History.

Background.

By the summer of 1906, Mahler had been director of the Vienna Hofoper for nine years. Throughout this time his practice was to leave Vienna at the close of the Hofoper season for a summer retreat, where he could devote himself to composition. Since 1899 this had been at Maiernigg, near the resort town of Maria Wörth in Carinthia, southern Austria, where Mahler built a villa overlooking the Wörthersee. In these restful surroundings Mahler completed his Symphonies No. 4, No. 5, No. 6 and No. 7, his Rückert songs and his song cycle "Kindertotenlieder" ("Songs on the Death of Children").  Until 1901, Mahler's compositions had been heavily influenced by the German folk-poem collection "Des Knaben Wunderhorn" ("The Youth's Magic Horn"), which he had first encountered around 1887. The music of Mahler's many "Wunderhorn" settings is reflected in his Symphonies No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4, which all employ vocal as well as instrumental forces. From about 1901, however, Mahler's music underwent a change in character as he moved into the middle period of his compositional life. Here, the more austere poems of Friedrich Rückert replace the "Wunderhorn" collection as the primary influence; the songs are less folk-related, and no longer infiltrate the symphonies as extensively as before. During this period Symphonies No. 5, No. 6 and No. 7 were written, all as purely instrumental works, portrayed by Mahler scholar Deryck Cooke as "more stern and forthright..., more tautly symphonic, with a new granite-like hardness of orchestration".  Mahler arrived at Maiernigg in June 1906 with the draft manuscript of his Seventh Symphony; he intended to spend time revising the orchestration until an idea for a new work should strike. The composer's wife Alma Mahler, in her memoirs, says that for a fortnight Mahler was "haunted by the spectre of failing inspiration"; Mahler's recollection, however, is that on the first day of the vacation he was seized by the creative spirit, and plunged immediately into composition of the work that would become his Eighth Symphony.

Composition.

Two notes in Mahler's handwriting dating from June 1906 show that early schemes for the work, which he may not at first have intended as a fully choral symphony, were based on a four-movement structure in which two "hymns" surround an instrumental core. These outlines show that Mahler had fixed on the idea of opening with the Latin hymn, but had not yet settled on the precise form of the rest. The first note is as follows:  The second note includes musical sketches for the "Veni creator" movement, and two bars in B minor which are thought to relate to the "Caritas". The four-movement plan is retained in a slightly different form, still without specific indication of the extent of the choral element:  From Mahler's later comments on the symphony's gestation, it is evident that the four-movement plan was relatively short-lived. He soon replaced the last three movements with a single section, essentially a dramatic cantata, based on the closing scenes of Goethe's "Faust", the depiction of an ideal of redemption through eternal womanhood ("das Ewige-Weibliche"). Mahler had long nurtured an ambition to set the end of the "Faust" epic to music, "and to set it quite differently from other composers who have made it saccharine and feeble." In comments recorded by his biographer Richard Specht, Mahler makes no mention of the original four-movement plans. He told Specht that having chanced on the "Veni creator" hymn, he had a sudden vision of the complete work: "I saw the whole piece immediately before my eyes, and only needed to write it down as though it were being dictated to me."  The work was written at a frantic pace—"in record time", according to the musicologist Henry-Louis de La Grange. It was completed in all its essentials by mid-August, even though Mahler had to absent himself for a week to attend the Salzburg Festival. Mahler began composing the "Veni creator" hymn without waiting for the text to arrive from Vienna. When it did, according to Alma Mahler, "the complete text fitted the music exactly. Intuitively he had composed the music for the full strophes [verses]." Although amendments and alterations were subsequently carried out to the score, there is very little manuscript evidence of the sweeping changes and rewriting that occurred with his earlier symphonies as they were prepared for performance.  With its use of vocal elements throughout, rather than in episodes at or near the end, the work was the first completely choral symphony to be written. Mahler had no doubts about the ground-breaking nature of the symphony, calling it the grandest thing he had ever done, and maintaining that all his previous symphonies were merely preludes to it. "Try to imagine the whole universe beginning to ring and resound. There are no longer human voices, but planets and suns revolving." It was his "gift to the nation... a great joy-bringer."

Reception and performance history.

Premiere.

Mahler made arrangements with the impresario Emil Gutmann for the symphony to be premiered in Munich in the autumn of 1910. He soon regretted this involvement, writing of his fears that Gutmann would turn the performance into "a catastrophic Barnum and Bailey show". Preparations began early in the year, with the selection of choirs from the choral societies of Munich, Leipzig and Vienna. The Munich "Zentral-Singschule" provided 350 students for the children's choir. Meanwhile, Bruno Walter, Mahler's assistant at the Vienna Hofoper, was responsible for the recruitment and preparation of the eight soloists. Through the spring and summer these forces prepared in their home towns, before assembling in Munich early in September for three full days of final rehearsals under Mahler. His youthful assistant Otto Klemperer remarked later on the many small changes that Mahler made to the score during rehearsal: "He always wanted more clarity, more sound, more dynamic contrast. At one point during rehearsals he turned to us and said, 'If, after my death, something doesn't sound right, then change it. You have not only a right but a duty to do so.'"  For the premiere, fixed for 12 September, Gutmann had hired the newly built Neue Musik-Festhalle, in the Munich International Exhibition grounds near Theresienhöhe (now a branch of the Deutsches Museum). This vast hall had a capacity of 3,200; to assist ticket sales and raise publicity, Gutmann devised the nickname "Symphony of a Thousand", which has remained the symphony's popular subtitle despite Mahler's disapproval. The reality is that its premiere featured 1,028 performers. Among the many distinguished figures present at the sold-out premiere were the composers Richard Strauss, Camille Saint-Saëns and Anton Webern; the writers Thomas Mann and Arthur Schnitzler; and the leading theatre director of the day, Max Reinhardt. Also in the audience was the 28-year-old British conductor Leopold Stokowski, who six years later would lead the first United States performance of the symphony.  Up to this time, receptions of Mahler's new symphonies had usually been disappointing. However, the Munich premiere of the Eighth Symphony was an unqualified triumph; as the final chords died away there was a short pause before a huge outbreak of applause which lasted for twenty minutes. Back at his hotel Mahler received a letter from Thomas Mann, which referred to the composer as "the man who, as I believe, expresses the art of our time in its profoundest and most sacred form".  The symphony's duration at its first performance was recorded by the critic-composer Julius Korngold as 85 minutes. This performance was the last time that Mahler conducted a premiere of one of his own works. Eight months after his Munich triumph, he died at the age of 50. His remaining works—"Das Lied von der Erde" ("The Song of the Earth"), his Symphony No. 9 and the unfinished Symphony No. 10—were all premiered after his death.

Subsequent performances.

On the day following the Munich premiere Mahler led the orchestra and choruses in a repeat performance. During the next three years, according to the calculations of Mahler's friend Guido Adler the Eighth Symphony received a further 20 performances across Europe. These included the Dutch premiere, in Amsterdam under Willem Mengelberg on 12 March 1912, and the first Prague performance, given on 20 March 1912 under Mahler's former Vienna Hofoper colleague, Alexander von Zemlinsky. Vienna itself had to wait until 1918 before the symphony was heard there. In the US, Leopold Stokowski persuaded an initially reluctant board of the Philadelphia Orchestra to finance the American premiere, which took place on 2 March 1916. The occasion was a great success; the symphony was played several more times in Philadelphia before the orchestra and choruses travelled to New York, for a series of equally well-received performances at the Metropolitan Opera House.  At the Amsterdam Mahler Festival in May 1920, Mahler's completed symphonies and his major song cycles were presented over nine concerts given by the Concertgebouw Orchestra and choruses, under Mengelberg's direction. The music critic Samuel Langford, who attended the occasion, commented that "we do not leave Amsterdam greatly envying the diet of Mahler first and every other composer afterward, to which Mengelberg is training the music-lovers of that city." The Austrian music historian Oscar Bie, while impressed with the festival as a whole, wrote subsequently that the Eighth was "stronger in effect than in significance, and purer in its voices than in emotion". Langford had commented on the British "not being very eager about Mahler", and the Eighth Symphony was not performed in Britain until 15 April 1930, when Sir Henry Wood presented it with the BBC Symphony Orchestra. The work was played again eight years later by the same forces; among those present in the audience was the youthful composer Benjamin Britten. Impressed by the music, he nevertheless found the performance itself "execrable".  The years after World War II saw a number of notable performances of the Eighth Symphony, including Sir Adrian Boult's broadcast from the Royal Albert Hall on 10 February 1948, the Japanese premiere under Kazuo Yamada in Tokyo in December 1949, and the Australian premiere under Sir Eugene Goossens in 1951. A Carnegie Hall performance under Stokowski in 1950 became the first complete recording of the symphony to be issued. After 1950 the increasing numbers of performances and recordings of the work signified its growing popularity, but not all critics were won over. Theodor W. Adorno found the piece weak, "a giant symbolic shell"; this most affirmative work of Mahler's is, in Adorno's view, his least successful, musically and artistically inferior to his other symphonies. The composer-critic Robert Simpson, usually a champion of Mahler, referred to Part II as "an ocean of shameless kitsch." Mahler biographer Jonathan Carr finds much of the symphony "bland", lacking the tension and resolution present in the composer's other symphonies. Deryck Cooke, on the other hand, compares Mahler's Eighth to Beethoven's Choral (Ninth) Symphony. To Cooke, Mahler's is "the Choral Symphony of the twentieth century: like Beethoven's, but in a different way, it sets before us an ideal [of redemption] which we are as yet far from realising—even perhaps moving away from—but which we can hardly abandon without perishing".  In the late 20th century and into the 21st, the symphony was performed in all parts of the world. A succession of premieres in the Far East culminated in October 2002 in Beijing, when Long Yu led the China Philharmonic Orchestra in the first performance of the work in the People's Republic of China. The Sydney Olympic Arts Festival in August 2000 opened with a performance of the Eighth by the Sydney Symphony Orchestra under its chief conductor Edo de Waart. The popularity of the work, and its heroic scale, meant that it was often used as a set piece on celebratory occasions; on 15 March 2008, Yoav Talmi led 200 instrumentalists and a choir of 800 in a performance in Quebec City, to mark the 400th anniversary of the city's foundation. In London on 16 July 2010 the opening concert of the BBC Proms celebrated the 150th anniversary of Mahler's birth with a performance of the Eighth, with Jiří Bělohlávek conducting the BBC Symphony Orchestra. This performance was its eighth in the history of the Proms.

Analysis.

Structure and form.

