Development.

Lockheed Ventura/B-34 Lexington.

At the start of the war, Lockheed proposed military conversions of the Lodestar for the RAF as replacement for the Hudson reconnaissance aircraft and the Bristol Blenheim bomber. The first British order was placed in February 1940 for 25 Model 32 as bombers. This was followed by an order for 300 Model 37 with Double Wasp engines, then for a further 375 later in 1940. Lockheed needed more production capacity and nearby Vega Aircraft Corporation was contracted for building the Ventura.  The Ventura was very similar to its predecessor, the Lockheed Hudson. The primary difference was not in layout; rather, the Ventura was larger, heavier, and used more powerful engines than the Hudson. The RAF ordered 188 Venturas in February 1940, which were delivered from mid-1942. Venturas were initially used for daylight raids on occupied Europe but, like some other RAF bombers, they proved too vulnerable without fighter escort, which was difficult to provide for long-range missions. Venturas were replaced by the faster de Havilland Mosquito. The Venturas were transferred to patrol duties with Coastal Command as the Mosquito replaced them in bomber squadrons; 30 went to the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and some to the South African Air Force (SAAF). The RAF placed an order for 487 Ventura Mark IIs but many of these were diverted to the USAAF, which placed its own order for 200 Ventura Mark IIA as the B-34 Lexington, later renamed RB-34.

Lockheed B-37.

In August 1941, large orders for Venturas were placed with Lend-Lease Act money. Among the orders were for 550 armed reconnaissance versions of the Ventura. This aircraft was originally planned to be built under the designation O-56. The main differences between the Ventura and the O-56 were in the engines: rather than the 2,000 hp (1,491 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-2800 radials of the Ventura, the O-56 used 1,700 hp (1,270 kW) Wright R-2600-13 radials.  Before completion of the first O-56, the U.S. Army Air Forces dropped the "O-" category used to designate "observation" (reconnaissance) aircraft. The O-56 was redesignated the RB-34B (the "R" denoted'restricted' meaning it was not to be used for combat). Before the first of these flew, the design was redesignated again as the B-37 with a higher powered version of the R-2600, later it also was designated the RB-37.  While 550 were ordered by the Army Air Forces, acquisition by the USAAF stopped after only 18 Venturas were accepted, when the Army Air Forces agreed to turn over exclusive use of the Ventura to the United States Navy.

PV-1 Ventura.

The PV-1 Ventura, built by the Vega Aircraft Company division of Lockheed (hence the "V" Navy manufacturer's letter that later replaced the "O" for Lockheed), was a version of the Ventura built for the U.S. Navy (see Venturas in U.S. Navy service below). The main differences between the PV-1 and the B-34 were the inclusion of special equipment in the PV-1, adapting it to its patrol bombing role. The maximum fuel capacity of the PV-1 was increased from 1,345 gal (5,081 l) to 1,607 gal (6,082 l), to increase its range; the forward defensive armament was also reduced for this reason. The most important addition was of an ASD-1 search radar.  Early production PV-1s still carried a bombardier's station behind the nose radome, with four side windows and a flat bomb-aiming panel underneath the nose. Late production PV-1s dispensed with this bombardier position and replaced it with a pack with three 0.50 inch (12.7 mm) machine guns underneath the nose. These aircraft could also carry eight 5-inch (127 mm) HVAR rockets on launchers underneath the wings.  The PV-1 began to be delivered in December 1942, and entered service in February 1943. The first squadron in combat was VP-135, deployed in the Aleutian Islands in April 1943. They were operated by three other squadrons in this theatre. From the Aleutians, they flew strikes against bases in Paramushiro and Shimushu, Japanese islands in the Kurile chain. Often, PV-1s would lead B-24 bomber formations, since they were equipped with radar. In late 1943, some PV-1s were deployed to the Solomon Islands as night fighters with VMF(N)-531, a Marine Corps fighter squadron.

PV-2 Harpoon.

The PV-2 Harpoon was a major redesign of the Ventura with the wing area increased from 551 ft (51.2 m) to 686 ft (63.7 m) giving an increased load-carrying capability, and which first flew on 3 December 1943. The motivation for redesign was weaknesses in the PV-1, which had shown itself to have problems in taking off when carrying a full load of fuel. On the PV-2, the armament became standardized at five forward-firing machine guns. Many early PV-1s had a bombardier's position, which was deleted in the PV-2. Some other significant developments included the increase of the bombload by 30% to 4,000 lb (1,800 kg), and the ability to carry eight 5-inch (127 mm) HVAR rockets under the wings.  While the PV-2 was expected to have increased range and better takeoff, the anticipated speed statistics were projected lower than those of the PV-1, due to the use of the same engines but an increase in weight. The Navy ordered 500 examples, designating them with the popular name "Harpoon".  Early tests indicated a tendency for the wings to wrinkle dangerously. As this problem could not be solved by a 6 ft (1.8 m) reduction in wingspan (making the wing uniformly flexible), a complete redesign of the wing was necessitated. This hurdle delayed entry of the PV-2 into service. The PV-2s already delivered were used for training purposes under the designation PV-2C. By the end of 1944, only 69 PV-2s had been delivered. They finally resumed when the redesign was complete. The first aircraft shipped were the PV-2D, which had eight forward-firing machine guns and was used in ground attacks. When World War II ended, all of the order was cancelled.  With the wing problems fixed, the PV-2 proved reliable, and eventually popular. It was first used in the Aleutians by VP-139, one of the squadrons that originally used the PV-1. It was used by a number of countries after the war's end, but the United States ceased ordering new PV-2s, and they were all soon retired from service.

Civil conversions.

Ex-military PV-1 Venturas from Canada and South Africa were converted by Howard Aero in San Antonio, Texas, in the 1950s and 1960s as high-speed executive transports. The earliest conversions, called Super Venturas, incorporated a 48 in (122 cm) fuselage stretch, extra fuel tankage, large picture windows, luxury interiors, and weapons bays transformed into baggage compartments. The landing gear was swapped for the heavier-duty units from the PV-2. Later conversions, of which eighteen were completed in the 1960s, were called Howard 350s.  At least nineteen PV-1s were further modified, including cabin pressurization under the designation Howard 500. A final PV-1 modification by Howard was the Eldorado 700, with longer wings, a pointed nose, and streamlined engine cowlings.  A notable crash of a civilian version occurred on December 17, 1954, killing four, including Fred Miller, president of the Miller Brewing Company and grandson of founder Frederick Miller. The company plane was bound for Winnipeg, Manitoba, but had trouble with both engines and crashed shortly after takeoff from Mitchell Field in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Also killed were his oldest son, 20-year-old Fred, Jr., and the two company pilots, Joseph and Paul Laird.  Oakland Airmotive (later Bay Aviation Services, based in Oakland, California) also offered a PV-2 executive aircraft conversion dubbed Centaurus starting in 1958. The cost of the conversion was $155,000 in addition to the airframe.

Operational history.

Portuguese Air Force.

The Portuguese Air Force received 42 Lockheed PV-2C Harpoons from 1953, which replaced the Curtiss SB2C-5 Helldiver as an anti-submarine aircraft. The Harpoons equipped squadrons 61 and 62 at the Montijo Air Base. In 1960, the Harpoons were replaced as maritime patrol and anti-submarine aircraft by Lockheed P2V-5 Neptunes. The remaining Harpoons were sent to Portuguese Angola and Mozambique, where they formed Squadron 91 operating from Luanda Air Base and Squadron 101 at Beira Air Base. The Harpoons were used on operations in the Angolan and Mozambican theatres of the Portuguese Overseas War (1961–1974). They served mainly as light bombers and ground attack aircraft, with occasional reconnaissance, transport and maritime patrol sorties. The last Portuguese Harpoons were retired in 1975. The Museu do Ar (Portuguese Air Museum) has what is believed to be the only remaining Lockheed PV-2C Harpoon in Europe.

Royal Air Force.

The first Ventura Mark Is were accepted by the Royal Air Force (RAF) in September 1941, with aircraft being delivered to Britain from April 1942. By the end of August, enough Venturas had arrived to equip No. 21 Squadron RAF, No. 487 Squadron RNZAF and No. 464 Squadron RAAF. The Ventura flew its first operational mission for the RAF on 3 November 1942, when three Venturas of 21 Squadron attacked railway targets near Hengelo in the Netherlands. On 6 December 1942, 47 Venturas from 21, 464 (RAAF) and 487 (RNZAF) squadrons participated in Operation Oyster, the large daylight 2 Group raid against the Philips radio and vacuum tube factories at Eindhoven. Also committed to the raid were 36 Bostons and 10 de Havilland Mosquitos.  Carrying incendiaries, they were placed in the third wave of aircraft, and suffered the highest rate of loss. Nine of the 47 Venturas were shot down and many others were damaged by flak or bird strikes. The force also lost four Bostons and one Mosquito. Six months later, on 3 May 1943, Venturas of 487 Squadron RNZAF were sent on Operation Ramrod 16, an attack on a power station in Amsterdam. The squadron was told that the target was of such importance to Dutch morale, that the attack was to be continued regardless of opposition. Significant problems developed with rendezvousing with the escorting fighters, with the end result being that all 10 Venturas that crossed the coast were lost to German fighters. Squadron Leader Leonard Trent, (later the last of the Great Escapers), won the Victoria Cross for his leadership in this raid.  The Ventura was never very popular among RAF crews. Although it was faster and carried more than twice as many bombs as its predecessor, the Hudson, it proved unsatisfactory as a bomber. By the summer of 1943, the Ventura had been replaced by the de Havilland Mosquito. The last Ventura raid was flown by 21 Squadron on 9 September 1943. Some Venturas were modified to be used by Coastal Command as the Ventura G.R.I. and 387 PV-1s were used by the RAF as the Ventura G.R.V in the Mediterranean and by Coastal Command. Some RAF aircraft were modified into Ventura C.V transport aircraft. A small number of Venturas were also used in other air forces, including the RCAF, RNZAF and SAAF.

Royal Australian Air Force.

