Early career.

Born in Dresden in the Electorate of Saxony on 29 August 1756, his family stemmed from an old line of Savoairds. His father was the Saxon General Johann Franz von Bellegarde (named count in 1741) and his mother was "Frau Reichsgräfin" Maria Antonia von Hartig. Bellegarde first served in the Saxon army, receiving a commission as a "Fähnrich" (ensign) in the Infantry Regiment Bork; later as a lieutenant in the Queen's regiment. Transferring his services to Austria in 1771, Bellegarde and distinguished himself leading the dragoon regiment "Zweibrück" in the War of the Bavarian Succession. In 1781, Joseph II named him major of the Savoy dragoons, and four years later he was colonel of the Dragoon Regiment "Berlichingen".  At Batajnica (in German sources called Bexania), a village on the outskirts of Belgrade, at 09:00 on 9 September 1788, Bellegarde engaged in his first feat of arms (the War of Bavarian Succession had no battles): with four squadron of his regiment, he led an attack against the Ottomans entrenched in a line between Batajnica and Semlin; and in the enthusiasm of the attack brought with him a squadron of the Division Zeschwitz Cuirassiers, the Joseph Toscana Dragoons, part of a division of Zelschwit cuirassiers and a squadron of Wurmser Hussars, securing control of a dam and earthenworks on a Danube tributary. By the end of fighting, in which Bellegarde played a pivotal role in leading the Wurmser Hussars to secure control of the earth works, the Ottoman force lost 300 men, and the Austrians lost 31, and 42 wounded. In the course of the following year, Bellegarde, with his dragoons, came under the command of General of Cavalry Count Kinsky. The largest part of the campaign, he remained with his regiment in cantonment, in the Banat, but as part of the force upon which Feldmarshal Laudon could draw. In late summer 1792, the Regiment Archduke Joseph Toscana dragoons transferred to the Netherlands.

Wars of the First and Second Coalition.

After being appointed a General-Major in at the end of 1792, he fought in the War of the First Coalition in the Netherlands campaigns of 1793–1794, attached to the command of Feldzeugmeister Prince Hohenlohe, in the main headquarters of Trier. He commanded a defensive line between the Mosel and the Saar rivers, in the Eifel and at the border of the Liège; on his right stood Feldmarshal Lieutenant Beaulieu, and on his left, the Prussian general Kohler. He commanded three battalions, two light companies and two squadrons of hussars.  His contribution to the siege force at Le Quesnoy included two battalions of infantry regiment Grand Duke of Tuscany (Nr 23), a battalion of the Sinoth grenadiers, and two battalions of the Wartensleben. The French made several attempts to lift the siege. On 17 August 1793, he was in the nearby forest with his command, and led a bayonette charge against 6,000 French positioned in the trees, chased them out, and occupied the wood. preventing these troops from relieving the besieged fortress. At the Battle of Avesnes-le-Sec on 12 September, cavalry under his command overran another French relief force in a "highly effective cavalry action".  After winning promotion to Feldmarshal-Leutnant, he served on the staff of the Archduke Charles in the fighting in Germany. He accompanied Charles to Italy in the following year. He was also employed in the congress of Rastatt.  In 1799, Bellegarde commanded a corps in eastern Switzerland, connecting the armies of Archduke Charles and Aleksandr Suvorov, and finally joined the latter in north Italy. He conducted the siege of the citadel of Alessandria, and was present at the decisive Battle of Novi. After the Austrian defeat at the Battle of Marengo (in which his brother Friedrich Bellegarde commanded a brigade), Emperor Francis II of Austria appointed Bellegarde to command the army in Italy with the rank of General of Cavalry. On 25 December, the French defeated Bellegarde at the Battle of Pozzolo.

Napoleonic Wars.

In 1805, when Archduke Charles left to take command in Italy, Bellegarde became president "ad interim" of the council of war. He was, however, soon employed in the field, and at the sanguinary Battle of Caldiero he commanded the Austrian right.  In the War of the Fifth Coalition he commanded the I "Armee Korps". He supervised the II "Armee Korps", which was also posted on the north bank of the Danube River. Cut off from Archduke Charles as the result of the Battle of Eckmühl, he retreated into Bohemia, but managed to rejoin the main army before the great battles near Vienna.  He led the I Korps in the battles of Aspern-Essling and Wagram. After the 1809 war, Bellegarde became a Feldmarschall. From 1809 to 1813 he was governor-general of Galicia, but was often called to preside over the meetings of the Aulic Council, especially in 1810 in connection with the reorganization of the Austrian army.  In 1813, 1814 and 1815 he led the Austrian armies in Italy. His successes in these campaigns were diplomatic as well as military, and he ended them by crushing the last attempt of Joachim Murat to regain the Kingdom of Naples in 1815.  Between 1815 and 1816, he was Viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia. From 1816 to 1825, (when he had to retire owing to failing eyesight) he held various distinguished civil and military posts.

Family.

Early in 1791 in Vienna, he married Baroness Augusta Berlichingen, the widow of the Baron Friedrich August von Berlichingen, and the daughter of Friedrich Alexander von Berlichingen. They had two sons: August (29. October 1795; † 21. June 1873) married Julie von Gudenus (28. October 1795; † 11. February 1865) and Heinrich (1798; † 17. June 1871) married Pauline von Wolkenstein-Trostburg (6. May 1805). He died in Vienna on 22 July 1845.

Count Heinrich von Bellegarde, Viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia ( or sometimes "Heinrich von Bellegarde") (29 August 175622 July 1845), of a noble Savoyard family, was born in Saxony, joined the Saxon army and later entered Habsburg military service, where he became a general officer serving in the Habsburg border wars, the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He became a "Generalfeldmarschall" and statesman.

Heinrich hrabě von Bellegarde (29. srpna 1756 Drážďany, Saské kurfiřtství – 22. července 1845 Vídeň) byl rakouský polní zbrojmistr původem ze saského hraběcího rodu.


Origin.

The term "Alpha and Omega" comes from the phrase "I am Alpha and Omega" (Koiné Greek: "ἐγώ εἰμι τὸ Ἄλφα καὶ τὸ Ὦ"), an appellation of Jesus in the Book of Revelation (verses 1:8, 21:6, and 22:13). The first part of this phrase ("I am the Alpha and Omega") is first found in Chapter 1 verse 8 ("1:8"), and is found in every manuscript of Revelation that has 1:8. Several later manuscripts repeat "I am the Alpha and Omega" in 1:11 too, but do not receive support here from most of the oldest manuscripts, including the Alexandrine, Sinaitic, and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus. It is, therefore, omitted in some modern translations. Scholar Robert Young stated, with regard to "I am the Alpha and Omega" in 1:11, the "oldest [manuscripts] omit" it.  A similar reference is in Isaiah 44, where the Lord says to be the first and the one who is after all.

Christianity.

Alpha (Α) and omega (Ω) are the first and last letters, respectively, of the classical (Ionic) Greek alphabet. Thus, the phrase "I am the alpha and the omega" is further clarified with the additional phrase, "the beginning and the end" in Revelation 21:6, 22:13. The first and last letters of the Greek alphabet were used because the book of Revelation is in the New Testament, which was originally written in Greek.  This phrase is interpreted by many Christians to mean that Jesus has existed for all eternity or that God is eternal. Though many commentators and dictionaries ascribe the title "the alpha and the omega" to both God and to Christ, some secular sources argue otherwise. "Barnes' Notes on the New Testament" (1974) claims: "It cannot be absolutely certain that the writer meant to refer to the Lord Jesus specifically here... There is no real incongruity in supposing, also, that the writer here meant to refer to God as such." Most Christian denominations also teach that the title applies to both Jesus and his Father.  The letters Alpha and Omega, in juxtaposition, are often used as a Christian visual symbol (see examples). The symbols were used in early Christianity and appear in the Roman catacombs. The letters were shown hanging from the arms of the cross in Early Christian art, and some crux gemmata, jeweled crosses in precious metal, have formed letters hanging in this way, called pendilia; for example, in the, which is based upon the Asturian Victory Cross. In fact, despite always being in Greek, the letters became more common in Western than Eastern Orthodox Christian art. They are often shown to the left and right of Christ's head, sometimes within his halo, where they take the place of the Christogram used in Orthodox art.

Judaism.

In Hebrew, the word "emet" (אמת, meaning "truth"), one of the names of God in Judaism, has been interpreted as consisting of the first, middle, and final letters of the Hebrew alphabet.

Islam.

The Qur'an gives "al'Awwal" (الأول), meaning "The First" and "al'Akhir" (الآخر), meaning "The Last" as two of the names of God:.

Alpha (Α or α) and omega (Ω or ω) are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, and a title of Christ and God in the Book of Revelation. This pair of letters is used as a Christian symbol, and is often combined with the Cross, Chi-rho, or other Christian symbols.

Alfa a omega, AΩ či αω je první a poslední písmeno klasické (jónské) řecké abecedy. Mohou tak znamenat počátek a konec, první a poslední, případně i celek nějakého děje nebo celku, podobně jako české „od A do Zet“.


Prelude.

When Emperor Maurice was murdered by the usurper Phocas, Khosrau II declared war to avenge his benefactor's death. While the Persians were successful during the first stages of the war, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, and even Anatolia, the ascendancy of Heraclius eventually led to the Persians' downfall. Heraclius' campaigns altered the balance, forcing the Persians on the defensive and allowing for the Byzantines to regain momentum. Allied with the Avars, the Persians attempted to take Constantinople, but were defeated.  While the Siege of Constantinople was taking place, Heraclius allied with what Byzantine sources called the Khazars under Ziebel, who are identified with the Western Turkic Khaganate of the Göktürks led by Tong Yabghu, plying him with wondrous gifts and a promise of the reward of the porphyrogenita Eudoxia Epiphania. The Caucasus-based Turks responded by sending 40,000 of their men to ravage the Persian Empire in 626 to start the Third Perso-Turkic War. Joint Byzantine and Göktürk operations were focused on besieging Tiflis.

Invasion of Mesopotamia.

