History and development.

Early beginnings.

Before the emergence of the Western monastic communities, a key contribution to the foundation of "Lectio Divina" came from Origen in the 3rd century, with his view of "Scripture as a sacrament". In a letter to Gregory of Neocaesarea Origen wrote: "[W]hen you devote yourself to the divine reading... seek the meaning of divine words which is hidden from most people". Origen believed that The Word (i.e. "Logos") was incarnate in Scripture and could therefore touch and teach readers and hearers. Origen taught that the reading of Scripture could help move beyond elementary thoughts and discover the higher wisdom hidden in the "Word of God".  In Origen's approach the major interpretive element of Scripture is Christ. In his view all Scriptural texts are secondary to Christ and are only revelations in as much as they refer to Christ as The Word of God. In this view, using Christ as the "interpretive key" unlocks the message in Scriptural texts.  The "primordial role" of Origen in interpreting Scripture was acknowledged by Pope Benedict XVI. Origen's methods were then learned by Ambrose of Milan, who towards the end of the 4th century taught them to Saint Augustine, thereby introducing them into the monastic traditions of the Western Church thereafter.  In the 4th century, as the Desert Fathers began to seek God in the deserts of Palestine and Egypt, they produced early models of Christian monastic life that persisted in the Eastern Church. These early communities gave rise to the tradition of a Christian life of "constant prayer" in a monastic setting. Although the desert monks gathered to hear scripture recited in public, and would then recite those words privately in their cells, this was not the same practice as what later became "Lectio Divina" since it involved no meditative step.

6th- to 12th-century monasticism.

After Origen, Church Fathers such as St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and St. Hilary of Poitiers used the terms "Lectio Divina" and "Lectio Sacra" to refer to the reading of Scripture.  According to Jean Leclercq, OSB, the founders of the medieval tradition of "Lectio Divina" were Saint Benedict and Pope Gregory I. However, the methods that they employed had precedents in the biblical period both in Hebrew and Greek. A text that combines these traditions is where Apostle Paul refers to the presence of God's word in the believer's "mouth or heart". It was the recitation of the biblical text that provided the rationale for "Lectio Divina".  With the motto "Ora et labora" ("Pray and work"), daily life in a Benedictine monastery consisted of three elements: liturgical prayer, manual labor and "Lectio Divina", a quiet prayerful reading of the Bible. This slow and thoughtful reading of Scripture, and the ensuing pondering of its meaning, was their meditation. This spiritual practice is called "divine reading" or "spiritual reading"i.e. "lectio divina".  Benedict wrote "Idleness is the enemy of the soul. Therefore the brethren should have specified periods of manual labor as well as for prayerful reading ["lectio divina"]." The Rule of Saint Benedict (chapter #48) stipulated specific times and manners for "Lectio Divina". The entire community in a monastery was to take part in the readings during Sunday, except those who had other tasks to perform.  Early in the 12th century, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux was instrumental in re-emphasizing the importance of "Lectio Divina" within the Cistercian order. Bernard considered "Lectio Divina" and contemplation guided by the Holy Spirit the keys to nourishing Christian spirituality.

Formalization during the late 12th century.

The progression from Bible reading, to meditation, to prayer, to loving regard for God, was first formally described by Guigo II, a Carthusian monk and prior of Grande Chartreuse who died late in the 12th century. The Carthusian order follows its own Rule, called the Statutes, rather than the Rule of St Benedict.  Guigo II's book "The Ladder of Monks" is subtitled "a letter on the contemplative life" and is considered the first description of methodical prayer in the western mystical tradition. In Guigo's four stages one first reads, which leads to think about (i.e. meditate on) the significance of the text; that process in turn leads the person to respond in prayer as the third stage. The fourth stage is when the prayer, in turn, points to the gift of quiet stillness in the presence of God, called contemplation.  Guigo named the four steps of this "ladder" of prayer with the Latin terms "lectio", "meditatio", "oratio", and "contemplatio". In the 13th century the Carmelite Rule of St. Albert prescribed to Carmelites the daily prayerful pondering on the Word of God, namely to ruminate day and night the Divine Law. "Lectio Divina" alongside the daily celebration of liturgy is to this day the pillar of prayer in Carmel.  "Lectio Divina" was practiced by St. Dominic de Guzman, founder of the Dominican Order.  In the 14th century, Gerard of Zutphen built on "Guigo's Ladder" to write his major work "On Spiritual Ascents". Zutphen warned against considered meditation without reading of scripture, and taught that the reading prepares the mind, so meditation will not fall into error. Similarly, he taught that meditation prepares the mind for contemplation.

16th century.

By the beginning of the 16th century, the methods of "methodical prayer" had reached Spain and St. John of the Cross taught the four stages of Guigo II to his monks. During the century, Protestant Reformers such as John Calvin continued to advocate the "Lectio Divina". A Reformed version of the "Lectio Divina" was also popular among the Puritans: Richard Baxter, a Puritan theologian, championed the practice.

20th- and 21st-century revival.

By the middle of 19th century, the historical critical approach to biblical analysis which had started over a century earlier, and focused on determining the historicity of gospel episodes, had taken away some of the emphasis on spreading "Lectio Divina" outside monastic communities. However, the early part of the 20th century witnessed a revival in the practice, and books and articles on "Lectio Divina" aimed at the general public began to appear by the middle of the century.  In 1965, one of the principal documents of the Second Vatican Council, the dogmatic constitution "Dei verbum" ("Word of God") emphasized the use of "Lectio Divina". On the 40th anniversary of "Dei verbum" in 2005, Pope Benedict XVI reaffirmed its importance and stated: In his November 6, 2005 Angelus address, Benedict XVI emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit in "Lectio Divina": In his annual Lenten addresses to the priests of the Diocese of Rome, Pope Benedict – mainly after the 2008 Synod of Bishops on the Bible – emphasized "Lectio Divina" importance, as in 2012, when he used Ephesians 4: 1–16 on a speech about certain problems facing the Church. Beforehand, he and Pope John Paul II had used a question-and-answer format. "One condition for "Lectio Divina" is that the mind and heart be illumined by the Holy Spirit, that is, by the same Spirit who inspired the Scriptures, and that they be approached with an attitude of "reverential hearing".  Since the latter part of the 20th century, the popularity of "Lectio Divina" has increased outside monastic circles and many lay Catholics, as well as some Protestants, practice it, at times keeping a "Lectio journal" in which they record their thoughts and contemplations after each session. The importance of "Lectio Divina" is stressed in the Anglican Communion as well.

The Four Movements of "Lectio Divina".

Historically, "Lectio Divina" has been a "community practice" performed by monks in monasteries. Although it can be taken up individually, its community element should not be forgotten.  "Lectio Divina" has been likened to "feasting on the Word": first, the taking of a bite ("lectio"); then chewing on it ("meditatio"); savoring its essence ("oratio") and, finally, "digesting" it and making it a part of the body ("contemplatio"). In Christian teachings, this form of meditative prayer leads to an increased knowledge of Christ.  Unlike meditative practices in Eastern Christianity – for instance, hesychasm, where the Jesus Prayer is repeated many times – "Lectio Divina" uses different Scripture passages at different times. Although a passage may be repeated a few times, "Lectio Divina" is not essentially repetitive in nature.

"Lectio" ("read").

The first step is the reading of Scripture. In order to achieve a calm and tranquil state of mind, preparation before "Lectio Divina" is recommended. The biblical reference for preparation via stillness is : "Be still, and know that I am God." An example would be sitting quietly and in silence and reciting a prayer inviting the Holy Spirit to guide the reading of the Scripture that is to follow.  The biblical basis for the preparation goes back to which emphasizes the role of the Holy Spirit in revealing the Word of God. As in the statement by John the Baptist in that "in the midst of you standeth one whom ye know not," the preparatory step should open the mind to finding Christ in the passage being read.  Following the preparation the first movement of "Lectio Divina" is slow and gradual reading of the scriptural passage, perhaps several times. The biblical basis for the reading goes back to and the presence of God's word in the believer's "mouth or heart". The attentive reading begins the process through which a higher level of understanding can be achieved. In the traditional Benedictine approach the passage is slowly read four times, each time with a slightly different focus.

"Meditatio" ("meditate").

Although "Lectio Divina" involves reading, it is less a practice of reading than one of listening to the inner message of the Scripture delivered through the Holy Spirit. "Lectio Divina" does not seek information or motivation, but communion with God. It does not treat Scripture as text to be studied, but as the "Living Word".  The second movement in "Lectio Divina" thus involves meditating upon and pondering on the scriptural passage. When the passage is read, it is generally advised not to try to assign a meaning to it at first, but to wait for the action of the Holy Spirit to illuminate the mind, as the passage is pondered upon.  The English word ponder comes from the Latin "pondus" which relates to the mental activity of weighing or considering. To ponder on the passage that has been read, it is held lightly and gently considered from various angles. Again, the emphasis is not on analysis of the passage but to keep the mind open and allow the Holy Spirit to inspire a meaning for it.  An example passage may be the statement by Jesus during the Last Supper in : "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give unto you".  An analytical approach would focus on why Jesus said that, the fact that it was said at the Last Supper, and the context within the biblical episode. Other theological analysis may follow, e.g. the cost at which Jesus the Lamb of God provided peace through his obedience to the will of Father, etc.  However, these theological analyses are generally avoided in "Lectio Divina", where the focus is on Christ as the key that interprets the passage and relates it to the meditator. So rather than "dissecting peace" in an analytical manner, the practitioner of "Lectio Divina" "enters peace" and shares the peace of Christ. The focus will thus be on achieving peace via a closer communion with God rather than a biblical analysis of the passage. Similar other passages may be "Abide in my love", "I am the Good Shepherd", etc.

"Oratio" ("pray").

In the Christian tradition, prayer is understood as dialogue with God, that is, as loving conversation with God who has invited us into an embrace. The constitution "Dei verbum" which endorsed "Lectio Divina" for the general public, as well as in monastic settings, quoted Saint Ambrose on the importance of prayer in conjunction with Scripture reading and stated:  Pope Benedict XVI emphasized the importance of using "Lectio Divina" and prayers on Scripture as a guiding light and a source of direction and stated "It should never be forgotten that the Word of God is a lamp for our feet and a light for our path."

"Contemplatio" ("contemplate").

Contemplation takes place in terms of silent prayer that expresses love for God. The Catechism of the Catholic Church defines contemplative prayer as "the hearing the Word of God" in an attentive mode. It states "Contemplative prayer is silence, the "symbol of the world to come" or "silent love." Words in this kind of prayer are not speeches; they are like kindling that feeds the fire of love. In this silence, unbearable to the "outer" man, the Father speaks to us his incarnate Word, who suffered, died, and rose; in this silence the Spirit of adoption enables us to share in the prayer of Jesus."  The role of the Holy Spirit in contemplative prayer has been emphasized by Christian spiritual writers for centuries. In the 12th century, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux compared the Holy Spirit to a kiss by the Eternal Father which allows the practitioner of contemplative prayer to experience union with God. In the 14th century, Richard Rolle viewed contemplation as the path that leads the soul to union with God in love, and considered the Holy Spirit as the center of contemplation.  From a theological perspective, God's grace is considered a principle, or cause, of contemplation, with its benefits delivered through the gifts of the Holy Spirit.

