Definition.

No agreement exists as to the possibility of defining negation, as to its logical status, function, and meaning, as to its field of applicability..., and as to the interpretation of the negative judgment, (F.H. Heinemann 1944).  "Classical negation" is an operation on one logical value, typically the value of a proposition, that produces a value of "true" when its operand is false and a value of "false" when its operand is true. So, if statement formula_1 is true, then formula_3 (pronounced "not P") would therefore be false; and conversely, if formula_3 is false, then formula_1 would be true.  The truth table of formula_3 is as follows:  Negation can be defined in terms of other logical operations. For example, formula_3 can be defined as formula_14 (where formula_15 is logical consequence and formula_16 is absolute falsehood). Conversely, one can define formula_16 as formula_18 for any proposition formula_19 (where formula_20 is logical conjunction). The idea here is that any contradiction is false. While these ideas work in both classical and intuitionistic logic, they do not work in paraconsistent logic, where contradictions are not necessarily false. In classical logic, we also get a further identity, formula_21 can be defined as formula_22, where formula_23 is logical disjunction.  Algebraically, classical negation corresponds to complementation in a Boolean algebra, and intuitionistic negation to pseudocomplementation in a Heyting algebra. These algebras provide a semantics for classical and intuitionistic logic respectively.

Notation.

The negation of a proposition formula_24 is notated in different ways in various contexts of discussion and fields of application. Among these variants are the following:  The notation N"p" is Łukasiewicz notation.  In set theory formula_25 is also used to indicate 'not member of': formula_26 is the set of all members of formula_27 that are not members of formula_28.  No matter how it is notated or symbolized, the negation formula_3 can be read as "it is not the case that formula_1", "not that formula_1", or usually more simply as "not formula_1".

Properties.

Double negation.

Within a system of classical logic, double negation, that is, the negation of the negation of a proposition formula_1, is logically equivalent to formula_1. Expressed in symbolic terms, formula_35. In intuitionistic logic, a proposition implies its double negation but not conversely. This marks one important difference between classical and intuitionistic negation. Algebraically, classical negation is called an involution of period two.  However, in intuitionistic logic we do have the equivalence of formula_36. Moreover, in the propositional case, a sentence is classically provable if its double negation is intuitionistically provable. This result is known as Glivenko's theorem.

Distributivity.

De Morgan's laws provide a way of distributing negation over disjunction and conjunction :

Linearity.

Let formula_39 denote the logical xor operation. In Boolean algebra, a linear function is one such that:  If there exists formula_40, formula_41, for all formula_42.  Another way to express this is that each variable always makes a difference in the truth-value of the operation or it never makes a difference. Negation is a linear logical operator.

Self dual.

In Boolean algebra a self dual function is one such that:  formula_43 for all formula_44. Negation is a self dual logical operator.

Negations of quantifiers.

In first-order logic, there are two quantifiers, one is the universal quantifier formula_45 (means "for all") and the other is the existential quantifier formula_46 (means "there exists"). The negation of one quantifier is the other quantifier (formula_47 and formula_48). For example, with the predicate "P" as ""x" is mortal" and the domain of x as the collection of all humans, formula_49 means "a person x in all humans is mortal" or "all humans are mortal". The negation of it is formula_47 meaning "there exists a person "x" in all humans who is not mortal" or "there exists someone who lives forever".

Rules of inference.

There are a number of equivalent ways to formulate rules for negation. One usual way to formulate classical negation in a natural deduction setting is to take as primitive rules of inference "negation introduction" (from a derivation of formula_1 to both formula_19 and formula_53, infer formula_3; this rule also being called "reductio ad absurdum"), "negation elimination" (from formula_1 and formula_3 infer formula_19; this rule also being called "ex falso quodlibet"), and "double negation elimination" (from formula_58 infer formula_1). One obtains the rules for intuitionistic negation the same way but by excluding double negation elimination.  Negation introduction states that if an absurdity can be drawn as conclusion from formula_1 then formula_1 must not be the case (i.e. formula_1 is false (classically) or refutable (intuitionistically) or etc.). Negation elimination states that anything follows from an absurdity. Sometimes negation elimination is formulated using a primitive absurdity sign formula_16. In this case the rule says that from formula_1 and formula_3 follows an absurdity. Together with double negation elimination one may infer our originally formulated rule, namely that anything follows from an absurdity.  Typically the intuitionistic negation formula_3 of formula_1 is defined as formula_14. Then negation introduction and elimination are just special cases of implication introduction (conditional proof) and elimination (modus ponens). In this case one must also add as a primitive rule "ex falso quodlibet".

Programming language and ordinary language.

As in mathematics, negation is used in computer science to construct logical statements. if (!(r == t))  The exclamation mark "codice_1" signifies logical NOT in B, C, and languages with a C-inspired syntax such as C++, Java, JavaScript, Perl, and PHP. "codice_2" is the operator used in ALGOL 60, BASIC, and languages with an ALGOL- or BASIC-inspired syntax such as Pascal, Ada, Eiffel and Seed7. Some languages (C++, Perl, etc.) provide more than one operator for negation. A few languages like PL/I and Ratfor use codice_3 for negation. Some modern computers and operating systems will display codice_3 as codice_1 on files encoded in ASCII. Most modern languages allow the above statement to be shortened from codice_6 to codice_7, which allows sometimes, when the compiler/interpreter is not able to optimize it, faster programs.  In computer science there is also "bitwise negation". This takes the value given and switches all the binary 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s. See bitwise operation. This is often used to create ones' complement or "codice_8" in C or C++ and two's complement (just simplified to "codice_9" or the negative sign since this is equivalent to taking the arithmetic negative value of the number) as it basically creates the opposite (negative value equivalent) or mathematical complement of the value (where both values are added together they create a whole).  To get the absolute (positive equivalent) value of a given integer the following would work as the "codice_9" changes it from negative to positive (it is negative because "codice_11" yields true) unsigned int abs(int x)  To demonstrate logical negation: unsigned int abs(int x)  Inverting the condition and reversing the outcomes produces code that is logically equivalent to the original code, i.e. will have identical results for any input (note that depending on the compiler used, the actual instructions performed by the computer may differ).  This convention occasionally surfaces in ordinary written speech, as computer-related slang for "not". For example, the phrase codice_12 means "not voting". Another example is the phrase codice_13 which is used as a synonym for "no-clue" or "clueless".

Kripke semantics.

In Kripke semantics where the semantic values of formulae are sets of possible worlds, negation can be taken to mean set-theoretic complementation. (See also possible world semantics.)

In logic, negation, also called the logical complement, is an operation that takes a proposition formula_1 to another proposition "not formula_1", written formula_3, which is interpreted intuitively as being true when formula_1 is false, and false when formula_1 is true. Negation is thus a unary (single-argument) logical connective. It may be applied as an operation on notions, propositions, truth values, or semantic values more generally. In classical logic, negation is normally identified with the truth function that takes "truth" to "falsity" and vice versa. In intuitionistic logic, according to the Brouwer–Heyting–Kolmogorov interpretation, the negation of a proposition formula_1 is the proposition whose proofs are the refutations of formula_1.

Logická negace (používá se pro ni symbol formula_1 nebo formula_2, popř. se označuje pruhem nad proměnnou) je unární logická operace, která vezme výrok ""p"" do dalšího výroku "ne " p"", psáno "¬p", který je samostatně interpretován jako pravda, když "p" je nepravda nebo jako nepravda, když "p" je pravda. Pro vstup formula_3 vypadá pravdivostní tabulka negace následovně (0 označuje nepravdivé tvrzení, 1 označuje pravdivé tvrzení):


Railways.

In railway parlance, passenger, as well as being the end user of a service, is also a categorisation of the type of rolling stock used. In the British case, there are several categories of passenger train. These categories include:

No pax.

In transportation, a "no pax" trip is a trip without passengers. For example, no-pax flights are freight, ferry, repositioning cruises and positioning flights.

Legal status.

In most jurisdictions, laws have been enacted that dictate the legal obligations of the owner of a vehicle or vessel, or of the driver or pilot of the same, towards the passengers. With respect to passengers riding in cars and vans, the driver may owe a duty of care to passengers, particularly where the passenger's presence in the vehicle can be seen to "confer some benefit on the driver other than the benefit of his or her company or the mere sharing of expenses". In other situations, however, guest statutes may limit the ability of passengers to sue the driver of the vehicle over an accident. Many places require cars to be outfitted with measures specifically for the protection of passengers, such as passenger-side air bags. With respect to passengers on commercial vehicles or vessels, both national laws and international treaties require that the carrier act with a certain standard of care. The number of passengers that a vehicle or vessel may legally carry is defined as its seating capacity.

Types.

Revenue passenger.