The Eighth Symphony's two parts combine the sacred text of the 9th-century Latin hymn "Veni creator spiritus" with the secular text from the closing passages from Goethe's 19th-century dramatic poem "Faust". Despite the evident disparities within this juxtaposition, the work as a whole expresses a single idea, that of redemption through the power of love. The choice of these two texts was not arbitrary; Goethe, a poet whom Mahler revered, believed that "Veni creator" embodied aspects of his own philosophy, and had translated it into German in 1820. Once inspired by the "Veni creator" idea, Mahler soon saw the "Faust" poem as an ideal counterpart to the Latin hymn. The unity between the two parts of the symphony is established, musically, by the extent to which they share thematic material. In particular, the first notes of the "Veni creator" theme — — dominate the climaxes to each part; at the symphony's culmination, Goethe's glorification of "Eternal Womanhood" is set in the form of a religious chorale. It has been suggested that the "Veni creator" theme is based on "Maos Tzur", a Jewish song sung at Hanukkah.  In composing his score, Mahler temporarily abandoned the more progressive tonal elements which had appeared in his most recent works. The symphony's key is, for Mahler, unusually stable; despite frequent diversions into other keys the music always returns to its central E major. This is the first of his works in which familiar fingerprints—birdsong, military marches, Austrian dances—are almost entirely absent. Although the vast choral and orchestral forces employed suggest a work of monumental sound, according to critic Michael Kennedy "the predominant expression is not of torrents of sound but of the contrasts of subtle tone-colours and the luminous quality of the scoring".  For Part I, most modern commentators accept the sonata-form outline that was discerned by early analysts. The structure of Part II is more difficult to summarise, being an amalgam of many genres. Analysts, including Specht, Cooke and Paul Bekker, have identified Adagio, Scherzo and Finale "movements" within the overall scheme of Part II, though others, including La Grange and Donald Mitchell, find little to sustain this division. Musicologist Ortrun Landmann has suggested that the formal scheme for Part II, after the orchestral introduction, is a sonata plan without the recapitulation, consisting of exposition, development and conclusion.

Part I: "Veni creator spiritus".

Mitchell describes Part I as resembling a giant motet, and argues that a key to its understanding is to read it as Mahler's attempt to emulate the polyphony of Bach's great motets, specifically "Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied" ("Sing to the Lord a new song"). The symphony begins with a single tonic chord in E major, sounded on the organ, before the entry of the massed choirs in a fortissimo invocation: ""Veni, veni creator spiritus"". The three note "creator" motif is immediately taken up by the trombones and then the trumpets in a marching theme that will be used as a unifying factor throughout the work. After their first declamatory statement the two choirs engage in a sung dialogue, which ends with a short transition to an extended lyrical passage, ""Imple superna gratia"", a plea for divine grace. Here, what Kennedy calls "the unmistakable presence of twentieth-century Mahler" is felt as a solo soprano introduces a meditative theme. She is soon joined by other solo voices as the new theme is explored before the choirs return exuberantly, in an A episode in which the soloists compete with the choral masses.  In the next section, "Infirma nostri corporis/virtute firmans perpeti" ("Our weak frames fortify with thine eternal strength"), the tonic key of E major returns with a variation of the opening theme. The section is interrupted by a short orchestral interlude in which the low bells are sounded, adding a sombre touch to the music. This new, less secure mood is carried through when ""Infirma nostri corporis"" resumes, this time without the choruses, in a subdued D minor echo of the initial invocation. At the end of this episode another transition precedes the "unforgettable surge in E major", in which the entire body of choral forces declaims "Accende lumen sensibus" ("Illuminate our senses"). The first children's chorus follows, in a joyful mood, as the music gathers force and pace. This is a passage of great complexity, in the form of a double fugue involving development of many of the preceding themes, with constant changes to the key signature. All forces combine again in the recapitulation of the ""Veni creator"" section in shortened form. A quieter passage of recapitulation leads to an orchestral coda before the children's chorus announces the doxology ""Gloria sit Patri Domino"" ("Glory be to God the Father"). Thereafter the music moves swiftly and powerfully to its climax, in which an offstage brass ensemble bursts forth with the ""Accende"" theme while the main orchestra and choruses end on a triumphant rising scale.

Part II: Closing scene from Goethe's "Faust".

The second part of the symphony follows the narrative of the final stages in Goethe's poem—the journey of Faust's soul, rescued from the clutches of Mephistopheles, on to its final ascent into heaven. Landmann's proposed sonata structure for the movement is based on a division, after an orchestral prelude, into five sections which he identifies musically as an exposition, three development episodes, and a finale.  The long orchestral prelude (166 bars) is in E minor and, in the manner of an operatic overture, anticipates several of the themes which will be heard later in the movement. The exposition begins in near-silence; the scene depicted is that of a rocky, wooded mountainside, the dwelling place of anchorites whose utterances are heard in an atmospheric chorus complete with whispers and echoes. A solemn baritone solo, the voice of Pater Ecstaticus, ends warmly as the key changes to the major when the trumpets sound the ""Accende"" theme from Part I. This is followed by a demanding and dramatic aria for bass, the voice of Pater Profundus, who ends his tortured meditation by asking for God's mercy on his thoughts and for enlightenment. The repeated chords in this section are reminiscent of Richard Wagner's "Parsifal". The mood lightens with the entry of the angels and blessed boys (women's and children's choruses) bearing the soul of Faust; the music here is perhaps a relic of the "Christmas Games" scherzo envisioned in the abortive four-movement draft plan. The atmosphere is festive, with triumphant shouts of ""Jauchzet auf!"" ("Rejoice!") before the exposition ends in a postlude which refers to the ""Infirma nostri corporis"" music from Part I.  The first phase of development begins as a women's chorus of the younger angels invoke a "happy company of blessed children" who must bear Faust's soul heavenwards. The blessed boys receive the soul gladly; their voices are joined by Doctor Marianus (tenor), who accompanies their chorus before breaking into a rapturous E major paean to the Mater Gloriosa, "Queen and ruler of the world!". As the aria ends, the male voices in the chorus echo the soloist's words to an orchestral background of viola tremolos, in a passage described by La Grange as "emotionally irresistible".  In the second part of the development, the entry of the Mater Gloriosa is signalled in E major by a sustained harmonium chord, with harp arpeggios played over a pianissimo violin melody which La Grange labels the "love" theme. Thereafter the key changes frequently as a chorus of penitent women petition the Mater for a hearing; this is followed by the solo entreaties of Magna Peccatrix, Mulier Samaritana and Maria Aegyptiaca. In these arias the "love" theme is further explored, and the "scherzo" theme associated with the first appearance of the angels returns. These two motifs predominate in the trio which follows, a request to the Mater on behalf of a fourth penitent, Faust's lover once known as Gretchen, who has come to make her plea for the soul of Faust. After Gretchen's entreaty, a solo of "limpid beauty" in Kennedy's words, an atmosphere of hushed reverence descends. The Mater Gloriosa then sings her only two lines, in the symphony's opening key of E major, permitting Gretchen to lead the soul of Faust into heaven.  The final development episode is a hymnlike tenor solo and chorus, in which Doctor Marianus calls on the penitents to "Gaze aloft". A short orchestral passage follows, scored for an eccentric chamber group consisting of piccolo, flute, clarinet, harmonium, celesta, piano, harps and a string quartet. This acts as a transition to the finale, the Chorus Mysticus, which begins in E major almost imperceptibly—Mahler's notation here is "Wie ein Hauch", "like a breath". The sound rises in a gradual crescendo, as the solo voices alternately join or contrast with the chorus. As the climax approaches, many themes are reprised: the love theme, Gretchen's song, the ""Accende"" from Part I. Finally, as the chorus concludes with "The eternal feminine draws us on high", the off-stage brass re-enters with a final salute on the Veni creator motif, to end the symphony with a triumphant flourish.

Instrumentation.

Orchestra.

The symphony is scored for a very large orchestra, in keeping with Mahler's conception of the work as a "new symphonic universe", a synthesis of symphony, cantata, oratorio, motet, and lied in a combination of styles. La Grange comments: "To give expression to his cosmic vision, it was... necessary to go beyond all previously known limits and dimensions." The orchestral forces required are, however, not as large as those deployed in Arnold Schoenberg's oratorio "Gurre-Lieder", completed in 1911. The orchestra consists of the following:  Mahler recommended that in very large halls, the first player in each of the woodwind sections should be doubled and that numbers in the strings should also be augmented.

Choral and vocal forces.

In Part II the soloists are assigned to dramatic roles represented in Goethe's text, as illustrated in the following table. La Grange draws attention to the notably high tessitura for the sopranos, for soloists and for choral singers. He characterises the alto solos as brief and unremarkable; however, the tenor solo role in Part II is both extensive and demanding, requiring on several occasions to be heard over the choruses. The wide melodic leaps in the Pater Profundus role present particular challenges to the bass soloist.

Publication.

Only one autograph score of Symphony No. 8 is known to exist. Once the property of Alma Mahler, it is held by the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich. In 1906 Mahler signed a contract with the Viennese publishing firm Universal Edition (UE), which thus became the main publisher of all his works. The full orchestral score of the Eighth Symphony was published by UE in 1912. A Russian version, published in Moscow by Izdatel'stvo Muzyka in 1976, was republished in the United States by Dover Publications in 1989, with an English text and notes. The International Gustav Mahler Society, founded in 1955, has as its main objective the production of a complete critical edition of all of Mahler's works. As of 2016 its critical edition of the Eighth remains a project for the future.

Recordings.

Sir Adrian Boult's 1948 broadcast performance with the BBC Symphony Orchestra was recorded by the BBC, but not issued until 2009 when it was made available in MP3 form. The first issued recording of the complete symphony was Stokowski's Carnegie Hall performance with the New York Philharmonic and combined New York choirs on 9 April 1950. Nearly two years before, in July 1948, the Hungarian-born conductor Eugene Ormandy had recorded the "Veni creator spiritus" movement at the Hollywood Bowl. Since Stokowski's version, at least 70 recordings of the symphony have been made by many of the world's leading orchestras and singers, mostly during live performances.

The Symphony No. 8 in E-flat major by Gustav Mahler is one of the largest-scale choral works in the classical concert repertoire. Because it requires huge instrumental and vocal forces it is frequently called the "Symphony of a Thousand", although the work is normally presented with far fewer than a thousand performers and the composer did not sanction that name. The work was composed in a single inspired burst at his Maiernigg villa in southern Austria in the summer of 1906. The last of Mahler's works that was premiered in his lifetime, the symphony was a critical and popular success when he conducted the Munich Philharmonic in its first performance, in Munich, on 12 September 1910.

Symfonie č. 8 Es dur Gustava Mahlera je jedním z nejrozsáhlejších sborových děl klasického koncertního repertoáru. Protože vyžaduje obrovské instrumentální a vokální obsazení, je často nazývána Symfonií tisíců, ačkoli je normálně uváděna s mnohem méně než tisíci umělci a skladatel toto jméno neschválil. Symfonii Mahler složil na jeden zátah v jihorakouském Maierniggu v létě 1906. Je to jeho poslední dílo, které mělo premiéru za jeho života; symfonie v provedení Mnichovské filharmonie pod jeho taktovkou sklidila při premiéře v Mnichově 12. září 1910 velký úspěch u kritiky i publika.


