Background.

The mid-1870s witnessed a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans, and equally violent and repressive responses from the Turks. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, wanting to intervene against the Ottomans, sought and obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary. In the Budapest Conventions of 1877, the two powers agreed that Russia would annex Bessarabia, and Austria-Hungary would observe a benevolent neutrality toward Russia in the pending war with the Turks. As compensation for this support, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.  Shortly thereafter, the Russians declared war, and, after a few setbacks, drove the Turks relentlessly back to within a few miles of Constantinople. What stopped the Russians from driving the Turks completely out of Europe was the willingness of the other great powers, particularly Britain and Austria-Hungary, to enforce an earlier treaty, the London Straits Convention of 1841, which stated that the Straits of Constantinople would be closed to warships during time of war. This had the effect of bottling up the Russian fleet in the Black Sea, but would be worthless if Russian troops gained control of the straits by land. After their victory in the war, the Russians then imposed the Treaty of San Stefano on the Ottomans, which, in part, reneged on pledges made in the Budapest Convention and declared that Bosnia-Herzegovina would be jointly occupied by Russian and Austrian troops. The treaty of San Stefano was overturned by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin. Under article 29, Austria-Hungary received special rights in the Ottoman Empire's provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. Article 25 stated: "The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary", and continued "Austria-Hungary reserves the right to maintain garrisons and to have military and trading roads over the whole area of that portion [the Sanjak of Novi Pazar] of the ancient Vilayet of Bosnia."  The Sanjak of Novi Pazar separated Montenegro from Serbia and prevented the geographic and political union of these two states which were often closely aligned. The Austrian occupation of the Sanjak was also significant because it provided Austria-Hungary with a staging area for possible future expansion towards the Aegean port of Salonika in Ottoman controlled Macedonia. The Bosnian population was already religiously divided into Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox Christians. Austria-Hungary exercised its rights, taking firm control of Bosnia-Herzegovina and jointly occupying the Sanjak of Novi Pazar together with the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Berlin allowed for sole Austrian occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, but did not specify a final disposition of the provinces. This omission was addressed in the Three Emperors' League treaty of 1881, where both Germany and Russia endorsed Austria's right to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina. However, by 1897, under the new Tsar, Nicholas II, the Russian Imperial government had managed, again, to withdraw its support for Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Russian Foreign Minister, Count Michael Muraviev, stated that an Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina would raise "an extensive question requiring special scrutiny".  In 1903 the King of Serbia was assassinated in a coup and the pro-Russian Karađorđević dynasty came to the throne. Power shifted to elements widely interested in expansion into Bosnia. These Serbs wanted to take over the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and Bosnia-Herzegovina from the Austro-Hungarians. Relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary gradually deteriorated. However, Russia's ability to support Serbia was greatly reduced following military humiliation in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War and the ensuing internal unrest.  By 1907, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Alois Aehrenthal began formulating a plan to solidify Austria-Hungary's position towards Serbia through annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. His opportunity came in the form of a letter from Russian Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky and a subsequent meeting at Buchlau castle in Moravia, Austria-Hungary.

Buchlau Bargain.

Exchange of letters.

On 2 July 1908, Russian Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky sent a letter to Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Alois Aehrenthal and proposed a discussion of reciprocal changes to the 1878 Treaty of Berlin in favour of the Russian interest in the Straits of Constantinople and Austro-Hungarian interests in the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. On 14 July Aehrenthal responded with guarded acceptance of the proposed discussions. On 10 September, after long and complex discussions within the Imperial Government discussing the Izvolsky proposals to Austria-Hungary, Aehrenthal outlined a slightly different set of counter-proposals to him: he proposed that in exchange for a friendly Russian attitude when Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary would then withdraw its troops from the Sanjak. The letter then went on to offer to discuss, as a separate matter, the Straits question, on a friendly basis. Aehrenthal proposed that should agreement on Bosnia-Herzegovina be reached, his Government would not – should the Russians subsequently propose to assert a right of their Black Sea fleet to both use and protect their access to the Mediterranean through the Bosporus – automatically decide with the other powers to support collectively the Ottoman Empire's opposition (up to and including war) to such a proposal.

Meeting at Buchlau.

On 16 September, Izvolsky and Aehrenthal met face-to-face at Buchlau Castle. No minutes were taken during these private meetings, which lasted a total of six hours. Izvolsky accepted the responsibility to write up the conclusions of the meetings and forward them to Aehrenthal. On 21 September, Aehrenthal wrote to Izvolsky asking for this document, to which Izvolsky replied two days later that the document had been sent to the Czar for approval. This document, if it ever existed, has never been produced.

Aehrenthal’s version of the agreement.

By Aehrenthal's account given by Albertini, Izvolsky agreed that Russia would maintain "a friendly and benevolent attitude" if Austria-Hungary were to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina. Reciprocally, should Russia move to open "the Straits to single ships of war", Austria-Hungary would maintain a benevolent attitude. The two agreed that a likely consequence of the annexation was that Bulgaria, which was "de facto" independent since 1878, would declare its formal independence from the Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary would offer no territorial concessions to Serbia or Montenegro, but if they supported the annexation then Austria-Hungary would not oppose Serbian expansion in the Balkans, and would support the Russian demand to revise Article 29 of the Treaty of Berlin which restricted Montenegrin sovereignty. The parties agreed that "these changes could receive sanction after negotiation with the Porte and the Powers", but "there would be no more talk of Bosnia-Herzegovina." Annexation would probably take place at the beginning of October. The original of Aehrenthal's account has not been found and so historians have had to make do with an undated office copy of the document.

Izvolsky’s version.

On 30 September, Austria-Hungary informed Izvolsky, who was in Paris at the time, that the annexation would take place on 7 October. On 4 October, Izvolsky prepared a report at the request of the British Ambassador to France, Francis Bertie. Izvolsky stated that his position was that annexation was a matter to be settled between the signatories to the Treaty of Berlin. With the compensation of Austro-Hungarian withdrawal from the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, Russia would not consider the annexation as reason to go to war, but Russia and other governments would insist on changes to the Treaty favorable to themselves, including opening the Straits (Russia's interest), Bulgarian independence, territorial concessions to Serbia, and abolition of restrictions on Montenegrin sovereignty under article 29. Bertie told British Foreign Minister Grey that he felt Izvolsky was not being completely honest about the context whereby these understandings had come to be reached through his "diplomacy."

Annexation.

On 6 October, the day after Bulgaria declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire, Emperor Franz Joseph announced to the people of this Ottoman territory (that had been occupied by Austria for 30 years) his determination to recognize and grant them an autonomous and constitutional regime, under his authority as their annexing sovereign. The following day, Austria-Hungary announced its withdrawal from the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. Bulgarian independence and the Bosnian annexation were not covered by the Treaty of Berlin and set off a flurry of diplomatic protests and discussions.

Protests and compensations.

Serbia mobilized its army and on 7 October the Serbian Crown Council demanded that the annexation be reversed or, failing that, Serbia should receive compensation, which it defined on 25 October as a strip of land across the northernmost portion of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. In the end these demands were rejected. Serbia took control of the Sanjak after the Balkan wars.

Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman Empire protested Bulgaria's declaration of independence with more vigor than the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had no practical prospects of governing. A boycott of Austro-Hungarian goods and shops did occur, inflicting commercial losses of over 100,000,000 "kronen" on Austria-Hungary. On 26 February, Austria-Hungary settled the matter in a treaty. Austria-Hungary agreed to pay the Ottomans 2.2 million Ottoman lira for the public land in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Bulgarian independence could not be reversed.

France, Britain, Russia and Italy.

The annexation and Bulgarian declaration were viewed as violations of the Treaty of Berlin. France, Britain, Russia and Italy therefore were in favor of a conference to consider the matter. German opposition and complex diplomatic maneuvering as to the location, nature and preconditions of the conference delayed and ultimately scuttled it. Instead, the Powers reached agreement on amendments to the Treaty through consultations between capitals.  Italy expected compensations in the areas of "Italia Irredenta" ruled by Austria-Hungary in exchange for its recognition of the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, as was agreed upon in the Triple Alliance treaties with Austria-Hungary. However this did not happen and this became one of the reasons for Italy to break its alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1915. The mutual compensation clause was article 7 of the 1909 and of 5 December 1912 versions of the same treaty:  However, if, in the course of events, the maintenance of the status quo in the regions of the Balkans or of the Ottoman coasts and islands in the Adriatic and in the Aegean Sea should become impossible, and if, whether in consequence of the action of a third Power or otherwise, Austria-Hungary or Italy should find themselves under the necessity of modifying it by a temporary or permanent occupation on their part, this occupation shall take place only after a previous agreement between the two Powers, based upon the principle of a reciprocal compensation for every advantage, territorial or other, which each of them might obtain beyond the present status quo, and giving satisfaction to the interests and well founded claims of the two Parties.

Russia and Serbia back down.

