History.

Cecil Czerkinsky first described ELISpot in 1983 as a new way to quantify the production of an antigen-specific immunoglobulin by hybridoma cells. In 1988, Czerkinsky developed an ELISA spot assay that quantified the secretion of a lymphokine by T cells. In the same year, dual-color ELISpot was combined with computer imaging for the first time, which allowed for the enumeration and analysis of spots. 1988 also marked the first use of membrane-bottomed plates for performing these assays.

Mechanism of ELISpot.

Mechanism of FluoroSpot.

The FluoroSpot assay is very similar to the ELISpot assay. The main difference is that the FluoroSpot assay is able to analyze the presence of multiple analytes on one plate of wells, whereas the ELISpot assay can only analyze one analyte at a time. The FluoroSpot assay accomplishes this by using fluorescence rather than an enzymatic reaction for detection. The steps for a FluoroSpot assay are also similar, with a few differences.  Since the FluoroSpot assay identifies and quantifies the presence of multiple analytes, it is possible that the absorption of one analyte can affect the secretion of another analyte; this is called capture effects. The affect an analyte has on another analyte could be positive or negative (the production of the second analyte can either increase or decrease). To counteract capture effects, it is possible to use co-stimulation in order to bypass the decreased production of an analyte. This is when a second antibody that stimulates the production of the same analyte is added to the wells.

Applications of ELISpot and FluoroSpot.

The ELISpot and FluoroSpot assays can be used in many research fields: vaccine development, cancer, allergies, monocytes/macrophages/dendritic cells characterization, apolipoproteins analysis, and veterinary research. With the ELISpot, you can study antigen-specific cytokine responses, antibody specific secreting cells, tumor antigens, granzyme B and Perforin release by T cells, vaccine efficacy, epitope mapping, cytotoxic T-cell activity, detection of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, vaccine-induced antibody responses, antigen-specific memory B cells, and much more.  More specifically, the T-cell ELISpot assay is used to characterize T-cell subsets. This is because the assay can detect the production of cytokines IFN-y, IL-2, TNF-alpha, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. The first three cytokines are produced by Th1 cells, while the last three are produced by Th2 cells. Measuring T-cell responses through cytokine production also makes it possible to study vaccine efficacy.  With T-cell FluoroSpot, you can monitor tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. You can also analyze the IFN-y cytokine and granzyme B secretion in order to assess cytotoxic T-cell responses. Both of these are used for cancer research.  With B-cell FluoroSpot, vaccine efficacy can also be observed by quantifying the secret of IgG, IgA, and IgM before and after a vaccination. This analysis of multiple immunoglobulins is made possible because of the fluorescence method used in the FluoroSpot.

The enzyme-linked immune absorbent spot (ELISpot) is a type of assay that focuses on quantitatively measuring the frequency of cytokine secretion for a single cell. The ELISpot Assay is also a form of immunostaining since it is classified as a technique that uses antibodies to detect a protein analyte, with the word analyte referring to any biological or chemical substance being identified or measured.

ELISpot () je citlivý test používaný ke kvantifikaci neboli určování množství buněk vyměšujících (sekretujících) cytokiny nebo imunoglobuliny na úrovni jedné buňky.


Early career.

Rowan enrolled in the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1877 at the age of twenty and was commissioned second lieutenant in 1881. For the next ten years he was assigned to several frontier posts and in 1887 married Ida M. Symns of Atchison, Kansas. While serving as topographical officer at Fort Pembina, North Dakota, he volunteered for reconnaissance service along the Canadian border. In 1891 he was assigned as barometric hypsometrist and assistant astronomer with the Intercontinental Railway Survey, which was planning a (never-completed) rail line through Guatemala. After his return he was appointed head of the Military Information Division (MID) Map Section in Washington, DC. While serving in this capacity he co-authored a well-received book about Cuba.

Spanish–American War.

Following the explosion of the in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, war between the United States and Spain, which then ruled Cuba, seemed inevitable. Maj. Arthur L. Wagner, head of the Military Information Division, successfully petitioned Adj. Gen. Henry Clark Corbin for permission to send spies to Cuba and Puerto Rico to gather military information. Wagner selected forty-year-old 1st Lt. Andrew S. Rowan to join Gen. Calixto García, commander of the rebel forces in eastern Cuba. Rowan, posing as a civilian, boarded a steamer in New York bound for Kingston, Jamaica. As a cover story, he carried papers designating him as a military attaché bound for Santiago, Chile. (The inclusion of this cover story in official documents has understandably led some to believe, incorrectly, that it was true. In fact, Rowan never set foot in Chile.) With the help of the U.S. consul in Kingston, he connected with the Cuban Revolutionary Junta, some of whose members transported him by open boat during one of their trips to the southeastern coast of Cuba. They went ashore the morning of April 25.  Following an eight-day horseback journey with rebels through the Sierra Maestra Mountains, Rowan met with García in the city of Bayamo on May 1. Rowan's assignment was to keep the War Department informed as to “the strength, efficiency, movements and general military situation.” His orders were to stay in Cuba, to “accompany the Insurgent Forces, and to send back dispatches.” Disregarding his orders, Rowan said he was there to gather information regarding García's needs in order for him to cooperate with the U.S. armed forces; he said also that he was eager to return to the U.S. García, seeing an opportunity, sent him back to the U.S. within hours of his arrival. Traveling with him were members of García's staff to confer with U.S. officials. After a five-day journey to Manatí Bay on Cuba's north coast they “drew a little cockle-shell of a boat from under a mangrove bush” and set sail for Florida. A passing sponging steamer carried them to Nassau, and from there they eventually sailed to Tampa, arriving on May 9.  Rowan had no sooner landed in Cuba on April 25 than details of his secret mission were splashed across the pages of America's newspapers. It was learned that while in Jamaica Rowan had revealed this information to an Associated Press correspondent named Elmer Roberts. This was not what Adj. Gen. Corbin anticipated. Had the news reports not made Rowan a popular hero, however falsely, Corbin might have had him court-martialed. Instead he was deemed as popular as Buffalo Bill, lauded by Maj. Gen Nelson A. Miles, commanding general of the army, and temporarily promoted to lieutenant-colonel in the 6th Regiment Volunteer Infantry.  The United States declared war on Spain on April 25 and invaded Cuba on June 22. Less than two months later, Spain signed a protocol effectively ending the war. It officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. On August 22, under orders from Miles, Rowan and another officer began a horseback inspection tour of Cuba that lasted six weeks and resulted in a highly detailed report.

Philippine War.

By defeating Spain, the U.S. acquired a number of colonies, including the Philippine archipelago. The Filipinos, thinking the U.S. was freeing them from the Spanish, did not care to be ruled by yet another foreign power. They resisted U.S. control, and thus began the Philippine War (1899–1902), in which (now) Captain Andrew S. Rowan was to take part as commander of the First Battalion of the 19th Infantry Regiment. He was sent to the island of Cebu, where he was assigned the subdistrict of Bogo. During this period he was involved in various expeditions and engagements with local insurgents, suffering a wound during one action.  In December 1900 a detachment of 21 men led by Rowan was sent to the nearby island of Bohol to repair telephone lines. While traversing a deep cut, they were ambushed by bolo-wielding Boholanos. Three men were killed and five wounded. Rowan later returned to Bohol with 175 men of Company I, this time to occupy the village of Jagna. On April 29 one of his men was murdered by a Filipino in native dress who, it seemed, had intended to assassinate Rowan. The men of Company I responded by killing the man on the spot along with five other unarmed locals, and eventually burning many native homes. This resulted in renewed anti-American activity for which Rowan was held responsible. In the end he was found innocent of any malfeasance, and on May 28, 1902, when the war was all but over, he embarked for the U.S.

Post-Philippine War.

On September 12, 1902, Rowan reported for duty at Kansas State Agricultural College and Applied Sciences (now Kansas State University) in Manhattan, Kansas, to teach Military Science and Tactics. But he had acquired a serious drinking problem, and, as a direct result of a complaint from the local W.C.T.U. to President Theodore Roosevelt, he was relieved of his post. He then served as an umpire during war games at West Point, Kentucky, and Fort Riley, Kansas. His wife died on New Year's Eve, 1903, and Rowan took up duties at the Vancouver Barracks in Washington. In spite of continued incidents of intemperance, he was selected by Brig. Gen. Frederick Funston to assist in the selection of a local site for future maneuvers and to again serve as an umpire. It was during this period that he met and married Josephine Morris de Greayer, a wealthy clubwoman of San Francisco.

Moro Rebellion.

Having reestablished his reputation, Rowan was promoted to major and assigned command of the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment at Camp Keithley on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. He was there to participate in the so-called Moro Rebellion (1902–1913), an armed conflict between indigenous ethnic groups and the U.S. His wife accompanied him and remained on Mindanao throughout his entire tour of duty. The two of them returned to the U.S. in June 1907.

Retirement and death.

After various assignments in New York, Utah, and Wyoming, Rowan retired on December 1, 1909, and spent his final years in San Francisco and Mill Valley, California, where his fame lived on. He continued writing and speaking about his Cuban adventure, embellishing it over the years. Andrew Summers Rowan died at the Letterman Army Hospital in San Francisco on January 10, 1943, and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.

Rowan’s fame.