In the United Kingdom, No. 464 Squadron RAAF (formed of mixed Commonwealth personnel) at RAF Feltwell in September 1942 to operate the Ventura as part of 2 Group, Bomber Command; it converted to the de Havilland Mosquito in September 1943. In the Mediterranean, No. 459 Squadron RAAF was equipped with the Ventura V between December 1943 to July 1944, flying mainly anti-submarine and anti-shipping patrols.  In Australia, fifty-five PV-1s were supplied to the RAAF for use in the South West Pacific Area. No. 13 Squadron RAAF was the only operational squadron in Australia equipped with the Ventura. It operated primarily in north-eastern Queensland and then the Northern Territory, and later serving in the Borneo campaign of 1945. After the war, the squadron used its aircraft to help transport liberated prisoners of war.

Royal Canadian Air Force.

A total of 157 Ventura G.R. Mk. Vs were used operationally by the RCAF from 16 June 1942 to 18 April 1947 in the home defence coastal patrol role in both Eastern and Western Air Command. They were flown by 8, 113, 115, 145, and 149 Squadrons. A further 21 Ventura Mk. Is and 108 Ventura Mk. IIs were used in a training role at 1 Central Flying School, Trenton, Ontario, and at RCAF Station Pennfield Ridge, New Brunswick (RAF No. 34 Operational Training Unit) as part of the BCATP. A total of 21 Mk. Is, 108 Mk. IIs, and 157 G.R. Mk. Vs were in service during this period for a total of 286 aircraft.

South African Air Force.

The SAAF also received some 135 PV-1s, which were used to protect shipping around the Cape of Good Hope and to bomb Italian shipping in the Mediterranean. In December 1942 four SAAF Venturas dropped supplies to survivors of the shipwreck on South-West Africa's Skeleton Coast. Venturas served in the South African Air Force until 1960.

Soviet Air Force.

A few US Navy PV-1s force-landed in the Soviet Union after attacking Japanese targets on the Kurile islands and were impounded. Some of them were repaired and pressed into service by the Soviet Air Force where the type became known as the B-34. By December 1944, eight planes were located on airfields on Kamchatka: four were fully airworthy, three were undergoing repairs and one was a write-off.  By 1945 seven PV-1s (five of them being airworthy) were used by the Soviets, one plane was the personal liaison aircraft of Ltc M.A. Yeryomin. The planes were used during the Soviet-Japanese campaign in August 1945. After the end of the war only one aircraft remained in service.

Royal New Zealand Air Force.

From August 1942, 487 Squadron RNZAF, (operating in Europe as part of the RAF), was equipped with the type, although losses (including on 3 May 1943 the loss of all 11 aircraft attacking Amsterdam), lead to their replacement with the de Havilland Mosquito in June.  The Royal New Zealand Air Force in the Pacific received 139 Venturas and some Harpoons from June 1943 to replace Lockheed Hudsons in the maritime patrol bomber and medium bomber roles. Initially Venturas were unpopular with the RNZAF due to rumoured poor performance on one engine, the fate of Squadron Leader Leonard Trent VC of 487 Squadron (above) as well as the failure of the U.S. to provide New Zealand with promised B-24 Liberators. Despite that the RNZAF Venturas came to be among the most widely used of any nation's, seeing substantial action until VJ Day over South West Pacific islands.  The first 19 RB-34s that arrived by sea from the U.S. in June had much equipment either missing or damaged. Six airworthy machines were hurriedly produced by cannibalization and sent into action with No. 3 Squadron RNZAF in Fiji. On 26 June the first PV-1s were flown to Whenuapai and No. 1 Squadron RNZAF was able to convert to 18 of these by 1 August, then replacing the mixed 3 Squadron in action at Henderson Field, Guadacanal in late October.  By this time No. 2 Squadron RNZAF at Ohakea and No. 9 Squadron RNZAF were also using the type. The following year No. 4 Squadron RNZAF and No. 8 Squadron RNZAF also received Venturas. Some squadrons were retained on "garrison" duty while others followed the allied advance to Emirau and Green Island and to New Britain. RNZAF Venturas were tasked with routine patrols, anti-shipping strikes, minelaying, bombing and strafing missions, air-sea rescue patrols, and photographic reconnaissance missions. In an apparently bizarre case of taking Lockheed's marketing slogan of The Fighter-Bomber too literally, even briefly, Venturas conducted fighter sweeps.  RNZAF machines often clashed with Japanese fighters, notably during an air-sea rescue patrol on Christmas Eve 1943. NZ4509 was attacked by nine Japanese single-engined fighters over St. George's Channel. It shot down three, later confirmed, and claimed two others as probables, although it suffered heavy damage in the action. The pilot, Flying Officer D. Ayson and navigator, Warrant Officer W. Williams, were awarded the DFC. The dorsal turret gunner Flight Sergeant G. Hannah was awarded the DFM.  By late 1944 the Ventura began to be phased out of front line action as the RNZAF backed away from the Patrol Bomber concept, orders for PV-2 Harpoons were canceled after a handful of aircraft had been delivered. At VJ Day only 30 PV-1 aircraft remained on the front-line with No. 3 Squadron at Jacquinot Bay.  Planned re-equipment with de Havilland Mosquitos did not take place until after the cessation of hostilities. The last Ventura unit was No. 2 Squadron, which continued to operate PV-1 and PV-2 aircraft on meteorological duty until 1948. A restored RNZAF RB-34 (NZ4600) is owned by the Museum of Transport and Technology in Auckland.

United States Army Air Forces.

Some 264 Ventura Mark IIs ordered by the RAF were seized by the U.S. Army Air Forces. Though some were used as anti-submarine patrol bombers under the designation B-34 Lexington, most were used for training with various stateside units. 27 of these were used by the U.S. Navy for anti-submarine patrols as well; these were designated PV-1 Ventura and PV-2 Harpoon.

United States Navy.

During the early months of 1942, the primary responsibility for anti-submarine warfare in the United States was shouldered by the Army Air Forces. This irked the Navy, as it considered this region of battle its burden. To carry out such a task, the Navy was pursuing a long-range, land-based patrol and reconnaissance aircraft with a substantial bomb load. This goal was always resisted by the Army Air Forces, which carefully protected its monopoly on land-based bombing. This forced the navy to use long-range floatplanes for these roles. The Navy was unable to upgrade to more capable aircraft until the Army Air Forces needed the Navy plant in Renton, Washington to manufacture its Boeing B-29 Superfortress. In exchange for use of the Renton plant, the Army Air Forces would discontinue its objections to Naval land-based bombers, and provide aircraft to the Navy. One of the clauses of this agreement stated that production of the B-34 and B-37 by Lockheed would cease, and instead these resources would be directed at building a navalized version, the PV-1 Ventura.  The PV-1 began to be delivered in December 1942, and entered service in February 1943. The first squadron in combat was VP-135, deployed in the Aleutian Islands in April 1943. They were operated by three other squadrons in this theatre. From the Aleutians, they flew strikes against Paramushiro, a Japanese island. Often, PV-1s would lead B-24 bomber formations, since they were equipped with radar. In late 1943, PV-1s were deployed to the Solomon Islands and to the newly captured field at Tarawa in the Gilbert Islands. After the war, the U.S. Navy deemed many PV-1s obsolete and the aircraft were sent to Naval Air Station Clinton, Oklahoma to be demilitarized and reduced to scrap.

The Lockheed Ventura is a twin-engine medium bomber and patrol bomber of World War II. The Ventura first entered combat in Europe as a bomber with the RAF in late 1942. Designated PV-1 by the United States Navy (US Navy), it entered combat in 1943 in the Pacific. The bomber was also used by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), which designated it the Lockheed B-34 ("Lexington") and B-37 as a trainer. British Commonwealth forces also used it in several guises, including antishipping and antisubmarine search and attack.

Lockheed Ventura byl americký námořní bombardovací a námořní hlídkový letoun užívaný v druhé světové válce. Jednalo se o stroj, který byl vyráběn v různých modifikacích, jako Lockheed Ventura (vyvinutý pro RAF, na základě britských požadavků), B-34 Lexington, B-37, PV-1 a PV-3 Ventura. Později rovněž na základě dobrých zkušeností a s využitím obdobné výrobní technologie byl v pobočném závodě Lockheed Vega zkonstruován a vyráběn zcela nový typ PV-2 Harpoon.


History.

Backgrounds.

The Stodarts are the children of a Scottish father and a Portuguese mother and were born in Trinidad in the Caribbean, where their mother was an opera singer and had her own TV show. When the family fled an Islamic coup attempt there in 1990, they were raised in New York City. In the mid-1990s, when Romeo was 16 and Michele was 10, they moved to London.  The Gannons are of Irish descent but lived in Hanwell, London where they became friends with their neighbours the Stodarts. Prior to forming the Magic Numbers, Romeo and Sean spent time trying to form a band together under various guises, and previously performed under the name 'Guess'.

Early years.

In late 2002 The Magic Numbers formed in their present guise, and they began touring the London circuit, gradually developing their sound and building a small cult following, not least amongst some already established artists including The Chemical Brothers, Travis, and Ed Harcourt, with the latter later influential in their signing to record label Heavenly Records, narrowly choosing that label over Rough Trade Records.  Their rise came swiftly, beginning in the summer of 2004 and later that year when they began supporting well-known artists such as Travis, Ed Harcourt and Snow Patrol and appearing on the bill of some low-key UK festivals, building a larger following by increasing their live performances. In November 2004, they released a limited edition 7" vinyl single, "Hymn for Her", to coincide with a three-show residency at The Borderline in London.

"The Magic Numbers".