Other Christian Methods.

While the "Lectio Divina" has been the key method of meditation and contemplation within the Benedictine, Cistercian and Carthusian orders, other Catholic religious orders have used other methods.  An example is another four-step approach, that by Saint Clare of Assisi shown in the table opposite, which is used by the Franciscan order. Saint Clare's method is more visual than Guigo II's which seems more intellectual in comparison.  Saint Teresa of Avila's method of "recollection" which uses book passages to keep focus during meditation has similarities to the way "Lectio Divina" uses a specific Scriptural passage as the centerpiece of a session of meditation and contemplation. It is likely that Teresa did not initially know of Guigo II's methods, although she may have been indirectly influenced by those teachings via the works of Francisco de Osuna which she studied in detail.

In Western Christianity (such as Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Anglicanism) Lectio Divina (Latin for "Divine Reading") is a traditional monastic practice of scriptural reading, meditation and prayer intended to promote communion with God and to increase the knowledge of God's word. In the view of one commentator, it does not treat scripture as texts to be studied, but as the living word.

Lectio divina (latinsky "Boží četba, svaté čtení") je metoda modlitby, rozšířená zvláště v římskatolické církvi. Samotný pojem "lectio divina" se objevuje již u Órigena, popis její dnešní formy se poprvé objevuje ve spise kartuziánského opata Guiga "Scala paradisi", který pochází z 3. století. Přichází společně s mnišstvím. Je úzce spojována zvláště se spiritualitou benediktinského řádu.


Name.

The name is derived from the Serbian word "Bor" (Бор), meaning "pine".

Geography.

Bor is surrounded by many beautiful locations such as Banjsko Polje, Brestovačka Banja spa, Borsko Jezero lake, and Stol mountain, and is very close to Mount Crni Vrh.

Climate.

Bor has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: "Dfb") with pleasantly warm summers, cold winters and uniformly distributed precipitation throughout the year.

Flora and fauna.

The Lazar's Canyon is now home to rare plants – Crimean pine, relict species of Taxus and Serbian rhammondies – and animals like: Chamois, Golden eagles, True owl, Peregrine falcon also, endemic arthropods and bats.

History.

In 1835, Miloš Obrenović invited August von Herder (son of J.G. Herder) to the Bor region to carry out geological investigations.  In 1903, the area with the copper deposits was bought by George Weifert and in June 1904 the copper mine with the co-operation of French companies opened.  On 27 March 1941, Nazi Germany's leader Hitler ordered the attack on Yugoslavia. in accordance with "Führer’s directive No. 25" which mentioned that the possession of the industrial site of the Bor copper mines was very important for military purposes. In 1943, Hungarian-Jewish forced laborers were stationed at nearby mines which covered 50 percent of the copper requirement of Nazi Germany's war industry. In the period from July 1943 to September 1944, at least 6,000 Hungarians were used. In May 1943, the total number of inmates (excluding Kapos) came to about 23,000 forced laborers from Serbia.  On 17 September 1944 (front)), a column of about 3,000 prisoners including Kapos left the camp under the supreme command of the German armed forces which were about 1000 strong were force marched to a pontoon bridge in Smederovo and then further on to Baja (via the eastern route). On 19 September, a second column of about 3,000 prisoners left the camp under the supreme command of the SS-Polizei-Gebirgsjäger-Regiment Nr. 18 and were force marched via Pančevo (the western route) to Baja. From Pančevo to Baja, the column was under the supreme command of a paramilitary operation echelon "Deutsche Mannschaft" "„Hermann Göring“.  All prisoners were either used to build the south-east wall or transported by train to concentration camps such as Bergen-Belsen, Buchenwald, Dachau, Flossenbürg, Mauthausen, Oranienburg, Sachsenhausen, and Auschwitz. And last but not least, some national socialist Danube Swabian Officials including family members also took the opportunity to escape by train to Baja. During both forced marches, there were several attacks carried out by Yugoslav partisans. Meanwhile, some prisoners took the opportunity to flee to the partisans and thus found life-saving protection. The victims of both "Death marches" were people like Gyula Trebitsch, and Miklós Radnóti.  In 1947, Bor received urban status from the political authorities. At the time its population was 11,000.  In June 2018, Bor gained the status of a city, along with Prokuplje.

Settlements.

Aside from the city proper area, the city includes the following settlements:

Demographics.

According to the 1910, 1931 and 1971 censuses, the inhabitants of the urban area of Bor numbered 2,613 in 1910, 4,749 in 1931 and 29,118 residents in 1971. According to the 2011 census, the population of Bor numbered 48,615 residents, while the urban area of Bor had 34,160 residents.

Ethnic groups.

With a total of 32 different ethnic groups being represented among the population, Bor is one of the most ethnically mixed cities in Serbia. According to the 2011 census, the settlements in the city of Bor with an Serbian ethnic majority were: Bor, Brestovac, Donja Bela Reka, and Oštrelj. The settlements with Vlach ethnic majority were: Bučje, Gornjane, Krivelj, Luka, Metovnica, Tanda, Topla, and Šarbanovac. Ethnically mixed settlements were: Zlot (relative Serb majority) and Slatina (relative Vlach majority).  The ethnic composition of the city: Ethnic groups in Bor: Serbs, Vlachs, Roma, Macedonians, Romanians, Albanians, Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Gorani, Bunjevci, Yugoslavs, Montenegrins, Croatians, Slovenians, Hungarians, Muslims, Germans, Greeks, Slovaks, Russians, Rusyns, Chinese, Ukrainians, Italians, Turks, Ashkali, Czechs, Poles, Jews, Canadians, Belarusians.

Economy.

Copper mining, mainly by the biggest employer Zijin Bor Copper, is the key basis of Bor's economy. On 31 August 2018, a Chinese mining company Zijin Mining took over 63% of the shares of the company RTB Bor, in a $1.26 billion deal with the Government of Serbia. A few Canadian companies operated in Bor, like Nevsun Resources, Dundee, Rakita and Avala resources, while the new smelter and sulfuric acid plant for RTB Bor were built by Canada's SNC Lavalin. Many companies from Canada, led to Canadians settling in the city and thus formed a new ethnic group in Bor. Apart from mining, some other companies that operate in Bor are Messer Tehnogas AD, Wolong ATB FOD, IT Center Bor, Metalka, Keramika Bor etc. In 2018, the average gross monthly wage in the city of Bor was US$750 (€643, 76078 RSD, 5115 CNY, 4627 Turkish liras) - As of May 2018.  The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

Culture and society.

Education.

Technical Faculty of Bor is a faculty of the University of Belgrade, with a tradition dating back to 1961. The Faculty was accredited as a scientific-research organisation in the area of technical-technological science in 2007. So far 1804 students graduated from this faculty, in addition to 18 students that completed specialist studies, 122 master studies and 70 students that defended doctoral theses.  Elementary schools  High schools  University education

Movies.

Bor is the city where many films were produced. Because of that, city have the nickname "Boriwood". List of Serbian and international movies produced in Bor include Tears for Sale, Tilva Roš, White White World, Man Is Not a Bird, Winning of Freedom, On the Road to Katanga, Saga o tri nevina muškarca, Save Our Souls, Volja sinovljeva, Vivegam.

Sports.

Bor Sports Center () is an indoor sporting arena. The capacity of the arena is 3,000 people in the seating area, and 4,500 in the ground level area. The Bor Skate Plaza is the first and the biggest skate park in the Balkans. It is located next to the Karting circuit and Bor Sports Center. It is opened in 2012. Next to the Bor Skate Plaza is the Karting circuit that was built in the same year. Near to them is the stadium "4. kilometer" and Bor Hippodrome.  The most famous club in the city is definitely FK Bor football club, which spent several seasons in the top division, the Yugoslav First League, participating in the European Cup Winners Cup in the season of 1968/69, and played in the national Cup Finale in season 1967/1968 against Red Star Belgrade.  FK Bor is currently part of Bor District league, which is the Fifth tier league in Serbia, while another city club, FK Slatina Bor, is in Zone League East, the fourth-level football league in Serbia. In the season 2018–2019, three clubs from Bor will take part in the top level national league competitions. ZKK Bor will play in the First Women's Basketball League of Serbia, ZJRK Bor in Serbian First League of Handball for Women, while American football team Golden Bears Bor is in the top-level American Football League of Serbia.  Under the auspices of the Public Utility "Sportski Centar Bor" is the Bor Airport, with a paved runway, where traditional sport air show "Fly in" used to be held.  Bor has hosted 2013 EBSA European Under-21 Snooker Championship.

Tourism.

City of Bor is surrounded by many beautiful locations. Borsko jezero (Bor Lake) is a tourist attraction for many domestic and foreign tourists, and it is less than 20 km away from the city center. It is popular in the summer, when the water temperature reaches 25 °C (77 °F) and it has two beaches. There is a bus line from the city center and back, during the summer.  During the winter, popular destinations for tourists are many mountains around Bor. Crni Vrh is a mountain just 30 km from the city center. Highest peak has an elevation of 1,043 m (3,422 ft) above sea level. It has several ski tracks and the ski lift. The main ski track is 1100 m long and has height span of 260 m. Just 16 km from the city center there is another mountain Stol. Its highest peak has an elevation of 1,156 meters above sea level. Like nearby Veliki Krš and Mali Krš, Stol has a number of pronounced karst formations. It is a popular destination for Mountaineering. It has a ski lift and well equipped ski trails. Mountain Rtanj in Boljevac municipality is 50 km away from Bor.  The Lazareva Pećina, which translates Lazar's Cave, is the longest explored cave in Serbia. It is located 21 km from the city center. According to 2012's "Recent Landform Evolution: The Carpatho-Balkan-Dinaric Region", the cave is long. The cave is situated near the entrance of the deep canyon carved into the mountains by the river Zlotska. Bogovina cave is also near Bor, just about 30 km away.  Lazar's Canyon is located at about 10 kilometers from Bor. This is the deepest and longest canyon in eastern Serbia. Because of its steep rocky cliffs, the canyon has not yet been fully examined. Passing through canyon it is a real adventure, at times quite challenging and arduous. In many places it is necessary to clamber over the rocks.  Brestovac Spa is one of oldest spas in Serbia, located just 8 km from the city center. Health treatment are done with slightly sulphurous and oligomineral water with temperature of 20 to 41 °C. The Spa is for treatment and curing diseases and injuries to the muscles and bones. Especially relevant cured diseases are degenerative rheumatic diseases, rheumatoid and psoriatic arthritis, swelling and pain. And also chronic joint diseases, muscle disorders lumbago – lower back pain. More gynecological diseases, upper respiratory mucous membrane inflammation, skin conditions, increased diuresis, low level of stomach acid, digestive tract diseases. Furthermore, kidney diseases and nerve diseases. Water is rich with potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, chlorine, iodine, sulfate and also carbonate. Ways of treatment are drinking and bathing.  The Residence of Prince Miloš (Serbian: Конак кнеза Милоша) is a royal residence in the Brestovac Spa.  Bor zoo (Serbian: Борски зоолошки врт), is a zoo located in Bor, Serbia. It was founded in 2011, and it is one of four zoos in Serbia and is also considered to be one of the most attractive public zoos in southeastern Europe. The zoo covers an area of 2,5 hectares (6,17 acres) and holds about 140 animals representing more than 70 different wild and exotic species of animals as well as domestic and indigenous ones.  Park Museum is an "open museum" located from the city center, and through the main streets "Mose Pijade" and "Zeleni bulevar" with mining exhibits. It is possible to see them from a vehicle or from a sidewalk.  Paragliding is very popular in this part of Serbia, considering there are several excellent locations for this sport, such as mountains Crni Vrh and Stol.