Andrew Rowan would have faded from history had it not been for Elbert Hubbard, publisher of "The Philistine," a monthly periodical. In March, 1899, Hubbard published an essay praising Rowan for having dutifully completed his assignment to carry a message from President McKinley to General García. This was totally inaccurate, as was every other detail Hubbard wrote regarding Rowan's mission. There was, in fact, no message to García from McKinley; furthermore, Rowan had not completed his assignment. Yet, Hubbard's fictional account was almost universally believed. By the time Rowan left for the Philippines he was hailed everywhere as a hero. The people in Atchison, Kansas, birthplace of his wife, held a gigantic celebration to honor his daring deed. Even the Kansas governor was in attendance.  Movies depicting the journey were released by Thomas Edison (1916) and 20th Century Fox (1936). Both films, entitled “A Message to Garcia,” were based on Elbert Hubbard's essay, but bore as little resemblance to the essay as the essay did to Rowan's actual adventure. Through the years, scores of newspaper and magazine articles recounted the famous journey. With rare exceptions, most were merely repetitions of Hubbard's fabrication. The essay, still in print today, has been reprinted in countless editions and translated into many languages.

Honors and memorials.

In 1922 Rowan was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for “delivering a message to General Garcia [and securing] secret information... [that] had an important bearing on the quick ending of the struggle and the complete success of the U.S. Army.” He was also awarded a Silver Citation Star for “gallantry in action during the Philippine Insurrection.” Sixteen years later, as further recognition of his meeting with Gen. García, he received Cuba's highest honor, the Order Carlos Manuel de Cespedes.  In his essay, Hubbard wrote, “By the Eternal! there is a man whose form should be cast in deathless bronze and the statue placed in every college of the land. It is not book-learning young men need, nor instruction about this and that, but a stiffening of the vertebrae which will cause them to be loyal to a trust, to act promptly, concentrate their energies: do the thing—'Carry a message to Garcia!' " As it turned out, only one bronze image of Rowan exists in the United States; it is a bas relief showing Rowan meeting Gen. García, and is installed in the dining room of the Army and Navy Club in Washington, D.C. It is a duplicate of another bas relief included with an equestrian statue of García in Havana, Cuba. A bronze bust of Rowan was placed in Havana in the Parque de Maine and a plaque commemorating him was installed on the Acera de Louvre. Both these memorials have disappeared; however, another bronze plaque, still extant, is affixed to the building in Bayamo in which Rowan and García met.  In 1943 a World War II liberty ship was christened the SS "Andrew Rowan", and over the years his name has been attached to other items: a bridge connecting Virginia and West Virginia over the New River; a West Virginia Dept. of Agr. farm; a retirement home in Sweet Springs, West Virginia; a Civilian Conservation Corps camp; and a road in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.

Andrew Summers Rowan (April 23, 1857 – January 10, 1943) was born in Gap Mills, Virginia (now West Virginia), the son of John M. Rowan and Virginia Summers. He was an American army officer who served in the Spanish–American War, the Philippine War, and the Moro Rebellion, and became famous for reportedly delivering a message to Gen. Calixto Garcia in Cuba.

Andrew Summers Rowan (23. dubna 1857, Gap Mills, tehd. Virginie, USA – 10. ledna 1943, San Francisco, USA) byl plukovník americké armády. V době španělsko-americké války dokázal na žádost prezidenta USA Williama McKinleyho navázat kontakt s vůdcem kubánských rebelů, generálem Calixto Garcíou.


Synopsis.

"Runaway" chronicles the life of the Raders, an average middle-class American family who just moved to Bridgewater, Iowa, from Potomac, Maryland. Though looking like the perfect family, the Raders on the run from the law. Paul Rader, the patriarch of the family, was convicted for a murder that he didn't commit. In addition, the Raders are hunted by the real killer who had made good on targeting the family, especially the children. These reasons are enough for Paul (similar to the plot line of "The Fugitive") to seek the evidence that will clear him and end his family's nightmare.

Cancellation.

The CW cancelled "Runaway" on October 18, 2006, four weeks after its debut. "Runaway" holds the distinction of being the first show to be canceled on the new network. The show never found an audience and had the lowest ratings of the programming on all 5 major broadcast networks.

Episodes.

Thirteen episode scripts were ordered, and nine episodes were filmed, but only three were broadcast by the CW. The unfilmed scripts were named "They Say It's Your Birthday", "Dashing Through the Snow", "Trial and Error", and "Knock, Knock".

Broadcast.

The series aired on both Global and CH in Canada. In March 2009 3e started showing "Runaway" for the first time in Ireland. In June 2007, British Television channel E4 started showing "Runaway". In the UK, the fifth episode was due to be shown on July 18, but was replaced by How to Look Good Naked; the episode was eventually shown early the next morning at 1:35am and since then had a very late timeslot of around 1 am, Thursday morning. The show's slot was moved from late evening to early morning due to poor ratings. All nine episodes were aired in the UK.

Ratings.

For the season it was broadcast, "Runaway" scored dead last with a ranking of 142, and an average of 2 million viewers. In May 2007, the other new scripted CW drama picked up "Hidden Palms" would go to achieve a new CW record with even lower viewer turnout than "Runaway" even in the less competitive summer season.

Runaway is an American drama series that aired on The CW from September 25, 2006, to October 15, 2006. The series was created by Chad Hodge and was produced by Golly and Darren Star Productions in association with Sony Pictures Television. Along with "The Game", it was one of only two series on the new network not to be inherited as previously aired from either of its predecessor networks, The WB and UPN. The show was officially cancelled on October 18, 2006.

Štvanci (v anglickém originále Runaway) je americký dramatický televizní seriál, jehož autorem je Chad Hodge. Premiérově byl vysílán v roce 2006 na stanici The CW. Natočeno bylo devět z třinácti objednaných dílů, z vysílání byl ovšem kvůli nízké sledovanosti stažen již po třech epizodách.


History.

The land that became Stephenson County was first settled by William Waddams in 1832, who founded Waddams Grove. By 1837, population was sufficient to form Stephenson County, taking land from Jo Daviess and Winnebago counties. The county was named for Colonel Benjamin Stephenson, an official of the Illinois Territory.

Geography.

According to the US Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.09%) is water.

Climate and weather.

In recent years the average temperatures in the county seat of Freeport, have ranged from a low of in January to a high of in July, although a record low of was recorded in January 2009 and a record high of was recorded in July 1988. Average monthly precipitation ranged from in January to in June.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 47,711 people, 19,845 households, and 13,015 families residing in the county. The population density was. There were 22,081 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 86.5% white, 9.0% black or African American, 0.6% Asian, 0.2% American Indian, 1.2% from other races, and 2.5% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 2.9% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 46.6% were German, 12.5% were Irish, 10.0% were English, and 8.0% were American.  Of the 19,845 households, 28.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.3% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 34.4% were non-families, and 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.90. The median age was 43.1 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $43,304 and the median income for a family was $54,224. Males had a median income of $41,672 versus $29,510 for females. The per capita income for the county was $22,608. About 12.3% of families and 14.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.1% of those under age 18 and 7.3% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

There are five public high schools and one private high Schools in the county: (approximate enrollment included)  Public high schools  Private high school

Stephenson County is a county located in the U.S. state of Illinois. According to the 2010 United States Census, it had a population of 47,711. Its county seat is Freeport.

Stephenson County je okres ve státě Illinois v USA. K roku 2010 zde žilo 47 711 obyvatel. Správním sídlem a zároveň největším městem okresu je Freeport. Celková rozloha okresu činí 1 463 km2. Je pojmenován po plukovníku Benjaminu Stephensonovi, který velel vlastnímu pluku během Britsko-americké války. Okres na severu sousedí s Wisconsinem.


Biography.

Early life.

Andersen was born in Lehe and baptized Elisabeth Carlotta Helena Berta Bunnenberg, but known informally as ‘Liese-Lotte’—a diminutive of her first two names—to friends and family; this continued after her first marriage when she was known as ‘Liselotte Wilke’.  In 1922, aged 17, she married German Impressionist painter (1894–1971). They had three children: Björn, Carmen-Litta, and (1929–2017) the youngest of whom also enjoyed a career in the German music industry. Shortly after the birth of their last child, the marriage broke up. Leaving the children in the care of her siblings Thekla and Helmut, Andersen went to Berlin in October 1929, where she reportedly studied acting at the "Schauspielschule" at the Deutsches Theater. In 1931, her marriage ended in divorce. Around this time, she began appearing on stage in various cabarets in Berlin. From 1933 to 1937, she performed at the "Schauspielhaus" in Zürich, where she also met Rolf Liebermann, who would remain a close friend for the rest of her life. In 1938, she was in Munich at the cabaret "Simpl", and soon afterwards joined the prestigious Kabarett der Komiker (Comedians' Cabaret) in Berlin.

"Lili Marleen" and the war years.

While at the Kabarett der Komiker, she met Norbert Schultze, who had composed the music for "Lili Marleen". Andersen recorded the song in 1939, but it would only become a hit when the "Soldatensender Belgrad" "(Belgrade Soldier's Radio)", the radio station of the German armed forces in occupied Yugoslavia, began broadcasting it in 1941. "Lili Marleen" quickly became immensely popular with German soldiers at the front. The transmitter of the radio station at Belgrade, was powerful enough to be received all over Europe and the Mediterranean, and the song soon became popular with the Allied troops as well.  Andersen was awarded a gold disc for over one million sales of "Lili Marleen" [His Masters Voice – EG 6993]. It is thought that she was awarded her copy after the end of World War II. A copy of this particular gold disc owned by the "His Masters Voice" record company was discarded during the renovation of their flagship store on Oxford Street, London, during the 1960s where, hitherto, it had been on display. However, the disc was recovered and is now in a private collection. Nazi officials did not approve of the song and Joseph Goebbels prohibited it from being played on the radio. Andersen was not allowed to perform in public for nine months, not just because of the song but because of her friendship with Rolf Liebermann and other Jewish artists she had met in Zurich. In desperation, she reportedly attempted suicide.  Andersen was so popular, however, that the Nazi government allowed her to perform again, albeit subject to several conditions, one of which was she would not sing "Lili Marleen". Goebbels did order her to make a new "military" version of the song (with a significant drum) which was recorded in June 1942. In the remaining war years, Andersen had one minor appearance in a propaganda movie and was made to sing several propaganda songs in English. Shortly before the end of the war, Andersen retired to Langeoog, a small island off the North Sea coast of Germany.