British opposition to amending the Treaty of Berlin with respect to the Straits left Russia empty-handed and therefore Izvolsky and the Czar regarded the annexation and Aehrenthal's maneuvers as made in bad faith. Cognizant of Aehrenthal's rumored Jewish heritage, Izvolsky exploded, remarking "The dirty Jew has deceived me. He lied to me, he bamboozled me, that frightful Jew." To bring Izvolsky to heel, Austria-Hungary threatened to release and then ultimately began leaking documents, in which, over the course of the previous 30 years, Russia had agreed that Austria-Hungary had a free hand to do as it liked with Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. These documents were an embarrassment to Russia, especially with regard to its relations with Serbia. Czar Nicholas II wrote to Emperor Franz-Joseph and accused Austria-Hungary of betraying a confidence and relations between the two countries were permanently damaged. Under Germany's advice, Austria-Hungary kept in confidence the 2 July and 23 September correspondence from Izvolsky to Aehrenthal and these were a continued threat to Izvolsky's position if Russia did not firmly and publicly accept amendment of Article 25 of the Treaty of Berlin to accept the annexation. On 22 March, Germany put Russia on the spot, demanding that Russia give a clear and unequivocal "yes" or "no" as to whether it committed to accept this amendment. Failure to give a positive reply would cause Germany to withdraw from the diplomatic discussions "and let things take their course". Under such pressure, Izvolsky caved and advised the cabinet to accept the amendment of Article 25 for fear that otherwise Austria would be free to act against Serbia. The cabinet agreed. On 23 March the Czar accepted the decision and communicated the decision to German Ambassador to Russia Portales. Britain however was not quite ready to acquiesce and stated that it would do so only once "the Serbian question had been settled in a pacific manner." France fell in line behind Britain.  On 26 March, Austria-Hungary provided Britain with the negotiated text of Serbia's March declaration committing Serbia to accept the annexation. It ran: The next day Austria-Hungary asked for Britain's firm assurance that once the negotiations with Serbia were complete, Britain would accept the amendment of Article 25. Without such assurance Austria-Hungary stated it would break off negotiations with Serbia. Later that day Austria-Hungary decided to partially mobilize its armed forces. On 28 March Britain committed as requested. On 31 March Serbia made its formal declaration of acceptance to Austria-Hungary representing a complete Serbian climb down. The crisis was over. The Great Powers signed the amendments to the Treaty of Berlin in the various capitals from 7 April to 19 April.  A little over a year later, as a result of this diplomatic defeat, Izvolsky was demoted and made ambassador to France. He was permanently embittered against Aehrenthal and the Central Powers. The Russian Diplomat and newspaperman de Schelking relates Izvolsky's political downfall: "In the Salons of Petrograd he was given the Sobriquet 'Prince of the Bosphorus'. In his conceit, Izvolsky could not see he was being mocked."

The Bosnian Crisis of 1908–09, also known as the Annexation crisis (;, Анексиона криза) or the First Balkan Crisis, erupted in early October 1908 when Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, territories formerly within the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. This unilateral action—timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence (5 October) from the Ottoman Empire—sparked protestations from all the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbours, Serbia and Montenegro. In April 1909 the Treaty of Berlin was amended to reflect the "fait accompli" and bring the crisis to an end. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and the neighboring states of Italy, Serbia, and Russia, and in the long term helped lay the grounds for World War I. Although the crisis ended with what appeared to be a total Austro-Hungarian diplomatic victory, Russia became determined not to back down again and hastened its military build-up. The Crisis also cooled down Austrian–Serbian relations, which continued to be strained to the point of declaring war on each other in 1914.

Bosenská krize (někdy též Anekční krize, srbochorvatsky Aneksiona kriza) vypukla v letech 1908–1909. Bulharsko 5. října 1908 vyhlásilo svou nezávislost a 6. října 1908 Rakousko-Uhersko vyhlásilo anexi Bosny a Hercegoviny.


Early life.

Galecki was born in Bree, Belgium, to American parents of Polish, Irish, and Italian descent. His mother, Mary Louise (Mary Lou) Noon, was a mortgage consultant, and his father, Richard Galecki, was a member of the U.S. Air Force stationed in Belgium, and also worked as a rehabilitation teacher. Galecki is the eldest of three children with a brother, Nick, whom he describes as a "mechanical genius" in the automotive industry, and a sister, Allison. Galecki grew up in Oak Park, Illinois.  During an interview with New Zealand radio station ZM, Galecki recalled his childhood relationship with his mother. As a child, he was well known for making up long stories and tales. In such situations, his mother used to make him play the "quiet game", where he had to see how long he could go without talking. He also recalled that despite being a loving mother, she was also very tough. One phrase she would lovingly use was, "I love you, now get out."

Career.

Galecki made his acting debut in the 1987 CBS miniseries "Murder Ordained" with JoBeth Williams and future "Roseanne" co-star John Goodman. In 1989, Galecki portrayed Rusty Griswold in "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation". In 1990, he was cast as Danny Nash, the son of Robert Urich's lead character, on the NBC comedy "American Dreamer"; the following season, he was a regular cast member on the ABC sitcom "Billy", a spin-off from "Head of the Class". He appeared in one episode of "Blossom" in 1991, opposite his future "The Big Bang Theory" co-star Mayim Bialik.  During his run on "Billy", Galecki began making guest appearances on the hit ABC sitcom "Roseanne" as the younger brother of Mark Healy (Glenn Quinn), who began a relationship with Darlene Conner (Sara Gilbert). Introduced in his first appearance as Kevin Healy, his name was soon changed to David. After a few more guest shots, Galecki was named a permanent "Roseanne" cast member from the fall of 1992 onward, after the cancellation of "Billy". He would remain in the role of David Healy until the end of "Roseanne"'s run in 1997, with the character eventually marrying Darlene and fathering two children with her. Galecki's character on "The Big Bang Theory" would also have a short-lived relationship with Gilbert's character on the same show.  Galecki also appeared in the 1995 music video for the Dave Matthews Band song "Satellite". Galecki was cast in the 1997 summer slasher "I Know What You Did Last Summer" and the 1998 dark comedy "The Opposite of Sex". In the year 2000, Galecki reunited with "Opposite of Sex" director Don Roos, who cast him in "Bounce".  Galecki continued his film streak with roles in "Suicide Kings" (1997) and brief bit parts in high-profile films such as "Bean" (1997), and a minor supporting part in "Vanilla Sky" (2001). Galecki played a young delinquent in "A Family Torn Apart", a 1993 TV movie based on a true story about a serial killer. He was also in the 2003 film "Bookies", a comedy thriller film written by Michael Bacall and directed by Mark Illsley. The story revolves around the lives of four college students. Galecki appeared as a golfer in a 2005 episode of "My Name Is Earl" entitled "Stole Beer from a Golfer".  In 2005, Galecki played Mark Corrigan in a pilot for a US adaptation of the British sitcom "Peep Show". He played a character named Trouty on TBS's sitcom "My Boys", and the half-brother of the main characters, sisters Hope Shanowski and Faith Fairfield, in the sitcom "Hope & Faith". In late 2006 and early 2007, Galecki appeared in the Broadway play "The Little Dog Laughed" as a prostitute called Alex. "At its core, the play is about what we all sacrifice to be successful, whatever our careers or goals," he explains. Galecki originated the role earlier in 2006 at Second Stage Theatre. The widely popular comedy by Douglas Carter Beane had a successful run at Second Stage and moved to the Cort Theatre. The play closed on February 18, 2007, with Galecki taking home a 2007 Theater World Award for his performance.  Galecki played Leonard Hofstadter in the CBS sitcom "The Big Bang Theory", which debuted September 24, 2007. He was originally asked to play the role of Sheldon Cooper, but he said he was better suited for the role of Leonard Hofstadter, and Sheldon's role was eventually given to Jim Parsons. During his role as David Healy on Roseanne, Sara Gilbert played his longtime girlfriend and later wife, Darlene Conner. She has appeared as Leslie Winkle, a colleague in the Big Bang Theory. Leonard and Leslie would have a short-lived romantic relationship. Laurie Metcalf, who portrayed Roseanne's sister Jackie Harris, has appeared as Mary Cooper, mother of Leonard's roommate, Sheldon. Galecki is a cellist, a talent which has been used on the show. As of August 2013, Galecki and his "Big Bang" co-stars Kaley Cuoco and Jim Parsons each earned US$325,000 per episode. As of August 2014, the three co-stars earned US$1 million per episode. The series ended on May 16, 2019.  Galecki appeared briefly in the 2008 superhero comedy "Hancock", alongside Will Smith and Jason Bateman. In July 2011, he played a parody version of himself in three episodes of "Entourage". He also appeared in the film "In Time" (2011) with Justin Timberlake and Amanda Seyfried.  On April 28, 2017, it was reported that a revival of "Roseanne" was in the works with most of the original cast, including Galecki, returning for the eight part mini-series. On May 16, 2017, it was confirmed that the eight episodes would air mid-season in 2018 on ABC. On December 1, 2017, it was announced that he would reprise his role of David Healy for one episode.  In May 2018, ABC cancelled "Roseanne" following racist remarks made by Roseanne Barr on social media. That June, the other cast members (except Galecki due to his work on "Big Bang") came to a deal for a spin-off program featuring their characters without any involvement from Barr. The program titled "The Conners" premiered in October 2018; Galecki has appeared as David in at least one episode.

Personal life.

While working on "The Big Bang Theory", Galecki dated co-star Kaley Cuoco for about two years until December 2009 while the two also played a couple on the show. Cuoco told "CBS Watch" that they have remained on good terms since ending their relationship.  Galecki owns of land in Santa Margarita, California. His property included vineyards and a log cabin. In late June 2017, Galecki's ranch was destroyed in a major wildfire known as the Hill Fire. Galecki, in a media statement, said wildfire was "the threat... we live with constantly, which may seem crazy to some but we do so because living in our beautiful, rural area makes it worthwhile."  As of September 2018, Galecki is dating Alaina Meyer. On May 3, 2019, Galecki and Meyer announced that they were expecting their first child together. Their son Avery was born in December 2019.

John Mark Galecki (born April 30, 1975) is an American actor. He played Leonard Hofstadter in the CBS sitcom "The Big Bang Theory" (2007–2019) and David Healy in the ABC sitcom "Roseanne" (1992–1997; 2018). Galecki also appeared in the films "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation" (1989), "Prancer" (1989), "Suicide Kings" (1997), "I Know What You Did Last Summer" (1997), "Bookies" (2003), "In Time" (2011), and "Rings" (2017).

John Mark „Johnny“ Galecki (* 30. dubna 1975, Bree, Belgie) je americký televizní a filmový herec a hudebník. Známý zejména ze sitcomu "Teorie velkého třesku" jako Leonard Hofstadter. Objevil se také v roli Davida Healyho v sitcomu "Roseanne".


