Early life and public career.

Born in 1922, Montazeri was from a peasant family in Najafabad, a city in Isfahan Province, 250 miles south of Tehran.  His early theological education was in Isfahan. After Khomeini was forced into exile by the Shah, Montazeri "sat at the center of the clerical network" which Khomeini had established to oppose Pahlavi rule. He became a teacher at the Faiziyeh Theological School. While there he answered Khomeini's call to protest the White Revolution of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in June 1963 and was active in anti-Shah clerical circles. He was sent to prison in 1974 and released in 1978 in time to be active during the revolution. Montazeri then went to Qom where he studied theology.

Iranian Revolution.

Montazeri was known as an Islamic jurist who was made to pay for his liberal-leaning beliefs. He supported a democratic republic as the best form of government; however in his ideal model for government, an Islamic jurist acts as a supervisor and advisor, what he, along with Ayatollah Khomeini, termed as velayat-e faqih. He was the author of "Dirasāt fī wilāyah al-faqīh", a scholarly book advocating the supervision of the administration by Islamic jurists. He believed in the independence of the government and did not accept any executive and policy making role for the Islamic jurist. Montazeri asserted that the rule of the jurisprudent should not be an absolute rule; instead, it should be limited to the function of advisor to the rulers, who are elected by the people.  In 1979, following the overthrow of the Shah, he played a pivotal role in instituting Iran's new constitution. He was one of the leaders of the movement to replace the democratic and secular draft constitution proposed for the Islamic Republic with one where the supervision of Islamic jurists was recognized. He distributed "a detailed commentary and alternate draft" for Iran's new constitution. It included proposals to specify that Twelver Shi'ism—and not Islam in general—was the official religion of the state and to state that Islamic jurists should appoint judges with the right of veto over all laws and actions that are against the Islamic principles. Later he served on the Assembly of Experts ("Majles-e-Khobregan") that wrote the constitution and that implemented many of his proposals.  During this time, Montazeri also served as Friday prayer leader of Qom, as a member of the Revolutionary Council and as deputy to Supreme Leader Khomeini. Khomeini began "to transfer some of his power" to Montazeri, in 1980. By 1983 "all government offices hung a small picture" of Montazeri next to that of Khomeini. In 1984, Montazeri became a grand ayatollah.  Montazeri initially rejected Khomeini's proposal to make him his successor, insisting that the choice of successor be left to the democratically elected Assembly of Experts. Later, Montazeri relented, and following a session of the Assembly of Experts in November 1985, he was officially appointed Khomeini's successor as Supreme Leader.  Some observers believe Khomeini chose him for this role solely because of his support for Khomeini's principle of theocratic rule by Islamic jurists. Khomeini's proposed form of administration called for the most learned, or one of the most learned, Islamic jurists to "rule", and of all those who might be considered a leading Islamic jurist, only Montazeri supported theocracy. In Montazeri's opinion, however the jurist would not act as an absolute ruler, instead, he would act as an advisor and consultant.  Montazeri fell short of the theological requirements of the supreme Faqih. He could not claim descent from the Prophet nor did he possess all the credentials of a revered scholar of Islamic law. His religious followers were few. And he lacked the all-important charisma. His selection had happened for one reason—he was the only one among the candidates for Faqih who totally endorsed Khomeini's vision of Islamic government.  In addition, traditionalists did not approve Montazeri's designation as successor due to several reasons, including his problematic persona in Shiite seminaries during the reign of the Shah and his support for Ali Shariati’s and for Nematollah Salehi Najaf Abadi's works. Montazeri's leadership qualifications were further hurt by not being a seyyed, or descendant of the Prophet Mohammed, traditionally wearing the black turban in Shiite Islam, like Khomeini and Khomeini's successor Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. In the early years of the revolution, he was not as popular as he was in the last two decades of his life. The middle class and elites would mock him in those early years.

Dispute with Khomeini and demotion.

Mehdi Karrubi claims that the tensions between Montazeri and Khomenei began in around October 1986 when Montazeri sent a letter to the latter, criticising and questioning the foundation of the state. Montazeri's troubles became further evident due to his association with Mehdi Hashemi who ran an organization out of Montazeri's office which sought to export the Islamic revolution. Hashemi is thought to have embarrassed Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani by leaking information of his connection with the Iran-Contra affair. Subsequently Hashemi was arrested, convicted and executed in September 1987 on charges of counterrevolutionary activities.  In November 1987, Montazeri created more controversy when he called for the legalization of political parties, though under strict regulation. He followed this by calling for "an open assessment of failures" of the Revolution and an end to the export of revolution, saying that Iran should inspire by example, not train and arm allied groups. Khomeini responded the next February by criticizing Montazeri and a month later called for a meeting of the Assembly of Experts to "discuss him."  Things came to a head following the mass execution of political prisoners in late summer and early autumn 1988, when Montazeri gave a series of lectures in which he indicated support for a "far more open" policy. In an interview published in "Keyhan" in early 1989, he criticized Khomeini in language that is said to have sealed "his political fate": The denial of people's rights, injustice and disregard for the revolution's true values have delivered the most severe blows against the revolution. Before any reconstruction [takes place], there must first be a political and ideological reconstruction... This is something that the people expect of a leader. Still worse for him were the publication abroad and broadcast on the BBC of his letters condemning the post-war wave of executions in March 1989. Montazeri also criticized Khomeini's fatwa ordering the assassination of author Salman Rushdie saying: "People in the world are getting the idea that our business in Iran is just murdering people."  On 26 March 1989, Imam Khomeini strongly denounced Montazeri's actions, and two days later announced that Montazeri had resigned his post. Montazeri did not protest his loss, issuing a message concluding, "I ask all brothers and sisters not to utter a word in my support."  In addition to losing his position as designated heir, Montazeri's title of Grand Ayatollah was withdrawn, publication of his lectures in the "Kayhan" newspaper and references to him on the state radio were stopped, his portraits were ordered by the then Prime Minister Mir Hossein Mousavi to be removed from offices and mosques, and his security guards were withdrawn. "Articles and editorials appeared in various newspapers aimed at dismantling" Montazeri's "impeccable" revolutionary credentials."  According to numerous sources, the amendment to Iran's constitution removing the requirement that the Supreme Leader be a Marja was instituted to deal with the problem of a lack of any remaining Grand Ayatollahs willing to accept "illimitable velayat-e faqih". However, others said the reason marjas were not elected was because of their lack of votes in the Assembly of Experts. For example, Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Golpaygani had the backing of only thirteen members of the assembly. Furthermore, there were other marjas present who accepted "illimitable velayat-e faqih".

Later dissent and house arrest.

Khomeini died in June 1989 and another cleric, Seyed Ali Khamene'i, was selected by the Assembly of Experts to be the new Supreme Leader. Khamenei had been a high-ranking Hojatoleslam before Montazeri's removal. His promotion was accepted by many Shi'a, among the exceptions being Montazeri.  In December 1989, Montazeri's supporters in Qom distributed "night letters" questioning Khamenei's qualifications to be a Marja e Taqlid ("Source of Emulation"), or in other words, an Ayatollah. In retaliation Revolutionary Guards "detained and humiliated" Montazeri, "forcing him to wear his nightcap rather than his white turban."  In October 1997, after openly criticizing the authority of the Iranian Supreme leader Ayatollah Khamenei, Ayatollah Montazeri was placed under house arrest under the pretext of protecting him from hardliners. He was finally freed from house arrest in 2003 after "more than 100 Iranian legislators" called on President Khatami to free Montazeri. Some thought that the government lifted the house arrest to avoid the possibility of a popular backlash if the ailing Montazeri died while in custody.

Criticism of the government.

During the 1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners, Ayatollah Montazeri wrote to Ayatollah Khomeini saying "at least order to spare women who have children... the execution of several thousand prisoners in a few days will not reflect positively and will not be mistake-free... A large number of prisoners have been killed under torture by interrogators... in some prisons of the Islamic Republic young girls are being raped... As a result of unruly torture, many prisoners have become deaf or paralysed or afflicted with chronic decease."  On 22 January 2007, Grand Ayatollah Montazeri criticized the former Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad for his nuclear and economic policies.  While agreeing Iran had the right to develop nuclear energy, he called Ahmadinejad's approach to the issue aggressive, saying, "One has to deal with the enemy with wisdom, not provoke it,... his (provocation) only creates problems for the country" and asked, "Don't we have other rights too?", referring to individual and human rights. Montazeri also criticized the economic performance of Ahmadinejad's administration's, noting the rate of inflation—including a 50% increase in housing costs—arguing that a country cannot be run on "slogans".  Montazeri, in a 2008 interview with the Voice of America concerning the 29th anniversary of the revolution, stated that the revolution had given Islam a bad name, arguing "Unfortunately, it is only by name that the revolution remains Islamic. Its content has changed, and what is taking place in the name of Islam gives a bad image of the religion. This is the religion of kindness and tolerance." He also issued a statement in 2008 in support of the rights of the Baha'is in the Islamic Republic, saying that though Baha'is were not People of the Book like Jews, Christians and Zoroastrians, nonetheless: "they are the citizens of this country, they have the right of citizenship and to live in this country. Furthermore, they must benefit from the Islamic compassion which is stressed in Quran and by the religious authorities."  Montazeri again spoke out against Ahmadinejad on 16 June 2009 during the protests against his reelection. Ahmadinejad was controversially reelected as president after a closely contested and disputed election, which involved many candidates, but whose leading vote-getters were Ahmadinejad and former Prime Minister Mir Hossein Mousavi. The government reported that Ahmadinejad had won the election with 62 percent of the vote. Montazeri stated that "No one in their right mind can believe" the results were fairly counted. Montazeri called for three days of public mourning for the death of Neda Agha-Soltan and others killed during 20 June protests. He further declared that the then current ruling government was neither Islamic nor a republic, but military. In November 2009, on the day before the 30th anniversary celebration of the Iran hostage crisis, Montazeri said that the occupation of the American embassy in 1979 had been a mistake.

Human rights and gender.

