The pretender.

Henry VII of England held the throne for the House of Lancaster (House of Tudor), and had tried to gain the acceptance of the Yorkist faction by his marriage to their heiress, Elizabeth of York, but his hold on power was not entirely secure.  The chief claimant of the York dynasty was the queen's first cousin, Edward, Earl of Warwick, the son of George, Duke of Clarence. This boy was kept confined in the Tower of London.  An impostor claiming to be Edward, whose name was Lambert Simnel, came to the attention of John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln through the agency of a priest called Richard Symonds. Lincoln, although apparently reconciled with the Tudor king, himself had a claim on the throne; moreover, the last Plantagenet, Richard III of England, had named Lincoln, his nephew, as the royal heir. Although he probably had no doubt about Simnel's true identity, Lincoln saw an opportunity for revenge and reparation.  Lincoln fled the English court on 19 March 1487 and went to the court of Mechelen (Malines) and his aunt, Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy. Margaret provided financial and military support in the form of 2000 German and Swiss mercenaries, under the commander Martin Schwartz. Lincoln was joined by a number of rebel English Lords at Mechelen, in particular Richard III's loyal supporter, Lord Lovell, Sir Richard Harleston, the former governor of Jersey and Thomas David, a captain of the English garrison at Calais. The Yorkists decided to sail to Ireland, where the Yorkist cause was popular, to gather more supporters.

The Yorkist rebellion.

The Yorkist fleet set sail and arrived in Dublin on 4 May 1487. With the help of Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare and his brother Thomas FitzGerald of Laccagh, Lord Chancellor of Ireland, Lincoln recruited 4,500 Irish mercenaries, mostly kerns, lightly armoured but highly mobile infantry.  With the support of the Irish nobility and clergy, Lincoln had the pretender Lambert Simnel crowned "King Edward VI" in Dublin on 24 May 1487. Although a Parliament was called for the new "King", Lincoln had no intention of remaining in Dublin and instead packed up the army and Simnel and set sail for north Lancashire.  On landing on 4 June 1487, Lincoln was joined by a number of the local gentry led by Sir Thomas Broughton. In a series of forced marches, the Yorkist army, now numbering some 8,000 men, covered over 200 miles in five days. On the night of 10 June, at Bramham moor, outside Tadcaster, Lovell led 2,000 men on a night attack against 400 Lancastrians, led by Lord Clifford. The result was an overwhelming Yorkist victory.  Lincoln then outmanoeuvred King Henry's northern army, under the command of the Earl of Northumberland by ordering a force under John, Lord Scrope to mount a diversionary attack on Bootham Bar, York, on 12 June. Lord Scrope then withdrew northwards, taking Northumberland's army with him.  Lincoln and the main army continued southwards. Outside Doncaster, Lincoln encountered Lancastrian cavalry under Edward Woodville, Lord Scales. There followed three days of skirmishing through Sherwood Forest. Lincoln forced Scales back to Nottingham, where Scales' cavalry stayed to wait for the main royal army. However, the fighting had slowed down the Yorkist advance sufficiently to allow King Henry to receive substantial reinforcements under the command of Lord Strange by the time he joined Scales at Nottingham on 14 June. Rhys ap Thomas, Henry's leading supporter in Wales, also arrived with reinforcements.  Henry's army now outnumbered the Yorkists. In addition, it was "far better armed and equipped" than the Yorkist army. His two principal military commanders, Jasper Tudor and John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, were also more experienced than the Yorkist leaders.

Battle.

On 15 June, King Henry began moving north east toward Newark after receiving news that Lincoln had crossed the River Trent. Around nine in the morning of 16 June, King Henry's forward troops, commanded by the Earl of Oxford, encountered the Yorkist army assembled in a single block, on a brow of Rampire Hill surrounded on three sides by the River Trent at the village of East Stoke. Their right flank was anchored on a high spot known as Burham Furlong.  Henry's army was divided into three battles, of which Oxford led the vanguard. As at Bosworth, the king left the direction of the fighting itself to Oxford. Before the fight began some unusual lights in the sky were interpreted as ill-portents by Lancastrian soldiers, leading to some desertions, but Oxford and other nobles were able to restore morale, and soon the army was in "good array and in a fair battle".  The Yorkists, arrayed in a single concentrated formation, were assaulted by arrows. Suffering from the arrows, they chose to surrender the high ground by immediately going on to the attack in the hope of breaking the Lancastrian line and rolling up the enemy army. Though outnumbered overall, the Yorkists had the advantage of a "core of well-trained foreign mercenaries", and their concentrated force outnumbered Oxford's vanguard, which was the only part of the Lancastrian army engaged.  The vanguard was badly shaken, but Oxford was able to rally his force. The battle was bitterly contested for over three hours, but eventually, sheer attrition told against the Yorkists after they failed to break the Lancastrian position early on. Henry chose not to commit his other "battles", leaving the struggle to the vanguard, which was probably repeatedly reinforced as Lancastrian contingents came up, directed by Jasper Tudor. Though the German mercenaries were equipped with the latest handguns, the presence of large numbers of traditional archers in the Lancastrian army proved decisive. The skilled longbowmen were able to shoot volley after volley into the Yorkist position. The lack of body armour on the Irish troops in particular meant that they were cut down in increasing numbers by repeated showers of arrows.  Unable to retreat (with the river on three sides), the German and Swiss mercenaries fought it out. According to Jean Molinet, by the end of the battle they were "filled with arrows like hedgehogs". The broken Yorkists fled towards the Trent down a ravine (known locally even today as the Bloody Gutter) in which many were cornered and killed. Most of the Yorkist commanders—Lincoln, Fitzgerald, and Schwartz—fell fighting. Only Lord Lovell and Broughton may have escaped. Lovell disappeared after the battle and was never seen again. He may have gone to Scotland, as there is evidence of a safe conduct pass being granted him there, but his later fate is unknown. In the 18th century a body was found inside a secret room at his house in Minster Lovell, Oxfordshire, leading to conjecture that it was his.

Aftermath.

Simnel was captured, but was pardoned by Henry in a gesture of clemency which did his reputation no harm. Henry realised that Simnel was merely a puppet for the leading Yorkists. He was given a job in the royal kitchen, and later promoted to falconer. The Irish nobles who had supported Simnel were also pardoned, as Henry believed he needed their support to govern Ireland effectively. However, Henry later persuaded the Pope to excommunicate the Irish clergy who had supported the rebellion. Two other Yorkist conspirators were also captured: Richard Symonds and John Payne, Bishop of Meath. Symonds was the man who had introduced Lincoln to Simnel; Payne had preached the sermon at Simnel's coronation. Neither was executed: Symonds was imprisoned, and Payne was pardoned and eventually restored to royal favour.  To mark his victory, Henry raised his standard on Burham Furlong. The spot is marked by a large stone memorial with the legend ""Here stood the Burrand Bush planted on the spot where Henry VII placed his standard after the Battle of Stoke 16 June 1487"". Henry knighted many of his supporters in the aftermath of the battle. A handwritten list of the new knights by John Writhe survives inserted into a copy of the book "Game and Play of Chess". Thirteen new bannerets were created and fifty two men were knighted.  Henry had hoped to capture Lincoln alive in order to learn from him the true extent of support for the Yorkists. Instead Henry launched a series of enquiries, the outcome of which was "relatively few executions and very many fines", consistent with Henry's policy of controlling the aristocracy by weakening it financially. After the battle, he progressed north through Pontefract, York, Durham, and Newcastle to show himself in those areas that had been strongholds of Richard III's supporters.  Later in Henry's reign, the 1490s, another pretender to the throne emerged, in the person of Perkin Warbeck; however, this time the matter was resolved without having to fight a major battle.

The Battle of Stoke Field on 16 June 1487 may be considered the last battle of the Wars of the Roses, since it was the last major engagement between contenders for the throne whose claims derived from descent from the houses of Lancaster and York respectively. The Battle of Bosworth Field, two years previously, had established King Henry VII on the throne, ending the last period of Yorkist rule and initiating that of the Tudors. The Battle of Stoke Field was the decisive engagement in an attempt by leading Yorkists to unseat him in favour of the pretender Lambert Simnel.

Bitva u Stoke se odehrála 16. června 1487 nedaleko města Stoke v hrabství v Nottinghamshire. Často je považována za poslední bitvu války růží.


Synthesis.

There are several current industrial methods to produce 9,10-Anthraquinone:  It also arises via the Rickert-Alder reaction, a retro-Diels-Alder reaction.

Reactions.

Hydrogenation gives dihydroanthraquinone (anthrahydroquinone). Reduction with copper gives anthrone. Sulfonation with sulfuric acid gives anthroquinone-1-sulfonic acid, which reacts with sodium chlorate to give 1-chloroanthaquinone.

Applications and natural occurrence.

Dyestuff precursor.

Synthetic dyes are often derived from 9,10-anthraquinone, such as alizarin. Important derivatives are 1-nitroanthraquinone, anthraquinone-1-sulfonic acid, and the dinitroanthraquinone. Natural pigments that are derivatives of anthraquinone are found, inter alia, in aloe latex, senna, rhubarb, and cascara buckthorn, fungi, lichens, and some insects.

Digester additive in papermaking.

9,10-Anthraquinone is used as a digester additive in production of paper pulp by alkaline processes, like the Kraft, the alkaline sulfite or the Soda-AQ processes. The anthraquinone is a redox catalyst. The reaction mechanism may involve single electron transfer (SET). The anthraquinone is oxidizing the reducing end of polysaccharides in the pulp, i.e., cellulose and hemicellulose, and thereby protecting it from alkaline degradation (peeling). The anthraquinone is reduced to 9,10-dihydroxyanthracene which then can react with lignin. The lignin is degraded and becomes more watersoluble and thereby more easy to wash away from the pulp, while the antraquinone is regenerated. This process gives an increase in yield of pulp, typically 1-3% and a reduction in kappa number.  Sodium 2-anthraquinonesulfonate (AMS) is a watersoluble anthraquinone derivative that was the first anthraquinone derivative discovered to have a catalytic effect in the alkaline pulping processes.

