Life and work.

Child and student.

Thomas Quincey was born at 86 Cross Street, Manchester, Lancashire. His father, a successful merchant with an interest in literature, died when De Quincey was quite young. Soon after his birth the family went to "The Farm" and then later to Greenheys, a larger country house in Chorlton-on-Medlock near Manchester. In 1796, three years after the death of his father, Thomas Quincey, his mother – the erstwhile Elizabeth Penson – took the name "De Quincey." In the same year, De Quincey's mother moved to Bath, Somerset, and enrolled him at King Edward's School.  De Quincey was a weak and sickly child. His youth was spent in solitude, and when his elder brother, William, came home, he wrought havoc in the quiet surroundings. De Quincey's mother (who counted Hannah More amongst her friends) was a woman of strong character and intelligence, but seems to have inspired more awe than affection in her children. She brought them up strictly, taking De Quincey out of school after three years because she was afraid he would become big-headed, and sending him to an inferior school at Wingfield in Wiltshire. It is said that at this time, in 1799, De Quincey first read "Lyrical Ballads" by Wordsworth and Coleridge.  In 1800, De Quincey, aged 15, was ready for the University of Oxford; his scholarship was far in advance of his years. "That boy," his master at Bath had said, "could harangue an Athenian mob better than you or I could address an English one." He was sent to Manchester Grammar School, in order that after three years' stay he might obtain a scholarship to Brasenose College, Oxford, but he took flight after 19 months. His first plan had been to reach William Wordsworth, whose "Lyrical Ballads" (1798) had consoled him in fits of depression and had awakened in him a deep reverence for the poet. But for that De Quincey was too timid, so he made his way to Chester, where his mother dwelt, in the hope of seeing a sister; he was caught by the older members of the family, but, through the efforts of his uncle, Colonel Penson, received the promise of a guinea (£1.05) a week to carry out his later project of a solitary tramp through Wales. From July to November 1802, De Quincey lived as a wayfarer. He soon lost his guinea by ceasing to keep his family informed of his whereabouts, and had difficulty making ends meet. Still, apparently fearing pursuit, he borrowed some money and travelled to London, where he tried to borrow more. Having failed, he lived close to starvation rather than return to his family.  This deprived period left a profound mark upon De Quincey's psychology, and upon the writing he would later do; it forms a major and crucial part of the first section of the "Confessions", and re-appears in various forms throughout the vast body of his lifetime literary work. Discovered by chance by his friends, De Quincey was brought home and finally allowed to go to Worcester College, Oxford, on a reduced income. Here, we are told, "he came to be looked upon as a strange being who associated with no one." In 1804, while at Oxford, he began the occasional use of opium. He completed his studies, but failed to take the oral examination leading to a degree; he left the university without graduating. He became an acquaintance of Coleridge and Wordsworth, having already sought out Charles Lamb in London. His acquaintance with Wordsworth led to his settling in 1809 at Grasmere, in the Lake District. He lived for ten years in Dove Cottage, which Wordsworth had occupied and which is now a popular tourist attraction, and for another five years at Fox Ghyll near Rydal. De Quincey was married in 1816, and soon after, having no money left, he took up literary work in earnest.  His wife Margaret bore him eight children before her death in 1837. Three of De Quincey's daughters survived him. One of his sons, Paul Frederick de Quincey (1828–1894), emigrated to New Zealand.

Journalist.

In July 1818 De Quincey became editor of "The Westmorland Gazette", a Tory newspaper published in Kendal, after its first editor had been dismissed. He was unreliable at meeting deadlines, and in June 1819 the proprietors complained about "their dissatisfaction with the lack of'regular communication between the Editor and the Printer'", and he resigned in November 1819. De Quincey's political sympathies tended towards the right. He was "a champion of aristocratic privilege," reserved "Jacobin" as his highest term of opprobrium, held reactionary views on the Peterloo Massacre and the Sepoy rebellion, on Catholic Emancipation and the enfranchisement of the common people, and yet was also a staunch abolitionist on the issue of slavery.

Translator and essayist.

In 1821 he went to London to dispose of some translations from German authors, but was persuaded first to write and publish an account of his opium experiences, which that year appeared in the "London Magazine". This new sensation eclipsed Lamb's "Essays of Elia", which were then appearing in the same periodical. The "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater" were soon published in book form. De Quincey then made literary acquaintances. Thomas Hood found the shrinking author "at home in a German ocean of literature, in a storm, flooding all the floor, the tables and the chairs – billows of books..." De Quincey was famous for his conversation; Richard Woodhouse wrote of the "depth and "reality", as I may so call it, of his knowledge... His conversation appeared like the elaboration of a mine of results..."  From this time on, De Quincey maintained himself by contributing to various magazines. He soon exchanged London and the Lakes for Edinburgh, the nearby village of Polton, and Glasgow; he spent the remainder of his life in Scotland. In the 1830s he is listed as living at 1 Forres Street, a large townhouse on the edge of the Moray Estate in Edinburgh.  "Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine" and its rival "Tait's Magazine" received numerous contributions. "Suspiria de Profundis" (1845) appeared in Blackwood's, as did "The English Mail-Coach" (1849). "Joan of Arc" (1847) was published in "Tait's". Between 1835 and 1849, "Tait's" published a series of De Quincey's reminiscences of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Robert Southey and other figures among the Lake Poets – a series that taken together constitutes one of his most important works.

Financial pressures.

Along with his opium addiction, debt was one of the primary constraints of De Quincey's adult life. He pursued journalism as the one way available to him to pay his bills; and without financial need it is an open question how much writing he would ever have done.  De Quincey came into his patrimony at the age of 21, when he received £2,000 from his late father's estate. He was unwisely generous with his funds, making loans that could not or would not be repaid, including a £300 loan to Coleridge in 1807. After leaving Oxford without a degree, he made an attempt to study law, but desultorily and unsuccessfully; he had no steady income and spent large sums on books (he was a lifelong collector). By the 1820s he was constantly in financial difficulties. More than once in his later years, De Quincey was forced to seek protection from arrest in the debtors' sanctuary of Holyrood in Edinburgh. (At the time, Holyrood Park formed a debtors' sanctuary; people could not be arrested for debt within those bounds. The debtors who took sanctuary there could only emerge on Sundays, when arrests for debt were not allowed.) Yet De Quincey's money problems persisted; he got into further difficulties for debts he incurred within the sanctuary.  His financial situation improved only later in his life. His mother's death in 1846 brought him an income of £200 per year. When his daughters matured, they managed his budget more responsibly than he ever had himself.

Medical issues.

A number of medical practitioners have speculated on the physical ailments that inspired and underlay De Quincey's resort to opium, and searched the corpus of his autobiographical works for evidence. One possibility is "a mild... case of infantile paralysis" that he may have contracted from Wordsworth's children. De Quincey certainly had intestinal problems, and problems with his vision – which could have been related: "uncorrected myopic astigmatism... manifests itself as digestive problems in men." De Quincey also suffered neuralgic facial pain, "trigeminal neuralgia" – "attacks of piercing pain in the face, of such severity that they sometimes drive the victim to suicide."  As with many addicts, De Quincey's opium addiction may have had a "self-medication" aspect for real physical illnesses, as well as a psychological aspect.  By his own testimony, De Quincey first used opium in 1804 to relieve his neuralgia; he used it for pleasure, but no more than weekly, through 1812. It was in 1813 that he first commenced daily usage, in response to illness and his grief over the death of Wordsworth's young daughter Catherine. During 1813–1819 his daily dose was very high, and resulted in the sufferings recounted in the final sections of his "Confessions". For the rest of his life his opium use fluctuated between extremes; he took "enormous doses" in 1843, but late in 1848 he went for 61 days with none at all. There are many theories surrounding the effects of opium on literary creation, and notably, his periods of low usage were literarily unproductive.  He died in Edinburgh and is buried in St Cuthbert's Churchyard at the west end of Princes Street. His stone, in the southwest section of the churchyard on a west facing wall, is plain and says nothing of his work.

Collected works.

During the final decade of his life, De Quincey laboured on a collected edition of his works. Ticknor and Fields, a Boston publishing house, first proposed such a collection, and solicited De Quincey's approval and co-operation. It was only when De Quincey, a chronic procrastinator, failed to answer repeated letters from James Thomas Fields that the American publisher proceeded independently, reprinting the author's works from their original magazine appearances. Twenty-two volumes of "De Quincey's Writings" were issued from 1851 to 1859.  The existence of the American edition prompted a corresponding British edition. Since the spring of 1850 De Quincey had been a regular contributor to an Edinburgh periodical called "Hogg's Weekly Instructor" whose publisher, James Hogg, undertook to publish "Selections Grave and Gay from Writings Published and Unpublished by Thomas De Quincey". De Quincey edited and revised his works for the Hogg edition; the 1856 second edition of the "Confessions" was prepared for inclusion in "Selections Grave and Gay...". The first volume of that edition appeared in May 1853, and the fourteenth and last in January 1860, a month after the author's death.  Both of these were multi-volume collections, yet made no pretense to be complete. Scholar and editor David Masson attempted a more definitive collection: "The Works of Thomas De Quincey" appeared in fourteen volumes in 1889 and 1890. Yet De Quincey's writings were so voluminous and widely dispersed that further collections followed: two volumes of "The Uncollected Writings" (1890), and two volumes of "Posthumous Works" (1891–93). De Quincey's 1803 diary was published in 1927. Yet another volume, "New Essays by De Quincey", appeared in 1966.

Influence.