While Ayatollah Montazeri has been celebrated as a champion of the rights of political prisoners, and human rights associated with the public sphere, in an interview conducted in 2003 in Qom with the Iranian feminist academic Golbarg Bashi he said that while men and women enjoy the same dignity and respect in the eyes of God, women's rights must remain strictly under the domain of Shi'i fiqh rather than international human rights conventions such as CEDAW.  In response to Golbarg Bashi, Ayatollah Montazeri said:  When Bashi informed him that currently (2003) in Iranian universities, "some 60% of students are women" and asked him "so in future generations, when the number of professors, physicians, high-ranking experts, etc, will be mostly women, will Islam be able to have an ijtihad and modify these unjust laws because they no longer correspond with reality?"  Ayatollah Montazeri responded: "Those aspects of the Islamic law that are based on the very letter of the Qur'an, the answer is no. But certain other things yes, you can, and they can be subject to changing times. But those that are from the very letter of the Qur'an, no they cannot, and those have certain wisdom and subtleties in them."

Reputation.

Montazeri was described by his allies as "brilliant," down-to-earth, unpretentious, plain spoken, and as one who "lives plainly, and equates Islam with social justice" and stays above political infighting." His detractors portrayed him as stubborn and naïve in his insistence that the Islamic republic find reconciliation with the "hypocrites" and "liberals" who are its "internal enemies."

Public image.

In late 1960s, Montazeri gained influence and popularity in Isfahan Province after his speeches criticizing the Shah, moving SAVAK to banish and subsequently imprison him.  In 1980s, Montazeri was known by the pejorative nickname "Gorbeh Nareh" (, the masculine cat) after the Cat, a character in the "Pinocchio" animated series. According to Elaine Sciolino, this was due to his "poor public speaking skills, squeaky voice, round face and grizzled beard".

Personal life.

On 4 September 1942, he married Mah-Sultan Rabbani (1926 – 26 March 2010) and had seven children, four daughters and three sons. One of his sons, Mohammad Montazeri died in a bomb blast at Islamic Republican Party headquarters in 1981 which was carried out by the People's Mujahedin of Iran; another, Saeed Montazeri, lost an eye in the Iran-Iraq war in 1985. Another son, Ahmad Montazeri, is a cleric in Qom. The brother of Montazeri's son-in-law, Mehdi Hashemi, was sentenced to death and executed after the 1979 revolution due to his alleged involvement in the murder of Ayatollah Abul Hassan Shams Abadi, who had been a critic of Montazeri, in Isfahan.  He was described by Ayatollah Mohammad Guilani as "meticulous about, if not obsessed by, cleanliness."

Death.

On 19 December 2009, Montazeri died in his sleep of heart failure at his home in Qom, at the age of 87. The Islamic Republic News Agency, the official news agency of Iran, did not use the Ayatollah title in its initial reports of his death and referred to him as the "clerical figure of rioters". The state television and radio broadcasters were similar, showing the tension between the government and its opponents.

Funeral and protests.

Montazeri's funeral was said to have marked "a new phase" in Iran's 2009 uprising.

21 December.

On 21 December, hundreds of thousands of mourners and the Green Movement supporters from across Iran turned out in Montazeri's funeral and turned the funeral to a massive protest against the Iranian government. The funeral service for him began at his house and funeral prayers were held at the Grand Mosque in Qom. After the special prayers by Ayatollah Mousa Shabiri Zanjani, his body was laid to rest in the Fatima Masumeh Shrine. He was buried alongside his son, Mohammad Montazeri.  The protesters chanted opposition slogans, including "Our shame, our shame, our idiot leader", and “Dictator, this is your last message: the people of Iran are rising!”  Although the police mostly stayed clear of the funeral, there were some skirmishes between protesters and the Basij militia. Also on 21 December, inside the Qom shrine where Montazeri’s body was laid to rest, opposition activists gathered and chanted “Death to the dictator.” When one group of pro-government basiji militiamen came toward them, chanting “Death to the hypocrites,” the crowd changed to an anti-basiji slogan. Then they took out money, offering it to the basiji, and chanted that they were acting as paid mercenaries of the government: “Where is the oil money? Spent on the Basiji,” and “Basij’s great pride, rape in prison.” On the same day, Mir-Hossein Mousavi stepped out from the compound of Grand Ayatollah Saanei, a fellow reformist, to cross the street to Montazeri’s house in Qom. At that moment, a group of 30 bearded men, holding Montazeri pictures to blend into the crowd, dropped the portraits, started attacking Mousavi and shouted “death to the hypocrite.” The former candidate had to be hustled quickly into the Montazeri compound. The same thing happened when cleric Mehdi Karroubi stepped into the street. This time, groups of reformists were ready and pushed back the vigilantes, so that Karroubi could pass.  As the funeral procession ended, security forces poured into the city, blocking roads to the Ayatollah's house and tearing down posters of the Ayatollah. Mourners were reported to have thrown stones at police who tried to stop them chanting pro-Montazeri slogans. Mourners responded defiantly when ordered by loudspeaker not to chant, breaking into shouts of "Ya Hossein, Mir Hossein" in support of Mir Hossein Mousavi. When a crowd of pro-government supporters chanted back: "I will give my life for the supreme leader," they were booed by mourners, a witness said. The security forces prevented the Ayatollah's family from holding a planned memorial ceremony in the grand mosque of Qom following the funeral.  According to the reformist website Kalameh, men on motorbikes, believed to be Ahmadinejad supporters, attacked the car carrying Mir Hossein Mousavi back from Qom to Tehran. They insulted Mousavi, smashed the back window and injured one of his aides.  There were also protests in Najafabad, birthplace of Ayatollah Montazeri. Internet videos showed protesters waving green banners and chanting, “Dictator, dictator, Montazeri is alive!” and “Oh Montazeri, your path will be followed even if the dictator shoots us all!”

22 and 23 December.

On 22 December, Ahmadinejad continued his quest to strip his opponents of their last vestiges of political power. He interrupted a visit to Shiraz to return to Tehran and remove Mir Hossein Mousavi, the main opposition leader he defeated in the presidential election, as head of the state Academy of Arts and Culture- a post he had held for ten years. Hardliners also want Mousavi arrested for his role in inciting unrest since the disputed June election.  On 23 December, Iranian security forces clashed with tens of thousands of opposition supporters in the city of Isfahan, according to opposition website reports. Activists said police used tear gas, pepper spray and batons to disperse people gathering to commemorate Grand Ayatollah Montazeri in the Seyed mosque. People had gathered at the main mosque for the memorial service, but when they arrived the doors were closed and security forces told them to leave. Afterwards, security forces began beating people, including women and children with batons, chains and stones, used tear gas and pepper spray and arrested at least 50 people, including four journalists and a cleric, Masoud Abid, who was to deliver the sermon. Many were also injured. One witness said, "They took people in the shops and beat them up mostly out of public vision although some beatings happened outside on the streets." Security forces also sealed off the home of Ayatollah Jalal Al-Din Taheri, who organised the service and used to lead Friday prayers in Isfahan until he resigned in 2002 in protest at the government’s growing authoritarianism.  Meanwhile, footage sent to the BBC from Najafabad showed crowds chanting "Criminals, rapists, death to the leadership" and "We're not afraid, we're not afraid" as security men watched from rooftops.  Police severely attacked mourners and protesters in several cities, with many wounded and arrested. The government also announced that banknotes with anti-government annotation, which recently spread across the country, will be forbidden starting from 8 January.

24 December.

On 24 December, opposition web sites reported that police in Tehran and the northwestern city of Zanjan clashed with protesters defying an order by the Iranian government banning memorial services for Montazeri. Protesters marched in Imam Khomeini Square in southern Tehran in a sign of mourning for Montazeri. The protesters chanted, "Today is a mourning day; the green nation of Iran is mourning today"—a reference to the trademark color of the opposition. The police attacked the protesters with clubs and tear gas. Older women tried to prevent the arrest of young men by throwing themselves on them, and were severely beaten by officers who intended to drag the young men away.  Meanwhile, the police in Zanjan, a city of mostly Turkish speakers, tried to prevent a mourning ceremony for Montazeri by locking the mosque where the ceremony was to be held and attacking mourners who chanted outside it. It was mentioned that: “The police beat people with such violence that many suffered from broken legs, arms and noses.” There were also many arrests.

26 December.

Witnesses and opposition websites reported the following incidents:

Later events.

In 2010, the office of Montazeri that had been run by his son Ahmad was closed on the orders of Ali Khamenei.

Hussein-Ali Montazeri (24 September 1922 – 19 December 2009;, ) was an Iranian Shia Islamic theologian, Islamic democracy advocate, writer and human rights activist. One of the leaders of the Iranian Revolution in 1979, he was a former designated successor to the revolution's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini, with whom he had a falling-out in 1989 over government policies that Montazeri claimed infringed on people's freedom and denied them their rights. Montazeri spent his later years in Qom, and remained politically influential in Iran, especially for the reformist movement. He was known as the most knowledgeable senior Islamic scholar in Iran and a "Grand Marja" (religious authority) of Shia Islam.

Ájatolláh Hosejn Alí Montazerí (:, 1922, Nadžáfábád – 19. prosince 2009, Qom) byl přední íránský duchovní, teolog, filosof a bojovník za lidská práva.


Classical music.

Ottoman court music has a large and varied system of modes or scales known as makams, and other rules of composition. A number of notation systems were used for transcribing classical music, the most dominant being the Hamparsum notation in use until the gradual introduction of western notation. Turkish classical music is taught in conservatories and social clubs, the most respected of which is Istanbul's "Üsküdar Musiki Cemiyeti".  A specific sequence of classical Turkish musical forms become a "fasıl", a suite an instrumental prelude ("peṣrev"), an instrumental postlude ("saz semaisi"), and in between, the main section of vocal compositions which begins with and is punctuated by instrumental improvisations taksim. A full fasıl concert would include four different instrumental forms and three vocal forms, including a light classical song, "şarkı". A strictly classical fasıl remains is the same makam throughout, from the introductory taksim and usually ending in a dance tune or "oyun havası". However shorter "şarkı" compositions, precursors to modern day songs, are a part of this tradition, many of them extremely old, dating back to the 14th century; many are newer, with late 19th century songwriter Haci Arif Bey being especially popular.  Other famous proponents of this genre include Sufi Dede Efendi, Prince Cantemir, Baba Hamparsum, Kemani Tatyos Efendi, Sultan Selim III and Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent. The most popular modern Turkish classical singer is Münir Nurettin Selçuk, who was the first to establish a lead singer position. Other performers include Bülent Ersoy, Zeki Müren, Müzeyyen Senar and Zekai Tunca.