In mid-September 627, leaving Ziebel to continue the siege of Tiflis, Heraclius invaded the Persian heartland, this time with between 25,000 and 50,000 troops and 40,000 Göktürks. The Göktürks, however, quickly deserted him because of the strange winter conditions. Heraclius was tailed by Rhahzadh's army of 12,000, but managed to evade Rhahzadh and invaded the heartland of the Persian Empire, in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Heraclius acquired food and fodder from the countryside, so Rhahzadh, following through countryside already stripped, could not easily find provisions for his soldiers and animals.  On December 1, Heraclius crossed the Great Zab River and camped near the ruins of the capital of the former Assyrian Empire of Nineveh in Persian ruled Assyria/Assuristan. This was a movement from south to north, contrary to the expectation of a southward advance. However, this can be seen as a way to avoid being trapped by the Persian army in case of a defeat. Rhahzadh approached Nineveh from a different position. News that 3,000 Persian reinforcements were approaching reached Heraclius, forcing him to act. He gave the appearance of retreating from Persia by crossing the Tigris.

Field of battle.

Heraclius had found a plain west of the Great Zab some distance from the ruins of Nineveh. This allowed the Byzantines to take advantage of their strengths in lances and hand-to-hand combat. Furthermore, fog reduced the Persian advantage in missile-shooting soldiers and allowed the Byzantines to charge without great losses from missile barrages. Walter Kaegi believes that this battle took place near Karamlays Creek.

Battle.

On December 12, Rhahzadh deployed his forces into three masses and attacked. Heraclius feigned retreat to lead the Persians to the plains before reversing his troops to the surprise of the Persians. After eight hours of fighting, the Persians suddenly retreated to nearby foothills, but it was not a rout. 6,000 Persians fell.  Nikephoros' "Brief History" tells that Rhahzadh challenged Heraclius to personal combat. Heraclius accepted and killed Rhahzadh in a single thrust; two other challengers fought and also lost. The account of another Byzantine historian, Theophanes the Confessor, supports this. However, doubt has been cast on whether or not this actually occurred. In any case, Rhahzadh died sometime in the battle.  The 3,000 Persian reinforcements arrived too late for the battle.

Aftermath.

The victory at Nineveh was not total as the Byzantines were unable to capture the Persian camp. However, this victory was significant enough to shatter the resistance of the Persians.  With no Persian army left to oppose him, Heraclius' victorious army plundered Dastagird, Khosrau's palace, and gained tremendous riches while recovering 300 captured Byzantine/Roman standards accumulated over years of warfare. Khosrau had already fled to the mountains of Susiana to try to rally support for the defense of Ctesiphon. Heraclius could not attack Ctesiphon itself because the Nahrawan Canal was blocked by the collapse of a bridge.  The Persian army rebelled and overthrew Khosrau II, raising his son Kavadh II, also known as Siroes, in his stead. Khosrau perished in a dungeon after suffering for five days on bare sustenance—he was shot to death slowly with arrows on the fifth day. Kavadh immediately sent peace offers to Heraclius. Heraclius did not impose harsh terms, knowing that his own empire was also near exhaustion. Under the peace treaty, the Byzantines regained all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, a war indemnity, and of great spiritual significance, the True Cross and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614. The battle was the last conflict of the Roman-Persian Wars.

The Battle of Nineveh () was the climactic battle of the Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628. In mid-September 627, Heraclius invaded the Sasanian heartland in a surprising, risky winter campaign. Khosrow II appointed Rhahzadh as the commander of an army to confront him. Heraclius' Göktürk allies quickly deserted, while Rhahzadh's reinforcements did not arrive in time. In the ensuing battle, Rhahzadh was slain and the remaining Sasanians retreated.

Bitva u Ninive byla rozhodující střetnutí poslední římsko-perské války, probíhající v letech 602 až 628. V této bitvě odehrávající se 12. prosince 627 zvítězilo východořímské vojsko vedené císařem Herakleiem nad Peršany, což následně vedlo k sesazení perského velkokrále Husrava II. a k ukončení konfliktu mezi oběma říšemi.


Background.

In 610, during the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, Heraclius became the emperor of the Byzantine Empire, after overthrowing Phocas. Meanwhile, the Sasanian Empire conquered Mesopotamia and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia, occupying Caesarea Mazaca (now Kayseri, Turkey). In 612, Heraclius managed to expel the Persians from Anatolia but was decisively defeated in 613 when he launched a major offensive in Syria against the Persians. Over the following decade, the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt. Meanwhile, Heraclius prepared for a counterattack and rebuilt his army.  In 622, Heraclius finally launched his offensive. After his overwhelming victories over the Persians and their allies in the Caucasus and Armenia, Heraclius launched a winter offensive against the Persians in Mesopotamia in 627, winning a decisive victory at the Battle of Nineveh thus threatening the Persian capital city of Ctesiphon. Discredited by the series of disasters, Khosrow II was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavadh II, who immediately sued for peace and agreed to withdraw from all occupied territories of the Byzantine Empire. Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem with a majestic ceremony in 629.  Meanwhile, there had been rapid political development in the Arabian Peninsula, where Muhammad had been preaching

Byzantine counterattack.

Having seized Emesa, the Muslims were just a march away from Aleppo, a Byzantine stronghold, and Antioch, where Heraclius resided. Seriously alarmed by the series of setbacks, Heraclius prepared for a counterattack to reacquire the lost regions. In 635 Yazdegerd III, the Emperor of Persia, sought an alliance with the Byzantine Emperor. Heraclius married off his daughter (according to traditions, his granddaughter) Manyanh to Yazdegerd III, to cement the alliance. While Heraclius prepared for a major offensive in the Levant, Yazdegerd was to mount a simultaneous counterattack in Iraq, in what was meant to be a well-coordinated effort. When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd could not co-ordinate with the maneuver, probably owing to the exhausted condition of his government, and what would have been a decisive plan missed the mark. Byzantine preparations began in late 635 and by May 636 Heraclius had a large force concentrated at Antioch in Northern Syria. The assembled Byzantine army contingents consisted of, Slavs, Franks, Georgians, Armenians and Christian Arabs. The force was organized into five armies,

Muslim strategy.

The Muslims discovered Heraclius' preparations at Shaizar through Roman prisoners. Alert to the possibility of being caught with separated forces, which could be destroyed, Khalid called for a council of war and advised Abu Ubaidah to pull the troops back from Palestine and Northern and Central Syria and then to concentrate the entire Rashidun army in one place. Abu Ubaidah ordered the concentration of troops in the vast plain near Jabiyah, as control of the area made cavalry charges possible and facilitated the arrival of reinforcements from Umar so that a strong, united force could be fielded against the Byzantine armies. The position also benefited from close proximity

Battlefield.

The battlefield lies in the plain of Jordanian Hauran, just southeast of the Golan Heights, an upland region currently on the frontier between Jordan and Syria, east of the Sea of Galilee. The battle was fought on the plain south of Yarmouk River. That ravine joins the Yarmouk River, a tributary of the Jordan River, on its south. The stream had very steep banks, ranging from – in height. On the

Troop deployment.

Most early accounts place the size of the Muslim forces between 24,000 and 40,000 and the number of Byzantine forces between 100,000 and 400,000. Modern estimates for the sizes of the respective armies vary: the vast majority of estimates for the Byzantine army are between 80,000 and 150,000, while other estimates are as low as 15,000 to 20,000. Estimates for the Rashidun army are between 25,000 and 40,000. Original accounts are mostly from Arab sources, generally agreeing that the Byzantine army and their allies outnumbered the Muslim Arabs by a sizeable margin. The only early Byzantine source is Theophanes, who wrote a century later. Accounts of the battle vary, some stating it lasted a day, others more than a day.

Rashidun army.

During a council of war, the command of the Muslim army was transferred to Khalid by Abu Ubaidah, Commander in Chief of the Muslim army. After taking command, Khalid reorganized the army into 36 infantry regiments and four cavalry regiments, with his cavalry elite, the mobile guard, held in reserve. The army was organised in the "Tabi'a" formation, a tight, defensive infantry formation. The army was lined up on a front of, facing west, with its left flank lying south on the Yarmouk River a mile before the ravines of "Wadi al Allan" began. The army's right flank was on the Jabiyah road in the north across the heights of "Tel al Jumm'a", with substantial gaps

Weaponry.

Helmets used included gilded helmets similar to the silver helmets of the Sassanid empire. Mail was commonly used to protect the face, neck, and cheeks as an aventail from the helmet or as a mail coif. Heavy leather sandals as well as Roman-type sandal boots were also typical of the early Muslim soldiers. Armour included hardened leather scale or lamellar armour and mail armour. Infantry soldiers were more heavily armoured than horsemen. Large wooden or wickerwork shields were used. Long-shafted spears were used, with infantry spears being long and cavalry spears being up to long. Short infantry swords like the Roman gladius and Sassanid long swords were used; long swords were usually carried by horsemen. Swords were hung in baldrics. Bows were about long when unbraced, similar in size to the famous English longbow. The maximum useful range of the traditional Arabian bow was about. Early Muslim archers, while being infantry archers without the mobility of horseback archer regiments, proved to be very effective in defending against light and unarmoured cavalry attacks.

Byzantine army.

A few days after the Muslims encamped at the Yarmouk plain, the Byzantine army, preceded by the lightly armed Ghassanids of Jabalah, moved forward and established strongly fortified camps just north of the Wadi-ur-Ruqqad.  The right flank of the Byzantine army was at the south end of the plains, near the Yarmouk River and about a mile before the ravines of "Wadi al Allan" began. The left flank of the Byzantines was at the north, a short distance before the Hills of Jabiyah began, and was relatively exposed. Vahan deployed the Imperial Army facing east, with a front about long, as he was trying to cover the whole area between the Yarmouk gorge in the south and the Roman road to Egypt in the north, and substantial gaps had been left between the Byzantine divisions. The

Weaponry.

The Byzantine cavalry was armed with a long sword, known as the "spathion". They would also have had a light wooden lance, known as a "kontarion" and a bow ("toxarion") with forty arrows in a quiver, hung from a saddle or from the belt. Heavy infantry, known as "skoutatoi", had a short sword and a short spear. The lightly-armed Byzantine troops and the archers carried a small shield, a bow hung from the shoulder across the back and a quiver of arrows. Cavalry armour consisted of a hauberk with a mail coif and a helmet with a pendant: a throat-guard lined with fabric and having a fringe and cheek piece. Infantry was similarly equipped with a hauberk, a helmet and leg armour. Light lamellar and scale armour was also used.