History.

The first permanent settlement of the area dates to the 16th century, when a sharîf by the name of Sîdî ‘Abd al-Salâm established his community in the Tizguit Valley, seven km downstream from the present town. In Tamazight, the regional Berber language, yfran means “caves”. Sîdî ‘Abd al-Salâm’s village, called Zaouiat Sidi Abdeslam (or simply the zâwiyah), consisted at first of cave dwellings hollowed out of the limestone valley wall. Only in the last fifty years or so have its inhabitants built houses aboveground. The caves which now lie under these houses are still used as mangers for animals and for storage.  By the mid-17th century Sîdî ‘Abd al-Salâm’s zâwiyah was well enough established to receive an extensive iqtâ’, or land grant, from the ‘Alâwî sultan Mûlây Rashîd b. Muhammad. The iqtâ’ extended from upstream of present Ifrane down the Tizguit valley all the way to El Hajeb escarpment. Late in the 19th century agro-pastoral groups of the Amazigh Senhadja Beni M’guild and Zenata the Ait Seghrouchen, crossing the Middle Atlas from the upper Moulouya Plain, started grazing their herds of sheep and goats on the surrounding plateau. The livelihood of the zâwiyah was based on irrigated agriculture on the valley floor, livestock grazing and forest resources.  The agricultural plots were held as private property (mulk) but the grazing land was under collective tribal jurisdiction (j’maa). The tribally organized populations of the Ifrane- Azrou area submitted to colonial rule after a period of resistance (1913–1917). Resistance continued higher in the mountains (Timahdit, Jebel Fazzaz) until 1922.

Modern history.

The modern town of Ifrane was established by the French administration in 1929 on land expropriated from the inhabitants of the zâwiya. The town was to be a "hill station," a cool place for colonial families to spend the hot summer months, and it was initially planned according to the "garden city" model of urban design then in vogue. The plan called for chalet-type summer homes in the Alpine style, laid out among gardens and curving tree-lined streets. A royal palace was also built for Sultan Muhammad b. Yûsuf. The town's first public buildings consisted of a post office and a church. Moreover, a penitentiary was built which served as a POW camp during World War II.  As elsewhere in Morocco, a shanty town called Timdiqîn soon grew up next to the colonial establishment. It housed the Moroccan population (maids, gardeners, etc.) that serviced the French vacationers. Timdiqîn was separated from the colonial garden city by a deep ravine. After independence the French properties in the original garden city were slowly bought up by Moroccans. The town was enlarged and endowed with a mosque, a municipal market and public housing estates. Furthermore, the shanty neighborhood of Timdiqîn was rebuilt with proper civic amenities.  In 1979 Ifrane became the seat of the administrative province of the same name and some government services were established. In 1995 Al Akhawayn University, an English-language, American-curriculum public university opened and this has helped re-launch Ifrane as a desirable destination for domestic tourism. Consequently, Ifrane continues to develop as both a summer and winter resort. Old chalets in the center of town are being demolished and replaced with condominium complexes, while vacation centers and gated housing estates are springing up on the outskirts.  The Middle Atlas Mountains consist mostly of a series of limestone plateaus. Not far from Ifrane in the Middle Atlas is Cèdre Gouraud Forest. These plateaus receive considerable precipitation—averaging about 1100/1200 ml/year in Ifrane—and are naturally wooded, with scrub oak forests alternating with cedar. The Middle Atlas lies in the center of Morocco and constitutes its natural water tower, as many of the country's most important river systems: the Moulouya, the Sebou, the Bou Regreg, and the Oum Rbia originate in it. Historically, however, despite its centrality, the Middle Atlas has been an “empty quarter.” Though the area was regularly crossed by traders, and though the alpine summer pasture was used by herders, the harsh climate and relatively poor soils long impeded permanent human settlement. Today the Middle Atlas is still one of the least densely populated parts of Morocco, even when compared to other mountainous regions such as the High Atlas and the Rif.  A small fort overlooking Oued Tizguit (now part of the palace precinct) had already been built during the period of military conquest in order to secure the Fez to Khenifra road across the mountains. The gently rolling landscape, with fresh springs and wildflowers, was judged to have potential as a summer resort for colon families from the Saïss Plain, Meknes and Fez. Fifty hectares of agricultural land upstream from the zâwiyah, in an area originally designated as Tourthit, or “garden,”was expropriated for the project.  Ifrane was conceived as a “hill station” or colonial type of settlement. It is a resort town set high up in the mountains so that Europeans can find relief from the summer heat of tropical colonies. The British were the first to develop this type of resort in India, the best known of which is Simla in the Himalayas which served as their “summer capital.” The French built similar hill stations in Indochina, such as Dalat established in 1921. Ifrane was not the only hill station to be built in Morocco. The French also built one in neighboring Immouzer, as well as at Oukaimeden in the High Atlas. Hill stations share some common characteristics. As they are intended for expatriate European families, and they are often designed in such a way as to remind their foreign inhabitants of their distant homelands. The architectural style adopted is imported from the mother country in order that the place look like “little England” or “douce France.” This is the case in Ifrane where various mountain styles such as “maison basque” “Jura” and “Savoy” were used. Moreover, trees and flowering plants were also imported from the European home country. This too was intended to heighten the appearance and feeling of home. In Ifrane, lilac trees, plane trees (platanes), chestnut trees (marronniers and châtaigniers) and linden trees (tilleuls) were all imported for this purpose.

"Garden City".

Ifrane was planned according to the “garden city” model of urban design, fashionable in Western Europe between the two world wars. The concept of the garden city was developed in Britain as a model of social reform to solve the problems of 19th century industrial cities. By the 1920s however it had lost its social purpose to become an urban design type. Garden cities required low density housing consisting of fully detached or semi-detached single family homes surrounded by gardens.  In order to break with industrial-era grid plans, garden cities were always laid out with curving tree-lined streets. In fact, most garden cities were affluent suburbs, not true cities in their own right. They catered to the tastes of the upper middle classes who could afford to own a private automobile and property in the suburbs. They gave the illusion of county life, with village-type architecture, curvy streets and lots of trees, to people who in reality worked in big cities. Ifrane's initial garden city plan was designed in 1928 in Rabat by the Services Techniques of the Bureau de Contrôle des Municipalités, a division of the Direction des Affairs Politiques.  The 1928 plan - for the neighborhood known as Hay Riad today - had typical garden city features: curvy streets named for flora (Rue des lilas, Rue des tilleuls, etc.), and chalet-style houses. Houses could occupy only 40% of plots; the rest had to be planted as a garden. Moreover, large parts of the center of the town consisted of public gardens. Some of the original architecture can still be seen, especially in the neighborhood around the town hall and the Perce Neige Hotel. The summer homes built by the colons were designed by many of the same architects who built the European parts of Casablanca and Rabat. Whereas the European architecture in these big cities was innovative and intentionally modern, Ifrane's houses were built in traditional European styles and resembled those in the suburbs of contemporaneous French cities.  Ifranes's first public buildings were a post office and a Catholic church. The church, consecrated in 1939, was designed by Paul Tournon (1881–1964), a recipient of the prestigious Prix de Rome who had also designed the Sacré Coeur Church in Casablanca. The resort function of the new town was consolidated with the building of a number of hotels. Ifrane's first flagship hotel was the Balima, which was demolished in the 1980s. The other main hotel was the Grand Hôtel, which has recently been refurbished. A royal palace was also built for Sultan Muhammad b.Yûsuf.  Ifrane is thus an “imperial” city in that it houses a palace and benefits from royal patronage. One final institution of Ifrane's early years worthy of mention is the penitentiary which no longer exists, and the site, across from the Police Academy and the new police Commissariat, has been redeveloped as a summer camp for the Ministry of Justice. The penitentiary served as a Prisoner of War camp during World War II. The popular story of the origin of Ifrane's lion sculpture involves an Italian inmate of this prison sculpting the lion out of an outcrop of limestone, however this is not true as the lion dates from at least 1936 thus predating World War II.  The garden city hill station high in the Middle Atlas was always going to be an illusion of suburban middle class France. The colonial reality of the place was manifest in two ways. First of all the inhabitants of Zaouiat Sidi Abdeslam, the original owners of the land on which the town was built, were never properly compensated for their loss. Secondly, the town plan was incomplete. Provisions were made for the housing and infrastructure of colonial home-owners, but not for the Moroccan maids, gardeners or guards who worked for them. Finding no housing in the official allotments, these people had to build their own houses some distance away, across a ravine north of the town. As elsewhere in Morocco at the time, a shantytown thus grew up next to the colonial town. This is the origin of Timdiqin (officially called Hay Atlas).

Climate.

Because of its elevation, the town experiences snow during the winter months and a cool climate during the summer.  Located in the Atlas Mountains, and affected by the cold north Atlantic current, Ifrane has an oceanic climate with continental influence, or a warm-summer Mediterranean climate in the Köppen climate classification. The climate shifts from cold in winter to warm days in the summer months. The nights can be severely cold in winter. The winter highs rarely exceed in December–February.  Owing to the city's elevation and proximity to the north Atlantic Ocean, rainfall is very heavy whenever frontal systems affect the region. Precipitation patterns follow the classic Mediterranean range, from October to April. The city also receives high snowfall starting as early as October and lasting well into spring season. The annual average temperature does not exceed 11 °C.  Ifrane holds the record of the lowest temperature ever observed in Africa: on February 11, 1935.

Flora and fauna.

Ifrane's biodiversity is unique. Its fauna and flora contain rare yet mostly endangered species. Animals to be found in the vicinity include the threatened Barbary macaque. Among the local tree species are the native Atlas cedar, scrub oak and the introduced London plane.  Fauna  Ifrane's fauna is rich and diverse. Some of the mammals’ species that can be seen in region include: Some of the most interesting bird species available in Ifrane are: Ifrane is also well known for its pisciculture (fish farming) stations. Ras el Ma forest has a trout-breeding station in which you can watch trouts in their breeding basins. Moreover, Ifrane has a varied range of insects and amphibians.  Flora  Ifrane's plant and tree species include the following:

Ifrane (Berber: Ifran, ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ; ) is a city in the Middle Atlas region of Morocco (population 73,782 in November 2014). The capital of Ifrane Province in the region of Fès-Meknès, Ifrane is located at an elevation of. In Tamazight, the regional Berber language, "ifran" means "caves".