Musical instruments.

Traditional instruments in Turkish classical music today include tambur long-necked plucked lute, ney end-blown

Ottoman harem music: belly dancing.

From the makams of the royal courts to the melodies of the royal harems, a type of dance music emerged that was different from the "oyun havası" of fasıl music. In the Ottoman Empire, the harem was that part of a house set apart for the women of the family. It was a place in which non-family males were not allowed. Eunuchs guarded the sultan's harems, which were quite large, including several hundred women who were wives and concubines. There, female dancers and musicians entertained the women living in the harem. Belly dance was performed by women for women. This female dancer, known as a "rakkase",

Romani influences.

Romani are known throughout Turkey for their musicianship. Their urban music brought echoes of classical Turkish music to the public via the "meyhane" or taverna. This type of "fasıl" music (a style, not to be confused with the fasıl form of classical Turkish music) with food and alcoholic beverages is often associated with the underclass of Turkish society, though it also can

Military music.

The Janissary bands or "Mehter Takımı" is considered to be the oldest type of military marching band in the world. Individual instrumentalists were mentioned in the Orhun inscriptions, which are

Turkish influence on Western classical music.

Musical relations between the Turks and the rest of Europe can be traced back many centuries, and the first type of musical Orientalism was the Turkish Style. European classical composers in the 18th century were fascinated by Turkish music, particularly the strong role given to the brass and percussion instruments in Janissary bands.  Joseph Haydn wrote his "Military Symphony" to include Turkish instruments, as well as some

Western influence on Turkish classical music.

While the European military bands of the 18th century introduced the percussion instruments of the Ottoman janissary bands, a reciprocal influence emerged in the 19th century in the form of the Europeanisation of the Ottoman army band. In 1827, Giuseppe Donizetti, the elder brother of the renowned Italian opera composer Gaetano Donizetti, was invited to become Master of Music to Sultan Mahmud II. A successor of Donizetti was the German musician Paul Lange, formerly music lecturer at the American College for Girls and at the German High School, who took over the position of Master of the Sultan's Music after the Young Turkish revolution in 1908 and kept it until his death in 1920. A son of Paul Lange was the Istanbul-born American conductor Hans Lange. The Ottoman composer Leyla Saz (1850–1936) provides an account of musical training in the Imperial Palace in her memoirs. As daughter of the Palace surgeon, she grew up in the Imperial harem where girls were also given music lessons in both Turkish and Western styles.  After the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of a Turkish republic, the transfer

Early Years of The Republic.

After the Turkish War of Independence ended in 1923, and the borders were drawn, there was a social and political revolution under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. This revolution opted to Westernize the way of living in Turkey. By 1929, all public and commercial communications were made in Latin alphabet, completely taking written Ottoman Turkish language out of circulation. A new constitution was written, one that was modeled after the French. This new constitution was designed to make the new Republic of Turkey into a secular, modern, nation-state. Every aspect of the revolution, from major policy changes to clothing reforms, was made in accordance with the Kemalist Ideology. All affairs were carried out followed by a chain of military command for the purpose of reaching the level of a Western civilization. Both religious and Turkish classical music was impacted by this top to bottom revolution. On November 1, 1934 Atatürk made a speech in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Alaturca music was banned on radios, public places as well as private properties. Here is the excerpt from the speech, concerning Turkish music, "Folks, we all know how sensitive we, the Turkish, are towards the matters of our cultural legacy.... I am aware what kind of progress that my people want to see within fine arts delivered by the new generation of artists, and musicians. If you ask me, what would be most efficient and quick to tackle first within the fine arts is Turkish Music.

Folk music.

Folk music or "Türkü" generally deals with subjects surrounding daily life in less grandiose terms than the love and emotion usually contained in its traditional counterpart, Ottoman court music.  Most songs recount stories of real life events and Turkish folklore, or have developed through song contests between troubadour poets. Corresponding to their origins, folk songs are usually played at weddings, funerals and special festivals.  Regional folk music generally accompanies folk dances, which vary significantly across regions. For example, at marriage ceremonies in the Aegean guests will dance the Zeybek, while in other Rumeli regions the upbeat dance music Çiftetelli is usually played, and in the southeastern regions of Turkey the Halay is the customary form of local wedding music and dance. Greeks from Thrace and Cyprus that have adopted çiftetelli music sometimes use it synonymously to mean oriental dance, which indicates a misunderstanding of its roots. Çiftetelli is a folk dance, differing from a solo performance dance of a hired entertainer.  The regional mood also affects the subject of the folk songs, e.g. folk songs from the Black Sea are lively in general and express the customs of the region. Songs about betrayal have an air of defiance about them instead of sadness, whereas the further south travelled in Turkey the more the melodies resemble a lament.  As this genre is viewed as a music of the people, musicians in socialist movements began to adapt folk music with contemporary sounds and arrangements in the form of protest music.  In the 70s and 80s, modern bards following the aşık tradition such as Aşik Veysel and Mahsuni Şerif moved away from spiritual invocations to socio-politically active lyrics.  Other contemporary progenitors took their lead such as Zülfü Livaneli, known for his mid-80s innovation of combining poet Nazım Hikmet's radical poems with folk music and rural melodies, and is well regarded by left-wing supporters in politics.  In more recent times, saz orchestras, accompanied with many other traditional instruments and a merger with arabesque melodies have kept modern folk songs popular in Turkey.

Folk instruments.

Folk instruments range from string groups as bağlama, bow instruments such as the kemençe (a type of stave fiddle), and percussion and wind, including the zurna, ney and davul. Regional variations place importance on different instruments, e.g. the darbuka in Rumeli and the kemençe around the Eastern Black Sea region. The folklore of Turkey is extremely diverse. Nevertheless, Turkish folk music is dominantly marked by a single musical instrument called saz or

Folk literature.

A large body of folk songs are derived from minstrels or bard-poets called "ozan" in Turkish. They have been developing "Turkish folk literature" since the beginning of 11th century. The musical instrument used by these bard-poets is the saz or bağlama. They are often taught by other senior mistrels, learning expert idioms and procedure and methods about the performance of the art. These lessons often

Arabesque.

Arabic music had been banned in Turkey in 1948, but starting in the 1970s immigration from predominantly southeastern rural areas to big cities and particularly to Istanbul gave rise to a new cultural synthesis. This changed the musical makeup of Istanbul. The old tavernas and music halls of fasıl music were to shut down in place of a new type of music. These new urban residents brought their own taste of music, which due to their locality was largely middle eastern. Musicologists derogatively termed this genre as arabesque due to the high pitched wailing that is

Religious music.

Mosque music.

"Mosque music," a term for music associated with mainstream religion in Turkey, includes "azan" (call-to-prayer), "Kur'an-ı Kerim" (Koran recitation), "Mevlit" (Ascension Poem), and "ilahi" (hymns usually sung in a group, often outside a mosque).

Alevi influences: The Aşık (Ashik) traditions.

It is suggested that about a fifth of the Turkish population are "Alevis", whose folk music is performed by a type of travelling bard or "ozan" called "aşık", who travels with the saz or baglama, an iconic image of Turkish folk music. These songs, which hail from the central northeastern area, are about mystical revelations, invocations to Alevi saints and Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali, whom they hold in high esteem. In Turkish aşık literally means 'in love'. Whoever

Sufi influences: The Mevlevi traditions.

Followers of the Mevlevi Order or "whirling dervishes" are a religious "sufi" sect unique to Turkey but well known outside of its boundaries.  Dervishes of the Mevlevi sect simply dance a "sema" by turning continuously to music that consists of long, complex compositions called "ayin". These pieces are both preceded and followed by songs using lyrics by the founder and poet Mevlana Jelaleddin Rumi. With the musical instrument known as the ney at the forefront of this music, internationally well-known musicians include Necdet Yasar, Niyazi Sayin, Kudsi Ergüner and Ömer Faruk Tekbilek.

Regional folk styles.

Minorities and indigenous peoples have added and enhanced Turkish folk styles, while they have adopted Turkish folk traditions and instruments. Folk songs are identifiable and distinguished by regions.

Aegean and Rumeli regions.

Rumelia (or "Trakya") refers to the region of Turkey which is part of Southeast Europe (the provinces of Edirne, Kırklareli, Tekirdağ, the northern part of Çanakkale Province and the western part of Istanbul Province). Folk songs from this region share similarities with Balkan, Albanian and Greek folk musics, especially from the ethnic

Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions.

Central Asian Turkic peoples from the Caspian Sea and areas have had a huge influence in the purest forms of Turkish folk music, most notably from the Azeris and Turkmen.  Pontic Greeks on the eastern shore of the Black Sea or "Karadeniz" regions have

Southeastern regions.

Southeastern regions carry influences from Turkmen music, Zaza motifs and Armenian music. These usually include epic laments.

Kanto (Cantare music).