A revenue passenger is someone who has paid a transport operator for her or his trip. That excludes non-paying passengers such as airline employees flying on free or nearly-free passes, babies and children who do not have a seat of their own, etc. However, passengers who paid for their trip with a frequent-flyer program mileage award are usually included.  This term is used in the transportation industry, in particular in traffic measures such as revenue passenger kilometer (RPK) and revenue passenger mile (RPM).

Revenue passenger mile.

Revenue passenger miles (RPMs) and revenue passenger kilometers (RPKs) are measures of traffic for an airline flight, bus, or train calculated by multiplying the number of revenue-paying passengers aboard the vehicle by the distance traveled. On long-distance buses and trains (and some planes), passengers may board and disembark at intermediate stops, in which case RPMs/RPKs have to be calculated for each segment if a careful total is needed.  Revenue passenger miles can be considered the basic amount of "production" that an airline creates. The revenue passenger miles can be compared to the available seat miles over an airline's system to determine the overall passenger load factor. These measurements can further be used to measure unit revenues and unit costs.

A passenger (also abbreviated as pax) is a person who travels in a vehicle but bears little or no responsibility for the tasks required for that vehicle to arrive at its destination or otherwise operate the vehicle. The vehicles may be bicycles, buses, passenger trains, airliners, ships, ferryboats, and other methods of transportation.

Cestující (pasažér) je označení fyzické osoby, která cestuje jedním nebo postupně více dopravními prostředky. Cestující, který cestuje bez platné jízdenky, přestože se na něho vztahuje povinnost platit, se nazývá černý pasažér. Mimo platící cestující existující početné kategorie cestujících, kteří jsou od placení osvobozeni (děti, senioři, poslanci). Rozsah osvobození se v různých tarifních systémech liší.


Etymology.

"Nova Scotia" means "New Scotland" in Latin and is the recognized English-language name for the province. In both French and Scottish Gaelic, the province is directly translated as "New Scotland" (French: '. Gaelic: '). In general, Romance and Slavic languages

Geography.

Nova Scotia is Canada's second-smallest province in area, after Prince Edward Island. The province's mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula, surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean and including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than from the ocean. Cape Breton Island, a large island to the northeast of the Nova Scotia mainland, is also part of the province, as is Sable Island, a small island notorious for being the site of offshore shipwrecks, approximately from the province's southern coast.  Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are particularly rich on the Bay of Fundy's shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundy's shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous-age fossils. Wasson's Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic- and Jurassic-age fossils.  The province contains 5,400 lakes.

Climate.

Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone and, although the province is almost surrounded by water, the climate is closer to continental climate rather than maritime. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the continental climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental—still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotian climate is

History.

The province includes regions of the Mi'kmaq nation of Mi'kma'ki (""). (The territory of the Nation of Mi'kma'ki also includes the Maritimes, parts of Maine, Newfoundland and the Gaspé Peninsula.) The Mi'kmaq people are among the large Algonquian-language family and inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived.

European settlement.

Warfare was a notable feature in Nova Scotia during the 17th and 18th centuries. The French arrived in 1604, and Catholic Mi'kmaq and Acadians formed the majority of the population of the colony for the next 150 years. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada (and the first north of Florida) at Port Royal, founding what would become known as Acadia.  During the first 80 years the French and Acadians lived in Nova Scotia, nine significant military clashes took place as the English and Scottish (later British), Dutch and French fought for possession of the area. These encounters happened at Port Royal, Saint John, Cap de Sable (present-day Port La Tour, Nova Scotia), Jemseg (1674 and 1758) and Baleine (1629). The Acadian Civil War took place from 1640 to 1645.  Beginning with King William's War in 1688, a series of six wars took place between the English/British and the French, with Nova Scotia being a consistent theatre of conflict between the two powers.

18th century.

Hostilities between the British and French resumed from 1702 to 1713, known as Queen Anne's War. The British siege of Port Royal took place in 1710, ending French-rule in peninsular Acadia. The subsequent signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this, while returning Cape Breton Island (') and Prince Edward Island (') to the French. Despite the British conquest of Acadia in 1710, Nova Scotia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians and Mi'kmaq, who confined British forces to Annapolis and to Canso. Present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. Immediately after the capture of Port Royal in 1710, Francis Nicholson announced it would be renamed Annapolis Royal in honor of Queen Anne.  As a result of Father

19th century.

During the War of 1812, Nova Scotia's contribution to the British war effort involved communities either purchasing or building various privateer ships to attack U.S. vessels. Perhaps the most dramatic moment in the war for Nova Scotia occurred when HMS "Shannon" escorted the captured American frigate USS "Chesapeake" into Halifax Harbour (1813). Many of the U.S. prisoners were kept at Deadman's Island, Halifax.  During this century, Nova Scotia became the first colony in British North America and in the British Empire to achieve

Post-Confederation history.

Soon after the American Civil War, Pro-Canadian Confederation premier Charles Tupper led Nova Scotia into the Canadian Confederation on 1 July 1867, along with New Brunswick and the Province of Canada. The Anti-Confederation Party was led by Joseph Howe. Almost three months later, in the election of 18 September 1867, the Anti-Confederation Party won 18 out of 19 federal seats, and 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature.  Throughout the 19th century, numerous businesses developed in Nova Scotia became of pan-Canadian and international importance: the Starr Manufacturing Company (first skate-manufacturer in Canada), the Bank of

Demography.

Ethnic origins.

According to the 2006 Canadian census the largest ethnic group in Nova Scotia is Scottish (31.9%), followed by English (31.8%),

Language.

The 2011 Canadian census showed a population of 921,727. Of the 904,285 singular responses to the census question concerning mother tongue, the most commonly reported languages were: Figures shown are for the number of single-language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses.  Nova Scotia is home to

Religion.

In 1871, the largest religious denominations were Protestant with 103,500 (27%); Roman Catholic with 102,000 (26%); Baptist with 73,295 (19%); Anglican with 55,124 (14%); Methodist with 40,748 (10%),

Economy.

Nova Scotia's per capita GDP in 2016 was $44,924, significantly lower than the national average per capita GDP of $57,574. GDP growth has lagged behind the rest of the country for at least the past decade. As of 2017, the median family income in Nova Scotia was $85,970, below the national average of $92,990; in Halifax the figure rises to $98,870.  The province is the world's largest exporter of Christmas trees, lobster, gypsum, and wild berries. Its export value of fish exceeds $1 billion, and fish products are received by 90 countries around the world. Nevertheless, the province's imports far exceed its exports. While these numbers were roughly equal from 1992 until 2004, since that time the trade deficit has ballooned. In 2012, exports from Nova Scotia were 12.1% of provincial GDP, while imports were 22.6%.  Nova Scotia's traditionally resource-based economy has diversified in recent decades. The rise of Nova Scotia as a viable jurisdiction in North America, historically, was driven by the ready availability of natural resources, especially the fish stocks off the Scotian Shelf. The fishery was a pillar of the economy since its development as part of New France in the 17th century; however, the fishery suffered a sharp decline due to overfishing in the late 20th century. The collapse of the cod stocks and the closure of this sector resulted in a loss of approximately 20,000 jobs in 1992.  Other sectors in the province were also hit hard, particularly during the last two decades: coal mining in Cape Breton and northern mainland Nova Scotia has virtually ceased, and a large steel mill in Sydney closed during the 1990s. More recently, the high value of the Canadian dollar relative to the US dollar has hurt the forestry industry, leading to the shutdown of a long-running pulp and paper mill near Liverpool. Mining, especially of gypsum and salt and to a lesser extent silica, peat and barite, is also a significant sector. Since 1991, offshore oil and gas has become an important part of the economy, although production and revenue are now declining. However, agriculture remains an important sector in the province, particularly in the Annapolis Valley.  Nova Scotia's defence and aerospace sector generates approximately $500 million in revenues and contributes about $1.5 billion to the provincial economy each year. To date, 40% of Canada's military assets reside in Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia has the fourth-largest film industry in Canada hosting over 100 productions yearly, more than half of which are the products of international film and television producers. In 2015, the government of Nova Scotia eliminated tax credits to film production in the province, jeopardizing the industry given most other jurisdictions continue to offer such credits. The province also boasts a rapidly developing Information & Communication Technology (ICT) sector which consists of over 500 companies, and employs roughly 15,000 people.  In 2006, the manufacturing sector brought in over $2.6 billion in chained GDP, the largest output of any industrial sector in Nova Scotia. Michelin remains by far the largest single employer in this sector, operating three production plants in the province. Michelin is also the province's largest private-sector employer.

Government and politics.