Ifrane (v tifinaghu ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ, arabským písmem إيفران) je město v Maroku, správní centrum stejnojmenné provincie. Žije v něm obyvatel. Město leží v pohoří Střední Atlas v nadmořské výšce přes 1600 metrů, je známé pod přezdívkou "malé Švýcarsko". Lokalita byla osídlena již před padesáti tisíci lety. Od šestnáctého století se v údolí řeky Tizguit začali usazovat berberští pastevci, v jejichž jazyce "ifran" znamená „jeskyně“. Ve zdejších horách se v letech 1913–1917 ukrývali účastníci povstání proti francouzské protektorátní správě. Ifrane bylo založeno v roce 1928 jako zahradní město pro francouzské rodiny, politik Eirik Labonne místo vybral pro čistý horský vzduch a mírné klima připomínající Evropu. Bylo vybudováno množství rodinných domů v alpském stylu a římskokatolický kostel podle projektu Paula Tournona, po vyhlášení marocké nezávislosti přibyla také mešita. V roce 1993 zde byla zřízena vysoká škola Al Akhawayn University, financovaná saúdskoarabským kapitálem a vyučující v angličtině. Ifrane je prázdninovým letoviskem s luxusními hotely a nejvýznamnějším střediskem zimních sportů v Maroku. Je obklopeno cedrovými a borovými lesy, v národním parku Ifrane žije makak magot, karakal a jelen berberský. Nedaleko se nachází jezero Afennourir, využívané k rekreaci a rybolovu.


Background and concept.

The work was funded by Charles Saatchi, who in 1991 had offered to pay for whatever artwork Hirst wanted to create. The shark itself cost Hirst £6,000 and the total cost of the work was £50,000. The shark was caught off Hervey Bay in Queensland, Australia, by a fisherman commissioned to do so. Hirst wanted something "big enough to eat you". It was first exhibited in 1992 in the first of a series of "Young British Artists" shows at the Saatchi Gallery, then at its premises in St John's Wood, north London. The British tabloid newspaper "The Sun" ran a story titled "£50,000 for fish without chips." The show also included Hirst's artwork "A Thousand Years". He was then nominated for the Turner Prize, but it was awarded to Grenville Davey. Saatchi sold the work in 2004 to Steven A. Cohen for an estimated $8 million.  Its technical specifications are: "Tiger shark, glass, steel, 5% formaldehyde solution, 213 × 518 × 213 cm."  "The New York Times" in 2007 gave the following description of the artwork:  Mr. Hirst often aims to fry the mind (and misses more than he hits), but he does so by setting up direct, often visceral experiences, of which the shark remains the most outstanding.  In keeping with the piece's title, the shark is simultaneously life and death incarnate in a way you don't quite grasp until you see it, suspended and silent, in its tank. It gives the innately demonic urge to live a demonic, deathlike form.

Decay and replacement.

Because the shark was initially preserved poorly, it began to deteriorate, and the surrounding liquid grew murky. Hirst attributed some of the decay to the fact that the Saatchi Gallery had added bleach to the fluid. In 1993, the gallery gutted the shark and stretched its skin over a fiberglass mould. Hirst commented, "It didn't look as frightening... You could tell it wasn't real. It had no weight."  When Hirst learned of Saatchi's impending sale of the work to Cohen, he offered to replace the shark, an operation which Cohen funded, calling the expense "inconsequential" (the formaldehyde process alone cost around $100,000). Another shark (a female aged about 25–30 years, equivalent to middle age) was caught off the Queensland coast and shipped to Hirst in a 2-month journey. In 2006, Oliver Crimmen, a scientist and fish curator at London's Natural History Museum, assisted with the preservation of the new specimen. This involved injecting formaldehyde into the body, as well as soaking it for two weeks in a bath of 7% formalin solution. The original 1991 vitrine was then used to house it.  Hirst acknowledged that there was a philosophical question as to whether replacing the shark meant that the result could still be considered the same artwork. He observed: It's a big dilemma. Artists and conservators have different opinions about what's important: the original artwork or the original intention. I come from a conceptual art background, so I think it should be the intention. It's the same piece. But the jury will be out for a long time to come.

Variants.

Hirst has made other works subsequently which also feature a preserved shark in formaldehyde in a vitrine. In September 2008, "The Kingdom", a tiger shark, sold at Hirst's Sotheby's auction, "Beautiful Inside My Head Forever", for £9.6 million (more than £3 million above its estimate).  Hirst has made a miniature version of "The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living" for the Miniature Museum in the Netherlands. In this case he put a guppy in a box (10 × 3.5 × 5 centimetres) filled with formaldehyde.

Responses.

In 2003, under the title "A Dead Shark Isn't Art", the Stuckism International Gallery exhibited a shark which had first been put on public display two years before Hirst's by Eddie Saunders in his Shoreditch (London) shop, JD Electrical Supplies. The Stuckists suggested that Hirst may have got the idea for his work from Saunders' shop display.  In a speech at the Royal Academy in 2004, art critic Robert Hughes used "The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living" as a prime example of how the international art market at the time was a "cultural obscenity". Without naming the artwork or the artist, he stated that brush marks in the lace collar of a painting by Velázquez could be more radical than a shark "murkily disintegrating in its tank on the other side of the Thames".  The 2009 British-Hungarian film "The Nutcracker in 3D" features a scene in which a pet shark is electrocuted in a water tank, which director Andrei Konchalovsky cites as a reference to Hirst's artwork.  Hirst's response to those who said that anyone could have done this artwork was, "But you didn't, did you?"

The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living is an artwork created in 1991 by Damien Hirst, an English artist and a leading member of the "Young British Artists" (or YBA). It consists of a tiger shark preserved in formaldehyde in a vitrine. It was originally commissioned in 1991 by Charles Saatchi, who sold it in 2004, to Steven A. Cohen for an undisclosed amount, widely reported to have been at least $8 million. However, the title of Don Thompson's book, "The $12 Million Stuffed Shark: The Curious Economics of Contemporary Art", suggests a higher figure.

Fyzická nemožnost smrti v mysli někoho žijícího (též živého nebo živoucího, anglicky ') je výtvarné dílo anglického umělce Damiena Hirsta. Představuje 4,3 m dlouhého žraloka tygrovaného naloženého v akváriu s formaldehydem. Dílo Hirsta celosvětově proslavilo a stalo se symbolem hnutí Mladých britských umělců ('), jehož je Hirst předním představitelem.


History.

The Black Square first appeared as part of a design for a stage curtain in the 1913 Russian Futurist/Cubo-Futurist opera "Victory over the Sun" by Velimir Khlebnikov, Aleksei Kruchyonykh, and Mikhail Matyushin, for whom he did the costume and stage designs.  Malevich painted his first "Black Square" in 1915. He made four variants, of which the last is thought to have been painted during the late 1920s or early 1930s, despite the author's "1913" inscription on the reverse. The painting is commonly known as "Black Square", "The Black Square" or as "Malevich's Black Square." It was first shown in The Last Futurist Exhibition 0,10 in 1915.  Forensic detail reveals how "Black Square" was painted over a more complex and colorful composition.

Historical context.

A plurality of art historians, curators, and critics refer to "Black Square" as one of the seminal works of modern art, and of abstract art in the Western painterly tradition generally.  Malevich declared the square a work of Suprematism, a movement which he proclaimed but which is associated almost exclusively with the work of Malevich and his apprentice Lissitzky today. The movement did have a handful of supporters amongst the Russian avant garde but it was dwarfed by its sibling constructivism whose manifesto harmonized better with the ideological sentiments of the revolutionary communist government during the early days of Soviet Union. Suprematism may be understood as a transitional phase in the evolution of Russian art, bridging the evolutionary gap between futurism and constructivism.  The larger and more universal leap forward represented by the painting, however, is the break between representational painting and abstract painting—a complex transition with which "Black Square" has become identified and for which it has become one of the key shorthands, touchstones or symbols.

Perception.

The work is frequently invoked by critics, historians, curators, and artists as the "zero point of painting", referring to the painting's historical significance as a paraphrase of a number of comments Malevich made about "The Black Square" in letters to his colleagues and dealers.  Malevich had made some remarks about his painting: Peter Schjeldahl wrote: The brushwork is juicy and brusque: filling in the shapes, fussing with the edges. But the forms are weightless, more like thoughts than like images. You don’t look at the picture so much as launch yourself into its trackless empyrean. Beyond its obvious design flair, the work looks easy because it is. Malevich is monumental not for what he put into pictorial space but for what he took out: bodily experience, the fundamental theme of Western art since the Renaissance. His appeal to Americans isn’t surprising. Apart from a peculiarly Russian mystical tradition, which he exploited—evoking the compact spell of the icon, as a conduit of the divine—his work amounts to a cosmic “Song of the Open Road.” It conveys sheer, surging, untrammelled possibility. This quality seemed in synch with the Revolution of 1917. It wasn’t—which Malevich was painfully made aware of, first by his rivals in the Russian avant-garde and then, conclusively, by the regime of Joseph Stalin.

Conservation.

The painting's quality has degraded considerably since it was drawn.  Peter Schjeldahl writes: The painting looks terrible: crackled, scuffed, and discolored, as if it had spent the past eighty-eight years patching a broken window. In fact, it passed most of that time deep in the Soviet archives, classed among the lowliest of the state's treasures. Malevich, like other members of the Revolutionary-era Russian avant-garde, was thrown into oblivion under Stalin. The axe fell on him in 1930. Accused of "formalism", he was interrogated and jailed for two months.

Contemporary discovery.

In 2015, while viewing the "Black Square" with a microscope, art historians at the Tretyakov Gallery discovered a message underneath its black paint. It was believed to read as "Battle of negroes in a dark cave."  The reference was linked to an 1897 comic by French writer Alphonse Allais with the caption: “Combat de Nègres dans une cave pendant la nuit” or “Negroes Fighting in a Cellar at Night.” The researchers at the State Tretyakov Gallery speculated that Malevich was responding to the joke within Allais' popular work.

Black Square (also known as The Black Square or Malevich's Black Square) is an iconic painting by Kazimir Malevich. The first version was done in 1915. Malevich made four variants of which the last is thought to have been painted during the late 1920s or early 1930s. "Black Square" was first shown in The Last Futurist Exhibition 0,10 in 1915. The work is frequently invoked by critics, historians, curators, and artists as the "zero point of painting", referring to the painting's historical significance and paraphrasing Malevich.

Černý čtverec (rusky ') či Černý suprematický čtverec (rusky ') je název řady maleb ukrajinsko-ruského malíře Kazimira Maleviče znázorňujících černý čtverec na světlém pozadí. První verze suprematického obrazu vznikla roku 1915. Obrazy jsou významnou etapou na cestě k abstraktnímu umění a patří k nejznámějším pracím ruského malířství.


History.

Historically, the town by its modern name was first mentioned in texts from 1530 by Benedict Kuripešić. Following the revolutions of Serbia and the last Turks out of the town in 1877, it soon started to grow and develop in the hands of the independent nation of Serbia. Today, it is an industrial town with beautiful nature and plenty of wildlife.

Massacre during World War I.

During World War I, 2,000–3,000 men were massacred by Bulgarian forces in the town from 1916 to 1917.