On the back of releasing just one commercially available single, "Forever Lost", and even before their debut album was released, they played a sold-out show to a crowd of over 2,000 at The Forum in Kentish Town, London, where a limited number of live albums of the gig were released. They played their first live session on UK radio on the Dermot O'Leary Show for BBC Radio 2.  Their eponymous debut album was recorded in late 2004 and early 2005 at Metropolis Studios in London, and released on 13 June 2005. The album was produced and recorded by American producer Craig Silvey. Prior to release, only "Forever Lost" was promoted as a commercial single. This was followed up by later single releases "Love Me Like You", "Love's a Game" and "I See You, You See Me".  Following the release of their debut album, the remainder of 2005 and the first few months of 2006 were spent touring and promoting their album and singles, throughout the UK and United States, across Europe and also in New Zealand, Australia and Japan. Their Japanese tour was featured as a side documentary on Jonathan Ross's "Japanorama".  They received a large amount of press attention for being the first band to walk off the TV show "Top of the Pops" after host Richard Bacon allegedly insulted their physiques (calling them "a big fat melting pot of talent" in their introduction) shortly before they were due to appear on the show to promote their single "Love Me Like You".  The album was shortlisted in 2005 for the coveted Mercury Music Prize.

"Those the Brokes".

After their heavy touring and promotion of their self-titled debut, The Magic Numbers would return in autumn of 2006 with their follow-up album, "Those the Brokes". The band did another extensive run of shows to promote and tour for the album, including supporting The Who in Southampton, and an appearance at the 2007 Glastonbury Festival.  The album was partly recorded in New York at Allaire Studios in Spring 2006, a venue which has also been used in the past by David Bowie, The Strokes and Ryan Adams, and was recorded and engineered by Richard Wilkinson.  A live album entitled "Live at the Kentish Town Forum" was released in February 2007, featuring a live performance of songs from both of the band's two albums.

"The Runaway".

The band took some time off during 2008, before reconvening in late 2009 to begin work on their third studio album. The band's website was updated to inform fans that the new album would be entitled "The Runaway". The album was produced by Romeo Stodart with Valgeir Sigurðsson, who has previously worked with artists such as Björk, Bonnie Prince Billy and Múm. The album was mixed by Ben Hillier, and features string arrangements by the late Robert Kirby, who worked on Nick Drake's Five Leaves Left album. The album was released on 26 July 2010.  The Magic Numbers played at the 2010 Splendour in the Grass festival. During their time in Australia, they did shows in Melbourne and Sydney with Blue Mountains band Cloud Control. They also played at the annual Glastonbury Festival.

Michele Stodart solo career.

In 2012, Michele Stodart released a solo album with a strong country music influence, "Wide-Eyed Crossing", accompanying herself on the guitar. It contains a duet with Conor O'Brien from the Villagers and was promoted on a solo tour by Stodart.  In 2016, she released her 2nd solo album, "Pieces," on One Little Indian Records. The album featured guest appearances from her brother Romeo Stodart and singer-songwriter Kathryn Williams.

Acoustic tour and fourth album.

In May 2013, The Magic Numbers announced their first-ever acoustic tour. The five-week tour saw the band play in the intimate surroundings of some of the most beautiful theatres, churches and live music venues across the UK and Ireland supported by British act Goldheart Assembly.  The band's fourth album "Alias" was released in August 2014.  In November 2015, The Magic Numbers toured the UK with McAlmont and Butler, acting as the support act and providing backing vocals and instrumentation to Bernard Butler and David McAlmont.  The Six track Undecided EP featured alternate versions of two tracks from their 2006 album 'Those The Brokes' (an edit of 'Undecided' and a re-recording of 'Let Somebody In') plus four previously unreleased recordings.  This was a pre-release EP for their then-forthcoming album "The Runaway" that came out July 26, 2010. Two songs from this EP were not included in the full album.

Discography.

Contributions.

The Magic Numbers have made appearances on various other artists' releases, including:

The Magic Numbers are an English pop rock band consisting of two brother and sister pairs, from Hanwell in west London. The group was formed in 2002, releasing their debut album titled "The Magic Numbers" on 13 June 2005. Their follow-up album, "Those the Brokes" was released on 6 November 2006, "The Runaway" was released on 6 June 2010, "Alias" was released on 18 August 2014, and their most recent album, "Outsiders", was released on 11 May 2018.

The Magic Numbers je čtyřčlenná britská indie popová kapela tvořená dvěma sourozeneckými dvojicemi. Jejich první, eponymní deska byla nominována na prestižní cenu Mercury Prize.


1929 Czechoslovak parliamentary election

Volby do parlamentu Československé republiky 1929

Background.

The 1929 election took place at a time of relative prosperity, just before the Great Depression.  The Communist Party was the sole multinational political party in the country at the time. It had emerged as a major force in the 1925 election and had around 150,000 members in 1928. In 1929 leadership shifted to a younger generation and a major purge of party ranks took place.  The Czechoslovak National Democrats contested the election in Slovakia together with the Slovak National Party led by Martin Rázus. Nevertheless, relations between Rázus and the leader of the National Democrats in Slovakia Milan Ivanka were strained, as the former was fiercely autonomist and the latter a strong supporter of Czechoslovak nationhood.  In Slovakia, Hlinka's Slovak People's Party resigned from the coalition government on 8 October 1929. The move followed a long controversy around the legal case of the party newspaper editor Vojtech Tuka, who was sentenced for espionage and treason on 5 October 1929. The Tuka affair had resulted in an internal rift in the party, with the expelled anti-Tuka faction (led by Juriga and Tománek) setting up their own Juriga's Slovak People's Party.

Results.

Hlinka's Slovak People's Party saw a decline compared to the 1925 vote, being reduced from 23 seats to 19. One interpretation is that two years of government participation without achieving Slovak autonomy had weakened the party. Moreover, the party had an ambiguous stance during the Tuka affair. The Juriga faction failed to make any impact in the election.  The Czechoslovak Social Democrats won five seats from Slovakia, an increase by three seats compared to the 1925 election. The Communist Party on the other hand retreated from 5 seats in Slovakia, compared to 8 seats in 1925. Magyar and German parties won 9 seats from Slovakia.  The Czechoslovak National Socialists, which lacked widespread support in the area, managed to win two seat from Slovakia. This was the best result for the party in Slovakia during the years of the First Republic. Another Czech party trying to build a base in Slovakia was the Czechoslovak People's Party, which managed to get its local leader Martin Mičura elected.  The Jewish Party, which had failed to win representation in 1925, managed to win two seats through an alliance with three Polish parties. Its deputies were Ludvík Singer from Bohemia and Julius Reiz from Slovakia.  General Radola Gajda's list ('League against Bound Tickets'), which called for the formation of a corporativist state, failed to make a major headway but won three seats (Gajda, Jiří Stříbrný and Karel Pergler). Gajda's political line was fascist, anti-Semitic and anti-German.

Chamber of Deputies.

By electoral district.

Hradec Králové.

Josef Adámek (Czechoslovak People's Party) was elected from Pardubice electoral district.

Mladá Boleslav.

Amongst the deputies elected from the Česká Lípa 5th electoral district were Ernst Grünzner (DSAP), Irene Kirpal (DSAP), Josef Schweichhart (DSAP), Josef Kleibl (DNP) and Hans Krebs.

Brno.

Amongst the deputies elected from the Jihlava 10th electoral district were Johann Wagner (German Electoral Coalition), Erwin Zajicek (German Christian Social People's Party) and Viktor Stern (Communist Party).

Nové Zámky.

The Nové Zámky senatorial district consisted of the Nové Zámky 16th electoral district and the Kosice 20th electoral district, two districts that together hosted around 96% of the Hungarian and 56% of the German population of Slovakia. The percentage achieved by the Communist Party in the Nové Zámky 16th electoral district was the highest in the country in the 1929 vote.  Hlinka's Slovak People's Party fielded Vojtech Tuka in the Košice 20th electoral district, but he failed to win a seat. Fielding Tuka in a district where the party lacked strong support displayed the ambiguity the party had towards him during his treason trials.

Užhorod.

A bloc aligned with the Agrarians merged as the most voted list in the Užhorod electoral district, the sole electoral district in Subcarpathian Rus'. The bloc formed by the National Democrats, which includes the Autonomous Agrarian Union, the Russian National Union and the Carpatho-Russian Labour Party of Small Peasants and Landless, finished in second place.  The Czechoslovak Social Democratic Workers' Party stood on a joint list with the Social Democratic Workers' Party in Subcarpathian Rus' in the constituency. The sole mandate won by this list went to Julius Husnaj of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Workers' Party.  The Czechoslovak People's Party contested under the name 'Christian People's Party' in the Užhorod electoral district.

Aftermath.

On 7 December 1929 František Udržal formed a coalition government of Czechoslovak Agrarians, Czechoslovak People's Party, Czechoslovak Social Democrats, Czechoslovak National Socialists, Czechoslovak National Democrats, Czechoslovak Traders' Party, German Agrarians and German Social Democrats. Whilst the cabinet was politically broadened after the 1929 elections, it lacked representation from Slovak populists, German Clericals or the Magyar parties.

Parliamentary elections were held in Czechoslovakia on 27 October 1929. The Republican Party of Farmers and Peasants, emerged as the largest party, winning 46 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 24 seats in the Senate. Voter turnout was 90.2% in the Chamber election and 78.8% for the Senate. The rightward shift of the 1925 elections was reversed, with moderate centre-left groups (Social Democrats and Czechoslovak National Socialists) increasing their vote shares whilst the Communist Party suffered a set-back.

Volby do parlamentu Československé republiky se konaly 27. října 1929. Zvítězila v nich Republikánská strana zemědělského a malorolnického lidu v čele s Antonínem Švehlou se ziskem 15 % všech hlasů.


History.