Forms of manual alphabets.

As with other forms of manual communication, fingerspelling can be comprehended visually or tactually. The simplest visual form of fingerspelling is tracing the shape of letters in the air, or tactually, tracing letters on the hand. Fingerspelling can be one-handed such as in American Sign Language, French Sign Language and Irish Sign Language, or it can be two-handed such as in British Sign Language.

Latin alphabet.

One-handed.

There are two families of manual alphabets used for representing the Latin alphabet in the modern world. The more common of the two is mostly produced on one hand, and can be traced back to alphabetic signs used in Europe from at least the early 15th century. The alphabet, first described completely by Spanish monks, was adopted by the Abbé de l'Épée's deaf school in Paris in the 18th century, and was then spread to deaf communities around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries via educators who had learned it in Paris. Over time, variations have emerged, brought about by natural phonetic changes that occur over time, adaptions for local written forms with special characters or diacritics (which are sometimes represented with the other hand), and avoidance of handshapes that are considered obscene in some cultures. The most widely used modern descendant is the American manual alphabet.

Two-handed.

Two-handed manual alphabets are used by a number of deaf communities; one such alphabet is shared by users of British Sign Language, Auslan, and New Zealand Sign Language (collectively known as the BANZSL language family), while another is used in Turkish Sign Language. Some of the letters are represented by iconic shapes, and in the BANZSL languages the vowels are represented by pointing to the fingertips.  Letters are formed by a dominant hand, which is on top of or alongside the other hand at the point of contact, and a subordinate hand, which uses either the same or a simpler handshape as the dominant hand. Either the left or right hand can be dominant. In a modified tactile form used by deafblind people, the signer's hand acts as the dominant hand, and the receiver's hand becomes the subordinate hand.  Some signs, such as the sign commonly used for the letter "C", may be one-handed.

Other alphabets.

Manual alphabets based on the Arabic alphabet, the Ethiopian Ge'ez script and the Korean Hangul script use handshapes that are more or less iconic representations of the characters in the writing system. Some manual representations of non-Roman scripts such as Chinese, Japanese, Devanagari (e.g. the Nepali manual alphabet), Hebrew, Greek, Thai and Russian alphabets are based to some extent on the one-handed Latin alphabet described above. In some cases however, the "basis" is more theory than practice. Thus, for example, in the Japanese manual syllabary only the five vowels (ア /a/, イ /i/, ウ /u/, エ /e/, オ /o/) and the Ca (consonant plus "a' vowel) letters (カ /ka/, サ /sa/, ナ /na/, ハ /ha/, マ /ma/, ヤ /ya/, ラ /ra/, ワ /wa/, but notably "not" タ /ta/ which would resemble a somewhat rude gesture) derive from the American manual alphabet. In the Nepali Sign Language it is only four "letters" which derive from the American manual alphabet: अ /a/, ब /b/, म /m/, and र /r/).  The Yugoslav manual alphabet represents characters from the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet as well as Gaj's Latin alphabet.

Fingerspelling in sign languages.

Fingerspelling has been introduced into certain sign languages by educators, and as such has some structural properties that are unlike the visually motivated and multi-layered signs that are typical in deaf sign languages. In many ways fingerspelling serves as a bridge between the sign language and the oral language that surrounds it.  Fingerspelling is used in different sign languages and registers for different purposes. It may be used to represent words from an oral language which have no sign equivalent, or for emphasis, clarification, or when teaching or learning a sign language.  In American Sign Language (ASL), more lexical items are fingerspelled in casual conversation than in formal or narrative signing. Different sign language speech communities use fingerspelling to a greater or lesser degree. At the high end of the scale, fingerspelling makes up about 8.7% of casual signing in ASL, and 10% of casual signing in Auslan. The proportion is higher in older signers, suggesting that the use of fingerspelling has diminished over time. Across the Tasman Sea, only 2.5% of the corpus of New Zealand Sign Language was found to be fingerspelling. Fingerspelling has only become a part of NZSL since the 1980s; prior to that, words could be spelled or initialised by tracing letters in the air. Fingerspelling does not seem to be used much in the sign languages of Eastern Europe, except in schools, and Italian Sign Language is also said to use very little fingerspelling, and mainly for foreign words. Sign languages that make no use of fingerspelling at all include Kata Kolok and Ban Khor Sign Language.  The speed and clarity of fingerspelling also varies between different signing communities. In Italian Sign Language, fingerspelled words are relatively slow and clearly produced, whereas fingerspelling in standard British Sign Language (BSL) is often rapid so that the individual letters become difficult to distinguish, and the word is grasped from the overall hand movement. Most of the letters of the BSL alphabet are produced with two hands, but when one hand is occupied, the dominant hand may fingerspell onto an "imaginary" subordinate hand, and the word can be recognised by the movement. As with written words, the first and last letters and the length of the word are the most significant factors for recognition.  When people fluent in sign language read fingerspelling, they do not usually look at the signer's hand(s), but maintain eye contact and look at the face of the signer as is normal for sign language. People who are learning fingerspelling often find it impossible to understand it using just their peripheral vision and must look directly at the hand of someone who is fingerspelling. Often, they must also ask the signer to fingerspell slowly. It frequently takes years of expressive and receptive practice to become skilled with fingerspelling.

History.

Some writers have suggested that the body and hands were used to represent alphabets in Greek, Roman, Egyptian and Assyrian antiquity. Certainly, "finger calculus" systems were widespread, and capable of representing numbers up to 10,000; they are still in use today in parts of the Middle East. The practice of substituting letters for numbers and vice versa, known as gematria, was also common, and it is possible that the two practices were combined to produce a finger calculus alphabet. The earliest known manual alphabet, described by the Benedictine monk Bede in 8th century Northumbria, did just that. While the usual purpose of the Latin and Greek finger alphabets described by Bede is unknown, they were unlikely to have been used by deaf people for communication — even though Bede lost his own hearing later in life. Historian Lois Bragg concludes that these alphabets were "only a bookish game."  Beginning with R. A. S. Macalister in 1938, several writers have speculated that the 5th century Irish Ogham script, with its quinary alphabet system, was derived from a finger alphabet that predates even Bede.  European monks from at least the time of Bede have made use of forms of manual communication, including alphabetic gestures, for a number of reasons: communication among the monastery while observing vows of silence, administering to the ill, and as mnemonic devices. They also may have been used as ciphers for discreet or secret communication. Clear antecedents of many of the manual alphabets in use today can be seen from the 16th century in books published by friars in Spain and Italy. From the same time, monks such as the Benedictine Fray Pedro Ponce de León began tutoring deaf children of wealthy patrons — in some places, literacy was a requirement for legal recognition as an heir — and the manual alphabets found a new purpose. They were originally part of the earliest known Mouth Hand Systems. The first book on deaf education, published in 1620 by Juan Pablo Bonet in Madrid, included a detailed account of the use of a manual alphabet to teach deaf students to read and speak.  Meanwhile, in Britain, manual alphabets were also in use for a number of purposes, such as secret communication, public speaking, or used for communication by deaf people. In 1648, John Bulwer described "Master Babington", a deaf man proficient in the use of a manual alphabet, "contryved on the joynts of his fingers", whose wife could converse with him easily, even in the dark through the use of tactile signing. In 1680, George Dalgarno published "Didascalocophus, or, The deaf and dumb mans tutor", in which he presented his own method of deaf education, including an "arthrological" alphabet, where letters are indicated by pointing to different joints of the fingers and palm of the left hand. Arthrological systems had been in use by hearing people for some time; some have speculated that they can be traced to early Ogham manual alphabets. The vowels of this alphabet have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with "Digiti Lingua", a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.  Charles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented the first letter of the part (e.g. Brow=B), and vowels were located on the fingertips as with the other British systems. He described codes for both English and Latin.  By 1720, the British manual alphabet had found more or less its present form. Descendants of this alphabet have been used by deaf communities (or at least in classrooms) in former British colonies India, Australia, New Zealand, Uganda and South Africa, as well as the republics and provinces of the former Yugoslavia, Grand Cayman Island in the Caribbean, Indonesia, Norway, Germany and the USA.

Gallery.

Engravings of (Bonet, 1620):  Other historical manual alphabets

Fingerspelling (or dactylology) is the representation of the letters of a writing system, and sometimes numeral systems, using only the hands. These manual alphabets (also known as finger alphabets or hand alphabets), have often been used in deaf education, and have subsequently been adopted as a distinct part of a number of sign languages; there are about forty manual alphabets around the world. Historically, manual alphabets have had a number of additional applications—including use as ciphers, as mnemonics, and in silent religious settings.

Prstová abeceda je komunikační systém, vycházející z mluveného jazyka (v České republice primárně z češtiny). Tento systém je užíván v komunikaci neslyšících osob (mezi sebou nebo se slyšícími osobami), ale téměř nikdy není používán samostatně. Může fungovat např. jako podpora a doplněk k odezírání, nebo figurovat v komunikaci, v níž se používá znakový jazyk – je totiž také součástí mnoha přirozených znakových jazyků jako důsledek kontaktu mezi znakovými a mluvenými jazyky.


History.

Features.

"Andrea Doria" had a length of, a beam of, and a gross register tonnage of 29,100. The propulsion system consisted of steam turbines attached to twin screws, enabling the ship to achieve a service speed of, with a top speed of. "Andrea Doria" was neither the largest vessel nor the fastest of its day: those distinctions went to and, respectively. Instead, the famous Italian architect designed "Andrea Doria" for luxury. Because it sailed the southern Atlantic routes, "Andrea Doria" was the first ship to feature three outdoor swimming pools, one for each class (first, cabin, and tourist).

Safety and seaworthiness.