Yugoslavia (1918–92).

From 1929 to 1941, Surdulica was part of the Vardar Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After World War II, Surdulica gradually industrialized, with one of the largest employers in the town being Zastava Pes, a supplier to Zastava's automotive wing which at one point employed up to 500 people. With the introduction of sanctions against Yugoslavia during the 1990s, Zastava Pes reduced its workforce by 70% and had its international contracts terminated.

1999 NATO bombings.

Over the course of the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, Surdulica was subject to NATO bombings on multiple occasions. By the end of the bombing campaign, approximately fifty homes were destroyed and around 600 more were damaged in Surdulica alone. On April 27, 1999, NATO missiles struck several houses in the southern town of Surdulica. A CNN journalist named Alessio Vinci subsequently visited the local morgue, where he reported 16 civilians killed as a result of the attack. One of Serbia's public broadcasters, RTS, reported that 20 civilians were killed during the April 27 bombings, whereas Human Rights Watch only recorded eleven deaths. Many of the victims had been killed in a single house on Zmaj Jova street, owned by Vojislav Milić. Milić's family and several neighbors took refuge in Milić's basement when his house was struck by two bombs, after which nine people were killed in his house alone.  Over the night of May 30–31, 1999, NATO airstrikes destroyed a sanatorium and a retirement home in Surdulica. Human Rights Watch published the names of the 23 civilians killed in the sanatorium.

Geography.

The town stands at 480 m above sea level; it is surrounded by mountains to the north by Čemernik and to the south by Vardenik; the highest peak Strešer stands at 1875 meters high. Some twenty kilometres along the river Vrla and up the mountains there is a highland called Vlasina. In the 1950s, a man made dam created a lake called Vlasinsko Jezero (Vlasina Lake) which is famous for its peat floating islands which were harvested by local farmers. The highland of Vlasina is unique natural reserve with rich wildlife in particular the many rare species of migrating birds that use this unique place as a stop on their migrating way north or south. The lake is rich with fish and is one of largest reservoirs of clean water in that part of the country. The surrounding soil is lush and green resembling the Devon Downs or Argentine pampas. It presents great potential for cattle breeding and dairy production. It has distinct four seasons with long snowy winters and brief hot summers. There are also two streams running from the mountains and joining at the town of Surdulica. This is where the Romanovce River joins the Vrla River on their way to South Morava and thence to the Danube and the Black Sea.

Settlements.

Aside from the town of Surdulica, the municipality includes the following settlements:

Demographics.

According to the 2011 census results, the municipality of Surdulica has a population of 20,319 inhabitants.

Ethnic groups.

The ethnic composition of the municipality of Surdulica:

Economy.

The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

Education.

There are two primary schools in the town of Surdulica - "Vuk Karadžić" and "Jovan Jovanović Zmaj", and several schools in the villages around the town. There are three secondary schools: "Svetozar Marković Gimnazija" (Grammar School), "Josif Pančić School of Agriculture" and a technical college, "Nikola Tesla". In line with falling population in the municipality of Surdulica the number of high school students is also falling.

Surdulica () is a town and municipality located in the Pčinja District of southern Serbia. As of 2011, the population of the town is 11,400, while the municipality has 20,319 inhabitants.

Surdulica (v srbské cyrilici Сурдулица) je město na východě Srbska, u hranice s Bulharskem. Administrativně spadá pod Pčinjský okruh. V roce 2011 mělo 11 400 obyvatel.


History.

The first alpha of the game was released by its initial developer, Bill Kendrick, in September 2001, days prior to the September 11, 2001 attacks. It was decided that the imagery of exploding buildings was no longer suitable. Eventually the city imagery was replaced with igloos, to match the arctic theme of Tux, the Linux penguin, who stars in the game.  Since 1.7.0 the game also include a multiplayer mode and Factor-fraction activity called Factoroids.

Gameplay.

The game-play mechanic is based loosely on that of the arcade game Missile Command, but with comets falling on cities, rather than missiles. Like Missile Command, players attempt to protect their cities, but rather than using a trackball-controlled targeting cross-hair, players solve math problems that label each comet, which causes a laser to destroy it.

Features.

The game has multiple user support (useful for schools), LAN multiplayer mode, on-screen tutorials and a training mode - over 50 bundled lessons ranging from simple number typing up through all four basic arithmetic operations with negative numbers and "missing number" questions (e.g. "3 x? = 12"). Being an open source project, multi-platform support for Linux, Windows, Mac OS X, BeOS and others is available. Localization to over thirty (human) languages was created by the games community. Included is also "Factoroids", a clone of classic Atari video game "Asteroids", modified to be an activity to train factorization.

Reception and impact.

Distribution.

TuxMath is included in numerous Linux distributions, including the Edubuntu flavor of Ubuntu. It is included as a game on the ASUS Eee PC. It was also included on the Dish Network 721 PVR.

Use in Schools.

Numerous schools use TuxMath, and school newsletters, educational, software websites and publications mention it, often together with other open source educational software.

Tux, of Math Command (TuxMath, for short) is an open source arcade-style video game for learning arithmetic, initially created for Linux.

Tux, of Math Command (zkráceně TuxMath) je open-source hra žánru arkáda, jejímž cílem je procvičení aritmetiky. Hra je vytvořená primárně pro děti a zpočátku pro Linux.


Name.

The hypothetical nominative form of the name, "*Danu", is not found in any medieval Irish text, but is rather a reconstruction by modern scholars based on the genitive "Danann" (also spelled "Donand" or "Danand"), which is the only form attested in the primary sources (e.g. in the collective name of the Irish gods, "Tuatha De Danann" "Tribe of the Gods of Danu"). In Irish mythology, Anu (or Ana, sometimes given as Anann or Anand) is a goddess. She may be a goddess in her own right or an alternate name for Danu.  The etymology of the name has been a matter of much debate since the 19th century, with some earlier scholars favoring a link with the Vedic water goddess Danu, whose name is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root "*dhenh2-" "to run, to flow", which may also lie behind the ancient name for the river Danube, "Danuuius" – perhaps of Celtic origin, though it is also possible that it is an early Scythian loanword in Celtic.  Linguist Eric Hamp rejects the traditional etymologies in his 2002 examination of the name "Danu" and proposes instead that "*Danu" is derived from the same root as Latin "bonus" (Old Latin "duenos"), from Proto-Indo-European "*dueno-" "good", via a Proto-Celtic nominative singular n-stem "*Duonū" ("aristocrat").

In mythology.

Danu has no myths or legends associated with her in any surviving medieval Irish texts, but Indian Vedic texts refer to Danu who was wife of Rishi Kashyap, the author of Rig veda (one of the 4 Vedas). A new race has started from her in the Europe. She was considered as Goddess in Europe.  She has possible parallels with the Welsh literary figure Dôn, whom most modern scholars regarded as a mythological mother goddess in the medieval tales of the Mabinogion. However, Dôn's gender is never specified in the tales and was regarded as a man by some medieval Welsh antiquarians.  The closest figure in Irish texts to a "Danu" would then be Danand, daughter of Delbáeth. In the Lebor Gabála Érenn: The Book of the Taking of Ireland, it is noted the Tuatha Dé Danann get their name from the three sons of Danand: Brian, Iuchar, and Iucharba. These three are known as the "Gods of Dannan." However, Cormac's Glossary, a text that predates the Lebor Gabala Erenn, names the goddess Anu as the mother of the gods. Danu and Anu are often described as being the same figure by various sources.

In Irish mythology, Danu (; modern Irish Dana ) is a hypothetical mother goddess of the Tuatha Dé Danann (Old Irish: "The peoples of the goddess Danu"). Though primarily seen as an ancestral figure, some Victorian sources also associate her with the land.

Danu je hypotetická irská bohyně považovaná za matku božského rodu Tuatha Dé Danann. Pokud irská mytologie tuto postavu skutečně znala, může souviset či být totožná s bohyní Anu, která je označována za „matku irských bohů“, a Danand, někdy ztototožňované s matkou tří synů z "Tragického příběhu dětí Tuireannových". Dále je srovnávána s velšskou Dôn, jejíchž pět dětí bojuje s dětmi Llŷrovými. V širším kontextu může být dědičkou praindoevropské říční bohyně "*dehnu", které se snad ozývá kromě zmíněné Dôn, ve védské Dánu, matce démonických danávů, a ve jménech evropských řek jako Dunaj, Don, Dněpr a Dněstr.


History.

Early lives.

Craig Reid and Charles Reid were born in Leith on 5 March 1962 and grew up in Edinburgh, Cornwall and Auchtermuchty. When they lived in Auchtermuchty they attended Bell Baxter High School.

Pre-Proclaimers (1970s–1982).

Alluding to the early careers of Craig and Charles Reid in 1989, Bill Wyman of "Chicago Reader" commented that the pair "got into music through punk". After Craig received a beat-up drum kit and Charlie a guitar, the pair played in punk rock bands named Black Flag, Hippy Hasslers and Reasons for Emotion. Craig Reid, in a 2016 interview with "Esquire Middle East", relayed that he held dear the influence of punk acts such as The Clash.

Formation and "This Is the Story" (1983–1987).

Becoming cognisant of the potential of playing as a duo, the Reids established the Proclaimers as an acoustic duo in 1983. In allusion to the their early sound, actor Peter Mullan said that the Proclaimers played "a mix of post-punk and folk". During this time, the duo attracted a regional fan-base, with Inverness having an especially dedicated community of supporters. Many of the duo's songs, such as "Letter from America" which was written in 1984 and reflected unemployment rates of the day, were conceived in this period.  The Proclaimers recorded a demo album with the assistance of Kevin Rowland of Dexys Midnight Runners. The demo fell into the hands of English indie pop band the Housemartins, who invited the Proclaimers to support them on their 1986 tour. First opening at the Hummingbird in Birmingham, the tour afforded the duo the opportunity to perform on Channel 4 pop programme "The Tube" in January 1987, and Chrysalis Records quickly signed the pair.  In 1987, the duo John Williams-produced debut record "This Is the Story" was released through Chrysalis, and displayed a minimalist sound lauded by Timothy Monger as "sparse but spirited". For release as a single, the album-track "Letter from America" was remixed by Gerry Rafferty, embellishing the song with a full-band sound. The single peaked at No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart, as the duo appeared on "Top of the Pops" for the first time on 12 December 1987, while the album "This Is the Story" went gold. On their 1987 breakthrough, Neil McCormick of "The Telegraph" opined that the pair "stuck out like a pair of sore thumbs" amidst the "ersatz glamour of Eighties pop".

"Sunshine on Leith" (1988–1993).