Tensions in Byzantine army.

Khalid's strategy of withdrawing from the occupied areas and concentrating all of his troops for a decisive battle forced the Byzantines to concentrate their five armies in response. The Byzantines had for centuries avoided engaging in large-scale decisive battles, and the concentration of their forces created logistical strains for which the empire was ill-prepared.  Damascus was the closest logistical base, but Mansur, leader of Damascus, could not fully supply the massive Byzantine army that was gathered at the Yarmouk plain. Several clashes were reported with local citizens over supply requisition, as summer was at an

Battle.

The battle lines of the Muslims and the Byzantines were divided into four sections: the left wing, the left centre, the right centre and the right wing. Note that the descriptions of the Muslim and the Byzantine battle lines are exactly each other's opposite: the Muslim right wing faced the Byzantine left wing (see image). Vahan was instructed by Heraclius not to engage in battle until all avenues of diplomacy had been explored., probably because Yazdegerd III's forces were not yet ready for the offensive in Iraq. Accordingly, Vahan sent Gregory and then Jabalah to negotiate, but their efforts proved futile. Before the battle, on Vahan's invitation, Khalid came to negotiate peace, with a similar end. The negotiations delayed the battles for a month.  On the other hand, Umar, whose forces at Qadisiyah were threatened with confronting the Sassanid armies, ordered Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas to enter negotiations with the Persians and to send emissaries to Yazdegerd III and his commander Rostam Farrokhzād, apparently inviting them to Islam. That was most probably the delaying tactic employed by Umar on the Persian front. Meanwhile, he sent reinforcements of 6,000 troops, mostly from Yemen, to Khalid. The force included 1,000 Sahaba (companions of Muhammad), among whom were 100 veterans of the Battle of Badr, the first battle in Islamic history, and included citizens of the highest rank, such as Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Abu Sufyan, and his wife Hind bint Utbah.  Also present were such distinct companions as Sa'id ibn Zayd, Fadl ibn Abbas, Abdul-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr (the son of Abu Bakr), Abdullah ibn Umar (the son of Umar), Aban ibn Uthman (the son of Uthman), Abdulreman ibn Khalid (the son of Khalid), Abdullah ibn Ja'far (the nephew of Ali), Ammar ibn Yasir, Miqdad ibn Aswad, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Malik al-Ashtar, Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, Qays ibn Sa'd, Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman, Ubada ibn as-Samit, Hisham ibn al-A'as, Abu Huraira and Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl. As it was a citizen army, in contrast to a mercenary army, the age of the soldiers ranged from 20 (in the case of Khalid's son) to 70 (in the case of Ammar). Three of the ten companions promised paradise by Muhammad, namely Sa'id, Zubayr and Abu Ubaidah, were present at Yarmouk.  Umar, apparently wanting to defeat the Byzantines first, used the best Muslim troops against them. The continuing stream of Muslim reinforcements worried the Byzantines, who fearing that the Muslims with such reinforcements would grow powerful, decided that they had no choice but to attack. The reinforcements that were sent to the Muslims at Yarmouk arrived in small bands, giving the impression of a continuous stream of reinforcements to demoralize the Byzantines to compel them to attack. The same tactic would be repeated again during the Battle of Qadisiyah.

Aftermath.

Immediately after the operation was over, Khalid and his mobile guard moved north to pursue the retreating Byzantine soldiers and found them near Damascus and attacked. Vahan, who had escaped the fate of most of his men at Yarmouk, was probably killed in the ensuing fighting. Khalid then entered Damascus, where he was supposedly welcomed by the local residents, thus recapturing the city.  When news of the disaster reached Heraclius at Antioch, the emperor was devastated and enraged. He blamed his wrongdoings for the loss, primarily referring to his incestuous marriage to his niece Martina. He would have tried to reconquer the province if he had the resources but now had neither the men nor the money to defend the province any more. Instead, he retreated to the cathedral of Antioch, where he observed a solemn service of intercession. He summoned a meeting of his advisers at the cathedral

Evaluation.

The Imperial Byzantine commanders allowed their enemy to have the battlefield of his choosing. Even then, they were at no substantial tactical disadvantage. Khalid knew all along that he was up against a force superior in numbers and, until the last day of the battle, conducted an essentially defensive campaign, suited to his relatively limited resources. When he decided to take the offensive and attack on the final day of battle, he did so with a degree of imagination, foresight and courage that none of the Byzantine commanders managed to display. Although he commanded a smaller force and needed all the men he could muster, he had the confidence and foresight to dispatch a cavalry regiment the night before his assault to seal off a critical path of the retreat that he had anticipated for the enemy army.  Because of his leadership at Yarmouk, Khalid ibn al-Walid is considered one of the finest generals in history, and his use of mounted warriors throughout the battle showed just how well he understood the potential strengths and weaknesses of his mounted troops. His mobile guard moved quickly from one point to another, always changed the course of events wherever they appeared, and, then just as quickly, galloped away to change the course of events elsewhere on the field.  Vahan and his Byzantine commanders did not manage to deal with the mounted force and use the sizable advantage of their army effectively. Their own Byzantine cavalry never played a significant role in the battle and were held in static reserve for most of the six days. They never pushed their attacks, and even when they obtained what could have been a decisive breakthrough on the fourth day, they were unable to exploit it. There appeared to be a decided lack of resolve among the Imperial commanders, but that may have been caused by difficulties commanding the army because of internal conflict. Moreover, many of the Arab auxiliaries were mere levies, but the Muslim Arab army consisted for a much larger part of veteran troops.  The original strategy of Heraclius, to destroy the Muslim troops in Syria, needed a rapid and quick deployment, but the commanders on the ground never displayed those qualities. Ironically, on the field at Yarmouk, Khalid carried out, on a small tactical scale, what Heraclius had planned on a grand strategic scale. By rapidly deploying and manoeuvering his forces, Khalid was able to concentrate sufficient forces at specific locations on the field temporarily to defeat the larger Byzantine army in detail. Vahan was never able to make his numerical superiority count, perhaps because of the terrain, which prevented large-scale deployment.  However, Vahan never attempted to concentrate a superior force to achieve a critical breakthrough. Although he was on the offensive five out of the six days, his battle line remained remarkably static. That stands in stark contrast to the very successful offensive plan, which Khalid carried out on the final by reorganising virtually all his cavalry and committing it to a grand manoeuvre, which won the battle.  George F. Nafziger, in his book "Islam at war", described the battle:

The Battle of Yarmouk was a major battle between the army of the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim forces of the Rashidun Caliphate. The battle consisted of a series of engagements that lasted for six days in August 636, near the Yarmouk River, along what are now the borders of Syria–Jordan and Syria–Israel, east of the Sea of Galilee. The result of the battle was a complete Muslim victory that ended Byzantine rule in Syria. The Battle of Yarmouk is regarded as one of the most decisive battles in military history, and it marked the first great wave of early Muslim conquests after the death of Muhammad,(Peace be Upon Him) heralding the rapid advance of Islam into the then Christian Levant.

Bitva u Jarmúkubyl jeden z nejvýznamnějších vojenských střetů Byzantské říše a Rášidského chalifátu. Bitva se uskutečnila v srpnu roku 636 u řeky Jarmúk blízko dnešní syrsko-jordánsko-izraelské hranice. Byzantské vojsko podlehlo muslimským Arabům, které vedl Chálid ibn al-Valíd.


Biography.

Theophanes was born in Constantinople of wealthy and noble iconodule parents: Isaac, governor of the islands of the Aegean Sea, and Theodora, of whose family nothing is known. His father died when Theophanes was three years old, and the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V (740–775) subsequently saw to the boy's education and upbringing at the imperial court. Theophanes would hold several offices under Leo IV the Khazar.  He was married at the age of twelve, but convinced his wife to lead a life of virginity. In 779, after the death of his father-in-law, they separated with mutual consent to embrace the religious life. She chose a convent on an island near Constantinople, while he entered the Polychronius Monastery, located in the district of Sigiane (Sigriano), near Cyzicus on the Asian side of the Sea of Marmara. Later, he built a monastery on his own lands on the island of Calonymus (now Calomio), where he acquired a high degree of skill in transcribing manuscripts.  After six years he returned to Sigriano, where he founded an abbey known by the name "of the big settlement" and governed it as abbot. In this position of leadership, he was present at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, and signed its decrees in defense of the veneration of icons.  When Emperor Leo V the Armenian (813–820) resumed his iconoclastic warfare, he ordered Theophanes brought to Constantinople. The Emperor tried in vain to induce him to condemn the same veneration of icons that had been sanctioned by the council. Theophanes was cast into prison and for two years suffered cruel treatment. After his release, he was banished to Samothrace in 817, where overwhelmed with afflictions, he lived only seventeen days. He is credited with many miracles that occurred after his death, which most likely took place on 12 March, the day he is commemorated in the "Roman Martyrology".

"Chronicle".

At the urgent request of his friend George Syncellus, Theophanes undertook the continuation of Syncellus' "Chronicle" (, Chronographia), during the years 810 to 815. The language used occupies a place midway between the stiff ecclesiastical and the vernacular Greek.He arguably made use of three main sources: first, material already prepared by Syncellus; second, he probably made the use of a set of extracts made by Theodore Lector from the works of Socrates Scholasticus, Sozomenus, and Theodoret; and third, the city chronicle of Constantinople. Cyril Mango has argued that Theophanes contributed but little to the chronicle that bears his name, and that the vast bulk of its contents are the work of Syncellus; on this model, Theophanes' main contribution was to cast Syncellus' rough materials together in a unified form.  Theophanes' part of the chronicle covered events from the accession of Diocletian in 284 (which is the point where the chronicle of George Syncellus ends) to the downfall of Michael I Rhangabes in 813. This part of the chronicle is valuable for having preserved the accounts of lost authorities on Byzantine history for the seventh and eighth centuries that would be otherwise have been lost.  The work consists of two parts, wherein the first provides a chronological history arranged per annum, and the second contains chronological tables that are regrettably full of inaccuracies. It seems that Theophanes had only prepared the tables, leaving vacant spaces for the proper dates, but that these had been filled out by someone else (Hugo von Hurter, "Nomenlator literarius recentioris" I, Innsbruck, 1903, 735). In the chronological first part, in addition to reckoning by the years of the world and the Christian era, Theophanes introduces in tabular form the regnal years of the Roman emperors, of the Persian kings and Arab caliphs, and of the five ecumenical patriarchs, a system which leads to considerable confusion, and therefore of little value.  The first part, though lacking in critical insight and chronological accuracy, greatly surpasses the majority of Byzantine chronicles. Theophanes's Chronicle is particularly valuable beginning with the reign of Justin II (565), as in his work, he then drew upon sources that have not survived his times  Theophanes' "Chronicle" was much used by succeeding chroniclers, and in 873–875 a Latin compilation was made by the papal librarian Anastasius from the chronicles of Nicephorus, George Syncellus, and Theophanes for the use of a deacon named Johannes in the second half of the ninth century and thus was known to Western Europe.  There also survives a further continuation, in six books, of the "Chronicle" down to the year 961 written by a number of mostly anonymous writers (called Theophanes Continuatus or "Scriptores post Theophanem"), who undertook the work at the instructions of Constantine Porphyrogenitus.