Nova Scotia is ordered by a parliamentary government within the construct of constitutional monarchy; the monarchy in Nova Scotia is the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 other Commonwealth countries, each of Canada's nine other provinces, and the Canadian federal realm, and resides predominantly in the United Kingdom. As such, the Queen's representative, the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia (at present Arthur Joseph LeBlanc), carries out most of the royal duties in Nova Scotia.  The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in any of these areas of governance is limited, though; in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Executive Council, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the unicameral, elected House of Assembly and chosen and headed by the Premier of Nova Scotia (presently Stephen McNeil), the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the lieutenant governor will usually appoint as premier the person who

Culture.

Cuisine.

The cuisine of Nova Scotia is typically Canadian with an emphasis on local seafood. One endemic dish (in the sense of "peculiar to" and "originating from") is the Halifax donair, a distant

Events and festivals.

There are a number of festivals and cultural events that are recurring in Nova

Film and television.

Nova Scotia has produced numerous film actors. Academy Award nominee Ellen Page ("Juno", "Inception") was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia; five-time Academy Award nominee Arthur Kennedy ("Lawrence of Arabia", "High Sierra") called Nova Scotia his home; and two time Golden Globe winner Donald Sutherland ("MASH", "Ordinary People") spent most of his youth in the province. Other actors include John Paul Tremblay, Robb Wells, Mike Smith and John Dunsworth of "Trailer Park Boys" and actress Joanne Kelly of "Warehouse 13".  Nova Scotia has also produced numerous film directors such as Thom Fitzgerald ("The Hanging Garden"), Daniel Petrie ("Resurrection"—Academy Award nominee) and Acadian film director Phil Comeau's multiple award-winning local story ("Le secret de Jérôme").  Nova Scotian stories are the subject of numerous feature

Fine arts.

Nova Scotia has long been a centre for artistic and cultural excellence. The capital, Halifax, hosts institutions such as Nova Scotia College of Art and Design University, Art Gallery of Nova Scotia, Neptune Theatre, Dalhousie Arts Centre, Two Planks and a Passion Theatre, and the Ship's Company Theatre. The province is home to avant-garde visual art and traditional crafting, writing and publishing and a film industry.  Much of the historic public art sculptures in the province were made by New York sculptor J. Massey Rhind as well as Canadian sculptors Hamilton MacCarthy, George Hill, Emanuel Hahn and Louis-Philippe Hébert. Some of this public art was also created by Nova Scotian John Wilson. Nova Scotian George Lang was a stone sculptor who also built many landmark buildings in the province, including the Welsford-Parker Monument. Two valuable

Literature.

There are numerous Nova Scotian authors who have achieved international fame: Thomas Chandler Haliburton ("The Clockmaker"), Alistair MacLeod ("No Great Mischief"), Evelyn Richardson "(We Keep A Light)", Margaret Marshall Saunders "(Beautiful Joe)," Laurence B. Dakin "(Marco Polo)," and Joshua Slocum "(Sailing Alone Around the World)." Other authors include Johanna Skibsrud "(The Sentimentalists)," Alden Nowlan "(Bread, Wine and Salt)," George Elliott Clarke "(Execution Poems)," Lesley Choyce "(Nova Scotia: Shaped by the Sea)," Thomas Raddall "(Halifax: Warden of the North)," Donna Morrissey "(Kit's Law)," and Frank Parker

Music.

Nova Scotia is home to Symphony Nova Scotia, a symphony orchestra based in Halifax. The province has produced more than its fair share of famous musicians, including Grammy Award winners Denny Doherty (from The Mamas & the Papas), Anne Murray, and Sarah McLachlan, country singers Hank Snow, George Canyon, and Drake Jensen, jazz vocalist Holly Cole, classical performers Portia White and Barbara Hannigan, multi Juno Award nominated rapper Classified, and such diverse artists as Rita MacNeil, Matt Mays, Sloan, Feist, Todd Fancey, The Rankin Family, Natalie MacMaster, Susan Crowe, Buck 65, Joel Plaskett, and the bands April Wine and Grand Dérangement  There are numerous songs written about Nova Scotia: The Ballad of Springhill (written by Peggy Seeger and performed by Irish folk singer Luke Kelly, a member of The Dubliners); several songs by Stan Rogers including Bluenose, Watching The Apples Grow, The Jeannie C (mentions Little Dover, NS), Barrett's Privateers, Giant, and The Rawdon Hills; Farewell to Nova Scotia (traditional); Blue Nose (Stompin' Tom

Sports.

Sport is an important part of Nova Scotia culture. There are numerous semi pro, university and amateur sports teams, for example, The Halifax Mooseheads, 2013 Canadian Hockey League Memorial Cup Champions, and the Cape Breton Screaming Eagles, both of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League. The Halifax Hurricanes of the National Basketball League of Canada is another team that calls Nova Scotia home, and were 2016 league champions.

Education.

The Minister of Education is responsible for the administration and delivery of education, as defined by the Education Act and other acts relating to colleges, universities and private schools. The powers of the Minister and the Department of Education are defined by the Ministerial regulations and constrained by the Governor-In-Council regulations.  All children until the age of 16 are legally required to attend school or the parent needs to perform home schooling. Nova Scotia's education system is split up into eight different regions including; Tri-County (22 schools), Annapolis Valley (42 schools), South Shore (25 schools), Chignecto-Central (67 schools), Halifax (135 schools), Strait (20 schools) and Cape Breton-Victoria Regional Centre for Education (39 schools).  Nova Scotia has more than 450 public schools for children. The public system offers primary to Grade 12. There are also private schools in the province. Public education is administered by seven regional school boards, responsible primarily for English instruction and French immersion, and also province-wide by the Conseil Scolaire Acadien Provincial, which administers French instruction to students whose primary language is French.  The Nova Scotia Community College system has 13 campuses around the province. With a focus on training and education, the college was established in 1988 by amalgamating the province's former vocational schools. In addition to the provincial community college system, there are more than 90 registered private colleges in Nova Scotia.  Ten universities are also situated in Nova Scotia, including Dalhousie University, University of King's College, Saint Mary's University, Mount Saint Vincent University, NSCAD University, Acadia University, Université Sainte-Anne, Saint Francis Xavier University, Cape Breton University and the Atlantic School of Theology.

Nova Scotia () is a province in eastern Canada. With a population of 923,598 as of 2016, it is the most populous of Canada's three Maritime provinces and four Atlantic provinces. It is the country's second-most densely populated province and second-smallest province by area, both after neighbouring Prince Edward Island. Its area of includes Cape Breton Island and 3,800 other coastal islands. The peninsula that makes up Nova Scotia's mainland is connected to the rest of North America by the Isthmus of Chignecto, on which the province's land border with New Brunswick is located. The province borders the Bay of Fundy to the northwest and the Atlantic Ocean to the south and east, and is separated from Prince Edward Island and the island of Newfoundland by the Northumberland and Cabot straits, respectively.

Nové Skotsko (lat. "Nova Scotia", angl. "New Scotland", fr. "Nouvelle-Écosse", gaelsky "Alba Nuadh") je nejvýchodnější z Pobřežních provincií Kanady. Má necelý milión obyvatel a rozlohu 55 284 km2. Hlavní a zároveň největší město je Halifax. Je zde silné zastoupení francouzsky mluvících obyvatel a malá menšina hovořící kanadskou modifikací gaelštiny. Oficiální jazyky jsou angličtina, francouzština a kanadská gaelština. Podle sčítání z roku 2001 se 48,8 % obyvatelstva hlásí k protestantským církvím, 36,6 % jsou katolíci a 11,6 % se profilují jako bez vyznání.


Background.

While studying at Georgetown, Amerie befriended a Washington, D.C. club promoter who eventually put her in touch with producer Rich Harrison. During an interview with "Maxim", Amerie said she met up with Harrison at a McDonald's parking lot, and performed a song for him in her car. Rich Harrison—who had just worked on Mary J. Blige's albums "Mary" and "No More Drama"—began making/developing demos with Amerie. This led to her first record deal with Harrison's Richcraft Entertainment, in collaboration with Columbia Records. According to Amerie, she and Harrison immediately hit it off. In a 2002 interview, she commented "For some reason we had a very special chemistry. When we would work together something great would happen." Amerie recorded the chorus for the 2001 single "Rule", performed by Nas. The single peaked at number 67 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks chart in the United States. She also recorded a song with Detroit rapper Royce da 5'9", titled "Life", the third and final single from his "Rock City (Version 2.0)" album.

Release and promotion.

"All I Have" was first released in United States, for CD and vinyl LP, on July 30, 2002, through Columbia Records, Rise Entertainment and Richcraft Records. It was released on August 5, 2002 in Europe through Sony Music Entertainment. It was also released in Japan, on November 20, 2002, through Sony Music Entertainment Japan.  In April 2002, Amerie's debut single, "Why Don't We Fall in Love", was released, peaking at number twenty-three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and becoming a top ten hit on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and Hot Dance Club Play charts. The song was an urban top twenty hit in Australia and reached the top forty in the United Kingdom. To promote the album, Amerie went on tour with Usher and Nas, traveling on Usher's Evolution 8701 Tour in 2002. Amerie also promoted the album by touring with rapper Nelly, performing on twelve dates while on the tour. The second and final single from "All I Have" was "Talkin' to Me", a top twenty entry on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, although it peaked outside the top foty on the "Billboard" Hot 100.