The follow-up album, "Sunshine on Leith", was released in 1988 and featured a rock-driven sound as the Proclaimers worked with a band for the first time. Ranging in lyrical-themes from familial joy to Scottish nationalism, the record featured the singles "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)", which went to number one in Australia and New Zealand, and "I'm On My Way". The album was a particularly big hit in Australia in 1989, being that year's 12th biggest-seller, reaching No. 2, and attaining a 2× multi-platinum certification by the ARIA. Craig Reid described this success as their "biggest ever". Attaining certifications of 2× multi-platinum in Canada, at the time of June 2009 "Sunshine on Leith" had sold a worldwide total of 2 million copies. The album was a critical success, with "Rolling Stone" in May 1989 lauding it "a wonderfully guileless treasure of an album".  "Sunshine on Leith"'s following concert tour included a performance at the 1989 Glastonbury Festival, playing to an audience of over 65,000.  The Proclaimers had a hit with their EP "King of the Road", which reached number nine in the UK in 1990. The EP's titular song, a Roger Miller cover, was included in the 1990 film "The Crossing".  "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)" belatedly peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 in August 1993, after appearing in the movie "Benny & Joon", becoming their only chart single in the United States. This popularity saw the Proclaimers supporting American glam metal band Bon Jovi, alongside 10,000 Maniacs, at the Madison Square Garden concert on their I'll Sleep When I'm Dead Tour. "Sunshine on Leith" peaked at No. 31, shifting close to 700,000 units in the US by 2001.

"Hit the Highway" and hiatus (1994–2001).

The Proclaimers' third studio album, "Hit the Highway", was released in 1994. Continuing in the band-oriented rock direction of "Sunshine on Leith", "Hit the Highway" fell short of previous successes. Irrespective, the record spawned the hit "Let's Get Married", charting in the United Kingdom, Canada and Austria.  The Proclaimers recorded a cover of "Get Ready" by the Temptations for the 1994 screwball comedy film "Dumb and Dumber". Cameron Matthews of "Vice" praised the song "a rocking cover" which gave "a Scottish twist to the... original".  In 1994, the Proclaimers appeared at Canadian alternative music festival Edgefest alongside Toad the Wet Sprocket and the Lemonheads.  The Proclaimers kept out of the public eye for much of the late 1990s.

Return and "Persevere" (2001–2002).

After seven low-profile years, they released their comeback album "Persevere" in 2001. Lauded by Canadian culture publication "Exclaim!" as a "remarkable comeback", "Persevere" was to-date the only album of theirs to be recorded in the United States, and saw the duo tour North America in support of Canadian alternative rock band Barenaked Ladies.  "The Best of The Proclaimers" the duo's first greatest hits album, was released on 15 April 2002. The album was hailed by Hal Horowitz as "a near-perfect summary" of their material. Reaching No. 5 and being certified platinum in the UK, the compilation also charted in New Zealand.

"Born Innocent" (2003–2004).

The Proclaimers' fifth studio effort, "Born Innocent", was released in 2003. Their first release on their own label, Persevere Records, the record was hailed as "a return to form" and saw the duo work with Orange Juice frontman Edwyn Collins. "Born Innocent" was ranked at No. 26 for "Mojo Magazine"'s "Albums of the Year".  "Finest", the duo's second greatest hits album, was also released in 2003. Released through EMI that September, the compilation was received less favorably than its predecessor, "The Best of The Proclaimers", James Monger noting its omission of such songs as "Letter from America" and "Throw the 'R' Away". The compilation was nonetheless certified silver in the UK.

"Restless Soul" and "Life With You" (2005–2008).

The sixth studio effort, "Restless Soul", was released in 2005.  In March 2007 a new version of "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)", recorded for Comic Relief, reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart. The revival of the hit featured guest vocals from sitcom characters Andy Pipkin (portrayed by Matt Lucas) and Brian Potter (Peter Kay), of "Little Britain" and "Phoenix Nights", respectively.  A seventh studio album, "Life with You", was released on 3 September 2007 in the UK, and April 2008 in the US. The lead single, "Life with You", reached No. 58 in the UK, having been the only new Proclaimers single to chart since 1994, while the record itself was their highest-charting in 13 years, peaking at No. 13. "Life with You" enjoyed a generally praising critical reception, with "Boston Globe" praising the record's politically-edged content, remarking that "the Proclaimers are best when [...] proclaiming".  "Life with You"'s US release was promoted by an American tour, including performances in Buffalo, Philadelphia, Chicago, Seattle, Los Angeles and Solano Beach in April and May 2008.

"Notes & Rhymes" (2009–2011).

"Notes & Rhymes", the eighth Proclaimers studio album, was released in June 2009 on the W14 label. They signed to Cooking Vinyl thereafter.  The duo were one of the B-52s' touring partners on their Funplex tour in Australia and New Zealand in November 2009, alongside Mental as Anything.  They featured in VH1's 100 greatest one hit wonders, "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)" having been their only US hit single.

"Like Comedy" (2012–2014).

"Like Comedy", in 2012, was the Proclaimers' ninth studio effort and their first to be released on Cooking Vinyl records. In its sound a foray into blue-eyed soul, the record enjoyed a "generally favourable reception".  The Proclaimers toured the United States in April 2013, performing as an acoustic duo once again. That summer, the duo toured music festivals in the UK and Canada.  A third compilation, "", was released on 9 July 2013. Peaking at No. 80 on the UK Albums Chart, the compilation was certified gold in the UK in June 2019.  In 2014, the "Sunshine on Leith" track "Cap in Hand", noted for its nationalist stance, came to prominence in the wake of the Scottish Independence Referendum that September. The song reached No. 6 in Scotland and No. 62 on the UK Singles Chart.

"Let's Hear It for the Dogs" (2015–2017).

A tenth studio album, "Let's Hear It for the Dogs", was released in April 2015.

"Angry Cyclist" (2018–present).

Their latest album, "Angry Cyclist", was released in August 2018. Noted for its politically-angled libretto arraigning Brexit and the Trump administration, "Angry Cyclist" attracted a favourable reception, "AllMusic"'s Marcy Donelson lauding the record "one of [their] best", and "The Skinny" praising the album-track "Classy" as "lyrical genius".  During "Angry Cyclist's" accompanying promotional tour, they performed in the United Kingdom, Asia, Canada and Australia, to over 400,000 people. The Proclaimers also opened at the 2019 Glastonbury Festival.

Activism.

The Reids are well-known supporters of Scottish independence and have been activists for the Scottish National Party, expressing such views during their promotional tour of Britain in March 2007.  On 16 May 2006, the twins announced their participation in a campaign to free a fellow Scot, Kenny Richey, from his death row sentence in Ohio, United States, including an appearance at a charity concert. In December 2007, Richey accepted a plea bargain, which led to his release from death row and return to Scotland on 9 January 2008. Also, in March 2010 they participated with Billy Bragg in a show at the Electric Palace, Bridport, supporting Reprieve, a charity that seeks to end the use of the death penalty.

Influences and style.

Influences.

Craig Reid has acknowledged 1970s punk rock as a major influence, citing the Clash, the Jam, the Damned and the Sex Pistols as inspirational. On the punk influence, "Stuff New Zealand" remarked that punk bands galvanized the Proclaimers into making "whatever music they liked, in their own way, using their own accents". Other notable influences included 1960s music, such as the Rolling Stones, the Kinks and the Beatles, as well as later acts such as Dexys Midnight Runners and Bruce Springsteen.  When exploring lyrical influences in a 2012 interview with "The Scotsman", the Proclaimers preconized Dexys' Kevin Rowland, The Blockheads' Ian Dury, Joe Strummer of the Clash, the Smiths vocalist Morrissey and Merle Haggard as their "favourite lyricists".

Style.

Described by Timothy Monger of "AllMusic" as a "charismatic amalgam", the Proclaimers' style of music incorporates elements of country, folk, new wave, pop, punk rock, rock, rockabilly and soul. Stylistically, the Proclaimers have been typified as alternative folk, alternative rock, celtic pop, country folk, folk rock, post-punk, rhythm and blues, and roots rock.  The vocals in the Proclaimers' music are characterized by thick Scottish accents. Describing this to "The Courier" in 2018, Craig Reid commented "it was a conscious thing, because we were singing about where we live, our experiences and it just felt stupid to sing in an English or American accent".  In comparing the respective styles of other artists, "Last.fm" has adjudged many, including Dire Straits, R.E.M. and Squeeze, to be "similar artists" to the Proclaimers.

Impact and influence.

Many bands and artists have cited the Proclaimers as an influence or inspiration, including the Balconies, Barenaked Ladies, Belle and Sebastian, Camera Obscura, the Concretes, Jens Lekman, Sondre Lerche, Lonely Dear, Oppenheimer, Peter Bjorn and John and the Weepies.  Recalling feeling an immediate kinship with the Proclaimers after discovering "This Is the Story", Steven Page of Barenaked Ladies commented that "[the album] was perfect for us because it was exactly what we were; two guys with acoustic guitars, singing in harmony. It had all the energy of punk rock but just with acoustic guitars and voices".  Many acts have performed cover versions of Proclaimers songs, including Imagine Dragons, L7, and Todd Rundgren.  "Sunshine on Leith", a stage musical spotlighting the songs of The Proclaimers, was named in renown of the group's second studio album and its title track. The TMAAward-winning musical debuted in 2007, and the film adaptation, starring Peter Mullan and Jane Horrocks, was completed in 2013, grossing over US$4.7 million after debuting at No. 3 in the UK box office.

The Proclaimers are a Scottish rock duo formed in 1983 by twin brothers Craig and Charlie Reid, who were born 5 March 1962. They came to attention with their 1987 single "Letter from America", which reached No. 3 in the United Kingdom, and the 1988 single "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)", which topped charts in Australia, Iceland and New Zealand. The Proclaimers have sold over 5 million albums worldwide.

The Proclaimers je skotské rockové duo, které tvoří dvojčata Charlie a Craig Reidovi z města Auchtermuchty. The Proclaimers vznikli v roce 1983, jejich popularitě napomohlo společné turné s The Housemartins a v roce 1987 vydali svoje první album "This Is the Story". Následující album "Sunshine on Leith" se stalo platinovou deskou. Největším hitem skupiny je „I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)“ z roku 1988, které se dostalo do čela australské, novozélandské a islandské hitparády, na UK Singles Chart bylo jedenácté. Skladba se objevila ve filmu "Benny a Joon" a seriálech "Jak jsem poznal vaši matku" a "Chirurgové", je také oblíbená mezi sportovními fanoušky. V roce 2007 nahráli The Proclaimers s herci Peterem Kayem a Mattem Lucasem pro charitativní organizaci Comic Relief novou verzi písně, která vedla britské žebříčky. Další jejich skladba „I'm on My Way“ zazněla ve filmu "Shrek". Hudba The Proclaimers je také použita v muzikálu "Sunshine on Leith", který se v roce 2013 dočkal i filmové podoby.


Description of site.