His immediate influence extended to Edgar Allan Poe, Fitz Hugh Ludlow, Charles Baudelaire and Nikolai Gogol, but even major 20th-century writers such as Jorge Luis Borges admired and claimed to be partly influenced by his work. Berlioz also loosely based his "Symphonie fantastique" on "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater", drawing on the theme of the internal struggle with one's self.  Dario Argento used De Quincey's "Suspiria", particularly "Levana and Our Ladies of Sorrow", as an inspiration for his "Three Mothers" trilogy of films, which include "Suspiria", "Inferno" and "The Mother of Tears". This influence carried over into Luca Guadagnino's 2018 version of the film.  Shelby Hughes created "Jynxies Natural Habitat", an online archive of stamp art on glassine heroin bags, under the pseudonym "Dequincey Jinxey," in reference to De Quincey. She also used the pseudonym in interviews related to the archive.

Thomas Penson De Quincey (; 15 August 17858 December 1859) was an English essayist, best known for his "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater" (1821). Many scholars suggest that in publishing this work De Quincey inaugurated the tradition of addiction literature in the West.

Thomas de Quincey (15. srpna 1785, Manchester – 8. prosince 1859, Edinburgh) byl anglický romantický filozof, prozaik, esejista a literární kritik.


Prehistory.

The Paleo-Balkan tribes evolved in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. The northernmost Ancient Macedonian city was in south Serbia (Kale-Krševica). The Celtic Scordisci tribe conquered most of Serbia in 279 BC, building many forts throughout the region. The Roman Empire conquered the region in the span of 2nd century BC – 1st century AD. The Romans continued the expansion of Singidunum (modern capital Belgrade), Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica) and Naissus (Niš), among other centres, and a few notable remnants of monuments survive, such as Via Militaris, Trajan's Bridge, Diana, Felix Romuliana (UNESCO), etc.

Roman era.

The Romans conquered parts of Serbia in the 2nd century BC, in 167 BC when conquering the West, establishing the province of Illyricum and the rest of Central Serbia in 75 BC, establishing the province of Moesia. Srem was conquered by 9 BC and Bačka and Banat in 106 AD after the Trajan's Dacian Wars.  Contemporary Serbia comprises the classical regions of Moesia, Pannonia, parts of Dalmatia, Dacia and

Middle Ages.

The Serbs in the Byzantine world lived in the so-called "Slav lands", lands initially out of Byzantine control and independent. The Vlastimirović dynasty established the Serbian Principality in the 8th century. In 822, the Serbs "inhabited the greater part of Dalmatia", and Christianity was adopted as the state religion in 870. In the mid-10th century the state had emerged into a tribal confederation that stretched to the shores of the Adriatic Sea by the Neretva, the Sava, the Morava, and Skadar, but the population's Serbian ethnic identity remains a matter of dispute. In 924, the Serbs ambushed and defeated a small Bulgarian army, provoking a major retaliatory campaign that ended with Bulgaria's annexation of Serbia at the end of that year. Threatened by an alliance between the Byzantines and the Serbian state of Duklja, in 997 the Bulgarian tsar Samuel defeated and captured its Prince Jovan Vladimir and took control of the Serb lands again. The state disintegrated after the death of the last known Vlastimirid ruler; the Byzantines annexed the region and held it for a century, until 1040 when the

Early modern history.

Ottoman rule.

Medieval Bosnia and Zeta lasted until 1496. A Serbian principality was restored a few years after the fall of the Serbian Despotate by the Brankovićs. It was ruled by exiled Serbian nobles and existed until 1540, when it fell to the Ottomans. Many Serbs were recruited during the devshirme system, a form of slavery in the Ottoman Empire, in which boys from Balkan Christian families were forcibly converted to Islam and trained for infantry units of the Ottoman army known as the Janissaries.  From the 14th century

Modern history.

Serbian Revolution and Autonomous Principality (1804–1878).

Serbia gained its autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in two uprisings in 1804 (led by Đorđe Petrović – Karađorđe) and 1815 (led by Miloš Obrenović), although Turkish troops continued to garrison the capital, Belgrade, until 1867. The Turkish

Principality/Kingdom of Serbia (1878–1918).

The Autonomous Principality became an internationally recognized independent country following the Russo-Turkish War in 1878. Serbia remained a principality or "kneževina" ("knjaževina"), until 1882 when it became a Kingdom, during which the internal politics revolved largely around dynastic rivalry between the Obrenović and Karađorđević families.  This period was marked by the alternation of two dynasties descending from Đorđe Petrović—Karađorđe, leader of the First Serbian Uprising and Miloš Obrenović, leader of the Second Serbian Uprising. Further development of Serbia was characterized by general progress in economy, culture and arts, primarily due to a wise state policy of sending young people to European capitals to get an education. They all brought back a new spirit and a new system of values. One of the external manifestations of the transformation that the former Turkish province was going through was the proclamation of the Province of Serbia in 1882.  During the Revolutions of 1848, the Serbs in the Austrian Empire proclaimed Serbian autonomous province known as Serbian Vojvodina. By a decision of the Austrian emperor, in November 1849, this province was transformed into the Austrian crown land known as the Voivodeship of Serbia and Temes Banat (Dukedom of Serbia and Tamiš Banat). Against the will of the Serbs, the province was abolished in 1860, but the Serbs from the region gained another opportunity to achieve their political demands in 1918. Today, this region is known as Vojvodina.  In 1885, Serbia was against the unification of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia and attacked Bulgaria. This is also known as

Serbia in World War I (1914-1918).

Despite its small size and population of 4.6 million, Serbia had the most effective manpower mobilization of the war, and had a highly professional officer corps. It called 350,000 men to arms, of whom 185,000 were in combat units. However the casualties and expenditure of munitions in the Balkan Wars left Serbia depleted and dependent on France for supplies. Austria invaded twice in 1914 and was turned back.  The 28 June 1914 assassination of Austrian Crown Prince Franz Ferdinand in the Bosnian capital Sarajevo, by Gavrilo Princip, a member of Young Bosnia and one of seven assassins, served as a pretext for the Austrian declaration of war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, marking the beginning of World War I, despite Serbia's acceptance three days earlier of nearly all of Austria-Hungary's demands. The Austro-Hungarian army invaded Serbia capturing the capital Belgrade on 2 December 1914, however the Serbian Army

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes/Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1941).

A successful Allied offensive in September 1918 secured first Bulgaria's surrender and then the liberation of the occupied Serbian territories (November 1918). On 25 November, the Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci, and other nations of Vojvodina in Novi Sad voted to join the region to Serbia. Also, on 29 November the National Assembly of Montenegro voted for union with Serbia, and two days later an assembly of leaders of Austria–Hungary's southern Slav regions voted to join the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs.  With the end of World War I and the collapse of both the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires the conditions were met for proclaiming the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in December 1918. The Yugoslav ideal had long been cultivated by the intellectual circles of the three nations that gave the name to the country, but the international constellation of political forces and interests did not permit its implementation until then. However, after the war, idealist intellectuals gave way to politicians, and the most influential Croatian politicians opposed the new state right from the start.  In the early 1920s the Yugoslav government of Serbian prime minister Nikola Pašić used police pressure over voters and ethnic minorities, confiscation of opposition pamphlets and other measures of election rigging to keep the opposition, and mainly the Croatian Peasant

Serbia in World War II (1941–1944).

In the run up to World War II, Prince Regent Paul signed a treaty with Hitler (as did Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary). However, a popular uprising amongst the people rejected this agreement and Prince Regent Paul was sent to exile. King Peter II assumed full royal duty.  Thus the beginning of the 1940s, Yugoslavia found itself surrounded by hostile countries. Except for Greece, all other neighboring countries had signed agreements with either Germany or Italy. Adolf Hitler was strongly pressuring Yugoslavia to join the Axis powers. The government was even prepared to reach a compromise with him, but the spirit in the country was completely different. Public demonstrations against Nazism prompted a brutal reaction.  On 6 April 1941 Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria invaded Yugoslavia, and the Luftwaffe bombed Belgrade for 3 days killing 17,000 people. Belgrade was captured by German forces on 13 April 1941, and four days later on 17 April 1941 the Royal Yugoslavian Army surrendered unconditionally. Acting upon advice and with a heavy heart, King Peter II left the country to seek Allied support. He was greeted as the hero who dared oppose Hitler. The Royal Yugoslav Government, the only legal body of Yugoslavia, continued to work in London. The occupying Axis powers then divided Yugoslavia up. The western parts of the country together with Bosnia and Herzegovina were turned into a Nazi puppet state called the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) and ruled by the Ustashe. Most of the territory of modern Serbia was occupied by the German army and was governed by the German Military Administration in Serbia. The governed territory was called Serbia or the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, and, besides German military administrators, it was also governed by the Serbian puppet governments

Communist Yugoslavia (1945–1992).

After the war, Josip Broz Tito became the first president of the new—socialist—Yugoslavia which he ruled through the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. Once a predominantly agricultural country, Yugoslavia was transformed into a mid-range industrial country, and acquired an international political reputation by supporting the decolonization process and by assuming a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement. Socialist Yugoslavia was established as a federal state comprising six republics, from north to south: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia and two autonomous regions within Serbia – Vojvodina and Kosovo.  The basic motto of Tito's Yugoslavia was "brotherhood and unity", workers' self-management, state-owned property with minimal privately owned property. In the beginning, the country copied the Soviet model, but after the 1948 split with the Soviet Union, it turned more towards the West. Eventually, it created its own brand of socialism, with aspects of a market economy, and milked both the East and the West for significant financial loans.  The 1974 constitution produced a significantly less centralized federation, increasing the of Yugoslavia's republics as well as the autonomous provinces of Serbia.  When Tito died on 4 May 1980, he was succeeded by a presidency that rotated annually between the six Republics and two Autonomous regions. This led to a fatal weakening of central power and ties between the republics. During the 1980s the republics pursued significantly different economic policies, with separatist- oriented Slovenia and Croatia allowing significant market-based reforms, while Serbia kept to its existing program of state ownership. This, too, was a cause of tension between north and south, as Slovenia in particular experienced a period of strong growth. Prior to the war, inflation skyrocketed. Then, under Prime Minister Ante Markovic, things began to improve. Economic reforms had opened up the country, the living standard was at its peak, capitalism seemed to have entered the country and nobody thought that just a year later the first gunshots would be fired.  Within a year of Tito's death the first cracks began to show when in the spring of 1981 when on 11 March, 26 March, and 31 March to 2 April an escalating series of increasingly large protests spread from the campus of the University of Pristina to the streets of several cities in Kosovo demanding the upgrading of the Autonomous Region to the status of full Republic – these protests were violently suppressed by the Police with many deaths, and a state of emergency was declared. Serbian concerns about the treatment of Serb minorities in other republics and particularly in Kosovo were exacerbated by the SANU Memorandum, drawn up by the Serbian Academy of Sciences and

Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006).