Politics.

Seats in the municipal parliament won in the 2018 local elections:

Twin towns and sister cities.

Bor is twinned with:

Bor () is a city and the administrative center of the Bor District in eastern Serbia. According to the 2011 census, the city administrative area has a population of 48,615 inhabitants.

Bor (v srbské cyrilici Бор) je město ve východním Srbsku v pohoří tzv. srbských Karpat. Je průmyslovým městem a administrativním centrem Borského okruhu. Má celkem 34 160 obyvatel.


History.

Establishment.

Military aviation in free Poland started even before the officially recognised date of regaining independence (11 November 1918). Poland was under German and Austro-Hungarian occupation until the armistice, but the Poles started to take control as the Central Powers collapsed. Initially, the Polish air force consisted of mostly German and Austrian aircraft, left by former occupants or captured from them, mostly during the Greater Poland Uprising. These planes were first used by the Polish Air Force in the Polish-Ukrainian War in late 1918, during combat operations centered around the city of Lwów (now Lviv). On 2 November 1918 pilot Stefan Bastyr performed the first combat flight of Polish aircraft from Lviv.  When the Polish-Soviet War broke out in February 1920, the Polish Air Force used a variety of former German and Austro-Hungarian, as well as newly acquired western-made Allied aircraft. Most common at that time were light bomber and reconnaissance aircraft, among most numerous were French Breguet 14 bombers, German LVG C.V reconnaissance aircraft, British Bristol F2B scouts and Italian Ansaldo Balilla fighters.  After the Polish-Soviet War ended in 1921, most of the worn out World War I aircraft were gradually withdrawn and from 1924 the air force started to be equipped with new French aircraft. In total in 1918-1924 there were 2160 aircraft in the Polish Air Force and naval aviation (not all in operable condition), in which there were 1384 reconnaissance aircraft and 410 fighters. From 1924 to 1930 the primary fighter of the Polish Air Force was the SPAD 61 and its main bombers were the French produced Potez 15 and the Potez 25, which was eventually manufactured in Poland under license from Aéroplanes Henry Potez.  The first Polish-designed and mass-produced aircraft to serve in the country's air force was a high wing fighter, the PWS-10, first manufactured in 1930 by the Podlasie Aircraft Factory.

Inter-war years.

In 1933, Zygmunt Pulawski's first high wing, all-metal aircraft, the PZL P.7a, was designed and produced, with 150 entering service. The design was followed by 30 improved PZL P.11a aircraft and a final design, the PZL P.11c, was delivered in 1935 and was a respectable fighter for its time; 175 entered service and it remained the only Polish fighter until 1939, by which time foreign aircraft design had overtaken it. Its final version, the PZL P.24, was built for export only and was bought by four countries. A new fighter prototype, the PZL.50 Jastrząb (Hawk), similar to the Seversky P-35 in layout, was curtailed by the Nazi invasion and two twin-engine heavy fighters, the PZL.38 Wilk and the PZL.48 Lampart, remained prototypes.  As far as bombers are concerned, the Potez 25 and Breguet 19 were replaced by an all-metal monoplane, the PZL.23 Karaś, with 250 built from 1936 onwards, but by 1939 the Karas was outdated. In 1938 the Polish factory PZL designed a modern twin-engine medium bomber, the PZL.37 Łoś (Elk). The Łoś had a bomb payload of 2580 kg and a top speed of 439 km/h. Unfortunately, only about 30 Łoś A bombers (single tailfin) and 70 Łoś B (twin tailfin) bombers had been delivered before the Nazi invasion.  As an observation and close reconnaissance plane, Polish "escadres" used the slow and easily damaged Lublin R-XIII, and later the RWD-14 Czapla. Polish naval aviation used the Lublin R-XIII on floats. Just before the war, some Italian torpedo planes, the CANT Z.506, were ordered, but only one was delivered, and it was without armament. The principal aircraft used to train pilots were the Polish-built high-wing RWD-8 and the PWS-26 biplane. In 1939, Poland ordered 160 MS-406s and 10 Hawker Hurricane fighters from abroad, but they were not delivered before the outbreak of war.

1939.

On 1 September 1939, at the beginning of the invasion of Poland, all the Polish combat aircraft had been dispersed to secondary airfields, contrary to a commonly-held belief, based on German propaganda, that they had all been destroyed by bombing at their air bases. The aircraft destroyed by German bombers on the airfields were mostly trainers. The fighters were grouped into 15 escadres; five of them constituted the Pursuit Brigade, deployed in the Warsaw area. Despite being obsolete, Polish PZL-11 fighters shot down over 170 German aircraft. The bombers, grouped in nine escadres of the Bomber Brigade, attacked armoured ground columns but suffered heavy losses. Seven reconnaissance- and 12 observation escadres, deployed to particular armies, were used primarily for reconnaissance. Part of the Polish Air Force was destroyed in the campaign; the surviving aircraft were either captured or withdrawn to Romania, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Slovenia or Sweden, whose air forces subsequently employed these aircraft for their own use (in the case of Romania until 1956). A great number of pilots and aircrew managed to escape to France and then to Britain, where they played a significant part in the defence of the United Kingdom against Nazi invasion, during the Battle of Britain.

1940 (France).

After the fall of Poland, the Polish Air Force started to regroup in France. The only complete unit created before the German attack on France was the GC I/145 fighter squadron, flying Caudron C.714 light fighters. It was the only unit operating the C.714 at the time. The Polish pilots were also deployed to various French squadrons, flying on all types of French fighters, but mostly on the MS-406. After the surrender of France, many of these pilots managed to escape to Britain to continue the fight against the Luftwaffe.

1940–1947 (United Kingdom).

Following the fall of France in 1940, Polish units were formed in the United Kingdom, as a part of the Royal Air Force and known as the Polish Air Force (PAF). Four Polish squadrons were formed:  The two Polish fighter squadrons first saw action in the third phase of the Battle of Britain in August 1940, with much success; the pilots were battle-hardened and Polish flying skills had been well learned from the invasion of Poland. The pilots were regarded as fearless, sometimes bordering on reckless. Nevertheless, success rates were very high in comparison to UK and Empire pilots. 303 Squadron became the most efficient RAF fighter squadron at that time. Many Polish pilots also flew individually in other RAF squadrons.  As World War II progressed, a further twelve Polish squadrons were created in the United Kingdom:  The fighter squadrons initially flew Hurricanes, then switched to Spitfires, and eventually to North American Mustangs. 307 Squadron, like other night fighter squadrons (such as 410 Squadron Royal Canadian Air Force), flew Boulton-Paul Defiants, Bristol Beaufighters and finally de Havilland Mosquitoes. The bomber squadrons were initially equipped with Fairey Battles and Vickers Wellingtons. 300 Squadron was later assigned Avro Lancasters, 301 Squadron Handley Page Halifaxes and Consolidated Liberators and 305 Squadron, de Havilland Mosquitoes and North American Mitchells. 663 Squadron (air observation/artillery spotting) flew Auster AOP IIIs and Vs. After the war, all equipment was returned to the British, but only some of the pilots and crews actually returned to Poland, with many settling in the United Kingdom, some of whom returned to Poland in 1989 after the fall of communism.

1943–1945 (Soviet Union).

Along with the Polish People's Army ("Ludowe Wojsko Polskie") in the USSR, the Polish People's Air Force "(Ludowe Lotnictwo Polskie)" was created, in defence of the Soviet Union against Nazi invasion. Three regiments were formed in In late 1943:  During 1944–5, further regiments were created, coming together to form the 1st Mixed Air Corps, consisting of a bomber division, an assault division, a fighter division and a mixed division. After the war, these returned to Poland and gave birth to the air force of the People's Republic of Poland.

1949–1989.

In 1949, the Li-2sb transport aircraft was adapted into a bomber and in 1950, Poland received Petlyakov Pe-2 and Tupolev Tu-2 bombers from the Soviet Union along with USB-1 and USB-2 training bombers. In 1950 also, the Yak-17 fighter came into service, as did the Ilyushin Il-12 transport and the Yak-18 trainer. From 1951 onwards, the Polish Air Force was equipped with Yak-23 jet fighters and MiG-15 jets, along with a training version, the MiG-15 UTI, and later, in 1961, the MiG-17.  As well as Soviet-produced aircraft, from 1952 onwards Soviet MiG-15 and later MiG-17 fighters were produced under licence in Poland as the Lim-1, Lim-2 and later the Lim-5. A domestic ground attack variant of the Lim-5M was developed as the Lim-6bis in 1964. The only jet bomber used by the Polish Air Force during this period was the Ilyushin Il-28, from 1952 onwards. Poland used only a small number of MiG-19s from 1959, in favour of the MiG-21 from 1963 onwards, which became its main supersonic fighter. This aircraft was used in numerous variants from MiG-21F-13, through MiG-21PF and MF to MiG-21bis. Later, the Polish Air Force received 37 MiG-23s (1979) and 12 MiG-29s (1989).  The main fighter-bomber and ground attack aircraft after 1949 was the Il-10 (a training version, the UIl-10, entering service in 1951). From 1965 onwards, Poland also used a substantial number of Su-7Bs for bombing and ground attack, replaced with 27 Sukhoi Su-20s in 1974 and 110 Sukhoi Su-22s in 1984.  Propeller-driven training aircraft, the Junak-2 (in service since 1952), the TS-9 Junak-3 (in service since 1954) and the PZL TS-8 Bies (since 1958) were later replaced by a jet trainer, the domestically built TS-11 Iskra. Another Polish jet trainer, the PZL I-22 Iryda, was used for some time but, because of continuing problems, all machines were returned to PZL for modification and did not resume service. The Yak-12 was used as a multirole aircraft from 1951, the An-2 from 1955 and subsequently the Wilga-35 P.  Transport aircraft used by the Polish Air Force during this period included: the Il-14 (first in service in 1955), the Il-18 (first in service in 1961), the An-12B (first in service in 1966), the An-26 (first in service in 1972), the Yak-40 (first in service in 1973) and the Tupolev Tu-154. A number of helicopters were used by the Polish Army: the SM-1 (a Mil Mi-1 manufactured under licence), which was a multirole helicopter, in operation since 1956; the Mil Mi-4, multirole, since 1958; the PLZ SM-2, multirole, since 1960; the Mil Mi-2 and Mil Mi-8 (later also Mil Mi-17), multirole, since 1968 and the Mil Mi-24, a combat helicopter, since 1976. Also the Mil Mi-14, an amphibious helicopter, and the Mil Mi-6, both used as transports.  In 1954, the Polish Air Force was merged with the Air Defence Force, creating the Air and Country Air Defence Forces ("Wojska Lotnicze i Obrony Przeciwlotniczej Obszaru Kraju" – WLiOPL OK), a military organisation composed of both flying and anti-aircraft units. In 1962, the WLiOPL OK were separated back again into their two original component bodies: the Air Force ("Wojska Lotnicze") and the Country Air Defence Force ("Wojska Obrony Powietrznej Kraju").