In the production of hydrogen peroxide.

A large industrial application of anthraquinones is for the production of hydrogen peroxide. 2-Ethyl-9,10-anthraquinone or a related alkyl derivative is used, rather than anthraquinone itself.

Medicine.

Derivatives of 9,10-anthraquinone include many important drugs (collectively called anthracenediones). They include

Niche uses.

9,10-Anthraquinone is used as a bird repellant on seeds, and as a gas generator in satellite balloons. It has also been mixed with lanolin and used as a wool spray to protect sheep flocks against kea attacks in New Zealand.  Natural anthraquinone derivatives tend to have laxative effects. Prolonged use and abuse leads to melanosis coli. 5 anthraquinones have been shown to inhibit the formation of Tau aggregates and dissolve paired helical filaments thought to be critical to Alzheimer's disease progression in both mouse models and in vitro testing but have not been investigated as a therapeutic agent.  In 2019 researchers pioneered the possible use of the material as a cathode in a novel aluminum ion battery.

Other isomers.

Several other isomers of anthraquinone are possible, including the 1,2-, 1,4-, and 2,6-anthraquinones. They are of comparatively minor importance. The term is also used in the more general sense of any compound that can be viewed as an anthraquinone with some hydrogen atoms replaced by other atoms or functional groups. These derivatives include substances that are technically useful or play important roles in living beings.  Recently, a class of anthraquinone derivates were shown to have self-healing properties when doped in PMMA matrix.

Safety.

Anthraquinone has no recorded LD50, probably because it is so insoluble in water. Many drugs are derivatives of anthroquinone.  In terms of metabolism of substituted anthraquinones, the enzyme encoded by the gene UGT1A8 has glucuronidase activity with many substrates including anthraquinones.

Anthraquinone, also called anthracenedione or dioxoanthracene, is an aromatic organic compound with formula. Isomers include various quinone derivatives. The term anthraquinone, however refers to the isomer, 9,10-anthraquinone (IUPAC: 9,10-dioxoanthracene) wherein the keto groups are located on the central ring. It is a building block of many dyes and is used in bleaching pulp for papermaking. It is a yellow, highly crystalline solid, poorly soluble in water but soluble in hot organic solvents. It is almost completely insoluble in ethanol near room temperature but 2.25 g will dissolve in 100 g of boiling ethanol.

Anthrachinon je aromatická organická sloučenina. Je to derivát anthracenu. Má podobu žlutého, světle šedého či šedožlutého krystalického prášku či jehlic. Deriváty anthrachinonu se v biochemii označují jako anthrachinony.


Etymology.

The taxonomic name Strepsirrhini derives from the Greek "strepsis" "a turning round" and "rhis" "nose, snout, (in pl.) nostrils" ( "rhinos"), which refers to the appearance of the sinuous (comma-shaped) nostrils on the rhinarium or wet nose. The name was first used by French naturalist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1812 as a subordinal rank comparable to Platyrrhini (New World monkeys) and Catarrhini

Evolutionary history.

Strepsirrhines include the extinct adapiforms and the lemuriform primates, which include lemurs and lorisoids (lorises, pottos, and galagos). Strepsirrhines diverged from the haplorhine primates near the beginning of the primate radiation between 55 and 90 mya. Older divergence dates are based on genetic analysis estimates, while younger dates are based on the scarce fossil record. Lemuriform primates may have evolved from either cercamoniines or sivaladapids, both of which were adapiforms that may have originated in Asia. They were once thought to have evolved from adapids, a more specialized and younger branch of adapiform primarily from Europe. Lemurs rafted from Africa to Madagascar between 47 and 54 mya, whereas the lorises split from the African galagos around 40 mya and later colonized Asia. The lemuriforms, and particularly the lemurs of Madagascar, are often portrayed inappropriately as "living fossils" or as examples of "basal", or "inferior" primates. These views have historically hindered the understanding of mammalian evolution and the evolution of strepsirrhine traits, such as their reliance on smell (olfaction), characteristics of their skeletal anatomy, and their brain size, which is relatively small. In the case of lemurs, natural selection has driven this isolated population of primates to diversify significantly and fill a rich variety of ecological niches, despite their smaller and less complex brains compared to simians.

Unclear origin.

The divergence between strepsirrhines, simians, and tarsiers likely followed almost immediately after primates first evolved. Although few fossils of living primate groups – lemuriforms, tarsiers, and simians – are known from the Early to Middle Eocene, evidence from genetics and recent fossil finds both suggest they may have been present during the early adaptive radiation.  The origin of the earliest primates that the simians and tarsiers both evolved from is a mystery. Both their place of origin and the group from which they emerged are uncertain. Although the fossil record demonstrating their initial radiation across the Northern Hemisphere is very detailed, the fossil record from the tropics (where primates most likely first developed) is very sparse, particularly around the time that primates and other major clades of eutherian mammals first appeared.  Lacking detailed tropical fossils, geneticists and primatologists have used genetic analyses to determine the relatedness between primate lineages and the amount of time since they diverged. Using this molecular clock, divergence dates for the major primate lineages have suggested that primates evolved more than 80–90 mya, nearly 40 million years before

Adapiform evolution.

Adapiform primates are extinct strepsirrhines that shared many anatomical similarities with lemurs. They are sometimes referred to as lemur-like primates, although the diversity of both lemurs and adapiforms do not support this analogy.  Like the living strepsirrhines, adapiforms were extremely diverse, with at least 30 genera and 80 species known from the fossil record as of the early 2000s. They diversified across Laurasia during the Eocene, some reaching North America via a land bridge.They were among the most common mammals found in the fossil beds from that time. A few rare species have also been found in northern Africa. The most basal of the adapiforms

Lemuriform evolution.

Lemuriform origins are unclear and debated. American paleontologist Philip Gingerich proposed that lemuriform primates evolved from one of several genera of European adapids based on similarities between the front lower teeth of adapids and the toothcomb of extant lemuriforms; however, this view is not strongly supported due to a lack of clear transitional fossils. Instead, lemuriforms may be descended from a very early branch of Asian cercamoniines or sivaladapids that migrated to northern Africa.  Until discoveries of three 40-million-year-old fossil lorisoids ("Karanisia", "Saharagalago", and "Wadilemur") in the El Fayum deposits of Egypt between 1997 and 2005, the oldest known lemuriforms had come from the early Miocene (~20 mya) of Kenya and Uganda. These

History of classification.

The taxonomy of strepsirrhines is controversial and has a complicated history. Confused taxonomic terminology and oversimplified anatomical comparisons have created misconceptions about primate and strepsirrhine phylogeny, illustrated by the media attention surrounding the single "Ida" fossil in 2009. Strepsirrhine primates were first grouped under the genus "Lemur" by Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of "Systema Naturae" published in 1758. At the time, only three species were recognized, one of which (the colugo) is no longer recognized as a primate. In 1785, Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert divided the genus "Lemur" into two genera: "Prosimia" for the lemurs, colugos, and tarsiers and "Tardigradus" for the lorises. Ten years later, É. Geoffroy and Georges Cuvier grouped the tarsiers and galagos due to similarities in their hindlimb morphology, a view supported by German zoologist Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger, who placed them in the family Macrotarsi while placing the lemurs and tarsiers in the family Prosimia (Prosimii) in 1811. The use of the tarsier-galago classification continued for many years until 1898, when Dutch zoologist Ambrosius Hubrecht demonstrated two different types of placentation (formation of a placenta) in the two groups.  English comparative anatomist William Henry Flower created the suborder Lemuroidea in 1883 to distinguish these primates from the simians, which were grouped under English biologist St. George Jackson Mivart's suborder Anthropoidea (=Simiiformes). According to Flower, the suborder Lemuroidea contained the families Lemuridae (lemurs, lorises, and galagos), Chiromyidae (aye-aye), and Tarsiidae (tarsiers). Lemuroidea was later replaced by Illiger's suborder Prosimii. Many years earlier, in 1812, É. Geoffroy first named the suborder Strepsirrhini, in which he included the tarsiers. This taxonomy went unnoticed until 1918, when Pocock compared the structure of the nose and reinstated the use of the suborder Strepsirrhini, while also moving the tarsiers and the simians into a new suborder, Haplorhini. It was not until 1953, when British anatomist William Charles Osman Hill wrote an entire volume on strepsirrhine anatomy, that Pocock's taxonomic suggestion became noticed and more widely used. Since then, primate taxonomy has shifted between Strepsirrhini-Haplorhini and Prosimii-Anthropoidea multiple times.  Most of the academic literature provides a basic framework for primate taxonomy, usually including several potential taxonomic schemes. Although most experts agree upon phylogeny, many disagree about nearly every level of primate classification.

Controversies.

The most commonly recurring debate in primatology during the 1970s, 1980s, and early 2000s concerned the phylogenetic position of tarsiers compared to both simians and the other prosimians. Tarsiers are most often placed in either the suborder Haplorhini with the simians or in the suborder Prosimii with the strepsirrhines. Prosimii is one of the two traditional primate suborders and is based on evolutionary grades (groups united by anatomical traits) rather than phylogenetic clades, while the Strepsirrhini-Haplorrhini taxonomy was based on evolutionary relationships. Yet both systems persist because the Prosimii-Anthropoidea taxonomy is familiar and frequently seen in the research literature and textbooks.  Strepsirrhines are traditionally characterized by several symplesiomorphic (ancestral) traits not shared with the simians, particularly the rhinarium. Other symplesiomorphies include long snouts, convoluted maxilloturbinals, relatively large olfactory bulbs, and smaller brains. The toothcomb is a synapomorphy (shared, derived trait) seen among lemuriforms, although it is frequently and incorrectly used to define the strepsirrhine clade. Strepsirrhine primates are also united in possessing an epitheliochorial placenta. Unlike the tarsiers and simians, strepsirrhines are capable of producing their own vitamin C and do not need it supplied in their diet. Further genetic evidence

Infraordinal classification and clade terminology.