The two remaining republics of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro, formed on 28 April 1992 a new federation named Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Milošević years.

Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, the "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" (FRY) was established in 1992 as a federation. In 2003, it was reconstituted as a political union called the "State Union of Serbia and Montenegro" (SCG).  After June 1999, Kosovo was made a United Nations protectorate, under the UN Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) based in Priština. From early 2001, UNMIK has been working with representatives of the Serbian and union governments to reestablish stable relations in the region. A new assembly of the province was elected in November 2001, which formed a government and chose a president in February 2002. In spring 2002, UNMIK announced its plan to repatriate ethnic Serb internally displaced persons (IDPs). Although threatened by Milošević throughout the last years of his rule, Montenegro's democratization efforts have continued. In January 1998, Milo Đukanović became Montenegro's president, following bitterly contested elections in November 1997, which were declared free and fair by international monitors. His coalition followed up with parliamentary

Democratic transition.

On 5 October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced to concede defeat after days of mass protests all across Serbia.  The new FRY President Vojislav Koštunica was soon joined at the top of the domestic Serbian political scene by the Democratic Party's (DS) Zoran Đinđić, who was elected Prime Minister of Serbia at the head of the DOS ticket in December's republican elections. After an initial honeymoon period in the wake of 5 October, DSS and the rest of DOS, led by Đinđić and his DS, found themselves increasingly at odds over the nature and pace of the governments' reform programs. Although initial reform efforts were highly successful, especially in the economic and fiscal sectors, by the middle of 2002, the nationalist Koštunica and the pragmatic Đinđić were openly at odds. Koštunica's party, having informally withdrawn from all DOS decision-making bodies, was agitating for early elections to the Serbian Parliament in an effort to force Đinđić from the scene. After the initial euphoria of replacing Milošević's autocratic regime, the Serbian population, in reaction to this political maneuvering, was sliding into apathy and disillusionment with its leading politicians by mid-2002. This political stalemate continued for much of 2002, and reform initiatives stalled.  In February

Independent Serbia (2006–present).

Since 1996, Montenegro began to sever economic ties with Serbia as it formed a new economic policy and adopted the Deutsche Mark as its currency. Subsequent governments of Montenegro carried out pro-independence policies, and political tensions with Serbia simmered despite political changes in Belgrade. Also, separatist Albanian paramilitaries began a steady escalation of violence in 1998. The question whether the Federal Yugoslav state would continue to exist became a very serious issue to the government.  Following Montenegro's vote for full independence in the referendum of 21 May 2006 (55.4% yes, 44.6% no), Montenegro declared independence on 3 June 2006. This was followed on 5 June 2006 by Serbia's declaration of independence, marking the final dissolution of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, and the re-emergence of Serbia as an independent state, under its own name, for the first time since 1918.  A referendum was held on 28 and 29 October 2006 on a proposed draft of the new Constitution of Serbia, which was approved. The constitution is Serbia's first as an independent state since the Kingdom of Serbia's 1903 constitution.  The 2007 elections confirmed the pro-reform and pro-European stance of the Serbian Parliament, in which Boris Tadic's party doubled his representation.  On 3 February 2008, Tadic was re-elected as President.The Serbian government passed through weeks of severe crisis after the unilateral declaration of independence of its southern province of Kosovo on 17 February 2008, which was gradually recognized by the United States and numerous European Union countries. The crisis was fuelled by the demand by Prime Minister Vojislav Koštunica of the Democratic Party of Serbia (DSS) to the Democratic Party (Serbia) (DS), which held governmental majority, of a restructuring of the governmental contract including an annex according to which Serbia can continue European integration exclusively with Kosovo as its integral part, as stated in the 2006 Constitution. The DS and G17+ refused, and Koštunica had to resign on 8 March 2008, while also asking the President to dismiss the parliament and schedule pre-term parliamentary elections.  These pre-term parliamentary elections were held on 11 May 2008, barely a year after the previous parliamentary election. The results showed a net increase of votes for Tadic's ZES coalition, passing from 87 to 102 seats. After long and difficult negotiations, a new pro-European government was formed on 7 July 2008 by 128 out of 250 parliamentary votes of ZES, SPS-PUPS-JS and 6 out of 7 minorities representatives. The new prime minister was Mirko Cvetković, candidate of the Democratic Party.  In 2017, Aleksandar Vučić was elected as President of Serbia and he has since worked on establishing good relations with European, Russian and Chinese partners.

The history of Serbia covers the historical development of Serbia and of its predecessor states, from the early Stone Age to the present state, as well as that of the Serbian people and of the areas they ruled historically. The scope of Serbian habitation and rule has varied much through the ages, and, as a result, the history of Serbia is similarly elastic in what it includes.

Dějiny Srbska začínají v 6. století, kdy přišli jižní Slované na Balkán. Počátky srbského státu jsou spojeny se dvěma historickými územími, s vnitrozemskou Raškou a s přímořskou Dukljou (Zetou). Ze státotvorného hlediska jsou Srbové mezi posledními národy na Balkáně, kteří vytvořili organizované společenství neboli stát.


Geography.

The territory of Gordes occupies some of "Les Monts de Vaucluse", a group of mountains and hills, part in the valley of the Calavon (a local river) also called the "Luberon Valley".

Access.

The main access to the village of Gordes is the departmental road D2 then the departmental road D15, coming from Cavaillon. It is from the latter road, below the Bel-Air rock, that you can observe the most famous and photographed point of view of the village.  Gordes is located 38 kilometres east from Avignon and its TGV station, 75 kilometres from the Marseille Provence international airport and 87 kilometres from Marseille. The closest "gares SNCF" (normal train station) are located in L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue and Cavaillon.

Neighboring communes.

Neighboring villages are Venasque and Murs to the north, Joucas and Roussillon to the east, Goult, Saint-Pantaléon, Beaumettes and Oppède to the south and Cabrières-d'Avignon and Saumane-de-Vaucluse to the west.

Topography.

Located between two geographic area, Gordes is one of the biggest communes of the area with 4,804 hectares. The north is defined by the southern edge of the Vaucluse Mountains. The highest point of the commune (635 meters) is in this area, next to "la Pouraque" and "les Trois Termes". The south of the commune is made by the Calavon valley, also called the Luberon Valley, and a few hills in the area. The lowest height of the commune, at 111 meters, is in the south in the area called "plan de l'Alba".  The village itself is located in the center of the commune, on a giant calcareous rock from the Vaucluse Mountains, dominating the valley.

Geology.

With a wide variation of the land, geology of the commune is divided into several distinct zones.  In the north, on the Vaucluse Mountains, are soils dating mainly from Upper Jurassic with urgonian limestone and calcareous clay. There are also, in very low amounts and primarily localized over the Senanque Abbey, soils dating from the Eocene / Oligocene, composed of limestone, sand, and clay.  Geology in the south of the village is more complex. The plain in Gordes (southeast) is composed of soil dating from the Quaternary (fluvial deposits, colluvium and scree) and soils of the Late Jurassic period (calcareous clay and blue marl). The hills area of "les garrigues" (in the south) is composed of soil dating from the Cretaceous – Paleocene period (calcareous sandstone, calcareous lacustrine clay, colorful, white and ocher sands and some ferruginous) and from the Miocene period (molasses limestone, sand and marl). Finally, the soil of the territory down to the plain of Calavon with some slightly higher ground dating from the Miocene and one lower from the Quaternary.

Climate.

Gordes has a Mediterranean climate characterised by relatively dry summers and cool, damp winters. The city is often subject to windy weather; the strongest wind is the mistral.  In summer, high temperatures associated with a reduced amount of rain creates a drought of almost one or two months a year according to the "Gaussen index" (temperatures in Celsius degrees twice higher than rains in millimeters).

History.

The name "Gordes" derives from the Celtic word "Vordense". Vordense was pronounced "Gordenses", then "Gordae/Gordone", and finally "Gòrda" then translated into French "Gordes".

Early history.

Occupation by the Roman empire. The area is full of evidence of their occupation especially the Roman road passing through Apt and Carpentras and crossing the valley. Gallo-Roman remains were found in "Bouisses" district (skeletons, amphorae, columns) or Gallo-Roman substructures in the hamlet of "les Gros".

Middle Ages and Renaissance.

In the 8th century, a Benedictine abbey known as Saint-Chaffret was founded by monks of the Abbey of Saint-Chaffre in Monastier-en-Velay on the site of an ancient "cella" (Roman temple) destroyed during the Arab invasions.  In 1031, a castle was built and the Latin word "castrum" was added to what thus became "Castrum Gordone". The castle was re-enforced in 1123 to become a ""nobile castrum"", the only one known among the many castles nearby.  In 1148 the Sénanque Abbey was established under the patronage of Alfant, Bishop of Cavaillon, and Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona, Count of Provence, by Cistercian monks who came from Mazan Abbey in the Ardèche.  After the death of King René of Provence, the territory of Provence was incorporated in 1481 into the kingdom of France as a "province royale française" (French royal province). An insurrection broke out in the former states of Agoult-Simiane and County of Forcalquier. Gordes is distinguished by a strong opposition to French centralism but will pay heavily for its claims of independence. A year later, with the wedding of his son, Jacques Raybaud de Simiane takes the title of "Baron de Gordes".