Career after World War II.

After the war, Andersen all but disappeared as a singer. In 1949, she married Swiss composer Artur Beul. In 1952 she made a comeback with the song "Die blaue Nacht am Hafen", which she had written the lyrics for herself. In 1959, she had another hit "Ein Schiff wird kommen...", a cover version of "Never on Sunday", the title song from the movie of the same name, originally sung in Greek by Melina Mercouri.  Each song won her a gold album in Germany. In 1961, she participated as the representative of Germany in the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Einmal sehen wir uns wieder", which only reached 13th place with three points. Fifty-six years old at the time, for over 45 years, she held the record of the eldest participant at Eurovision – surpassed only in 2008 by the 75-year-old Croatian entertainer 75 Cents.  Throughout the 1960s, she toured Europe, the United States and Canada, until her farewell tour "Goodbye memories" in 1967. Two years later, she published a book "Wie werde ich Haifisch? – Ein heiterer Ratgeber für alle, die Schlager singen, texten oder komponieren wollen" ("How do I become a shark? – A cheerful companion for all who want to sing hit songs, write lyrics, or compose music"), and in 1972, shortly before her death, her autobiography "Der Himmel hat viele Farben" ("The Sky Has Many Colours") appeared and topped the bestselling list of the German magazine "Der Spiegel".

Death.

Lale Andersen died of liver cancer in Vienna, aged 67, and was cremated at Feuerhalle Simmering. Her ashes are buried in Dünenfriedhof (i.e. Sand Dunes Cemetery), on Langeoog Island.

Lale Andersen (23 March 1905 – 29 August 1972) was a German chanson singer-songwriter and actress born in Lehe (now part of Bremerhaven). She is best known for her interpretation of the song "Lili Marleen" in 1939, which by 1941 transcended the conflict to become World War II's biggest international hit. Popular with both the Axis and the Allies, Andersen's original recording spawned versions, by the end of the War, in most of the major languages of Europe, and by some of the most popular artists in their respective countries.

Lale Andersenová (23. března 1905, Bremerhaven – 29. srpna 1972, Vídeň) byla německá zpěvačka, představitelku žánru šanson. Proslavila se především písní "Lili Marleen" z roku 1939. Roku 1961 reprezentovala Německo v soutěži Eurovize.


Uses.

Thorium has been suggested for use in thorium-based nuclear power.  It is radioactive, in many countries the use of thorium in consumer products is banned or discouraged.  It is currently used in cathodes of vacuum tubes, for a combination of physical stability at high temperature and a low work energy required to remove an electron from its surface.  It has, for about a century, been used in mantles of gas and vapor lamps such as gas lights and camping lanterns.

Low dispersion lenses.

Thorium was also used in certain glass elements of Aero-Ektar lenses made by Kodak during World War II. Thus they are mildly radioactive. Two of the glass elements in the f/2.5 Aero-Ektar lenses are 11% and 13% thorium by weight. The thorium-containing glasses were used because they have a high refractive index with a low dispersion (variation of index with wavelength), a highly desirable property. Many surviving Aero-Ektar lenses have a tea colored tint, possibly due to radiation damage to the glass.  As these lenses were used for aerial reconnaissance, the radiation level is not high enough to fog film over a short period. This would indicate the radiation level is reasonably safe. However, when not in use, it would be prudent to store these lenses as far as possible from normally inhabited areas; allowing the inverse square relationship to attenuate the radiation.

Notable isotopes.

Thorium-228.

Th is an isotope of thorium with 138 neutrons. It was once named Radiothorium, due to its occurrence in the disintegration chain of thorium-232. It has a half-life of 1.9116 years. It undergoes alpha decay to Ra. Occasionally it decays by the unusual route of cluster decay, emitting a nucleus of O and producing stable Pb. It is a daughter isotope of U.  Th has an atomic weight of 228.0287411 grams/mole.

Thorium-229.

Th is a radioactive isotope of thorium that decays by alpha emission with a half-life of 7917 years. Th is produced by the decay of uranium-233, and its principal use is for the production of the medical isotopes actinium-225 and bismuth-213.

Thorium-229m.

In 1976, gamma ray spectroscopy first indicated that Th has a nuclear isomer, Th, with a remarkably low excitation energy. At that time the energy was inferred to be below 100 eV, purely based on the non-observation of the isomer's direct decay. However, in 1990, further measurements led to the conclusion that the energy is almost certainly below 10 eV, making the isomer to be the one of lowest known excitation energy. In the following years, the energy was further constrained to 3.5 ± 1.0 eV, which was for a long time the accepted energy value. Such low energy soon raised some interest as it conceptually allows for direct laser excitation of the nuclear state, which leads to some interesting potential applications, e.g. the development of a nuclear clock of very high accuracy or as a qubit for quantum computing.  Nuclear laser excitation of Th and therefore also the development of a nuclear clock has so far been impeded by an insufficient knowledge about the isomeric properties. A precise knowledge of the isomeric energy is of particular importance in this context, as it determines the required laser technology and shortens the scanning times when searching for the direct excitation. This triggered a multitude of investigations, both theoretical and experimental, trying to determine the transition energy precisely and to specify other properties of the isomeric state of Th (such as the lifetime and the magnetic moment).  The direct observation of photons emitted in the isomeric decay would significantly help to pin down the isomeric energy value. Unfortunately, until today, there has been no fully conclusive report on the detection of photons emitted in the decay of Th. Instead, improved gamma ray spectroscopy measurements using an advanced high-resolution X-ray microcalorimeter were carried out in 2007, yielding a new value for the transition energy of E = 7.6 ± 0.5 eV, corrected to E = 7.8 ± 0.5 eV in 2009. This shift in isomeric energy from 3.5 eV to 7.8 eV possibly explains why several early attempts to directly observe the transition were unsuccessful. Still, most of the recent searches for light emitted in the isomeric decay failed to observe any signal, pointing towards a potentially strong non-radiative decay channel. A direct detection of photons emitted in the isomeric decay was claimed in 2012 and again in 2018. However, both reports are currently subject to controversial discussions within the community.  A direct detection of electrons being emitted in the internal conversion decay channel of Th was achieved in 2016. However, at the time the isomer's transition energy could only be weakly constrained to between 6.3 and 18.3 eV. Finally, in 2019, non-optical electron spectroscopy of the internal conversion electrons emitted in the isomeric decay allowed for a determination of the isomer's excitation energy to 8.28 ± 0.17 eV, which poses today's most precise energy value. However, this value appears at odds with the 2018 preprint showing that a similar signal as an 8.4 eV Xenon VUV photon can be shown, but with about 1.3 eV less energy and an 1880 s lifetime. In that paper, Th was embedded in SiO, possibly resulting in an energy shift and altered lifetime, although the states involved are primarily nuclear, shielding them from electronic interactions.  As a peculiarity of the extremely low excitation energy, the lifetime of Th very much depends on the electronic environment of the nucleus. In Th ions, the internal conversion decay channel is energetically forbidden, as the isomeric energy is below the energy that is required for further ionization of Th. This leads to a lifetime that may approach the radiative lifetime of Th, for which no measurement exists, but which has been theoretically predicted to be in the range between 10 to 10 seconds. Experimentally, for Th and Th ions, an isomeric lifetime of longer than 1 minute was found. Opposed to that, in neutral Th atoms the internal conversion decay channel is allowed, leading to an isomeric lifetime which is reduced by 9 orders of magnitude to about 10 microseconds. A lifetime in the range of a few microseconds was indeed confirmed in 2017 for neutral, surface bound Th atoms, based on the detection of the internal conversion decay signal.  In a 2018 experiment, it was possible to perform a first laser-spectroscopic characterization of the nuclear properties of Th. In this experiment, laser spectroscopy of the Th atomic shell was conducted using a Th ion cloud with 2% of the ions in the nuclear excited state. This allowed to probe for the hyperfine shift induced by the different nuclear spin states of the ground and the isomeric state. In this way, a first experimental value for the magnetic dipole and the electric quadrupole moment of Th could be inferred. In 2019, the isomer's excitation energy was constrained to 8.28 ± 0.17 eV based on the direct detection of internal conversion electrons and a secure population of Th from the nuclear ground state was achieved by excitation of the 29 keV nuclear excited state via synchrotron radiation. The 29189.93 eV excited state of Th decays to the isomeric state with a probability of 90%. Both measurements are further important steps towards the development of a nuclear clock. Also gamma spectroscopy experiments confirmed the 8.3 eV energy splitting from the distance to the 29189.93 eV level. 8.28 eV (150 nm) is reachable as a 7th harmonic of an Ytterbium fiber laser by VUV frequency comb. cw phase matching for harmonic generation may be available.

Thorium-230.

Th is a radioactive isotope of thorium that can be used to date corals and determine ocean current flux. Ionium was a name given early in the study of radioactive elements to the Th isotope produced in the decay chain of U before it was realized that ionium and thorium are chemically identical. The symbol Io was used for this supposed element. (The name is still used in ionium–thorium dating.)

Thorium-231.