Critical reception.

"All I Have" received generally mixed reviews from music critics. William Ruhlmann of AllMusic gave the album the grade of two and a half out of five stars, stating: "The debut album by 22-year-old Amerie is basically a showcase for writer/producer Rich Harrison, who constructs a series of mid-tempo rhythm tracks and writes lyrics of romantic longing. Harrison's lack of originality is suggested by his inability even to come up with new song titles. Among the tracks here are newly written songs entitled "Need You Tonight" "Got to Be There" and even "I Just Died" (that's right, "in your arms"). Amerie has a pleasant-enough voice that she uses to express a tempered fervor and a degree of eroticism, but she seems to be just another modestly talented performer chosen mostly for her looks; record companies seem to be on an endless search for attractive young women of mixed racial heritage (apparently in hopes of demographic crossover) who can carry a tune, and this willing Georgetown graduate with a Korean mother and African-American father is just the latest in a long line. None of which is to say that she won't succeed (record companies make a lot of money taking such bets), but at least on the basis of her debut album, Amerie has nothing to recommend her beyond a fairly anonymous surface appeal." Vanessa E. Jones of "The Boston Globe" gave a mixed review, stating: Amerie's almond eyes come courtesy of her Korean mother, while her caramel skin was inherited from her African-American dad. On her debut CD, "All I Have", she proves that the melange makes a soulful combination. If there was a representative sound of the summer this year, it should have been the singer's shimmering single, "Why Don't We Fall in Love". With jazzy horns and romantic strings caressed by Amerie's strong, yearning alto, the song brought to mind beach holidays and summer fun every time it came on the air. Amerie follows up that effort with a 12-song CD with several distinctive cuts. It would be a great debut if it weren't for all the filler, and for lyrics (written by the CD's producer Rich Harrison) that revolve around the tired subjects of love, betrayal, and hate. When Amerie fails to follow her instincts, the results can be disastrous. "Float", for instance, finds her relying on histrionic yelling rather than crooning. But this is definitely a talent to watch, as the songs "Can't Let Go", "Talkin' to Me", "Got to Be There" and "Why Don't We Fall in Love" show." Sarah Rodman of "Boston Herald" gave the album positive review with the grade of three out of four stars, stating: "This 22-year-old Georgetown grad may be blessed with a lovely, flinty voice and great looks, but even she must have been shocked when her debut album, "All I Have", made a Top 5 debut in "Billboard". Amerie's music is two parts intriguing (a strong yet sultry R&B growl matched with the off-kilter hip-hop grooves of producer Rich Harrison) and one part run-of-the-mill (banal romance lyrics). There are tunes about Mr. Right, Mr. Right Now and Mr. Wrong. Amerie scores extra points for keeping things short, sweet and free from gratuitous vocal acrobatics. She stands out from the female R&B pack without resorting to affectation or gimmickry." Steve Jones of "USA Today" gave the album two and a half out of four stars, stating: "On her strings-laced hit single, "Why Don't We Fall in Love", 22-year-old Amerie shows a talent for subtlety and nuance not often heard from a debut singer. The sultry vocalist lets the intensity build rather than relying on over-the-top flourishes. She shows her versatility with the jazzy "Nothing Like Loving You", the edgy "I Just Died" and the infectious "Talkin' to Me". While the material is not consistently strong, it serves as a nice introduction to a singer with great potential for growth." Felicia Pride from PopMatters gave a mixed review, stating: "I like Amerie. Not that she has much of an image, but she still seems like such a sweet and positive young woman. A Georgetown graduate, her humbleness exudes in interviews as she basks in her childhood dream with the giddiness of a schoolgirl. When her first single exploded, the world was introduced to her sitting on a park bench singing wholeheartedly those rhetorical words, "Why don’t we fall in love?" The hip-hop track with the defined R&B voice, championed upon the winning chemistry mastered by the likes of Mary J. Blige and Faith Evans. Naturally the anticipation was bubbling for her forthcoming "All I Have". Even with all her charming characteristics, the brains, the voice and the looks, her debut is, well, boring. As I listened to the 12 tracks (11 if you dismiss the outro), I strained to find some spice, some personality. The tracks run into each other to the point that they become one very long song. The singular topic of love and relationships heightens its monotony, as does her lack of serious vocal experimentation. If you thought she sounded a little flat on "Why Don’t We Fall in Love", prepare yourself for a few more out of range notes. The album is by no means "Pretty Girl Who Can't Sing" revisited. It is worth the space in your CD collection, and has some bright moments. In terms of mood, it’s very laid-back, with a rainy day or I-just-fell-in-love vibe, and one you can listen to at work. I must warn that you have already heard the most animated track on the album and probably more times than you would’ve liked as her first single was definitely killed by the radio. Her second single, "Talkin’ to Me" is cute, and a little catchy, but a little personality deficient. The songs that really carry the album are "I Just Died" and "Show Me". Both are quiet storm ballads in which her vocals are richer, not as forced (quieter) and dance hand-in-hand with sexy hooks that allow the track to take the lead. The title track "All I Have" would have made a better second single as it shows the potential that Amerie has to explore the love ballad, the real meat and potatoes of the album. Props should go to Rich Harrison who is largely responsible for this project. He performed all the instruments, and wrote and produced all the songs except the outro. Besides being crazy talented, he is certainly a man in tune with his emotions, writing highly sensitive and female-perceptive lyrics perfect for any R&B diva. His tracks are simple yet artful and truly designed to let the singer define them. Unfortunately, this was not a consistent trend on "All I Have" because Amerie’s vocals were not always compelling enough to fittingly dominate the track. There were times when all was lost. For her first run, it might have been in the label’s best interest to employ a few hit makers. You know the ones that can make a hit for anyone despite their vocal capability. Not saying that Amerie is without, it just might have added a little pizzazz if she would have joined the Jermaine Dupri or even Darkchild roster list. But maybe that is what remixes are for. In her bio, Amerie proudly (as she should be) describes her debut, "The music and lyrics really put you into a zone. When Rich Harrison and I began creating the record, we knew that fusing beautiful melodies with hard, hip-hop beats would move people. I think we’ve accomplished that." I only wish. Well maybe next time—and hopefully there will be another time. Her debut was respectable, simple and unpretentious. The ingredients are there, she just needs to perfect the mix."

Commercial performance.

The album debuted and peaked at number nine on the US "Billboard" 200 chart in August 2002, remaining in the top twenty for two weeks only and dropping off the top one hundred in its fourteenth week. Nevertheless, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on October 3, 2003, and earned Amerie a Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B/Soul or Rap New Artist in 2003. According to Nielsen SoundScan, as of July 2009, the album has sold 661,000 copies in the United States. It peaked at number one on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart by "Billboard". It was also minor success in Japan, peaking at number 181 on the Oricon albums chart.

Personnel.

Credits for "All I Have" adapted from liner notes.

All I Have is the debut studio album by American R&B recording artist Amerie. It was released on July 30, 2002 through Columbia Records, Rise Entertainment and Richcraft Records. Entirely produced by Rich Harrison, the album was recorded at Cue Recording Studios in Falls Church, Virginia and at Lobo Studios and The Hit Factory in New York City, New York. The album debuted and peaked at number nine on the US "Billboard" 200 chart in August 2002, remaining in the top twenty for two weeks only and dropping off the top hundred in its fourteenth week. It also received generally mixed reviews from the music critics. Nevertheless, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling over 500,000 copies on October 3, 2003, and won Amerie a Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B/Soul or Rap New Artist in 2003. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the album has sold over 661,000 copies in the United States as of July 2009. "All I Have" produced two singles: "Why Don't We Fall in Love" (which peaked at number twenty-three on the US "Billboard" Hot 100) and a minor hit "Talkin' to Me".

All I Have je debutové album americké R&B zpěvačky Amerie, které vyšlo 30. července 2002. V americké albové hitparádě bylo toto album v TOP 20 čtyři týdny. Získala za něj i mnoho cen včetně ocenění pro nejlepší r&b zpěvačku.


Appearances.