Second World War.

During World War II, Gordes was an active resistance village and was later awarded a medal, the Croix de guerre 1939–1945.  On 21 August 1944, almost a week after the beginning of the Operation Dragoon on the Provençal coast, a German patrol was attacked by the resistance. The day after, 22 August, the village was subject to violent reprisals. The Germans forced the inhabitants to enter their homes, shooting those who were late or that were not cooperating, and started to shoot from the rock on the other side with a canon and destroyed a dozen houses. On the other side of the village, the rest of the troops set fire to a chariot, pieces of wood and houses, blocking potential followers. More than twenty houses were destroyed. After the Liberation the resistance destroyed another part of the village, including the notarial house with all the archives. All this destruction brought the municipality the sad privilege to appear amongst three "stricken cities" of the Vaucluse department. By war's end, thirteen persons had been killed or executed in Gordes, twenty inhabitants had been shot by the enemy and five inhabitants were deported.

After World War II.

After a period of reconstruction, the village started to attract artists like Marc Chagall or Jean Deyrolle who discovered the village in 1947 and will in turn attract artist friends such as Serge Poliakoff, Vasarely, Dewasne, etc.

Armory.

The primary ones are reported in 1696 in the Armorial Général de France and coming from the Gordes-Simiane family.

Other historical language names.

in classical norm of provencal, in Mistralian norm

Administration.

The commune of Gordes has numerous infrastructures of public utility like the "gendarmerie", the fire brigade, the post office, a tax office, a library, etc.

Architecture.

Sights.

Located in the middle of the village, the castle, which was partially rebuilt in Renaissance style in 1525, is a major tourist attraction.  In the immediate vicinity of Gordes is the Romanesque Sénanque Abbey (a Cistercian abbey) and the "village of bories", which consists entirely of "bories" (also spelled "boris", borris" and "borries"), ovoid ancient houses made only of stone.

General rules.

All the new buildings in Gordes are made of stone and use terracotta roof tiles. No fences are allowed, only stone walls. All electrical and telephone cables have been put underground, except for some locations on the border of the commune not made already. Some streets inside the village are paved with stones and called "calade".

The hamlets.

Around the village there are many ancient hamlets. Their names are mostly coming from the family names occupying the places (Gros, Imbert, Martin, Cortasse, etc.) or from the activity performed there (les bouillons, les bouilladoires).  Located in the valley at southwest, the ""les Imberts"" hamlet is the biggest and even owns its own church built between 1785 and 1792. Besides this church, there are some elements and façades of the 18th century. It is in this hamlet that are the two football stadiums of Gordes. One is for the official matches and the other for training. It has a nursery and a school and having once had several small businesses (bakery, grocery, etc..), in 2011 it now has only a garage / petrol station.  ""Les Gros"" and ""les Martins"" are both former hamlets close enough to each other, between "les Imberts" and the commune of les Beaumettes.  In the plain south-east of the village, you find the hamlets of ""les Sauvestres"", ""les Pourquiers"", ""les Marres"" and ""les Cortasses"", with buildings whose origins date back sometimes to hundreds years.

Economy.

Agriculture.

As in many villages in the Vaucluse department, agriculture is important. Historically, almond trees were the most planted in the area, and though they are still present, olive trees have largely replaced them. Thus olive oil is important to local commerce. You can also find vineyards, with the production of table grapes or wine in AOC Ventoux.

Tourism.

Tourism is a major part of the local economy of Gordes. Accommodating the tourist trade, there are a number hotels, bed and breakfasts, seasonal rentals, and restaurants.  The main sights on the commune are the village itself, the castle, the Saint-Firmin Palace cellars, the Sénanque Abbey and the Village des Bories. In the surrounding towns, you can find many other tourist locations like the Fontaine de Vaucluse, Roussillon or L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue, the Luberon area, Avignon or the Mont Ventoux.  Gordes also has two centers of relaxation, numerous pools and ponds and miles of hiking trails.

Commercial activity and handcraft.

Commercial activity is also important in the Gordes economy with various shops including several shops dedicated to tourists, selling souvenir and regional products (figurines, textiles, olive oil, honey, etc.). Moreover, a Provençal market is held every Tuesday morning around the castle.  Gordes also attracts artisans and traders in the real estate business like agents, architects, builders, landscapers, decorators, masons. By the way, the oldest real estate agency of the north Luberon area still in activity is located in Gordes, between the castle and the church, and the total number of real estate agents on the Gordes area is over ten.

Everyday life.

Market day occurs in Gordes once a week. On Tuesday mornings, merchants from the area set up booths and sell their wares. These typically include food, clothing, instruments, Provençale dishes, decorations, and handicrafts. Additionally, the village has two bakeries and a variety of shops.

Education.

You can find on the commune Primary School, Nursery School and Day Care.  Although the closest university is in Avignon, locals also attend slightly more distant universities in Aix-en-Provence and Marseille.

Health.

The village is home to several doctors, a pharmacy, a dentist and even an hospital but exclusively used for older people.

Sport.

The commune is equipped with various sporting facilities including two football/soccer fields, walking and cycling trails, pétanque and other recreational spaces.

Personalities.

Gordes is also known for artists who have lived or worked there: (André Lhote, Marc Chagall, Pierre Chapo, Philippe Ragueneau, Victor Vasarely, Victor Spahn, Walter Salles, Willy Ronis, etc.) and politicians (including François Mitterrand).

Culture.

Fine arts and festival.

The village of Gordes has a few art galleries and festivals. The biggest festival of Gordes is a music festival, but there is also a wine festival. The castle, stone houses, stone paved streets, views, etc. of Gordes have been an important source of inspiration for paintings or photography. for example, the "Provençal Nude" by Willy Ronis was made in the "fontaine basse" area of Gordes in 1949.

Literature.

Gordes appears in several books including : A photograph of Gordes was used on the cover of the 2017 Gollancz edition of "Orsinia", an edition combining "Malafrena" and "Orsinian Tales" by Ursula K. Le Guin.

Film and television.

Gordes has served as the setting for several movies or series including :

Gordes is a commune in the Vaucluse département in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France. The residents are known as "Gordiens." The nearest big city is Avignon; smaller cities nearby include Cavaillon, L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue and Apt.

Gordes (okcitánsky: "Gòrda", "Gordo" podle Mistrala) je skalní vesnice a malé administrativní území v Provence na jihu Francie. Vesnice je známá především pro svůj neodolatelný provensálský ráz. Inspiraci zde našel i maďarsko-francouzský malíř Victor Vasarely.


Biography.

Early life and military career.

Shaul Mofaz was born Shahrām Mofazzazkār () on 4 November 1948 in Tehran, to Persian Jewish parents from Isfahan. Mofaz immigrated to Israel with his parents in 1957. Upon graduating from high school in 1966, he joined the Israel Defense Forces and served in the Paratroopers Brigade. He served in the Six-Day War, Yom Kippur War, 1982 Lebanon War, and Operation Entebbe with the paratroopers and Sayeret Matkal, an elite special forces unit. Mofaz was then appointed an infantry brigade commander for the 1982 Lebanon War. Afterwards he attended the US Marine Corps Command and Staff College in Quantico, Virginia, United States. On his return he was briefly appointed commander of the Officers School, before returning to active service as commander of the 35th Paratroopers Brigade in 1986, and led its forces during Operation Law and Order.  Mofaz served in a series of senior military posts, having been promoted to the rank of Brigadier General (1988). In 1993 he was made commander of the IDF forces in the West Bank. In 1994, he was promoted to Major General, commanding the Southern Corps. His rapid rise continued; in 1997 Mofaz was appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff and in 1998 he was appointed Chief of the General Staff.  His term of Chief of Staff was noted for financial and structural reforms of the Israeli Army. But the most significant event in his tenure was the eruption of the Second Intifada in September, 2000. The tough tactics undertaken by Mofaz drew widespread concern from the international community but were broadly supported by the Israeli public. Controversy erupted over the offensive in Jenin, intermittent raids in the Gaza Strip, and the continued isolation of Yasser Arafat.  Mofaz foresaw the wave of violence coming early as 1999 and prepared the IDF for intense guerrilla warfare in the territories. He fortified posts at the Gaza Strip and kept Israel Defense Forces casualties low. While he was known for claiming, "Israel has the most moral army in the world," he drew criticism from both Israeli and international human rights monitoring groups because of the methods he had undertaken, including using armored bulldozers to demolish 2,500 Palestinian civilian homes, displacing thousands, in order to create a security "buffer zone" along the Rafah border.

Political career.