Present-day operations.

After political upheaval and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, and a consequent reduction in the state of military anxiety in the whole of Europe, the Polish Air Force saw reductions in size. On July 1, 1990, the Polish Air Force and the Air Defence Force were merged again ("Wojska Lotnicze i Obrony Powietrznej" – WLiOP or WLOP). The attack capability of this force consisted primarily of MiG-21s, MiG-23s, MiG-29s, Su-20s and Su-22s. The remaining Lim-6bis were withdrawn in the early 1990s, followed soon afterwards by the withdrawal of the remaining Su-20 aircraft. The small number of remaining MiG-23s were withdrawn by 1999. Throughout the 1990s, Poland had not purchased any new combat aircraft and only managed to acquire further MiG-29s from the Czech Republic in 1995 and from Germany in 2004. MiG-21s were finally withdrawn from service in 2003. In 2004, the only remaining combat aircraft flown by the WLiOP were the MiG-29 and the Su-22. As of 2010, the fleet of Su-22s is in need of modernization to retain any value as a combat aircraft and its future is unclear.  In 2002, the F-16C/D Block 52+ from the American company Lockheed Martin was chosen as a new multirole fighter for the WLiOP, the first deliveries taking place in November 2006 and continued until 2008 under Peace Sky program. As of 2011 the Polish Air Force has three squadrons of F-16s: two stationed at the 31st Tactical Air Base near Poznań and the 10th Tactical Squadron at the 32nd Air Base near Łask. The acquisition of the US F-16 was not without fierce competition from European aerospace companies; the sale was hotly pursued by the French company Dassault, with their Mirage 2000 and by the Swedish company Saab, with the JAS 39 Gripen. The Polish Block 52+ F-16s are equipped with the latest Pratt and Whitney F-100-229 afterburning turbofan engines, and the avionics suite includes the APG-68(V)9 terrain mapping radar system and the ALQ-211(V)4 electronic warfare suite. All Polish F-16s can carry modern US precision ordnance, ranging from the JDAM/JSOW to the latest in export-certificate-authorized air-to-air weaponry (including the AIM-120C-5 and AIM-9X).  In the aftermath of the presidential Tu-154 crash in 2010 and later Polish-led investigation, the 36th Special Aviation Regiment, responsible for transporting the President and the Polish Government, was disbanded, while the defense minister resigned. A new unit, the 1st Air Base, replaced the 36th regiment. Between June 2010 and December 2017 most official flights were served by two leased Embraer E-175 operated by the LOT Polish Airlines. On 14 November 2016 the Defense Ministry ordered two Gulfstream G550 VIP planes. On 31 March 2017 a deal with Boeing Company was signed to supply two Boeing Business Jet 2 and one Boeing 737-800 for the head of state and the government transport.  On 27 February 2014 Poland signed a €280 million contract with Alenia Aermacchi for 8 M-346 Master advanced training jets. The first two Masters arrived in Poland accompanied by Team Iskry on November 14, 2016.  On 11 December 2014 Polish officials signed a contract with the United States for the purchase of 70 AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Stand off Missile, for US$250 million. Also contained in the contract are upgrades to the fleet of Polish F-16s to be completed by Lockheed Martin.  On 25 January 2019, the Polish government signed a contract for the procurement of four Black Hawk helicopters, intended to be used by the Polish special forces. The helicopters would be manufactured by PZL Mielec in Poland and delivered to the Polish military by December.

Aircraft.

For retired aircraft types, see Retired aircraft of the Polish Air Force

Current inventory.

Note: Three C-17 Globemaster III's are available through the Heavy Airlift Wing based in Hungary.

Ranks and insignia.

Qualification badges.

The current aviator badge of the Polish Air Force has been in use since the 1920s. The badge is called "gapa" and represents silver eagle in flight with gold laurel wreath in the bill. Navigator/Observer badge (below) represents the same eagle, but in gold with added lightning bolts. It is unlike any other in the other air forces in the world. The gapa was worn in the usual place on the upper left breast above the pocket, but with a chain. It proudly adorned the uniform of Polish Air Force officers in the RAF during World War II along with their RAF wings. In combat badges (for at least 7 flights in combat conditions) the laurel wreath is green.

The Polish Air Force ("Siły Powietrzne", literally "Air Forces") is the aerial warfare military branch of the Polish Armed Forces. Until July 2004 it was officially known as "Wojska Lotnicze i Obrony Powietrznej" (literally: "Flight-and-Air Defence Forces"). In 2014 it consisted of roughly 16,425 military personnel and about 475 aircraft, distributed among ten bases throughout Poland.

Vzdušné síly Polské republiky () jsou složkou polských ozbrojených sil. Do července 2004 se oficiálně nazývaly "Wojska Lotnicze i Obrony Powietrznej" („Vojsko letectva a protivzdušné obrany“). V roce 2014 se skládaly z přibližně 16 425 členů vojenského personálu a z přibližně 355 letadel, která jsou rozmístěna na 10 základnách po celém Polsku. Polské letectvo patří v současnosti mezi nejsilnější ve střední Evropě a od roku 2008 je vybaveno stíhačkami Lockheed Martin F-16C/D.


History.

It was founded in 1897 as a supply point and station on the Trans-Siberian Railway and was granted town status in 1938. During the 1930s–1950s, Tayshet was the center of administration for gulag labor camps Ozerlag and Angarstroy. Construction of the first section of the Baikal–Amur Mainline started in 1937 and was managed from here. According to some survivor accounts, between Tayshet and Bratsk there is "a dead man under every sleeper." Along with Japanese prisoners from the Kwantung Army, German prisoners of war formed a large proportion of the forced labor contingent, generally under a 25-year sentence, such as Dietrich von Saucken. Surviving German POWs were repatriated in autumn of 1955, after West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer's visit to Moscow.

Administrative and municipal status.

Within the framework of administrative divisions, Tayshet serves as the administrative center of Tayshetsky District, to which it is directly subordinated. As a municipal division, the town of Tayshet is incorporated within Tayshetsky Municipal District as Tayshetskoye Urban Settlement.

Climate.

Tayshet has a subarctic climate (Köppen "Dfc") bordering on a humid continental climate with warm, humid summers and severely cold, drier winters. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to. Sunshine is generous and the area receives 2,150 hours of bright sunshine annually.

Transportation.

Tayshet railway station is a major railway junction. Here the Baikal–Amur Mainline begins, branching northeast from the Trans-Siberian Railway. Here also the Abakan-Taishet Railway ends. The town is also on the M53 Highway (Moscow to Irkutsk).

Tayshet (, lit. "cold river" in the Ket language) is a town and the administrative center of Tayshetsky District in Irkutsk Oblast, Russia, located northwest of Irkutsk, the administrative center of the oblast. Population:

Tajšet (rusky ) je město na Sibiři, v Irkutské oblasti Ruské federace. Je významným železničním uzlem, protože se zde připojuje Bajkalsko-amurská magistrála na Transsibiřskou magistrálu. Při sčítání lidu v roce 2010 žilo v Tajšetu zhruba pětatřicet tisíc obyvatel.


Consonants.

According to Beekes, and are allophones of /θ/ and /x/ respectively.

"š" versus "rt".

Avestan "š" continues Indo-Iranian "*-rt-". Its phonetic value and its phonological status (one or two phonemes) are somewhat unclear. The conditions under which change from "-rt-" to "-š-" occurs are fundamentally ill-defined. Thuz, for example, Gathic/Younger "ərəta"/"arəta" ('establish') is a variant of "aša" but is consistently written with "r t"/. Similarly, "arəti" ('portion') and "aši" ('recompense'). But "aməša" ('immortal') is consistently written with "š", while "marəta" ('mortal') is consistently written with "r t". In some instances, a change is evident in only Younger Avestan. For example, the Gathic Avestan word for "bridge" is "pərətūm", while in Younger Avestan it is "pəšūm". Both are singular accusative forms, but when the word is singular nominative, the Younger Avestan variant is again (and all but once) with "r t".  Benveniste suggested "š" was only a convenient way of writing /rt/ and should not be considered phonetically relevant. According to Gray, "š" is a misreading, representing /r r/, of uncertain phonetic value but "probably" representing a voiceless "r".  Miller follows the older suggestion that Avestan "š" represents a phoneme of its own, for which he introduces the symbol "/Ř/" and identifies phonetically as (the voiceless allophone of Czech "ř"). He goes on to suggest that in writing, "-rt-" was restored when a scribe was aware of a morpheme boundary between the /r/ and /t/.

Transcription.

There are various conventions for transliteration of Din Dabireh. We adopt the following one here. Vowels: Consonants:  The glides "y" and "w" are often transcribed as "ii" and "uu", imitating Din Dabireh orthography. The letter transcribed "t̰" indicates an allophone of with no audible release at the end of a word and before certain obstruents.

This article deals with the phonology of Avestan. Avestan is one of the Iranian languages and retained archaic voiced alveolar fricatives. It also has fricatives rather than the aspirated series seen in the closely related Indo-Aryan languages.

Tento článek se zabývá fonologií avestánštiny, mrtvého severovýchodního íránského jazyka, především jeho fonematickým inventářem, distinktivními rysy platnými pro jeho systém, prozodickými jevy či transkripčním územ.


Overview.

The standard consists of a number of interfaces between components found in the mobile network:

MM1.

MM1 is the interface between a Mobile Station (MS) and an MMSC.  MM1 is used in the following actions:  The MM1 interface is based on the WAP protocol. It includes the PAP notifications that are transformed to SMS's by the WAP gateway for the notifications.

MM2.

MM2 is an interface between a MMS Relay (MMS-R) and an MMS storage database, two components of an MMSC platform.