Ross is a paleontologist and has a Ph.D. from Columbia University. His romantic feelings toward Rachel Green, which began as a high-school infatuation, are an ongoing theme of his narrative arc. Likewise, their on-again, off-again romantic relationship is a nearly constant theme of "Friends".  Born on May 12, 1967 (although in one episode he claims his birthday is in December and in episode 4 of season 1 he says that it is October 20 and his birthday was 7 months ago; in episode 2 of season 9, he states his birthday is October 18), and raised on Long Island, Ross is the elder brother of Monica Geller. Ross and Monica are Jewish and see themselves as at least cultural Jews, with Ross taking a more active role in wanting to teach his son, Ben, about the faith. Ross gets divorced and is newly single in the very first episode because his wife, Carol, has realized she's a lesbian. Later in the series, he dates Rachel Green, but their relationship results in a break-up. After his relationship with Rachel ends, Ross marries Emily Waltham, the niece of Rachel's boss. However, because Ross says "I take thee Rachel" instead of Emily during the nuptials, the marriage doesn't last long. In season 5, Ross marries Rachel in Las Vegas when the two are drunk, and ultimately that marriage results in a divorce as well, but they confess that if they ever got married properly it would be the one that lasted. Throughout the series, Ross gets divorced 3 times. In the first episode of "Joey", the spinoff series, it is hinted that Ross and Rachel may have gotten married again, as he tells his sister Gina that all of his friends are married.  A running theme in Ross's narrative is his competition with his younger sister, manifested through wrestling and paranoia. As children, they took part in an American football match for the Geller Cup every Thanksgiving. This tradition ended in its sixth year, after Monica "accidentally" broke Ross's nose. The siblings came up with a dance in primary school called "The Routine", which they performed as adults at Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve in a New Year's Eve TV broadcast.  When they were kids, Monica used to hate Ross because he always got his way and she felt he was loved more than her, as their parents’ first child. However, as time passed and they grew up, she actually liked Ross as a person and loved him more than out of a sense of family obligation. As adults they became close, though the competition between them was still visible as seen in the season three episode, "The One with the Football".  Ross often comes into conflict with Phoebe Buffay. His rationality and Phoebe's eccentricity lead to conflict over evolution, gravity, and whether Phoebe's mother was reincarnated as a cat. It is also revealed that Phoebe once mugged Ross (stealing a copy of the comic book "Science Boy" that Ross had created) when they were teenagers. The two are roommates for a few weeks when a fire forces Phoebe to move out of her apartment. She first moves into Chandler Bing and Monica's apartment, but then decides she wants to give the newly engaged couple some privacy, so she moves in with Ross. In a "flashback" episode, they are alone at a bar and start kissing, but the moment quickly passes when Ross keeps bumping his head. Phoebe also helps Ross on numerous occasions, ultimately making him realize that he loves Rachel and they both are meant to be together.  Since college, Ross' best friend has been Chandler Bing. In college, they were in a band called "Way/No Way", and Ross blamed Chandler when he was caught smoking marijuana. They become brothers-in-law after Chandler marries Monica. Though they are best friends, at times Chandler gets annoyed with Ross's geeky behavior.  Ross is friends with Rachel Green, whom he has had a crush on since high school. Rachel viewed Ross as ‘Monica’s geeky older brother’ during high school. During the first episode of the series, when they meet after years apart, he rediscovers his feelings for her. They become close and have an on-and-off romantic relationship through the series. In the final season of the show, Rachel tells him that he means more to her than any other member of their group.  He is also close friends with Joey Tribbiani and helps him with acting auditions. He kisses Joey once in order to help him practice a role as a gay man, only to find out that Joey had already done the audition and didn't get the part. Joey and Ross also briefly try to cut Chandler out of their friend group after Chandler ignores them. They once fall asleep together on the couch after watching "Die Hard". Toward the end of the series, however, Ross and Joey become closer friends, often hanging out together after Chandler gets married.  Ross often tries to bring out the best of his friends in difficult situations. For instance, in season 2, he encourages Joey to audition for "Another World" after being fired from "Days of Our Lives" despite Joey's refusal to audition for a two-line part of a secondary character. In season 7, he buys Phoebe the bike of her dreams but threatens to take it away from her because of her reluctance to learn how to ride it. Also, when he discovers that Joey has a crush on Rachel, he tells him to tell her about it and go for it instead of hiding it, even though he finds it difficult to accept the idea of Joey and Rachel being together. Above all, Ross is portrayed as a very sweet, loving and adorable character who is always looking out for everyone's best interests and often the most mature compared to the rest of the gang (despite his ego, outbursts, and paranoia).  He has two children. Ross's son, Ben, was conceived while Ross and Carol were still married and born at the end of Season 1. Ross shares joint custody of Ben with his ex-wife Carol and her wife Susan.  Ben appeared in a total of 24 episodes (25 if you include uncut episodes) and was played chronologically as follows: as an infant by Michael Gunderson Season 1 to 2, by brothers Charles Thomas Allen and John Christopher Allen from Season 3 to 5, and by Cole Sprouse from Season 6 to 8.  Ross's daughter with Rachel, Emma Geller-Green, was born at the end of Season 8. Rachel's pregnancy was originally revealed in the season finale of Season 7. The conception of Emma was predominantly the result of a one-night stand, which was later revealed in the Season 8 episode, "The One With The Videotape".  Ross claims to have "given up a career in basketball" to become a paleontologist, and claims that the ideas for "Jurassic Park" and "Die Hard" were stolen from him. He also had major interest in music, playing keyboard for hours in the basement of their house in Long Island.  Ross had a pet in the earlier seasons of the show: a white-headed capuchin monkey named Marcel.

Relationships.

Over the course of the show, Ross dates a considerable number of women. He married three times and is divorced three times. His proclivity to marry and divorce is a running gag within the series.

Rachel Green.

Rachel is Ross's most significant relationship during the series. His attraction to her is established early on; Ross met Rachel through his sister Monica, who was Rachel's best friend in high school. He developed an unrequited crush on her, but never followed through on it. After leaving college, Ross married Carol, whom he had met at college, and had seemingly put his feelings for Rachel aside before he met her again in The Pilot.  They have an on-again, off-again dynamic throughout most of the show.  In the Season 1 finale, Ross has to go to China for his work so he asks Chandler to give Rachel a present on her birthday which he had bought for her. Chandler does give the present to Rachel during her birthday celebration while Ross is in China but also accidentally reveals Ross's feelings for Rachel, prompting Rachel to panic and start thinking about Ross in a romantic way. After Ross arrives back from China, Rachel goes to the airport to receive him on realising that she likes him, but she sees him with Julie and reluctantly backs off.  In the season 2 episode "The One Where Ross Finds Out", Rachel is on a date with a guy when she confesses to Ross over the phone in a drunken state that she had feelings for him but now she is over him. Ross hears this message the next day at Monica's apartment with Rachel begging him not to check his messages. Later, in the same episode they share a passionate kiss at the doors of Central Perk. Later he breaks up with Julie but Rachel decides she does not want to be with him after finding out that he had made a list, on the insistence of Chandler, comparing the good and bad qualities about her and Julie. In the later episode "The One with the Prom Video" it is revealed that Ross, despite being two years senior to Rachel, had decided to be her date on her and Monica's prom, as Rachel's date had not arrived, only to be left disappointed as her date arrives and they both along with Monica and her date take off for the prom. Touched by this, Rachel kisses Ross on learning this revelation, and the two begin dating.  However, they take a break from their relationship on their one-year anniversary together after Rachel's overtime work prevents them from spending time together. That same night, Ross has a one-night stand with Chloe, which causes Rachel to officially end their relationship. They get together again at the end of season 3 but again break up at the start of season 4. Some of the later episodes show them to be still in love with each other such as when Ross cancels his Discovery channel show appearance to be with Rachel when she breaks her rib or when Rachel flies to London to tell Ross before his wedding with Emily, that she is still in love with him, only to realize that it would be better not to tell. However, Ross accidentally says Rachel's name at the altar and the marriage soon dissolves.  In the season 5 finale "The One in Vegas", Ross and Rachel marry each other after getting heavily drunk in Las Vegas. This marriage ends in a divorce after a failed application for an annulment; the two sadly admit that they thought if they ever got married to each other it would last.  In the seventh season premiere "The One with Monica's Thunder", after the news of Monica and Chandler's engagement, a passionate moment between them leads to Ross and Rachel kissing. Monica is hurt by this as she believed that Rachel was trying to “steal her thunder”. The kiss is later revealed to have happened because Rachel was upset thinking about the fact that she was “not even close” to being engaged.  At the end of season 7 at Monica and Chandler's wedding, it is revealed that Rachel is pregnant, with the father unknown to everyone but her. The father is revealed to be Ross in the second episode of season 8, and Rachel tells him in the next episode. They decide to have the baby but the two do not resume their romantic relationship. In the middle of the season, Joey asks Rachel to move in with Ross so Ross can be more involved with her pregnancy. In the season 8 finale, Ross's daughter with Rachel named Emma Geller-Green is born. Rachel soon moves out of Ross's apartment in the middle of season 9 when she realizes their situation is not working.  In the final episode of the show, when Rachel is moving to Paris for her job with a new fashion brand, Ross tells her at the airport that he loves her and asks not to leave. Rachel initially does not heed his feelings, but when the plane is about to take off, she realizes that she loves him too and gets off the plane. They profess their love for each other and decide to be together once and for all.  In the first episode of the spin-off/sequel "Joey", it is hinted that Ross and Rachel were remarried shortly after the events of season 10 as Joey tells his sister Gina that all of his friends have got married. In the fifteenth episode, Ross is mentioned, though not by name, in discussion when Joey tells his sister Gina that he confessed his love to Rachel but she was pregnant with Ross's baby and eventually ended up with him, the reason why Joey becomes reluctant to confess the same feelings to his girlfriend, Sarah.