Within Strepsirrhini, two common classifications include either two infraorders (Adapiformes and Lemuriformes) or three infraorders (Adapiformes, Lemuriformes, Lorisiformes). A less common taxonomy places the aye-aye (Daubentoniidae) in its own infraorder, Chiromyiformes. In some cases, plesiadapiforms are included within the order Primates, in which case Euprimates is sometimes treated as a suborder, with Strepsirrhini becoming an infraorder, and the Lemuriformes and others become parvorders. Regardless of the infraordinal taxonomy, Strepsirrhini is composed of three ranked superfamilies and 14 families, seven of which are extinct. Three of these extinct families included the recently extinct giant lemurs of Madagascar, many of which died out within the last 1,000 years following human arrival on the island. When Strepsirrhini is divided into two infraorders, the clade containing all toothcombed primates can be called "lemuriforms". When it is divided into three infraorders, the term "lemuriforms" refers only to Madagascar's lemurs, and the toothcombed primates are referred to as either "crown strepsirrhines" or "extant strepsirrhines". Confusion of this specific terminology with the general term "strepsirrhine", along with oversimplified anatomical comparisons and vague phylogenetic inferences, can lead to misconceptions about primate phylogeny and misunderstandings about primates from the Eocene, as seen with the media coverage

Anatomy and physiology.

Grooming apparatus.

All lemuriforms possess a specialized dental structure called a “toothcomb”, with the exception of the aye-aye, in which the structure has been modified into two continually growing (hypselodont) incisors (or canine teeth), similar to those of rodents. Often, the toothcomb is incorrectly used to characterize all strepsirrhines. Instead, it is unique to lemuriforms and is not seen among adapiforms.  Lemuriforms groom orally, and also possess a grooming claw on the second toe of each foot for scratching in areas

Eyes.

Like all primates, strepsirrhine orbits (eye sockets) have a postorbital bar, a protective ring of bone created by a connection between the frontal and zygomatic bones. Both living and extinct strepsirrhines lack a thin wall of bone behind the eye, referred to as postorbital closure, which is only seen in

Skull.

Strepsirrhine primates have a brain relatively comparable to or slightly larger in size than most mammals. Compared to simians, however, they have a relatively small brain-to-body

Ears.

Many nocturnal species have large, independently movable ears, although there are significant differences in sizes and shapes of the ear between species. The structure of the middle and inner ear of strepsirrhines differs between the lemurs and lorisoids. In lemurs, the tympanic cavity,

Neck arteries.

Both lorisoids and cheirogaleid lemurs have

Ankle bones.

Strepsirrhines also possess distinctive features in their tarsus (ankle bones) that differentiate them from haplorhines, such as a sloping talo-fibular facet (the face where the talus bone and fibula meet) and

Sex characteristics.

Sexual dichromatism (different coloration patterns between males and females) can be seen in most brown lemur species, but otherwise lemurs show very little if any difference in body size or weight between sexes. This lack of

Rhinarium and olfaction.

Strepsirrhines have a long snout that ends in a moist and touch-sensitive rhinarium, similar to that of dogs and many other mammals. The rhinarium is surrounded by vibrissae that are also sensitive to touch. Convoluted maxilloturbinals on the inside of their nose filter, warm, and moisten the incoming air, while olfactory receptors of the main olfactory system lining the ethmoturbinals detect airborne smells. The olfactory bulbs of lemurs are comparable in size to those of other arboreal mammals.  The surface of the rhinarium does not have any olfactory receptors, so it is not used for smell in terms of detecting volatile substances. Instead, it has sensitive touch receptors (Merkel cells). The rhinarium, upper lip, and gums are tightly connected by a fold of mucous membrane called the philtrum, which runs from the tip of the nose to the mouth. The upper lip is constrained by this connection and has fewer nerves to

Reproductive physiology.

Extant strepsirrhines have an epitheliochorial placenta, where the maternal blood does not come in direct contact with the fetal chorion like it does in the hemochorial placenta of haplorhines. The strepsirrhine uterus has two distinct chambers (bicornuate). Despite having similar gestation periods to comparably sized haplorhines, fetal growth rates are generally slower in strepsirrhines, which results in newborn offspring that are as little as one-third the size of haplorhine newborns. Extant strepsirrhines also have a lower basal metabolic rate, which

Behavior.

Approximately three-quarters of all extant strepsirrhine species are nocturnal, sleeping in nests made from dead leaves or tree hollows during the day. All of the lorisoids from continental Africa and Asia are nocturnal, a circumstance that minimizes their competition with the simian primates of the region, which are diurnal. The lemurs of Madagascar, living in the absence of simians, are more variable in their activity cycles. The aye-aye, mouse lemurs, woolly lemurs, and sportive lemurs are nocturnal, while ring-tailed lemurs and most of their kin, sifakas, and indri are diurnal. Yet some or all of the brown lemurs ("Eulemur") are cathemeral, which means that they may be active during the day or night, depending on factors such as temperature and predation. Many extant strepsirrhines are well adapted for nocturnal activity due to their relatively large eyes; large, movable ears; sensitive tactile hairs; strong sense of smell; and the tapetum lucidum behind the retina. Among the adapiforms, most are considered diurnal, with the exception of "Pronycticebus" and "Godinotia" from Middle Eocene Europe, both of which had large orbits that suggest nocturnality.  Reproduction in most strepsirrhine species tends to be seasonal, particularly in lemurs. Key factors that affect seasonal reproduction include the length of the wet season, subsequent food availability, and the maturation time of the species. Like other primates, strepsirrhines are relatively slow breeders compared to other mammals. Their gestation period and interbirth intervals are usually long, and the young develop slowly, just like in haplorhine primates. Unlike simians, some strepsirrhines produce two or three offspring, although some produce only a single offspring. Those that produce multiple offspring tend to build nests for their young. These two traits are thought to be plesiomorphic (ancestral) for primates. The young are precocial (relatively mature and mobile) at birth, but not as coordinated as ungulates (hoofed mammals). Infant care by the mother is relatively prolonged compared to many other mammals, and in some cases, the infants cling to the mother's fur with their hands and feet.  Despite their relatively smaller brains compared to other primates, lemurs have demonstrated levels of technical intelligence in problem solving that are comparable to those seen in simians. However, their social intelligence differs, often emphasizing within-group competition over cooperation, which may be due to adaptations for their unpredictable environment. Although lemurs have not been observed using objects as tools in the wild, they can be trained to use objects as tools in captivity and demonstrate a basic understanding about the functional properties of the objects they are using.

Distribution and habitat.

The now extinct adapiform primates were primarily found across North America, Asia, and Europe, with a few species in Africa. They flourished during the Eocene when those regions were more tropical in nature, and they disappeared when the climate became cooler and drier. Today, the lemuriforms are confined in the tropics, ranging between 28° S to 26° N latitude. Lorises are found both in equatorial Africa and Southeast Asia, while the galagos are limited to the

Conservation.

Like all other non-human primates, strepsirrhines face an elevated risk of extinction due to human activity, particularly deforestation in tropical regions. Much of their habitat has been converted for human use, such as agriculture and pasture. The threats facing strepsirrhine primates fall into three main categories: habitat destruction, hunting (for bushmeat or traditional medicine), and live capture for export or local exotic pet trade. Although hunting is often prohibited, the laws protecting them are rarely enforced. In Madagascar, local taboos known as "fady" sometimes help protect lemur species, although some are still hunted for traditional medicine.  In 2012, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) announced that lemurs were the "most endangered mammals", due largely to elevated illegal logging and hunting following a political crisis in 2009. In Southeast Asia, slow lorises are threatened by the exotic pet trade and traditional medicine, in addition to habitat destruction. Both lemurs and slow lorises are protected from commercial international trade under CITES Appendix I.

Strepsirrhini or Strepsirhini (; ) is a suborder of primates that includes the lemuriform primates, which consist of the lemurs of Madagascar, galagos ("bushbabies") and pottos from Africa, and the lorises from India and southeast Asia. Collectively they are referred to as strepsirrhines. Also belonging to the suborder are the extinct adapiform primates that thrived during the Eocene in Europe, North America, and Asia, but disappeared from most of the Northern Hemisphere as the climate cooled. Adapiforms are sometimes referred to as being "lemur-like", although the diversity of both lemurs and adapiforms does not support this comparison.

Strepsirhini nebo Strepsirrhini je jedním ze dvou podřádů primátů, je považován za vývojově nižší. Pojmenování podřádu znamená "vlhký nos", což je také jedním z charakteristických rysů podřádu.


Etymology.

The word derives from the Greek words "para" (παρά, "beside, alongside, instead [of]") and the noun "eidōlon" (εἴδωλον "image, form, shape").  The German word "pareidolie" was used in German articles by Dr. Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum — for example in his 1866 paper "On Delusion of the Senses". When Kahlbaum's paper was reviewed the following year (1867) in "The Journal of Mental Science", Volume 13, "pareidolie" was translated as pareidolia: "...partial hallucination, perception of secondary images, or pareidolia."

Explanations.

Pareidolia can cause people to interpret random images, or patterns of light and shadow, as faces. A 2009 magnetoencephalography study found that objects perceived as faces evoke an early (165 ms) activation of the fusiform face area at a time and location similar to that evoked by faces, whereas other common objects do not evoke such activation. This activation is similar to a slightly faster time (130 ms) that is seen for images of real faces. The authors suggest that face perception evoked by face-like objects is a relatively early process, and not a late cognitive reinterpretation phenomenon. A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study in 2011 similarly showed that repeated presentation of novel visual shapes that were interpreted as meaningful led to decreased fMRI responses for real objects. These results indicate that the interpretation of ambiguous stimuli depends upon processes similar to those elicited by known objects.  These studies help to explain why people identify a few lines and a circle as a "face" so quickly and without hesitation. Cognitive processes are activated by the "face-like" object, which alert the observer to both the emotional state and identity of the subject, even before the conscious mind begins to process or even receive the information. A "stick figure face", despite its simplicity, can convey mood information, and be drawn to indicate emotions such as happiness or anger. This robust and subtle capability is hypothesized to be the result of eons of natural selection favoring people most able to quickly identify the mental state, for example, of threatening people, thus providing the individual an opportunity to flee or attack pre-emptively. In other words, processing this information subcortically – therefore subconsciously – before it is passed on to the rest of the brain for detailed processing accelerates judgment and decision making when a fast reaction is needed. This ability, though highly specialized for the processing and recognition of "human" emotions, also functions to determine the demeanor of wildlife.  Pareidolia can be considered a subcategory of apophenia.