MM3.

MM3 is the interface between MMSC and external servers such as Email server or SMS Centers SMSC. This interface typically uses TCP/IP based protocols for e.g. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol ( SMTP )  Generally, it is the responsibility of MMSC to do the transformation of MMS multi-part binary data to MIME format of email in both the direction  MM3 is used in the following actions:

MM4.

MM4 is the interface used to exchange messages between two different MMSCs. These MMSCs are generally located in two distinct Mobile Networks  This interface is also known as the MMS interface in the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) and the Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) standards.

MM5.

MM5 is the interface between MMSC and other network elements like HLR or Domain Name Server. The communication over MM5 Interface is generally to fetch the routing information. MM5 has been defined by the 3GPP in TS 23.140 as a simple reference to Mobile Application Part.

MM7.

MM7 is the interface between MMSC and a value-added service provider (VASP).  The MM7 interface is used to send MMS from 3rd party providers (e.g., a bank sending a statement or an advertiser sending publicity). It is based on SOAP with attachments, using HTTP as the transport protocol. HTTP request shall be a POST.  The message is a MIME which encapsulates the SOAP envelope and the encoded attachments. The SOAP envelope is an XML where tags are the MM7 protocol data.

MM11.

MM11 is specified by OMA STI (Standard Transcoding Interface) 1.0. MM11 is designed to ensure compatibility of transcoders with MMSCs.  Integration with a transcoder without using MM11 is possible by implementing the transcoder as a proxy server. By placing the transcoder on the MM1 interface between the user equipment and the MMSC, messages can be transparently transcoded. A possible disadvantage of this implementation is that transcoders are typically licensed in transactions per second. All transactions will be sent through the transcoder, rather than just those marked to allow adaptations.

The MMS Architecture is the set of standards used by the Multimedia Messaging Service in mobile networks. The standards are prepared by 3GPP.

MMS architektura je sada standardů používaných službou multimediálních zpráv (MMS) v mobilních sítích, např. GSM. Většinu standardů vytvořilo sdružení WAP Forum, které se v roce 2002 přetvořilo v organizaci Open Mobile Alliance, na jejímž webu lze nalézt jak původní standardy, tak jejich aktualizové verze; začlenění do sítí GSM a některé další aspekty popisují standardy organizace 3GPP.


Plot.

Thomas wakes up in a metal elevator that brings him to a place called "the Glade". He has no memory of who he is or how he got there. He gradually discovers that the Glade is run by two boys: Alby, the leader, and Newt, the second-in-charge, who both maintain order by enforcing simple but effective rules. The elevator box surfaces from under the ground once every week supplying new food, tools, medicine, and sometimes weapons. Every month a new boy with no memory of anything but his first name finds himself in that elevator box. The Glade is surrounded by a square of 4 mile-high walls made of concrete. These walls have openings in them, which slide shut like doors every night. Outside the walls is the Maze, a labyrinth of high concrete walls covered in ivy that changes every day. The Maze houses strange, lethal creatures known as Grievers. Grievers are described as amorphous monsters of metal and flesh. The Gladers are trying to stay alive as well as "solve" the Maze by appointing 'runners' to run through it as fast as they can while tracking movements of the walls and trying to find an exit to escape.  One day after Thomas' arrival, a girl named Teresa is delivered through the elevator into the Glade with a note saying "She's the last one. Ever." It implies that there will be no more children sent into the Glade. The girl subsequently lapses into a long coma. When Thomas comes to visit her, he recognizes her, but cannot remember her name until he hears her voice telepathically in his mind telling him her name. Teresa wakes up and tells Thomas that they knew each other before they were sent into the Glade, and reveals that they could communicate telepathically.  Minho, the keeper of the runners, and Alby go into the Maze to see what they think is their first dead Griever. Alby is stung by the creature and, while Minho is trying to help him out of the Maze, Thomas runs in to help. All three are then stranded in the Maze overnight. Minho, believing Alby is dead without the Serum, tells Thomas to leave him and just run, looking for shelter so the Grievers don't find them. Thomas, unable to leave Alby to die, uses the vines on the walls to pull him up and out of the view of the Grievers, then attracts their attention and evades them. Minho sees Thomas's evasion tactic and uses it to send the four Grievers chasing them over the Cliff. Thomas, Alby, and Minho are the first people in the Glade to survive a night in the maze. After getting back to The Glade the next morning, Newt calls a Gathering of The Keepers to discuss what to do with Thomas. Some of the Keepers vote to relieve him of punishment while others (especially Gally) vote to lock him up in the Slammer (the jail block) as a punishment. Minho, however, nominates Thomas to replace him as the Keeper of The Runners. Gally decides to kick Minho off The Council, causing Minho to attack him. Thomas is locked up in jail and the next day he starts his training with Minho.  After their miraculous return, Teresa's arrival triggers a series of changes to life in the Glade: people start acting strangely, the sun disappears, the weekly deliveries of supplies stop coming, and the doors of the Maze stay open at night, which allows the Grievers to enter the Glade and hunt the children.  Thomas proposes that the walls of the Maze are not random, but that their movements are actually a code, leading to the discovery that the Maze is spelling out words. Thomas also discovers that what they previously thought was the Cliff is actually where the Grievers leave the Maze ("The Griever Hole"). This drives Thomas to think they need memories to get out, so he intentionally gets stung by a Griever so he can receive the antidote ("Grief Serum") and thereby go through "the Changing". It is known that the Changing can trigger memories and sometimes violence.  Thomas and the Gladers find out what the pattern is. The Gladers to decide to make a run for the exit, knowing that taking on the Grievers is a suicide mission, but deciding that nothing is worse than their current fate. They succeed, only to find out that they were test subjects in an experiment conducted by an organization called "World In Catastrophe: Killzone Experiment Department" (WICKED). The teenagers escape to a laboratory but encounter Gally, who had not escaped with them. Acting under mind control, he moves to throw a knife at Thomas, but a young Glader, Chuck, jumps to save him.  After briefly mourning the death of Chuck, all 20 Gladers are rescued. They are brought to a safe haven and told about catastrophic solar flares that caused an apocalyptic event, followed by a virus called "the Flare" that killed millions. The rescuers reveal that orphaned children are being tested to find a cure for the virus.  The epilogue is written in the voice of Chancellor Ava Paige—a feature of all the novels in the trilogy. She reveals that the group who rescued the Gladers may just be another variable in the experiment and that the Gladers weren't the only group being evaluated.

Development.

In late 2005, Dashner had published four books to complete "The Jimmy Fincher Saga", which had been with a small regional publisher. His publisher wanted him to write another book, but he decided he would try for a national book market instead. In November of that year he had an idea when going to be "about a bunch of teenagers living inside an unsolvable Maze full of hideous creatures, in the future, in a dark, dystopian world. It would be an experiment, to study their minds. Terrible things would be done to them – awful things; completely hopeless – until the victims turn everything on its head." The book was later published in 2018. Dashner wrote the book from December 2005 to March 2006.

Reception.

"Kirkus Reviews" wrote: "Hard to put down, this is clearly just a first installment, and it will leave readers dying to find out what comes next."  Jessica Harrison of the "Deseret Morning News" labelled "The Maze Runner" as "a thrilling adventurous book for kids ages 13+ that will get readers' hearts pumping and leave them asking for more." She noted that it "starts out a bit slow" but as it matched Thomas's confusion and picked up pace as he became more accustomed, she wrote that "it's almost as if Dashner is easing the reader into what becomes a fast-paced, nonstop action." However, she thought the "only drawback" was the "fictionalized slang", saying, "While it feels realistic and fits with his characters, it gets old pretty fast. On the plus side, however, it's used so often that the reader almost becomes desensitized and learns to ignore it."

Film adaptation.

Fox released a film adaptation of the book, titled "The Maze Runner", on 19 September 2014. Wes Ball signed on as director and T.S. Nowlin wrote the screenplay. Dylan O'Brien played the lead role of Thomas, Thomas Brodie-Sangster portrayed Newt and Kaya Scodelario Teresa. Ki Hong Lee as Minho, Blake Cooper, Will Poulter and Aml Ameen were added to the cast as, Chuck, Gally and Alby, respectively. Patricia Clarkson played the role of the main antagonist Ava Paige. Dexter Darden portrayed Frypan, Alexander Flores portrayed Winston, Jacob Latimore played Jeff, Randal Cunningham portrayed Clint, Chris Sheffield portrayed Ben, and Joe Adler played Zart.  Wayne Haag served as an artist on the film, and Ellen Goldsmith-Vein, Lindsay Williams with Lee Stollman as producers.  Creature designer Ken Barthelmey designed the Grievers for the film.  Filming started on 13 May 2013, and ended 12 July 2013.

The Maze Runner is a 2009 young adult dystopian science fiction novel written by American author James Dashner and the first book released in "The Maze Runner" series. The novel was published on October 7, 2009 by Delacorte Press, an imprint of Random House, and was made into a 2014 major motion picture by 20th Century Fox, directed by Wes Ball.

Labyrint: Útěk (v anglickém originále The Maze Runner) je první díl knižní trilogie amerického spisovatele Jamese Dashnera. Jde o dystopickou postapokalyptickou sci-fi pro dospívající mládež, v podobném stylu jako "Hunger Games". Vyšla poprvé v říjnu 2009 v nakladatelství Delacorte Press.


Description.

The species in genus "Spinacia" are annual or biennial herbs. Plants are always glabrous. Their stems grow erect and are unbranched or sparsely branched. The alternate leaves consist of a petiole and a simple blade. The basal leaves are often forming a rosette. The leaf blade is triangular-hastate to ovate, sometimes with elongated lobes, with entire or dentate margins and an acute apex.  The plants are usually dioecious, (rarely monoecious). The male flowers are in glomerules forming interrupted terminal spike-like panicles. They consist of 4-5 oblong perianth segments and 4-5 stamens. Female flowers are in glomerules sitting in the leaf axils. Enclosed by 2 accrescent or united bracteoles, without perianth, they consist of an ovary with 4-5 filiform stigmas.  In fruit, bracteoles become enlarged and hardened, sometimes with dentate margins, sometimes several flowers becoming connate. The membranous pericarp adheres to the vertically orientated seed. The dark seed coat is spiny or smooth. The embryo is annular, surrounding the copious, farinaceous perisperm.  The chromosome base number is x = 6, which is unusual for Chenopodioideae.

Distribution.

The genus "Spinacia" was originally distributed in temperate Asia, and has been introduced to the mediterranean area early. "Spinacia oleracea" grows cultivated or naturalized in all temperate and subtropical regions of Europe, Asia, and North America.

Systematics.

The genus "Spinacia" was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in "Species Plantarum", 2, p. 1027. Type species is "Spinacia oleracea". The genus name may derive from the Latin "spina" or from Persian "ispanakh" (=spine), referring to the spiny fruit. "Spinacia" is closely related to genus "Blitum", both grouping in Tribus Anserineae (Syn. Spinacieae).  The genus "Spinacia" comprises 3 species:

Spinacia is a flowering plant genus in the subfamily Chenopodioideae of the family Amaranthaceae. The most common member is spinach.