Carol Willick.

Carol (Anita Barone for pilot episode, Jane Sibbett thereafter) is Ross's first wife and the mother of his son Ben. In the very first episode, Carol has just moved out of their apartment after coming out of the closet as a lesbian and leaving Ross for a woman named Susan Bunch, whom she later marries.  In the early days, however, Ross and Carol seemed to have had a very passionate relationship. Carol is the only woman he's ever had sex with (and hence lost his virginity to) at the start of the series. It is also revealed they shared a steamy session at Disneyland behind the "Dutch children" in It's a Small World, which got them a lifetime ban from the theme park. In the third season episode, "The One with the Flashback", it is revealed that Carol met Susan at her gym, and it is implied that they had a short affair before Carol could no longer bring herself to cheat on Ross, who innocently believed they were just friends, and told him the truth.  Ross maintains a fairly healthy relationship with Carol after their divorce and both decide to raise Ben together through shared parenting, but he doesn't hide his contempt for Susan as he believes she destroyed their marriage and since she initially wanted to keep him out of Ben's life, having once told him to his face that the baby was not his and would not have the surname "Geller". He briefly considers getting back together with Carol and they even share a kiss at a sushi restaurant, but Carol makes it clear that she can't reciprocate his feelings and has chosen to be with Susan. In the second season, when Carol and Susan briefly call off their wedding due to Carol's homophobic parents' refusal to bless their relationship, Ross gives Carol away at the wedding and shares a dance with Susan, who develops a newfound respect for him.  In the alternate timeline episode "The One that Could have Been" (season 6), Carol and Susan are portrayed in a far more negative light. Exploring what could have happened if Ross and Carol never got divorced, it is revealed that they have been on a sexual dry spell that has lasted for months, during which Carol has presumably been cheating on Ross with Susan. During ideas to improve their sex life, Carol suddenly becomes very excited when Ross proposes that they have a threesome with another woman. Picking Susan, whom she met at her gym just like in the real timeline, the two women immediately proceed to have sex without Ross right in front of him, indifferent to his feelings. Ross later explains to Joey that he felt like a third wheel and ended up being so bored he made himself a sandwich. Ross realizes his wife is a lesbian when Rachel states outright that Carol "sounds gay."

Emily Waltham.

During the fourth season, Ross meets and falls in love with Emily Waltham (Helen Baxendale), a British woman who is set up with Ross by Rachel. Six weeks into their relationship, Ross spontaneously asks Emily to move in with him. This escalates into a marriage proposal. The two plan a wedding in London, to which Rachel is invited.  During the ceremony, Ross, upon seeing Rachel, has a slip of the tongue and says Rachel's name instead of Emily's during his vows. Emily is furious and exits her own wedding. Later, however, she decides to forgive Ross, and reaches the airport in time to leave for their honeymoon, but is upset when she sees Ross and Rachel boarding the plane together after Ross, having given up on meeting Emily at the airport, invites Rachel on their honeymoon as friend. She flees again, and Ross unsuccessfully tries to follow her, and Rachel ends up going on the honeymoon alone. Emily, later, calls Ross only to confront him by saying that he has to stop calling and harassing her relatives, but Ross makes her reveal her love for him. She said that she will return only if Ross stops being friends with Rachel. Unable to do so, Ross ends his marriage with Emily.  Shortly before Emily gets remarried to an anonymous man (although it might be assumed it is former lover Colin, whom she previously dumped to be with Ross), she gets cold feet and calls Ross to ask if their divorce was a mistake. While Ross is on a police ride-a-long with Phoebe's cop boyfriend Gary, Rachel hears and accidentally deletes Emily's message on the answering machine. Despite Monica pleading to keep Ross in the dark about it, Rachel tells him that Emily called, as she believes he should be in charge of his own happiness. When he starts to doubt whether or not he should return Emily's call, however, Rachel is quick to convince him not to. From this point onwards, Emily is never seen in the show again.

Reception.

Ross Geller has become a well-known figure in pop culture, in particular due to his relationship with Rachel Green, his neurotic nature, and his love for dinosaurs.  In 2015, a play titled "Ross & Rachel" debuted at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.  In October 2016, Ross Geller was voted "the Best Friends Character" in an international poll held by Comedy Central, during six weeks of ""FriendsFest"" on the channel.

Ross Geller, Ph.D., is one of the six main fictional characters of the NBC sitcom "Friends" portrayed by David Schwimmer. Ross is considered by many to be the most intelligent member of the group and is noted for his goofy but lovable demeanor. His relationship with Rachel Green was included in "TV Guide"s list of the best TV couples of all time, as well as "Entertainment Weekly"s "30 Best 'Will They/Won't They?' TV Couples". Kevin Bright, one of the executive producers of the show, had worked with Schwimmer before, so the writers were already developing Ross's character in Schwimmer's voice; hence, Schwimmer was the first person to be cast on the show.

Ross Geller je postava amerického televizního seriálu "Přátelé". Hraje ho David Schwimmer. Jeho sestrou je Monica, jeho spolubydlícím z koleje je Chandler, jeho láskou a pár dní i manželkou je Rachel. Jeho rodiči jsou Jack Geller a Judy Gellerová. První manželkou byla Carol, druhou manželkou Emily Walthamová a třetí manželkou byla Rachel Greenová.


Infinitive.

The infinitive is formed by the ending -t, formerly also "-ti"; on some words -ct (-ci):  Somewhat archaically:

Participles.

Participles are used for forming the past tense, conditionals and the passive voice in Czech. They are related to the short forms of adjectives. Therefore unlike other verb forms, they also express gender which must correspond with the gender of the subject.

Past participle.

The past participle (also known as the "active participle" or "l-participle") is used for forming the past tense and the conditionals.

Passive participle.

The passive participle is also called "n/t-participle" and is used for forming the passive voice. There are two types of endings:

Agreement between subject and predicate.

The predicate must always be in accordance with the subject in the sentence – in number and person (personal pronouns), and with past and passive participles also in gender. This grammatical principle affects the orthography (see also Czech orthography) – it is especially important for the correct choice and writing of plural endings of participles.  Examples: The example mentioned shows both past (byl, byla...) and passive (koupen, koupena...) participles. The accordance in gender takes effect in the past tense and the passive voice, not in the present and future tenses in active voice.  If the complex subject is a combination of nouns of different genders, masculine animate gender is prior to others and the masculine inanimate and feminine genders are prior to the neuter gender.  Examples:  Priority of genders:

Transgressives.

The transgressive ("přechodník") expresses an action which happens coincidentally with or foregoing some other action.  The transgressive ("přechodník") is an archaic form of the verb in the Czech and Slovak languages. Nowadays, it is used only occasionally for artistic purposes or in unchanging expressions. Transgressives were still used quite widely in Czech literature in the beginning of the 20th century (not in the spoken language). For example, Jaroslav Hašek's The Good Soldier Švejk contains a lot of them.  The Czech language recognizes present and past transgressives. The present transgressive can express present or future action according to the aspect of the verb it is derived from. The past transgressive is usually derived from perfective verbs.  Examples:

Aspect.

Czech verbs are distinguished by aspect, they are either perfective or imperfective. Perfective verbs indicate the finality of the process. Therefore, they cannot express the present tense.  Perfective verbs are usually formed adding prefixes to imperfective verbs:  Some perfective verbs are not formally related to imperfective ones:

Tenses.

Czech verbs express three absolute tenses - past, present and future. Relativity can be expressed by the aspect, sentence constructions and participles.  The present tense can be expressed in imperfective verbs only.

Present tense.

The present tense is formed by special endings:  Verbs are divided into 5 classes according to the way of forming the present tense. They are described in more detail below.

Past tense.

The past tense is formed by the past participle (in a proper gender form) and present forms of the verb být (to be) which are omitted in the 3rd person. The following example is for the male gender (animate in plural):  "Dělat" - to do  For the choice of past tense form when the number or gender of the subject may not be clear, see.

Future tense.