Mimetoliths.

Rocks may come to mimic recognizable forms through the random processes of formation, weathering and erosion.  Picture jaspers exhibit combinations of patterns such as banding from flow or depositional patterns (from water or wind), or dendritic or color variations, resulting in what appear to be miniature scenes on a cut section, which is then used for jewelry.  More often, the size scale of the rock is larger than the object it resembles, such as a cliff profile resembling a human face. Well-meaning people with a new interest in fossils can pick up chert nodules, concretions or pebbles resembling bones, skulls, turtle shells, dinosaur eggs, etc., in both size and shape.  In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Japanese researcher Chonosuke Okamura self-published a series of reports titled "Original Report of the Okamura Fossil Laboratory", in which he described tiny inclusions in polished limestone from the Silurian period (425 mya) as being preserved fossil remains of tiny humans, gorillas, dogs, dragons, dinosaurs and other organisms, all of them only millimeters long, leading him to claim, "There have been no changes in the bodies of mankind since the Silurian period... except for a growth in stature from 3.5 mm to 1,700 mm." Okamura's research earned him an Ig Nobel Prize (a parody of the Nobel Prizes) in biodiversity in 1996.

Projective tests.

The Rorschach inkblot test uses pareidolia in an attempt to gain insight into a person's mental state. The Rorschach is a projective test, as it intentionally elicits the thoughts or feelings of respondents that are "projected" onto the ambiguous inkblot images.

Literature and art.

Renaissance artists and authors have shown a particular interest in pareidolia. In William Shakespeare's play "Hamlet", for example, the character Hamlet points at the sky and "demonstrates" his supposed madness in this exchange with Polonius:  <poem>HAMLET POLONIUS HAMLET POLONIUS HAMLET POLONIUS  Graphic artists have often used pareidolia in paintings and drawings: Andrea Mantegna, Leonardo Da Vinci, Giotto, Hans Holbein, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, and many more have shown images—often human faces—that due to pareidolia appear in objects or clouds. In his notebooks, Leonardo da Vinci wrote of pareidolia as a device for painters, writing: In The Mercy Seat (song) by Nick Cave and The Bad Seeds, the condemned man has mixed feelings about his pareidolic experiences : To objects and their fields  A ragged cup, a twisted mop The face of Jesus in my soup

Architecture.

Two 13th-century edifices in Turkey display architectural use of shadows of stone carvings at the entrance. Outright pictures are avoided in Islam but tessellations and calligraphic pictures were allowed, so designed "accidental" silhouettes of carved stone tessellations became a creative escape.

Religious.

There have been many instances of perceptions of religious imagery and themes, especially the faces of religious figures, in ordinary phenomena. Many involve images of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, the word Allah, or other religious phenomena: in September 2007 in Singapore, for example, a callus on a tree resembled a monkey, leading believers to pay homage to the "Monkey god" (either Sun Wukong or Hanuman) in the monkey tree phenomenon.  Publicity surrounding sightings of religious figures and other surprising images in ordinary objects has spawned a market for such items on online auctions like eBay. One famous instance was a grilled cheese sandwich with the face of the Virgin Mary.  During the September 11 attacks, television viewers supposedly saw the face of Satan in clouds of smoke billowing out of the World Trade Center after it was struck by the airplane. Another example of face recognition pareidolia originated in the fire at Notre Dame Cathedral, when a few observers claimed to see Jesus in the flames.

Mars canals.

A notable example of pareidolia occurred in 1877, when observers using telescopes to view the surface of Mars thought that they saw faint straight lines, which were then interpreted by some as canals (see Martian canal). It was theorized that the canals were possibly created by sentient beings. This created a sensation. In the next few years better photographic techniques and stronger telescopes were developed and applied, which resulted in new images in which the faint lines disappeared, and the canal theory was debunked as an example of pareidolia.

Computer vision.

Pareidolia can occur in computer vision, specifically in image recognition programs, in which vague clues can spuriously detect images or features. In the case of an artificial neural network, higher-level features correspond to more recognizable features, and enhancing these features brings out what the computer sees. These examples of pareidolia reflect the training set of images that the network has "seen" previously.  Striking visuals can be produced in this way, notably in the DeepDream software, which falsely detects and then exaggerates features such as eyes and faces in any image.

Speech.

In 1971 Konstantīns Raudive wrote "Breakthrough", detailing what he believed was the discovery of electronic voice phenomena (EVP). EVP has been described as auditory pareidolia. Allegations of backmasking in popular music, in which a listener claims a message has been recorded backward onto a track meant to be played forward, have also been described as auditory pareidolia. In 1995, the psychologist Diana Deutsch invented an algorithm for producing phantom words and phrases with the sounds coming from two stereo loudspeakers, with one to the listener's left and the other to his right. Each loudspeaker produces a phrase consisting of two words or syllables. The same sequence is presented repeatedly through both loudspeakers; however, they are offset in time so that when the first sound (word or syllable) is coming from the speaker on the left, the second sound is coming from the speaker on the right, and vice versa. After listening for a while, phantom words and phrases suddenly emerge, and these often appear to reflect what is on the listener's mind, and they transform perceptually into different words and phrases as the sequence continues.

Related phenomena.

A shadow person (also known as a shadow figure, shadow being or black mass) is often attributed to pareidolia. It is the perception of a patch of shadow as a living, humanoid figure, particularly as interpreted by believers in the paranormal or supernatural as the presence of a spirit or other entity.  Pareidolia is also what some skeptics believe causes people to believe that they have seen ghosts.

Pareidolia ( ) is the tendency for incorrect perception of a stimulus as an object, pattern or meaning known to the observer, such as seeing shapes in clouds, seeing faces in inanimate objects or abstract patterns, or hearing hidden messages in music. Pareidolia can be considered a subcategory of apophenia.

Pareidolie (z řeckého "para", "παρά" – postranní, falešný, "eidolon", "είδωλον" zdrobnělina od "eidos" – vzhled, tvar, podoba) je psychologický jev, při němž dochází k dotváření vnímaných neurčitých nebo nezřetelných podnětů ve smysluplné obrazy za pomoci fantazie. Typickým příkladem je rozeznávání tváří, zvířat a jiných objektů ve tvaru oblaků. Kromě těchto vizuálních pareidolií existují také pareidolie akustické, kdy je zvukovému podnětu (zvuky zvířat a předmětů) přisouzeno specifické citoslovce nebo konkrétní význam.


Etymology and history.

"Frottage" derives from the French verb "frotter", meaning "to rub". The term "frotteur", originally meaning "floor polisher", entered police jargon around 1882. Frotteuristic acts were interpreted as signs of a psychological disorder in 1887 and in ensuing work by French psychiatrist Valentin Magnan, who described three acts of "frottage" in an 1890 study. It was popularized by German sexologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing in his book "Psychopathia Sexualis", borrowing from Magnan's French terminology. Clifford Allen later coined "frotteurism" in his 1969 textbook of sexual disorders.  The "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" called this sexual disorder by the name "frottage" until the third edition (DSM III-R), but changed to "frotteurism" in the fourth edition, and now uses "frotteuristic disorder" in the fifth edition. Nevertheless, the term "frottage" still remains in some law codes where it is synonymous with the term "frotteurism".

Symptoms and classification.

The professional handbook of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", fifth edition, lists the following diagnostic criteria for "frotteuristic disorder".  If the individual has not acted on their interest and experiences no distress or impairment, they are considered to have a frotteuristic sexual interest, but not frotteuristic disorder. Some sexologists distinguish between frotteurism (as pelvic rubbing) and toucherism (as groping with hands), but the DSM does not. Sexologist Kurt Freund described frotteurism and toucherism as courtship disorders that occur at the tactile stage of human courtship.

Prevalence and legality.

The prevalence of frotteurism is unknown. The DSM estimates that 10%–14% of men seen in clinical settings for paraphilias or hypersexuality have frotteuristic disorder, indicating that the population prevalence is lower. However, frotteuristic acts, as opposed to frotteuristic disorder, may occur in up to 30% of men in the general population. The majority of frotteurs are male and the majority of victims are female, although female on male, female on female, and male on male frotteurs exist. This activity is often done in circumstances where the victim cannot easily respond, in a public place such as a crowded train or concert.  Usually, such nonconsensual sexual contact is viewed as a criminal offense: a form of sexual assault albeit often classified as a misdemeanor with minor legal penalties. Conviction may result in a sentence or psychiatric treatment.

Frotteurism is a paraphilic interest in rubbing, usually one's pelvic area or erect penis, against a non-consenting person for sexual pleasure. It may involve touching any part of the body, including the genital area. A person who practices frotteuristic acts is known as a "frotteur". Toucherism is sexual arousal based on grabbing or rubbing one's hands against an unexpecting (and non-consenting) person. It usually involves touching breasts, buttocks or genital areas, often while quickly walking across the victim's path. Some psychologists consider toucherism a manifestation of frotteurism, while others distinguish the two. In clinical medicine, treatment of frotteuristic disorder involves cognitive behavioral therapy coupled with the administration of a SSRI.

Frotérství (francouzsky: "frotteurisme") je parafilie spočívající v úmyslném vyhledávání dotyků a tření se o anonymní osoby, většinou opačného pohlaví za účelem sexuálního vzrušení. Uskutečňuje se v různých davech, tlačenicích, frontách, koncertech či v dopravních prostředcích, atp. Termín frotérství pochází z francouzského slovesa "frotter", které znamená „třít se.“ Označení frotér pak doslova znamená „ten, který se tře.“ Týká se zejména mužů.