Th has 141 neutrons. It is the decay product of uranium-235. It is found in very small amounts on the earth and has a half-life of 25.5 hours. When it decays, it emits a beta ray and forms protactinium-231. It has a decay energy of 0.39 MeV. It has a mass of 231.0363043 grams/mole.

Thorium-232.

Th is the only primordial nuclide of thorium and makes up effectively all of natural thorium, with other isotopes of thorium appearing only in trace amounts as relatively short-lived decay products of uranium and thorium. The isotope decays by alpha decay with a half-life of 1.405 years, over three times the age of the Earth and greater than the age of the universe. Its decay chain is the thorium series, eventually ending in lead-208. The remainder of the chain is quick; the longest half-lives in it are 5.75 years for radium-228 and 1.91 years for thorium-228, with all other half-lives totaling less than 15 days.  Th is a fertile material able to absorb a neutron and undergo transmutation into the fissile nuclide uranium-233, which is the basis of the thorium fuel cycle. In the form of Thorotrast, a thorium dioxide suspension, it was used as a contrast medium in early X-ray diagnostics. Thorium-232 is now classified as carcinogenic.

Thorium-233.

Th is an isotope of thorium that decays into protactinium-233 through beta decay. It has a half-life of 21.83 minutes.

Thorium-234.

Th is an isotope of thorium whose nuclei contain 144 neutrons. Th has a half-life of 24.1 days, and when it decays, it emits a beta particle, and in doing so, it transmutes into protactinium-234. Th has a mass of 234.0436 atomic mass units (amu), and it has a decay energy of about 270 keV (kiloelectronvolts). Uranium-238 usually decays into this isotope of thorium (although in rare cases it can undergo spontaneous fission instead).

Thorium (Th) has seven naturally occurring isotopes but none are stable. One isotope, Th, is "relatively" stable, with a half-life of 1.405×10 years, considerably longer than the age of the Earth, and even slightly longer than the generally accepted age of the universe. This isotope makes up nearly all natural thorium, so thorium was considered to be mononuclidic. However, in 2013, IUPAC reclassified thorium as binuclidic, due to large amounts of Th in deep seawater. Thorium has a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition and thus a standard atomic weight can be given.

Thorium (Th) má 32 známých radioaktivních izotopů, s nukleonovými čísly 208 až 239, a několik jaderných izomerů. V přírodě se vyskytuje 6 izotopů, ovšem pouze Th je "relativně" stabilní a vyskytuje se ve větším množství. Nejstabilnější izotopy jsou Th (poločas přeměny 1,4×10 let), Th (7,54×10 let), Th (7 932 let), Th (1,91 let) a Th (24,10 dne). Všechny ostatní mají poločasy kratší než 19 dnů, většina pod 1,3 sekundy.


Early life.

Solo was born in Riga, Latvian SSR, and is of Russian heritage. At the age of five, she moved with her family to Toronto, where she was raised. She studied ballet until the age of 14, when a back injury forced her to stop; her mother is a former ballerina-turned-actress.

Career.

Solo played Zoey Jones on the APTN series "renegadepress.com". In both 2005 and 2006, she won the Gemini Award for Best Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series for her work on the show. She went on to appear in other Canadian television series and movies, such as the films" Love Thy Neighbor" and "Mayday", as well as guest-starring on the television series "Kojak".  In 2010, Solo played a small role in Darren Aronofsky's "Black Swan" starring Natalie Portman and Mila Kunis. From 2010 to 2011 she played Natasha Siviac in the CW series "Life Unexpected". From 2010 to 2015, she starred as Kenzi in the Showcase series "Lost Girl"; Solo's heritage and fluency in the Russian language were written into the role. She was cast as Dodge in the pilot episode of "Locke & Key", but the series was not picked up by Fox. In 2013, Solo began filming the independent film entitled "Another You" on location in Charleston, West Virginia.  In 2015, Solo joined the main cast of "" as Peggy Shippen. She also had a recurring role in Season 3 of "Orphan Black" as Shay.  Solo is actively involved with the anti-bullying foundation Stand for the Silent, and was made one of their directors.

Ksenia Solo (born 8 October 1987) is a Latvian-born Canadian actress, known for portraying Mackenzie "Kenzi" Malikov on "Lost Girl". She portrayed Peggy Shippen on "". Solo also portrayed the character "Natasha" in the 2010 American television series "Life Unexpected" and Shay Davydov in Season 3 of "Orphan Black". In 2017 she joined the cast of the History Channel's "Project Blue Book" as the Russian spy, Susie Miller.

Ksenia Solo (* 8. října 1987 Riga, Lotyšská SSR) je litevsko-kanadská herečka, která je známá ztvárněním postavy Mackenzie "Kenzi" Malikov v seriálu "Dívka odjinud". Také ztvárnila postavu Peggy Shippen v "" či "Natashu" v americkém seriálu "Změna je život" a Shay Davydov ve třetí řadě "Orphan Black".


Development.

Earlier the International Olympic Committee was given the power to delay the race until 2015 if preparations for the race interfered with the Winter Olympics, though the Games started without interruption. In October 2011, the Russian government set aside US$195.4 million for the construction of the circuit.  The construction of the Sochi Olympic Park Circuit marked the end of a thirty-year campaign for a Russian Grand Prix, with plans for a "Grand Prix of the Soviet Union" originating as early as 1983 before being abandoned for "bureaucratic reasons" and several failed attempts in the intervening years.  The circuit received its final approval from the FIA in August 2014.

The circuit.

The circuit is the fourth-longest circuit on the Formula One calendar, behind Spa-Francorchamps in Belgium, Baku City Circuit in Azerbaijan and Silverstone in the UK. The circuit is built around the Sochi Olympic Park, that is the coastal cluster of Olympic venues built for the 2014 Winter Olympics that have hosted competitions in ice hockey, speed skating, curling, figure skating, short track etc., and Fisht Olympic Stadium where Opening and Closing ceremonies were held. The surface was not laid until after the Closing Ceremony of the Olympics. The circuit, designed by German architect Hermann Tilke, has the start grid on the northern edge of the Olympic Park next to the railway station, heading southwest towards the Black Sea coast. Then it runs along the outer edge of the central Sochi Medals Plaza, that is the podium for Olympic medal ceremonies. The long Turn 3 is one of the most notable on the circuit, and has been compared to the famous Turn 8 in Istanbul Park. Then, the track circles the plaza counterclockwise and makes three turns around the Bolshoy Ice Dome. Then follow series of tight corners before turning north where the track skirts the edge of the Olympic Park, above the main Olympic Village and the Adler Arena Skating Center. Then it passes the skating and curling centres, before funneling up behind the pit paddock toward the train station, and completing a circuit with two ninety-degree right turns.

The Sochi Autodrom (), previously known as the Sochi International Street Circuit and the Sochi Olympic Park Circuit, is a 5.848 km Formula One permanent race track in the Black Sea resort town of Sochi in Krasnodar Krai, Russia.

Autodrom v Soči (), dříve označovaný též Sochi International Street Circuit nebo Sochi Olympic Park Circuit je závodní okruh nacházející se v městě Soči na pobřeží Černého moře, v Krasnodarském kraji, v Rusku. Dlouhá verze měří 5,848 kilometru, krátká verze 2,313 km.


History.

The concept of 'conflict resource', or 'conflict commodity' emerged in the late 1990s, initially in relation to the 'conflict diamonds' that were financing rebellions in Angola and Sierra Leone. (The media often called these 'blood diamonds'.) Then 'conflict timber' financed hostilities in Cambodia and Liberia.

Conventions.

The concept was first officially discussed by the UN General Assembly in the context of 'conflict diamonds': The UN Security Council has since referred to conflict resources in several resolutions.  Global Witness has called for an international standardized definition to facilitate a more systematic application of UN resolutions, the prevention of complicity in abuses during hostilities by commercial entities exploiting or trading in conflict resources, and the prosecution of war profiteers suspected of supporting or abetting war criminals." Since 1996 the Bonn International Center for Conversion has tracked "resource governance" and "conflict intensity" by country. Aside from fossil fuels, metals, diamonds, and timber it tracks the governance of other primary goods that might fund conflicts, including: poppy seeds and talc (Afghanistan), rubber (Côte d'Ivoire), cotton (Zambia), and cocoa (Indonesia).

Conflict minerals.

The four most prominent conflict minerals, for example codified in the U.S. Conflict Minerals Law, are:  These are sometimes referred to as ""the 3T's and gold"", "3TG", or even simply the ""3T's"". Under the US Conflict Minerals Law, additional minerals may be added to this list in the future.

Democratic Republic of the Congo.

As of 2010, the conflict resource fueling the world's deadliest war is gold in the Congo. Gold bars are less traceable than diamonds, and gold is abundant in the Kivu conflict region. In any case, no jewellery industry standard exists for verifying gold origination, as it does for diamonds (though jewelers’ total outlay on gold is five times that on diamonds). Other conflict minerals being illicitly exported from the Congo include cobalt, tungsten, cassiterite, and coltan (which provides the tantalum for mobile phones, and is also said to be directly sustaining the conflict).  Armed conflict and mineral resource looting by the Congolese National Army and various armed rebel groups, including the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) and the National Congress for the Defense of the People (CNDP), a proxy Rwandan militia group, has occurred throughout the late 20th century and the early 21st century. Additionally, the looting of the Congo's natural resources is not limited to domestic actors. During the Congo Wars (First Congo War (1996–1997) and Second Congo War (1998–2003)), Rwanda, Uganda and Burundi particularly profited from the Congo's resources. These governments continued to smuggle resources out of the Congo to this day.  The profits from the sale of these minerals have financed fighting in the Second Congo War and ongoing follow-on conflicts. Control of lucrative mines has also itself become a military objective.