In imperfective verbs, it is formed by the future forms of the verb být (to be) and the infinitive:  "Dělat" – to do  "Budu, budeš,..." with infinitive has the same meaning as “(I, you,...) will” in English. If not followed by an infinitive, it means “(I, you,...) will be” (i.e. I will be = "budu", not "budu být").  In some verbs of motion, the future tense is formed by adding the prefix po-/pů- to the present form:  In perfective verbs, the present form expresses the future. Compare:

Tenses in subordinate clauses.

There is no sequence of tenses in Czech. The types of clauses like in the indirect speech use tenses that express the time which is spoken about. The tense of the subordinate clause is not shifted to the past even though there is the past tense in the main clause:

Imperative.

The imperative mood is formed for the 2nd person singular and plural and the 1st person plural.  In the 2nd person singular, it takes either null ending or -i/-ej ending, according to the verb class.  The 2nd person plural takes the ending -te/-ete/-ejte and the 1st person plural takes -me/-eme/-ejme.  Examples:

Conditionals.

The conditionals are formed by the past participle and special forms of the verb být (to be). Following example of the present conditional is for the male gender (animate in plural):  "dělal bych" - I would do  There is also the past conditional in Czech but it is usually replaced by the present conditional.  "byl bych dělal" - I would have done  "By" also becomes a part of conjugations "aby" (so that) and "kdyby" (if). Therefore, these conjunctions take the same endings:

Passive voice.

There are two ways to form the passive voice in Czech:  1. By the verb být (to be) and the passive participle:  2. By adding the reflexive pronoun se:  However, the use of "se" is not exclusive to the passive voice.

Reflexive verbs.

Reflexive pronouns se and si are components of reflexive verbs ("se/si" is not usually translated into English):

Negation.

Negation is formed by the prefix ne-. In the future tense and the passive voice it is added to the auxiliary verb "být" (to be).  Unlike English, a negative pronoun must be used with a negative verb (using a positive verb is ungrammatical) (double negative):

Verb classes.

Class I.

In imperative, "0/-te/-me" endings are in most verbs, -"i/-ete/-eme" or "-i/-ěte/-ěme" if two consonants are at the end of the word-stem.

Class IV.

Irregular verbs.

Irregular future tense:  Irregular negation:

Czech conjugation is the system of conjugation (grammatically-determined modifications) of verbs in the Czech language. Czech is a null-subject language, i.e. the subject (including personal pronouns) can be omitted if known from context. The person is expressed by the verb:

Článek česká slovesa pojednává o slovesech v češtině. Sloveso má ve větě zpravidla funkci přísudku. Časování (konjugace, ohýbání sloves) se provádí především pomocí speciálních koncovek, v některých případech i hláskovou změnou kmene slova.


Geology.

Antsiferov is a roughly circular island with an area of 6 km and is part of a spur range extending to the west of the main Kuril islands arc. The island is a stratovolcano with a diameter of 4.25 km and with a central peak (Japanese 蓮華岳; Renge-dake) with a height of 761 metres which is marked by a caldera which is 0.75 kilometre in diameter, which is breached to the south. Two lava domes are located near the walls of the breach, which appear to be of relatively recent origin, although no volcanic eruptions have been observed on Antsiferov in modern times. Much of the island is covered by pumice from pyroclastic-fall deposits.

Fauna.

The southern end of Antsiferov is the site of one of five major Steller sea lion breeding rookeries (about 600 animals) on the Kuril Islands. Because of the absence of terrestrial predators, it is also the home of very dense colonies of northern fulmars and tufted puffins which nest in the hummocks along its slopes. Cliff-dwelling birds, such as kittiwakes and thick-billed murres are also abundant.

History.

Antsiferov had no permanent habitation prior to European contact, but was visited in summer by the Ainu tribes for hunting. Claimed by the Empire of Russia, sovereignty was passed to the Empire of Japan per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg along with the rest of the Kuril islands. The island was formerly administered as part of Shimushu District of Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaidō. After World War II, the island came under the control of the Soviet Union, and is now administered as part of the Sakhalin Oblast of the Russian Federation. The island is now part of a wildlife refuge, and approach within 20 km by fishing vessels is prohibited.

Antsiferov Island (; also known as Shirinki Japanese 志林規島; Shirinki-tō) is an uninhabited volcanic island located in the northern Kuril Islands chain in the Sea of Okhotsk in the northwest Pacific Ocean. Its former Japanese name is derived from the Ainu language for "place of tall waves". Its nearest neighbor is Paramushir, located 15 km away across the Luzhin Strait. It is currently named for the cossack explorer Danila Antsiferov, who first described it along with other northern Kuril islands in the early eighteenth century.

Ostrov Anciferova (, "Širinki-tó"; ) je ostrov v severní části Kurilského souostroví. Tento malý ostrov leží jihozápadně od Paramuširu odděleného Lužinovou úžinou. Centrální vrchol dosahuje výšky 747 m n. m.


Geography.

The city lies on the Traisen river and is located north of the Alps and south of the Wachau. It is part of the "Mostviertel", the southwest region of Lower Austria.

Transport.

The city's main railway station, St. Pölten Hauptbahnhof, is located directly on the West railway of the ÖBB and is also the terminus of the Leobersdorfer Railway, the Mariazellerbahn, the regional railway to Tulln and the regional railway to Krems. It is at the intersection of the Western Motorway A1 and the Kremser Speedway S33, and is traversed by the Vienna Road B1. St Pölten is a junction of the "Wieselbus" bus lines, which provides radial connections between the capital and the different regions of Lower Austria.

In the city.

Between 1911 and 1976, a tramline operated in St Pölten. Today, a network of eleven bus lines operates at regular intervals within the city. Every summer, a free tourist train in the city centre connects the ancient parts of the city with the government district.

Climate.

St Pölten is divided into the following subdistricts: Altmannsdorf, Dörfl at Ochsenburg, Eggendorf, Ganzendorf, Hafing, Harland, Hart, Kreisberg, Matzersdorf, Mühlgang, Nadelbach, Oberradlberg, Oberwagram, Oberzwischenbrunn, Ochsenburg, Pengersdorf, Pottenbrunn, Pummersdorf, Ragelsdorf, Ratzersdorf at the Traisen, Reitzersdorf, Schwadorf, Spratzern, St Georgen on the Steinfelde, St Pölten, Stattersdorf, Steinfeld, Teufelhof, Unterradlberg, Unterwagram, Unterzwischenbrunn, Viehofen, Völtendorf, Waitzendorf, Wasserburg, Weitern, Wetzersdorf, Windpassing, Witzendorf, Wolfenberg, Wörth and Zwerndorf.

History.

The oldest part of the city is built on the site of the ancient Roman city of Aelium Cetium that existed between the 2nd and the 4th century. In the year 799, it was called "Treisma". St Pölten did not become a town until 1050 and officially became a city in 1169. Until 1494 St Pölten was part of the diocese of Passau, and then became the property of the state. A Benedictine monastery was founded in 771. In 1081 it hosted the Augustinian "Chorherren" and in 1784 their "Kollegiatsstift" closed. Since 1785, this building has hosted the cathedral of St Pölten. The city replaced Vienna as the capital of Lower Austria with a resolution by the Lower Austrian parliament on 10 July 1986. The Lower Austrian government has been hosted in St Pölten since 1997.  The name St Pölten is derived from Hippolytus of Rome. The city was renamed to Sankt Hippolyt, then St Polyt and finally St Pölten.

Politics.

Municipal council.

The municipal council consists of 42 members and since the municipal elections in 2016 it consists of the following parties:

City's senate.

The city's senate consists of 11 members:

Mayor.

On 9 July 2004 the municipal council elected the former senator for culture Mag. Matthias Stadler (SPÖ) as the new mayor of St Pölten. The first vice mayor is Susanne Kysela (SPÖ); the second vice mayor is Johannes Sassmann (ÖVP).

Coat of arms, colours and seals.

The arms' blazon is silver and azure; on the right a fess gules, on the left a wolf rampant silver langued gules and armed Or.  The colours of the city are red and yellow. The seal of the city contains its coat of arms surrounded by the text Landeshauptstadt St. Pölten. The administration's seal of the magistrate also contains the city's coat of arms with the text Magistrat der Stadt St. Pölten.

Economy.

As of 15 May 2001, 40,041 people worked in 2,711 companies in the city. 23 of those companies are large-scale enterprises with more than 200 employees each.

Media.

Several media companies are based in St Pölten. These are "@cetera", a literary-cultural magazine; "City-Flyer", an online magazine describing the cultural offerings of the city, which is published on paper monthly; "Campus Radio", a radio station from the University of Applied Sciences; "HiT FM", a radio station broadcasting in Lower Austria; "LetHereBeRock", an online youth magazine about the alternative rock scene; "NÖN", a Lower Austrian newspaper; the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation for Lower Austria; and the local television channel "P3tv".

Large-scale Enterprises.

The largest companies based in St Pölten are the furniture producer Leiner, the paper manufacturer Salzer, and the family owned engineering conglomerate Voith.