Following a government crisis in 2002, Shaul Mofaz was appointed Defense Minister by Ariel Sharon. Although he supported an agreement with the Palestinians, he was willing to make no compromise in the war against militant groups such as Hamas, Islamic Jihad, Tanzim, and Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades.  The fact that he had only recently left his position as IDF Chief of Staff prevented him from participating in the 2003 election (by which time Mofaz had joined Sharon's Likud). Nevertheless, Sharon reappointed him as Defense Minister in the new government.  On 21 November 2005, Mofaz rejected Sharon's invitation to join his new party, Kadima, and instead announced his candidacy for the leadership of Likud. But, on 11 December 2005, one day after he promised he would never leave the Likud, he withdrew from both the leadership race and the Likud to join Kadima.  Following the elections in late March 2006, Mofaz was moved from the position of Defense Minister and received the Transport ministry in the new Cabinet installed on 4 May 2006.  In 2008, with Israel's then prime minister, Ehud Olmert, being pressured to resign due to corruption charges, Mofaz announced that he would run for the leadership of the Kadima party.  On 5 August 2008, Mofaz officially entered the race to be leader of Kadima. That same day he received a blessing by Shas spiritual leader Rabbi Ovadia Yosef. On 17 September 2008, he lost the Kadima party election, losing to Tzipi Livni for the spot of the Prime Minister and leader of Kadima. Livni's narrow margin of 431 votes was 43.1% to Shaul Mofaz's 42.0%, a huge difference from the 10 to 12-point exit polls margins. She said the "national responsibility (bestowed) by the public brings me to approach this job with great reverence". Mofaz accepted the Kadima primary's result, despite his lawyer, Yehuda Weinstein's appeal advice, and telephoned Livni congratulating her. Livni got 16,936 votes, with 16,505 votes, for Mofaz. Public Security Minister Avi Dichter and Interior Minister Meir Sheetrit had 6.5% and 8.5% respectively.  Placed second on the Kadima list, Mofaz retained his seat in the 2009 elections, but lost his cabinet position after Likud formed the government.  On 27 March 2012, Shaul Mofaz won the Kadima party leadership primaries by a landslide, defeating party chairwoman Tzipi Livni. Mofaz became Vice Prime Minister as part of a deal reached for a government of national unity with Binyamin Netanyahu. Mofaz said during the Kadima primaries that he would not join a government led by Netanyahu.  Mofaz left over Netanyahu's indecision over a draft reform law and warned that the prime minister was trying to patch together a majority for a vote to plunge the region into war.  In 2013 Kadima, just 4 years prior the ruling party, received 2% of the votes, barely passing to the Knesset.  In the buildup to the 2015 elections Kadima was not expect to pass the threshold, as it was raised to 3.25%. Mofaz negotiated with the Zionist Union alliance to bring Kadima onto their slate, but ended negotiations when it became clear he would not be their candidate for Defense Minister. Immediately after Mofaz announced he was not joining the Zionist Union slate, it was announced the former Military Intelligence Directorate (Israel) head Amos Yadlin was appointed to the Zionist Union slate and would be their candidate for Defense Minister. Within a week of his announcement that he was not running with the Zionist Union, Mofaz announced his retirement from politics.

In popular culture.

A fictionalized version of Mofaz appeared in the 2008 drama film "Lemon Tree".

Lieutenant General Shaul Mofaz (; 4 November 1948) is an Israeli former soldier and politician. He joined the Israel Defense Forces in 1966 and served in the Paratroopers Brigade. He fought in the Six-Day War, Yom Kippur War, 1982 Lebanon War, and Operation Entebbe with the paratroopers and Sayeret Matkal, an elite special forces unit. In 1998 he became the sixteenth IDF's Chief of the General Staff, serving until 2002. He is of Iranian Jewish ancestry.

Šaul Mofaz (:, * 4. listopadu 1948) je izraelský politik a generál. Od roku 2006 do roku 2015 působil jako poslanec Knesetu za stranu Kadima, jíž v letech 2012 až 2015 předsedal. V tomto období vykonával několik vládních funkcí, a to post ministra obrany v letech 2002 až 2006, ministra dopravy v letech 2006 až 2009, vicepremiéra v roce 2012 a místopředsedu vlády v letech 2006 až 2009.


Biography.

Born in Morocco, Edri emigrated to Israel in 1959. He attended the University of Haifa, where he gained a BA in political science and an MA in public administration.  Between 1989 and 2003, he served as mayor of Or Akiva, where he currently resides. In 2003, he was elected to the Knesset on the Likud list. On 10 March 2003, he was appointed Deputy Minister of Internal Security. In late November 2005, he resigned from Likud and joined Kadima. On 18 January 2006 he was appointed Minister of Health and the Minister for the Development of the Negev and the Galilee.  Edri retained his seat in the 2006 elections, and on 27 July was named Minister without Portfolio responsible for Jerusalem Affairs. As part of a cabinet reshuffle in July 2007 he became both Minister of Immigrant Absorption and Minister of Negev and Galilee Development. He lost the former portfolio on 14 July 2008 when Eli Aflalo was appointed to the post.  On 25 February 2007 he was appointed to be responsible for Israel's sixtieth anniversary celebrations. On the same day, he was questioned under caution on suspicion of having tried to receive personal benefits in return for promoting a police commander, Ya'akov Zigdon, whilst he was Deputy Minister of Internal Security. He denied the charges.  He retained his seat in the 2009 elections after being placed thirteenth on the Kadima list. On 5 December 2012, in the days leading up to the 2013 elections, with polls showing Kadima either barely getting into the Knesset or not even passing the threshold, Edri announced he would not be contesting the elections. He then returned to local politics and resumed his post as mayor of Or Akiva.

Ya'akov Edri (, also spelt Edery or Edrey, born 25 November 1950) is an Israeli politician, serving as the mayor of Or Akiva. He served as a member of the Knesset for Likud and Kadima between 2003 and 2013, as well as holding the posts of Minister of Immigrant Absorption, Minister of Negev and Galilee Development, Minister of Health and a Minister without Portfolio.

Ja'akov Edri (: יעקב אדרי, * 25. listopadu 1950) je izraelský politik a bývalý poslanec Knesetu za stranu Kadima. V minulosti zastával funkce ministra zdravotnictví, absorpce imigrantů, ministra pro rozvoj Negevu a Galileje a ministra bez portfeje.


History.

The Oki Islands have been settled since the Japanese Paleolithic period, and numerous remains from the Jōmon, Yayoi and Kofun periods indicates continuous human occupation and activity. It was organized as a province under the Ritsuryō reforms in the later half of the seventh century, and the name "Oki-no-kuni" appears on wooden markers found in the imperial capital of Nara.  During the late Heian period, due to its remoteness, Oki Province came to known as a place for political exile. In 1221, Emperor Go-Toba was sent to Oki, and died in exile on the islands; In 1332, Emperor Go-Daigo was also sent in exile to Oki, but later managed to escape and regain control of the country.  From the Kamakura period Oki Province was governed primarily by the "shugo" of Izumo Province. In the Muromachi period, it was ruled successively by the Sasaki clan, the Yamana clan and the Kyōgoku clan. In the Sengoku period the Amago clan held this province. After the Amago fell and the Tokugawa shogunate was established, Oki Province was declared a "tenryō" dominion under the direct control of the "shōgun". The "daimyō" of Matsue Domain, belonging to the Matsudaira clan, was appointed governor.  The entire province had an assessed revenue of only 18,000 "koku", although its actual revenues were closer to only 12,000 "koku". The province was a frequent port of call for the "Kitamaebune" coastal trading ships during the Edo period. The exact location of the capital of the province is not known, but is believed to have been somewhere within Suki District on Dōgojima, within the borders of the modern town of Okinoshima. The "Kokubun-ji" still exists as a Shingon sect temple in Okinoshima, and the foundation stones of many of the original buildings can be found within its grounds, although a complete archaeological investigation has yet to be performed. There are two Shinto shrines which claim the title of "Ichinomiya" of the province. The in Okinoshima, and the in Nishinoshima.  Following the Meiji Restoration, Oki Province became Oki Prefecture from February to June 1869. It was then attached to Tottori Prefecture until 1876, when it was transferred to Shimane Prefecture.

Historical districts.

Oki Province was originally divided into four districts. All of the districts were merged into Oki District (隠岐郡) on April 1, 1969.

Oki is classified as one of the provinces of the San'indō. Under the "Engishiki" classification system, Oki was ranked as a "inferior country" (下国) and a "far country" (遠国).

Provincie Oki (: 隠岐国; "Oki no kuni") byla stará japonská provincie rozkládající se na ostrovech Oki v Japonském moři. Nejbližšími „pevninskými“ provinciemi byly Izumo a Hóki.


Club career.

Châteauroux.

Malouda was born in Cayenne, French Guiana. He attracted the interest of scouts from French club Châteauroux and he soon moved to Paris to join the club. Despite the difficulties of living far away from his family home in French Guiana, Malouda was able to continue his studies and play professional football. He played 57 games for Châteauroux, making his senior debut at the age of 16 in Ligue 2.

Guingamp.

Malouda was then signed by top division side Guingamp following Châteauroux's inability to secure a Ligue 1 berth. It was in Guingamp where his talent was showcased in French top-flight football. Under the tutelage of coach Guy Lacombe, Malouda demonstrated his ability and formed a combination with Didier Drogba, whom he would also accompany later in his career at Chelsea.

Lyon.

Malouda's performances began to catch the attention of French club Lyon who, after claiming their second consecutive title during the 2002–03 season, decided to sign Malouda. In an outstanding Lyon team containing Juninho, Michael Essien, Grégory Coupet and Mahamadou Diarra, Malouda established himself on the left side of Lyon's attack, forming great link-ups with all of Lyon's strikers. His performances for Lyon finally earned him a call-up to the France national team.  The highlights of Malouda's career at Lyon were a man of the match display against Real Madrid in the UEFA Champions League and his ten goals which led Lyon to their sixth consecutive Ligue 1 title, both during the 2006–07 season. He also won the Ligue 1 Player of the Year that season, edging teammate Juninho, Lille's Kader Keïta, Toulouse's Johan Elmander and Lens' Seydou Keita to the accolade.  Malouda made public his wish to leave Lyon at the end of the 2006–07 season, with Chelsea, Liverpool and Real Madrid showing interest in the winger. On 29 June 2007, Malouda told Lyon-based newspaper "Le Progres" that he has his heart set on a move to Chelsea, confirming that Chelsea had lodged a €17 million bid for him. Malouda later repeated this comment in an interview with the "Daily Star". On 5 July 2007, Chelsea chief executive Peter Kenyon told "Sky Sports News" that Chelsea had been in discussions with Lyon regarding Malouda's transfer and were hoping to tie up the deal before Chelsea's pre-season tour of the United States.

Chelsea.

2007–08.