Mines.

Mines, in eastern Congo, are often located far from populated areas in remote and dangerous regions. A recent study by International Peace Information Service (IPIS) indicates that armed groups are present at more than 50% of mining sites. At many sites, armed groups illegally tax, extort, and coerce civilians to work. Miners, including children, work up to 48-hour shifts amidst mudslides and tunnel collapses that kill many. The groups are often affiliated with rebel groups, or with the Congolese National Army, but both use rape and violence to control the local population.

United States law.

In April 2009, Senator Sam Brownback (R-KS) introduced the Congo Conflict Minerals Act of 2009 (S. 891) to require electronics companies to verify and disclose their sources of cassiterite, wolframite, and tantalum. This legislation died in committee. However, Brownback added similar language as Section 1502 of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, which passed Congress and was signed into law by President Barack Obama on July 21, 2010.  The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) draft regulations to implement the Conflict Mineral Law, published in the Federal Register of December 23, 2010. would have required U.S. and certain foreign companies to report and make public their use of so-called "conflict minerals" from the Democratic Republic of the Congo or adjoining countries in their products. Comments on this proposal were extended until March 2, 2011. The comments on the proposal were reviewable by the public.  One report on the proposal stated the following statistics for the submitted comments: That report also contained what it calls a "preview of the final SEC regulations" synthesized from their detailed research and analysis of a large body of documents, reports and other information on the law, proposed regulation and the current budget/political setting facing the SEC in the current administration.  The final rule went into effect 13 November 2012.  The SEC rule did not go unnoticed by the international community, including entities seeking to undermine traceability efforts. A report published by a metals trading publication illustrated one DRC ore/mineral flow method that has apparently been devised to thwart detection.  On July 15, 2011, the US State Department issued a statement on the subject. Section 1502(c) of the Law mandates that the State Department work in conjunction with SEC on certain elements of conflict minerals policy development and support.  On October 23, 2012 U.S. State Dept Officials asserted that ultimately, it falls on the U.S. State Dept. to determine when this rule would no longer apply.  In April 2014, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit struck down several parts of the SEC Rules as unconstitutional.

Auditing and reporting requirements.

US Conflict Minerals Law contains two requirements that are closely connected:  Even companies not directly regulated by the SEC will be impacted by the audit requirements because they will be pushed down through entire supply chains, including privately held and foreign-owned companies.  SEC estimated that 1,199 "issuers" (i.e., companies subject to filing other SEC reports) will be required to submit full conflict mineral reports. This estimate was developed by finding the amount of tantalum produced by the DRC in comparison to global production (15% – 20%). The Commission selected the higher figure of 20% and multiplied that by 6,000 (the total number of "issuers" SEC will be required to do initial product/process evaluations). This estimate does not account for the companies who supply materials to the "issuers" (but are not themselves SEC-regulated) but who will almost certainly be required to conduct conflict minerals audits to meet the demands of those customers. Other estimates indicate that the total number of US companies likely impacted may exceed 12,000.  A study of the potential impact of the regulation in early 2011 by the "IPC – Association Connecting Electronic Industries" trade association. was submitted with the association's comments to the SEC. The study states that the IPC survey respondents had a median of 163 direct suppliers. Applying that number to the SEC's estimated number of impacted issuers results in the possibility of over 195,000 businesses that could be subject to some level of supply chain traceability effort.

Applicability in general.

Under the law, companies have to submit an annual conflict minerals report to the SEC if:  A company would be deemed to contract an item to be manufactured if it:  This language implied that some retailers who are not manufacturers might be subject to the audit and disclosure requirements.  "Contracting to manufacture" a product requires some actual influence over the manufacturing of process that product, a determination based on facts and circumstances. A company is not to be deemed to have influence over the manufacturing process if it merely:  The proposed regulations attempted to clarify that tools used in assembly and manufacturing will not trigger the law. The intent was to cover minerals/metals in the final product only. Nothing specifically addresses intermediate chemical processes that use chemicals that contain conflict minerals. Additionally, neither the law nor the proposed regulation established a de minimis quantity or other form of materiality threshold that would preclude the applicability of the auditing/reporting requirements.

Supply chain traceability auditing.

The law mandates the use of an "independent private sector auditor" to conduct the audits. SEC has proposed two different standards for the audits: the "reasonable inquiry" and the "due diligence". Should the final rule include this structure, the reasonable inquiry would be the first step to determine if the company can on its own, using reasonable efforts and trustworthy information, make a reliable determination as to the source/origin of its tin, tantalum, tungsten and/or gold. Where companies are unable to make such a determination for any reason, they would then be required to take the next step of the "due diligence", which is the independent private sector audit.  The statute specified that the audits be "conducted in accordance with standards established by the Comptroller General of the United States, in accordance with rules promulgated by the Commission." This means that the same auditing standards that apply to other SEC auditing requirements will apply to conflict minerals audits Because of this language, SEC will have little discretion to allow companies to issue self-generated statements or certifications to satisfy the law.  Third party audits for conflict minerals supply chain traceability began in summer 2010 under the Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC), a US-based electronics manufacturing trade association. Under this program, EICC selected three audit firms to conduct the actual audits, with two of the three participating in the pilot audits in 2010. After concluding the pilot, one of the two firms involved in 2010 withdrew from the program specifically in response to the SEC's proposal and to reduce potential legal risks to the audited entities.  Neither the law nor the proposed regulations provide guidance on what will be considered an acceptable audit scope or process, preferring to allow companies the flexibility meeting the requirement in a manner that is responsive to their own individual business and supply chain. At the same time, the law contains a provision that preserves the government's rights to deem any report, audit or other due diligence processes as being unreliable, and in such cases, the report shall not satisfy the requirements of the regulations, further emphasizing the need for such audits to conform to established SEC auditing standards. Comments on the proposed regulation pointed out that, should SEC not specify an applicable audit standard, it cannot also be silent or ambiguous on the auditor standards as well, or the Commission will violate the plain language of the Law mandating "standards established by the Comptroller General of the United States". It is generally expected that SEC will provide specificity on both the audit standard and the auditor standard. SEC's proposal attempted to clarify its position on auditor requirements.  The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) published its Guidance on conflict minerals supply chain traceability. This guidance is gaining much momentum as "the" standard within US policy. However, a recent critical analysis of the standard in comparison to existing US auditing standards under SEC highlighted a number of significant inconsistencies and conflict with relevant US standards. Companies subject to the US law who implement the OECD Guidance without regard for the SEC auditing standards may face legal compliance risks.

Reporting and disclosure.

Companies subject to the SEC reporting requirement would be required to disclose whether the minerals used in their products originated in the DRC or adjoining countries (as defined above). The law mandates that this reporting be submitted/made available annually. Many comments to the proposed regulation asked SEC to clarify whether the report must be "furnished"—meaning it is made available to SEC but not directly incorporated within the company's formal financial report—or "submitted"—meaning the report is directly incorporated into the financial report. At first glance, this may appear to be a minor point; however, this difference is very important in determining the audit/auditor standards and related liabilities.  If it is determined that none of the minerals originated in the DRC or adjoining countries, the report must include a statement to that effect and provide an explanation of the country of origin analysis that was used to arrive at the ultimate conclusion. On the other hand, if conflict minerals originating in the DRC or adjoining countries were used (or if it is not possible to determine the country of origin of the conflict minerals used), companies would be required to state as such in the annual report. In either case, companies would also be required to make this information public by posting their annual conflict minerals report on their websites, and providing the SEC with the internet addresses where the reports may be found. Further, the proposed regulations would require companies to maintain records relating to the country of origin of conflict minerals used in their products.  Media outlets have reported that many companies required to file Specialized Disclosure Reports to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and any necessary conflict minerals reports for 2013 under the SEC's conflict minerals rule are struggling to meet the June 2, 2014 report filing deadline. Many impacted companies were hoping for clarification regarding filing requirements, from the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit from a lawsuit filed by the National Association of Manufacturers. The appellate court's ruling left the necessary conflict minerals reporting requirements largely intact and it has been suggested that impacted companies should review the SEC's Division of Corporation Finance's response to the court's ruling which provides guidance regarding the effect of the appellate court's ruling.  On August 18, 2015 the divided D.C. Circuit Court again held the SEC's conflict materials rule violates the First Amendment. Senior Circuit Judge A. Raymond Randolph, joined by Senior Circuit Judge David B. Sentelle, weighed if the required disclosures were effective and uncontroversial. Citing news reports and a Congressional hearing, the court decided the policy was ineffective. The court next found the required label was controversial because it "is a metaphor that conveys moral responsibility for the Congo war." As such, the court struck down the conflict materials rule's disclosure requirements as a violation of corporations’ freedom of speech. Circuit Judge Sri Srinivasan dissented, writing that the required disclosures were not controversial because they were truthful.

Criticism of the law.

The law has been criticised for not addressing the root causes of the conflict, leaving to the Congolese government the responsibility for providing an environment in which companies can practice due diligence and legitimately purchase the minerals they need, when the reality is that mechanisms for transparency do not exist. The effect has been to halt legitimate mining ventures that provided livelihoods for people, reducing the Congo's legal exports of tantalum by 90%.  An investigation by the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that most companies were unable to determine the source of their conflict minerals.  Technology manufacturers criticized a law which required them to label a product as not "DRC Conflict Free" as compelled speech, and in violation of the First Amendment.

Proposed law in Europe.