Equipped with a double hull, "Andrea Doria" was divided into 11 watertight compartments. Any two of these could be filled with water without endangering the ship's safety. "Andrea Doria" also carried enough lifeboats to accommodate all passengers and crew. She carried a total of 16 steel lifeboats, eight positioned on each side of the ship, coming in three different designs; two 58-person launches for emergency use, two 70-person motorboats with inboard radio transmitters, and 12 146-person hand-propelled standard boats. Furthermore, the ship was equipped with the latest early-warning radar. However, despite its technological advantages, the ship had serious flaws relating to its seaworthiness and safety.  Confirming predictions

Construction and maiden voyage.

At the end of World War II, Italy had lost half its merchant fleet through wartime destruction and Allied forces seeking war reparations. The losses included the scuttling/bombing of, a former Blue Riband holder. Furthermore, the country was struggling with a collapsed economy. To show the world that the country had recovered from the war, and to reestablish the nation's pride, the Italian Line commissioned two new vessels of similar design in the early 1950s. The first was to be named "Andrea Doria", after the 16th-century Genoese admiral Andrea Doria. The second vessel, which was launched in 1953, was to be named after explorer Christopher Columbus.  These ships were intended to enter use on the Italian Line's main service between Genoa and New York, which was commonly advertised as the "Sunny Southern Route" alongside "Saturnia", "Vulcania" and "Conte Biancamano", which were among the handful of Italian liners to survive the war. However, as popular as these vessels were,

Final voyage.

A collision course.

The 51st westbound crossing of "Andrea Doria" to New York began as a typical run on the North Atlantic. Her most recent eastbound crossing from New York had concluded on 14 July, and after a three-day turnaround, the ship was prepared to make another trek across the Atlantic, which was scheduled to begin from Genoa on Tuesday, 17 July. On this run, she was booked to roughly 90% of her total passenger capacity, with 1,134 passengers travelling aboard her; 190 in first class, 267 in cabin class and 677 in tourist class; with a crew of 572, a total of 1,706 persons were aboard.  On the morning of 17 July, boarding at the pier at Genoa began at 8 a.m. as "Andrea Doria" took on her first batch of passengers. In all, 277 passengers embarked at Genoa; 49 first class, 72 cabin class and 156 tourist class. Among those boarding in first class were Hungarian

Impact and penetration.

When "Andrea Doria" and "Stockholm" collided at almost a 90° angle, "Stockholm"s sharply raked ice breaking prow pierced "Andrea Doria"s starboard side about one-third of her length from the bow. It penetrated the hull to a depth of nearly, and the keel. Below the waterline, five fuel tanks on "Andrea Doria"s starboard side were torn open, and they filled with thousands of tons of seawater. Meanwhile, air was trapped in the five empty tanks on the port side, causing

Assessing damage and imminent danger.

Immediately after the collision, "Andrea Doria" began to take on water and started to list severely to starboard. Within minutes, the list was at least 18°. After the ships separated, Captain Calamai quickly brought the engine controls to "all stop". One of the watertight doors to the engine room may have been missing, though this issue was later determined to be moot. Much more importantly, however, crucial stability was lost by the earlier failure, during routine operations, to ballast the mostly empty fuel tanks as the builders had specified. (Filling the tanks with seawater as the fuel was emptied would have resulted in more costly procedures to refuel when port was reached.) Owing to the immediate rush of seawater flooding the starboard tanks, and

Rescue operations.

On "Andrea Doria", the decision to abandon ship was made within 30 minutes of impact. A sufficient number of lifeboats for all of the passengers and crew were positioned on each side of the Boat Deck. Procedures called for lowering the lifeboats to be fastened alongside the glass-enclosed Promenade Deck (one deck below), where evacuees could step out of windows directly into the boats, which would then be lowered down to the sea. However, it was soon determined that half of the lifeboats, those on the port side, were unlaunchable due to the severe list, which left them high in the air. To make matters worse, the list also complicated normal lifeboat procedures on the starboard side. Instead of loading lifeboats at the side of the Promenade Deck and then lowering them into the water, it would be necessary to lower the boats empty, and somehow

"Andrea Doria" capsizes and sinks.

Once the evacuation was complete, Captain Calamai of "Andrea Doria" shifted his attention to the possibility of towing the ship to shallow water. However, it was clear to those watching helplessly at the scene that the stricken ocean liner was doomed.  After all the survivors had been transferred onto various rescue ships bound for New York, "Andrea Doria"s remaining crew began to disembark – forced to abandon the ship. By 9:00 am, even Captain Calamai was in a rescue boat. The sinking began at 9:45 am and by 10:00

Return to New York; families.

Because of the scattering of "Andrea Doria" passengers and crew among the various rescue vessels, some families were separated during the collision and rescue. It was not clear who was where, and whether or not some persons had survived, until after all the ships with survivors arrived in New York. In all, six different ships had participated in the rescue of the passengers and crew of "Andrea Doria", including the heavily damaged "Stockholm", which was able to steam back to New York under its own power with a United States Coast Guard escort, but arrived

Casualties.

The area of "Andrea Doria"s hull where "Stockholm"s bow penetrated encompassed five passenger decks. On the uppermost of these decks, the Upper Deck, at least eight first class cabins were destroyed. In all, six first class passengers lost their lives. In cabin 46, Colonel Walter Carlin had been in the bathroom brushing his teeth at the time of the collision and miraculously survived, while his wife Jeanette was killed. Later aboard "Stockholm", crewmen searching the wreckage of the mangled bow sighted the remains of a woman matching Carlin's description lodged in the wreckage, but before they could recover it debris became dislodged and the body fell into the sea. In direct line of "Stockholm"s bow on the upper deck were cabins 52 and 54, which were occupied by Camille Cianfarra, a longtime foreign correspondent for "The New York Times", his wife Jane, their eight-year-old daughter Joan and 14-year-old Linda Morgan, Jane's daughter from her previous marriage to American journalist Edward P. Morgan. Joan was killed instantly, while Camille died from severe injuries moments after the collision. Jane was seriously injured, but was rescued by some other passengers, among them Dr. Thure Peterson, who had been next door in cabin 56. He sustained only minor injuries, while his wife Martha was gravely wounded and was

Aftermath.

Litigation and determination of fault: 1956–1957.

Several months of hearings were held in New York City in the aftermath of the collision. Prominent maritime attorneys represented both the ships' owners. Dozens of attorneys represented victims and families of victims. Officers of both ship lines had testified, including the officers in charge of each ship at the time of the collision, with more scheduled to appear later until an out-of-court settlement was reached, and the hearings ended abruptly.  Both shipping lines contributed to a settlement fund for the victims. Each line absorbed its own damages. For the Swedish-American Line, damages were estimated at $2 million, half for repairs to "Stockholm"s bow, and half

Resulting reforms.

The "Andrea Doria–Stockholm" collision led to several rule changes in the immediate years following the incident to avoid a recurrence. Since this was essentially a radar-assisted collision event, in which over-use was made of poorly handled technology, shipping lines were required

Later investigations and study.

Unanswered questions about the tragedy, and questions of cause and blame, have intrigued observers and haunted survivors for over 50 years. The fact that "Andrea Doria" and "Stockholm" were speeding in heavy fog (21.8 knots and 18.5 knots, respectively, at the collision) and questions about their seaworthiness arose at the time. Captain Calamai never assumed another command

Wreck site.

Due to the luxurious appointments and initially good condition of the wreck, with the top of the wreck lying initially in 160 feet (50 m) of water, "Andrea Doria" has been a frequent target of treasure divers. It is commonly referred to as the "Mount Everest of scuba diving." The comparison to Mt. Everest originated after a July 1983 dive on "Andrea Doria" by Capt. Alvin Golden during a CBS News-televised interview of the divers following their return from a dive expedition to the wreck aboard the R/V "Wahoo". The depth, water temperature, and currents combine to put the wreck beyond the scope of recreational diving. The skills and equipment required to successfully execute this dive, such as use of mixed gases and staged decompression, put it in the realm of only the most experienced technical divers. The wreck is located near.  After "Andrea Doria" sank, divers Peter Gimbel and Joseph Fox managed to locate the wreck of the ship, and published pictures of the wreck in "Life".  In 1968, film director Bruno Vailati, together with Stefano Carletti, Mimi Dies, Arnaldo Mattei, and Al Giddings (an experienced American diver), organized and directed the first Italian expedition to the wreck, producing the documentary titled "Andrea Doria -74". The wreck was marked with a bronze plaque with the inscription: "We came here to work because the impossible becomes possible and "Andrea Doria" return to the light".  Peter Gimbel later conducted a number of salvage operations on the ship, including salvaging the first-class bank safe in 1981. Despite speculation that passengers had deposited many valuables, the safe, opened on live television in 1984, yielded thousands of American silver certificates, Canadian bank notes, American Express travellers checks, and Italian bank notes, but no other valuables. This outcome apparently confirmed other speculation that most "Andrea Doria" passengers, in anticipation of the ship's scheduled arrival in New York City the following morning, had already retrieved their valuables prior to the collision.  Evelyn Bartram Dudas (22) was the first woman to successfully dive onto "Andrea Doria". Dudas reached the wreck in June 1967; she and her future husband, John Dudas, retrieved the ship's compass. Other well-known divers to explore the Andrea Doria are Steve Belinda, John Chatterton, Gary Gentile, Gary Gilligan, Richie Kohler and John Mattera.  As of 2010, years of ocean submersion have taken their toll. The wreck has aged and deteriorated extensively, with the hull now fractured and collapsed. The upper decks have slowly slid off the wreck to the seabed below. As a result of this transformation, a large debris field flows out from the hull of the liner. Once-popular access points frequented by divers, such as Gimbel's hole, no longer exist. Divers call "Andrea Doria" a "noisy" wreck, as it emits various noises due to continual deterioration and the currents' moving broken metal around inside the hull. However, due to this decay, new access areas are constantly opening up for future divers on the ever-changing wreck.  A 2016 expedition to the wreck by OceanGate revealed that "Andrea Doria" was decaying rapidly. "When you look at the shape of the hull, it appears a lot has come off," Stockon Rush, OceanGate's CEO, said. One of the pieces now broken off the wreck is the ship's bow.  After years of removal of artifacts by divers, little of value was thought to remain. Significant artifacts recovered include the statue of Genoese Admiral Andrea Doria, for whom the ship was named. It was removed from the first-class lounge, having been cut off at the ankles to accomplish this. Examples of the ship's china have long been considered valuable mementos of diving the wreck. The ship's bell is normally considered to be the prize of a wreck. This ship carried three bells: one bell located on the bridge, and two much larger ceremonial bells located on the fore and aft decks. The ship's stern bell was retrieved in the late 1980s by a team of divers led by Bill Nagle. On 26 June 2010, a diver from New Jersey, Carl Bayer, diving from the Narragansett RI based dive boat EXPLORER, owned by Capt Dave Sutton, discovered the bridge bell lying on the bottom at. He recovered it with assistance from Ernie Rookey, also from New Jersey. The bell, tall and weighing, was possibly used to signal fog on the night of the collision. The forward bell remains undiscovered. It has for years been thought to be in the ship's paint locker where it was stored during ocean crossings, but recent reports indicate that that part of the ship has collapsed in on itself and the forward bell may never be found.