Early life.

Randal Keith Orton was born in Knoxville, Tennessee, on April 1, 1980, the son of nurse Elaine and professional wrestler Bob Orton Jr. He is the grandson of Bob Orton and nephew of Barry Orton, both professional wrestlers. He has a younger brother named Nathan, who is a stand-up comedian, and a younger sister named Rebecca. Knowing the hardships of life as a professional wrestler, Orton's parents tried to

Professional wrestling career.

Training and early career (2000–2001).

Orton made his wrestling debut in 2000 at the Mid-Missouri Wrestling Association-Southern Illinois Conference Wrestling (MMWA-SICW) in St. Louis, Missouri, an offshoot of the historic St. Louis Wrestling Club headed by Sam Muchnick. There, he was trained

World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE.

Ohio Valley Wrestling (2001–2002).

In 2001, Orton signed a deal with the then World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and was sent to its developmental territory, Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) in Louisville, Kentucky, where he continued his training. During his time in OVW, Orton wrestled the likes of Rico Constantino and The Prototype and teamed with Bobby Eaton during a tag team title tournament. He won the OVW Hardcore Championship twice by defeating Mr. Black on

Evolution (2002–2004).

One of Orton's first official WWF appearances was March 16, 2002 at WrestleMania X8's Fan Axxess, where he was defeated by Tommy Dreamer. Orton's first televised WWF match was a victory against Hardcore Holly on "SmackDown!" on April 25, 2002. Soon after, Orton became a fan favorite and was placed in a series of matches with Holly. In September 2002, Orton was drafted to the Raw brand, where he defeated Stevie Richards in his debut on the show. Within weeks of his

Youngest world champion (2004–2005).

After losing the Intercontinental Championship, Orton became the number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship after winning a 20-man battle royal on July 26. At SummerSlam, Orton defeated Chris Benoit for the championship, thus becoming the youngest world champion in WWE history at the age of 24. Benoit congratulated Orton after the match, shaking his hand for showing the ability to "be a man". The following night on "Raw", after Orton successfully defended the title against Benoit in a rematch, Evolution threw Orton a mock celebration only to reveal that they were not pleased with his new victory. While Batista had Orton propped on his shoulders in elation, Triple H gave him a pleased thumbs-up and then abruptly changed it to a thumbs-down, which was followed by Batista dropping Orton to the mat. Triple H, Flair and Batista attacked Orton in the ring, resulting in Orton being kicked out of Evolution. The following week, he called out Orton and ordered him to hand over the championship, but he refused, spitting in Triple H's face and hitting him with

Feud with The Undertaker (2005−2006).

Orton then produced a copy of SmackDown magazine, which featured The Undertaker on the cover. Heeding Graham's advice, Orton said he would set himself apart from all other wrestlers by ending The Undertaker's undefeated streak at WrestleMania. Throughout March 2005, Orton taunted The Undertaker, claiming he was unafraid of him. On the March 21 "Raw", Orton turned into a villain once more after he delivered an "RKO" to his unsuspecting on-screen girlfriend, Stacy Keibler, knocking her unconscious. During Orton's promos, he ran for cover whenever signs of The Undertaker's appearance (lightning, darkness, or

Rated-RKO (2006–2007).

After Armageddon, Orton entered the 2006 Royal Rumble match as the thirtieth and final wrestler, but he was eliminated by the eventual winner of the match Rey Mysterio, who earned a world championship at WrestleMania 22. Orton challenged him to a match for his title shot at No Way Out. In the weeks preceding No Way Out, Orton made controversial remarks about Eddie Guerrero, Mysterio's friend who had died a few months previously, in an attempt to gain villain heat. Many fans felt the comments were highly distasteful so soon after Guerrero's death in November 2005. Orton won at No Way Out, earning Mysterio's title shot for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania 22. SmackDown General

WWE Champion (2007–2008).

On the July 23 "Raw", Orton was named number one contender for John Cena's WWE Championship. Three times before their scheduled bout at SummerSlam, Orton assaulted Cena with the RKO. Orton lost the title match when Cena pinned him after an "FU". The next night on "Raw", Orton demanded a rematch, but Raw General Manager William Regal denied him. He then appealed to Mr. McMahon, who offered him the shot if he "proved himself". That night, Orton interfered in Cena's match, assaulting him before kicking his father, who was at ringside, in the head. McMahon granted Orton his rematch at Unforgiven, which he won by disqualification when

The Legacy (2008–2010).

Upon being medically cleared to return to the ring, Orton was reinjured in a motorcycle accident. He returned to "Raw" on September 1, criticizing all the champions, including World Tag Team Champions Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase, who he berated and slapped for letting Cryme Tyme steal their belts. This inspired them to try to gain Orton's respect. They achieved this at Unforgiven when, with new stablemate Manu, they assaulted World Heavyweight Champion CM Punk, forcing him to vacate his title before his scheduled defense that night. Orton returned to in-ring action on the November 3 episode of "Raw", losing to Punk by disqualification when DiBiase interfered, resulting in Orton punting DiBiase in the head in retaliation. On the December 1 episode of "Raw", Orton proposed that he, Rhodes and Manu form an alliance. The stable, called "The Legacy", debuted the next week, defeating Batista and Triple H, Orton's former Evolution stablemates, in a three-on-two handicap match. Orton began feuding with the McMahon family on the January 19,

World championship reigns (2010–2012).

After The Legacy disbanded, Orton unsuccessfully challenged Jack Swagger for the World Heavyweight Championship at Extreme Rules in April. During a number one contender's match for the WWE Championship on "Raw", Orton was speared by Edge, costing him the match and setting up a bout at Over the Limit, Orton separated his right shoulder during the match, which ended in a double countout. At Fatal 4-Way in June, Orton competed in a fatal four-way WWE Championship match involving champion Cena, Edge, and Sheamus, who won the title after interference from The Nexus. On July 18 at Money in the Bank, Orton competed in a Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE Championship contract, which was won by The Miz. The following night on "Raw", he won a number one contender's match over Edge and Chris Jericho, earning a WWE Championship match against Sheamus at SummerSlam. Sheamus was disqualified for bringing a chair into the ring, giving Orton the win, but not the title. Immediately afterward, Orton hit Sheamus with the chair and an RKO onto the broadcast table. Orton defeated Sheamus, Wade Barrett, John Cena, Edge and Chris Jericho in a six-pack challenge elimination match to become WWE Champion for the sixth time at Night of Champions. After successfully defending

Rivalry with The Shield (2012–2013).

Orton returned on the July 30 "Raw", defeating Heath Slater. Orton began feuding with Mr. Money in the Bank Dolph Ziggler, after attacking him with the "RKO" when trying to cash his contract on a vulnerable Sheamus on the August 24 "SmackDown". The following week on "SmackDown", the two faced off in a match that was won by Orton. Three days later on "Raw", Orton was defeated by Ziggler in a rematch, after Ziggler pinned him while holding his tights. Orton and Ziggler faced each other again at Night of Champions where Orton won. On the September 28 "SmackDown", Orton was scheduled to face Big Show in a number one contender's match for the World Heavyweight Championship. However, a pre-match assault from Alberto Del Rio cost Orton the match and started a feud. Orton returned

The Authority (2013–2015).

On July 14 at Money in the Bank, Orton defeated Christian, CM Punk, Daniel Bryan, Rob Van Dam, and Sheamus to win the WWE Championship Money in the Bank ladder match, thus earning him an opportunity to challenge for the WWE Championship at a time of his choosing within the next year. On August 18 at SummerSlam, Orton turned heel after he cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on Daniel Bryan, who had just won the WWE Championship and had been subsequently attacked by special guest referee Triple H, who also counted the pinfall to give Orton his seventh WWE title. The following night on Raw, Orton was endorsed as the "face of the company" by Vince McMahon and the newly formed Authority (Triple H and Stephanie McMahon). On September 15 at Night of Champions, Orton lost the WWE Championship back to Bryan, however, Triple H stripped Bryan of the title the next night on "Raw", due to a fast count by referee Scott Armstrong, but refused to give the championship back to Orton. Orton and Bryan faced off for the vacant title on October 6 at Battleground, but the match ended in a no contest after Big Show interfered and knocked out both men. Orton once again challenged Bryan for the vacant championship at Hell in a Cell, where

Feuds with Brock Lesnar and Bray Wyatt (2016–2017).

On the July 7, 2016 episode of "SmackDown", Orton was revealed as Brock Lesnar's opponent for SummerSlam. On July 19 at the 2016 WWE draft, Orton was drafted to SmackDown, while Lesnar was drafted to Raw. On July 24 at Battleground, Orton returned as a guest on Chris Jericho's "Highlight Reel" to be interviewed about his match with Lesnar. Orton explained that he wanted to face Lesnar to prove that he belonged in the top spot, before executing an "RKO" on Jericho. On the July 26 episode of "SmackDown Live", Orton interrupted Intercontinental Champion The Miz during his "Miz TV" segment before defeating Miz in a non-title match. During Lesnar's promo on the August 1 episode of "Raw", Orton appeared and delivered an "RKO" to Lesnar. The following night on "SmackDown Live", Lesnar attacked Orton during his match, delivering an "F-5" to Orton. At SummerSlam, Lesnar defeated Orton by technical knockout after

United States Champion (2017–2018).

Orton started a feud with Rusev, whom he defeated in 10 seconds at SummerSlam. On the September 5 episode of "SmackDown Live", Orton lost to Shinsuke Nakamura in a number one contender's match for the WWE Championship. On the September 19 episode of "SmackDown Live", Orton defeated Aiden English; after the match, he was challenged by Rusev to an impromptu match, which he lost in 10 seconds after a distraction from English. At Hell in a Cell, Orton defeated Rusev to end the feud. On the October 24 episode of "SmackDown Live", Orton defeated Sami Zayn to qualify for a spot on Team SmackDown at Survivor Series. During the match, Orton eliminated Finn Bálor and survived until only he and Team SmackDown captain Shane McMahon remained, but was eliminated by Braun Strowman. Team SmackDown ultimately went

Various feuds (2018–present).