The summit of Cerro Baúl is located in the Moquegua Valley. Both Cerro Baúl and the adjacent Cerro Mejia were under Wari control. The Wari had introduced the agricultural technology of terracing the mountainside and digging long canals across the land. A 6.2 mile canal was built from the Torata River through the El Paso Divide between Cerro Baúl and Cerro Mejia, where it split to irrigate the terraces that flanked both hills. Also along the terraced slopes we find the homes of the majority of the center's citizens. At the top of the mountain we find the public and elite living spaces. There are two D-shaped temples, in the Wari style, on the eastern and middle sections of the site. Also along the eastern side are one-story domiciles similar to the ones along the terraces. These are considered to be the artisan residence area by archaeologists. The central sector seems to be the ceremonial core, while the western sector comprises the two story dwellings of the elite. Sprinkled throughout this city we find the most common architectural form used by the Wari civilization, which is an enclosed plaza flanked by impressive stone halls. The halls included residences of governors and wealthy citizens, government offices, and beer houses for state-held parties.

Asociación Contisuyo.

Asociación Contisuyo (in Quechua: "Kunti Suyu"), literally translated to Association "Bias West or West Region", is an assemblage of Peruvian and American scholars with interests in the mapping and excavation of Cerro Baúl. Founded in 1981 directors Robert Pritzker and Dr. Michael Moseley, then of The Field Museum of Natural History combined their resources with the Southern Peru Copper Corporation to further their research at Cerro Baúl. Prior to the first excavations it was believed that the Wari civilization had obtained the area subsequent to Tiwanaku control; however, it is now known from archaeological artifacts found in the area, such as "kero" (a ceremonial cup), in the hybrid styles of both Wari and Tiwanaku, that they had occupied the areas at the same time. It is believed that the two cultures employed the close space rather peacefully, as there is no evidence of warfare and evidence of shared culture and styles from about A.D. 600 to 1020. The scholars, armed with the annals of a Spanish chronicler and two seasons of excavations, were able to find evidence that supported the Inca siege and capture of the Wari political outpost.

Wari political outpost and ceremonial center.

The Wari () culture of Peru in the Middle Horizon period (400 AD-1000 AD) was one of several Andean cultures before the rise of the Inca that can be termed "empires." They were not just city states, but actually exerted their influence over neighboring groups (or subjugated them). The Wari area of influence lay in what is now the central highlands of Peru and their area of influence overlapped that of another culture, the Tiwanaku. The Wari made their bold thrust into the Tiwanaku area of control by seizing both Cerro Baúl and the adjacent Cerro Mejia. By terracing and irrigating the areas for the sustainment of the city's populace, they managed to make the Tiwanaku at least partially dependent on their society as the water streaming from the mountain rainstorms had to pass by a Wari canal before it reached Tiwanaku fields. The relationship, however, seemed to be some positive interaction between the two peoples as seen in the Tiwanaku-style drinking vessel used in ceremonies that was among the Wari's most sacred ceremonial offerings found at the site.  With the demise of the Wari and Tiwanaku civilizations, the people of the Chiribaya culture lived in the area until they were conquered or colonized by the Inca.

Inca siege and conquest.

What we know of the Inca siege comes from Spanish chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega and is supported by excavations by the Programa Contisuyo. The Wari people were blockaded within their city by the surrounding Inca army for 54 days. During this time their people were without water and little food; finally in despair they sent their children down to the Inca in hopes for mercy. The Inca were reported to have received the children with kindness, fed them, and sent them back up the mountains with some supplies for their people. The final evacuation of the center enclave was accompanied by elaborate ceremonies with brewing, drinking, feasting vessel smashing and building burning. The Wari surrendered unconditionally to the Inca around A.D. 1475.

Today.

In current times, Cerro Baúl is a place of worship for the local Moqueguanos (inhabitants of Moquegua [/moˈkeɣwa/], a city founded by the Spanish colonists in southern Peru, located in the Moquegua Region, of which it is the capital) to offer "pagapus" (payment) to the Andean deities in the form of coca, candles and chicha, to list a few. Tourism is also available to this site.

Cerro Baúl ( "hill", "trunk" (i.e. a place to store treasured items)) is an ancient political outpost and ceremonial center settlement in Peru established by the pre-Incan empire called the Wari. Cerro Baúl is a terraced mountain, 2000 feet above its surroundings, with a settlement on the cliff tops themselves and in the immediate surroundings. Among other finds are the remnants of a brewery and large buildings that may have been used for ceremonial feasting. There is evidence of damage that has been interpreted as a careful and deliberate destruction, by the city's own people, of several buildings prior to the mesa's being vacated.

Cerro Baúl je stolová hora v Peru o nadmořské výšce 2585 metrů. Nachází se v regionu Moquegua, 11 kilometrů severovýchodně od města Moquegua. Vzhledem k tomu, že hora byla do roku 1000 posvátným místem Huarijské kultury, je archeologickou památkou. Na hoře se nacházejí rozsáhlé zbytky osídlení, které byly objeveny od 80. let dvacátého století archeology přírodopisného muzea v Chicagu.


Early life.

Richard “Dickie” Grieco was born in Watertown, New York, the son of Richard and Carolyn (née O'Reilly) Grieco. He is of Italian and Irish descent. After moving to Franklin, Massachusetts, in his teenage years, Grieco played football, hockey and lacrosse in high school. Grieco was All-State in all three sports. Grieco also played football for Central Connecticut State University.

Career.

Modeling, TV and film.

Grieco worked as a model for Armani, Calvin Klein and Chanel. He played Rick Gardner on "One Life to Live" from 1985 to 1987. In 1988, Grieco began appearing as Detective Dennis Booker on the shows "21 Jump Street" and its spinoff "Booker". Grieco's feature film debut was as Michael Corben in "If Looks Could Kill" (1991) and has appeared in numerous films since then. Later in 1991, he played the young Jewish bootlegger and mobster Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel in the movie "Mobsters". He also appeared in the TV series "Marker" in 1995. He played himself in the 1998 film "A Night at the Roxbury".

Music.

Grieco began a singing career in 1994 with the Dunmore Band. He signed to a German label and released a CD, "Waiting for the Sky to Fall", in 1995; he re-released the album in 2011, making it available on streaming services such as iTunes and Spotify. In 2004, he formed the band Wasteland Park with music manager Cheryl Bogart.

Art.

In 2009, several years after being encouraged to do so by Dennis Hopper, Grieco publicly revealed that he has been painting since 1991 and sold his first painting for $10,900. He calls his work "Abstract Emotionalism."

In popular culture.

In the WB sitcom "Off Centre", Grieco is idolized by Chau Presley, a character played by John Cho. In the show, Chau meets Grieco at the Department of Motor Vehicles and trades him an Oingo Boingo shirt for the one he is wearing. Several references are made to Grieco and his movies (especially "Point Doom").  In "A Night at the Roxbury", Grieco is idolized by the main characters. His lifestyle ("Clothes, Cars, Women") was what Doug and Steve Butabi were trying to achieve.  In 2016, he appeared as himself in an episode of "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia".

Richard John Grieco Jr. (born March 23, 1965) is an American actor and former fashion model. He is best known for his role as Detective Dennis Booker from the popular Fox series "21 Jump Street" (1988–89) and its spin-off "Booker" (1989–90). He has also starred in various films, including "If Looks Could Kill" and "Mobsters" (both 1991). Since the height of his fame, he has voiced characters in several video games and appeared as either himself or his "21 Jump Street" character in several films and television shows. Since 2009, he has also been known as a painter, working in a style he calls abstract emotionalism.

Richard John Grieco (* 23. března 1965) je americký herec, model, malíř a zpěvák. Znám je díky roli Dennise Bookera v seriálech "21 Jump Street", "Booker" (1989-1990) a filmu "22 Jump Street" (2014) a ztvárněním sám sebe v komedii "Noc v Roxbury" (1998).


Definition.

Cancer immunology is an interdisciplinary branch of biology concerned with the role of the immune system in the progression and development of cancer; the most well known application is cancer immunotherapy, where the immune system is used to treat cancer. Cancer immunosurveillance is a theory formulated in 1957 by Burnet and Thomas, who proposed that lymphocytes act as sentinels in recognizing and eliminating continuously arising, nascent transformed cells. Cancer immunosurveillance appears to be an important host protection process that decreases cancer rates through inhibition of carcinogenesis and maintaining of regular cellular homeostasis. It has also been suggested that immunosurveillance primarily functions as a component of a more general process of cancer immunoediting.

Tumor antigens.

Tumors may express tumor antigens that are recognized by the immune system and may induce an immune response. These tumor antigens are either TSA (Tumor-specific antigen) or TAA (Tumor-associated antigen).

Tumor-specific.

Tumor-specific antigens (TSA) are antigens that only occur in tumor cells. TSAs can be products of oncoviruses like E6 and E7 proteins of Human papillomavirus, occurring in cervical carcinoma, or EBNA-1 protein of EBV, occurring in Burkitt’s lymphoma cells. Another example of TSAs are abnormal products of mutated oncogenes (e.g. Ras protein) and anti-oncogenes (e.g. p53).

Tumor-associated antigens.

Tumor-associated antigens (TAA) are present in healthy cells, but for some reason they also occur in tumor cells. However, they differ in quantity, place or time period of expression. Oncofetal antigens are tumor-associated antigens expressed by embryonic cells and by tumors. Examples of oncofetal antigens are AFP (α-fetoprotein), produced by hepatocellular carcinoma, or CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen), occurring in ovarian and colon cancer. More tumor-associated antigens are HER2/neu, EGFR or MAGE-1.

Immunoediting.

Cancer immunoediting is a process in which immune system interacts with tumor cells. It consists of three phases: elimination, equilibrium and escape. These phases are often referred to as "the three Es" of cancer immunoediting. Both, adaptive and innate immune system participate in immunoediting.  In the elimination phase, the immune response leads to destruction of tumor cells and therefore to tumor suppression. However, some tumor cells may gain more mutations, change their characteristics and evade the immune system. These cells might enter the equilibrium phase, in which the immune system doesn’t recognise all tumor cells, but at the same time the tumor doesn’t grow. This condition may lead to the phase of escape, in which the tumor gains dominance over immune system, starts growing and establishes immunosuppressive environment.  As a consequence of immunoediting, tumor cell clones less responsive to the immune system gain dominance in the tumor through time, as the recognized cells are eliminated. This process may be considered akin to Darwinian evolution, where cells containing pro-oncogenic or immunosuppressive mutations survive to pass on their mutations to daughter cells, which may themselves mutate and undergo further selective pressure. This results in the tumor consisting of cells with decreased immunogenicity and can hardly be eliminated. This phenomenon was proven to happen as a result of immunotherapies of cancer patients.

Immunomodulation methods.

Immune system is the key player in fighting cancer. As described above in mechanisms of tumor evasion, the tumor cells are modulating the immune response in their profit. It is possible to improve the immune response in order to boost the immunity against tumor cells.