Italian theater and opera has had a profound effect on Turkish culture in the past century. Like the terminology of seamanship, the terminology of music and theater derived from Italian. In the argot of the improvisational theater of Istanbul the stage was called "sahano", backstage was referred to as "koyuntu", backdrops depicting countryside were "bosko", the applause was "furi" and the songs sung between the acts and plays were called "kanto".  The improvised pieces were stage adaptations of the Karagöz (shadow puppet) and Ortaoyunu (traditional form of Turkish theatre performed in the open) traditions, aithough in much more simplifled form. The themes explored in these traditional theater arts as well as their stock characterizations and stereotypes were used as the framework tor the new extemporaneous performances of the tuluat (improvised) theater.  As with their Italian counterparts the Turkish troupes employed songs and music before the show and between the acts to pique people's interest and draw in customers.  Kanto: songs sung between the acts as solos or duets, based on traditional eastern makam (modes) but performed on western instruments.  Kanto: "first the introduction, then the lyrics, shake your shoulders to a violin, solo, cock your head and shimmy in oriental dance style, leap around like a partridge, then slowly disappear behind the curtain."  Kanto: the irreplaceable unifying feature of ali Turkish tuluat theater. We can divide kanto into two periods. The division, particulariy in terms of musical structure, is very clear between the early kanto and the kanto of the Post-Republic perlod. It is further possible to identify two styles within the early period. Galata and Direklerarası (both neighbourhoods of Old Istanbul).  Kanto first took root in the musical theaters of Galata, a part of town frequented by sailors, rowdies and roustabouts. Ahmed Rasim Bey paints a vivid picture of the Galata theaters in his 1922 memoir entitled "Fuhş-i Atik" ("Prostitution in the Old Days"):  Direklerarası was a little off the beaten track and in comparison to Galata was a more refined center of entertainment. Direklerarası was said to be quite lively at night during the month of Ramadan (Ramazan in Turkish) and certainly once its attractions was its family atmosphere. It was here that the troupes of Kel Hasan and Abdi Efendi and later that of Neshid enjoyed a great popularity. It was under the influence of these masters that kanto experienced its golden years.  The troupes orchestra would be made up of such instruments as the trumpet, trombone, violin, trap drum and cymbals. The orchestra would start to play popular songs of the day and marches in front of the theatre about an hour before the show to drum up interest. This intermission or Antrak music ended up with the well-known Izmir March, a sign that the show time was approaching. The play began as the musicians went in and took their places at the side of the stage.  The kanto singers of the period were also composers. Set to extraordinarily simple melodies

Popular music.

Popular music is distinguished from the traditional genres as those styles that entered the Turkish musicality after the fall of the Ottoman Empire, either due to attempts of national modernization from 1924 onwards, the opening of the republic to Western musical influences or modern fusions and innovations from artists themselves.

Mainstream pop.

Turkish pop music had its humble beginnings in the late 1950s with Turkish cover versions of a wide range of imported popular styles, including rock and roll, tango, and jazz. As more styles emerged, they were also adopted, such as hip hop, heavy metal and reggae.  The self-named "superstar" of the "arrangement" (aranjman) era of the 70s was Ajda Pekkan who also debuted, along with Enrico Macias, at Olympia, Paris, while MFÖ (Mazhar, Fuat, Özkan) was the celebrated group of the pop scene with an outstanding dexterity in their use of Turkish prosody and their success of amalgamating

Turkish hip hop.

Turkish hip hop or "oriental hip hop" is a creation of the Turkish migrant worker community in Germany, which some suggest was a suitable outlet for a young generation disillusioned with Germany's treatment of its migrant class. In 1995, the Turkish-German community produced a major hip hop crew named Cartel which caused controversy in Turkey and

Turkish Trance.

The very first Turkish trance music was

Anatolian rock.

The Turkish rock scene began in the mid- to late 1960s, when popular United States and United Kingdom bands became well-known. Soon, a distinctively Turkish fusion of rock and

Islamic anasheed.

Islamic anasheed are also very popular among some of the Turkish people. The most popular artist in Turkey is the British Azeri, Sami Yusuf, a concert in Istanbul drew an audience of over 200,000, his biggest concert so far around the world. He is one of the most notable singers of anasheed, and can speak in many different languages, which includes Turkish.

Heavy metal and industrial.

Heavy metal and industrial groups from Turkey include Pentagram (known as

Underground black metal and death metal.

Underground black metal and death metal bands known

Pop-rock and rock.

As a singular phenomenon amidst popular currents since the mid-70s, Bülent Ortaçgil appeared as an urban songwriter/musician with a distinct musical quality, and became a role model for aspiring young musicians. He was the only Turkish musician for whom a tribute album was compiled that included several

Underground and club music.

There are many clubs across Turkey, especially across its Aegean region. The alternative music scene however is derived mostly from Istanbul's thriving underground club scene that sees DJs merging the past with the present, using traditional motifs with new age sounds and electronic music. Mercan Dede is

Musical influence of Syrian refugees and other immigrants.

The influx of immigrants and refugees from Syria, Iraq, Pakistan, Central Asian, and African countries has affected the Turkish musical landscape, particularly in Istanbul. Bands such

Music industry.

The Turkish music industry includes a number of fields, ranging from record companies to radio stations and community and state orchestras. Most of the major record companies are based in Istanbul's region of "Unkapanı" and they are represented by the "Turkish Phonographic Industry Society" (MÜ-YAP). The major record companies produce material by artists that have signed to one of their record labels, a brand name often associated with a particular genre or record producer. Record companies may also promote and market their artists, through advertising, public performances and concerts, and television appearances.  In recent years, the music industry has been embroiled in turmoil over the rise of the Internet downloading of copyrighted music and general piracy; many musicians and MÜ-YAP have sought to punish fans who illegally download copyrighted music. On 13 June 2006 it was reported that MÜ-YAP and The Orchard, the world's leading distributor and marketer of independent music, had reached an agreement on digital global distribution, representing approximately 80% of the Turkish music market.  There is not a substantial singles market in Turkey. It is album orientated, although popular singers such as Yonca Evcimik and Tarkan have released singles with success.

Music education.

Music has a place in education in Turkey, and is a part of most or all school systems in the country. High schools generally offer classes in singing, mostly choral, and instrumentation in the form of a large school band or social clubs and communities for Turkish classical or folk music, known as "cemiyets". Music may also be a part of theatrical productions put on by a school's drama department. Many public and private schools have sponsored music clubs and groups, most commonly including the marching band that performs "Mehter" marches at

Holidays and festivals.

Music is an important part of several Turkish holidays and festivals, especially playing a major part in the springtime celebration of Newroz and religious festivities such as Ramadan. New year is a traditional time for the belly dancer and weddings are celebrated with upbeat tunes, while funerals are mourned with musical laments. Patriotic songs like the national anthem, "The Independence March", are a major part of public holiday celebrations such as National Independence & International Children's Day celebrations on 23 April and 30 August Victory Day celebrations, a holiday that marks Turkish independence. Music also plays a role at many regional festivals that aren't celebrated nationwide, for example a music and dance parade and festival in Zonguldak.  Istanbul, Ankara and İzmir are also home to numerous music festivals which showcase styles ranging from the blues and jazz to indie rock and heavy metal. Some music festivals are strictly local in scope, including few or no performers with a national reputation, and are generally operated by local promoters. Recently large soft drink companies have operated their own music festivals, such as Rock'n Coke and Fanta parties, which draw huge crowds.

The music of Turkey includes mainly Turkic elements as well as partial influences ranging from Central Asian folk music, Arabic music, Greek music, Ottoman music, Persian music and Balkan music, as well as references to more modern European and American popular music. Turkey is a country on the northeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and is a crossroad of cultures from across Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus and South and Central Asia

Současná turecká hudba zahrnuje různé prvky sahající od starověké byzantské hudby, přes arabskou a perskou klasickou hudbu, balkánskou hudbu, hudbu blízkého východu až k evropské a americké populární hudbě.


Taxonomy.

This species was first described in 1766 by Carl Linnaeus in the twelfth edition of his "Systema Naturae" as "Turdus migratorius". The binomial name derives from two Latin words: ', "thrush", and'from'"to migrate". The term'for this species has been recorded since at least 1703. There are about 65 species of medium to large thrushes in the genus "Turdus", characterized by rounded heads, longish pointed wings, and usually melodious songs.  A study of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene indicates that the American robin is not part of the Central/South American clade of "Turdus" thrushes; instead it shows genetic similarities to the Kurrichane thrush ("T. libonyanus") and the olive thrush ("T. olivaceus"), both African species. This conflicts with a 2007 DNA study of 60 of 65 "Turdus" species which places the American robin's closest relative as the rufous-collared thrush ("T. rufitorques") of Central America. Though having distinct plumage, the two species are similar in vocalization and behavior. Beyond this, it lies in a small group of four species of otherwise Central American distribution, suggesting it recently spread northwards into North America.  Seven subspecies of American robin are recognized. These subspecies intergrade and are only weakly defined.

Description.

The nominate subspecies of the American robin is long with a wingspan ranging from, with similar size ranges across all races. The species averages about in weight, with males ranging from and females ranging from. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is, the culmen is and the tarsus is. The head varies from jet black to gray, with white eye arcs and white supercilia. The throat is white with black streaks, and the belly and undertail coverts are white. The robin has a brown back and a reddish-orange breast, varying from a rich red maroon to peachy orange. The bill is mainly yellow with a variably dark tip, the dusky area becoming more extensive in winter, and the legs and feet are brown.  The sexes are similar, but the female tends to be duller than the male, with a brown tint to the head, brown upperparts and less-bright underparts. However, some birds cannot be accurately sexed on the sole basis of plumage. The juvenile is paler in color than the adult male and has dark spots on its breast, and whitish wing coverts. First-year birds are not easily distinguishable from adults, but they tend to be duller, and a small percentage retains a few juvenile wing coverts or other feathers.

Distribution and habitat.

This bird breeds throughout most of North America, from Alaska and Canada southward to northern Florida and Mexico. While robins occasionally overwinter in the northern part of the United States and southern Canada, most migrate to winter south of Canada from Florida and the Gulf Coast to central Mexico, as well as along the Pacific Coast. Most depart south by the end of August and begin to return north in February and March (exact dates vary with latitude and climate). The distance by which robins migrate varies significantly depending on their initial habitat; a study found that individual robins tagged Alaska are known to travel as much as 3.5x further across seasons than robins tagged in Massachusetts.  This species is actually a rare vagrant to western Europe, where the majority of records, more than 20, have been in Britain. In autumn 2003, migration was displaced eastwards leading to massive movements through the eastern U.S., and presumably this is what led to no fewer than three American robins being found in Britain, with two attempting to overwinter in 2003–2004, although one was taken by a sparrowhawk. A sighting occurred in Britain in January 2007. This species has also occurred as a vagrant to Greenland, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Belize. Vagrants to Europe, where identified to subspecies, are nominate "T. m. migratorius", but the Greenland birds also included "T. m. nigrideus", and some of the southern overshots may have been "T. m. achrusterus".  The American robin's breeding habitat is woodland and more open farmland and urban areas. It becomes less common as a breeder in the southernmost part of the Deep South of the United States, and there prefers large shade trees on lawns. Its winter habitat is similar but includes more open areas.