References.

Attribution:

Theophanes the Confessor (; c. 758/760 – March 12, 817/818) was a member of the Byzantine aristocracy who became a monk and chronicler. He served in the court of Emperor Leo IV the Khazar before taking up the religious life. Theophanes attended the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 and resisted the iconoclasm of Leo V the Armenian, for which he was imprisoned. He died shortly after his release.

Theofanes Homologetes, případně latinsky Confessor (kolem 760 – 12. března 818), byl příslušník byzantské aristokracie, který se stal mnichem a významným kronikářem. V roce 787 se zúčastnil Druhého nikajského koncilu a za vlády Leona V. byl jako rozhodný odpůrce ikonoklasmu poslán do vyhnanství. Theofanes sepsal kroniku, v níž postihl historické události od nástupu Diocletiana v roce 284 až do pádu Michaela I. Rangabe v roce 813. Přitom čerpal z děl některých dřívějších autorů, jejichž texty se nedochovaly, a je téměř jediným zdrojem pro 7. a 8. století, zejména léta 769 až 813. V jeho díle nenacházíme prakticky žádný kritický přístup k dějinám.


Background.

The crusaders had left Nicaea on June 26, with a deep distrust of the Byzantines, who had taken the city without their knowledge after a long siege. In order to simplify the problem of supplies, the Crusader army had split into two groups; the weaker led by Bohemond of Taranto, his nephew Tancred, Robert Curthose, Robert of Flanders, and the Byzantine general Tatikios in the vanguard, and Godfrey of Bouillon, his brother Baldwin of Boulogne, Raymond IV of Toulouse, Stephen II, and Hugh of Vermandois in the rear.  On June 29, they learnt that the Turks were planning an ambush near Dorylaeum (Bohemond noticed that his army was being shadowed by Turkish scouts). The Turkish force, consisting of Kilij Arslan I and his ally Hasan of Cappadocia, along with help from the Danishmendids, led by the Turkish prince Gazi Gümüshtigin. Contemporary figures place this number between 25,000-30,000, more recent estimates are between 6,000 and 8,000 men. Back then numbers were mentioned absurdly high in order to give it a heroic twist, 150,000 men according to Raymond of Aguilers, which was not possible due lack of logistic support, men and since Turks fought a hit and run guerrilla-tactic indicating a small army. Fulcher of Chartres gives the exaggerated number of 360,000.  In addition to large numbers of noncombatants, Bohemond's force probably numbered about 10,000, the majority on foot. Military figures of the time often imply perhaps several men-at-arms per knight (i.e., a stated force of 500 knights is assumed to contain perhaps 1,500 men-at-arms in addition), so it seems reasonable that Bohemond had with him approximately 8,000 men-at-arms and 2,000 cavalry.  On the evening of June 30, after a three-day march, Bohemond's army made camp in a meadow on the north bank of the river Thymbres, near the ruined town of Dorylaeum (Many scholars believe that this is the site of the modern city of Eskişehir).

Battle.

On July 1, Bohemond's force was surrounded outside Dorylaeum by Kilij Arslan. Godfrey and Raymond had separated from the vanguard at Leuce, and the Turkish army attacked at dawn, taking Bohemond's army (not expecting such a swift attack) entirely by surprise, shooting arrows into the camp. Bohemond's knights had quickly mounted but their sporadic counterattacks were unable to deter the Turks. The Turks were riding into camp, cutting down noncombatants and unarmoured foot soldiers, who were unable to outrun the Turkish horses and were too disoriented and panic-stricken to form lines of battle. To protect the unarmoured foot and noncombatants, Bohemond ordered his knights to dismount and form a defensive line, and with some trouble gathered the foot soldiers and the noncombatants into the centre of the camp; the women acted as water-carriers throughout the battle. While this formed a battle line and sheltered the more vulnerable men-at-arms and noncombatants, it also gave the Turks free rein to maneuver on the battlefield.  The Turkish mounted archers attacked in their usual style - charging in, shooting their arrows, and quickly retreating before the crusaders could counterattack. The archers did little damage to the heavily armoured knights, but they inflicted heavy casualties on the horses and unarmoured foot soldiers. Bohemond had sent messengers to the other Crusader army and now struggled to hold on until help arrived, and his army was being forced back to the bank of the Thymbris river. The marshy riverbanks protected the crusaders from mounted charge, as the ground was too soft for horses, and the armoured knights formed a circle protecting the foot soldiers and noncombatants from arrows, but the Turks kept their archers constantly supplied and the sheer number of arrows was taking its toll, reportedly more than 2,000 falling to horse-archers. Bohemond's knights were impetuous - although ordered to stand ground, small groups of knights would periodically break ranks and charge, only to be slaughtered or forced back as the Turkish horses fell back beyond range of their swords and arrows, while still shooting at them with arrows, killing many of the knights' horses out from under them. And although the knights' armour protected them well (the Turks called them'men of iron') the sheer number of arrows meant that some would find unprotected spots and eventually, after so many hits, a knight would collapse from his wounds.  Just after midday, Godfrey arrived with a force of 50 knights, fighting through the Turkish lines to reinforce Bohemond. Through the day small groups of reinforcements (also from Raymond, and Hugh, as well as Godfrey) arrived, some killed by the Turks, others fighting to reach Bohemond's camp. As the Crusader losses mounted, the Turks became more aggressive and the Crusader army found itself forced from the marshy banks of the river into the shallows. But the Crusaders held on, and after approximately 7 hours of battle, Raymond's knights arrived (it is unclear if Raymond was with them, or if they arrived ahead of Raymond), launching a vicious surprise attack across the Turkish flank that turned them back in disarray and allowed the Crusaders to rally.  The Crusaders had formed a line of battle with Bohemond, Tancred, Robert of Normandy, and Stephen on the left wing, Raymond, Robert of Flanders in the centre and Godfrey, Robert of Flanders, and Hugh on the right, and they rallied against the Turks, proclaiming ""hodie omnes divites si Deo placet effecti eritis"" ("today if it pleases God you will all become rich"). Although the ferocity of the Norman attack took the Turks by surprise, they were unable to dislodge the Turks until a force led by Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy, the Papal legate, arrived in mid-afternoon, perhaps with Raymond in the van, moving around the battle through concealing hills and across the river, outflanking the archers on the left and surprising the Turks from the rear. Adhemar's force fell on the Turkish camp, and attacked the Turks from the rear. The Turks were terrified by the sight of their camp in flames, and by the ferocity and endurance of the knights, since the knights' armour protected them from arrows and even many sword cuts, and they promptly fled, abandoning their camp and forcing Kilij Arslan to withdraw from the battlefield.

Aftermath.

The crusaders did indeed become rich, at least for a short time, after capturing Kilij Arslan's treasury. The Turks fled and Arslan turned to other concerns in his eastern territory. Arslan punitively took the male Greek children from the region extending from Dorylaeum to Iconium, sending many as slaves to Persia. On the other hand, the crusaders were allowed to march virtually unopposed through Anatolia on their way to Antioch. It took almost three months to cross Anatolia in the heat of the summer, and in October they began the siege of Antioch.  With the Crusader army moved onwards towards Antioch, the Emperor Alexios I achieved part of his original intent in inviting the Crusaders in the first place: the recovery of Seljuk-held imperial territories in Asia Minor. John Doukas re-established Byzantine rule in Chios, Rhodes, Smyrna, Ephesus, Sardis, and Philadelphia in 1097–1099. This success is ascribed by Alexios' daughter Anna to his policy and diplomacy, but by the Latin historians of the crusade to his treachery and falseness.  The Gesta Francorum did praise the Turkish army's bravery and superhuman efforts at Dorylaeum. It mentioned:

The Battle of Dorylaeum took place during the First Crusade on July 1, 1097, between the crusaders and the Seljuk Turks, near the city of Dorylaeum in Anatolia. Despite Kilij Arslan almost destroying Bohemond's contingent, help arrived just in time for a very close victory.

V bitvě u Dorylaia se 1. července 1097 střetlo vojsko účastníků první křížové výpravy se seldžuckými Turky. Křižáci dosáhli v této bitvě vítězství, načež prošli téměř bez odporu celou Malou Asií a pokračovali k Antiochii, zatímco Turci se stáhli dále na východ.


Background.

In the campaigns of 1943 and the first half of 1944, the Allies had captured the Solomon Islands, the Gilbert Islands, the Marshall Islands and the Papuan Peninsula of New Guinea. This left the Japanese holding the Philippines, the Caroline Islands, the Palau Islands, and the Mariana Islands.  It had always been the intention of the American planners to bypass the Carolines and Palauan islands and to seize the Marianas and Taiwan. From these latter bases, communications between the Japanese archipelago and Japanese forces to the south and west could be cut. From the Marianas, Japan would be well within the range of an air offensive relying on the new Boeing B-29 Superfortress long-range bomber with its operational radius of.  While not part of the original American plan, Douglas MacArthur, commander of the Southwest Pacific Area command, obtained authorization to advance through New Guinea and Morotai toward the Philippines. This allowed MacArthur to keep his personal pledge to liberate the Philippines, made in his "I shall return" speech, and also allowed the active use of the large forces built up in the southwest Pacific theatre. The Japanese, expecting an attack somewhere on their perimeter, thought an attack on the Caroline Islands most likely. To reinforce and supply their garrisons, they needed naval and air superiority, so Operation A-Go, a major carrier attack, was prepared for June 1944.