The company was founded in Bremen on 24 October 1923 as Bremer Flugzeugbau AG by Prof. Henrich Focke, Georg Wulf and Dr. rer. pol. Werner Naumann. Almost immediately, they renamed the company Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau AG (later Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau GmbH).  Focke-Wulf merged, under government pressure, with Albatros-Flugzeugwerke of Berlin in 1931. The Albatros-Flugzeugwerke engineer and test pilot Kurt Tank became head of the technical department and started work on the Fw 44 "Stieglitz" (Goldfinch).  Dr Ludwig Roselius became Chairman in 1925 and handed over to his brother Friedrich in early 1933. In 1938 Roselius' HAG combine increased its shareholding to 46% and C. Lorenz AG secured 28%. The company was reconstituted as Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau GmbH and no longer had to publish its accounts. A substantial capital injection occurred at this time.  In August 1933 Hans Holle and Rudolf Schubert were given power of attorney over the Berlin branch of Focke-Wulf. Then in October 1933, Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau A.G. Albatros Berlin was officially registered with the Department of Trade.  Dr Roselius always remained the driving force of Focke-Wulf. He and his closest collaborator, Barbara Goette, often met with technical director Professor Kurt Tank. When Roselius died in May 1943, Heinrich Puvogel continued handling the financial affairs of Focke-Wulf as chief of Seehandel A.G.  Hanna Reitsch demonstrated the Focke-Wulf Fw 61, the first fully controllable helicopter (as opposed to autogyro), in Berlin in 1938. The four-engined Fw 200 airliner flew nonstop between Berlin and New York City on August 10, 1938, making the journey in 24 hours and 56 minutes. It was the first aircraft to fly that route without stopping. The return trip on August 13, 1938 took 19 hours and 47 minutes. These flights are commemorated with a plaque in the Böttcherstraße street of Bremen.  The Fw 190 "Würger" (Shrike/butcher-bird), designed from 1938 on, and produced in quantity from early 1941–1945, was a mainstay single-seat fighter for the "Luftwaffe" during World War II.  Repeated bombing of Bremen in World War II resulted in the mass-production plants being moved to eastern Germany and General Government, with AGO Flugzeugwerke of Oschersleben as a major subcontractor for the Fw 190. Those plants used many foreign and forced labourers, and from 1944 also prisoners of war. Focke-Wulf's plant at Marienburg produced approximately half of all Fw 190s and was bombed by the Eighth Air Force on October 9, 1943.  Many Focke-Wulf workers, including Kurt Tank, worked at the Instituto Aerotécnico in Córdoba, Argentina between 1947 and 1955. Others, like Henrich Focke, went to Brazil's Department of Aerospace Science and Technology, helping Brazil's effort to build Embraer. Focke-Wulf began to make gliders in 1951, and in 1955, motorised planes. Focke-Wulf, Weserflug and Hamburger Flugzeugbau joined forces in 1961 to form the Entwicklungsring Nord (ERNO) to develop rockets. ITT Corporation, which had acquired a 25% stake in the company prior to the war, won $27 million in compensation in the 1960s for the damage that was inflicted on its share of the Focke-Wulf plant by WWII Allied bombing. Colonel Sosthenes Behn, Ludwig Roselius and Barbara Goette outfoxed Hitler in 1936 when he tried to have Roselius removed as a major stakeholder from Focke-Wulf A.G. and reconstitution followed resulting in the privatized company Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau GmbH. Focke-Wulf formally merged with Weserflug in 1964, becoming Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke (VFW), which after several further mergers became the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company N.V. (EADS). EADS was later reorganised as Airbus.

Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau AG () was a German manufacturer of civil and military aircraft before and during World War II. Many of the company's successful fighter aircraft designs were slight modifications of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. It is one of the predecessor companies of today's Airbus.

Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau AG byl německý letecký výrobce, kterého nejvíce proslavil úspěšný stíhací letoun z doby druhé světové války Fw 190. Vznikl v roce 1924 a zanikl v roce 1964 sloučením se společností Weser Flugzeugbau GmbH do Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke. Po několika dalších fúzích se jeho nástupnické společnosti zařadily mezi předchůdce současné firmy Airbus.


History.

Antiquity.

The Oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis was made famous when Alexander the Great visited it after conquering Egypt from Persia in 332 BC. Both oracles and seers in ancient Greece practiced divination. Oracles were the conduits for the gods on earth; their prophecies were understood to be the will of the gods verbatim. Because of the high demand for oracle consultations and the oracles’ limited work schedule, they were not the main source of divination for the ancient Greeks. That role fell to the seers ("μάντεις" in Greek).  Seers were not in direct contact with the gods; instead, they were interpreters of signs provided by the gods. Seers used many methods to explicate the will of the gods including extispicy, bird signs, etc. They were more numerous than the oracles and did not keep a limited schedule; thus, they were highly valued by all Greeks, not just those with the capacity to travel to Delphi or other such distant sites.  The disadvantage of seers was that only direct yes-or-no questions could be answered. Oracles could answer more generalized questions, and seers often had to perform several sacrifices in order to get the most consistent answer. For example, if a general wanted to know if the omens were proper for him to advance on the enemy, he would ask his seer both that question and if it were better for him to remain on the defensive. If the seer gave consistent answers, the advice was considered valid.  During battle, generals would frequently ask seers at both the campground (a process called the "hiera") and at the battlefield (called the "sphagia"). The hiera entailed the seer slaughtering a sheep and examining its liver for answers regarding a more generic question; the sphagia involved killing a young female goat by slitting its throat and noting the animal's last movements and blood flow. The battlefield sacrifice only occurred when two armies prepared for battle against each other. Neither force would advance until the seer revealed appropriate omens.  Because the seers had such power over influential individuals in ancient Greece, many were skeptical of the accuracy and honesty of the seers. The degree to which seers were honest depends entirely on the individual seers. Despite the doubt surrounding individual seers, the craft as a whole was well regarded and trusted by the Greeks.

Middle Ages and Early Modern period.

The divination method of casting lots (Cleromancy) was used by the remaining eleven disciples of Jesus in to select a replacement for Judas Iscariot. Therefore, divination was arguably an accepted practice in the early church. However, divination became viewed as a pagan practice by Christian emperors during ancient Rome.  In 692 the Quinisext Council, also known as the "Council in Trullo" in the Eastern Orthodox Church, passed canons to eliminate pagan and divination practices. Fortune-telling and other forms of divination were widespread through the Middle Ages. In the constitution of 1572 and public regulations of 1661 of Kur-Saxony, capital punishment was used on those predicting the future. Laws forbidding divination practice continue to this day.  Småland is famous for Årsgång, a practice which occurred until the early 19th century in some parts of Småland. Generally occurring on Christmas and New Year's Eve, it is a practice in which one would fast and keep themselves away from light in a room until midnight to then complete a set of complex events to interpret symbols encountered throughout the journey to foresee the coming year.

Mesoamerica.

Divination was a central component of ancient Mesoamerican religious life. Many Aztec gods, including central creator gods, were described as diviners and were closely associated with sorcery. Tezcatlipoca is the patron of sorcerers and practitioners of magic. His name means "smoking mirror", a reference to a device used for divinatory scrying. In the Mayan "Popol Vuh", the creator gods Xmucane and Xpiacoc perform divinatory hand casting during the creation of people.  Every civilization that developed in pre-Columbian Mexico, from the Olmecs to the Aztecs, practiced divination in daily life, both public and private. Scrying through the use of reflective water surfaces, mirrors, or the casting of lots were among the most widespread forms of divinatory practice. Visions derived from hallucinogens were another important form of divination, and are still widely used among contemporary diviners of Mexico. Among the more common hallucinogenic plants used in divination are morning glory, jimson weed, and peyote.

Contemporary folk religion.

Asia.

Japan.

Although Japan retains a history of traditional and local methods of divination, such as "onmyōdō", contemporary divination in Japan, called "uranai", derives from outside sources. Contemporary methods of divination in Japan include both Western and Chinese astrology, geomancy or feng shui, tarot cards, I Ching (Book of Changes), and physiognomy (methods of reading the body to identify traits). Rather than indicate cultural appropriation, understood as inappropriate acts of appropriation by a dominant culture in the context of colonization or inequality, Japanese divination represents instances of unique and creative amalgamation of cultural elements. This concept may be referred to as syncretism, creolization, or cultural hybridity. In the example of feng shui, Japanese adaptations of feng shui extend outside the traditional form, featuring such hybrids as "car feng shui," "workplace feng shui," "makeup feng shui," and even "toilet feng shui."

Personality types.

Personality typing as a form of divination has been prevalent in Japan since the 1980s. Various methods exist for divining personality type. Each attempt to reveal glimpses of an individual's destiny, productive and inhibiting traits, future parenting techniques, and compatibility in marriage. Personality type is increasingly important for young Japanese, who consider personality the driving factor of compatibility, given the ongoing marriage drought and birth rate decline in Japan.  An import to Japan, Chinese zodiac signs based on the birth year in 12 year cycles (rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog, and boar) are frequently combined with other forms of divination, such as so-called 'celestial types' based on the planets (Saturn, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Mercury, or Uranus). Personality can also be divined using cardinal directions, the four elements (water, earth, fire, air), and yin-yang. Names can also lend important personality information under name classification which asserts that names bearing certain Japanese vowel sounds (a, i, u, e, o) share common characteristics. Numerology, which utilizes methods of diving 'birth numbers' from significant numbers such as birth date, may also reveal character traits of individuals.  Individuals can also assess their own and others' personalities according to physical characteristics. Blood type remains a popular form of divination from physiology. Stemming from Western influences, body reading or "ninsou", determines personality traits based on body measurements. The face is the most commonly analyzed feature, with eye size, pupil shape, mouth shape, and eyebrow shape representing the most important traits. An upturned mouth may be cheerful, and a triangle eyebrow may indicate that someone is strong-willed.  Methods of assessment in daily life may include self-taken measurements or quizzes. As such, magazines targeted at women in their early-to-mid twenties feature the highest concentration of personality assessment guides. There are approximately 144 different women's magazines, known as "nihon zashi koukoku kyoukai", published in Japan aimed at this audience.

Japanese tarot.