Legacy.

MS "Stockholm".

"Stockholm"s bow was repaired at a cost of

Survivors.

Survivors went on with their lives with a wide range of experiences. Captain Calamai never accepted another command, and lived the rest of his life in sadness "as a man who has lost a son", according to his daughter. Most of the other officers

In culture.

Music.

In 1973, German singer Udo Lindenberg published an album titled "Alles klar auf der Andrea Doria" (All's Well on the "Andrea Doria"), containing a song of the same

Books.

Photography.

Photographer Robert F. McCrystal, from the "Providence Journal", was the first to photograph the fatally struck "Andrea Doria" from an airplane. One of his photographs ran on the cover of "LIFE" Magazine.  Boston newspaper photographer Harry Trask, who arrived at the scene in a small airplane after many media people had left, took a series of photographs of "Andrea Doria"s final moments above water, which won a Pulitzer Prize.

SS "Andrea Doria", was an ocean liner for the Italian Line (Società di navigazione Italia) home-ported in Genoa, Italy, most famous for her sinking in 1956, when 46 people died.

SS Andrea Doria byl velký luxusní italský transatlantický parník, poslední svého druhu před masivním nástupem letecké dopravy přes Atlantik. Na vodu byla tato loď spuštěna 16. června 1951, první komerční plavbu podnikla 14. ledna 1953. Známá je ale především katastrofou z 25. července 1956, kdy se po srážce s lodí MS Stockholm potopila nedaleko břehů ostrova Nantucket u Massachusetts. Jen díky modernějším komunikačním technologiím nedosáhlo neštěstí takových rozměrů, jako katastrofa Titanicu. Během bleskové záchranné akce bylo zachráněno 1660 pasažérů a členů posádky, katastrofa měla 46 obětí. Přesné důvody srážky nebyly zveřejněny.


Design.

The Opel Calibra was styled by GM's designer Wayne Cherry, and German designer Erhard Schnell. As a front-wheel drive three door hatchback coupé based on the Vectra A chassis, its ride and handling are not significantly better than that of the large family car from which it grew.  Though it had a stiffer chassis as a whole (better torsional rigidity in NM/Deg). The 4WD turbo version of the car, which had independent rear suspension, featured the rear axle of the Omega A with some minor alterations to it.  When launched on 10 June 1989, the Calibra was the most aerodynamic production car in the world, with a drag coefficient (Cd) of "0.26". It remained the most aerodynamic mass production car for the next ten years, until the Honda Insight, along with the Audi A2, were launched both in November 1999, with a Cd of "0.25".  All later 16V, V6, 4x4 and turbo models had a worse Cd of "0.29", due to changes in cooling system, underbody, use of spoked wheels and glass detail.

Commercial life.

During its lifetime, the Calibra was much more popular in Europe, and outsold its nearest rival, the Ford Probe, which was considered to be underpowered, and very American for most European drivers. However, in the United Kingdom, it failed to outsell the Rover 200 Coupé, which offered comparable performance, but without 4WD in the top of the range models. Sales commenced in June 1990.  In July 1990, after General Motors bought a stake in Saab, it was reported the Calibra would be badged as a Saab in the United States, but these plans did not materialise. There were also plans for a cabriolet version to be produced, but these too failed to materialise, although Valmet Automotive built two fully working, red coloured prototypes in 1992, with the 2.0 litre, 8 valve engine.  A third body was also produced for use in flexibility tests. In the summer of 1994, the Calibra received a light facelift. Most noticeably, the manufacturer badge migrated from its place atop the leading edge of the bonnet into the front grille. Throughout the production run, several special models were launched.  In the United Kingdom, this began with the 'Tickford' conversion in October 1991, however, only twenty six Calibra's were ever converted. This was followed by Vauxhall's own Special Edition range the SE1 in 1993, and ran through to the SE9 in 1997. These limited run editions had often unique aspects. For example, solar yellow paint on the SE2, or "Icelandic" blue on the SE6. Neither colours were found on any other Calibra.  There was also a DTM edition available only in white, in celebration of the Calibra's success in the German Touring Car Championship at the time. In other parts of Europe, special models included the "Keke Rosberg" edition, the "Cliff" edition, the "Colour" edition and "Last" edition. Some special models included a numbered plaque on the ashtray.  The Vectra A was replaced in September 1995, but Calibra production continued until June 1997. Although a smaller coupé (the Tigra) was available, the marque was left without a mid sized coupé until the Astra Coupé was launched in the spring of 2000, and with the introduction of the Opel Speedster in July 2000, three years after the Calibra was discontinued, Opel finally offered a sports car again.

Engines.

Power was initially from 2.0 litre 8 valve (85 kW/115 bhp C20NE) and a Cosworth designed 16 valve fuel injected (110 kW/150 bhp C20XE) four cylinder redtop petrol engines.  For 1992, a turbocharged 2.0 litre 16 valve engine (150 kW/204 bhp C20LET, the turbocharged version of the C20XE) was added to the range. With four wheel drive, a six speed Getrag manual transmission (F28/6) and a claimed top speed of 245 km/h (152 mph), this flagship model finally gave the Calibra the dynamics to match its looks.  The Turbo model was also notable for the five stud wheel hubs and the extreme negative camber (inward lean) of its rear wheels, which is apparent even from a cursory visual inspection. However, it was not a strong seller.  In 1993, a 125 kW/168 hp 2.5 litre V6 (C25XE or SE4) was introduced. Available with both manual and automatic transmissions, the V6 was not as fast as the Turbo, but was rather more civilised, and proved to be more reliable than the complex four wheel drive model. 1995 saw the introduction of the X20XEV "Ecotec" engine, a new version of the classic C20XE 16 valve or "red top" engine.  This marked a reduction in power from to for the 16 valve version, although the Turbo continued with the C20LET.  The last Calibra Turbos were produced in the beginning of 1997, before a final run of Calibra Turbo Limited Editions were rolled out. These were all finished in jet black paintwork with Irmscher spoiler, BBS RX 16" alloys and colour coded body fittings. This final incarnation was also lowered by 35mm on Irmscher springs and dampers.  The interior was heated cream leather, with a steering wheel trimmed in grey leather and a plaque showing the build number mounted on the centre console.

In competition.

The Calibra V6 DTM race cars, while still being four wheel drive, had the engine mounted longitudinally instead of transversely. Early DTM cars were using a naturally aspirated Opel Cosworth 54 degree V6 engine, based on the production C25XE car engine. Power climbed from during the years (1993–1995).  Then in 1996, due to changes to the regulations of FIA, a newly developed engine was used instead: the all aluminium 75 degree Cosworth KF V6 engine, based on the Isuzu Trooper/Amigo V6. This one was the 6VD1 engine, which was a ISUZU made engine (This one engine had also found its place in the all road Honda Passport's engine compartment.)  With this one new engine, they managed to get the win in the "1996 ITC Championship". The KF V6 was capable of revving up to 15,000 rpm.  The last known KF V6 Calibra race car in existence, is the Zakspeed prototype, Calibra Concept 2, which had been built to be used as a test car for the upcoming FIA championship, that actually never happened. The Calibra turbo was also rallied, albeit without any major successes. A Calibra finished ninth in the 1992 Sanremo Rallye, with Bruno Thiry at the wheel. This did make it the fastest car in the 1600 to 2000 cc class.

Transmissions.

In addition to a four speed automatic transmissions that was available on all models, except the C20LET (although some countries such as Australia did not sell the C20XE with the four speed auto), there were five manual gearboxes for the Calibra (all of which were five speed gearboxes, except the six speed F28/6).  The transfer gearbox in the AWD models — the same as used in the Vauxhall Cavalier AWD—was somewhat on the flimsy side, liable to suffer damage from conditions such as minor differences in tyre wear or tyre pressure between front and rear axles. Since front and rear tyres would naturally wear at different rates in normal driving, it was necessary to swap front with rear tyres every.  All four tyres had to be of the same make and model, and all four tyres had to be replaced at the same time — if one tyre was damaged or punctured, the three remaining good tyres also had to be replaced. In addition there were other maintenance requirements which were both exacting and unusual. Neglect of these points through ignorance or a misconceived attempt to save money was common, and was likely to lead to very expensive failures of the transfer gearbox.

2007 GTC Concept.

The Opel GTC Concept of March 2007 was linked to the "Calibra" name, but no production version resulted from the concept car.

The Opel Calibra is a coupé, engineered and produced by the German automaker Opel between 1989 and 1997. In the United Kingdom, where it remained on sale until 1999, it was marketed under the Vauxhall brand as the Vauxhall Calibra. It was also marketed as the Chevrolet Calibra in South America by Chevrolet, and the Holden Calibra in Australia and New Zealand by Holden.