Opposing forces.

United States
 US Fifth Fleet (Vice Adm. Raymond A. Spruance, USN)
 Expeditionary Troops (Lt. Gen. Holland M. Smith, USMC)
 Approx. 59,800 officers and enlisted  Japan
 Central Pacific Area Fleet HQ (Vice Adm. Chūichi Nagumo)
 Thirty-first Army (Lt. Gen. Hideyoshi Obata)
 Defenses of Saipan (Lt. Gen. Saito Yoshitsugu)
 Approx. 25,500 army and 6,200 navy personnel

Battle.

The bombardment of Saipan began on 13 June 1944. 15 battleships were involved, and 165,000 shells were fired. Seven modern fast battleships delivered 2,400 shells, but to avoid potential minefields, fire was from a distance of or more, and crews were inexperienced in shore bombardment. The following day the eight older battleships and eleven cruisers under Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf replaced the fast battleships but were lacking in time and ammunition.  The landings began at 07:00 on 15 June 1944. More than 300 LVTs landed 8,000 Marines on the west coast of Saipan by about 09:00. Eleven fire support ships covered the Marine landings. The naval force consisted of the battleships and, the cruisers and, the destroyers,,,,,, and. Careful artillery preparation — placing flags in the lagoon to indicate the range — allowed the Japanese to destroy about 20 amphibious tanks, and they strategically placed barbed wire, artillery, machine gun emplacements, and trenches to maximize the American casualties. However, by nightfall, the 2nd and 4th Marine Divisions had a beachhead about wide and deep. The Japanese counter-attacked at night but were repulsed with heavy losses. On 16 June, units of the U.S. Army's 27th Infantry Division landed and advanced on the airfield at Ås Lito. Again the Japanese counter-attacked at night. On 18 June, Saito abandoned the airfield.  The invasion surprised the Japanese high command, which had been expecting an attack further south. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), saw an opportunity to use the "A-Go" force to attack the U.S. Navy forces around Saipan. On 15 June, he gave the order to attack. But the resulting battle of the Philippine Sea was a disaster for the IJN, which lost three aircraft carriers and hundreds of planes. The garrisons of the Marianas would have no hope of resupply or reinforcement.  Without resupply, the battle on Saipan was hopeless for the defenders, but the Japanese were determined to fight to the last man. Saito organized his troops into a line anchored on Mount Tapotchau in the defensible mountainous terrain of central Saipan. The nicknames given by the Americans to the features of the battle — "Hell's Pocket", "Purple Heart Ridge" and "Death Valley" — indicate the severity of the fighting. The Japanese used many caves in the volcanic landscape to delay the attackers, by hiding during the day and making sorties at night. The Americans gradually developed tactics for clearing the caves by using flamethrower teams supported by artillery and machine guns.  The operation was marred by inter-service controversy when Marine General Holland Smith, unsatisfied with the performance of the 27th Division, relieved its commander, Army Major General Ralph C. Smith. However, General Holland Smith had not inspected the terrain over which the 27th was to advance. Essentially, it was a valley surrounded by hills and cliffs under Japanese control. The 27th took heavy casualties and eventually, under a plan developed by General Ralph Smith and implemented after his relief, had one battalion hold the area while two other battalions successfully flanked the Japanese.  By 6 July, the Japanese had nowhere to retreat. Saito made plans for a final suicidal banzai charge. On the fate of the remaining civilians on the island, Saito said, "There is no longer any distinction between civilians and troops. It would be better for them to join in the attack with bamboo spears than be captured." At dawn of the 7 July, with a group of 12 men carrying a great red flag in the lead, the remaining able-bodied troops — about 4,000 men — charged forward in the final attack. Amazingly, behind them came the wounded, with bandaged heads, crutches, and barely armed. The Japanese surged over the American front lines, engaging both Army and Marine units. The 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 105th Infantry Regiment were almost destroyed, losing well over 650 killed and wounded. However, the fierce resistance of these two battalions, as well as that of Headquarters Company, 105th Infantry, and of supply elements of 3rd Battalion, 10th Marine Artillery Regiment, resulted in over 4,300 Japanese killed and 2,000 dead US soldiers. For their actions during the 15-hour Japanese attack, three men of the 105th Infantry Regiment were awarded the Medal of Honor: Lt. Col. William O'Brien, Cpt. Ben L. Salomon, Pvt. Thomas A. Baker, all posthumously. The attack on 7 July would be the largest Japanese Banzai charge in the Pacific War.  By 16:15 on 9 July, Admiral Turner announced that Saipan was officially secured. Saito, along with commanders Hirakushi and Igeta, committed suicide in a cave. Vice-admiral Chuichi Nagumo, the naval commander who led the Japanese carriers at Pearl Harbor, also committed suicide in the closing stages of the battle. He had been in command of the Japanese naval air forces stationed on the island.  In the end, almost the entire garrison of troops on the island — at least 29,000 — died. For the Americans, the victory was the most costly to date in the Pacific War: out of 71,000 who landed, 2,949 were killed and 10,464 wounded. Future Hollywood actor Lee Marvin was among the many Americans wounded. He was serving with "I" Company, 24th Marine Regiment, when he was hit by shrapnel in the buttocks by Japanese mortar fire during the assault on Mount Tapochau. He was awarded the Purple Heart and was given a medical discharge with the rank of private first class in 1945. Gen. Smith and V Amphibious Corps anticipated that taking Saipan would be difficult and they wanted to have a mechanized flame throwing capability. Research, development, and procurement made that a long term prospect. So VAC purchased 30 Canadian Ronson flame throwers and requested that the Army's Chemical Warfare Service in Hawaii install them in M3 Stuart's. Seabees with the CWS had 24 ready for the battle.

Further resistance.

While the battle officially ended on July 9, Japanese resistance still persisted with Captain Sakae Ōba and 46 other soldiers who survived with him during the last banzai charge. After the battle, Oba and his soldiers led many civilians throughout the jungle of the island to escape capture by the Americans, while also conducting guerrilla-style attacks on pursuing forces. The Americans tried numerous times to hunt them down but failed due to their speed and stealth. In September 1944, the Marines began conducting patrols in the island's interior, searching for survivors who were raiding their camp for supplies. Although some of the soldiers wanted to fight, Captain Ōba asserted that their primary concerns were to protect the civilians and to stay alive to continue the war. At one point, the Japanese soldiers and civilians were almost captured by the Americans as they hid in a clearing and ledges of a mountain, some were less than 20 feet (6.1 m) above the heads of the Marines, but the Americans failed to see them. Oba's holdout lasted for over a year (approximately 16 months) before finally surrendering on December 1, 1945, three months after the official surrender of Japan.  Oba was so successful in his resistance that the Marines nicknamed him the "Fox", and once even caused the reassignment of a commander.

Civilian casualties.

Being a former Spanish and then German territory, Saipan became a Mandate of Japan by order of the League of Nations after World War I, and thus a large number of Japanese civilians lived there by World War II — at least 25,000. The U.S. erected a civilian prisoner encampment on 23 June 1944 that soon had more than 1,000 inmates. Electric lights at the camp were conspicuously left on overnight to attract other civilians with the promise of three warm meals and no risk of being shot in combat accidentally.  The weapons used and the tactics of close quarter fighting resulted in high civilian casualties. Civilian shelters were located virtually everywhere on the island, with very little difference from military bunkers noticeable to attacking marines. The standard method of clearing suspected bunkers was the use of high-explosive and/or high-explosives augmented with petroleum (e.g., gelignite, napalm, diesel fuel). Consequently, there were high civilian casualties.  More than 1,000 Japanese civilians committed suicide in the last days of the battle to take the offered privileged place in the afterlife, some jumping from places later named "Suicide Cliff" and "Banzai Cliff". These would become part of the National Historic Landmark District as Landing Beaches; Aslito/Isley Field; & Marpi Point, Saipan Island, designated in 1985. Today the sites are a memorial and Japanese people visit to console the victims' souls.  On 16 June 1944, Gunnery Sergeant Robert H. McCard, a U.S. Marine, killed sixteen enemies while sacrificing himself to ensure the safety of his tank crew. McCard was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions. The, a "Gearing"-class destroyer, was named in his honor.

American military awards.

On 25 June 1944, PFC Harold G. Epperson, part of the 2nd Marine Division, threw himself on a grenade to contain the blast from killing members of his squad. For his bravery and sacrifice, PFC Epperson was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. Epperson's Medal of Honor was presented to his mother in a ceremony on Wednesday, 4 July 1945 in Tiger Stadium, Massillon, Ohio. The, a "Gearing"-class destroyer, was named in his honor.  When the 1st Battalion, 105th Infantry Regiment came under attack from a much larger enemy force on 7 July, Lieutenant Colonel William O'Brien refused to leave the front lines even after being wounded, and continued to lead his men until being overrun and killed. He was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor on 9 May 1945, for his actions throughout the battle for Saipan. The U.S. Army ship USAT "Col. William J. O'Brien", which served in the Pacific Ocean at the end of World War II, was named in his honor.  On 7 July, Private Thomas A. Baker and his comrades from the 1st Battalion, 105th Infantry Regiment, came under attack by a large Japanese force. Although seriously wounded early in the attack, he refused to be evacuated and continued to fight in the close-range battle until running out of ammunition. When a comrade was wounded while trying to carry him to safety, Baker insisted that he be left behind. At his request, his comrades left him propped against a tree and gave him a pistol, which had eight bullets remaining. When American forces retook the position, they found the pistol, now empty, and eight dead Japanese soldiers around Baker's body. Baker was posthumously promoted to sergeant and, on 9 May 1945, awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions throughout the battle for Saipan. He was buried at Gerald B. H. Solomon Saratoga National Cemetery in Schuylerville, New York.  On 7 July 1944, Army Captain Ben L. Salomon, the battalion dentist of 2nd Battalion, 105th Infantry Regiment, 27th Infantry Division aided the evacuation of wounded soldiers. After defending his unarmed patients from four Japanese soldiers, he manned a machine gun post and effectively repelled numerous enemy forces to enable the evacuation of wounded personnel. When his body was recovered after the battle, 98 dead Japanese soldiers were found in front of his position. For gallantry in battle, Captain Ben L. Salomon was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor in May 2002. Salomon was the third Jewish service member to be awarded the Medal of Honor during World War II.  PFC Guy Gabaldon, of Headquarters and Service Company, 2nd Marine Regiment, 2nd Marine Division, was a Mexican-American from Los Angeles. He is officially credited with capturing more than 1,000 Japanese prisoners during the battle. PFC Gabaldon, who was raised by Japanese-Americans, used a combination of street Japanese and guile to convince soldiers and civilians alike that U.S. troops were not barbarians, and that they would be well treated upon surrender. For his outstanding bravery, which earned him the nickname, "The Pied Piper of Saipan," Gabaldon received a Silver Star, which was upgraded to the Navy Cross. During the war, his commanders had requested that he receive the Medal of Honor for his actions; however, his initial award was the Silver Star. In 1998, efforts were re-initiated to secure the Medal of Honor for PFC Gabaldon. The effort was ongoing in 2006.