Špenát ("Spinacia") je rod rostlin z čeledi laskavcovitých, ve starších taxonomických systémech byla řazena do čeledi merlíkovité ("Chenopodiaceae"). Nejznámějším druhem tohoto rodu je špenát setý. Do Evropy se dostal díky křižáckým výpravám kolem 16. století, avšak první zmínky o této rostlině pocházejí již z 10. století. Špenát je zdraví prospěšný, neboť obsahuje mnoho vitamínů (C, E, K) a minerálů.


File format.

The format is case-sensitive and essentially that of an INI file structured as follows  Header  Track Entry "Assuming track entry #X"  Footer

Examples.

Example of a complete PLS file used for "streaming audio;" in this case, to connect to a particular online radio station and receive its audio stream:  [playlist] File1=http://stream2.streamq.net:8020/ Title1=Here enter name of the station NumberOfEntries=1 Alternative Example containing local paths:  [playlist]  File1=http://relay5.181.fm:8068 Length1=-1  File2=example2.mp3 Title2=Just some local audio that is 2mins long Length2=120  File3=F:\Music\whatever.m4a Title3=absolute path on Windows  File4=%UserProfile%\Music\short.ogg Title4=example for an Environment variable Length4=5  NumberOfEntries=4 Version=2 In Unix-like operating systems absolute and relative file paths differ from Windows, because there are no drive letters, Environment variables differ and [/] (forward slashes) are used as directory separators instead of [\] (backslashes). Therefore, playlists pointing to absolute paths or media files outside of the folder containing the playlist will only work for one type of operating system - either Windows or Unix-like. URLs work the same for all types.  To make the second example from above work the 3rd and 4th path need to be changed to something like:  File3=/media/hdd/whatever.m4a File4=~/Music/short.ogg

Compatible media player software.

iTunes, VLC media player, Totem, RealPlayer, Winamp, Yahoo! Music Jukebox, MediaMonkey, Windows Media Player, AIMP, Kodi, Rhythmbox, foobar2000, and more than 30 others are able to interpret (open) PLS files. Media Player Classic with the K-Lite codec installed does work with PLS format but still requires the appropriate MIME or file extension associations.

PLS is a computer file format for a multimedia playlist. It is typically used by media players for streaming media over the Internet, but may also be used for playing local media.

PLS je počítačový formát souboru, který ukládá multimediální seznamy skladeb, původně používané v softwarech SHOUTcast a Icecast pro streamování médií přes Internet. PLS je výraznější než základní formát seznamu skladeb M3U, oproti němu může uložit (cache) informace o názvu skladby a délce skladby (toto je podporováno pouze v rozšířeném M3U). Od verze PLS2, obsahují playlisty také informaci o verzi. PLS formát je možné použít jak pro internetové streamování, tak pro běžné přehrávání skladeb uložených v počítači.


Biography.

Dow Ber Meisels was the son of Isaac from the Silesian town of Szczekociny, though his family came from Kraków's Jewish community; he also lived as a youth in Kamianets-Podilskyi, where his father was a rabbi. After marrying the daughter of the wealthy Solomon Bornstein of Wieliczka, he settled as a banker and rabbi in Kraków. He supported the cause of Polish independence, providing weapons for the insurgents in the November Uprising; some sources even describe him as a Polish patriot or nationalist. In 1832 he would become Kraków's Chief Rabbi, though he was not recognized by the entire community, a considerable part of which adhered to his opponent, Saul Landau. He occupied the Kraków rabbinate for nearly a quarter of a century.  Meisels always took a conspicuous part in the civic life of his place of residence; and in the stormy times of 1846 (see Kraków Uprising) he was chosen one of the twelve senators of the Kraków city council. In 1848 he was elected, with the aid of Catholic votes, to represent the city in the provisional Austrian Reichsrath (Austrian parliament), meeting at Kremsier, Vienna. He took his seat among the radicals, and when the president expressed his surprise at seeing a rabbi seated on the "left," Meisels replied, ""Juden haben keine Rechte"" ("Jews have no right").  In 1856 Meisels became rabbi of Warsaw (in the Russian-ruled sector of Poland), where he soon won the respect and confidence of the entire population. In 1861, during the riots and excesses that preceded the January 1863 Uprising, he did all in his power to induce the Jews to sympathize with the Polish cause. He accompanied the Archbishop of Warsaw at the funeral of victims of the first disturbances and marched with Father Wyszyński at the head of a delegation to city hall. Later he was appointed by the Russian vice-regent a member of Warsaw's provisional municipal council; but he remained loyal to the Polish patriotic cause, which likely protected Warsaw's Jewish population by improving their relations with the Polish community.  For his support of Polish demonstrators, in 1861 he was arrested by the Russians and expelled from the city. Meisels was invited to settle in London; but in 1862 he was permitted to return to Warsaw, where he remained until his death. Meisels actively aided the Polish January 1863 Uprising, supporting it in his speeches and organizing financial aid for the insurgents. For this he was again expelled by the Russian authorities, this time for several years. After his return, he would be under constant supervision by the Russians.  He died in Warsaw on March 17, 1870. After his funeral, which turned into a large Polish-Jewish anti-Russian demonstration, the Russian government forbade obituaries of him to be printed.  Meisels was the author of "novellæ" on the "Sefer ha-Miẓwot" of Maimonides, which appeared together with the text as "Ḥiddushe MaHaRDaM." One of his sons, Israel Meisels, was "dayyan" in Kraków and rabbi of Siedlce, Poland, from 1858 to 1867. A second son, Salomon Meisels, lived in Vienna.

References.

Inline:

Dow (Dov, Dob) Ber (Beer, Berisz, Berush) Meisels (1798 – March 17, 1870) was a Chief Rabbi of Kraków (Cracow) from 1832 and later, Chief Rabbi of Warsaw (from 1856). He was active in the Polish nationalist movement, and was a politician in the Austrian partition of Poland and (later) in the Russian partition. A vocal supporter of Polish-Jewish cooperation, he supported the cause of Polish independence, for which he was persecuted by the Russian government.

Dow Ber Meisels, v jidiš, uváděn též jako "Dov Be'er Meisels", "Meisel", "Majzels" (1798 Szczekociny – 15. února 1870 Varšava) byl polský a rakouský židovský předák, rabín a politik z Haliče, během revolučního roku 1848 poslanec Říšského sněmu.


Early life.

The son of swing guitarist Bucky Pizzarelli, John Pizzarelli was born in Paterson, New Jersey. He started on guitar when he was six and played trumpet through his college years. He attended Don Bosco Preparatory High School, an all-boys Catholic school. In his teens, he performed with Benny Goodman, Les Paul, Zoot Sims, Slam Stewart, and Clark Terry.  Pizzarelli attended the University of Tampa and William Paterson University, though he has said that his most important teacher was his father from 1980–1990. During the 1980s, he established himself as a jazz guitarist and a vocalist. He released his debut solo album, "I'm Hip (Please Don't Tell My Father)", in 1983.

Career.

During the 1990s, Pizzarelli played in a trio with Ray Kennedy and Martin Pizzarelli, his younger brother. In 1993, the trio was the opening act for Frank Sinatra. Four years later, Pizzarelli starred in "Dream", a Broadway show devoted to the music of Johnny Mercer. He has named Nat King Cole as the inspiration for his career and honors that influence in the albums "Dear Mr. Cole" (BMG, 1994) and "P.S. Mr. Cole" (RCA, 1999). He has also recorded tribute albums to Frank Sinatra, Duke Ellington, Antônio Carlos Jobim, Richard Rodgers, and Paul McCartney. He and his father accompanied Annie Ross on her album "To Lady with Love" (Red Anchor, 2014), a tribute to Billie Holiday that Ross recorded when she was eighty-four.  He has hosted a national radio show, "Radio Deluxe with John Pizzarelli", with his wife, singer and actress Jessica Molaskey. Other musicians he has worked with include George Shearing, Rosemary Clooney, Johnny Frigo, Buddy DeFranco, the Clayton-Hamilton Jazz Orchestra, the Boston Pops Orchestra, and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra.  He sang the 1999 big-band jingle for Foxwoods Resort Casino, titled "The Wonder of It All."

Personal life.

Pizzarelli's father died on April 1, 2020, from complications to Covid-19.  With Bucky Pizzarelli

Discography.

As leader.

With Jessica Molaskey

As sideman or guest.

With Monty Alexander With Harry Allen With Sam Arlen With Debby Boone With Cheryl Bentyne With Ray Brown With Rosemary Clooney With Kristin Chenoweth With Buddy DeFranco With Karen Egert With Johnny Frigo With Natalie Cole With Sara Gazarek With Stephane Grappelli With Skitch Henderson and Bucky Pizzarelli With Hilary Kole With Erich Kunzel With The Manhattan Transfer With Paul McCartney With Jane Monheit With Rickie Lee Jones With Donnie O'Brien With Curtis Stigers With James Taylor With Aaron Weinstein

John Paul Pizzarelli Jr. (born April 6, 1960) is an American jazz guitarist and vocalist. He has recorded over twenty solo albums and has appeared on more than forty albums by other recording artists, including Paul McCartney, James Taylor, Rosemary Clooney; his father, jazz guitarist Bucky Pizzarelli; and his wife, singer Jessica Molaskey.

John Pizzarelli (* 6. dubna 1960) je americký jazzový kytarista. Jeho otec Bucky Pizzarelli byl rovněž jazzový kytarista a jeho mladší bratr Martin Pizzarelli jazzový kontrabasista. Během své kariéry, kterou zahájil na počátku osmdesátých let, vy dal několik desítek vlastních alb a rovněž řadu nahrávek se svým otcem. Během své kariéry spolupracoval i s dalšími hudebníky, mezi které patří například George Shearing, Jessica Molaskey, Ray Brown, Buddy DeFranco, Rosemary Clooney nebo James Taylor. V roce 2012 byla publikována jeho autobiografie nazvaná "World on a String: A Musical Memoir".


Early life and education.

Timmermans was born on 6 May 1961, in Maastricht, Limburg, to a Roman Catholic family. He went to the Sint Stevens-Woluwe elementary school at Sint-Stevens-Woluwe in Belgium, before attending, from 1972, the private Saint George's English School in Rome. From 1975 until 1980 he attended the athenaeum Bernardinuscollege, in what became his hometown of Heerlen.  In 1980, Timmermans entered the Radboud University Nijmegen, where he graduated with an MA degree in French Literature in 1985. In 1984, he also enrolled at the Nancy-Université in Nancy, France, where he read European law, French Literature and History, obtaining LL.M. Eur and MA degrees in 1985. On 6 January 1986, he was conscripted in the Royal Netherlands Army as a private first class for the Dutch Military Intelligence and Security Service as a Russian Prisoner of War interrogator.  Aside from his native Dutch, Timmermans is fluent in English, French, German, Italian and Russian.