The adaptation of the Western divination method of tarot cards into Japanese culture presents a particularly unique example of contemporary divination as this adaptation mingles with Japan's robust visual culture. Japanese tarot cards are created by professional artists, advertisers, and fans of tarot. One tarot card collector claimed to have accumulated more than 1,500 Japan-made decks of tarot cards. Japanese tarot cards fall into diverse categories such as Inspiration Tarot ("reikan tarotto"), I-Ching Tarot ("ekisen tarotto"), Spiritual Tarot ("supirichuaru tarotto"), Western Tarot ("seiyō tarotto"), and Eastern Tarot ("tōyō tarotto"). The images on tarot cards may come from images from Japanese popular culture, such as characters from manga and anime including Hello Kitty, or may feature cultural symbols. Tarot cards may adapt the images of Japanese historical figures, such as high priestess Himiko (170-248CE) or imperial court wizard Abe no Seimei (921-1005CE). Still others may feature images of cultural displacement, such as English knights, pentagrams, the Jewish Torah, or invented glyphs. The introduction of such cards began by the 1930s and reached prominence 1970s. Japanese tarot cards were originally created by men, often based on the Rider-Waite-Smith tarot published by the Rider Company in London in 1909. Since, the practice of Japanese tarot has become overwhelmingly feminine and intertwined with kawaii culture. Referring to the cuteness of tarot cards, Japanese model Kuromiya Niina was quoted as saying "because the images are cute, even holding them is enjoyable." While these differences exist, Japanese tarot cards function similarly to their Western counterparts. Cards are shuffled and cut into piles then used to forecast the future, for spiritual reflection, or as a tool for self-understanding.

Taiwan.

As seen previous to this section, many different cultures around the world use divination as a way of understanding the future. The most common act of divination in the Bao’an village in Taiwan is called the Poe, Bao’an is not the actual name of the village, but for privacy purposes that is what it will be called. The Poe translated to English means “moon boards”. The Poe consists of two wood or bamboo blocks cut into the shape of a crescent moon. The one edge is rounded while the other is flat; the two are mirror images. Both crescents are held out in one's palms and while kneeling, they are raised to the forehead level. Once in this position, the blocks are dropped and the future can be understood depending on their landing. If both fall flat side up or both fall rounded side up, that can be taken as a failure of the deity to agree. If the blocks land one rounded and one flat, the deity agrees. “Laughing poe” is when rounded sides land down and they rock before coming to a standstill. “Negative poe” is seen when the flat sides fall downward and abruptly stop, this indicates anger. When there is a positive fall, it is called “sacred poe”, although the negative falls are not usually taken seriously. As the blocks are being dropped the question is said in a murmur, and if the answer is yes, the blocks are dropped again. To make sure the answer is definitely a yes, the blocks must fall in a “yes” position three times in a row. A more serious type of divination is the Kiō-á. There is a small wooden chair, and around the sides of the chair are small pieces of wood that can move up and down in their sockets, this causes a clicking sounds when the chair is moved in any way. Two men hold this chair by its legs before an altar, while the incense is being burned, and the supernatural agent is asked to descend into the chair. It is seen that it is in the chair by an onset of motion. Eventually, the chair crashes onto a table prepared with wood chips and burlap. The characters on the table are then traced and these are said to be written by the god who possessed the chair, these characters are then interpreted.  In Japan, divination methods include Futomani from the Shinto tradition.

Africa.

Divination is widespread throughout Africa. Among many examples it is one of central tenets of Serer religion in Senegal. Only those who have been initiated as Saltigues (the Serer high priests and priestesses) can divine the future. These are the "hereditary rain priests" whose role is both religious and medicinal.  Specialized diviners called Ob'guega (doctor of Oguega oracle), as well as Ob'Oronmila (doctor of Oronmila oracle) from the Edo people of West Africa for thousands, have used divination as a means of foretelling the past, present and future. These diviners are initiated and trained in Iha (divination) of either Ominigbon or Oronmila (Benin Orunmila).  The Yoruba people of West Africa are internationally known for having developed the Ifá system, an intricate process of divination that is performed by an "Awo", an initiated priest or priestess of Orunmila, the spirit of the Yoruba oracle.

Divination (from Latin "divinare" "to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy ", related to "divinus", divine), or "to be inspired by a god", is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency.

Věštba, latinsky "oraculum", znamená předpověď budoucích událostí, někdy i v daleké budoucnosti nebo na vzdáleném místě. Často bývala "temná" a víceznačná, takže se dala vyložit různým způsobem. Věštby přijímali věštci (například Amfilochos, Spurinna) nebo věštkyně jako Pýthia, Sibyla. Věštby mají významnou úlohu ještě například v Kosmově kronice, později ve středověku byly pokládány za pověru a černé umění, obnoveny byly až počátkem novověku.


History.

The former Svobodné divadlo (Free Theatre) on Falkensteiner Street was founded closely after World War II, in summer 1945, by people around director Milan Pásek, supported by professor Jiří Kroha. Since its beginning it hosted mainly young artists, which sought to found second theatre in the city (the first one was "Mahenovo divadlo" (Mahen Theatre), where they could perform plays by contemporary writers. The theatre has changed its name by the time: Městské oblastní divadlo (Municipal and Regional Theatre), Krajské oblastní divadlo (County and regional theatre) and in 1962 "Divadlo bratří Mrštíků" (Mrštík Brothers Theatre).  In 1988, by decision of a new regulation, the theatre was merged with some quite genre different theatres – satirical theatre "Večerní Brno" and puppet theatre "Loutkové divadlo Radost".  After the Velvet revolution the theatre was renamed the "Městské divadlo Brno" (Municipal Theatre Brno) and in 1990 Jan Kolegar was elected as its director. Jan Moša, former producer, dramatist and since 1990 the artistic director of drama, became the director in 1992. He was responsible for the reconstruction of insufficient places at former cinema on Lidická street, where the theatre now resides.  In the 1990s the declining scene, that had great distress of the audience, has become one of the most successful theatres not only in Brno, but throughout the country.  In 1995 the MdB went through reconstruction, mainly modification of the theatre scene itself. In addition to changes of building the ensemble of theatre was also renewed. In the 1990s the MdB has focused mainly on quality musical theatre production, using graduates of the musical acting classes at the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts.

Notable actors.

The actors of this theatre were awarded with several Thalia Awards and Alfréd Radok Awards. The theatre has even walk of fame for its most brilliant actors since 2000.

Choice of current actings.

There are many different art pieces in both of theaters musical and dramatic repertoire, lot of space is dedicated for many new works, which are often written directly for MdB. The classical pieces (e.g., "Devotion to the Cross" by Pedro Calderón de la Barca) are also played often.

Brno City Theatre (Czech: Městské divadlo Brno, further in text MdB) is a repertoire theatre in Brno, Czech Republic, that focuses on dramatic and music production, mainly musical theatre. The building of the theatre is located on Lidická street in town square Brno-center. It has two acting areas – dramatical scene (capacity 365 places) and musical theatre scene (capacity 680 places). As of 2011, the manager and director of the theatre is Stanislav Moša, art manager of the musical ensemble is Petr Gazdík and operetta manager is Igor Ondříček.

Městské divadlo Brno (zkratka MdB) je divadlo v Brně, repertoárově zaměřené na činoherní a hudební (především muzikálovou), produkci. Divadlo se nachází v Lidické ulici, v městské části Brno-střed, a má dva "hrací" prostory: Činoherní scénu, s maximální kapacitou 365 míst, a Soudobou hudební scénu, s maximální kapacitou 680 míst. Ředitelem divadla je Stanislav Moša (zároveň je uměleckým šéfem činohry), šéfem muzikálu Petr Gazdík a šéfem zpěvohry Igor Ondříček. Divadlo má vlastní orchestr, který je využíván zejména při muzikálových představeních. Před budovou Činoherní scény je umístěný brněnský chodník slávy, kde mají otisknuty dlaně někteří herci tohoto divadla. K roku 2012 bylo divadlo třetím nejnavštěvovanějším divadlem v České republice. Podle ankety serveru i-divadlo.cz se MdB umístilo na první příčce, jako nejoblíbenější divadlo v letech 2013 a 2014.


Early life.

Maria Luisa was born in Portici, in Campania, the site of the summer palace ("Reggia di Portici") of her parents, King Charles, King of Naples and Sicily and Maria Amalia of Saxony. She was the fifth daughter, and second surviving child, of her parents.  Her father, the future Charles III of Spain, had become King of Naples and Sicily in 1735 after its occupation by the Spanish in the War of Polish Succession. After her father became King of Spain at the death of her half-uncle, Ferdinand VI of Spain, in 1759, she became known as "Infanta Maria Luisa of Spain", and she moved with her family to Spain.

Grand Duchess of Tuscany.

Maria Luisa was originally intended to marry the future Emperor Joseph II, but this was stopped by the discontent of Louis XV of France, who instead wished for Joseph to marry his granddaughter, Isabella of Parma.  On 16 February 1764 she was married by proxy at Madrid to Leopold, the second son of Empress Maria Theresa I, Holy Roman Empress and Francis, Duke of Lorraine, and the heir apparent to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Before her marriage, she was made to renounce her rights to the throne of Spain upon the wish of her father. After her wedding by proxy, she traveled to Austria by way of Barcelona, Genova and Bolzano. The next year, on 5 August, she married him in person at Innsbruck. Only a few days later, the death of Emperor Francis made Maria Luisa's husband the new Grand Duke of Tuscany, and the newly married couple moved to Florence, where they would live for the next twenty-five years. The couple arrived to Florence 13 September 1765. They were settled in the Palazzo Pitti.  By the time of her wedding, Maria Luisa was described as a blue-eyed beauty with a vivid charm, unpretentious and simple and with a disposition to be generous and kind, and her natural warm friendliness was said to have contrasted to the somewhat cold nature of Leopold. By her strict Catholic upbringing, Maria Luisa was raised to endure any hardship of pregnancy and marriage without complaint, a role she also fulfilled during her marriage. The relationship between Maria Luisa and Leopold has been described as happy, and Maria Luisa as a supporting and loyal wife. She accepted the infidelities of her spouse without complaints: among his most known lovers were Lady Anna Gore Cowper, and another was the ballerina Livia Raimondi, with whom he had a son, Luigi von Grün (1788–1814), and gave her own palace at Piazza San Marco.  As Grand Duchess of Tuscany, Maria Luisa made herself appreciated already the first year in Florence, during the famine of 1765, when she provided the poor and needing with food and medical aid, and she was referred to as an ideal "model of feminine virtue". She was never crowned as Grand Duchess, though she was present at the coronation of Leopold in July 1768. She accompanied her consort and her sister-in-law, Maria Carolina of Austria, at the latter's marriage to her brother, the King of Naples: the couple remained there for the summer of 1768. In 1770, she accompanied Leopold on his visit to Vienna. Maria Luisa and Leopold neither enjoyed formal occasions and rarely participated in representation or indeed upheld much of a ceremonial court life at all; while Leopold spent his time with politics and his personal pleasure life, Maria Luisa isolated herself almost completely from high society and devoted herself completely to the upbringing of her children. Maria Luisa and her spouse gave their children a very free upbringing, away from any formal court life, and occasionally took them on trips to the country side and the coast. She remained mostly unknown in the local aristocracy, and restricted her private social life to a very small circle of friends.