Aftermath.

Although major fighting had officially ceased on 9 July, pockets of Japanese resistance continued. In September 1944, U.S. Marines began patrols into the island interior in order to bring in civilians and soldiers still holding out in the jungles. A group led by Captain Sakae Oba managed to evade capture for more than 512 days until surrendering to American forces on 1 December 1945, three months after the official surrender of Japan. In February 2011, a film about Oba, "", was released in Japan.  With the capture of Saipan, the American military was now only away from the home islands of Japan. The victory would prove to be one of the most important strategic moments during the war in the Pacific Theater, as the Japanese archipelago was now within striking distance of United States' B-29 bombers. From this point on, Saipan would become the launch point for retaking other islands in the Mariana chain and the invasion of the Philippines in October 1944. Four months after capture, more than 100 B-29s from Saipan's Isely Field were regularly attacking the Philippines, the Ryukyu Islands and the Japanese mainland. In response, Japanese aircraft attacked Saipan and Tinian on several occasions between November 1944 and January 1945. The U.S. capture of Iwo Jima (19 February – 26 March 1945) ended further Japanese air attacks.  The loss of Saipan was a heavy blow to both the military and civilian administration of Prime Minister of Japan Hideki Tōjō. According to one Japanese admiral: "Our war was lost with the loss of Saipan." U.S. Marine Corps General Holland Smith said: "It was the decisive battle of the Pacific offensive [...] it opened the way to the Japanese home islands." Shortly after Saipan was taken, a meeting at the Imperial General Headquarters was convened where it was decided that a symbolic change of leadership should be made: Tōjō would step aside and Emperor Hirohito would have less involvement in day-to-day military affairs, even though he was defined as both head of state and the Generalissimo of the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces according to the Meiji Constitution of 1889. The general staff believed it was now time to distance the Imperial House of Japan from blame as the tide of war turned against the Japanese. Although Tōjō agreed to resign, Hirohito blocked his resignation because he considered Tōjō to be Japan's strongest war leader. But after Tōjō failed to shuffle his Cabinet due to excessive internal hostility, he conceded defeat. On 18 July, Tōjō again submitted his resignation, this time unequivocally. His entire cabinet resigned with him. Former IJA General Kuniaki Koiso became Prime Minister on 22 July. However, due to the legacy of Saipan, Koiso was nothing more than a titular Prime Minister, and was prevented by the Imperial General Headquarters from participating in any military decisions.  Saipan also saw a change in the way Japanese war reporting was presented on the home front. Initially, as the battle started, Japanese accounts concentrated on the fighting spirit of the IJA and the heavy casualties it was inflicting on American forces. However, any reader familiar with Saipan's geography would have known from the chronology of engagements that the U.S. forces were relentlessly advancing northwards. No further mention of Saipan was made following the final battle on 7 July, which was not initially reported to the public. However, after Tōjō's resignation on 18 July, an accurate, almost day-by-day, account of the defeat on Saipan was published jointly by the Army and Navy. It mentioned the near total loss of all Japanese soldiers and civilians on the island and the use of "human bullets". The reports had a devastating effect on Japanese opinion; mass suicides were now seen as defeat, not evidence of an "Imperial Way". This was the first time Japanese forces had accurately been depicted in a battle since Midway, which had been proclaimed a victory.  After the war concluded, apologists for Hirohito asserted that the order encouraging the civilians of Saipan to commit suicide for benefits in the afterlife had in fact been forged, along with other incriminating orders."

Memorial.

Suicide Cliff and Banzai Cliff, along with a number of surviving isolated Japanese fortifications, are recognized as historic sites on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. The cliffs are also part of the National Historic Landmark District Landing Beaches; Aslito/Isley Field; & Marpi Point, Saipan Island, which also includes the American landing beaches, the B-29 runways of Isley Field, and the surviving Japanese infrastructure of the Aslito and Marpi Point airfields.  The American Memorial Park on Saipan commemorates the U.S. and Mariana veterans of the Mariana Islands campaign.

The Battle of Saipan was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on the island of Saipan in the Mariana Islands from 15 June to 9 July 1944. The Allied invasion fleet embarking the expeditionary forces left Pearl Harbor on 5 June 1944, the day before Operation Overlord in Europe was launched. The U.S. 2nd Marine Division, 4th Marine Division, and the Army's 27th Infantry Division, commanded by Lieutenant General Holland Smith, defeated the 43rd Infantry Division of the Imperial Japanese Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Yoshitsugu Saito. The loss of Saipan, with the deaths of at least 29,000 troops and heavy civilian casualties, precipitated the resignation of Prime Minister of Japan Hideki Tōjō and left the Japanese archipelago within the range of United States Army Air Forces B-29 bombers.

Bitva o Saipan byla součást amerického postupu na japonské ostrovy během druhé světové války v Pacifiku. Odehrála se na ostrově Saipan v Mariánském souostroví ve dnech 15. června až 9. července 1944. Vylodění na Saipanu bylo součástí operace Forager. Americké jednotky tvořené zejména 2. a 4. divizí USMC a armádní 27. pěší divizí dokázaly s podporou námořnictva a po těžkých bojích obsadit ostrov, který hájila hlavně 43. divize císařské armády. Japonský pokus o odražení americké invaze – operace "A-gó" – vedl k předposlední bitvě letadlových lodí: bitvě ve Filipínském moři.


History.

1980–1996.

The first step to a European driving licence was taken on 4 December 1980, when the Council of Ministers adopted Council Directive 80/1263/EEC on the introduction of a Community driving licence, which established a Community model national licence that guaranteed the mutual recognition by the Member States of national licences. It also established the practice of exchange of licences by holders moving from one Member State to another.

1996–2013.

On 29 July 1991, the Council of Ministers adopted the Council of the European Union Directive 91/439/EEC on driving licences. The directive required EU Member States to adopt laws implementing the directive before 1 July 1994, which took effect on 1 July 1996. Directive 80/1263/EEC was repealed on the same date. Directive 91/439/EEC specified the European Union driving licence until its repeal on 19 January 2013.

Provisions.

The Council of the European Union Directive 91/439/EEC harmonised the categories of driving licences among the Member States and established two Community driving licence models, one paper version and one plastic card version. It furthermore established an obligatory test of knowledge (theory) and a test of skills and behaviour (practical) which had to be successfully passed before an individual is offered a driving licence. It also required an applicant to meet the minimum standards of physical and mental fitness to drive. The directive specified the minimum ages for driving different types of vehicles, and established progressive access in categories A, C, and D, from light vehicles to larger or more powerful vehicles. The directive stipulated that it is mandatory to have the normal residence in the Member State issuing the licence.

Amendments.

The Directive was substantially amended by nine directives and two acts of accession. The plastic card version of the Community licence model, for example, was added to the Directive by Council Directive 96/47/EC of 23 July 1996.

Since 2013.

In March 2006, the Council of Ministers adopted a Directive proposed by the European Commission to create a single European driving licence to replace the 110 different models in existence throughout the EU/EEA at the time. The European Parliament adopted the Directive in December 2006. Directive 2006/126/EEC was published in the Official Journal of the European Union on 30 December 2006. Its provisions took effect on 19 January 2013; Directive 91/439/EEC was then concurrently repealed.

Provisions.

The licence is a credit-card-style, single plastic-coated document, very difficult to counterfeit. The document is renewable every 10 or 15 years depending on the member state. Several member states have the option to include a microchip containing information about the card holder on the card.  Some categories like C and D are issued for five years only. After expiration, a medical check-up is necessary in order to renew the licence for another five years.

EEA relevance.

The provisions of Directive 2006/126/EC mention that it has European Economic Area (EEA) relevance, meaning that its provisions apply to all 28 EU member states, as well as Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway, through incorporation into the agreement on the EEA.  Switzerland is an EFTA member state but not a member of the European Economic Area. Switzerland is instead linked to the EU by a series of bilateral agreements and has generally adopted much of the harmonised EU legislation with regard to driving licences. Switzerland has used the EU system of vehicle categories since the 2000s, and Swiss driving licences are EEA-style credit-card licences.

Implementation.

The directive stipulated that all 31 EEA members states must have adopted laws implementing the directive no later than 19 January 2011. Those laws took effect in all EEA members states on 19 January 2013. All licences issued before that date will become invalid by 2033.

Brexit.

The UK left the EU on 1 February, 2020, starting an 11-month transition period terminating on 31 December 2020. The EU flag will be removed from UK driving licences when the transition period ends.  UK licence holders living in the EU have been advised to switch their UK driving licence for a local one before the transition period ends.  Neither withdrawal agreement nor separation agreement did plan driving license arrangement between the EU or EEA and the UK while the trade deal is still under negotiation.  Anyway, some driving possibilities between the UK and the EU might be partly provided by other old treaties such as the Vienna Convention for continental EU or the CTA for Irish part of the EU.

Standard data field labelling.

To help users of different languages to understand what each of the data fields on the licence contains, they are labelled with a number. A legend is usually supplied on the reverse of the card in the issuing authority's language.