The European Parliament passed legislation in 2015; negotiations are currently underway among member states as to specific wording details.  On 16 June 2016 the European Parliament confirmed that "mandatory due diligence" would be required for "all but the smallest EU firms importing tin, tungsten, tantalum, gold and their ores".  On May 17, 2017 the EU passed Regulation (EU) 2017/821 of the Parliament and of the Council on the supply chain due diligence obligations for importers of tin, tantalum, tungsten, their ores, and gold from conflict-affected and high risk areas. The regulation will take effect in January 2021, and will directly apply to companies that import 3TG metals into the EU, no matter where they originate.  On August 10, 2018 The European Commission published their non-binding guidelines for the identification of conflict-affected and high-risk areas and other supply chain risks under Regulation (EU) 2017/821 of the European Parliament and of the Council.

Conflict resources in supply chains.

Increases in business process outsourcing to globally dispersed production facilities means that social problems and human rights violations are no longer only an organization matter, but also often occur in companies’ supply chains, and challenge for supply chain managers. Besides the harm conflict minerals do where they are produced, human rights violations also raise an enormous risk to corporate reputations. Consumers, mass media and employees expect companies to behave responsibly and have become intolerant of those who don't.  Consequently, firms that are located downstream in the supply chain and that are more visible to stakeholders are particularly threatened by social supply chain problems. The recent debate concerning conflict minerals illustrates the importance of social and human rights issues in supply chain management practice as well as the emerging need to react to social conflicts. Conflict minerals are processed in many different components throughout various industries and hence have a high overall impact on business. Initiatives like the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act or the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas demand that supply chain managers verify purchased goods as ‘‘conflict-free’’ or implement measures to better manage any inability to do so.  Minerals mined in Eastern Congo pass through the hands of numerous middlemen as they are shipped out of Congo, through neighboring countries such as Rwanda or Burundi, to East Asian processing plants. Because of this, the US Conflict Minerals Law applies to materials originating (or claimed to originate) from the DRC as well as the nine adjoining countries: Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Rwanda, South Sudan, Zimbabwe, Uganda, and Zambia.  Firms have begun to apply governance mechanisms to avoid adverse effects of conflict mineral sourcing. However, the mere transfer of responsibilities upstream in the supply chain apparently will not stop the trade with conflict minerals, notably due to two reasons:  In the context of mineral supply chains, due diligence represents a holistic concept that aims at providing a chain of custody tracking from mine to export at country level, regional tracking of mineral flows through the creation of a database on their purchases, independent audits on all actors in the supply chain, and a monitoring of the whole mineral chain by a mineral chain auditor. In this sense, due diligence transcends conventional risk management approaches that usually focus on the prevention of direct impacts on the core business activities of companies. Moreover, due diligence focuses on a maximum of transparency as an end itself while risk management is always directed towards the end of averting direct damages. However, besides the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and the OECD Guidance, there is still a gap in due diligence practices as international norms are just emerging. Studies found that the motivation for supply chain due diligence as well as expected outcomes of these processes vary among firms. Furthermore, different barriers, drivers, and implementation patterns of supply chain due diligence have been identified in scholarly research.

Organizations and activists involved.

A number of organizations and celebrities working to find solutions and raise awareness of conflict minerals. These include:  Moreover, FairPhone Foundation raises awareness of conflict minerals in the mobile industry and is a company which tries to produce a smart phone with 'fair' conditions along the supply chain. Various industry and trade associations are also monitoring developments in conflict minerals laws and traceability frameworks. Some of these represent electronics, retailers, jewelry, mining, electronics components, and general manufacturing sectors. One organization – ITRI (a UK-based international non-profit organization representing the tin industry and sponsored/supported by its members, principally miners and smelters.) had spearheaded efforts for the development and implementation of a "bag and tag" scheme at the mine as a key element of credible traceability. The program and related efforts were initially not likely to extend beyond the pilot phase due to a variety of implementation and funding problems that occurred. In the end however, the device did enter the market.  In late March 2011, the UK government launched an informational section on its Foreign & Commonwealth Office website dedicated to conflict minerals. This information resource is intended to assist British companies in understanding the issues and, specifically, the US requirements.  On Jan 6th 2014, the semiconductor giant Intel announced that it would distance itself from conflict minerals. As a result, all Intel microprocessors henceforth will be conflict-free.

Commercial reporting solutions.

Manufacturers and supply chain partners needing to comply with the ever-increasing reporting regulations have a few commercial options available.  A major research report from November 2012 by the Southern Africa Resource Watch revealed that gold miners in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo were being exploited by corrupt government officials, bureaucrats and security personnel, who all demand illegal tax, fees and levies from the miners without delivering any services in return. Despite the alleged gold rush in regions of the country, none of the population and workforce is benefiting from this highly lucrative industry.

Conflict resources are natural resources extracted in a conflict zone and sold to perpetuate the fighting. There is both statistical and anecdotal evidence that belligerent accessibility to precious commodities can prolong conflicts (a "resource curse"). The most prominent contemporary example has been the eastern provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where various armies, rebel groups, and outside actors have profited from mining while contributing to violence and exploitation during wars in the region.

Konfliktní surovina je přírodní zdroj, který je těžen v oblasti probíhajícího násilného konfliktu a současně slouží pro financování konfliktu. Situace, kdy cenné suroviny rozdmychávají občanské konflikty, jak různé frakce soupeří o přístup k nim, a ve výsledku jsou tak pro danou oblast spíše přítěží, je označována jako tzv. prokletí přírodních zdrojů. Jedním z výrazných příkladů je situace během konfliktu v Kivu v Demokratické republice Kongo, kde od roku 2004 různé armády, skupiny rebelů a zahraniční aktéři profitují z těžby minerálů, čímž současně přispívají k násilnostem a drancování regionu.


History.

In 1908, Melitta Bentz, a 35-year-old housewife from Dresden, Germany, invented the first coffee filter, receiving a patent registration for her "Filter Top Device lined with Filter Paper" from the Patent Office in Berlin on July 8. She founded the company bearing her name the same year.  In the 1930s, Melitta revised the original filter, tapering it into the shape of a cone and adding ribs. This created a larger filtration area, allowing for improved extraction of the ground coffee. In 1936, the widely recognised cone-shaped filter paper that fit inside the tapered filter top was introduced. The '102' became the most popular.  Melitta continued to develop new techniques to improve the shape, performance, material and production process of its filter systems. In 1989, Natural Brown coffee filters made from unbleached pulp were introduced, which kept unwanted by-products from leaching into the environment. In 1992 Melitta developed an oxygen-bleaching process to produce white paper without chlorine. In 1997, Melitta developed a filter with Flavor Pores, microfine perforations that filter out unwanted sediment, particles and oils. In 2002 Melitta added a second safety crimp to increase strength and durability. In 2007 bamboo Filters were introduced and the Flavor Pores filter was improved.

Melitta USA.

Melitta USA, headquartered in Clearwater, Florida, is part of the privately held Melitta Group of Minden, Germany. Melitta USA is responsible for the sales and marketing of Melitta coffee filters, coffee, and non electric coffee systems in the USA.  Melitta USA's coffee filters are manufactured in Clearwater, Florida, and the company has a coffee roasting operation in Cherry Hill, New Jersey. The company Web site said in 2018 that it had been roasting coffee in Cherry Hill for more than 50 years.

Melitta () is a German company selling coffee, paper coffee filters, and coffee makers, part of the Melitta Group, which has branches in other countries. The company is headquartered in Minden, North Rhine-Westphalia.

Melitta je německá společnost z Mindenu, zaměřující se nejenom na výrobu a prodej kávových filtrů, nýbrž i na prodej kávy, kávovarů a automatů na kávu, založená Melittou Bentz (1873–1950) v Drážďanech roku 1908. V tomto roce byla společnost, vyrábějící původně pouze filtry na kávu, přihlášená jak u tamějšího živnostenského úřadu, tak i úspěšně zapsána u berlínského patentového úřadu.


Russian sources.

The existence of the battle is only known from Russian sources. The first source to mention the battle is the Novgorod First Chronicle from the 14th century. According to the chronicle, on receiving the news of the advancing Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish and Tavastian fleets, the 20-year-old Prince Alexander Yaroslavich of Novgorod quickly moved his small army and local men to face the enemy before they had reached Lake Ladoga. The chronicle described the battle as follows: "Swedes came with a great army, and Norwegians and Finns and Tavastians with ships in great numbers, Swedes with their prince and bishops, and they stayed on the Neva, at the mouth of the Izhora, willing to take Ladoga, and to put it short, Novgorod and all of its lands. But still protected the merciful, man-loving God us and sheltered us from the foreign people, and the word came to Novgorod that Swedes were sailing to Ladoga; but prince Alexander did not hesitate at all, but went against them with Novgorodians and people of Ladoga and overcame them with the help of Saint Sophia and through prayers of our lady, the Mother of God and Virgin Mary, 15 July, in the memory of Kirik and Ulita, on Sunday, (the same day that) the 630 holy fathers held a meeting in Chalcedon; and there was a great gathering of the Swedes; and their leader called Spiridon was killed there; but some claimed that even the bishop was slain; and a great number of them fell; and when they had loaded two ships with the bodies of high-born men, they let them sail to the sea; but the others, that were unnumbered, they cast to a pit, that they buried, and many others were wounded; and that same night they fled, without waiting for the Monday light, with shame. Of Novgorodians there fell: Konstantin Lugotinitch, Yuryata Pinyashchinich, Namest Drochilo, Nesdylov son of Kozhevnik, but including the people of Ladoga 20 men or less, God knows. But prince Alexander came back home with Novgorodians and people of Ladoga, all well, protected by God and Saint Sophia and all the prayers of the holy men."  A 16th-century version of the battle gave plenty of additional details, expanding the conflict to biblical proportions, but otherwise following the earlier described developments.  Prince Alexander Yaroslavich was nicknamed "Nevsky" (of Neva) for his first significant victory. Two years later, Alexander stalled an invasion of the Livonian Knights during the Battle on the Ice. Despite the victories, there were no Novgorodian advances further west to Finland or Estonia.