Conservation status.

The American robin has an extensive range, estimated at, and a large population of about 320 million individuals. The species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and is therefore evaluated as least concern. At one point, the bird was killed for its meat, but it is now protected throughout its range in the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.  Birds in central California of the western subspecies "propinquus" are considered to be still increasing their range, and this is probably the case elsewhere in the U.S.

Disease.

The American robin is a known reservoir (carrier) for West Nile virus. While crows and jays are often the first noticed deaths in an area with West Nile virus, the American robin is suspected to be a key host, and holds a larger responsibility for the transmission of the virus to humans. This is because, while crows and jays die quickly from the virus, the American robin survives the virus longer, hence spreading it to more mosquitoes, which then transmit the virus to humans and other species.

Behavior.

The American robin is active mostly during the day, and on its winter grounds it assembles in large flocks at night to roost in trees in secluded swamps or dense vegetation. The flocks break up during the day when the birds feed on fruits and berries in smaller groups. During the summer, the American robin defends a breeding territory and is less social.

Diet.

The American robin's diet generally consists of around 40 percent small invertebrates (mainly insects), such as earthworms, beetle grubs, caterpillars and grasshoppers, and 60 percent wild and cultivated fruits and berries. Their ability to switch to berries allows them to winter much farther north than most other North American thrushes. They will flock to fermented "Pyracantha" berries, and after eating sufficient quantities will exhibit intoxicated behavior such as falling over while walking. Robins forage primarily on the ground for soft-bodied invertebrates, and find worms by sight (and sometimes by hearing), pouncing on them and then pulling them up. Nestlings are fed mainly on worms and other soft-bodied animal prey. In some areas, robins, particularly of the coastal race "T. m. caurinus", will feed on beaches, taking insects and small mollusks.  The robin uses auditory, visual, olfactory and possibly vibrotactile cues to find prey, but vision is the predominant mode of prey detection. It is frequently seen running across lawns picking up earthworms, and its "running and stopping" behavior is a distinguishing characteristic. In addition to hunting visually, it also has the ability to hunt by hearing. Experiments have discovered that it can find worms underground by simply using its listening skills. It typically will take several short hops and then cock its head left, right or forward to detect movement of its prey. In urban areas, robins will gather in numbers soon after lawns are mowed or where sprinklers are in use. They also are attracted to freshly turned earth in gardens, where worms and grubs are abundant targets. Occasionally, they may visit bird feeders if mealworms or animal-fat suet is offered.

Threats.

Juvenile robins and eggs are preyed upon by squirrels, snakes, and some birds, such as blue jays, California scrub jays, Steller's jay, common grackles, American crows, and common ravens. Adults are primarily taken by "Accipiter" hawks, cats, and larger snakes (especially rat snakes and gopher snakes). Mammals such as foxes and dogs are mainly likely to grab fledgling young robins from the ground, while raccoons often prey upon nests and small carnivores such as American martens, ring-tailed cats and long-tailed weasels are agile enough to hunt adults. However, the greatest predatory impact (perhaps alongside domestic cats) is probably from raptorial birds. They may be taken by nearly every variety of North American accipitrid, from the smallest, the sharp-shinned hawk, to one of the two largest, the golden eagle, most every North American falcon from the smallest, the American kestrel, to the largest, the gyrfalcon, and almost all owl species from northern pygmy owls to snowy owls. Overall, 28 raptorial bird species are known to hunt robins. Adult robins are most vulnerable when distracted by breeding activities though may also be attacked on the ground or even in flight. However, when feeding in flocks, the American robin is able to remain vigilant and watch other flock members for reactions to predators.  The American robin is known to be a rejecter of cowbird eggs, so brood parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird is rare. Even when it occurs, the parasite's chick does not normally survive to fledging. In a study of 105 juvenile robins, 77.1% were infected with one or more species of endoparasite, with "Syngamus" species the most commonly encountered, found in 57.1% of the birds.

Breeding.

The American robin begins to breed shortly after returning to its summer range. It is one of the first North American bird species to lay eggs, and normally has two to three broods per breeding season, which lasts from April to July.  The nest is most commonly located above the ground in a dense bush or in a fork between two tree branches, and is built by the female alone. The outer foundation consists of long coarse grass, twigs, paper, and feathers. This is lined with smeared mud and cushioned with fine grass or other soft materials. A new nest is built for each brood, and in northern areas the first clutch is usually placed in an evergreen tree or shrub while later broods are placed in deciduous trees. The American robin does not shy away from nesting close to human habitation and will frequently construct nests under eaves or awnings on human homes when such locations provide adequate shelter. Robins are not cavity nesters, and so will generally not use a bird house, but will take advantage of artificial nesting platforms.  A clutch consists of three to five light-blue eggs, and is incubated by the female alone. The eggs hatch after 14 days, and the chicks leave the nest a further two weeks later. The altricial chicks are naked and have their eyes closed for the first few days after hatching. While the chicks are still young, the mother broods them continuously. When they are older, the mother will brood them only at night or during bad weather.  The chicks are fed worms, insects, and berries. Waste accumulation does not occur in the nest because adults collect and take it away. Chicks are fed, and then raise tails for elimination of waste, a solid white clump that is collected by a parent prior to flying off. All chicks in the brood leave the nest within two days of each other. Even after leaving the nest, the juveniles will follow their parents around and beg food from them. Juveniles become capable of sustained flight two weeks after fledging.  The adult male and female both are active in protecting and feeding the fledged chicks until they learn to forage on their own. The adult robin gives alarm calls and dives in a threatening manner towards creatures it considers potential predators, such as approaching cats, dogs and humans. The fledglings are able to fly short distances after leaving the nest. The wings of juvenile birds develop rapidly, and it only takes a couple of weeks for them to become proficient at flying. The cryptically colored young birds perch in bushes or trees for protection from predators.  Bird banders have found that only 25% of young robins survive the first year. The longest known lifespan in the wild of an American robin is 14 years; the average lifespan is about 2 years.

Vocalization.

The male American robin, as with many thrushes, has a complex and almost continuous song. Its song is commonly described as a "cheerily" carol, made up of discrete units, often repeated, and spliced together into a string with brief pauses in between. The song varies regionally, and its style varies by time of day. The song period is from late February or early March to late July or early August; some birds, particularly in the east, sing occasionally into September or later. The American robin is often among the first songbirds singing as dawn rises or hours before, and last as evening sets in. It usually sings from a high perch in a tree. The song of the San Lucas subspecies ("T. m. confinis") is weaker than that of the nominate subspecies, and lacks any clear notes.  The American robin also sings when storms approach and again when storms have passed. In addition to its song, the American robin has a number of calls used for communicating specific information, such as when a ground predator approaches and when a nest or another American robin is being directly threatened. Even during nesting season, when American robins exhibit mostly competitive and territorial behavior, they may still band together to drive away a predator.

In culture.

The American robin is the state bird of Connecticut, Michigan, and Wisconsin. It was also depicted on the 1986 Birds of Canada series Canadian $2 note, but this note has since been withdrawn.  "Robin's egg blue" is a color named after the bird's eggs.  The American robin has a place in Native American mythology. The story of how the robin got its red breast by fanning the dying flames of a campfire to save a Native American man and a boy is similar to those that surround the European robin. The Tlingit people of Northwestern North America held it to be a culture hero created by Raven to please the people with its song. One of the houses of the Raven Tribe from the Nisga'a Nation holds the robin as a house crest.  The Peace Bridge robins were a family of American robins that attracted minor publicity in the mid-1930s for their prominent nest on the Canadian side of the Peace Bridge connecting Buffalo, New York to Fort Erie, Ontario.  The American robin is considered a symbol of spring. A well-known example is a poem by Emily Dickinson, "I Dreaded That First Robin So". Among other 19th-century poems about the first robin of spring is "The First Robin" by Dr. William H. Drummond, which according to the author's wife is based on a Quebec superstition that whoever sees the first robin of spring will have good luck. The association has continued down to the present day, as, for example, in one "Calvin and Hobbes" cartoon from 1990 that had Calvin celebrating his inevitable wealth and fame after seeing the first robin of spring. The harbinger of spring sobriquet is borne out by the fact that American robins tend to follow the isotherm north in spring, but also south in fall.  American popular songs featuring this bird include "When the Red, Red Robin (Comes Bob, Bob, Bobbin' Along)", written by Harry M. Woods and a hit for Al Jolson and others, and "Rockin' Robin", written by Roger Thomas and a hit for Bobby Day and others. "Fly, Robin, Fly" by German group Silver Convention was a popular hit in the '70s.  Although the comic book superhero Robin was inspired by an N. C. Wyeth illustration of Robin Hood, a later version had his mother nicknaming him Robin because he was born on the first day of spring. His red shirt suggests the bird's red breast.

The American robin ("Turdus migratorius") is a migratory songbird of the true thrush genus and Turdidae, the wider thrush family. It is named after the European robin because of its reddish-orange breast, though the two species are not closely related, with the European robin belonging to the Old World flycatcher family. The American robin is widely distributed throughout North America, wintering from southern Canada to central Mexico and along the Pacific Coast. It is the state bird of Connecticut, Michigan, and Wisconsin.

Drozd stěhovavý ("Turdus migratorius") je středně velký pěvec z čeledi drozdovitých. Jedná se také o nejběznějšího a nejrozšířenějšího drozda Severní Ameriky, který se vyskytuje prakticky na celém jejím území. Hnízdí přitom v její severní části a na zimu táhne jizněji od Kanady až po střed Mexika. Vyskytuje se přitom v 7 poddruzích, z nichž nejvýraznějšího zbarvení je na jihozápadě žijící "T. m. confinis". Je také státním ptákem států Connecticut, Michigan a Wisconsin.