National categories in EEA member states.

There are other national categories for tractors, large motorcycles, motorised wheel boats, motor tricycles (modern voiturettes, Category B1 or S), and military categories such as for driving tanks. National categories mean they are not harmonised and only valid within the issuing country. The tables below are general descriptions that do not include full details of regulations.

The European driving licence is a driving licence which replaced the various driving licence styles formerly in use in the member states of the European Economic Area (EEA). The licence is currently issued by all of the EEA member states; all 27 EU member states and 3 EFTA member states; Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, as well as the United Kingdom during the transition period after the UK withdrew from the EU. It is credit card-style with a photograph and even a microchip. They were introduced to replace the 110 different plastic and paper driving licences of the 300 million drivers in the EEA. The main objective of the licence is to reduce the risk of fraud.

Skupina řidičského oprávnění určuje, pro kterou skupinu motorových vozidel či jízdních souprav je řidičské oprávnění platné. Evropské standardy stanoví Směrnice Evropského parlamentu a Rady 2006/126/ES ze dne 20. prosince 2006 o řidičských průkazech. V České republice je toto vymezení zapracováno do zákona č. 361/2000 Sb., o pravidlech provozu na pozemních komunikacích, zejména § 80 a násl.


Demography.

The population was 262,357 at the 2010 Census; the latest official estimate (as in 2014) is 271,868. The population is centred in several small towns; the largest are Tanjung Pandan in the west and Manggar in the east, which are the respective capitals of the two Regencies (Belitung and Belitung Timur) into which the island is administratively divided. While ethnic Bangka Malays people make up the largest percentage along with Chinese people, Belitung has significant populations of Bugis, Sundanese, and Javanese people who formerly worked for the Dutch, mining tin. There is also a small population of Madurese who were settled there in the Suharto era transmigration.

Religion.

Before the arrival of Dutch missionaries, the island's inhabitants and most of the Indonesian archipelago had already converted from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Animism to Islam due to the work of Chinese Muslim traders. As a result, Christian churches were unable to gain considerable numbers of followers. Today, Belitung is a religiously diverse island. Sunni Islam is the most widely practised religion, with sizeable minorities of Buddhists, Christians and Confucianists.

Transportation.

In Belitung island, the only Airport is in Belitung Regency; that is, the H. As Hanandjoedin International Airport serving plane to Pangkal Pinang Airport and plane to Soekarno-Hatta International airport and International flight to Changi International airport using Garuda Indonesia.  Flag carrier Garuda Indonesia has four direct flights from Singapore. The Singapore - Tanjung Pandan direct flight operates 4 times weekly - leaving at 5:20 pm on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, and 5:30 pm on Sundays.  Belitung island has four ports, three in Belitung Regency and one in East Belitung Regency, serving cargo ships and ferry ships.  Online taxi services such as Go-Jek and Grab are available, as well as regular taxicab such as the Taxi Bandara (Airport Taxi) and Street Taxi.

Geography.

Belitung is a medium-sized island, at about ; it consists of moderately rugged terrain with several hills. The highest one is Mount Tajam with a height of less than. Belitung is bordered by the Gaspar Strait, the South China Sea and the Java Sea. Its turquoise blue sea is moderately calm and shallow, making for great sailing, snorkeling and swimming. Belitung is popular for its abstract granite boulders and brilliant white sand beaches in Tanjung Tinggi, Tanjung Kelayang, Tanjung Binga and Lengkuas island.

Economy.

Belitung is a source of tin, clay, iron ore and silica sands. The Dutch mining company NV Billiton Maatschappij derives its name from the island's name. Billiton merged with BHP in 2001 to form the largest diversified resources company, BHP Billiton.  The island is also a producer of fishery products, pepper, coconut, and palm oil. People work as farmers, fishermen and miners. The island is easily accessible with eight daily 1-hour flights from Jakarta and 2 daily flights, with duration of 30 minutes and 50 minutes each, from Pangkal Pinang.  The white sand beaches and offshore islands are helping tourism to become a larger part of the economy.

Tourist destinations.

The main tourist destinations are beaches and offshore islands/islets. The beaches are Tanjung Tinggi Beach and Tanjung Kelayang Beach, both of which have clear blue water, sand, and rocky beaches. The islands/islets are Batu Berlayar Island, which is mostly granite, Pasir Island, which is a tidal island made of sand (= pasir in Indonesian language), Bird Islet (Pulau Burong, which one can access from Tanjung Binga beach by walking at low tide, Lengkuas Island, which is the home of a 129-year-old lighthouse and a good place for snorkeling, and Babi Island and Kelayang Islet.

Belitung (or in English, Billiton) is an island on the east coast of Sumatra, Indonesia in the Java Sea. It covers, and had a population of 271,868 in 2014. Administratively, it forms part of the province of Bangka-Belitung Islands. The island is known for its pepper and for its tin. It was in the possession of the United Kingdom from 1812 until Britain ceded control of the island to the Netherlands in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Its main town is Tanjung Pandan.

Belitung je indonéský ostrov nacházející se v Karimatském průlivu mezi velkými ostrovy Sumatra a Borneo. Spolu se sousedním větším ostrovem Bangka a řadou menších ostrovů tvoří provincii Bangka-Belitung. Největším městem je Tanjung Pandan na západním pobřeží.


History.

The order was founded in 1915 by King Constantine I in honor of his father, George I. It was only the second Greek order to be created after the Order of the Redeemer in 1833, and remained the second senior award of the Greek state for the duration of its existence. The order was closely associated with the Greek monarchy, and was hence abolished with the establishment of the Second Hellenic Republic in 1924, to be replaced with the Order of the Phoenix. The order was restored along with the monarchy in 1935, and continued to be awarded until the final abolition of the monarchy in 1973. It was replaced by the Third Hellenic Republic in 1975 by the Order of Honour.

Grades.

The Order has five classes:  A sixth, supreme class comprising a Collar of the order was originally envisaged, but never realized.  As the Order was restricted to officers and senior state officials, an additional Commemorative Medal of the Order of George I (Αναμνηστικόν μετάλλιον του Τάγματος Γεωργίου Α') was instituted in 1915 for NCOs and common soldiers, junior officials and ordinary citizens. It had initially two classes, silver and bronze, with a third in gold added after 1935.

Insignia.

The badge of the Order is a white-enamelled Latin cross pattée, in silver for the Silver Cross class, in gold for the higher classes, with a wreath of laurels between the arms of the cross. The obverse central disc was in red enamel, bearing the royal cypher of George I, two crossed gammas with a crown above and a "I" below, surrounded by a white enamel ring bearing the royal motto ΙΣΧΥΣ ΜΟΥ Η ΑΓΑΠΗ ΤΟΥ ΛΑΟΥ ("The Love of My People is My Strength"). The reverse central disc bears the years of George I's reign, 1863-1913. The badge is topped by a crown; the military division also had crossed swords behind the badge. The Commemorative Medal's badge is identical in design, except that the cross is not enameled.  The star of the order is a silver star with straight rays, with eight points for Grand Cross and four points for Grand Commander, and with the obverse of the badge superimposed upon it.  The ribbon of the Order is plain crimson red.

The Royal Order of George I () is a Greek order instituted by King Constantine I in 1915. Since the monarchy's abolition in 1973, it has been considered a dynastic order of the former Greek royal family.

Řád Jiřího I. (řecky Τάγμα του Γεωργίου Α') byl řád Řeckého království. Založil jej roku 1915 řecký král Konstantin I. jako záslužný řád. Pojmenován byl na počest jeho otce krále Jiřího I. Zanikl s pádem monarchie roku 1973.


Overview.

Genuine philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. Karl Jaspers termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an Axial Age in human thought.

Ancient Chinese philosophy.

Chinese philosophy is the dominant philosophical thought in China and other countries within the East Asian cultural sphere that share a common language, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

Schools of thought.

Hundred Schools of Thought.

The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophers and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BCE, an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin Dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. The Book of Han lists ten major schools, they are:

Early Imperial China.

The founder of the Qin Dynasty, who implemented Legalism as the official philosophy, quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the Han Dynasty adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction of Buddhism.  Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace. In contrast, there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient language (from this comes the denomination "Old Text") that were so much more reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.  The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the "Xuanxue" (mysterious learning), also called "Neo-Taoism". The most important philosophers of this movement were Wang Bi, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang. The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese, "ming" and "wuming"). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, was the concept of "feng liu" (lit. wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse.  Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement. At the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect, and there was even a theory about Laozi, founder of Taoism, who went to India and taught his philosophy to Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism was far more successful in China than its rival Hinayana, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers were Sengzhao and Daosheng. But probably the most influential and original of these schools was the Chan sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as the Zen sect.

Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy.

Early Roman and Christian philosophy.

See also: "Christian philosophy"

Ancient Indian philosophy.

The ancient Indian philosophy is a fusion of two ancient traditions: the Vedic tradition and the Sramana tradition.

Vedic philosophy.

Indian philosophy begins with the "Vedas" wherein questions pertaining to laws of nature, the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous Rigvedic "Hymn of Creation" (Nasadiya Sukta) the poet asks:  In the Vedic view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being ("Purusha"). This leads to the inquiry into "the one being" that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed "rta" and causal law by "karma". Nature ("prakriti") is taken to have three qualities ("sattva", "rajas", and "tamas").

Sramana philosophy.

Jainism and Buddhism are continuation of the Sramana school of thought. The Sramanas cultivated a pessimistic worldview of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated renunciation and austerities. They laid stress on philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Jnana, Samsara and Moksa. Cārvāka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) (atheist) philosophy, also known as Lokāyata, it is a system of Hindu philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. It is named after its founder, Cārvāka, author of the Bārhaspatya-sūtras.

Classical Indian philosophy.

In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. Some of the questions asked were:  The six schools of Indian philosophy are:

Ancient Iranian philosophy.

See also: "Dualism, Dualism (philosophy of mind)"  While there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe. The first charter of human rights by Cyrus the Great as understood in the Cyrus cylinder is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zarathustra and developed in Zoroastrian schools of thought of the Achaemenid Era of Iranian history.

Schools of thought.

