polska (English: Polish Post) is the state postal administration of Poland, initially founded in 1558. It is the largest mail-handling company in the country, which additionally provides courier, banking, insurance and logistics services. The digital services, such as neo-stamps, neo-letters and neo-postcards, are available through the Internet-based platform 'Envelo'.

Polská pošta (Poczta Polska) je polský státní úřad (přesněji státní podnik veřejných služeb) zabývající se poskytováním poštovních služeb (doručováním zásilek, zpráv, neadresních tiskovin apod.), peněžních služeb (platby na účet a pod.), bankovních služeb (pro Poštovní banku) a některých telekomunikačních služeb.


Career.

Club.

Early career.

Jiránek started his professional career in 1997 for Bohemians Prague, making 55 appearances, before leaving for Slovan Liberec in 1999. He made 32 appearances, and helped Slovan to win the Czech Cup in the 1999/2000 season.

Reggina.

In 2001, Jiranek moved to Italian Serie B side Reggina. In his time at Reggina, Jiranek would make 100 league appearances, helping Reggina gain promotion to Serie A in the 2001/02 season.

Spartak Moscow.

Spartak Moscow signed Jiránek in 2004 for €4.7m from Reggina. Jiránek made his debut against FC Lokomotiv Moscow. Jiránek was a regular in the starting line-up for six years. Jiránek was the captain of the team in 2009–2010.

Birmingham City.

On 31 August 2010, he moved to English Premier League club Birmingham City, signing a one-year deal, having rejected offers from a variety of clubs. Jiránek made his debut in the starting eleven for the League Cup third-round match against MK Dons, and had a good chance to score as Birmingham won 3–1. His second start came in a tidy performance as several first-team regulars were rested for the FA Cup third round tie against Millwall which Birmingham won 4–1. After Scott Dann was injured in the first leg of the League Cup semi-final against West Ham United, Jiránek became a regular starter, and he was in the starting eleven as Birmingham beat favourites Arsenal 2–1 in the League Cup Final at Wembley Stadium. A toe injury that eventually required surgery disrupted the latter part of his season, and following Birmingham's relegation from the Premier League, he rejected the option of another season with the club.

Terek Grozny.

In July 2011, Jiránek signed a two-year contract with Russian Premier League club Terek Grozny. In his second season with the club he scored a goal from 45 yards in the League Cup.

International.

Jiránek was part of the Czech side which won the UEFA U-21 Championships in 2002. He made his senior international debut against Poland in 2002. Jiránek's first major international tournament came at Euro 2004, where he made 4 appearances before being ruled out of the semi-final with a thigh injury. He also was named in the Czech squad for the 2006 World Cup, but despite playing 5 qualifying matches, he did not make an appearance at the finals. He appeared in 5 qualifying matches for Euro 2008, but was not named in the Czech squad due to an ankle injury. His 31st (and as of February 2011, last) appearance was in March 2007, against Germany - after which, he was fined for his involvement in a controversial birthday party.

Career statistics.

International.

"Statistics accurate as of match played 28 March 2007"

Martin Jiránek (; born 25 May 1979 in Prague) is a former Czech international footballer. A defender, Jiránek played in the top division of several countries.

Martin Jiránek (* 25. května 1979 Praha, Československo) je český fotbalový obránce a bývalý reprezentant, od července 2017 hráč klubu FK Dukla Praha. Na klubové úrovni působil mimo ČR v Itálii, Rusku a Anglii. Mistr Evropy hráčů do 21 let z roku 2002.


Club career.

Czech Republic.

Štajner started his active footballing career in the youth teams of SK Dynamo České Budějovice. At a young age, he was picked up by one of the league's best teams, SK Slavia Prague. He failed to make a breakthrough at Slavia, continuing his youth career with TJ Senohraby, an amateur club close to the city where he grew up - Benešov.  In 1998, Štajner moved on to FK Baník Most in an attempt to advance his career, although his breakthrough was to come at the beginning of the new millennium after signing for Slovan Liberec, as he became known as an excellent goalscorer and attracted attention with his European performances in the UEFA Cup. In the 2001–02 season he was the Gambrinus liga's top goalscorer with 15 goals as Slovan secured the title. In the summer of 2002, Štajner was signed by German Bundesliga side Hannover 96.

Hannover 96.

Štajner quickly became a favourite with coach Ralf Rangnick, although the club from the Lower Saxonian capital had to pay his former club €3.5 million, which made Štajner the most expensive player in the history of Hannover 96.  At the beginning of his spell in Germany he had trouble adapting to the style of play, only becoming a regular starter in his second season. On 22 May 2003, Štajner helped cement his status as a cult hero for the club, notably scoring the decisive goal against Borussia Mönchengladbach to retain Hannover's place in the top flight. The match ended 2–2.  On 15 May 2010, he announced his return to his former club FC Slovan Liberec.  In 2015, he joined Czech lower league side TJ Spartak Chrastava.

International career.

He was a member of the Czech national team, and played in the 2006 World Cup.

Jiří Štajner (born 27 May 1976) is a Czech former professional football striker who played as an attacking midfielder or second striker. Eight years a player for Hannover 96, he is extremely popular with Hannover fans and is seen as a cult figure at the club.

Jiří Štajner (* 27. května 1976, Benešov) je český fotbalový záložník, který působí v týmu TJ Spartak Chrastava. Technický středopolař, jenž dokáže vymyslet překvapivé řešení herní situace.