Summary.

The song's three verses each presents a different "pig", the identities of which remain a subject of speculation because only the third verse clearly identifies its subject as being morality campaigner Mary Whitehouse, who is described as a "house proud town mouse" who has to "keep it all on the inside." In 1992, on the Westwood One radio special "Pink Floyd : The 25th Anniversary Special", Roger Waters told Jim Ladd that the "Whitehouse" mentioned had nothing to do with the home of the U.S. President, the White House, after Ladd told Waters he interpreted the last verse as an attack on Gerald Ford, who was US president at the time the song was recorded.  Halfway through the song, David Gilmour uses a Heil talk box on the guitar solo to mimic the sound of pigs. This is the first use of a talk box by Pink Floyd. Gilmour also plays a fretless bass guitar, with a pick, doing two short, syncopated bass solos—one before the first verse, another before the third. When the final verse ends and a guitar solo emerges, the bass line moves into a driving eighth note rhythm, sliding up and down the E minor scale in octaves, beneath the chords of E minor and C major seventh. Roger Waters, usually the band's bassist, played a rhythm guitar track on the song instead.  Although it was not made available for commercial purchase, promotional copies were released in Brazil, albeit in an edited form of only four minutes and five seconds in length. In some cassette tape versions of the album, this song was divided into two parts after the first verse, fading out on side one and fading back in on side two, in order to minimize the total length of tape.

Live versions.

The normal length of the song performed live was roughly 17 minutes (some would top out at 20 minutes), compared with the album length of 11 minutes and 28 seconds. Live renditions basically followed the album version with a few notable differences: an extra guitar solo was played after the second verse, the talk-box solo on guitar was substituted with a Minimoog solo and to the coda were added a quiet Hammond-led section and a crescendo reprise of the guitar solo with aggressive drumming. Waters, who sang on both the studio and live versions of "Pigs (Three Different Ones)", also added his signature screams throughout live performances of this song during the 1977 tour.  While playing on the 1977 tour, Waters shouted a different number for each concert. This purportedly had the purpose of identifying bootleg recordings. Also, Snowy White would play bass guitar while Roger played rhythm electric guitar with his black with white pickguard Fender Stratocaster.  When this song was performed in Montreal on 6 July 1977, a disruptive fan angered Waters by throwing a beer bottle onto the stage. While the band played toward the climax of the song's jam section, Waters called the fan onto the stage through the microphone, then spat in his face after pretending to help him up. This concert, of which bootleg recordings exist, has been cited as a catalyst for Pink Floyd's next album, "The Wall".  In 1987, on tour to promote his solo album "Radio K.A.O.S.", Waters performed a shortened version of the song, featuring only the first two verses and shorter guitar solos between them as part of an extended Pink Floyd medley.  The song remained in Waters' setlist for his 2017 Us + Them Tour, once again being played in its entirety and with the anti-Trump images ("Fuck Trump" was changed to "Trump Is a Pig" on later dates). Waters plays Gilmour's original bass parts rather than rhythm guitar. While the response to the anti-Trump images has been mostly positive, some fans at his shows have booed or even walked out during the song over their anger at the anti-Trump images and political message. Waters responded to the anti-Trump critics saying "I find it slightly surprising that anybody could have been listening to my songs for 50 years without understanding" and said to those critics if they didn't like what he was doing "go see Katy Perry or watch the Kardashians. I don't care." Waters also said that, due to his anti-Trump images, he lost sponsors such as American Express who refused to have their company associated with his shows.

Personnel.

Recording dates: April and May 1976 at the band's own Britannia Row Studios, Islington, London.

References.

Notes Footnotes Bibliography

"Pigs (Three Different Ones)" is a song from Pink Floyd's 1977 album "Animals". In the album's three parts, "Dogs", "Pigs" and "Sheep", pigs represent the people whom Roger Waters considers to be at the top of the social ladder, the ones with wealth and power; they also manipulate the rest of society and encourage them to be viciously competitive and cut-throat, so the pigs can remain powerful.

„Pigs (Three Different Ones)“ je skladba skupiny Pink Floyd, která vyšla na albu "Animals" v roce 1977. Ve třech částech, které album má („Dogs“, „Pigs“ a „Sheep“) pigs (tedy prasata) reprezentují lidi, které Roger Waters považuje za vrchol společnosti, tedy bohaté a mocné jedince, kteří také manipulují s ostatními.


Early Career.

Severus was of humble birth, born in Northern Illyria (now Albania) around the middle of the third century AD. He rose to become a senior officer in the Roman army, and as an old friend of Galerius, that emperor ordered that Severus be appointed "Caesar" of the Western Roman Empire, a post that he succeeded to on 1 May 305. He thus served as junior emperor to Constantius I (Constantius Chlorus), "Augustus" of the western half of empire.

Augustus, 306–307.

On the death of Constantius I in Britain in the summer of 306, Severus was promoted to "Augustus" by Galerius, in opposition to the acclamation of Constantine I (Constantius' son) by his own soldiers. When Maxentius, the son of the retired emperor Maximian, revolted at Rome, Galerius sent Severus to suppress the rebellion. Severus moved towards Rome from his capital, Mediolanum, at the head of an army previously commanded by Maximian. Fearing the arrival of Severus, Maxentius offered Maximian the co-rule of the empire. Maximian accepted, and when Severus arrived under the walls of Rome and besieged it, his men deserted to Maximian, their old commander. Severus fled to Ravenna, an impregnable position. Maximian offered to spare his life and treat him humanely if he surrendered peaceably, which he did in March or April 307. Despite Maximian's assurance, Severus was nonetheless displayed as a captive and later imprisoned at Tres Tabernae. One belief is that when Galerius himself invaded Italy to suppress Maxentius and Maximian, the former ordered Severus's death, and that he was executed (or forced to commit suicide) on September 307 at "Tres Tabernae", near the current Cisterna di Latina. Another belief is that Severus II was killed in Ravenna.  Severus was survived by his son Flavius Severianus.

Valerius Severus (fully: Flavius Valerius Severus ; died September 307), also Severus II, was a Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 307. After failing to besiege Rome, he fled to Ravenna. It is thought that he was killed there or executed near Rome.

Flavius Valerius Severus ( – 16. září 307 Tres Tabernae u Říma) byl římský císař panující od srpna 306 do března či dubna 307 v rámci tzv. třetí tetrarchie. Od 1. května 305 do července 306 byl v rámci tetrarchie druhé "caesarem" západního císaře Constantia I.


Biography and activities.

Ovčáček was born in Třinec, Czechoslovakia on 5 March 1933. Between 1957 and 1963 he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts and Design in Bratislava (Slovakia) under professor Peter Matejka. He also studied at Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design in Prague under professor Antonín Kybal (1962). Already at that time he was strongly involved in graphic art and started to use it in order to express his own artistic potential. Together with Miloš Urbásek, friend and fellow artist, Ovčáček founded, in 1960, an independent group of artists called "Konfrontace". This artistic group explored and dealt with informel, one of the then attractive form of abstract art. From the beginning of the 1960s, Ovčáček kept close contacts with Polish artists, those contacts continued even after the occupation of the Czechoslovakia by the Warsaw pact forces in 1968. He established very friendly relations especially with Marian Bogusz, the principal protagonist of Polish art scene of that period, as well as with his friends. He also kept contacts with similarly oriented artists from other countries.  In 1967 Ovčáček co-founded the Club of Concretists. After that, he commenced to devote himself intensively to the serigraphic art, that being then popular especially in United States (pop-art and op-art). His serigraphic works often contain and mix classical scripture, once-and-future signs and human, often very erotic and suggestive, figures.  Ovčáček criticised strongly the occupation of the Czechoslovakia in 1968. He took part in a lot of dissident and illegal activities. His series Lesson by Great A was created immediately after the invasion of Warsaw Pact armed forces to Prague, in the moment when the censorship has not yet been firmly re-established. This series of artworks thus had the chance to be published in Czechoslovak magazine "Literární listy" and in some other periodicals in the Czechoslovakia and abroad. Also, similarly to e.g. the former Czechoslovak and Czech president Václav Havel, Eduard Ovčáček is one of the signatories of Charter 77.  At the end of 20th century Ovčáček organised installations and evenements with burning ropes (e.g. evenement "Zastavený čas II., Třebíč, 1994). Currently he is focused on, examines and improves the possibilities of use of digital technology in serigraphy. Sometimes he exploits his own older themes that he had already applied under another technique earlier.  First author's summary exhibition of lettrist photographs (often with erotic motives) took place in 2009 in Ostrava (Czech Republic).  Eduard Ovčáček participated in lot of international exhibitions and symposia (for example I. International plein air in Osieki (Poland) in 1963 and II. Biennale form przestrzennych – Elbląg (Poland) in 1967). Also, he is the founder of the serigraphic workshops (Ostrava university, first workshop in 1997).  His favourite number is "3", i.e. the number prevailing in his date of birth. Ovčáček uses this number very often and in various formats and shapes in his artworks, e.g.: serigraphs "333 B" or "Trojky" (2007) or oil on canvas "333" (1968).  Eduard Ovčáček works as professor at the College of Arts of Ostrawa University (Czech Republic) and keeps contacts with academic fellows namely in Slovakia and Poland (above all, universities in Katowice, Kraków and Łódź). He lives in Ostrava (Czech Republic) and continues intensively in his artistic activities. His artworks are in numerous public and private collections in the Czech Republic, Europe, Asia and America.

Eduard Ovčáček (born 5 March 1933) is a Czech graphic artist, sculptor, lettrist, painter and professor at the University of Ostrava. His main artistic focus is put on classical graphic art, visual and concrete poetry, serigraphic art (screen-print), collage, lettrist photography, evenements and installations, structural and digital graphic art. Paintings, sculptures and geometrical objects fall within his interest as well.

Eduard Ovčáček (* 5. března 1933 v Třinci) je český vizuální básník, grafik, sochař, malíř, fotograf, typograf, kurátor a vysokoškolský pedagog.


Curriculum vitae.