Ideas and tenets of Zoroastrian schools of Early Persian philosophy are part of many works written in Middle Persian and of the extant scriptures of the zoroastrian religion in Avestan language. Among these are treatises such as the Shikand-gumanic Vichar by Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan, selections of Denkard, Wizidagīhā-ī Zātspram ("Selections of Zātspram") as well as older passages of the book Avesta, the Gathas which are attributed to Zarathustra himself and regarded as his "direct teachings".  Anacharsis

Ancient Jewish philosophy.

See also: "Jewish philosophy"

This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of medieval philosophy, whereas in Eastern philosophy, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire marked the end of Old Iranian philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of early Islamic philosophy.

Starověká filosofie (její západní část se označuje jako antická filosofie) je rané období rozvoje filosofie, na které na západě navazuje středověká filosofie. Trvalo přibližně 1100 let, přibližně od roku 600 př. n. l. (jako nejstarší představitel bývá uváděn Thalés z Milétu narozený kolem roku 624 př. n. l.) až do 6. století, kdy působili poslední novoplatonisté.


Playing career.

Junior.

Beauchemin played major junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) for four seasons with the Laval Titan Collège Français, Acadie-Bathurst Titan and Moncton Wildcats. In his NHL draft year, he recorded 47 points in 70 games with Laval. He was then drafted 76th overall by the Montreal Canadiens in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft. Upon being drafted, he returned to the QMJHL for two more seasons, helping Acadie-Bathurst to a President's Cup in 1999 as QMJHL champions.

Professional.

Montreal Canadiens and Columbus Blue Jackets.

After signing an entry-level contract with the Canadiens, Beauchemin turned professional in the 2000–01 season with their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate at the time, the Quebec Citadelles. In 56 games, he was able to develop on the bottom pair with three goals and nine points. After a stagnant season in 2001–02, Beauchemin experienced a brief loan to the Mississippi Sea Wolves of the ECHL.  Beauchemin enjoyed a successful third season within the Canadiens organization in 2002–03, playing in 75 games with the Hamilton Bulldogs, the club's new AHL affiliate, increasing his offensive presence with a strong defensive game in totalling 28 points in 75 games as the club finished atop the standings before losing in the Calder Cup finals in a deciding Game 7 to the Houston Aeros. On February 27, 2003, Beauchemin made his NHL debut with the Canadiens, against the Minnesota Wild, his only NHL appearance of the season. On June 17, 2003, as a restricted free agent, Beauchemin signed a two-year contract extension with Montreal.  In the 2003–04 season, Beauchemin was unable to make the Canadiens' roster, remaining in the AHL as the Bulldogs top defenceman to improve his career best points totals with 36 in 77 games. On September 14, 2004, he was placed on waivers and claimed by the Columbus Blue Jackets. As NHL play was suspended due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, he spent the 2004–05 season with the Blue Jackets' AHL affiliate, the Syracuse Crunch.

Anaheim Ducks.

In the 2005–06 season, Beauchemin earned an NHL roster spot for opening night with the Blue Jackets and played 11 games with the club in before being traded (along with Tyler Wright) to the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in exchange for Sergei Fedorov on November 15, 2005. He made his Ducks debut on November 18 in a game against the Colorado Avalanche and later scored his first NHL goal in game against the Carolina Hurricanes on December 6, 2005. He emerged as a top-four defenceman with the Ducks and immediately began producing, scoring 34 points in 61 games after the trade to finish fourth among rookie defenceman in scoring. In the 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs, Beauchemin contributed with 9 points in 16 games to lead all rookie defenceman.  After establishing himself with the Ducks, Beauchemin helped Anaheim to a Stanley Cup championship in just his second full season in 2006–07. He contributed four goals and four assists during the 2007 playoffs for the Ducks. In the following 2007–08 season, he continued his play among the top-four defenceman on the Ducks and appeared in his 200th NHL game on February 2, 2008, against the Philadelphia Flyers.  On November 14, 2008, Beauchemin suffered a torn ACL in his left knee in a game against the Nashville Predators. He was expected to be sidelined for the remainder of the 2008–09 season, but returned to the Ducks for their Western Conference Quarterfinal playoff series against the San Jose Sharks.

Toronto Maple Leafs.

On July 6, 2009, as an unrestricted free agent and with the Ducks close to the salary cap ceiling, Beauchemin left the Ducks to sign a three-year, $11.4 million contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs. Looked upon to bring a veteran presence and leadership from the blueline, he appeared in all 82 of Toronto's games during the 2009–10 season. Beauchemin produced 5 goals and 26 points and led the club in time on ice in his first season as an alternate captain with the Maple Leafs. He appeared in his 300th career NHL game on January 26, 2010, against the Los Angeles Kings.  In the following 2010–11 season, Beauchemin began the season on the top defensive pairing, alongside Dion Phaneuf. With his production down and with the Maple Leafs heading towards again missing the playoffs, on February 9, 2011, Beauchemin was traded back to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for left winger Joffrey Lupul, defenceman Jake Gardiner and a conditional fourth-round draft pick in 2013.

Return to Anaheim.

Beauchemin was a welcomed return for the Anaheim Ducks, resuming a role as a top-four defenceman to help the club reach the playoffs. He appeared in his 400th career NHL game on March 23, 2011, against the Dallas Stars.  In his sixth season with the Ducks, in 2011–12, Beauchemin provided a defensive anchor and was looked upon to lead the Ducks in ice time. He led the NHL in short-handed ice time and on January 21 blocked nine shots against the Ottawa Senators to set a Ducks franchise record. On January 20, 2012, Beauchemin signed a three-year, US$10.5 million contract extension to remain in Anaheim. He finished the season scoring 8 goals and 22 points in 82 games.  In the shortened lockout 2012–13 season, Beauchemin appeared in all 48 regular season games for the Ducks, and again led the club in ice time. He led the blueline in scoring with 24 points and appeared in his 500th career NHL game on February 6, 2013, against the Avalanche. He recorded a career-high four points (all assists) in a victory over the Avalanche on February 24, 2013. In the 2013 playoffs, Beauchemin scored his tenth career playoff goal to surpass Scott Niedermayer as the franchise leader in playoff goals for a defenceman, doing so in Game 1 of the Conference Quarterfinals against the Detroit Red Wings. Beauchemin finished fourth in James Norris Memorial Trophy voting, the award given to the NHL's defenceman of the year. He lost-out to winner P. K. Subban and finalists Ryan Suter and Kris Letang, although Beauchemin won The Hockey News' Rod Langway Award as Best Defensive Defenceman in 2013. He was also named to the NHL's Second All-Star Team.  In the 2013–14 season, Beauchemin scored 17 points in 70 games, placing fifth in the NHL in plus-minus as the Ducks claimed the top seeding in the Western Conference from the regular season. Beauchemin played his 600th career NHL game on March 23, 2014, against the Florida Panthers, and was selected as the Ducks' nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy.  Beauchemin scored a career-high 11 goals for 23 points in 63 games with the Ducks during the 2014–15 season. He recorded nine assists during the 2015 playoffs as the Ducks were eliminated in seven games in the Western Conference Finals by the Chicago Blackhawks. With the Ducks acquisition of Kevin Bieksa in the off-season, signalling the end of his Ducks tenure as an impending free agent, Beauchemin left the club second among all defenceman in franchise history in goals, assists and points. He also left tied with Ryan Getzlaf for most playoff games for the Ducks with 97.

Colorado Avalanche.

On July 1, 2015, and in the opening hour of free agency, Beauchemin signed a three-year, $13.5 million contract with the Colorado Avalanche. Adding a veteran presence to a young blueline in Colorado, Beauchemin recorded three assists in his debut with the Avalanche on opening night in a 5–4 defeat to the Minnesota Wild on October 8, 2015. In playing in a top-pairing role alongside Erik Johnson in the 2015–16 season, Beauchemin matched his rookie season with the Mighty Ducks in 2005–06 in contributing 8 goals and 34 points while leading the Avalanche in ice-time through 82 games.  On October 13, 2016, two days before the Avalanche home opener, Beauchemin was named an alternate captain for the 2016–17 season. In his second season with the Avalanche, Beauchemin was unable to repeat his performance as a top pairing defenceman with the cellar-dwelling Avalanche. On January 25, 2017, Beauchemin appeared in his 800th career NHL game in a 3–2 defeat to the Vancouver Canucks. He completed the season with 5 goals and 18 points in 81 games. Because he had a no-movement clause in his contract, which limited the team's flexibility in the upcoming Expansion Draft; and because of the Avalanche's intentions to make the transition to become younger, Beauchemin was bought-out from the final year of his contract in Colorado on June 15, 2017, in order to protect a younger player from being claimed by the expansion Vegas Golden Knights.

Second return to Anaheim.

On August 21, 2017, Beauchemin returned to the Ducks for a third stint after signing a one-year, $1 million contract. Beauchemin, who announced the 2017–18 season would be his last as a player, retired after the Ducks were eliminated in a first round playoff sweep by the San Jose Sharks.

International play.

Beauchemin was selected for the 2010 Winter Olympics summer preliminary roster for Team Canada in August 2009, but did not make the final roster cut. After failing to make the 2010 playoffs with Toronto, he made his senior debut at the 2010 IIHF World Championships. Serving as an alternate captain, Beauchemin recorded one assist in seven games as Canada finished in seventh place in the tournament.

Personal life.

Beauchemin and his wife Marie Claude have two children: a son and a daughter. Both were born in Anaheim, California. The family resides in their hometown Sorel, Quebec, during the off-season.

Joseph Jean-François Vinet Beauchemin (born June 4, 1980) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman who played in the National Hockey League (NHL). Although he spent tenures with the Montreal Canadiens, Columbus Blue Jackets, Toronto Maple Leafs and Colorado Avalanche, he spent the vast majority of his career playing for the Anaheim Ducks. Drafted in the third round, 75th overall, by Montreal in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft, Beauchemin won a Stanley Cup in 2007 with the Ducks.

François Beauchemin ["Frasoa Bošme"] (* 4. červen 1980, Sorel-Tracy, Kanada) je bývalý kanadský profesionální hokejový obránce. V roce 2007 vyhrál Stanley Cup s týmem Anaheim Ducks a s tímto týmem také v roce 2018 ukončil kariéru.