On 8 July 2007, Lyon club president Jean-Michel Aulas announced that the club had accepted an undisclosed bid, rumoured to be around £13 million, from Chelsea for Malouda. Chelsea later officially revealed that Malouda would be traveling to London on 9 July for a medical and to discuss personal terms. Malouda had looked set to join Liverpool until their Premier League rivals Chelsea intervened. At 7 pm on the same day, Malouda officially signed a three-year contract with the club. He was handed the number 15 shirt. Chelsea manager José Mourinho described Malouda as a mature and proven player who was up to the challenge of adapting to the fast pace of English football, and hinted that Malouda would be fielded in tandem with Dutch winger Arjen Robben.  In his first game for Chelsea, a pre-season friendly against Mexican side América, Malouda scored the equaliser and set up John Terry for the winning goal for Chelsea and went on to win 2–1. Malouda made his competitive debut for Chelsea against Manchester United in the 2007 FA Community Shield on 5 August 2007 in a 1–1 draw; despite Chelsea going on to lose on penalties, he scored in what was an impressive display. Malouda started against Birmingham City on 12 August on the left wing and scored Chelsea's second goal in a 3–2 victory, before being replaced by Steve Sidwell in the 83rd minute, with the win cementing Chelsea's place in the history books by overtaking Liverpool's record of 63-straight home games unbeaten.  On 13 August, Malouda won a penalty awarded by referee Rob Styles in a Premier League match against Liverpool. Replays of the incident indicated Malouda had backed into Liverpool defender Jamie Carragher after trying to leave the ball for the unmarked Didier Drogba. The penalty kick was given and Frank Lampard scored. Referee Rob Styles was dropped from the next weekend Premier League games as a result of this incident and some other contentious decisions during the game. Malouda scored against Schalke 04 in his first Champions League match for Chelsea, squeezing the ball through keeper Manuel Neuer's legs after turning his marker Rafinha. On 23 January, Malouda set up Joe Cole with a long pass to score against Everton in the League Cup; Chelsea won the tie 3–1 on aggregate. On 5 May 2008, Malouda scored his second Premier League goal in the penultimate game of the season against Newcastle United, converting a Frank Lampard through-ball. Malouda ended his first season in English football with two goals and one assist in the league.

2008–09.

Malouda scored his first two goals in the Luiz Felipe Scolari era against French outfit Bordeaux in the Champions League group stages on 16 September 2008, and in the League Cup third round tie against Portsmouth. Both games went on to be 4–0 victories for Chelsea. His first league goal of the season was against Middlesbrough in a 5–0 win. The Frenchman scored the crucial second goal in a 2–0 win against Newcastle, scoring from Frank Lampard's pass. He then scored the equaliser against Arsenal in what would be a 2–1 victory for Chelsea in their FA Cup semi-final at Wembley Stadium. On 6 May in a Champions League semi final against Barcelona, Malouda was disallowed a potential penalty by the controversial referee, who disallowed numerous other Chelsea appeals for a penalty. He scored the fourth goal in a famous 4–1 victory over Arsenal which was their biggest defeat in the league at home for 38 years. The game marked his 50th Premier League match for the Blues.  In the 2009 FA Cup Final against Everton, he played a pivotal role in Chelsea's 2–1 win setting up Didier Drogba's equaliser but was then later denied a goal when his 36-yard strike hit the underside of the crossbar, despite replays showing it crossed the line. Malouda's impressive form in the last half of the season prompted interest from big teams such as Barcelona and Milan. On 23 June 2009, however, Malouda signed a new four-year deal with Chelsea which would keep him at Stamford Bridge until 2013.

2009–10.

After the arrival of Carlo Ancelotti in the 2009–10 season, Malouda found himself playing in a more central role on the left of Ancelotti's preferred diamond formation in midfield. On 12 September 2009 against Stoke City he grabbed the winner on the 94th minute to get Chelsea all three points. On 3 November 2009, Malouda made his 100th appearance for Chelsea in a Champions League match against Atlético Madrid. On 26 December 2009, Malouda was sent off for the first time in the season for tackling Stephen Carr in a league game against Birmingham City at St Andrew's.  In a Premier League match against West Ham United, Malouda was voted Man of the Match, delivering 16 crosses, two of which were turned into goals (thus counted as assists) and scoring one. Malouda scored a brace against Portsmouth on 24 March, a match Chelsea won 5–0. On 27 March, Malouda scored two more goals against Aston Villa in the match which Chelsea won 7–1. In Chelsea's most important fixture of the 2009–10 Premier League campaign against title rivals Manchester United, Malouda played a pivotal role in setting up the first goal of the match. By evading Antonio Valencia and Darren Fletcher en route to the penalty area, Malouda was able to deliver a low cross to Joe Cole, who redirected the ball with his back heel past goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar. Chelsea would go on to win the game 2–1. Malouda was designated for the first time as Premier League's Player of the Month in March 2010. He scored the second goal for Chelsea in a 3–0 win over Aston Villa in the FA Cup semi-final for the second successive year on 10 April 2010.  Malouda scored 12 goals and 8 assists in the league, 15 goals and 15 assists in all competitions, during the 2009–10 season. He finished joint 12th top scorer in the Premier League that season with Manchester United's Dimitar Berbatov.

2010–11.

Malouda began the 2010–11 Premier League season for Chelsea by scoring the first goal of their Premier League campaign against West Bromwich Albion, and later getting another in a record 6–0 opening day win. He scored his third goal of the season in another 6–0 demolition of Wigan Athletic. Malouda scored his fourth goal of the season against Stoke City in a 2–0 win. He continued this prolific form against Blackpool, scoring 2 more goals to take his goal tally to six only five games into the season.  On 24 January 2011, Malouda scored in the 41st minute against Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium in a 4–0 victory for Chelsea in a game in which he completed the full 90 minutes. On 20 April 2011 he scored 2 goals in the game against Birmingham City at Stamford Bridge, starting in a 3–1 win. As of May 2011, he had scored 41 goals in 179 matches in all competitions since making his debut back in 2007. Florent is also widely known for his hairstyle changes. During the 2010–11 Premier League season he was Chelsea's top league goalscorer, with a total of 13 goals, ahead of the likes of Didier Drogba and Nicolas Anelka.

2011–12.

During the summer of 2011, following Chelsea's signing of Spanish World Cup-winning winger Juan Mata, Italian Serie A giants Juventus were strongly linked with a move for Malouda, having previously been linked with the winger, and were reportedly looking to make a bid for Malouda. Following the speculation Malouda, speaking ahead of France's European Championship qualifier against Albania, Malouda insisted that he wanted to stay at Stamford Bridge until the next World Cup at least. He scored in the 5–1 demolition of Tottenham Hotspur at Wembley during the FA Cup semi-finals. Malouda came on as an injury-time substitute in Chelsea's 2–1 defeat of Liverpool in the final on 5 May, and collected his third FA Cup winners medal. He picked up a small injury in the club's last game of the Premier League season, a 2–1 defeat of relegated Blackburn Rovers which left him in doubt for the Champions League final, but passed a late fitness test and started on the bench for the Champions League final in Munich. He came on as a second-half substitute for Ryan Bertrand in the Champions League final against Bayern Munich on 19 May at the Allianz Arena. The game was decided by spot kicks as Chelsea ran out 4–3 winners, with Malouda helping them become the first London club to win the European Cup/Champions League trophy. Following an up-and-down season where he was regularly out of the first team, Malouda pledged his loyalty to the club and promised that he would work his hardest to prove his worth again to the club and fans.

2012–13.

Malouda missed some of Chelsea's pre-season matches as he was given extra rest following his inclusion in France's UEFA Euro 2012 squad. He was used as a second-half substitute in the pre-season matches against Paris Saint-Germain, MLS All-Stars, and Milan.  Malouda requested a transfer away from Chelsea during the summer. A number of teams in Brazil, as well as his former club Lyon, all showed an interest while the window was open, but Malouda refused to take a significant wage drop from his £80,000 a week. As a result of his refusal to move, he was not picked to be a member of the Chelsea squad in any competition. He was instead ordered to train away from the regular team with the under-21 squad.  On 30 June 2013, Malouda was released by Chelsea.

Later career.

On 17 July 2013, it was announced that Malouda signed a two-year contract with Turkish Süper Lig side Trabzonspor. The deal was reported to be worth around €2.5 million per season. On 1 November 2013, he scored two goals against Kayseri Erciyesspor as his side won the match 3–1 in the Hüseyin Avni Aker Stadium.  After having been released by Trabzonspor, on 12 September 2014, he returned to Ligue 1 after seven years abroad, signing for Metz.  On 23 August 2015, Malouda signed for Indian Super League side Delhi Dynamos, managed by Roberto Carlos. He played in all of the Dynamos 2015 Indian Super League games, as they reached the playoff semi-finals.  On 29 January 2016, Malouda joined Egyptian Premier League side Wadi Degla on a six-month loan deal, allowing him to continue to play and remain fit during the Indian off-season. He played 18 times as he helped his new club the Egyptian cup quarter-finals and a fifth placed finish in the league, narrowly missing out on qualification for the CAF Confederation Cup.  Malouda returned to the Dynamos, ready for the 2016 Indian Super League season. He played the majority of the season as Captain as they again reached the playoff semi-finals before leaving the club in July 2017.  On 25 January 2018, after being without a club for almost half a year, Malouda signed a contract with Luxembourg National Division team FC Differdange 03 until the end of the season. Injuries restricted his playing time in Luxembourg, playing 5 times and assisting 3 goals as his team finished 5th in the league and reached the semi-finals of the Luxembourg Cup.

International career.

France.