Swedish sources.

There is no reference to a battle of the Neva in Swedish sources.

Situation in Sweden.

Since the death of King John in 1222, Sweden was in a "de facto" state of civil war until 1248 when Birger Jarl managed to seize power in the kingdom. Unrest was due to the struggle between those who wanted to keep the old tribal structure, the folkung party, and the king, who was assisted by the church. Folkungs, who were mainly from Uppland, heavily resisted the centralization of power, taxation of the Swedes of Uppland, and church privileges. They had temporarily succeeded in deposing the king in 1229, but were forced to give in five years later, but were far from defeated yet. Uppland remained largely independent of the king, and its northern areas continued to be in folkung hands. An uneasy truce continued until 1247, when the folkung rebellion was put to an end at the Battle of Sparrsätra and its leader beheaded a year later.  Furthermore, the official Sweden was on the brink of war with Norway ever since the Norwegians' infamous Värmland expedition in 1225. Relations improved only after the Treaty of Lödöse in 1249, which was forged by the newly empowered Birger Jarl. Before the treaty, Norway remained an ally of the folkungs, giving them refuge and providing men and arms.  In this situation, it seems unlikely that Sweden could have been able to organize a major expedition against Novgorod. Swedes are not known to have carried out any other military campaigns between 1222 and 1249, making the claims about their forceful appearance at the Neva with Norwegians as their allies seem questionable.

Theories.

Taking these facts into consideration, it has been suggested in a recent book aimed at a wide readership, that the Swedish expedition may have been an indirect result of the papal letter in 1237 that was sent to the Swedish Archbishop of Uppsala. The letter eloquently called for a crusade, not against Novgorod, but against Tavastians in Finland, who had allegedly started hostilities against the church. In his defunct position, the king may not have been willing or able to act, but the letter may have provided the frustrated folkungs an opportunity to regain part of their Viking Age glory. Mostly free to act without interference from the king, folkungs would have been able to raise an army of their own, get volunteers from Norway and even assistance from Thomas, the independent Bishop of Finland, who needed to constantly worry about attacks from the east. Instead of Tavastia, this mixed set of interests and nationalities would have headed for the more lucrative Neva and there met its fate at the hands of Alexander. In the possible aftermath of the said battle, the King of Norway approached his Swedish counterpart for peace talks in 1241, but was turned down at the time.  However, some recent research has fundamentally questioned the importance of the battle, seeing it as an ordinary border skirmish that was exaggerated for political purposes, thus also explaining its absence from Swedish and other western sources.  Additional theories are numerous. Some historians have suggested that the Swedish army was already under the command of the very young Birger Jarl, eight years before his appointment to the position of jarl. It has also been suggested that the suspicious information on Norwegians', Finns' and Tavastians' participation was made up in the 14th century, the time of writing of the First Novgorod Chronicle, when Sweden was in control of Norway, Finland and Tavastia.

Consequences.

All in all, the first known Swedish military expedition against Novgorod after the events at the Neva took place in 1256, following folkungs' demise, peace with Norway and conquest of Finland. If the battle of the Neva had any long-term consequences, it was in Sweden's determination to take over Finland first before attempting to proceed further east.

The Battle of the Neva (, "Nevskaya bitva",, Finnish: "Nevan taistelu") was fought between the Novgorod Republic and Karelians against Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish and Tavastian armies on the Neva River, near the settlement of Ust-Izhora, on 15 July 1240.

Bitva na Něvě, či "Něvská bitva" ( "Невская битва") se odehrála 15. července 1240 na řece Něvě v místech dnešního Sankt-Petěrburgu mezi švédskými vojsky vedenými jarl Birgerem a družinou Novgorodských pod velením knížete Alexandra Jaroslaviče, později zvaného Něvský.


Los Pumas.

Club Universidad Nacional was originally an amateur club of college students from the University's several schools and then developed into a professional team competing in the Mexican football league. It is now one of the biggest stadiums in all of Mexico. UNAM have evolved into one of the most popular Mexican teams and have gained an international following.  The team's blue and gold colors were selected as a tribute to the University of Notre Dame, whose football coaches helped to develop an American-style football team at the university. The nickname was inspired by Roberto 'Tapatio' Mendez, who coached the team from 1946–64 and whose motivational speeches often compared his players to pumas. The nickname stayed with the public, and all the athletic teams representing the University have been called Pumas.  Their home ground is the Estadio Olímpico Universitario, the setting for the 1968 Summer Olympic Games. It has a seating capacity of over 72,000. Olympic Academic Stadium is situated within the University campus which enables easy access by the University students. The Pumas have training facilities within the University campus but their main complex is the Cantera, located near the University.

History.

The dean of the University, Luis Chico Goerne, made the first attempt to affiliate a representative of UNAM to the top football Mexican championship of the day, by filing a petition to join the Liga Mayor de Fútbol Professional del Distrito Federal. The petition was rejected in favor of de Morelos.Therefore, Pumas played 13 years in Mexicos Liga De Ascenso.  By the 1940s, the dean Gustavo Baz Prada assigned the task to prepare the UNAM representative to Rodolfo "Butch" Muñoz, then player of Club España. The new manager formed its new team with members of the student body of the many schools and faculties of the university. The UNAM representative joined many university tournaments, with successful results, and "Butch" Muñoz went on to manage the team for 13 years. This prepared the team to complete their later transition to professional status.

Establishment: 1950s.

In August 1954, the Club Universidad was accepted as a member of the Segunda División, in those days the second tier division of professional football in Mexico. This achievement was accomplished with the support of the dean Nabor Carrillo and Guillermo Aguilar Alvarez Sr., a benefactor of the club. Aguilar Alvarez was appointed by the dean as the chairman of the club.  On September 12, 1954 UNAM played its first professional game, an away match against Monterrey. After competing for three years, Club Universidad requested a one-year moratorium in its competing in Segunda División play to undergo a programme rebuilding process. Within that year, Hector Ortiz was appointed as the new manager of the club, and a Board of Patrons was formed.

The promotion: 1960s.

UNAM realized its objective of promotion from Segunda División to Primera División when Club Universidad won the home-played promotion match on January 9, 1962 by defeating Club Cataluña de Torreón, 9–1. The match ended, the students rushed the pitch, and honored its team by carrying them off the field on their shoulders—this was the first step towards the consolidation of the club.  The following day, dean Ignacio Chávez Sánchez congratulated the team when he met with them: Octavio Vial (manager), and players: Homero Villar, Raúl Chanes, José Antonio "La Espátula" Rodríguez, Rafael Ramirez Jimenez, Alfredo Echávarri, José Ruiz, Carlos Gutierrez, Alfredo "Tito" Zenteno, José Luis "El Chango" Ledezma, Antonio Sámano, Jorge Gaitán, Guillermo Vázquez Sr., José Luis González "La Calaca", Lorenzo Garcia, Carlos Calderón de la Barca, Manuel "Manolo" Rodríguez, Edmundo "El Poli" Pérez, and Gustavo "El Gato" Cuenca.  The team established itself in the Primera División, the Board of Patrons prepared for the continuation of the team's success by establishing youth system to develop new players.

The legend begins: 1970s.

After two years under the management of Alfonso "El Pescado" Portugal, the Spaniard Ángel Zubieta took the reins of the team. This enabled the program to identify "foreign" reinforcements, but rely on promoting from the youth system.  The first half of the decade was marked by the arrival of three of the most important foreign players in the existence of the club; the Peruvian Juan José Muñante, the Serbian Velibor "Bora" Milutinović, and the Brazilian Cabinho. They arrived to join a solid base of native-players such as Miguel Mejía Barón, Héctor Sanabria, Arturo Vázquez Ayala, José Luis "Pareja" López, and Leonardo Cuellar. In the second half of the decade those same players would give the club its first titles in the top division.  In 1975 the club adopted a new administration consisting of an independent civil association that helped the University to support the club. In the 1974–75 season, Universidad won the Copa México and the Campeón de Campeones. In the 1976–77 season, Club Universidad became league champion for the first time in its history. That championship was followed by two sub championships. The culmination of a successful decade for Club Universidad came with the debut of Hugo Sánchez.

Consolidation: 1980s.

In the 1980–81 season, Universidad won its second league championship. That season was also the last season Hugo Sánchez played for the club. In the following season, the Pumas won the CONCACAF Championship and the Interamerican Cup.  This decade also marked the national recognition of the work performed by the club, and the revolutionary and dynamic style of play that helped Mexican football overall. For the 1986 FIFA World Cup, the Mexican Football Federation appointed the manager of Universidad, Velibor "Bora" Milutinović as the manager of the Mexico national football team. Milutinović called numerous Pumas and former Pumas to the nation team, including Hugo Sánchez, Félix Cruz Barbosa, Rafael Amador, Raúl Servín, Miguel España, Manuel Negrete and Luis Flores. This generation of players gave great satisfactions not only to the followers of Pumas, but also to the Mexican football fans.

Ups and downs: 1990s.