Holy Roman Empress.

In 1790, on the death of Leopold's childless brother, Joseph II, Maria Luisa's husband inherited the Habsburg lands in Central Europe, and was shortly thereafter elected Holy Roman Emperor. Taking the name of Leopold II, the new Emperor moved his family to Vienna, where Maria Luisa took on the role of imperial consort, being the penultimate one and the last to have had held the title until her husband's death. Leopold died scarcely two years later, on 1 March 1792. Maria Luisa followed her husband to the grave in less than three months, not living long enough to see her eldest son Francis elected as the last Holy Roman Emperor. She was buried next to her husband in the Capuchin Crypt. Her urn is located in the Loreto Chapel of the Vienna Augustinerkirche, her entrails in the Ducal Crypt. Maria Luisa is one of those 41 people who received a "Separated Funeral" with a division of the body into all three traditional Viennese burial places of the Habsburgs (Imperial Crypt, Herzgruft, Herzogsgruft).  Mozart's opera "La clemenza di Tito" was commissioned by the Estates of Bohemia as part of the festivities that accompanied the coronation of Maria Luisa and her husband Leopold as king and queen of Bohemia in Prague on 6 September 1791. In musical circles, Maria Luisa is famous for her putative denigration of Mozart's opera, which she supposedly dismissed as ""una porcheria tedesca"" (Italian for "German swinishness"), however no claim that she made this remark pre-dates the publication in 1871 of Alfred Meissner's "Rococo-Bilder: nach Aufzeichnungen meines Grossvaters", a collection of stories about cultural and political life in Prague in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

Infanta Maria Luisa of Spain (Spanish: "María Luisa", German: "Maria Ludovika"; 24 November 1745 – 15 May 1792) was Holy Roman Empress, German Queen, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and Grand Duchess of Tuscany as the spouse of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor.

Marie Ludovika (Luisa) Španělská (24. listopadu 1745 Portici (Kampánie) – 15. květen 1792 Vídeň) byla císařovna Svaté říše římské (1790–1792), královna česká a uherská, velkovévodkyně toskánská (1765–1790) a infantka španělská.


Geography and geomorphology.

Tata Sabaya lies just north of the Salar de Coipasa in Bolivia. The small village of Pagador lies west-southwest of the volcano, but the whole region is overall thinly inhabited. The name means "Father Sabaya"; the term "Sabaya" may be the Aymara corruption of the Quechua term for "devil", "demon". The volcano is a topic in local myths, where it is sometimes personified.  Tata Sabaya is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, which consists of a volcanic arc that mainly follows the Western Cordillera. There are about 44 Holocene volcanoes, however the remoteness of the region and dry climate has restricted scientific research of these volcanoes; among the better known are Lastarria, the Nevados de Payachata, Ollagüe, San Pablo, San Pedro and Socompa.  Tata Sabaya is a volcano which reaches a height of. Five lava flows extend north from the summit and display levees and flow fronts, the flows reaching a maximum length of. The top of these flows is cut by a collapse scar that extends east and west of the edifice in the form of scarps up to high. The space between the scarps is in turn filled by more recent lava flows with a blocky appearance. Farther away of the edifice, the scarp is more noticeable and reaches a height of about on the southeastern side of the volcano.  A large deposit south of the volcano, originally interpreted as a nuee ardente deposit, is actually a landslide deposit which extends over a length of and a width of ; its volume is about. The landslide incorporated material from the salar, and its rocks reflect in part the layering and structure of the pre-collapse volcano. The deposit is one of the more conspicuous of its type, to the point that it was observed and identified on low-resolution Landsat images. It consists of material that forms hummock-like deposits, with individual hummocks becoming smaller the farther away from the edifice they are. The deposit extends into the Salar de Coipasa where it is confined by faults and is in part covered by lacustrine sediments such as tufa.

Geology.

Off the western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a rate of about. This subduction process is responsible for the volcanism in the Andean Volcanic Belt, which occurs in a Northern Volcanic Zone in Ecuador and Colombia, a Central Volcanic Zone in Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and a Southern Volcanic Zone in Chile and Argentina. These volcanic zones are separated by gaps without volcanism, where the subduction process is shallower.  Several phases of tectonic and volcanic activity have been identified in the Central Volcanic Zone. An earlier phase of volcanism in the Cordillera de la Costa commenced in the Jurassic but is considered separate from the Central Volcanic Zone magmatism proper. After an erosional hiatus during the Oligocene, volcanic arc activity increased during the Miocene and culminated in a phase of strong ignimbrite eruptions, which originated in calderas. This phase was associated with a substantial thickening of the crust in the Central Andes. During the Pleistocene ignimbrite volcanism waned again and stratovolcanoes began to develop.  Tata Sabaya lies along a crustal transition area which separates a younger crust farther south from an older (Proterozoic) crust in the north, which is made up by the Chilenia terrane and the Arequipa-Antofalla craton, respectively. This transition area appears to coincide with a chain of volcanoes that Tata Sabaya is part of and which extends from Cerro Saxani in the east to Isluga in Chile, as well as with the northern end of the Pica gap where no recent volcanism occurs in the volcanic arc.  The basement of the volcano is formed by the ignimbritic Altos de Pica formation, although outcrops of granite have been observed in the region; one of these outcrops may be a Precambrian granite subsequently thermally modified in the Toarcian. This basement is covered by younger volcanic rocks, alluvium and sediments of the Salar de Coipasa. Seismic tomography suggests that molten magma exists in the regional crust.

Composition.

Tata Sabaya has produced "two-pyroxene" andesite and porphyritic andesite. Minerals contained within the rock are augite, biotite, hornblende, hypersthene, plagioclase and titanomagnetite with only little variation between rocks erupted during separate stages of volcanic activity. The erupted volcanites define a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. Inclusions of more mafic rocks in the erupted material may indicate that mafic magma was injected into the magma chamber of Tata Sabaya. The magma genesis at Tata Sabaya has been explained with magma mixing processes, which gave rise to a fairly uniform composition of the eruption products.

Climate and vegetation.

The region is dry with precipitation mainly falling during southern hemisphere summer, and has little vegetation cover. "Polylepis tarapacana" trees grow on the slopes of Tata Sabaya; these trees form the highest woodlands in the world. Other aspects of regional vegetation are the so-called puna steppe, which is characterized by grass and shrub vegetation.

Eruption history.

Of all volcanoes in Bolivia, Tata Sabaya is the only one with Holocene activity which is not on the border with another country. The young age of the mountain has been inferred from the lack of glaciation and moraines on the mountain, unlike neighbouring summits.  The earliest activity at Tata Sabaya constructed a pyroclastic shield, which crops out as a thick sequence of block-and-ash flows fallout deposits and pumice deposits in the northern sector of the volcano. Effusive eruptions then built up a volcanic cone on top of this shield; the five northerly lava flows were emplaced during this phase of activity. Some lava flows from this stage were unstable and collapsed, covering the northern parts of the volcano with debris.  This effusive activity eventually oversteepened the cone, causing its southern sector to collapse. During this collapse and landsliding, large toreva blocks developed from sectors of the cone which slid down undeformed, while other material from the cone formed the hummocks in the sector collapse deposit; there was no explosive eruption at the time of the collapse. The configuration of the deposit indicates that the debris entered the Salar when it was filled with water; the height of the tufa deposits imply that water levels were about above sea level. This and the lake terraces that the landslide overran marks the collapse as synchronous with the Lake Tauca episode 12,000-12,360 years ago when water levels in the Salar de Coipasa reached their maximum. The onset of such collapses on volcanoes is often determined by faulting, climate change or eruption of the volcano; at Tata Sabaya earthquakes and the injection of new magma has been invoked to explain the destabilization of the edifice.  After the collapse, Holocene activity filled the scar with lava domes and lava flows, cancelling the traces of the collapse; some of these in turn collapsed as well and gave rise to hot avalanche deposits. Radiocarbon dating for a pyroclastic flow has yielded an age of 6,000 years before present, implying that the volcano may be still active. Reportedly, when in 1600 Huaynaputina erupted in Peru a volcano named Sabaya erupted in Oruro and destroyed a village.

Tata Sabaya is a high volcano in Bolivia. It is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of several volcanic belts in the Andes which are separated by gaps without volcanic activity. This section of the Andes was volcanically active since the Jurassic, with an episode of strong ignimbritic volcanism occurring during the Miocene. Tata Sabaya lies in a thinly populated region north of the Salar de Coipasa salt pan.

Tata Sabaya je nejvýchodnější stratovulkán z trojice vulkánů Isluga, Cabaray a Tata Sabaya. Masiv vulkánu je tvořen převážně andezity. Koncem pleistocénu nastala masivní erupce, která zapříčinila kolaps masivu a vyprodukovala velkou kamennou lavinu, pokrývající plochu více než 300 km2 jižně od vulkánu. Pozdější sopečná činnost během holocénu vytvořila sérii lávových dómů a proudů, tvořících současný vzhled vulkánu. Nejmladší produkty vulkanismu leží na západních a severozápadních svazích sopky.


Working principle.

A heat recovery system is designed to supply conditioned air to the occupied space to continue the desired level of comfort. The heat recovery system keeps the house fully ventilated by recovering the heat which is coming from the inside environment. Heat recovery systems basically work by transferring the thermal energy (enthalpy) from one fluid to another fluid, from one fluid to a solid or from a solid surface to a fluid, at different temperatures and in thermal contact. Additionally, there is no direct interaction between fluid and fluid or fluid and solid in most of the heat recovery systems. In some application of heat recovery systems, fluid leakage is observed due to pressure differences which can cause mixture of the two fluids.