Relationship to chemotherapy.

Obeid et al. investigated how inducing immunogenic cancer cell death ought to become a priority of cancer chemotherapy. He reasoned, the immune system would be able to play a factor via a ‘bystander effect’ in eradicating chemotherapy-resistant cancer cells. However, extensive research is still needed on how the immune response is triggered against dying tumour cells.  Professionals in the field have hypothesized that ‘apoptotic cell death is poorly immunogenic whereas necrotic cell death is truly immunogenic’. This is perhaps because cancer cells being eradicated via a necrotic cell death pathway induce an immune response by triggering dendritic cells to mature, due to inflammatory response stimulation. On the other hand, apoptosis is connected to slight alterations within the plasma membrane causing the dying cells to be attractive to phagocytic cells. However, numerous animal studies have shown the superiority of vaccination with apoptotic cells, compared to necrotic cells, in eliciting anti-tumor immune responses.  Thus Obeid "et al." propose that the way in which cancer cells die during chemotherapy is vital. Anthracyclins produce a beneficial immunogenic environment. The researchers report that when killing cancer cells with this agent uptake and presentation by antigen presenting dendritic cells is encouraged, thus allowing a T-cell response which can shrink tumours. Therefore, activating tumour-killing T-cells is crucial for immunotherapy success.  However, advanced cancer patients with immunosuppression have left researchers in a dilemma as to how to activate their T-cells. The way the host dendritic cells react and uptake tumour antigens to present to CD4 and CD8 T-cells is the key to success of the treatment.

Cancer immunology is an interdisciplinary branch of biology that is concerned with understanding the role of the immune system in the progression and development of cancer; the most well known application is cancer immunotherapy, which utilises the immune system as a treatment for cancer. Cancer immunosurveillance and immunoediting are based on protection against development of tumors in animal systems and (ii) identification of targets for immune recognition of human cancer.

Nádorová imunologie je mezioborová biologická disciplína zabývající se pochopením role imunitníhosystému ve vývoji a progresi nádorů. Nejznámější aplikace tohoto oboru je nádorová imunoterapie, která využívá imunitné systém k léčbě nádorů. Vztah mezi nádorem a imunitném systémem se dá rozdělit na 3 stavy: eliminace nádoru imunitním systémem, rovnováha mezi imunitním systémem a nádorem a únikem nádoru. Teorie imunitního dozoru, která byla formulována v roce 1957 Burnetem a Thomasem, tvrdí že lymfocyty se chovají jako stráž v rozpoznávání a ničení nádorových buněk. Jedná se o důležitou součást ochrany jedince před vznikem rakoviny a udržení homeostáze organizmu. Je navrhováno, že teorie imunitního dozoru je součástí všeobecnějšího procesu imunoeditace. Vztah mezi nádorem a imunitném systémem se dá rozdělit na 3 stavy: eliminace nádoru imunitním systémem, rovnováha mezi imunitním systémem a nádorem a únikem nádoru, všechny tyto stavy jsou souhrně označovány jako imunoeditace nádoru.


Mountain.

Capitol Peak lies on the long ridge connecting the heart of the Elk Mountains with Mount Sopris to the northwest. Capitol Peak is notable for its impressive vertical relief, rising nearly 9,000 feet above the Roaring Fork Valley.  Capitol Peak is one of the most difficult of Colorado's fourteeners to climb. The only non-technical route, the Northeast Ridge, requires crossing the famously exposed "Knife Edge," the northeast ridge of Capitol. Fatalities have occurred on this route. Other routes require technical rock climbing, for example, the Northwest Buttress Route (Grade IV, Class 5.9). These routes have significant rockfall danger due to a great deal of loose rock; however, the rock is substantially more solid than on the more famous Maroon Bells or on Pyramid Peak.

Capitol Peak Trail.

Capitol Peak is a 15.1 mile lightly trafficked out and back trail located near Snowmass Village, Colorado that features a lake and is only recommended for very experienced adventurers. The trail is primarily used for hiking, rock climbing, and backpacking and is best used from July until September. Dogs are also able to use this trail.  From the parking lot, hikers will hike 5.7 miles before arriving at the Capitol Peak campsite. Another 1.9 Miles is hiked to K2 and the summit. K2 is a peak that is often confused by hikers as the Capitol Peak summit.

Camping.

There is primitive camping near trail head in a designated site. No fee is required, but restrictions may exist.

Daly Pass.

At the trail head, at an altitude of 9,400 feet, following several switchbacks for half a mile will lead you to Daly Pass. Daly Pass is the first point of interest on Capitol Peak. This pass is recognized for its saddle-shaped ridge reaching 12,480 feet. After the pass, there is no more easy hiking till the summit.

K2.

K2 is known for often getting confused by hikers as the Capitol Peak summit. Most hikers will go around the right side where it is most exposed, but fatality rates are much higher when you go around.

Knife Edge.

Knife edge (pictured above) is famous for its 150-foot length, with 2,000 foot drops on both sides. Daredevils will walk across it in a timely manner, but other hikers may scooch across it like straddling a horse. This is where most deaths occur on the Capitol Peak Trail.

Summit.

The view from Capitol Peak's summit is simply breathtaking. Below scatter the jewel-like Pierre Lakes in the huge cirque to the east and to the south rises Snowmass Mountain, another Fourteener, at the end of a long shattered ridge. Farther to the east are red-striated peaks, including the Maroon Bells, Pyramid Peak, and Castle Peak, while the long ridge of the Continental Divide hangs against the eastern horizon.

Capitol Peak is a high and prominent mountain summit in the Elk Mountains range of the Rocky Mountains of North America. It is the 52nd highest mountain in North America. The fourteener is located in the Maroon Bells-Snowmass Wilderness of White River National Forest, east by south (bearing 104°) of the community of Redstone in Pitkin County, Colorado, United States.

Capitol Peak je hora v západní části středního Colorada, v kraji Pitkin County. Capitol Peak je s nadmořskou výškou 4 307 m třetí nejvyšší horou pohoří Elk Mountains, které leží na jihu Skalnatých hor. Hora leží 23 km západně od známého lyžařského centra Aspenu.


History.

Deutsche Grammophon Gesellschaft was founded in 1898 by German-born United States citizen Emile Berliner as the German branch of his Berliner Gramophone Company. Berliner sent his nephew Joseph Sanders from America to set up operations. Based in the city of Hanover (the founder's birthplace), the company was the German affiliate of the U.S. Victor Talking Machine Company and the British Gramophone Company, but that affiliation ended with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Though no longer connected to the British Gramophone Company, Deutsche Grammophon continued to use the "His Master's Voice" trademark featuring the dog Nipper in Germany until the late 1940s.  In 1941, Deutsche Grammophon was purchased by the Siemens & Halske electronics company.  In 1949, Deutsche Grammophon sold the German rights of the His Master's Voice trademark to the Electrola unit of EMI. The dog and gramophone were replaced by the crown of tulips, designed by Siemens advertising consultant Hans Domizlaff.  In 1962 Siemens formed a joint venture with Netherlands-based Philips to create the DGG/PPI Record Group, which became PolyGram Records in 1972. By this time, DGG had built a reputation for high-quality recording in the classical field as well as a notable roster of contracted singers, musicians, and conductors. Through its subsidiary label Archiv Produktion it also stimulated interest in Western medieval and renaissance music, 15th–16th century choral polyphony, Gregorian chant, and pioneering use of 'historical instruments' and performance practices in recordings.  DGG/Polydor's entrance into the US market in 1969 (DGG had distribution deals in the US with Decca Records and MGM Records beforehand) came at a time when the big US classical music labels RCA Victor Red Seal and Columbia Masterworks were dropping their unlucrative classical artists and pressing poor-quality records. The fine quality both of recording and of pressings helped DGG succeed in America and attract artists such as Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra (after a 35-year association with RCA Victor) to DGG/Polydor. In 1987 Siemens sold off its interest in PolyGram, and Philips became the majority shareholder. In 1998, the Seagram company of Canada purchased Deutsche Grammophon and PolyGram on behalf of its Universal Music Group subsidiary. Since then, UMG was sold and became a division of Vivendi.  Deutsche Grammophon pioneered the introduction of the compact disc to the mass market, debuting classical music performed by Herbert von Karajan and the Berlin Philharmonic for sale in the new medium in 1983, the first recording being Richard Strauss's "Eine Alpensinfonie".  Deutsche Grammophon has a huge back catalogue of notable recordings. The company is reissuing a portion of it in its "Originals" series; compact disc releases are noted for their vinyl record stylized design. It is also releasing some of American Decca Records' albums from the 1940s and 1950s, such as those that Leonard Bernstein made for Decca in 1953, and the classic Christmas album that features Ronald Colman's starring in "A Christmas Carol" and Charles Laughton's narrating "Mr. Pickwick's Christmas". Along with the American Decca Records classical music catalogue, Deutsche Grammophon also manages the classical music catalogue of ABC Records, including Westminster Records which, along with American Decca, were part of MCA Records.  Although Deutsche Grammophon acquired the reputation of releasing mainstream classical recordings, from the 1960s onwards it released an increasing number of avant-garde recordings (initially under the Avant-Garde imprint), including Bruno Maderna, David Bedford, Cornelius Cardew, Luigi Nono and improvisations. It also released the majority of the compositions of Karlheinz Stockhausen until the composer bought the rights to the recordings and re-released them on his own label. Other German composers associated with the label included Paul Hindemith and Hans Werner Henze.  Contemporary composers whose works were released by Deutsche Grammophon include Sofia Gubaidulina, Oliver Knussen, Mark-Anthony Turnage, Mohammed Fairouz, Péter Eötvös, Luigi Nono, Sven Helbig, Jonny Greenwood, Bryce Dessner, Witold Lutosławski, Philip Glass, Tori Amos and Max Richter.  The conductor most associated with the label is Herbert von Karajan. Other conductors under contract included Ferenc Fricsay, Carlos Kleiber, Karl Böhm, Karl Richter, Eugen Jochum, Rafael Kubelík, Leonard Bernstein, Pierre Boulez, Claudio Abbado, and Christian Thielemann. Recent signings include Long Yu, Yannick Nézet-Séguin, Gustavo Dudamel, Hera Hyesang Park, and Myung-whun Chung.

Deutsche Grammophon (DGG) is a German classical music record label that was the precursor of the corporation PolyGram. Headquartered in Berlin Friedrichshain, it is now part of Universal Music Group (UMG) since its merger with the UMG family of labels in 1999. It is the oldest surviving established record company.

Deutsche Grammophon (DGG) je německé hudební vydavatelství klasické hudby, které bylo předchůdcem společnosti PolyGram. Společnost sídlí v Berlíně v Friedrichshainu, nyní je součástí společnosti Universal Music Group (UMG) od svého spojení s rodinou značek UMG v roce 1999. Je to nejstarší dosud existující nahrávací společnost.