Opel Calibra je sportovní automobil německé automobilky Opel. I přes to, že jeho výroba už neběží, tak se dodnes jedná o oblíbený vůz. Vyráběla se od roku 1989 do roku 1997. Celkem bylo vyrobeno 239 118 kusů.


Etymology.

The etymology of the word "pomelo" derived from "pompelmoes", which is rendered "pompelmus" in German, and "pamplemousse" in French. Its botanical name, "Citrus maximus", means "biggest citrus". In English, the word "pomelo" (also spelled pomello, pummelo, pommelo, pumelo) has become the more common name, although "pomelo" has historically been used for grapefruit. (The 1973 printing of the American Heritage Dictionary, for example, gives grapefruit as the only meaning of "pomelo.")  After a captain Shaddock of an East India Company ship introduced it to Barbados, the fruit was called "shaddock" in English. From there the name spread to Jamaica in 1696. It remains a common name for the fruit among English authors. The fruit is also known as jabong in Hawaii and jambola in varieties of English spoken in South Asia.

Description and uses.

The pomelo tree may be tall, possibly with a crooked trunk thick, and low-hanging, irregular branches. Leaf petioles are distinctly winged, with alternate, ovate or elliptic shapes long, with a leathery, dull green upper finish, and hairy lower leaf. The flowers – single or in clusters – are fragrant and yellow-white in color.  The pomelo is a large citrus fruit, in diameter, usually weighing. It has a thicker rind than a grapefruit. Containing 11–18 segments, the flesh tastes like a mild grapefruit (believed to be a hybrid of "Citrus maxima" and the orange). The flesh has little of the common grapefruit bitterness. The enveloping membranous material around the segments is bitter, considered inedible, and usually discarded. There are two varieties: a sweet kind with white flesh, and a sour kind with pinkish flesh, the latter more likely to be used as a ceremony, rather than eaten. The fruit generally contains few, relatively large seeds, but some varieties have numerous seeds.  The juice is regarded as delicious, and the rind is used to make preserves or may be candied. In Brazil, the thick skin may be used for making a sweet conserve, while the spongy pith of the rind is discarded. In Sri Lanka, it is often eaten as a dessert, either raw or sprinkled with sugar. Some fatty Asian dishes use sliced pre-soaked pith to absorb the sauce and fat for eating. In large parts of Southeast Asia where pomelo is native, it is a common dessert, often eaten raw and sprinkled with, or dipped in, a salt mixture. It is eaten in salads. In the Philippines, the juice is mixed with pineapple and made into a pink drink.  The fruit may have been introduced to China around 100 BC.

Propagation and genetic diversity.

"Citrus maxima" is usually grafted onto other citrus rootstocks, but may be grown from seed. Though the seeds of the pomelo are monoembryonic, producing seedlings identical to their parents, and therefore pomelo is typically grown from seed. Seeds can be stored for 80 days at and with moderate relative humidity. High-quality varieties are propagated by air-layering or by budding onto favored rootstocks.  A wide variability in the physical and chemical characteristics of pomelo occurs across southern Asia.

Varieties.

Hybrids.

The pomelo is one of the original citrus species from which the rest of cultivated citrus have been hybridized, (others being citron, mandarin, and to a lesser extent, papedas and kumquat). In particular, the common orange and the grapefruit are presumed to be naturally occurring hybrids between the pomelo and the mandarin, with the pomelo providing the larger size and greater firmness.  The pomelo is employed today in artificial breeding programs:

Nutrition.

Raw pomelo flesh is 89% water, 10% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). A 100 gram reference amount provides 38 calories, and is rich in vitamin C (73% of the Daily Value), with no other micronutrients in significant content (table).

Potential for drug interaction.

As a species of citrus, pomelo may cause adverse effects, similar to those caused by grapefruit, through the inhibition of cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of prescription drugs such as anti-hypertensives and anticoagulants.

The pomelo, pummelo, or in scientific terms "Citrus maxima" or "Citrus grandis", is the largest citrus fruit from the family Rutaceae and the principal ancestor of the grapefruit. It is a natural, i.e., non-hybrid, citrus fruit, native to Southeast Asia and Malaysia. Similar in taste to a large grapefruit, the pomelo is commonly consumed and used for festive occasions throughout Southeast Asia.

Pomelo ("Citrus maxima"), též šedok, je stálezelený strom a stejnojmenný velký citrusový plod (Citrus grandis). Pochází z jihovýchodní Asie a je největším citrusovým plodem. Pomelo je jedním z původních druhů citrusů, které nevznikly křížením. Pomelo má jen málo kalorií a neobsahuje sodík, ale naopak je zdrojem velkého množství draslíku a vody. Pěstuje se hlavně v USA (v Kalifornii), Číně a Mexiku. V Evropě se pěstuje ve Španělsku, ale v daleko menší míře. Pomelo se konzumuje syrové bez slupky, také jako příměs do jiných pokrmů. Kůra se používá v čínské kuchyni. Plod pomela dorůstá i do váhy 5 kg, ale v komerční produkci jsou běžnější plody o váze okolo 1 kg. Jeho dužina je bledě žlutá, oranžová až červená. Zvýšený podíl draslíku, minimum kalorií a tuku jej předurčuje ke konzumaci při snaze o snížení cholesterolu a prevenci proti srdečním chorobám. V Číně existuje spousta léků vyrobených ze semen, květu, kůry, plodů či nakrájených a vysušených plátků. Jsou určeny pro léčbu kašle, otoků, zlepšení trávení, pomáhají při kocovině a intoxikaci (otravě) alkoholem.


Founding.

When the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created after World War I, the different social democratic parties that had existed in Austria-Hungary, Serbia and Montenegro called for a unification of their parties. The idea was widely accepted by parties and organizations from all over the country and in April 1919 a "Congress of Unification" was held in Belgrade, attended by 432 delegates representing 130,000 organized supporters of the workers’ class movement from all parts of the Kingdom except Slovenia. The ministerial branch of the Social democrat party of Slovenia was minorized in April 1920, when the Slovenes joined ranks with other social-democrats turned Marxist–Leninist revolutionaries. Slovenes joined officially at the Second Congress, held in Vukovar in late April 1920.  The congress was marked by opposing positions towards the concepts of the revolutionary and reformist currents. Bolshevik influence was introduced by soldiers who during the war had been captured by Russian forces and had experienced the October Revolution. The Congress decided to form a single political party (not a federation of parties) named Socialist Labor Party of Yugoslavia (of Communists) ("Socijalistička radnička partija Jugoslavije (komunista)") which would be a member of Comintern. Its highest organs, to which all other organs were subordinate, were the Congress and the Central Committee, headed by Filip Filipović and Živko Topalović as political secretaries and Vladimir Ćopić as organizational secretary. The party program, the "Basis of Unification", was a "synthesis of the Social Democratic ideological heritage with the experiences of the October Revolution", spoke in terms of an imminent revolution, while the "Practical Program of Action" was oriented to a long-term political struggle within the capitalist system. The party considered the national question to be solved by the events of 1918, supported a unitarian state merging the different "tribes" into one "nation" as the best basis of class struggle, and opposed ′′federalism".  In the wake of the Congress, the "United Socialist (Communist) Woman Movement" ("Jedinstveni ženski socijalistički (komunistički) pokret"), and the "Central Workers’ Trade-Union Council" ("Centralno radničko sindikalno vijeće") were also founded, while the Young Communist League of Yugoslavia was formed later that year.

Period of legal activity.

The newly formed party organized several protests against political situations in the country and rallies of support for Soviet Russia and the Hungarian Soviet Republic, while the "Central Workers’ Trade-Union Council" organized many strikes and demonstrations against employers and state authority.  The party achieved gains in many towns and villages during the local elections of March 1920 in Croatia and Montenegro (the latter being an entity inside Serbia at this stage), where Communists won majority in several cities (including big cities like Zagreb, Osijek, Slavonski Brod, Križevci and Podgorica) resulted in the anxious government using pressure against the party: it refused to confirm Communist administrations of these districts and imprisoned the party leadership, which however was subsequently released after a hunger strike. These early successes convinced other groups, including Social Democrats in Slovenia, to join the party.  Success continued in local elections in Serbia (including the Macedonia region which it then included) in the summer of 1920, in which the Communists won majorities in many districts (including Belgrade, Skoplje and Niš). Again, Communist administrations were suspended by the government.  Finally, in elections to the Constitutional Assembly, held on November 28, 1920, the Communist Party received 198,736 votes (12.36% of all votes) and 58 of 419 seats in the assembly.

Split with the Centrists.

But the growth of the party also incited arguments about party's agenda and resulted in a split between two currents: The reformist "Centrists", stressing that the Kingdoms was an industrially underdeveloped state and not ripe for revolution, opposed an emphasis on class struggle and a close connection between the party and the trade-unions and favored participating in the political life by legal means and working towards social reforms. The decidedly Communist "Revolutionaries", arguing that the prerequisites for a revolution already existed, favored a centralized party, a close alliance with the unions and the seizing of power by force, including terrorist tactics.  The 2nd party congress, held in June 1920 in Vukovar, saw the revolutionaries led by Filipović prevail. The party changed its name to Communist Party of Yugoslavia ("Komunistička partija Jugoslavije") and elected Filipović and Sima Marković as political secretaries. The Congress also supported to the idea of a Balkan Communist Federation. The "Centrists" objected to their marginalization and in September published their Manifesto, in which they denounced the October Revolution as "irrational" and as "violence on the course of history" and the Bolsheviks as using the Comintern as an instrument of their foreign policy, using "all foreign parties as their own blind agents" The manifesto was signed by 53 leading party members, which all were expelled from the leadership, while 62 members who had expressed solidarity with them were given party punishments. The centrists for a time formed their own party before they united with the Social Democrats in the Socialist Party of Yugoslavia.