Diplomatic career.

On 1 August 1987, Timmermans was discharged from military service in the Royal Netherlands Army. Timmermans joined the Dutch Civil Service as an officer in the Integration Department at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in The Hague. On 1 July 1990, he was appointed Deputy Secretary of the Dutch Embassy in Moscow, Russia. On 1 September 1993, he returned to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as Deputy Head of the Bureau for European Development Cooperation. On 15 March 1994, he left the Ministry of Foreign Affairs becoming Assistant to European Commissioner Hans van den Broek. Timmermans moved from this post a year later on 15 March 1995, to become Senior Advisor and Private Secretary to Max van der Stoel, the High Commissioner for National Minorities of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).

Political career.

Member of the House of Representatives.

After the Dutch general election of 1998 Timmermans was elected a Member of the House of Representatives for the Labour Party and was installed as Member of the House of Representatives on 19 May 1998. He served as the Deputy Chairman of the Commission for Foreign Affairs from November 2001 until September 2002 when he became the Chairman of the Commission for Economic Affairs until 18 March 2003 when he again became the Deputy Chairman of the Commission for Foreign Affairs serving until 22 February 2007. Timmermans represented the House of Representatives, in the Convention on the Future of Europe from March 2002 until July 2003. Timmermans also served as a Member of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe from 21 September 1998 until 22 February 2007. Timmermans was reelected to the House of Representatives after the Dutch general elections of 2002 and 2003.

Undersecretary.

After the Dutch general election of 2006 the Labour Party, Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) and the ChristianUnion (CU) formed a coalition agreement which resulted in the formation of the Cabinet Balkenende IV. Timmermans became Undersecretary for Foreign Affairs and was responsible for the co-ordination of government policy towards the European Union, and was conferred the diplomatic title of Minister of European Affairs during international visits. A major theme of his time as Undersecretary for European Affairs was to increase support for European integration. This was done both by seeking greater influence of citizens on European policies and by improving communication and public perception; besides citizens the aim was that education should have also be more involved with Europe. The Treaty of Lisbon was signed whilst he was Undersecretary, before which Timmermans and Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende successfully lobbied to secure a greater role for national parliaments in European Union decision-making processes. In February 2010, NATO officially requested the Netherlands to extend its military involvement in Task Force Uruzgan. The Labour Party strongly opposed the extension of the mission and on 23 February 2010 the Cabinet Balkenende IV fell after the Labour Party officially withdrew its support with all Labour Party Cabinet members resigning.

Return as a Member of the House of Representatives.

Following the withdrawal of the Labour Party from the coalition government, the Cabinet Balkenende IV remained as a Demissionary Cabinet until the Dutch general election of 2010. Following a coalition agreement between the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (Vvd), Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) and the Party for Freedom (PVV), the Labour Party became the official opposition. Timmermans was returned to the House of Representatives, being installed on 17 June 2010. During his second term as a Member of the House of Representatives he served as Parliamentary Spokesman of the Labour Party for Foreign Affairs and European Affairs.

Minister of Foreign Affairs.

After the fall of the Cabinet Rutte I. The Dutch general election of 2012, resulted in the Labour Party and the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy forming a coalition agreement resulting in the formation of the Cabinet Rutte II, and Timmermans being appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, taking office on 5 November 2012.  On 24 March and 25 March 2014 the Netherlands hosted the 2014 Nuclear Security Summit, Timmermans as Minister of Foreign Affairs was charged with welcoming all attending representatives.  In May 2014, Timmermans condemned Geert Wilders' anti-Islam sticker, saying that "The Netherlands cannot be held responsible for the adolescent behavior of a single parliamentarian." Timmermans said that Saudi Arabia is "deeply offended by the sticker action."  On 17 July 2014, passenger flight Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down over Ukraine resulting in the deaths of 194 Dutch citizens. The next day Timmermans flew to Kiev to meet with President Petro Poroshenko and Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk to discuss the matter, following which, on 21 July 2014, Timmermans addressed the United Nations Security Council in New York. Timmermans delivered an emotional speech which was widely praised by the international community. His speech called for Dutch Prime Minister Rutte and the International Community to help bring the victims home and start an investigation to make sure that those responsible are brought to justice. He states: "I call on the international community, on the Security Council, on anyone with influence on the situation on the ground: allow us to bring the victims’ remains home to their loved ones without any further delay. They deserve to be home." A statement in his speech about the careless way with which the local population was said to have treated the bodies of the victims appeared to be imprecise. Timmermans acknowledged this later on in a letter to the Dutch parliament.  In August 2014, Timmermans called for an independent investigation into Israel's actions during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict.

European Commission (2014–2019).

In September 2014, the Dutch Government nominated Frans Timmermans as its prospective member of the European Commission under President-elect Jean-Claude Juncker. On 1 November 2014, Timmermans took office as First Vice President in Juncker's European Commission, and served as President Juncker's first deputy and right-hand man. Timmermans' portfolio comprises Better Regulation, Inter-Institutional Relations, Rule of Law and Charter of Fundamental Rights.  In May 2016, Timmermans said that Erdoğan's Turkey "has made impressive progress, particularly in recent weeks, on meeting the benchmarks of its visa liberalisation roadmap. There is still work to be done as a matter of urgency but if Turkey sustains the progress made, they can meet the remaining benchmarks."  Timmermans repeatedly criticized Poland's judiciary reform, saying that "these laws considerably increase the systemic threats to the rule of law in Poland." In April 2019, the Commission had launched a new infringement proceedings against Poland over independence of judges. Timmermans said: "The new disciplinary regime undermines the judicial independence of Polish judges by not offering necessary guarantees to protect them from political control, as required by the Court of Justice of the European Union."  Timmermans supported the mandatory migrant quotas within the EU. He said that people coming to the EU "are fellow human beings who, I think, deserve to seek refuge when they flee the barbarism that the jihadists are inflicting upon them."

Unsuccessful candidacy for the European Commission presidency.

In October 2018, Frans Timmermans announced his candidacy for the office of President of the European Commission ahead of the 2019 European election. In December 2018, during the Congress of Lisbon, the Party of European Socialists acclaimed him as its candidate. He was formally nominated as the PES Common Candidate in Madrid in February 2019. Timmermans said he intended to challenge the dominance of the EPP by building a left coalition in the European Parliament. His party finished second in the election behind the EPP, but after having discussed the parliamentary lead candidates Manfred Weber, Timmermans and occasionally also Margrethe Vestager of the three largest European parties in the parliament several times, the European Council initially intended to nominate Timmermans for the office of commission president mostly because of Weber's alleged missing experience on the international stage. However, when governments from Eastern Europe protested this decision because of their strong opposition against Timmerman's fight on behalf of the commission for the rule of law and against reforms which are prospected to undermine it in these countries, the Council almost unanimously proposed German Defense Minister Ursula von der Leyen as a compromise candidate in July 2019, a controversial decision among many members of the European Parliament, as she had neither been running for the office nor taken part in the European election, while such a process had informally been agreed as the gold standard since 2014. Therefore, the sole abstention with her nomination came from Germany themselves because part of the German coalition government did not accept such a move. Yet, von der Leyen was subsequently elected with a narrow majority by the European Parliament, promised to argue for a better implementation and formalisation of the desired parliamentary process in the future and announced that lead candidates Timmermans and Vestagher would become Vice-Presidents in her commission.

European Commission (since 2019).

In 2019, President of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen requested Frans Timmermans continue in his role as First Vice President while also designating him as one of the three new Executive Vice Presidents of the European Commission. As Executive Vice President Timmermans will be responsible for the European Green Deal. Timmermans is also responsible for a European Green Deal and a European Climate Law in their first hundred days in office.

Family and personal life.

Timmermans has married twice, having two children in his first marriage, a daughter (born 1986) and a son (born 1989). Timmermans remarried in 2000 to Irene Timmermans; he and his second wife have a son (born 2004) and a daughter (born 2006).

Franciscus Cornelis Gerardus Maria Timmermans (; born 6 May 1961) is a Dutch politician and diplomat serving as First Vice President of the European Commission since 2014, and has served in the von der Leyen Commission as Executive Vice President of the European Commission for the European Green Deal and European Commissioner for Climate Action since 2019.

Franciscus Cornelis Gerardus Maria „Frans“ Timmermans (* 6. května 1961 Maastricht) je nizozemský politik, od listopadu 2014 první místopředseda Evropské komise vedené Junckerem a od roku 2019 von der Leyenovou. V letech 2014–2019 působil jako komisař pro lepší regulaci, institucionální vztahy, vládu práva a chartu základních práv.


Plot.

"La Amistad" is a slave ship transporting captured Africans from Cuba to the United States in 1839. Joseph Cinqué, a leader of the Africans, leads a mutiny and takes over the ship. The mutineers spare the lives of two Spanish navigators to help them sail the ship back to Africa. Instead, the navigators misdirect the Africans and sail directly north to the east coast of the United States, where the ship is stopped by the American Navy, and the surviving Africans imprisoned as runaway slaves.  In an unfamiliar country and not speaking a single word of English, the Africans find themselves in a legal battle. United States Attorney William S. Holabird brings charges of piracy and murder. Secretary of State John Forsyth, on behalf of President Martin Van Buren (who is campaigning for re-election), represents the claim of the Spanish government that the Africans are property of Spain based on a treaty. Two Naval officers, Thomas R. Gedney, and Richard W. Meade, claim them as salvage while the two Spanish navigators, Pedro Montez and Jose Ruiz, produce proof of purchase. A lawyer named Roger Sherman Baldwin, hired by the abolitionist Lewis Tappan and his black associate Theodore Joadson, decides to defend the Africans.  Baldwin argues that the Africans had been captured in Africa to be sold in the Americas illegally. Baldwin proves through documents found hidden aboard "La Amistad" that the African people were initially cargo belonging to a Portuguese slave ship, the "Tecora". Therefore, the Africans were free citizens of another country and not slaves at all. In light of this evidence, the staff of President Van Buren has the judge presiding over the case replaced by Judge Coglin, who is younger and believed to be impressionable and easily influenced. Consequently, seeking to make the case more personal, on the advice of former American president (and lawyer) John Quincy Adams, Baldwin and Joadson find James Covey, a former slave who speaks both Mende and English. Cinque tells his story at trial: Cinque was kidnapped by slave traders outside his village, and held in the slave fortress of Lomboko, where thousands of captives were held under heavy guard. Cinque and many others were then sold to the "Tecora", where they were held in the brig of the ship. The captives were beaten and whipped, and at times, were given so little food that they had to eat the food from each other's faces. One day, fifty captives were thrown overboard. Later on, the ship arrived in Havana, Cuba. Those captives that were not sold at auction were handed over to "La Amistad".  United States Attorney Holabird attacks Cinqué's "tale" of being captured and kept in the slave fortress, and especially questions the throwing of precious cargo overboard. Holabird contends that Cinque could have been made a debt slave by his fellow Sierra Leoneans. However, the Royal Navy's fervent abolitionist Captain Fitzgerald of the West Africa Squadron backs up Cinqué's account. Baldwin shows from the "Tecora"’s inventory that the number of African people taken as slaves was reduced by fifty. Fitzgerald explains that some slave ships when interdicted do this to get rid of the evidence for their crime. But in the "Tecora"’s case, they had underestimated the amount of provisions necessary for their journey. As the tension rises, Cinqué stands up from his seat and repeatedly says, "Give us, us free!"  Judge Coglin rules in favor of the Africans. After pressure from Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina on President Van Buren, the case is appealed to the Supreme Court. Despite refusing to help when the case was initially presented, Adams agrees to assist with the case. At the Supreme Court, he makes an impassioned and eloquent plea for their release, and is successful.  The Lomboko slave fortress is liberated by the Royal Marines under the command of Captain Fitzgerald. After all the slaves are removed from the fortress, Fitzgerald orders the ship's cannon to destroy it. He then dictates a letter to Forsyth saying that he was right — the slave fortress doesn't exist.  Because of the release of the Africans, Van Buren loses his re-election campaign, and tension builds between the North and the South, which eventually culminate in the Civil War.  Retired U.S. Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun also appears in the film as Justice Joseph Story.