Types.

Rotary thermal wheels.

Rotary thermal wheels are a mechanical means of heat recovery. A rotating porous metallic wheel transfers thermal energy from one air stream to another by passing through each fluid alternately. The system operates by working as a thermal storage mass whereby the heat from the air is temporarily stored within the wheel matrix until it is transferred to the cooler air stream.  Two types of rotary thermal wheel exist, heat wheels and enthalpy (desiccant) wheels. Though there is geometrical similarity between heat and enthalpy wheels, there are differences which effect the operation of each design. In a system utilizing a desiccant wheel, the moisture in the airstream with the highest relative humidity is transferred to the opposite airstream after flowing through the wheel. This can work in both directions of incoming air to exhaust air and exhaust air to incoming air. The supply air can then be used directly or employed to further cool the air, this is an energy intensive process.

Fixed plate heat exchangers.

Fixed plate heat exchangers are the most commonly used type of heat exchanger and have been developed for 40 years. Thin metal plates are stacked with a small spacing between plates. Two different airstreams pass through these spaces, adjacent to each other. The heat transfer occurs as the temperature transfers through the plate from one airstream to the other. The efficiency of these devices have shown values of 90% sensible heat efficiency in transferring sensible heat from one air stream to another. The high levels of efficiency are attributed to the high heat transfer coefficients of the materials used, operational pressure and temperature range.

Heat pipes.

Heat pipes are a heat recovery device that use a multi-phase process to transfer heat from one airstream to another. Heat is transferred using an evaporator and condenser within a wicked, sealed pipe containing a fluid which undergoes constant phase change to transfer heat. The fluid within the pipes changes from a fluid to a gas in the evaporator section, absorbing the thermal energy from the warm airstream. The gas condenses back to a fluid in the condenser section where the thermal energy is dissipated into the cooler airstream raising the temperature. The fluid/gas is transported from one side of the heat pipe to the other through pressure, wick forces or gravity, depending on the arrangement of the heat pipe.

Run-around.

Run-around systems are a hybrid heat recovery system that incorporates characteristics from other heat recovery technology to form a single device, capable of recovering heat from one air stream and delivering to another a significant distance away. There is the general case of run-around heat recovery, two fixed plate heat exchangers are located in two separate airstreams and are linked by a closed loop containing a fluid which is continually pumped between the two heat exchangers. The fluid is heated and cooled constantly as it flows around the loop, providing the heat recovery. The constant flow of the fluid through the loop requires pumps to move between the two heat exchangers. Though this is an additional energy demand, using pumps to circulate fluid is less energy intensive than fans to circulate air.

Phase change materials.

Phase change materials, commonly referred to as PCMs, are a technology that is used to store sensible and latent heat within a building structure at a higher storage capacity than standard building materials. PCMs have been studied extensively due to the ability to store heat and transfer heating and cooling demands from conventional peak times to off-peak times.  The concept of thermal mass of a building for heat storage, that the physical structure of the building absorbs heat to help cool the air, has long been understood and investigated. A study of PCMs in comparison to traditional building materials has shown that the thermal storage capacity of PCMs is twelve times higher than standard building materials over the same temperature range. The pressure drop across PCMs has not been investigated to be able to comment on the effect that the material may have on airstreams. However, as the PCM can be incorporated directly into the building structure, this would not affect the flow in the same way other heat exchanger technologies do, it can be suggested that there is no pressure loss created by the inclusion of PCMs in the building fabric.

Applications.

Rotary thermal wheel.

O’Connor et al. studied the effect that a rotary thermal wheel has on the supply air flow rates in to a building. A computational model was created to simulate the effects of a rotary thermal wheel on air flow rates when incorporated into a commercial wind tower system. The simulation was validated with a scale model experiment in a closed-loop subsonic wind tunnel. The data obtained from both tests were compared in order to analyse the flow rates. Although the flow rates were reduced compared to a wind tower which did not include a rotary thermal wheel, the guideline ventilation rates for occupants in a school or office building were met above a external wind speed of 3 m/s, which is lower than the average wind speed of the UK (4–5 m/s).  No full scale experimental or field test data was completed in this study; therefore it cannot be conclusively proved that rotary thermal wheels are feasible for integration into a commercial wind tower system. However, despite the air flow rates decrease within the building after the introduction of the rotary thermal wheel, the reduction was not large enough to prevent the ventilation guideline rates being met. Sufficient research has not yet been conducted to determine the suitability of rotary thermal wheels in natural ventilation, ventilation supply rates can be met but the thermal capabilities of the rotary thermal wheel have not yet been investigated. Further work would beneficial to increase understanding of the system.

Fixed plate heat exchangers.

Mardiana et al. integrated a fixed plate heat exchanger into a commercial wind tower, highlighting the advantages of this type of system as a means of zero energy ventilation which can be simply modified. Full scale laboratory testing was undertaken in order to determine the effects and efficiency of the combined system. A wind tower was integrated with a fixed plate heat exchanger and was mounted centrally on a sealed test room.  The results from this study indicate that the combination of a wind tower passive ventilation system and a fixed plate heat recovery device could provide an effective combined technology to recover waste heat from exhaust air and cool incoming warm air with zero energy demand. Though no quantitative data for the ventilation rates within the test room was provided, it can be assumed that due to the high pressure loss across the heat exchanger that these were significantly reduced from standard operation of a wind tower. Further investigation of this combined of technology is essential in understanding the air flow characteristics of the system.

Heat pipes.

Due to the low pressure loss of heat pipe systems, more research has been conducted into the integration of this technology into passive ventilation than other heat recovery systems. Commercial wind towers were again used as the passive ventilation system for integrating this heat recovery technology. This further enhances the suggestion that commercial wind towers provide a worthwhile alternative to mechanical ventilation, capable of supplying and exhausting air at the same time.

Run-around systems.

Flaga-Maryanczyk et al. conducted a study in Sweden which examined a passive ventilation system which integrated a run-around system using a ground source heat pump as the heat source to warm incoming air. Experimental measurements and weather data were taken from the passive house used in the study. A CFD model of the passive house was created with the measurements taken from the sensors and weather station used as input data. The model was run to calculate the effectiveness of the run-around system and the capabilities of the ground source heat pump.  Ground source heat pumps provide a reliable source of consistent thermal energy when buried 10–20 m below the ground surface. The ground temperature is warmer than ambient air in winter and cooler than ambient air in summer, providing both heat source and heat sink. It was found that in February, the coldest month in the climate, that the ground source heat pump was capable of delivering almost 25% of the heating needs of the house and occupants.

Phase change materials.

The majority of research interest in PCMs is the application of phase change material integration into traditional porous building materials such as concrete and wallboards. Kosny et al. analysed the thermal performance of buildings which have PCMenhanced construction materials within the structure. Analysis showed that the addition of PCMs is beneficial in terms of improving the thermal performance.  A significant drawback of PCM use in a passive ventilation system for heat recovery is the lack of instantaneous heat transfer across different airstreams. Phase change materials are a heat storage technology, whereby the heat is stored within the PCM until the air temperature has fallen to a significant level where it can be released back into the air stream. No research has been conducted into the use of PCMs between two airstreams of different temperature where continuous, instantaneous heat transfer can occur. An investigation into this area would be beneficial for passive ventilation heat recovery research.

Environmental impacts.

Energy saving is one of the key issues for both fossil fuel consumption and protection of global environment. The rising cost of energy and the global warming underlined that developing of the improved energy systems is necessary to increase the energy efficiency while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The most effective way to reduce energy demand is to use energy more efficiently. Therefore, waste heat recovery is becoming popular in recent years since it improves energy efficiency. About 26% of industrial energy is still wasted as hot gas or fluid in many countries. However, during last two decades there has been remarkable attention to recover waste heat from various industries and to optimize the units which are used to absorb heat from waste gases. Thus, these attempts enhance reducing of global warming as well as of energy demand.

Energy consumption.

In most industrialized countries, HVAC are responsible for one-third of the total energy consumption. Moreover, cooling and dehumidifying fresh ventilation air composes 20–40% of the total energy load for HVAC in hot and humid climatic regions. However, that percentage can be higher where 100% fresh air ventilation is required. This means more energy is needed to meet the fresh air requirements of the occupants. The heat recovery is getting a necessity due to an increasing energy cost for treatment of fresh air. The main purpose of heat recovery systems is to mitigate the energy consumption of buildings for heating, cooling and ventilation by recovering the waste heat. In this regard, stand alone or combined heat recovery systems can be incorporated into the residential or commercial buildings for energy saving. Reduction in energy consumption levels can also notably contribute in reducing greenhouse gas emissions for a sustainable world.

Greenhouse gases.

CO, NO and CH are common greenhouse gases and CO is the largest contributor to climate change. Therefore, the greenhouse gas emissions are frequently denoted as CO equivalent emissions. Total global greenhouse gas emissions increased 12.7% between 2000 and 2005. In 2005, around 8.3 Gt CO was released by building sector. Moreover, buildings are responsible for more than 30% of greenhouse gas emissions each year in most of developed countries. According to another study, buildings in European Union countries cause about 50% of the CO emissions in the atmosphere. It is possible to mitigate the greenhouse gas emissions by 70% compared to the levels expected to be seen in 2030 if the proper measures are taken. The increase in greenhouse gas emissions due to high demand of energy use concluded as global warming. In this regard, mitigating gas emissions in the atmosphere stands out as one of the most crucial problems of the world today that should be resolved. Heat recovery systems have a remarkable potential to contribute in decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. The Scotch Whisky Association has carried out a project at Glenmorangie distillery to recover latent heat from new wash stills to heat other process waters. They have found that 175 t a year of CO will be saved with a payback period of under one year. In another report, it is underlined that 10 MW of recovered heat can be utilized for saving €350,000 per year in emission costs. UK Climate Change Act of 2008 is targeting a 34% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 compared with 1990 levels and an 80% reduction by 2050. They emphasize the notable potential and importance of heat recovery technologies to achieve this goal.