Ban of the Communist party.

The government, already anxious about a destabilization of the Kingdom but also encouraged by the demise of the Communist regime in Hungary, took measures against the revolutionary Communist Party after a policeman and four miners had been killed in a miners' strike near Tuzla, Bosnia: On the night from 29 to 30 December 1920, the government issued the "Obznana" (literally "announcement") decree, which prohibited all Communist activities until the adoption of the new constitution, excluding only the Communist deputies involvement in the Constitutional Assembly. The party's property was seized and several leaders arrested. The Assembly approved of the Constitution on 28 June 1921, against the votes of the Communist deputies.  The Communist Party reacted to the "Obznana" preparing a transition to illegal operation. In June 1921, it formed an "Alternative Central Party Leadership", which would assume control of the Party if the Party leadership was arrested.  Some Communists reacted to the oppression by founding the terrorist group "Crvena Pravda" ("The Red Justice"), which organized assassination attempts: during the official proclamation of the constitution, they unsuccessfully tried to kill Prince Regent Alexander, but on 21 July 1921 they succeeded in assassinating Milorad Drašković, minister of the interior and author of the "Obznana". This act was widely condemned and resulted in a lasting drop of the party's popularity. The Assembly passed the "Law of protection of public security and state order" ("Zakon o zaštiti javne bezbednosti i poretka u državi"), which indefinitely banned the Communist Party and all Communist activity. The ban was not lifted until the demise of the Kingdom in 1941.  At the same time all the Communist deputies were arrested and at the end of the year, some 70,000 Communists and trade-unions members had been arrested, while many members ceased activities altogether.

Underground organization.

As the party continued underground and abroad, the "Alternative Central Party Leadership" was headed by Kosta Novaković, Triša Kaclerović and Moša Pijade. However, soon conflict flared up on the issue whether the party should attempt to reconstruct legal forms of its work or devote itself entirely to illegal activity. A group of party leaders, led by former party secretary Sima Marković, formed the "Executive Committee of the Communist Party in Emigration" in September 1921, thus establishing a double leadership. The two factions reunited at the 1st state Conference, held at Vienna in July 1922: Marković argued for postponing the revolution and aiming at constitutional changes, while Novaković wanted to aim for "rapid revolutionary change". Marković persuaded the majority and the Comintern confirmed the "right-wing" majority but also appealed to the "left-wing" by criticizing the former leadership. The Communists succeeded in reestablishing re-opening for itself a way into public political life via the Independent Trade Unions and organizations like the "Union of Workers' Youth of Yugoslavia" and the "Independent Workers' Party of Yugoslavia", which however won only 1% of the votes and no seats in the parliamentary elections of March 1923.  The 2nd state conference held at Vienna in May 1923 saw a victory of the left wing, with Triša Kaclerović assuming leadership. The conference also decided that to create an illegal centralized cadre party, locate the leadership inside the country, infiltrate workers' organizations and set up combat units.

National question and factional strife.

In 1923, the party also began to rethink its position on the national question and distanced itself from its former view, that 1918 had created a unified Yugoslav nation. Communists began to question the structure of the Yugoslav state and supported a Danubian–Balkan Federation. Debates were summed up by the 3rd state conference held at Belgrade in January 1924 which supported the concept of a federative republic with fully developed local self-management.  However, the Comintern denounced any federative organization and instead demanded the breaking up of the so-called "Versailles Yugoslavia", with Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia forming independent republics. The Comintern, perceiving that the unsolved national question could be used to foster a new revolution, focused on Yugoslavia as the least stable of Balkan states.  The 3rd state conference also decided to strengthen the illegal party organization by the creation of party cells among industrial workers (instead of skilled craftsmen), the schooling party cadres and a united front with the trade-unions. This led to the increase of membership from 1,000 to 2,500 at the end of 1924.  The 3rd conference's decisions were accepted in a party referendum but rejected by the local Belgrade organization, led by trade union functionaries and Sima Marković, who refused to recognize the leadership under Kaclerović. They especially opposed the Comintern's policy of dissolving Yugoslavia, seeing no chance for a revolution and hence no need to foster it by such a move. The conflict was heightened by Croatian Communists open support for nationalist groups like the Croatian Peasant Party or the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (VMRO), and their directing complaints against Serbian hegemony not against the Serbian bourgeoisie but against the Serbian people. The Belgrade opposition was defeated in a renewed debate in autumn 1924 and subsequently left the party. The conflict was reviewed by the Comintern, which condemned Marković's views as "Social Democratic and opportunistic".  The 3rd party congress held at Vienna in May 1926, convoked to overcome the internal conflict, agreed with Comintern's evaluation and confirmed the 3rd state conference's as "the foundations for its ideological and political Bolshevization′′. The Comintern's program was made binding on any party member and the party's name supplemented by "Section of the Communist International". The Congress also defined Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Montenegro and Vojvodina as non-Serb territories that should secede from the remaining "area of the Serbian Nation". Members of both party wings practiced "self-criticism", expressed their desire for unity and were subsequently elected into the Central Committee, with Marković returning as political secretary.  But the conflict was not truly resolved and began to spread into the lower party organizations, to which the party responded by anti-factional campaigns among the cadres. In January 1928, Đuro Đaković appealed to the Comintern, denounced both wings as blocking party work and marginalizing the party in the political life of Yugoslavia. He received the support of the local Zagreb organization, led by Josip Broz Tito and Andrija Hebrang. In April, after conferring with Moscow, the Comintern replaced the Central Committee with a temporary leadership in and call on party members to liquidate factionalism. Convoked in this atmosphere, the 4th party congress, held at Dresden in November 1928, saw sharp criticism of the factions, and especially of Marković, who submitted to party discipline and called upon to the Belgrade party to return to party discipline. The congress reaffirmed the centralism principles and demanded that the leadership must be composed of industrial workers educated in the spirit of Leninism. Jovan Mališić was elected political secretary and Đuro Đaković organizational secretary. The congress also predicted an imminent bourgeois revolution, adopted the Comintern's theory of Social fascism, which regarded social democracy as a form of fascism, and reaffirmed the policy of breaking up Yugoslavia. Both the Communist Party of Yugoslavia and the Comintern would support these views until 1935.

Armed revolt of 1929.

On 6 January 1929, King Alexander dispensed with the constitution and introduced a royal dictatorship. The Communist party, encouraged by the Dresden congress, in response called upon workers and peasants to start an armed revolt, considerably overestimating their influence. The majority of Communists observed this appeal but their actions remained isolated and only resulted in an increase of repression by the government: the top leaders of the Young Communist League and of the party, including Đuro Đaković, were killed, numerous members arrested and the party's organization destroyed. In April 1930, the Central Committee moved to Vienna and lost contact with the remaining organizations in the country.

Reconstruction of the party.

The experience of the failed revolt helped the Communist Party of Yugoslavia to gradually liberate itself from ideological concepts, sectarianism and the dictate of the Comintern. After 1932, the party began reconstructing its cadres, who could work independently from their superiors in exile. The parliamentary crisis also led to numerous intellectuals joining the Marxist movement. Membership increased from 300 in January 1932 to almost three thousand in December 1934, when the Central Committee finally reestablished contact with the organization inside the country.  At the 4th state conference, held at Ljubljana, in December 1934, the party still clung to the concept of breaking up Yugoslavia and demanded the liberation of Montenegro from Serbian occupation — despite the opposition of Montenegrin Communists against such a declaration. However, the year 1935 saw the reversal of that position: In June, the Central Committee no longer insisted on a division of Yugoslavia but emphasized each nation's right to self-determination, which could be implemented within the framework of a federative Yugoslavia. In August, the party (in conjunction with the Comintern) adopted a plan for a preservation of reconstructed and federalized Yugoslavia under the slogan "Weak Serbia — Strong Yugoslavia".  In the same year, Yugoslavia's Communists also followed the Comintern, when it abandoned the theory of social fascism in favor of a popular front in cooperation with Social Democrats.  Under the conditions of Yugoslavia, such a cooperation helped to break the limitations of illegality and sped up the organizational reconstruction of the party, but also made differences between the leadership in exile and the party in the country more visible. The Central Committee therefore decided in mid-1935 to create a "National Bureau" (Zemaljski biro) to lead the Party from within the country. Some voices demanded a return of the Central Committee but the large numbers of party members living as political emigrants and the difficulties in running such a stretched party prevented this.  The party's increased activity provoked the authorities to sharp measures and during 1936 about two thousand members were arrested, including most of the members of the National Bureau and many regional leaders and some members of the Central Committee. The Comintern, during consultations in Moscow in August, severely criticized the Yugoslavian leadership and decided to nominate a new leadership and transfer the Central Committee's seat back inside the country.  In November, the leadership was installed with Milan Gorkić as general secretary and Josip Broz as organizational secretary, and in December Broz and other leaders returned to Yugoslavia, where they pursued an anti-fascist policy and initiated a campaign for solidarity with Spanish republicans, which channeled help through the Paris branch of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia.  Those leaders remaining in Moscow were hit by Stalin's Great Purge, in which many party members were arrested and shot, including the most prominent former leaders of Yugoslavia's Communists: Filip Filipović, Sima Marković, Kosta Novaković, as well as the current general secretary Milan Gorkić, who was deposed and shot in 1937.

Tito's early leadership.