Production.

Actress and director Debbie Allen had run across some books about the mutiny on "La Amistad" and brought the subject to HBO Pictures, which chose to make a film adaptation of the subject. She later presented the project to DreamWorks SKG to release the film, which agreed. Steven Spielberg, who wanted to stretch his artistic wings after making "" (1997), was interested in directing it for DreamWorks, which he also co-founded, as well.  Filming of the exterior and interior court scenes took place at the Old Colony House in Newport, Rhode Island, and then moved to Sonalyst Studios. The opening scene was filmed on a sound stage in Universal Studios. Production then went to Puerto Rico for the scenes set in Africa, including those with the slave fortress.  Post-production was done rarely with Spielberg, due to his commitment to another DreamWorks film, "Saving Private Ryan".

Music.

The musical score for "Amistad" was composed by John Williams. A soundtrack album was released on December 9, 1997 by DreamWorks Records. The lyrics from "Dry Your Tears, Afrika" are from a 1967 poem by French-speaking Ivorian poet Bernard Binlin Dadié. The words are primarily in Mende, one of Sierra Leone's major languages.

Historical accuracy.

Many academics, including Columbia University professor Eric Foner, have criticized "Amistad" for historical inaccuracy and the misleading characterizations of the "Amistad" case as a "turning point" in the American perspective on slavery. Other reported inaccuracies include:

Reception.

Critical response.

"Amistad" received mainly positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film receives an approval rating of 77% based on reviews from 64 critics, with an average score of 6.9/10. its consensus reads: "Heartfelt without resorting to preachiness, "Amistad" tells an important story with engaging sensitivity and absorbing skill."  Susan Wloszczyna of "USA Today" summed up the feelings of many reviewers when she wrote: "as Spielberg vehicles go, "Amistad" — part mystery, action thriller, courtroom drama, even culture-clash comedy — lands between the disturbing lyricism of "Schindler's List" and the storybook artificiality of "The Color Purple"." Roger Ebert awarded the film three out of four stars, writing: In 2014, the movie was one of several discussed by Noah Berlatsky in "The Atlantic" in an article concerning white savior narratives in film, calling it'sanctimonious drivel.'  Morgan Freeman is very proud of the movie: "I loved the film. I really did. I had a moment of err, during the killings. I thought that was a little over-wrought. But he (Spielberg) wanted to make a point and I understood that."

Box office.

The film earned $44,229,441 at the box office in the United States, debuting at 5 on December 10, 1997.

Awards and honors.

"Amistad" was nominated for Academy Awards in four categories: Best Supporting Actor (Anthony Hopkins), Best Original Dramatic Score (John Williams), Best Cinematography (Janusz Kamiński), and Best Costume Design (Ruth E. Carter).

Amistad is a 1997 American historical drama film directed by Steven Spielberg, based on the true story of the events in 1839 aboard the slave ship "La Amistad", during which Mende tribesmen abducted for the slave trade managed to gain control of their captors' ship off the coast of Cuba, and the international legal battle that followed their capture by the "Washington", a U.S. revenue cutter. The case was ultimately resolved by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1841.

Amistad (v anglickém originále Amistad) je americký dramatický film z roku 1997. Režisérem filmu je Steven Spielberg. Hlavní role ve filmu ztvárnili Morgan Freeman, Nigel Hawthorne, Anthony Hopkins, Djimon Hounsou a Matthew McConaughey.


Plot.

Jonesy, Beaver, Pete, and Henry are four friends on an annual hunting trip in Maine. As children, they all acquired telepathic powers which they call "the line" after saving a boy with disabilities named Douglas "Duddits" Cavell from bullies and befriending him.  One night, Jonesy sees Duddits beckoning him to cross the street, but as he does so Jonesy is hit by a car. His injuries heal with mysterious speed and six months later he is able to make it for the group's annual trip. Jonesy rescues a man lost in the forest named Rick McCarthy. He is very ill, so Jonesy and Beaver let him rest and recover inside their cabin. Suddenly, all the forest animals run past their cabin in the same direction; it is implied fear is the motivation as predator and prey flee together, followed by two military helicopters that announce the area is now quarantined. Jonesy and Beaver return to the cabin to find a trail of blood from the bedroom to the bathroom, where Rick is sitting semi-catatonic on the toilet, which is now covered in blood. Rick is pushed off the toilet, falling, dead, into the tub as a three-foot long lamprey like creature writhes and screams in the toilet. Beaver attempts to trap the creature under the toilet lid, but he succumbs to his OCD to pick up a toothpick, allowing the creature to break out and kill him. Jonesy tries to escape but is confronted by a large alien called Mr. Gray, who possesses Jonesy's body and emits a red-dust around the entire cabin.  Nearby, Henry and Pete crash their SUV to avoid running over a frostbitten woman from Rick's original hunting party. Henry walks for help while Pete stays with the woman. She dies and also excretes a worm, which Pete barely manages to kill. Mr. Gray tricks and kidnaps Pete, but Jonesy telepathically warns Henry to stay hidden. Henry returns to the cabin to find Beaver dead and the worm that killed him laying a group of eggs. To kill all of the alien larvae, he sets fire to the cabin.  Meanwhile, an elite military unit specializing in extraterrestrials, led by the slightly unhinged Colonel Abraham Curtis, seeks to contain everyone exposed to the aliens. Col. Curtis is planning to retire after this operation and will pass command, along with a pearl-handled stainless-steel.45 pistol, to Captain Owen Underhill, his trusted friend and second in command. The two lead an air-strike into a large forest clearing where the aliens' spaceship has crash-landed. The aliens use telepathy to ask for mercy, but the helicopters massacre most of the aliens with mini-guns and missiles. The alien ship self-destructs, destroying the remaining aliens and two helicopters.  Jonesy retraces his memories of the area while watching Mr. Gray use his body. Mr. Gray tries to coerce Pete into cooperating but bites him in half when he refuses. Jonesy realizes that Mr. Gray possessed him, not by chance, but to access past memories of Duddits which he needs. Henry arrives at the fenced-in concentration camp only to realize that Col. Curtis plans to kill all of those quarantined. Henry convinces Underhill to prevent this by going over Curtis' head and having him relieved. Later, Henry uses Underhill's gun as a phone to contact Jonesy mentally.  Henry and Underhill break out of the camp and head to Duddits' home. Duddits, who is dying of leukemia, informs them Mr. Gray is headed for the Quabbin Reservoir to seed the water with alien larvae. Curtis, realizing the danger looming to the entire planet, leaves the camp in his armed helicopter and tracks down Henry, Underhill, and Duddits via a micro-chip in the pistol. At the reservoir, Underhill is mortally wounded and dies shortly after he shoots Curtis down.  In the reservoir's pump house, Henry uses Underhill's machine gun to kill Mr. Gray's worm but cannot decide if Jonesy is possessed. Duddits confronts Mr. Gray, who finally exits Jonesy's body. The two struggle as Duddits reveals himself to also be an alien of a different race. Both aliens explode in a cloud of red-dust which briefly resembles a dreamcatcher. Jonesy, now himself again, steps on the final alien larva before it can escape and contaminate the reservoir.

Production.

"Dreamcatcher" was filmed around Prince George, British Columbia.

Release.

Box office.

With a box-office gross of $33,685,268 in the North American domestic market, "Dreamcatcher" earned only half of its estimated $68 million production budget, barely surpassing it worldwide with $75,715,436. The film is considered a flop.  In a 2012 interview, during a promotional tour for his film "Darling Companion", Kasdan admitted that the commercial failure of "Dreamcatcher" left him "Wounded careerwise...But not so much personally. I've been personally wounded by other movies, where I'd written it, and thought, 'Oh, God, the world's not interested in what I'm interested in.' With "Dreamcatcher", the career was hurt. I was planning to do "The Risk Pool" with Tom Hanks. I had written the script from a great book by Richard Russo ("Nobody's Fool"). And it didn't happen. Then another one didn't happen. Meanwhile, two years have passed here, two have passed there. That's how you're wounded."

Critical reception.

The film received negative reviews from critics, earning a 28% rating on review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes based on 183 reviews, and an average rating of 4.73/10. The site's consensus states: "An incoherent and overly long creature feature." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.  Mick LaSalle's review for the "San Francisco Chronicle" summed up the film as "a likeable disaster." Richard Roeper commented that "not since "Death to Smoochy" have so many talented people made such a mess of things."  Roger Ebert gave the film 1.5 stars out of a possible 4, writing: '"Dreamcatcher" begins as the intriguing story of friends who share a telepathic gift, and ends as a monster movie of stunning awfulness. What went wrong?" Ebert thought Jonesy's Memory Warehouse was a highlight, and intriguing enough to be the focus of a film, though "Dreamcatcher" neglects the concept to instead emphasize gore.

Dreamcatcher is a 2003 American science fiction horror film based on Stephen King's 2001 novel of the same name. Directed by Lawrence Kasdan and co-written by Kasdan and screenwriter William Goldman, the film stars Thomas Jane, Jason Lee, Damian Lewis and Timothy Olyphant as four friends who encounter an invasion of parasitic aliens. Also starring Morgan Freeman, Tom Sizemore and Donnie Wahlberg. Closing theme song performed by Donna Summer.

Pavučina snů (v americkém originále: Dreamcatcher) je americký sci-fi film z roku 2003. Režisérem filmu je Lawrence Kasdan. Hlavní role ve filmu ztvárnili Damian Lewis, Thomas Jane, Jason Lee, Timothy Olyphant a Donnie Wahlberg.