Malouda made his debut for France on 17 November 2004 in a match against Poland. He then became a squad regular, scoring his first goal for his country on 31 May 2005 against Hungary.  After playing almost throughout France's qualifying campaign for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Malouda earned a call up to the final squad. Malouda continued to play regularly in the tournament, where the French eventually lost on penalties to Italy in the final. He won a penalty for France in that game, which was converted by Zinedine Zidane.  On 22 June 2010, during the 2010 World Cup, Malouda scored a goal during the match against host nation South Africa, which ended in a 2–1 defeat in favour of South Africa. It was the only goal scored by France during their campaign in the group stage before they were eliminated in last place, having drawn 0–0 with Uruguay and lost 2–0 to Mexico.  On 3 September 2010, Malouda was handed the captain's armband in France's first UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier against Belarus, while a five-game suspension was being served by the previous captain, Patrice Evra. It was new coach Laurent Blanc's first game in charge and "Les Bleus" slumped to a disappointing 1–0 defeat.  On international duty in February 2012, Malouda netted his side's second goal of a 2–1 defeat of Germany, latching on to a cross from fellow substitute Morgan Amalfitano. After being included in France's 23-man squad for the Euro 2012 final stages in Poland and Ukraine, Malouda scored his ninth international goal in a 2–0 friendly defeat of Serbia on 31 May, netting from the edge of the area to double their advantage.

French Guiana.

Malouda became available to play for his home nation, a non-FIFA association, after a five-year absence from the French squad. In June 2017, he was named to the preliminary French Guiana squad for the 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup and made his debut against Barbados in a friendly. He was, however, ruled ineligible for the Gold Cup since CONCACAF rules for the tournament use FIFA eligibility guidelines and Malouda remains cap-tied to France. Despite this, on 11 July 2017, Malouda was selected to start French Guiana's Gold Cup match against Honduras, resulting in a forfeit after what was originally a 0–0 draw.

Coaching career.

Malouda later became a coach at Swiss club FC Zurich, but his contract was cancelled in April 2019 after less than 2 months.

Personal life.

Malouda's younger brother, Lesly, also played professional football, including for Ligue 2 team Dijon FCO.  He is married to Florencia, a Guyanese national. They have four children: three daughters, Kelys, Satya and Flora, and one son, Aaron.

Career statistics.

Club.

"As of 4 May 2018"

Honours.

Lyon  Chelsea  Individual

Florent Johan Malouda ( ; born 13 June 1980) is a French football coach and former professional player. A left winger, he spent most of his career at Lyon and Chelsea, winning four consecutive Ligue 1 titles with the former and the UEFA Champions League in 2012 with the latter, among other honours.

Florent Johan Malouda (* 13. června 1980, Cayenne, Francouzská Guyana) je francouzský fotbalista, od ledna 2018 hráč klubu FC Differdange 03. Ve francouzské fotbalové reprezentaci odehrál v letech 2004–2012 celkem 80 zápasů a vstřelil 9 gólů.


Etymology and use in Japan.

The correct transcription of the word in Hepburn notation is "etchi". However, it is typically written as "ecchi".  In the word "hentai" (変態), the first kanji "hen" refers to strangeness, and the second kanji "tai" refers to a condition or state. "Hentai" was introduced in the Meiji period as a term for "change of form" or "transformation" in science and psychology. In this context, it was used to refer to disorders such as hysteria or to describe paranormal phenomena like hypnosis or telepathy. Slowly, the meaning expanded until it had the meaning of "non-standard". In the 1910s, it was used in sexology in the compound expression "hentai seiyoku" (, "abnormal sexual desire") and became popular within the theory of sexual deviance ("Hentai seiyoku ron"), published by Eiji Habuto and Jun'ichirō Sawada in 1915. In the 1920s, many publications dealt with deviant sexual desires and the Ero Guro Nansensu movement. Matsuzawa calls it a period characterized by a ""hentai boom"". In the 1930s, censorship became more common leading to fewer books being published on this theme.  After the Second World War, in the 1950s, interest in hentai was renewed, and people would sometimes refer to it just by the first English letter, "H" (pronounced as, ). In 1952, the magazine "Shukan Asahi" reported that a woman who was groped by a stranger in a movie theater reacted with ""ara etchi yo"" (""hey, that's perverse""). In this context, "etchi" should be understood as "sexually forward" and is synonymous to "iyarashii" (, dirty or disgusting) or "sukebe" (, a person with sex on the brain). From this, the word "etchi" started to branch off, and assume new connotations. In the 1960s, "etchi" started to be used by youth to refer to sex in general. By the 1980s, it was used to mean "sex" as in the phrase "etchi suru" (to have sex).  Other neologisms such as "sekkusu" are often used to refer to sex, in addition to the term "ecchi." "Ecchi" is now used as a qualifier for anything related to erotic or pornographic content. Its exact meaning varies with context, but in general, it is most similar to the English word "naughty" (when used as an adjective). The Japanese media tend to use other words, e.g. "ero-manga" (), "adult manga" (), or anime / manga for persons over 18 years (, ). The prefix "H-" is also sometimes used to refer to pornographic genres, e.g. H-anime, H-manga, etc.

Western usage.

In Japan, oiroke manga (お色気漫画) is used to describe manga with very light or playful erotic content such as is found in shonen manga. In western nations though, "ecchi" has become the preferred term. The more explicit seijin manga (成人向け漫画, "seijinmukemanga") are more likely to be referred to as hentai in the west. This does correlate to a similar distinction in Japanese. For instance, if a young woman were to call a young man "e(t/c)chi", that might be construed as flirting, whereas "hentai" sounds more like condemnation.  Works aimed at a female audience can contain scenes which are seen as ecchi. Examples are "R-18 Love Report!" from Emiko Sugi and "Oruchuban Ebichu" from Risa Itō, which are aimed at the shōjo and josei audience, but contain rather explicit content.  Common elements of ecchi include conversations with sexual references or misunderstandings (e.g. double entendre or innuendo), misunderstandings in visual depictions (e.g. suggestive posing), revealing or sexualized clothing (e.g. underwear or cosplay), nudity (e.g. ripped apart clothing, wet clothing, clothing malfunctions) and the portrayal of certain actions (e.g. groping). This kind of sexuality is often used for comical effect. A typical example scene would contain a male protagonist that trips over a female character, giving the impression of sexual harassment.  The concept of ecchi is very closely related to fan service. While fan service describes every aspect to please the fans, ecchi relates to sexual themes. A special kind of fan service, that is usually bound or justified by the narrative.

Typical examples.

There are many elements that may classify a work as ecchi, but these elements have to occur quite often (for example, in all episodes of a show). Graphically speaking, different techniques are used to show sexy pictures, usually by revealing parts of the female body such as the back or breasts. Some of these patterns are recurrent, such as scenes in a shower, onsen, or fighting scenes in which clothes are torn apart. The imagination of characters is also a common device for showing their sexual fantasies, as well as transformation scenes of magical girls. In the end, any excuse is valid to show a character partially or completely nude.

Nudity.

Levels of nudity vary strongly between works depending on the intended audience and the preferences of the authors. For example, in some cases, though the breasts are shown on the screen, nipples and genitals are obscured by props, clothing, or effects. This kind of censorship was typical for Lala in "To Love-Ru", Blair in "Soul Eater" or even Asuka Langley Soryu from "Neon Genesis Evangelion". Meanwhile, in "Ladies versus Butlers!" and other anime, the nipples are clearly visible through clothing, no matter how thick it is. Nosebleeds are a typical reaction to nudity in Japanese works, as they represent sexual arousal, this is due to an exaggeration of high blood pressure whilst so.

Panties.

The visibility of the underwear (panties) is one common motif. Typically the male will react in an exaggerated manner and be castigated. The color and style of the panties are seen as an indication of the female's character, e.g. white for innocent characters, striped for shy characters, and red for sexually aggressive characters. Panties are a popular main theme in ecchi (for instance, "Chobits" and "Panty & Stocking with Garterbelt" feature them heavily), but they are also featured in other shows just for sexual appeal.

Sexual activity.

Although revealing or sexualized clothing, nudity or groping may occur in ecchi works, there usually is no explicit sexual intercourse in the works; in the west, such works are classified as hentai. However, in an ecchi work, it may appear as if a couple are having sex. For instance, the two may be seen in silhouette from outside a tent, appearing to be having sex, although they are doing something nonsexual.

The word "ecchi" has been adopted by western fans of Japanese media to describe works with sexual overtones. In Japanese, the word "ecchi" is often used to describe a person's conduct, but in western fandom, it has come to be used to refer to softcore or playful sexuality, as distinct from the word "hentai", which connotes perversion or fetishism. Works described as ecchi by the western fans do not show sexual intercourse or genitalia, but sexual themes are referenced. "Ecchi" themes are a type of fan service, and can be found in most comedy shōnen and seinen manga and harem anime.

Ečči (, anglický přepis: Ecchi nebo Etchi) je japonský eufemismus (přídavné jméno, podstatné jméno i sloveso) pro sex a perverznost. Etymologicky je to zkomolená anglická výslovnost písmene "H", které je prvním písmenem slova hentai, což znamená perverzní.


Composition.

Diverse kinds of hemicelluloses are known. Important examples include xylan, glucuronoxylan, arabinoxylan, glucomannan, and xyloglucan.  Hemicelluloses are polysaccharides often associated with cellulose, but cellulose and hemicellulose have distinct compositions and structures. Diverse sugars comprise hemicellulose, whereas cellulose is derived exclusively from glucose. For instance, besides glucose, sugar monomers in hemicelluloses can include the five-carbon sugars xylose and arabinose, the six-carbon sugars mannose and galactose, and the six-carbon deoxy sugar rhamnose. Hemicelluloses contain most of the D-pentose sugars, and occasionally small amounts of L-sugars as well. Xylose is in most cases the sugar monomer present in the largest amount, although in softwoods mannose can be the most abundant sugar. Not only regular sugars can be found in hemicellulose, but also their acidified form, for instance glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid can be present.

Structural comparison to cellulose.