After a brief hiatus, Orton returned at Extreme Rules and attacked Jeff Hardy after Hardy's match against Shinsuke Nakamura for the United States Championship, turning heel in the process. Two nights later on "SmackDown Live", Orton interfered in the rematch and attacked Hardy again. On the August 21 episode of "SmackDown Live", Orton and Hardy faced off in a match that ended in a no-contest, with Hardy continuing to attack Orton after the match. The following week, Hardy challenged Orton to a Hell in a Cell match at the namesake pay-per-view, which Orton accepted. At the event on September 16, Orton defeated Hardy. On the October 9 episode of "SmackDown Live", Orton defeated a returning Big Show to qualify for the WWE World Cup at Crown Jewel. At the event, he lost to Rey Mysterio in the first round. He then started a feud with Mysterio, stealing Mysterio's mask on the November 21 episode of "SmackDown Live" and carrying it with him for a few weeks. At, Orton lost to Mysterio in a chairs match. At the Royal Rumble pay-per-view on January 27, 2019, Orton entered the namesake match at number 29, eliminating Mysterio before he was himself eliminated by Andrade. Orton competed in the Elimination Chamber match at the namesake event, where he eliminated AJ Styles before being eliminated by Kofi Kingston. He then started a feud with AJ Styles, with the two berating each other about their history in the wrestling business. At WrestleMania 35, Orton lost to Styles. In July, Orton reignited his feud with Kingston from 2009 after he selected Orton as his SummerSlam opponent with the WWE Championship on the line. At SummerSlam, the match ended in a double countout, resulting in Kingston retaining the chamionship. They had a rematch at Clash of Champions, which Orton lost. On the September 30 episode of "Raw", Orton joined Ric Flair's team

Professional wrestling style and persona.

Orton's most notable move is his finishing maneuver, the RKO, a jumping variation of a cutter. The name is derived from his initials (Randal Keith Orton). He also previously used a punt kick, which saw him run up to an opponent on their hands and knees and kick them in the head; within a storyline, this usually caused a concussion or some other sort of severe head injury to his opponent, and was often used to write off the on-screen characters of wrestlers who were scheduled to take time off. However, the move was legitimately banned by WWE management in 2012 due

Acting career.

A former Marine, Orton was set to star in the action film "The Marine 2" (2009), but was replaced by Ted DiBiase after injuring his collarbone. He had a supporting role as the father of a school bully in the comedy-drama film "That's What I Am" (2011). He signed on to star in the

Other media.

In 2004, Orton appeared on the talk show "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" to promote Taboo Tuesday. In March 2007, he appeared alongside Edge, John Cena and Bobby Lashley on the game

Personal life.

Orton married Samantha Speno on September 21, 2007. Their only child, a daughter named Alanna Marie Orton, was born on July 12, 2008. They separated in late 2012 and divorced in June 2013. On November 14, 2015, Orton married Kimberly Kessler, who was previously a member of his fan club. Their first child together (Kessler's fourth and Orton's second), a daughter named Brooklyn Rose Orton, was born on November

Controversies.

In March 2007, "Sports Illustrated" posted an article on its website as part of its continuing series investigating a steroid and growth hormone ring used by a number of professional athletes in several sports. The article mentioned several current and former WWE wrestlers, including Orton, who was alleged to have obtained anastrozole, clomiphene citrate, nandrolone, oxandrolone, stanozolol, and testosterone. WWE simply claimed that the allegations preceded their Talent Wellness Program, launched in February 2006.  In August 2018, Orton was investigated by WWE for sexual harassment when it was claimed that he had exposed himself to new members of the company's writing staff during his early career, though nothing came of the investigation.  In October 2019, Orton received criticism for saying "nigga" while playing a "Call of Duty" game on a live Twitch stream.

Randal Keith Orton (born April 1, 1980) is an American professional wrestler and actor. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand.

Randal Keith Orton (* 1. dubna 1980 v Knoxville, Tennessee, USA) je americký profesionální wrestler třetí generace. Své pravé jméno užívá i v ringu, ale místo "Randal" je zdrobněno na "Randy" a jeho prostřední jméno "Keith" se nepoužívá.


Demonym.

The original demonym for the State of Rio de Janeiro is "fluminense", from Latin "flumen, fluminis", meaning "river". While "carioca" (from Old Tupi) is an older term, first attested in 1502, "fluminense" was sanctioned in 1783, a few years after the city had become the capital of the Brazilian colonies, as the official demonym of the Royal Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro and subsequently of the Province of Rio de Janeiro. From 1783 through the Imperial Regime, "carioca" remained an unofficial term which other Brazilians used for the inhabitants of the city as well as the province. During the first years of the Brazilian Republic, "carioca" came to be the name given to those who lived in the city's slums or a pejorative used to refer to the bureaucratic elite of the Federal District. Only when the city lost its status as Federal District (to Brasília) and became the State of Guanabara in 1960 did "carioca" become an official demonym along with "guanabarino". In 1975, Guanabara State was incorporated into Rio de Janeiro State, becoming the present City of Rio de Janeiro. "Carioca" became the demonym of the city, while "fluminense" continues to be used for the state as a whole.  Although "carioca" officially refers only to the city, the term is commonly used to refer to the entire state. Contemporary social movements like "Somos Todos Cariocas" ("We are all Cariocas") have tried to achieve the official recognition of "carioca" as a co-official demonym of the state.

History.

Hereditary captainships.

European presence in Rio de Janeiro is as old as Brazil itself, dating back to 1502. Rio de Janeiro originated from parts of the captainships of de Tomé and São Vicente. Between 1555 and 1567, the territory was occupied by the French, who intended to install a colony, France Antarctique. Aiming to prevent the occupation of the Frenchmen, in March 1565, the city of Rio de Janeiro was established by Estácio de Sá.  In the 17th century, cattle raising and sugar cane cultivation stimulated the city's progress, which was definitively assured when the port started to export gold extracted from Minas Gerais in the 18th century. In 1763, Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Colonial Brazil. With the flight of the Portuguese royal family from Portugal to Brazil in 1808, the region soon benefited from urban reforms to house the Portuguese. Chief among the promoted changes were: the transformation of agencies of public administration and justice, the creation of new churches, and hospitals, the foundation of the first bank of the country - the Banco do Brasil - and the Royal Press, with the Gazette do Rio of Janeiro. The following years witnessed the creation of the Jardim Botânico (Botanical Garden) and the Academia Real Militar.  There followed a process of cultural enhancement influenced not only by the arrival of the Royal Family, but also by the presence of European graphic artists who were hired to record the society and Brazilian natural features. During this same time, the Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios (The Royal School of Sciences, Arts, and Works) was founded as well.

The neutral city.

In 1834, the city of Rio de Janeiro was transformed into a "neutral city", remaining as capital of the state, while the captainships became provinces, with headquarters in Niterói, a neighboring city. In 1889, the city became the capital of the Republic, the neutral city became the federal district and the province a state. In 1894, Petrópolis became the capital of Rio de Janeiro, until 1902 when Niterói recovered its capital status. With the relocation of the federal capital to Brasília in 1960, the city of Rio de Janeiro became Guanabara State. Niterói remained the state capital for Rio de Janeiro state, while Rio de Janeiro served the same status for Guanabara.

The new state of Rio de Janeiro.

In 1975, the states of Guanabara and Rio de Janeiro were merged under the name of Rio de Janeiro, with the city of Rio de Janeiro as state capital. The symbols of the former State of Rio de Janeiro were preserved, while the symbols of Guanabara were kept by the city of Rio de Janeiro.

Geography.

The state is part of the Mata Atlântica biome and is made up of two distinct morphological areas: a coastal plain, known as "baixada", and a plateau, which are disposed in parallel fashion from the shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean inland towards Minas Gerais.  The coastline extends 635 kilometers and is formed by the bays of Guanabara, Sepetiba, and Ilha Grande. There are prominent slopes near the ocean, featuring also diverse environments, such as restinga vegetation, bays, lagoons and tropical forests.  Most of the state however consists of highlands, often higher than 1000 m, formed by several mountain chains like the Serra do Mar which separates Rio from the state of São Paulo. The highest point of the state, the Pico das Agulhas Negras (Black Needles Peak) is located in the Serra da Mantiqueira which forms the physical border with neighbouring Minas Gerais.  Its principal rivers are the Guandu, the Piraí, the Paraíba do Sul, the Macaé and the Muriaé.

Vegetation and animal life.

Tropical forests used to cover more than 90% of the territory of Rio; large portions were devastated for urbanization and for plantations (coffee, sugar cane); preserved areas can be found in the steepest parts of the mountain chains.  The state's tropical coast and river areas are the only remaining habitat of the golden lion tamarin.

Climate.

The entire state is located within the tropics (the Tropic of Capricorn passes just a few kilometers south of the state's southernmost point) so a tropical climate is predominant. However, due to altitude, temperatures can drop to freezing point or below in some parts. Frost is not uncommon in some mountainous cities such as Teresópolis, Nova Friburgo and Petrópolis and snow has been reported occasionally in the Itatiaia National Park.  Annual mean temperatures on the coast are around, in summer and in winter. In the mountains annual mean temperatures are around but can range from at an elevation of above sea level to in the Itatiaia National Park. Summers in these areas tend to be warm but not hot, with averages around. Winters are quite chilly by Brazilian standards with lows around  Rains tend to be concentrated in the summer (December to March) with a dry season in the winter (June to September). Most of the state receives between of rainfall in a year.

Demographics.