Miroslav Bobek studied zoology at the Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague. From 1993 to 2009 he worked for Czech Radio, where he initially worked as an editor and reporter. He was primarily involved in popularising science. In 1997, he was the head of the Rainbow Bridge project, which ensured broadcasting during the floods in Moravia.  From 1998 to 2000 he was editor-in-chief of the radio station Prague. In 2000 he founded Czech Radio 8 (Online) and became its editor-in-chief. In 2005, he drew up the construction of the popular-science radio station Leonardo, of which he was the director until 2009. At the end of 2009 he won the selection procedure for the director of Prague Zoo and took over this function on January 1, 2010. In June 2014 he was elected president of the Union of Czech and Slovak Zoos (UCSZOO). He held this position until 2016.  Miroslav Bobek is married to Klára, they have a son, Kryštof, and a daughter, Markéta.

Activities.

Projects.

In 1994, Miroslav Bobek initiated the African Odyssey project, which he subsequently ran for many years. It involved monitoring the migration of black storks from Czechia to their African wintering grounds and back to Bohemia using satellite and VHF telemetry. The storks were fitted with “backpacks” containing radios and satellite telemetry. He led several expeditions to Africa, from where he made hundreds of live broadcasts. He also played a leading role in the New Odyssey project looking at stork migration in Asia, which was launched in 2002 and was loosely linked to the "African Odyssey" project.  Afterwards, he organised a two-year (2001–2002) on-line transmission of the falcons at the Tyn Church in Prague as well as the Czech Radio building on Vinohradská Street. The project was called "Falcons in the Heart of the City" and even caught live hatchings.  Among the other projects he has participated in are "Call for the Day", which introduced various instances of birdsong by means of an audio CD and Czech Radio’s Internet, or Via Pontica which monitored the migration of birds of prey in eastern Turkey.

Revealed.

Miroslav Bobek became the author and head of the Revealed project which had the subtitle “A Slightly Different Reality Show” (2005–2008). It was one of Czech Radio’s most prominent multimedia projects. The project began with the launch of an online video broadcast from the gorilla pavilion at Prague Zoo and became a regular radio and television show in autumn 2005. Czech Radio received a “Wild Oscar” for it at the prestigious Wildscreen Festival in Bristol and the Seal of Comenius EduMedia in Berlin. The main aim was to compare gorillas’ behaviour with that of humans, whilst conveying some relevant information about apes and thus contribute to their conservation. The project partly parodied the reality shows that were being broadcast at that time on commercial television (e.g. Big Brother or VyVolení). Tereza Šefrnová and Radomír Šofr also took part in the screenplay for Revealed.  See the article The Revealed for more information.  Based on this project, Tereza Šefrnová and Miroslav Bobek wrote a book of fairy tales for children Moja and Páv (2006). Subsequently Bobek wrote the second volume Moja, Tatu and the Biting Midges (2009), again with the participation of the actress Tereza Šefrnová. The books were also published in English and French for African children. Tereza Šefrnová narrated them in Czech for the Leonardo show on Czech Radio, she was then replaced by actress Lucie Bílá.  Together with Martin Smrček he wrote a book of the same name about the Revealed project.

Director of Prague Zoo.

After Petr Fejk left, Miroslav Bobek applied for the post of the director of Prague Zoo. He advanced to the final round, together with the economist Miroslav Zámečník and former head of news at TV Nova, Jan Vávra. The committee for the selection of the new director recommended Miroslav Bobek and Prague City Council appointed him to this position. The ceremonial inauguration took place on December 22, 2009 at the zoo. At the time he saw his main task to be maintaining Prague Zoo’s success. He wanted to use modern technology in the zoo, including the Internet, thus being able to present the animals more in the context of their natural environment. A particularly big task he set himself was the construction of a new pavilion for the elephants and hippos.  Under his leadership the zoo managed to break its record for annual attendance, it increased its level of economic self-sufficiency, deepened its breeding successes and increased its efforts in the conservation of endangered species. One of the things Prague Zoo did was to cooperate with the Czech Army in transporting Przewalski’s horses to Mongolia (The Return of the Wild Horses from 2011) and it actively engaged in the conservation of western gorillas in Africa (in particular by means of The Wandering Bus project since 2013).  During his time at Prague Zoo they have built new grounds for the elephants (Elephant Valley), a hippo house, an aquarium for giant salamanders, the Bororo Reserve and Rákos’ Parrot house for mainly exotic birds. The Feline and Reptile House has been reconstructed, Gočár's houses have been restored and, after decades of neglect, the Zakázanka trail has reopened. He considers the acquisition of elephants from Sri Lanka to be a great success.

Publishing activities.

In 2012, Miroslav Bobek published his first anthology of the columns and notes that he regularly publishes in the leading major news media every week as the director of Prague Zoo. The book was called Bobbles from Bobek and was followed by A Giraffe on Monday and Trojan Lion in 2016. The latest publication of Miroslav Bobek’s Journal was published in May 2018.

Awards.

In 2008 he received an honorary Vojtěch Náprstek medal for popularising science. It was awarded by the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, mainly for the Revealed and African Odyssey projects. In 2014 he was awarded the Medal of Friendship by the Mongolian President.

External links.

Director's view

Miroslav Bobek (born February 10, 1967 in Mlada Boleslav) is a Czech natural scientist and manager, since 2010 he has been the director of Prague Zoo and from 2014 to 2016 he was also president of the Union of Czech and Slovak Zoos. He worked for a long time in Czech Radio, where he became famous for his show “Revealed”, in which he observed the life of the gorillas at Prague Zoo in the form of a reality show.

Miroslav Bobek (* 10. února 1967 Mladá Boleslav) je český přírodovědec a manažer, od roku 2010 ředitel Zoo Praha a v letech 2014–2016 také prezident Unie českých a slovenských zoologických zahrad. Dlouhou dobu pracoval v Českém rozhlasu, kde se proslavil především projektem Odhalení, v němž formou reality show sledoval život goril v Zoo Praha.


Description.

The blazon is as follows:  "Azure, billetty Or a lion with a coronet Or armed and langued Gules holding in his dexter paw a sword Argent hilted Or and in the sinister paw seven arrows Argent pointed and bound together Or. (The seven arrows stand for the seven provinces of the Union of Utrecht.) The shield is crowned with the (Dutch) royal crown and supported by two lions "Or armed and langued gules". They stand on a scroll Azure with the text ("Or") "Je Maintiendrai" (, French for "I shall maintain".)  The monarch places this coat of arms on a mantle "gules" lined with ermine. Above the mantle is a pavilion "gules" again topped with the royal crown.  In the royal decree, it is stated that male successors may replace the crown on the shield with a helm with the crest of Nassau.

History and origin of the coat of arms.

This version of the coat of arms has been in use since 1907 but differs only slightly from the version that was adopted in 1815. From 1815 until 1907 all the lions wore the royal crown and the supporting lions were facing.  The royal arms were adopted by the first king of The Kingdom of the Netherlands, William I, when he became king after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. As king, he adopted a coat of arms that combined elements of his family’s (Orange-Nassau) coat of arms and that of the former Dutch Republic that existed from 1581 until 1795.  From his family arms he used the "azure, billetty or" with "a lion rampant or" of Nassau (blue shield, lion, billets). The "Je Maintiendrai" motto represents the Orange family since it came into the family with the princedom of Orange as "Je Maintiendrai Châlons". These elements are also found in the arms of king William III, who was also king of England, Scotland & Ireland (1689–1702). From the arms of the former States General of the Republic of the United Provinces he took the lion with a coronet, sword and arrows. The arrows symbolize the seven provinces that made up the Republic, the sword the determination to defend their liberty, and the coronet their sovereignty. William replaced the coronet with a royal crown. In 1907, Queen Wilhelmina returned to an open coronet.

Counts of Nassau.

The arms of Nassau has existed since about 1250. There are two versions of the Nassau arms, representing the two main branches. This is a result of two brothers, count Walram II and count Otto I, agreeing to divide their father's (Henry II) lands between them in 1255. The line of Walram added a crown to the lion in the Nassau arms to make it different from the lion used by the line of Otto.  The kings and queens of the Netherlands are descendants of count Otto. The Grand Dukes of Luxemburg are descendants of count Walram. They also still use "Nassau" in their arms. Both lines are now extinct in the male line.  The helm and crest that can be used in the Royal arms by the male successors to the throne (and is in fact being used by some male members of the Royal Family) is: "On a (ceremonial) helmet, with bars and decoration Or and mantling Azure and Or, issuing from a coronet Or, a pair of wings joined Sable each with an arched bend Argent charged with three leaves of the lime-tree stems upward Vert".  This crest is used by the descendants of Otto and differs from the crest used by the descendants of Walram. But in the royal decree of 1815 the crest issuing from a crown on the Dutch Royal Arms was the one used by the Walram line. Why this was done is not sure. Maybe due to the "mistake" this crest was hardly used.  The crest of the Walram-line is: Between two trunks Azure billetty Or a sitting lion Or. The trunks are probably a misinterpretation of two cow horns, a crest that is frequently used in German heraldry. On the Grand Coat of Arms of the Grand Duke of Luxemburg the lion is crowned, armed and langued Gules.

The Princedom of Orange.

The motto has been used by every "ruling" member of the Nassau family, who was also the prince of Orange since it came into the family with the Princedom of Orange in 1530. Count Henry III of Nassau-Breda, who was living in the Low Countries, was married to Claudia Orange-Châlon. Her brother, Philibert of Châlon, was the last Prince of Orange from the House of Châlon. When he died in 1530, Henry's and Claudia's son René of Nassau-Breda inherited the Princedom on condition that he used the name and coat of arms of the Châlon family. History knows him therefore as René of Châlon. With this inheritance came the "Je Maintiendrai Châlons" motto into the Nassau family. René died in 1544 without leaving a child. His cousin William of Nassau-Dillenburg inherited all of René's lands. William became William of Orange (in English better known under his nickname William the Silent) and the founder of the House of Orange-Nassau. William first changed the motto to "Je Maintiendrai Nassau". Later he (or his sons) dropped the family name from the motto.  The horn from the arms of the Princedom of Orange is not used in the coat of arms of the kingdom but is part of the personal arms and flags of many members of the royal family. See for example the image of the Royal Standard of the Netherlands.