Unlike cellulose, hemicelluloses consist of shorter chains – 500–3,000 sugar units. In contrast, 7,000–15,000 glucose molecules comprise each polymer of cellulose. In addition, hemicellulose may be branched polymers, while cellulose is unbranched. Hemicelluloses are embedded in the cell walls of plants, sometimes in chains that form a 'ground' – they bind with pectin to cellulose to form a network of cross-linked fibres.  Based on the structural difference, like backbone linkages and side groups, as well as other factors, like abundance and distributions in plants, hemicellulose could be characterized into four groups as following: 1) Xylans, 2) Mannans; 3) Mixed linkage β-glucans; 4) Xyloglucans  Xylans  Xylans usually consist of backbone of β-(1→4)-linked xylose residues. And it could be further divided into homoxylands and heteroxylans. Homoxylans has a backbone of D-xylopyranose residues linked by β(1→3) or mixed,β(1→3, 1→4)-glycosidic linkages. Homoxylans mainly carry structural functions. Heteroxylans such as glucuronoxylans, glucuronoarabinoxylans, and complex heteroxylans, have a backbone of D-xylopyranose and short carbohydrate branches. For examples, glucuronoxylan has substitution with α-(1→2)-linked glucuronosyl and 4-O-methyl glucuronosyl residues. And arabinoxylans and glucuronoarabinoxylans contain arabinose residues attached to the backbone  Mannans  The mannan-type hemicellulose can be classified into two types based on their main chain difference, galactomannans and glucomannans. Galactomannans have only β-(1→4) linked D-mannopyranose residues in linear chains. Glucomannans consist of both β-(1→4) linked D-mannopyranose and β-(1→4) linked D-glucopyranose residues in the main chains. As for the side chains, D-galactopyranose residues tend to be 6-linked to both types as the single side chains with various amount.  Mixed linkage β-glucans  The conformation of the mixed linkage glucan chains usually contains blocks of β-(1→4) D-Glucopyranose separated by single β-(1→3) D-Glucopyranose. The population of β-(1→4) and β-(1→3) are about 70% and 30%. These glucans primarily consist of cellotriosly (CHO) and cellotraosyl (CHO)segments in random order. There are some study show the molar ratio of cellotriosly/cellotraosyl for oat (2.1-2.4), barley (2.8-3.3), and wheat (4.2-4.5).  Xyloglucans  Xyloglucans have a backbone similar to cellulose with α-D-Xylopyranose residues at position 6. To better describe different side chains, a single letter code notation is used for each side chain type. G -- unbranched Glc residue; X -- α-d-Xyl-(1→6)-Glc. L -- β-Gal, S -- α-l-Araf, F-- α-l-Fuc. These are the most common side chains.  The two most common types of xyloglucans in plant cell walls are identified as XXXG and XXGG.

Biosynthesis.

Hemicelluloses are synthesised from sugar nucleotides in the cell's Golgi apparatus. Two models explain their synthesis: 1) a '2 component model' where modification occurs at two transmembrane proteins, and 2) a '1 component model' where modification occurs only at one transmembrane protein. After synthesis, hemicelluloses are transported to the plasma membrane via Golgi vesicles.  Each kind of hemicellulose is biosynthesized by specialized enzymes.  Mannan chain backbones are synthesized by cellulose synthase-like protein family A (CSLA) and possibly enzymes in cellulose synthase-like protein family D (CSLD). Mannan synthase, a particular enzyme in CSLA, is responsible for the addition of mannose units to the backbone. The galactose side-chains of some mannans are added by galactomannan galactosyltransferase. Acetylation of mannans is mediated by a mannan O-acetyltransferase, however, this enzyme has not been definitively identified.  Xyloglucan backbone synthesis is mediated by cellulose synthase-like protein family C (CSLC), particularly glucan synthase, which adds glucose units to the chain. Backbone synthesis of xyloglucan is also mediated in some way by xylosyltransferase, but this mechanism is separate to its transferase function and remains unclear. Xylosyltransferase in its transferase function is, however, utilized for the addition of xylose to the side-chain. Other enzymes utilized for side-chain synthesis of xyloglucan include galactosyltransferase (which is responsible for the addition of galactose and of which two different forms are utilized), fucosyltransferase (which is responsible for the addition of fucose), and acetyltransferase (which is responsible for acetylation).  Xylan backbone synthesis, unlike that of the other hemicelluloses, is not mediated by any cellulose synthase-like proteins. Instead, xylan synthase is responsible for backbone synthesis, facilitating the addition of xylose. Several genes for xylan synthases have been identified. Several other enzymes are utilized for the addition and modification of the side-chain units of xylan, including glucuronosyltransferase (which adds glucuronic acid units), xylosyltransferase (which adds additional xylose units), arabinosyltransferase (which adds arabinose), methyltransferase (responsible for methylation), and acetyltransferase (responsible for acetylation).Given that mixed-linkage glucan is a non-branched homopolymer of glucose, there is no side-chain synthesis, only the addition of glucose to the backbone in two linkages, β1-3 and β1-4. Backbone synthesis is mediated by enzymes in cellulose synthase-like protein families F and H (CSLF and CSLH), specifically glucan synthase. Several forms of glucan synthase from CSLF and CSLH have been identified. All of them are responsible for addition of glucose to the backbone and all are capable of producing both β1-3 and β1-4 linkages, however, it is unknown how much each specific enzyme contributes to the distribution of β1-3 and β1-4 linkages.

Applications.

In the sulphite pulp process the hemicellulose is largely hydrolysed by the acid pulping liquor ending up in the brown liquor where the fermentable hexose sugars (around 2%) can be used for producing ethanol. This process was primarily applied to calcium sulfite brown liquors.  Arabinogalactans can be used as emulsifiers, stabilizers and binders according to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. Arabinogalactans can also be used as bonding agent for a bunch of things like sweeteners.  The films based on xylan show low oxygen permeability and thus are of potential interest as packaging for oxygen-sensitive products.  Agar is used in making jellies and puddings. It is also growth medium with other nutrients for microorganisms.  Curdlan can be used in fat replacement to produce diet food while having a taste and a mouth feel of real fat containing products.  b-glucans have an important role in food supplement while b-glucans are also promising in health-related issues, especially in immune reactions and the treatment of cancer.  Xanthan, with other polysaccharides can form gels that have high solution viscosity which can be used in the oil industry to thicken drilling mud. In the food industry, xanthan is used in products such as dressings and sauces.  Alginate is an important role in the development of antimicrobial textiles due to its characteristics of environmental friendliness, and high industrialization level as a sustainable biopolymer.

Natural Functions.

Hemicellulose in Plant Cells

Extraction.

There are many ways to obtain hemicellulose; all of these rely on extraction methods through hardwood or softwood trees milled into smaller samples. In hardwoods the main hemicellulose extract is glucuronoxlyan (acetylated xylans), while galactoglucomannan is found in softwoods. Prior to extraction the wood typically must be milled into wood chips of various sizes depending on the reactor used. Following this, a hot water extraction process, also known as autohydrolysis or hydrothermal treatment, is utilized with the addition of acids and bases to vastly change the yield size and properties. The main advantage to hot water extraction is that it offers a method where the only chemical that is needed is water, making this environmentally friendly and cheap.  The hot water treatment goal is achieve as much removal of hemilleculose from the wood as possible. This is done through the hydrolysis of the hemicellulose to achieve smaller oligomers and monosacccharie xylose. Xylose when dehydrated becomes furfural. When xylose and fufural are the goal, acid catalysts, such as formic acid, are added to increase the transition of polysaccharide to monosaccharide. This catalyst also has been show to also utilize a solvent effect to be aid the reaction.  One method of pretreatment is to soak the wood with diluted acids (with concentrations around 4%). This converts the hydroloze hemicellulose into monosaccharaides. When pretreatment is done with bases (for instance sodium or potassium hydroxide) this destroys the structure of the inherent lignin. This changes the structure from crystalline to amorphous. Another pretreatment method is to pretreat hydrothermally. This offers advantages such as no toxic or corrosive solvents are needed, nor are special reactors, and no extra costs to dispose of hazardous chemicals.  The hot water extraction process is done in batch reactors, semi-continuous reactors, or slurry continuous reactors. For batch and semi-continuous reactors wood samples can be used in conditions such as chips or pellets while a slurry reactor must have particles as small as 200 to 300 micrometers. While the particle size decreases the yield production decreases as well. This is due to the increase of cellulose.  The hot water process is operated at a temperature range of 160 to 240 degrees Celsius in order to maintain the liquid phrase. This is done above the normal boiling point of water to increase the solubilization of the hemicellulose and the depolymerization of polysaccharides. This process can take several minutes to several hours depending on the temperature and pH of the system. Higher temperatures paired with higher extraction times lead to higher yields. A maximum yield is obtained at a pH of 3.5. If below, the extraction yield exponentially decreases. In order to control pH sodium bicarbonates are generally added. The sodium biocarbonates inhibits the autodyolysis of acetyl groups as well as inhibiting glycosic bonds. Depending on the temperature and time the hemicellulose can be further converted into oligomers, monomers, and lignin.

A hemicellulose (also known as polyose) is one of a number of heteropolymer (matrix polysaccharides), such as arabinoxylans, present along with cellulose in almost all terrestrial plant cell walls. While cellulose is crystalline, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis, hemicelluloses have random, amorphous structure with little strength. They are easily hydrolyzed by dilute acid or base as well as a myriad of hemicellulase enzymes.

Hemicelulóza je polysacharid, který se od celulózy liší nižší relativní molekulovou hmotností a stavbou řetězce. Na stavbě polysacharidového řetězce se totiž podílí glukóza a další monosacharidy - jak různé hexózy (manóza, galaktóza), tak i pentózy (arabinóza, xylóza) a uronové kyseliny a eventuálně i různé cukerné methylderiváty.