Heat recovery ventilation (HRV), also known as mechanical ventilation heat recovery (MVHR), is an energy recovery ventilation system which works between two sources at different temperatures. Heat recovery is a method which is increasingly used to reduce the heating and cooling demands ( and thus energy costs ) of buildings. By recovering the residual heat in the exhaust gas, the fresh air introduced into the air conditioning system is pre-heated (pre-cooled), and the fresh air enthalpy is increased (reduced) before the fresh air enters the room or the air cooler of the air conditioning unit performs heat and moisture treatment. A typical heat recovery system in buildings consists of a core unit, channels for fresh air and exhaust air, and blower fans. Building exhaust air is used as either a heat source or heat sink depending on the climate conditions, time of year and requirements of the building. Heat recovery systems typically recover about 60–95% of the heat in exhaust air and have significantly improved the energy efficiency of buildings.

Zpětné získávání tepla (ZZT) je systém používaný v řadě technických oborů. Důležité je využití ve vzduchotechnických systémech a systémech odpadních vod, které získávají teplo z odpadního vzduchu, odpadní vody a jiných látek. Významnou oblastí zpětného získávání tepla je průmysl, výroba a služby. Typické je to především v hutnictví, kde je vzduch, vstupující do pecí, předehříván teplem odcházejících kouřových plynů. Ale také ve výrobách a službách, kde odchází do kanalizací velké množství teplé až horké odpadní vody. Lze tak ušetřit část energie, kterou by jinak bylo nutné do systému dodat jiným zdrojem tepla.


Origin.

US President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and UK Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, discussed what would become the Atlantic Charter in 1941 during the Atlantic Conference in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. They made their joint declaration on 14 August 1941 from the US naval base in the bay, Naval Base Argentia, that had recently been leased from Britain as part of a deal that saw the US give 50 surplus destroyers to the UK for use against German U-boats (the US did not enter the war as a combatant until the attack on Pearl Harbor, four months later). The policy was issued as a "statement"; as such there was no formal, legal document entitled "The Atlantic Charter". It detailed the goals and aims of the Allied powers concerning the war and the post-war world.  Many of the ideas of the charter came from an ideology of Anglo-American internationalism that sought British and American cooperation for the cause of international security. Roosevelt's attempts to tie Britain to concrete war aims and Churchill's desperation to bind the US to the war effort helped provide motivations for the meeting which produced the Atlantic Charter. It was assumed at the time that Britain and America would have an equal role to play in any post-war international organization that would be based on the principles of the Atlantic Charter.  Churchill and Roosevelt began communicating in 1939; this was the first of their 11 wartime meetings. Both men traveled in secret; Roosevelt was on a ten-day fishing trip. On 9 August 1941, the British battleship HMS "Prince of Wales" steamed into Placentia Bay, with Churchill on board, and met the American heavy cruiser USS "Augusta", where Roosevelt and members of his staff were waiting. On first meeting, Churchill and Roosevelt were silent for a moment until Churchill said "At long last, Mr. President", to which Roosevelt replied "Glad to have you aboard, Mr. Churchill". Churchill then delivered to the president a letter from King George VI and made an official statement which, despite two attempts, the movie sound crew present failed to record.

Content and analysis.

The Atlantic Charter made clear that the United States was supporting the United Kingdom in the war. Both powers wanted to present their unity regarding their mutual principles and hopes for a peaceful postwar world and the policies they agreed to follow once the Germans had been defeated. A fundamental aim was to focus on the peace that would follow, not specific American involvement and war strategy, although American involvement appeared increasingly likely.  There were eight principal points of the charter:  Although the third point clearly stated that all peoples have the right to decide their form of government, it failed to say what changes are necessary in both social and economic terms to achieve freedom and peace.  The fourth clause, with respect to international trade, consciously emphasized that both "victor [and] vanquished" would be given market access "on equal terms." That was a repudiation of the punitive trade relations that had been established within Europe after World War I, as exemplified by the Paris Economy Pact.  Only two clauses expressly discuss national, social, and economic conditions necessary after the war, despite their significance.

Origin of name.

When it was released to the public, the charter was titled "Joint Declaration by the President and the Prime Minister" and was generally known as the "Joint Declaration." The Labour Party newspaper "Daily Herald" coined the name "Atlantic Charter", but Churchill used it in Parliament on 24 August 1941, which has since been generally adopted.  No signed version ever existed. The document was threshed out through several drafts, and the final agreed text was telegraphed to London and Washington. Roosevelt gave Congress the charter's content on 21 August 1941. He later said, "There isn't any copy of the Atlantic Charter, so far as I know. I haven't got one. The British haven't got one. The nearest thing you will get is the [message of the] radio operator on "Augusta" and "Prince of Wales". That's the nearest thing you will come to it... There was no formal document."  The British War Cabinet replied with its approval and a similar acceptance was telegraphed from Washington. During the process, an error crept into the London text, but ir was subsequently corrected. The account in Churchill's "The Second World War" concluded "A number of verbal alterations were agreed, and the document was then in its final shape" and made no mention of any signing or ceremony. Churchill's account of the Yalta Conference quoted Roosevelt saying of the unwritten British constitution that "it was like the Atlantic Charter – the document did not exist, yet all the world knew about it. Among his papers he had found one copy signed by himself and me, but strange to say both signatures were in his own handwriting."

Acceptance by Inter-Allied Council and by United Nations.

The Allied nations and leading organizations quickly and widely endorsed the charter. At the subsequent meeting of the Inter-Allied Council in London on 24 September 1941, the governments-in-exile of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and Yugoslavia, together with the Soviet Union and representatives of the Free French Forces unanimously adopted adherence to the common principles of policy set forth in the Atlantic Charter. On 1 January 1942, a larger group of nations, which adhered to the principles of the Atlantic Charter, issued a joint Declaration by United Nations, which stressed their solidarity in the defense against Hitlerism.

Impact on Axis powers.

The Axis powers interpreted the diplomatic agreements as a potential alliance against them. In Tokyo, the Atlantic Charter rallied support for the militarists in the Japanese government, which pushed for a more aggressive approach against the United States and Britain.  The British dropped millions of flysheets over Germany to allay fears of a punitive peace that would destroy the German state. The text cited the Charter as the authoritative statement of the joint commitment of the UK and the US "not to admit any economical discrimination of those defeated" and promised that "Germany and the other states can again achieve enduring peace and prosperity."  The most striking feature of the discussion was that an agreement had been made between a range of countries that held diverse opinions, who were accepting that internal policies were relevant to the international problem. The agreement proved to be one of the first steps towards the formation of the United Nations.

Impact on imperial powers and imperial ambitions.

The problems came not from Germany and Japan but from those of the allies that had empires and resisted self-determination, especially the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the Netherlands. Initially, Roosevelt and Churchill appeared to have agreed that the third point of Charter would not apply to Africa and Asia. However, Roosevelt's speechwriter, Robert E. Sherwood, noted that "it was not long before the people of India, Burma, Malaya, and Indonesia were beginning to ask if the Atlantic Charter extended also to the Pacific and to Asia in general." With a war that could be won only with the help of those allies, Roosevelt's solution was to put some pressure on Britain but to postpone until after the war the issue of self-determination of the colonies.

British Empire.

Public opinion in Britain and the Commonwealth was delighted with the principles of the meetings but disappointed that the US was not entering the war. Churchill admitted that he had hoped the US would decide to commit itself.  The acknowledgement that all people had a right to self-determination gave hope to independence leaders in British colonies.  The Americans insisted that the charter was to acknowledge that the war was being fought to ensure self-determination. The British were forced to agree to these aims but in a September 1941 speech, Churchill stated that the Charter was meant to apply only to states under German occupation, certainly not to the countries that were part of the British Empire.  Churchill rejected its universal applicability when it came to the self-determination of subject nations such as British India. Mahatma Gandhi in 1942 wrote to Roosevelt: "I venture to think that the Allied declaration that the Allies are fighting to make the world safe for the freedom of the individual and for democracy sounds hollow so long as India and for that matter Africa are exploited by Great Britain..." While self-determination was Roosevelt's guiding principle, he was reluctant to place pressure on the British in regard to India and other colonial possessions, as they were fighting for their lives in a war that the United States was not officially participating. Gandhi refused to help the British or the American war effort against Germany and Japan in any way, and Roosevelt chose to back Churchill. India already contributed significantly to the war effort by sending over 2.5 million men, then the largest volunteer force in the world, to fight for the Allies, mostly in West Asia and North Africa.

Poland.

Churchill was unhappy with the inclusion of references to the right to "self-determination" and stated that he considered the Charter an "interim and partial statement of war aims designed to reassure all countries of our righteous purpose and not the complete structure which we should build after the victory." An office of the Polish Government in Exile wrote to warn Władysław Sikorski that if the charter was implemented with regard to national self-determination, it would make the desired Polish annexation of Danzig, East Prussia and parts of German Silesia impossible, which led the Poles to approach Britain to ask for a flexible interpretation of the charter.

Baltic states.

During the war, Churchill argued for an interpretation of the charter to allow the Soviet Union to continue to control the Baltic states, an interpretation that was rejected by the US until March 1944. Lord Beaverbrook warned that the Atlantic Charter "would be a menace to our [Britain's] own safety as well as to that of the Soviet Union." The US refused to recognize the Soviet takeover of the Baltic states but did not press the issue against Stalin when he was fighting the Germans. Roosevelt planned to raise the Baltic issue after the war, but he died in April 1945, before the fighting had ended in Europe.

The Atlantic Charter was a statement issued on 14 August 1941 that set out American and British goals for the world after the end of World War II.

Atlantická charta bylo společné prohlášení států bojujících proti nacistickému Německu, vydané na konferenci v Londýně 14. srpna 1941. Šlo o prohlášení prezidenta USA F. D. Roosevelta a britského ministerského předsedy W. Churchilla o společném postupu v probíhající válce. Dokument byl především výrazem snahy neuznat jakékoliv válečné územní zisky, uvolnit obchodní omezení a podpořit politické svobody národů.