According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 15,772,000 people residing in the state. The population density was.  Urbanization: 96.9% (2004); Population growth: 1.3% (1991–2000).  The last PNAD (National Household Survey) census revealed the following numbers: 8,509,000 White people (54.2%), 5,302,000 Pardo (Multiracial) people (33.8%), 1,809,000 Black people (11.5%), 25,000 Asian people (0.2%), 19,000 Amerindian people (0.1%). People of Portuguese ancestry predominate in most of the state. The Brazilian census of 1920 showed that 39,74% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil lived in Rio de Janeiro. Including all of the Rio de Janeiro, the proportion raised to 46,30% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil. The numerical presence of the Portuguese was extremely high, accounting for 72% of the foreigners who lived in the capital. Portuguese born people accounted for 20,36% of the population of Rio, and those with a Portuguese father or a Portuguese mother accounted for 30,84%. In other words, native born Portuguese and their children accounted for 51,20% of the inhabitants of Rio, or a total of 267664 people in 1890.  Other European ethnic groups, such as Swiss, Finnish and Germans settled mostly in the mountainous areas (Nova Friburgo, Petrópolis, etc.) and in the capital. Italians and Spaniards are also present in the capital as well as in the surrounding cities.  People of African descent are numerous, particularly in the metropolitan area of the capital city. Those of mixed-race ancestry (tri-racials, "mulatos", and some "caboclos" and "cafuzos") make up the majority of the population in many cities. The city of Itaguaí was considered a Japanese colony in the 20th century, but many of the Asian Cariocas that once lived there moved overseas (most of them to Japan) as well to other Brazilian states like São Paulo.

Religion.

According to the 2010 brazilian census, there were 7 324 315 Roman Catholics (45.8%), 4 696 906 Protestants (29.4%), 647 572 Spiritists (4%), and 2 416 303 people without religion (14.6%). There are also adherents to Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, esoterism, neo-paganism, afro-brazilian religions and asian religions. Together, the adherents of these and other minority constitute 6.2% of Rio de Janeiro's population.  Rio de Janeiro is the state with the lowest percentage of Catholics in Brazil, and the state with the highest percentage of people without religion (such as atheists, and agnostics). In addition, it is the state with the highest percentage of spiritists in Brazil. The variety of denominations is a mark of the presence of religious diversity in the demographic profile of the state.

Economy.

The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 51.6%, followed by the service sector at 47.8%. Agriculture represents 0.6% of GDP (2004). Rio de Janeiro (state) exports: petroleum 44.8%, fuel 17.5%, siderurgy 13%, chemicals 3.6%, not ferrous metals 2.8%, vehicles 2.1% (2002).  Participation in the Brazilian economy: 15.6% (2004).  There are 3,915,724 vehicles in the state (as of Jan. 2006), 10 million mobile phones, 5.3 million telephones, and 92 cities.

Education.

The state of Rio de Janeiro has the 4th best education in Brazil, second only to the Federal District, São Paulo and Goiás. The state has the fourth lowest illiteracy rate in Brazil, about 4% of its population. The illiteracy rate in the state is compared to countries like Singapore, Portugal, and China.

Colleges and universities.

Most of the state's leading universities are public. The most prestigious university is the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, the second best in Brazil, and fifth best in Latin America, second only to the University of São Paulo, the best in Latin America, according to the QS World University Rankings. Some other well-known colleges, and universities in the state:

Culture.

Carnival.

The occasion of the last five days leading up to Lent is annually cause for a great explosion of joy in Rio – a round-the-clock party uniting emotions, creativity, plasticity, colours, sounds and much fantasy. It is the greatest popular party in the world, a unique record of the rich cultural melting pot typical of Brazil. In Rio, it is celebrated in various ways, most famously through the elaborate competition of samba schools comprising thousands of dancers in each school, each of which has composed a new "enredo de samba" (samba script) for the year that is released and popularized by the time Carnaval arrives, thus already recognizable for its lyrics, themes, and rhythms by the energized audience in the bleachers thronging to see the all-night competition of one samba school after another until dawn. Each samba school consists of 'alas' (wings) of samba dancers costumed to carry out one aspect of the theme of the song they all sing. This event began in the 1930s as a diversion for what politicians sought to assuage as an otherwise restive populace. It came to be held on the bleacher-lined Marques du Sapucai for decades until a covered sambadrome was built in the 1980s.  In other parts of the city, Carnaval festivities include the Banda de Ipanema, a street parade of transvestite costuming that draws its throngs of revelers to the streets of Ipanema. In the city center on the final night of Carnaval, into the wee hours of Quarta Cinza (Ash Wednesday), a very different flavor of street parade is provided by Quilombo (the word given to slave refugee colonies) with authentic African costuming. For others, Carnaval is a time of clubbing in costume in more exclusive locales in the Zona Sul.  The film "Black Orpheus" is set in the context of Carnaval in Rio.

New Year's Eve.

In Rio de Janeiro, a globally unique New Year's Eve celebration involves the whole city population. Local inhabitants and visitors join in flocking to the ocean to celebrate the night of the year when thanks are given and wishes are made to the goddess of the sea, Iemanja. In honor of her traditional garb, celebrants dress in white and bear gifts like flowers, especially white, and even blancmange. At midnight, beachgoers on the typically hot midsummer night, walk into the surf and cast their flowers (and wishes for the coming year) on the lapping waves to be carried out to honor the goddess (the tradition says that wishes will turn to reality if the waves take the gifts to the sea, and won't if the gifts come back to the beach). Nearby parties, concerts and music last into the dawn, many choosing to sleep it off on the beach on New Year's Day. In recent years, campfires and the oral tradition of shared stories around statues of Iemanja has modernized into massive fireworks displays and to a mega-concert on the famous beach of Copacabana.

Infrastructure.

International airport.

Since August 2004, with the transfer of many flights from Santos Dumont Airport, to Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport, Rio de Janeiro has second international airport of Brazil. According to data from the official Brazilian travel bureau, Embratur, nearly 40% of foreign tourists who visit Brazil choose Rio as their gateway, meaning Galeão Airport. Besides linking Rio to the rest of Brazil with domestic flights, Galeão has connections to 18 other countries. It can handle up to 15 million passengers a year in two passenger terminals. Located 20 kilometers from downtown Rio, the international airport is served by several quick access routes, such as the Linha Vermelha/Red Line and Linha Amarela/Yellow Line freeways and Avenida Brasil/Brazil Avenue, thus conveniently serving residents of the city's southern, northern and western zones. There are special shuttle buses linking Galeão to Santos Dumont, and bus and taxi service to the rest of the city. The airport complex also has Brazil's longest runway at, and one of South America's largest and best equipped cargo logistics terminals.

Highways.

The main Federal highways that cross the state are:

Port.

Construction is underway on a new Port of Açu. The port will cover 36 square miles. This USD 1.6 billion project at Sao Joao da Barra, approximately 280 kilometers from Rio de Janeiro, has been under construction since October 2007 and will be operational in 2013. It is forecast that the port will eventually handle over 63 million tons of iron ore, 10 million tons of steel products, 15 million tons of coal, 5 million tons of dry bulk and 7.5 million tons of general cargo. A breakwater damn to protect ships from ocean waves is also planned.

Sports.

Sports are a very popular pastime in Rio de Janeiro. The most popular is association football. Rio de Janeiro is home to four traditional Brazilian football clubs: Flamengo, Vasco, Fluminense and Botafogo. The state football league is Campeonato Carioca. The city of Rio de Janeiro hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The city built a new stadium near the Maracanã, to hold 45,000 people. It was named after Brazilian ex-FIFA president João Havelange.  Other notable sports events in Rio include the MotoGP Brazilian Grand Prix and the World Beach volleyball finals. Jacarepaguá was the place of Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix into 1978-1990 and the Champ Car event into 1996-1999. WCT/WQS Surf championships were contested on the beaches from 1985-2001.  On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games, which will be the first to be held in South America. The games began in August. Two years ago, in 2014, the FIFA games were held. Much of the infrastructure was used again.

State flag.

An eagle, symbol of Brazil's royal family, appears on the state flag with the rock formation "Dedo de Deus" ("The Finger of God") near Teresópolis in the background. The outer part of the coat of arms represents the state's agricultural richness, sugarcane (left) and coffee (right).

Rio de Janeiro ( River of January) is one of the 27 federative units of Brazil. It has the second largest economy of Brazil, with the largest being that of the state of São Paulo.

Rio de Janeiro je brazilský spolkový stát na jihovýchodě Brazílie. Sousedí se spolkovými státy São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo a leží na pobřeží Atlantského oceánu. Stát Rio de Janiero měl podle sčítání lidu v roce 2005 celkem 15 397 366 obyvatel a jeho rozloha činila 43 696,1 km2. Hustota zalidnění činí 356,1 obyvatel na km2. Hlavním městem tohoto spolkového státu je stejnojmenné město Rio de Janeiro.


Tournament.

Before this year, the tournament was won by a home favorite on several occasions: Guy Forget in 1996, Fabrice Santoro in 1999, Arnaud Clément in 2006, and Gilles Simon in 2007. The record for most titles is three, won by the Swiss player Marc Rosset in its first two years in 1993 and 1994, as well as in 2000; the Swedish player Thomas Enqvist also won three, in 1997, 1998, and 2002. It is also one of the few ATP tournaments to have been won only by European players, with France with five (Forget, Santoro, Clément, Simon, and this year's winner Jo-Wilfried Tsonga), Sweden with 4 (Enqvist, Joachim Johansson), Switzerland with four (Rosset, Roger Federer), Germany with one (Boris Becker), Russia with one (Yevgeny Kafelnikov), Slovakia with one (Dominik Hrbatý), and Great Britain with one (Andy Murray).

Entrants.

Seeds.

Richard Gasquet was the sixth seed, but had to withdraw.

Other entrants.

The following players received wildcards into the main draw:  The following players received entry from the qualifying draw:

Champions.

Singles.