Public facilities.

Leisure and sports sites.

Swimming is available at Aquacity (indoor swimming pool), the St. Pölten outdoor swimming pool and Ratzersdorf Lake (a bathing pond where a nudist beach, beach volleyball, and miniature golf) are available. For fitness training there is the "City-Treff - Pueblo", the "Lifeline", the "Reebok " and the "Seepark". In addition, the city has:  St Pölten hosts a primary base of the Lower Austrian state sports school.

Tennis.

Every year in the third week of May the ATP tournament takes place in St Pölten. There are multiple local tennis stadiums, including the Arena im Aufeld, the tennis centre Allround, the tennis courts by the local ice sport association 1872, the courts in St. Georgen, the courts at the Ratzersdorfer Pond, the courts in the Lower Austrian state sports school and the courts of the leisure park Megafun.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

St Pölten is twinned with the following cities:

Sankt Pölten (; Central Bavarian: "St. Pödn"), mostly abbreviated to the official name St. Pölten, is the capital and largest city of the State of Lower Austria in northeast Austria, with 55,538 inhabitants as of 1 January 2020. St. Pölten is a city with its own statute (or "Statutarstadt") and therefore it is both a municipality and a district in the "Mostviertel".

Sankt Pölten (; zkráceně "St. Pölten", česky "Svatý Hippolyt") je statutární město a zároveň hlavní a největší město rakouské spolkové země Dolní Rakousy. Leží 60 km západně od Vídně. Žije v něm obyvatel.


Etymology.

The origin of this genus name is from the Sanskrit "nāga" (with a hard "g") meaning "snake". Some hold that the Sanskrit word is cognate with English "snake", Germanic: "*snēk-a-", Proto-IE: "*(s)nēg-o-", but this is unlikely. Mayrhofer calls this etymology ""unglaubhaft" ", "not credible", and suggests a more plausible etymology connecting it with Sanskrit "nagna," "hairless, naked".

Description.

"Naja" species vary in length and most are relatively slender-bodied snakes. Most species are capable of attaining lengths of. Maximum lengths for some of the larger species of cobras are around, with the forest cobra arguably being the longest species. All have a characteristic ability to raise the front quarters of their bodies off the ground and flatten their necks to appear larger to a potential predator.

Venom.

All species in the genus "Naja" are capable of delivering a fatal bite to a human. Most species have strongly neurotoxic venom, which attacks the nervous system, causing paralysis, but many also have cytotoxic features which cause swelling and necrosis, and have a significant anticoagulant effect. Some also have cardiotoxic components to their venom.  Several "Naja" species, referred to as spitting cobras, have a specialized venom delivery mechanism, in which their front fangs, instead of releasing venom through the tips (similar to a hypodermic needle), have a rifled opening in the front surface which allows the snake to propel the venom out of the mouth. While typically referred to as "spitting", the action is more like squirting. The range and accuracy with which they can shoot their venom varies from species to species, but it is used primarily as a defense mechanism. Once sprayed onto a victim's skin, the venom acts as a severe irritant. If it is introduced to the eyes, it can cause a severe burning sensation and temporary or even permanent blindness if not cleaned out immediately and thoroughly. The Caspian cobra ("N. oxiana") of Central Asia is the most venomous "Naja" species. The average subcutaneous for "N. oxiana" in mice is 0.18 mg/kg, and the lowest reported value for "N. oxiana" is 0.10 mg/kg subcutis, while the Philippine cobra ("N. philippinensis") has an average murine of 0.2 mg/kg subcutis. The lowest value reported for the Philippine cobra is 0.14 mg/kg subcutis. In mice, the intravenous for the Caspian cobra is 0.037 mg/kg, and for the Philippine cobra it is 0.05 mg/kg.The Caspian cobra is the most venomous species of cobra in the world (to laboratory mice). The crude venom of "N. oxiana" produced the lowest known lethal dose (LCLo) of 0.005 mg/kg, the lowest among all cobra species ever recorded, derived from an individual case of poisoning by intracerebroventricular injection. After the Caspian and Philippine cobras, the forest cobra ("N. melanoleuca") has an of 0.225 mg/kg subcutis, followed by the Samar cobra ("N. samarensis"), which has a value of 0.23 mg/kg subcutis. The water cobras of Central Africa are also highly venomous. The murine intraperitoneal of "Naja annulata" and "Naja christyi" venoms were 0.143 mg/kg and 0.120 mg/kg, respectively.  The "Naja" species are a medically important group of snakes due to the number of bites and fatalities they cause across their geographical range. They range throughout Africa (including some parts of the Sahara where "Naja haje" can be found), Southwest Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. Roughly 30–40% of bites by some cobra species are dry bites, thus do not cause envenomation (a dry bite is a bite by a venomous snake which does not inject venom).  Many factors influence the differences in cases of fatality among different species within the same genus. Among cobras, the cases of fatal outcome of bites in both treated and untreated victims can be quite large. For example, mortality rates among untreated cases of envenomation by the cobras as a whole group ranges from 6.5–10% for "N kaouthia" to about 70% for "N. oxiana". Mortality rate for "Naja atra" is between 15 and 20%, 5–10% for "N. nigricollis", 50% for "N. nivea", 65–70% for "N. melanoleuca", 20–25% for "N. naja", and 50–60% for "N. samarensis". In cases where victims of cobra bites are medically treated using normal treatment protocol for elapid type envenomation, differences in prognosis depend on the cobra species involved. The vast majority of envenomated patients treated make quick and complete recoveries, while other envenomated patients who receive similar treatment result in fatalities. The most important factors in the difference of mortality rates among victims envenomated by cobras is the severity of the bite and which cobra species caused the envenomation. The Caspian cobra ("N. oxiana") and the Philippine cobra ("N. philippinensis") are the two cobra species with the most toxic venom based on studies on mice. Both species cause prominent neurotoxicity and progression of life-threatening symptoms following envenomation. Death has been reported in as little as 30 minutes in cases of envenomation by both species. "N. philippinensis"'s purely neurotoxic venom causes prominent neurotoxicity with minimal local tissue damage and pain and patients respond very well to antivenom therapy if treatment is administered rapidly after envenomation. Envenomation caused by "N. oxiana" is much more complicated. In addition to prominent neurotoxicity, very potent cytotoxic and cardiotoxic components are in this species' venom. Local effects are marked and manifest in all cases of envenomation - severe pain, severe swelling, bruising, blistering, and tissue necrosis. Renal damage and cardiotoxicity are also clinical manifestations of envenomation caused by "N. oxiana", though they are rare and secondary. The untreated mortality rate among those envenomed by "N. oxiana" approaches 80%, the highest among all species within the genus "Naja". Antivenom is not as effective for envenomation by this species as it is for other Asian cobras within the same region, like the Indian cobra ("N. naja") and due to the dangerous toxicity of this species' venom, massive amounts of antivenom are often required for patients. As a result, a monovalent antivenom serum is being developed by the Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute in Iran. Response to treatment with antivenom is generally poor among patients, so mechanical ventilation and endotracheal intubation is required. As a result, mortality among those treated for "N. oxiana" envenomation is still relatively high (up to 30%) compared to all other species of cobra (<1%).

Taxonomy.

The genus contains several species complexes of closely related and often similar-looking species, some of them only recently described or defined. Several recent taxonomic studies have revealed species not included in the current listing in ITIS:  Two recent molecular phylogenetic studies have also supported the incorporation of the species previously assigned to the genera "Boulengerina" and "Paranaja" into "Naja", as both are closely related to the forest cobra ("Naja melanoleuca").  Wallach et al. suggested recognition of four subgenera within "Naja": "Naja" for the Asiatic cobras, "Boulengerina" for the African forest, water and burrowing cobras, "Uraeus" for the Egyptian and Cape cobra group and "Afronaja" for the African spitting cobras.  Extinct

Species.

Type species

Naja is a genus of venomous elapid snakes known as cobras ("true cobras"). Members of the genus "Naja" are the most widespread and the most widely recognized as "true" cobras. Various species occur in regions throughout Africa, Southwest Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Several other elapid species are also called "cobras", such as the king cobra ("Ophiophagus hannah") and the rinkhals ("Hemachatus haemachatus"), but neither are true cobras. They are not true cobras in that they do not belong to the genus "Naja", but instead each belong to monotypic genera "Hemachatus" (the rinkhals) and "Ophiophagus" (the king cobra/hamadryad).

Naja je rod jedovatých korálovcovitých hadů. Jde o nejrozšířenější rod hadů, kteří se v češtině souhrnně označují rodovým jménem kobra, často se označují jako tzv. "pravé kobry". Rod Naja se skládá z 21 všeobecně přijatých druhů. Tito hadi žijí v rozmezí od Afriky přes Blízký východ, Indii a jihovýchodní Asii až po Indonésii.