The Dutch Republic.

The sword and arrows originated from the Habsburg rulers.  The lion, as representing the Burgundian Netherlands, first appears as a crest on the tomb of Philip the Handsome. Later Charles V added the sword. The arrows were used, on coins etc., since the early 16th century to represent the Seventeen Provinces in the low countries under control of Charles V. In 1578, during the Eighty Years' War, the States General ordered a new great seal representing the lion, the sword and the 17 arrows combined. Although only seven provinces remained free from Spain, this seal stayed in use until 1795.  After the completion of its forming in 1584 the Republic of the Seven United Provinces used as its arms: Or a crowned lion Gules armed and langued Azure, holding in his dexter paw a sword and in the sinister paw seven arrows tight together Azure. The colours of this version where derived from the most important of the seven provinces, the county of Holland (its arms are still in use since being adopted by the counts of Holland c. 1198).  After c. 1668 the colours where reversed and the arms became "Gules a crowned lion Or armed and langued Azure holding in his dexter paw a sword Argent hilted Or and in the sinister paw seven arrows Argent pointed and tight together Or."  The arrows symbolize the seven provinces that made up the Republic, the sword the determination to defend their liberty, and the coronet their sovereignty.

1795–1815 Revolution, Napoleonic years and Restoration.

In 1795, with French help, the last Stadholder William V was forced to flee and the Batavian Republic (1795–1806) was proclaimed. At first this had no influence on the use of the arms of the former Republic. However, the following year the lion, that had served for approximately 280 years, was replaced by an allegoric image of a “Dutch maiden of Freedom”.  The replacement of the Batavian Republic with the Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) saw the first return of the lion of the States General. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (brother of the French Emperor Napoleon) used as King Louis I a coat of arms that quartered the Dutch lion with the French Imperial Eagle. After the emperor Napoleon abolished the Kingdom of Holland in 1810 the lion again had to leave the stage and the Imperial Eagle was the only image in use.  In 1813 the French were forced out of the Netherlands and the son of the last Stadholder, William VI / I was proclaimed 'Sovereign Prince' (1813–1815). To symbolize his new status he assumed a new coat of arms. In it the old lion with the sword and arrows made his second reappearance, now with a Royal crown upon his head. Again it was placed in de prime locations of a quartered shield (I and IV quarter). In the II and III quarter where the arms of Châlon-Orange-Geneve, the arms of Nassau (Otto) where placed on an escutcheon in the center of the shield.  The final retirement of the Republican lion came in 1815 with the establishment of the “United Kingdom of the Netherlands”. Because this new kingdom comprised not only of the lands of the former Dutch Republic but also of the former Austrian or Southern Netherlands it was also not appropriate to continue the use of the old arms. First a combination with the arms of Brabant (Sable a Lion Or, now the coat of arms of Belgium) was considered. In the end the attributes, the sword, arrows and crown, were placed in the care of his older “colleague” from Nassau to symbolize the union between the (now Royal) House of Nassau and the Netherlands. As seen above, this is still the basis of the current coat of arms.

Versions and variants.

Government.

Various versions of the Dutch Royal Arms are used by Government, the Parliament and courts. Government and its agencies generally use a simplified version of the Royal Arms without the mantle, the pavilion and the topped royal crown. This simplified Royal Arms also feature on the cover of passports, embassies and consulates. The versions used by the Legislature and its chambers shown the Royal Arms with the Royal Crown and a buckled dark-blue strap that bears the name of the Parliament or each chamber "Staten-Generaal" (States General), "Eerste Kamer der Staten-Generaal" (Senate), "Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal" (House of Representatives) in gold letters surrounding the shield.

Royal Family.

Members of the Dutch Royal Family receive their own personalised arms which are based on the Royal Arms. For more details see (in Dutch).

Further reading.

Wapens van de Nederlanden : de historische ontwikkeling van de heraldische symbolen van Nederland, België, hun provincies en Luxemburg / Hubert de Vries. Uitgeverij Jan Mets, Amsterdam, 1995  Website: Dutch Royal House  Website: Dutch ministry of Foreign Affairs  Website: International Civic Heraldry  Website: Nassau - Ottonian Line

The coat of arms of the Kingdom of the Netherlands was originally adopted in 1815 and later modified in 1907. The arms are a composite of the arms of the former Dutch Republic and the arms of the House of Nassau, it features a checkered shield with a lion grasping a sword in one hand and a bundle of arrows in the other and is the heraldic symbol of the monarch (King Willem-Alexander) and the country. The monarch uses a version of the arms with a mantle () while the government of the Netherlands uses a smaller version without the mantle (cloak) or the pavilion, sometimes only the shield and crown are used (). The components of the coats of arms were regulated by Queen Wilhelmina in a royal decree of 10 July 1907, affirmed by Queen Juliana in a royal decree of 23 April 1980.

Státní znak Nizozemska byl přijat v roce 1815 ("BESLUIT van den 24 Augustus 1815, nr. 71, waarbij het Rijkswapen wordt vastgesteld") a byl dvakrát upraven, poprvé v roce 1907 ("Besluit van den 10den Juli 1907, houdend nadere vaststelling van het wapen van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, alsmede van de andere leden van het Koninklijk Huis") a naposledy v roce 1980 ("Koninklijk Besluit van 23 april 1980, no. 3, Stb. 206, tot het voeren van het Koninklijk wapen").


Organization.

The APG III system recognized all of the 45 orders of the previous system, as well as 14 new ones. The order Ceratophyllales was erroneously marked as a new order, as it had been recognized in both of the previous APG systems. The newly recognized orders were:  The designation of alternative "bracketed families" was abandoned in APG III, because its inclusion in the previous system had been unpopular. APG III recognized 413 families, 43 fewer than in the previous system. Forty-four of the 55 "bracketed families" were discontinued, and 20 other families were discontinued as well.  The discontinued bracketed families were:  The other discontinued families were:  21 families were accepted in the APG III system which had not been in the previous system, and a few families were moved to a different position. The newly recognized families are:  The number of families not placed in any order was reduced from 39 to 10. Apodanthaceae and Cynomoriaceae were placed among the angiosperms, incertae sedis, that is, not in any group within the angiosperms. Eight other families were placed incertae sedis in various supra-ordinal groups within the angiosperms. The families not placed in any order were:  The paragraph below shows the number of families in each order and the placement of those families that were not included in any order. These figures were produced by simply counting the families in the text of the paper that established APG III.  ORDERS: Amborellales (1), Nymphaeales (3), Austrobaileyales (3), Chloranthales (1), Canellales (2), Piperales (5), Magnoliales (6), Laurales (7), Acorales (1), Alismatales (13), Petrosaviales (1), Dioscoreales (3), Pandanales (5), Liliales (10), Asparagales (14), Arecales (1), Poales (16), Commelinales (5), Zingiberales (8), Ceratophyllales (1), Ranunculales (7), Proteales (3), Trochodendrales (1), Buxales (2), Gunnerales (2), Saxifragales (14), Vitales (1), Zygophyllales (2), Celastrales (2), Oxalidales (7), Malpighiales (35), Fabales (4), Rosales (9), Fagales (7), Cucurbitales (7), Geraniales (3), Myrtales (9), Crossosomatales (7), Picramniales (1), Sapindales (9), Huerteales (3), Brassicales (17), Malvales (10), Berberidopsidales (2), Santalales (7), Caryophyllales (34), Cornales (6), Ericales (22), Garryales (2), Gentianales (5), Solanales (5), Lamiales (23), Aquifoliales (5), Asterales (11), Escalloniales (1), Bruniales (2), Apiales (7), Paracryphiales (1), Dipsacales (2).  SUPRA-ORDINAL GROUPS: commelinids (1), basal eudicots (1), Pentapetalae (1), lamiids incertae sedis (3), core lamiids (2), angiosperms incertae sedis (2).  The circumscription of the family Icacinaceae remains especially doubtful. "Apodytes" and its close relative, Rhaphiostylis, as well as "Emmotum", "Cassinopsis", and a few other genera were provisionally retained within it until further studies can determine whether they properly belong there.  Three genera ("Gumillea", "Nicobariodendron", and "Petenaea") were placed within the angiosperms incertae sedis. "Gumillea" had been unplaced in APG II. "Nicobariodendron" and "Petenaea" were newly added to the list. The latter was later placed into its own family Petenaeaceae in the order Huerteales  The classification is shown below in two versions. The short version goes to the level of orders and of families unplaced in an order. The detailed version shows all the families. Orders at the same level in the classification are arranged alphabetically. Note that orders may not contain the same families as in earlier versions of the APG system (APG system, APG II system). Further detail on relationships can be seen in the phylogenetic tree below.

Detailed version.

Legend:  <nowiki>*</nowiki> = new family placement; † = newly recognized order for the APG system; § = new family circumscription described in the text; $ = families that represent the broader circumscription of options available in APG II and favoured here; $$ = families that were in square brackets in APG II, the narrower circumscriptions favoured here.

Phylogeny.

The APG III system was based on a phylogenetic tree for the angiosperms which included all of the 59 orders and 4 of the unplaced families. The systematic positions of the other 6 unplaced families was so uncertain that they could not be placed in any of the polytomies in the tree. They are shown in the classification table entitled "Detailed version" above, 4 in Euasterids I and 2 in Taxa of uncertain position.  The phylogenetic tree shown below was published with the APG III system, but without some of the labels that are added here.

Subfamilies replacing discontinued families.

A number of subfamilies have been proposed to replace some of the families which were optional (i.e. bracketed) in APG II, but have been discontinued in APG III. These are shown in the table below.

The APG III system of flowering plant classification is the third version of a modern, mostly molecular-based, system of plant taxonomy being developed by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). Published in 2009, it was superseded in 2016 by a further revision, the APG IV system.

Systém APG III je taxonomický systém krytosemenných rostlin. Byl publikován v říjnu roku 2009 skupinou vědců zvanou Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. Tato skupina v roce 2016 vydala aktualizaci příslušného systému, APG IV.