Previous winners in the field included Gilles Simon, Arnaud Clément, and Fabrice Santoro, with Simon being the only one to advance past the second round. Seeded players suffered mixed fortunes with Marat Safin, Tomáš Berdych and Gaël Monfils all losing in the first round. Richard Gasquet was also forced to pull out though injury.  In the quarterfinals, top seed Novak Djokovic advanced past Jan Hernych and second seed Simon advanced past compatriot Julien Benneteau. The other two matches were harder victories for Michaël Llodra over Mikhail Youzhny and fourth seed Jo-Wilfried Tsonga over eighth seed Feliciano López. In the semifinals, unseeded Michaël Llodra defeated Simon 7–6 6–2, while Tsonga defeated Djokovic for the fourth time in a row 6–4, 7–6. This set up an all-French battle between Tsonga and Llodra, which saw Tsonga come out in top in a close-fought match 7–5, 7–6.  Result of the final:

Doubles.

Previous winners in the field included Arnaud Clément & Michaël Llodra, Pavel Vízner, Martin Damm, Fabrice Santoro, and Simon Aspelin (the last four all had different partners previously). The semifinals consisted of top duo Julian Knowle & Andy Ram, the Czech pairing of Tomáš Berdych & Jan Hernych, Stephen Huss & Ross Hutchins, and the home favorites Clément & Llodra. Clément & Llodra defeated Huss & Hutchins 6–2 7–6, while Knowle & Ram advanced into their expected final with a 7–6 6–2 victory over the Czechs. Result of the final:

The 2009 Open 13 was a men's tennis tournament played on indoor hard courts. It was the 17th edition of the Open 13, and was part of the World Tour 250 tier of the 2009 ATP World Tour. It took place at the Palais des Sports in Marseille, France, from 16 February through 22 February 2009.

Tenisový turnaj ATP Open 13 2009 se konal ve dnech 16. – 22. února ve francouzském Marseille v hale na kurtech s tvrdým povrchem. Odměny činily 576,000 EUR.


Plot.

A husband and wife, Jan and Eva, are former violinists who are living on a farm on a rural island during a civil war. Their radio and telephone do not work, and Eva expresses frustration with Jan's apparent preference of escapism from the conflict, while they debate whether they can have children and if Jan is selfish. The couple visit the town, and hear a rumor that troops will soon come, and meet with an older man who has been called to duty.  When they return, their home area is bombed, and they see a parachutist descend on it. Jan and Eva are captured by the invading force and interviewed by a military journalist on camera, for a segment on the viewpoints of the "liberated" population. Eva initially seems indifferent to the conflict, but denies neutrality, and Jan declines to speak, and they are released. They are later captured again, and as soldiers interrogate them, the troops play a film of the interview, in which Eva's words have been dubbed over with incriminating speech. This is primarily a scare tactic.  Eventually, they are released by Col. Jacobi, who had formerly served as the mayor. After the couple returns home, their relationship is strained. Jacobi becomes a regular, if not uncomfortably constant, visitor who treats them with gifts but also has the power to send the couple to a work camp. This relationship is manipulative. Jacobi convinces Eva to provide him with sexual favors in exchange for his bank account savings. They go into the green house to have sex while Jan is resting. He wakes, calling Eva's name. Eventually, he goes upstairs and finds Jacobi's savings on the bed and begins to cry. Eva enters, while Jacobi stays outside and turns to leave. She then comments to a weeping Jan that he can continue sobbing if he feels it will help. Soldiers arrive, and Jacobi explains his freedom can be bought, as the side of the war who is here is in desperate need of money. Jacobi, the soldiers, and Eva ask Jan for the money. Jan states he does not know what money they are talking about. The soldiers raid the house to look for it, in vain. They hand Jan a gun to execute Jacobi, and he does. After the soldiers leave, Jan reveals he had the money in his pocket, to Eva's disgust. This has split their relationship irreparably and causes repeated breakdowns. The relationship grows silent and cold. When Jan and Eva meet a young soldier, Eva wants to feed him and allow him to sleep. Jan violently takes him away to shoot and rob him.  Eva follows Jan towards the sea, and he uses the money from Jacobi in order to buy them seats on a fishing boat. While at sea, the boat's motor fails. The man steering the boat kills himself by lowering himself overboard. The boat later finds itself stuck in the middle of floating dead bodies, unable to move forward and continue. As the boat takes away the refugees, Eva tells Jan of her dream: she walks down a beautiful city street with a shaded park, until planes come and set fire to the city and its rose vines. She and Jan have had a daughter, whom she is holding in her arms. They watch the roses burn, which she states "wasn't awful because it was so beautiful". She feels she had to remember something, but couldn't.

Themes.

Author Jerry Vermilye wrote that in exploring "the thread of violence intruding on ordinary lives", "Hour of the Wolf" (1968), "Shame" and "The Passion of Anna" represent a trilogy. Author Amir Cohen-Shalev concurred the films form a trilogy. In particular, "Shame" depicts the "disintegration of humanity in war". The violence, which author Tarja Laine believed represented a civil war in Sweden, is depicted as "apparently meaningless". Marc Gervais writes "Shame", as a war film, does not address what either of the two sides of the war stand for, and does not venture into propaganda or a statement against totalitarianism, instead focusing on "human disintegration, this time extending it to a broader social dimension in the life of one small community". The film delves into the concept of shame, associating it with the "moral failure with the self" bringing about a "traumatic configuration" in character, with Von Sydow's character developing from coward to murderer.  Journalist Camilla Lundberg observed a pattern in Bergman's films that the protagonists are often musicians, though in an interview Bergman claimed he was not aware of such a trend. Author Per F. Broman believed "Shame" fits this trend in that the characters are violinists, but remarked that music did not seem very relevant to the plot. Laine suggested memories of playing the violin represent an "if-only" theme, in which the characters imagine a better life they could have had. Cohen-Shalev wrote that, like "Persona" and "The Passion of Anna", "Shame" follows an "artist as fugitive" theme touching on issues of guilt and self-hatred.  Critic Renata Adler believed that "The 'Shame' of the title is God's". However, other authors believe the film differs from Bergman's earlier works, inasmuch as it is less concerned with God.

Production.

Development.

Ingmar Bergman wrote the screenplay for "Shame", completing it in spring 1967. He explained the origin of the story:  The controversial Vietnam War was being fought at the time, and while Bergman denied the film was a statement on the conflict, he remarked that "Privately, my view of the war in Vietnam is clear. The war should have been over a long time ago and the Americans gone". He also stated "As an artist, I am horror-stricken by what is happening in the world". He envisioned Jan and Eva as Social Democrats since that party subsidized culture.

Filming.

Shooting began in September 1967. The film was shot on the island of Fårö, where the filmmakers had a house built to portray the Rosenberg residence. The war scenes required trompe-l'œil effects, with Bergman and cinematographer Sven Nykvist burning miniature churches and making small streams look like violent rivers. Nykvist also employed a substantial number of shots with hand-held cameras and zoom lenses. Another location was Visby in Gotland; filming wrapped on 23 November.  After shooting completed, Fårö's environmental regulations required the Rosenberg house be burned, but Bergman had developed an attachment to its appearance and saved it by claiming there were plans to use it in another film. He began writing "The Passion of Anna", and with Von Sydow and Ullmann still contracted to work with him, envisioned "The Passion of Anna" as "virtually a sequel".

Release.

The film had its debut in the International Cinema Incontri in Sorrento, Italy, which Bergman could not attend due to an ear infection. It opened in Stockholm on 29 September 1968.  In North America, "Skammen" was released under the title "Shame". It opened in New York City on 12 December 1968. MGM released "Shame" on DVD both in the U.S. and the U.K. as part of a box set including "Hour of the Wolf", "The Passion of Anna", "The Serpent's Egg" and "Persona", though the U.K. box set omits "Persona". The Criterion Collection announced a Blu-ray release in Region A for 20 November 2018, along with 38 other Bergman films, in the set "Ingmar Bergman's Cinema".

Reception.

Critical reception.

In Sweden, Mauritz Edström wrote in "Dagens Nyheter" that the film signified Bergman dealing less with his own inner conflict to something more contemporary and more important than one person. Torsten Bergmark, also in "Dagens Nyheter", wrote Bergman had found a new message, one of how a person without religion, Jan in this case, is left with self-loathing, while Eva is Bergman's "new solidarity".  In the United States, Pauline Kael reviewed the film in "The New Yorker" in December 1968. She was an admirer of the film, writing ""Shame" is a masterpiece,... a vision of the effect of war on two people". She praised Liv Ullmann as "superb in the demanding central role" and Gunnar Björnstrand as "beautifully restrained as an aging man clinging to the wreckage of his life". Renata Adler, writing for "The New York Times", called it "Dry, beautifully photographed, almost arid in its inspiration". Judith Crist of "New York" called it "Bergman's definitive apocalyptic vision, painful and powerful". However, Crist added the kind of people who could learn from it did not usually watch Bergman films.  In 2008, Roger Ebert gave "Shame" four stars, noting its timing during the Vietnam War and calling it "angry and bleak film that was against all war" and "a portrait of a couple torn from their secure lives and forced into a horrifying new world of despair". However, he remarked the film was less remembered than other Bergman films at the time of his writing. In 2015, Drew Hunt of the "Chicago Reader" placed it in Bergman's top five films, judging it "A war film that's not actually about war". The film has a 65% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 17 reviews with an average rating of 6.9/10.

Accolades.

The film was selected as the Swedish entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 41st Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee. Liv Ullmann won the award for Best Actress at the 6th Guldbagge Awards.

Shame () is a 1968 Swedish drama film written and directed by Ingmar Bergman, and starring Liv Ullmann and Max von Sydow. Ullmann and von Sydow play Eva and Jan, a politically uninvolved couple and former violinists whose home comes under threat by civil war. They are accused by one side of sympathy for the enemy, and their relationship deteriorates while the couple flees. The story explores themes of shame, moral decline, self-loathing and violence.

Válečný autorský film Hanba () z roku 1968 je po Hodině vlků druhou částí ostrovní trilogie švédského režiséra Bergmana. Bergman zde znovu studuje téma partnerského soužití páru Jana a Evy značně podobného vztahu Johana a Almy z Hodiny vlků; v obou filmech ztvárněnými bergmanovskými herci Sydowem a Ullmannovou.