The party work was further hampered by factional struggles within the Paris branch, irregular contacts with the Comintern and the cessation of financial aid and the unclear position of the party's representative within the country, Josip Broz. However, Josip Broz (using the pseudonyms of "Walter" and "Tito") was able to unite the party and won the confidence of the Comintern. In May 1938, he set up a temporary leadership inside the country. In August he went to Moscow, through the mediation of Georgi Dimitrov, leader of the Bulgarian Communists, reached an agreement with the Comintern. Tito was authorized to reform the Central Committee within the country, which was accomplished in March 1939 with Tito as general secretary. Tito succeeded in removing the centers of "factionalism" and also lessened the party's financial problems.  The party was also faced with the controversy created by Stalin's purges and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, which both disturbed and alienated many intellectuals. Tito responded by trying to focus on Yugoslavian issues. Such controversy however gradually ceased due to the independent policy towards the Comintern.  With World War II on the horizon, the issue of war became prominent. Yugoslavian Communists accepted the Comintern's evaluation of the "imperialistic character of war" but at the same time insisted on the right of a country to defend itself against aggression.  Economic difficulties and political oppression strengthened the Communist party's appeal; prompting the government to respond with a crack-down on trade-unions in December 1939.  After various regional party conferences analyzing the situation, the 5th state conference was held in October 1940 at Zagreb, which stressed two tasks: the defense of Yugoslavia's independence and the mobilization of the masses in the struggle to solve the most acute internal social and national problems. Regarding the national question, the conference espoused self-determination and cultural autonomy of all peoples, including smaller groups like Albanians, Germans, Hungarians, Romanians.

Invasion and armed resistance.

In March 1941, after a coup d'état with British support, a group of military officers ousted the pro-Axis Prince Regent Paul and declared the 17-year-old King Peter II of age. In April 1941, Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia and quickly defeated the Yugoslav army. The Communist Party decided to organize resistance against the invaders and on 10 April set up a war committee in Zagreb to prepare a war for "national and social liberation".  When Hitler began his invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June, the Communists considered the moment opportune and issued a proclamation calling to the nations of Yugoslavia to resistance. Assisted by the British and the Americans, the Communist-led Partisans used guerrilla tactics to establish territories under their control, where they also introduced elements of socialist revolution, and used propaganda to popularize their aims. At the end of the Yugoslav People's Liberation War in 1945, the Partisans consisted of 800,000 soldiers under the leadership of 14,000 members of the Communist party.

Ruling party of Socialist Yugoslavia.

The other parties formed before the war were banned by the Communists. Eight of them entered the coalition with the Communists and founded the People's Front of Yugoslavia ("Narodna fronta Jugoslavije"), while the Democratic Party of Milan Grol boycott the first post-war elections of 1945 because the elections were held under undemocratic conditions.  The elections were held in the form of a referendum: the People's Front candidate list received 91% of the vote while the option of "no list" won 9%. Yugoslavia became a republic and the other parties were banned. The People's Front (later called the Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia, "Socijalistički Savez Radnog Naroda Jugoslavije") remained open to those who did not consider themselves to be communists, such as members of the clergy.  In 1948, the party held its fifth Congress. The meeting was held shortly after Stalin accused Tito of being a nationalist and moving to the right branding his heresy Titoism. This resulted in a break with the Soviet Union known as the Informbiro period. Initially the Yugoslav communists, despite the break with Stalin, remained as hard line as before but soon began to pursue a policy of independent socialism that experimented with self-management of workers in state-run enterprises, with decentralization and other departures from the Soviet model of a Communist state.  Under the influence of reformers such as Boris Kidrič and Milovan Đilas, Yugoslavia experimented with ideas of workers self-management where workers influenced the policies of the factories in which they worked and shared a portion of any surplus revenue. This resulted in a change in the party's role in society from holding a monopoly of power to being an ideological leader. As a result, the party name was changed to the League of Communists of Yugoslavia ("Savez komunista Jugoslavije", SKJ) in 1952 during its sixth Congress. Likewise, the names of the regional branches were changed accordingly. LCY consisted of the following regional bodies:

Dissidents.

The Communists had a number of dissidents within its ranks at various periods:

Crisis and dissolution.

In the 1960s, the centralized command structure of the League of Communists began to be dismantled with the fall of the hardline OZNA and UDBA chief Aleksandar Ranković in 1966, culminating in the social and political movements that would lead to the de-centralized and regionalized Federal Yugoslavia of the Constitution of 1974.  After Tito's death in 1980 the party adopted a collective leadership model, with the party presidency rotating annually. The party's influence declined and the party moved to a federal structure giving more power to party branches in Yugoslavia's constituent republics. Party membership continued to grow reaching two million in the mid-1980s but membership was considered less prestigious than in the past.  Slobodan Milošević became President of the League of Communists of Serbia in 1987 and combined certain Serbian nationalist ideologies with opposition to liberal reforms. The growing rift among the branches of the Communist Party and their respective republics came to a head at the LCY's 14th Congress, held in January 1990. The LCY renounced its monopoly of power, and agreed to allow opposition parties to take part in elections. However, rifts between Serbian and Slovenian Communists led the LCY to dissolve into different parties for each republic.  The Communist associations in each republic shortly changed their names to Socialist or Social-Democratic parties, transmuting into movements which were left-oriented, but no longer strictly communist.  The remnants of the local branches were transformed:

The League of Communists of Yugoslavia, known until 1952 as the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, was the founding and ruling party of SFR Yugoslavia. It was formed in 1919 as the main communist opposition party in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and after its initial successes in the elections, it was proscribed by the royal government and was at times harshly and violently suppressed. It remained an illegal underground group until World War II when, after the Invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, the military arm of the party, the Yugoslav Partisans, became embroiled in a bloody civil war and defeated the Axis powers and their local auxiliaries. After the liberation from foreign occupation in 1945, the party consolidated its power and established a one-party state, which existed until the 1990 breakup of Yugoslavia.

Svaz komunistů Jugoslávie (v srbštině a chorvatštině Savez komunista Jugoslavije/Савез комуниста Југославије), před rokem 1952 známý také jako Komunistická strana Jugoslávie, byla komunistická strana v Jugoslávii.


Release and reissue.

The album was released in 1988 as a double LP, double cassette, and a double CD, each format containing a slightly different track listing. The album includes many works from "A Momentary Lapse of Reason" as well as tracks from older Pink Floyd albums. The double LP release did not have "Us and Them" on the track listing. Both the double LP and the double cassette had "Wish You Were Here" between "Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2)" and "Comfortably Numb".  Although David Gilmour stated around the time of its release and on a radio interview in 1992 that the album contained no studio overdubbing whatsoever, he embellished the tracks during mixing with some extra acoustic guitar on "Comfortably Numb", according to engineer Buford Jones. In addition, some harmonies were replaced by studio re-takes: Richard Wright re-did his vocal on "Time" and Sam Brown replaced Rachel Fury's part in "Comfortably Numb" but the rest of the album is as performed at the shows.  Along with "A Collection of Great Dance Songs", "Delicate Sound of Thunder" was reissued on 180g heavyweight vinyl LP in November 2017. Its artwork replicates that of the original 1988 LP release.  An expanded version of the live album was included in "The Later Years 1987–2019" box set in 2019, including performances omitted from the original release due to the limitations of vinyl records. Previously unreleased tracks include "Signs of Life," "One Slip," "A New Machine (Part 1)", "Terminal Frost", "A New Machine (Part 2)", and "Welcome to the Machine". This reissue marks the first official release of Pink Floyd playing a live version of "Welcome to the Machine." All tracks were remixed for the 2019 reissue.

Commercial performance.

"Delicate Sound of Thunder" reached #11 on the "Billboard" 200 and is currently listed as Triple Platinum in U.S. sales — it was certified Gold and Platinum on 23 January 1989 and Triple Platinum in April 1997. In Canada, it was #57 in the 1989 year-end chart.

First in space.

"Delicate Sound of Thunder" became the first album to be played in space, as Soviet cosmonauts took it aboard Soyuz TM-7. David Gilmour and Nick Mason attended the mission's launch.

Track listing.

Songs omitted from the album.

The concerts also featured the following songs which were not included on the album:  "Songs with asterisk (*) are included in the video version."

2019 reissue.

"Delicate Sound of Thunder" was reissued on CD on 13 December 2019 as part of the box set "The Later Years 1987–2019" along with the film of the same name. The album has been remixed and remastered and includes tracks omitted from the original 1988 release. There are no current plans for a standalone release.  In the 2019 remix, the songs "Sorrow", "On the Turning Away" and "Comfortably Numb" have longer guitar solos by Gilmour than in the 1988 original; "The Dogs of War" has a longer intro; "Money" has been condensed, removing Guy Pratt's bass solo and the female "a cappella" section; "Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2)" has extra elements, taken from 1989 shows, added in - most notably an extra "hey teacher!" between Gilmour's and Renwick's guitar solos; "Us and Them" has a piano added to the intro; much of the echo has been removed from Wallis' electronic drums during "Learning to Fly"; and "Run Like Hell" has an extended intro and now includes Gilmour thanking the audience; "Time" guitar's intro starts sooner within the "tic-tac" (as performed on Pulse) than the 1988 original.  "Learning to Fly", "Us and Them", and "Run Like Hell" from the 2019 remix are also included in the 2019 compilation album "The Later Years 1987–2019 Highlights", released on 29 November 2019.

Track listing.

Disc 1  Disc 2

Personnel.

Pink Floyd  Additional musicians  Production

Delicate Sound of Thunder is the first entirely live album by English progressive rock band Pink Floyd. It was recorded over five nights at the Nassau Coliseum on Long Island, New York, in August 1988 and mixed at Abbey Road Studios in September 1988. It was released on 22 November 1988, through EMI Records in the United Kingdom and Columbia Records in the United States.

Delicate Sound of Thunder je druhé koncertní album britské skupiny Pink Floyd. Vydáno bylo v listopadu 1988 (viz 1988 v hudbě) a v britském žebříčku prodejnosti hudebních alb se umístilo nejlépe na 11. místě. Bylo natočeno na koncertním turné k albu "A Momentary Lapse of Reason" (vydáno 1987) a zachycuje tak podobu skupiny bez baskytaristy a zpěváka Rogera Waterse, jenž kapelu opustil v roce 1985.