This decade began with one of the most celebrated championships in club history, the 1990–91 League Championship against arch-rivals Club América. A new generation of players arrived, including Luis García, Jorge Campos, Claudio Suárez, Antonio Sancho, Israel López, Braulio Luna, Rafael García, Jaime Lozano, and Gerardo Torrado. This decade is, however, considered as one of the least successful in terms of championships and development of players. Towards the end of the decade, Hugo Sánchez became manager of the club for the first time.

Success: 2000s.

In 2004, Sánchez led the Pumas to their first championship in thirteen years. The Pumas were able to retain the championship later that year, becoming the first team since the Mexican league was split into two seasons to win back-to-back championships. As of summer 2012, they remain the only team to achieve this feat. Along with two domestic titles, the Pumas were also able to win both the Campeon de Campeones.  In 2005, the Pumas reached the Copa Sudamericana final, where they lost to Boca Juniors in a penalty shoot out when Roberto Abbondanzieri controversially stopped a penalty after having been forgiven a red card for handling the ball outside the penalty box denying a Pumas player a clear chance on goal. Domestically, the Pumas struggled after their 2004 success and, by 2006, were facing the threat of relegation. Ricardo Ferretti was appointed as manager that year in an effort to lead Pumas away from the relegation zone. The stability and discipline that Ferretti brought to the team paid off as the Pumas climbed out of the relegation zone and reached a final in 2007 against Atlante, which they lost 2–1 on aggregate. In 2009, Ferretti once again led the Pumas to a final, this time being victorious against Pachuca in extra time to claim the team's sixth championship.

Rejuvenating the Club:2010s.

In 2011, Pumas became champions of Clausura 2011 tournament, winning their seventh championship against Monarcas Morelia.  After hard times at the club after the sacking of Guillermo Vasquez as head coach in 2012, he was re-hired as head coach in 2014. In Apertura 2015, Pumas made it to the tournament final against Tigres U.A.N.L. Tigres won the first leg of the Final with a home win of 3-0. Then in the second leg of the final Pumas managed to tie the game on the global scoreboard at home 4-1. A penalty-shootout had to be done and Tigres won the championship 4-2 at a penalty-shootout. Thus, making Pumas unable to gain its 8th title. After the club's inability to make it to the play-offs in Clausura 2016 and failing to reach the semifinal for Copa Libertadores 2016 Guillermo Vasquez was once again sacked as head coach on May 2016.  At the end of May 2016, Pumas hired Francisco Palencia as head coach making Palencia debut as his first team to manage. Once again, in Apertura 2016 Pumas made it to the play-offs against Tigres for quarter finals. In the first leg with Pumas hosting the home game both teams tied 2-2. In the second leg Tigres hosting the home game, Tigres won 5-0. Thus, in the global scoreboard Pumas lost 7-2, and was not able to go further throughout the play-off stage.  In the Clausura 2017, Pumas had signed the Chilean forward Nicolas Castillo in order to give more ability in the offensive part of the team. He conceived 8 goals the first 2 months of the season before he was injured and was out for the rest of the season. Pumas was having a great streak of games the first half of the season. Starting gaming Game 14 they lost 4 straight games and were not able to score a goal. With these results they finished in 17th place and were the worst defensive team having 30 goals against and Nicolas Castillo missing his top scorer championship by 1 goal by Raul Ruidiaz, player of Monarcas Morelia who made 9 goals.  In the Apertura 2017, many key players were sold or loaned out the loan, such as Alejandro Palacios, and long time captain Dario Veron, all with the purpose to make room for new, young players.

Rivalries.

Universidad has strong rivalries with América and Cruz Azul. These games are passionate and followed by the whole city. There is also a more recent rivalry with Guadalajara.

Clásico Capitalino.

The rivalry with América, compared to the others, is quite old and began during the 1960s, when Universidad won its promotion. The mere fact that both clubs are located in Mexico City generated the right atmosphere to see a rivalry born and grow. A few years later América bought UNAM idol Enrique Borja, even though the player had made a public statement that he did not want to be sold to América. In the 1980s the rivalry grew when América defeated Universidad twice in the league finals, both times with controversial refereeing decisions. The 1990s began with a "victory" of the Pumas over their rivals in the league finals, although it was actually a tie; the first leg was lost 3–2, and only the second leg was a 1–0 win. The aggregate score was 3–3, but UNAM scored two goals as the visiting team, giving them the edge. A new generation of players from the youth system grew up hating their adversaries; this decade is also marked by the birth of Las Barras Bravas, who supported both sides but had a much longer background story of rivalry. This rivalry is often referred to as the most violent of Mexico, with security measures exceeding those of any other game.

UNAM vs. Cruz Azul.

The rivalry with Cruz Azul comes out of the fact that both clubs are located in Mexico City, and they have played many important matches, including two league finals.

Clásico Universitario.

The only major encounter these two clubs have had with each other was in the 1977 final. UNAM beat Leones Negros to achieve their first title.

UNAM vs. Guadalajara.

In recent years, Pumas and Guadalajara have increased their rivalry. Most of it is due to the 2004 Final; Pumas vs Guadalajara. Also UNAM went 36 years without winning an away match against Guadalajara. Many people have started calling this fixture a clasico.  On October 6, 2018, Pumas faced Guadalajara away in Liga MX. They had won this fixture ten days earlier in the Copa MX Round of 16 by a score of 3-1, though many considered the winless streak still unbroken because it did not occur in Liga MX play. Guadalajara quickly took the lead, Isaác Brizuela opening the scoring. However Guadalajara had little time to celebrate, as Pumas tied the game shortly thereafter. The score remained 1-1 until the 66th minute, when Felipe Mora scored on a header to give Pumas the lead. Pumas then saw out the 2-1 win, officially ending the 36-year record of not winning against Guadalajara in an away match in the Liga MX.

Players.

First-team squad.

References.

Club de Fútbol Universidad Nacional A.C., commonly known as Pumas de la UNAM, Pumas UNAM, UNAM, or Pumas, is a Mexican league football club based in Ciudad Universitaria in Mexico City. Club Universidad Nacional represent the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and play their home matches at Estadio Olímpico Universitario, located on UNAM's main campus.

Club Universidad Nacional je fotbalový klub ze Ciudad de México, reprezentující Mexickou národní autonomní univerzitu, největší vysokou školu v zemi. Je znám také pod názvy "Pumas" (podle svého maskota pumy) nebo UNAM (zkratka španělského názvu Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México). Domácí zápasy hraje na olympijském stadionu pro 68 954 diváků. Klubové barvy jsou zlatá a modrá.


History.

The original settler name "Heneagua" was derived from a Spanish expression meaning 'water is to be found there'. Two names of apparent Lucayan origin, "Inagua" (meaning "Small Eastern Island") and "Baneque" (meaning "Big Water Island"), were used by the Spanish to refer to Great Inagua.  Between the years of 1500 and 1825, many documented treasure laden ships were destroyed on Inaguan reefs. The two most valuable wrecks lost off the Inaguas were treasure-laden Spanish galleons: the "Santa Rosa" in 1599; and the "Infanta" in 1788. Other ships of considerable value that were wrecked there include the French "Le Count De Paix" in 1713, the British HMS "Lowestoffe" in 1801, and the British HMS "Statira" in 1815.  As early as the 1600s, salt was being produced and shipped to Spanish colonies, and its extraction was a going business by 1803.  Henri Christophe, king of northern Haiti from 1811 to 1820, built a summer retreat at the Northeast Point of Great Inagua. Local legend has it that he also buried a cache of gold there.  By 1918, after the end of World War I, lower salt prices and competition had driven the small producers on Great Inagua out of business, and the salt works were abandoned except for incidental local use.  In 1935, the Erickson brothers from Massachusetts founded West India Chemicals Ltd., purchasing the abandoned salt works from the British government. They drilled test holes, set up offices, and began restoration of the buildings, but the locals felt threatened, fearing changes to the power structure "status quo". In August 1937, a riot broke out, an employee was killed, and the Ericksons were forced to flee. They soon returned, and full-scale development resumed.  In the mid-1950s, Morton Salt bought the Great Inagua saltworks, which includes over 80 salt ponds, now the second largest such operation in North America. Morton is the major employer on the island.

Islands.

Great Inagua.

Great Inagua is the second largest island in the Bahamas at 596 sq mi (1544 km) and lies about from the eastern tip of Cuba. The island is about in extent and mostly flat with some sand hills, the highest points being East Hill at, Salt Pond Hill at, and James Hill at. It encloses several lakes, most notably the long Lake Windsor (also called Lake Rosa) which occupies nearly a quarter of the interior. The population of Great Inagua is 913 (2010 census).  The island's capital and only harbour is Matthew Town, named after George Matthew, a 19th-century Governor of the Bahamas. This town houses the Morton Salt Company’s main facility, producing one million tonnes of sea salt a year — the second largest solar saline operation in North America and Inagua's main industry.  Great Inagua Airport (IATA: IGA, ICAO: MYIG) is located nearby.  A large bird sanctuary in the centre of the island has a population of more than 80,000 West Indian flamingoes and many other bird species, including the Bahama parrot, Inagua woodstar, Bahama pintail, brown pelican, tricolored heron, snowy egret, reddish egret, stripe-headed tanager, double-crested cormorant, Neotropic cormorant, roseate spoonbill, American kestrel, and burrowing owl. The Union Creek National Reserve is specially set aside for the study of green sea turtles ("Chelonia mydas").

Little Inagua.

The neighbouring Little Inagua, to the northeast, is uninhabited and occupied by a large Land and Sea Park. It has an area of, with herds of feral donkeys and goats (descendants of stock introduced by the French). Various species of endangered sea turtles breed on the island. Little Inagua has a large protective reef extending up to away from the island in all directions, which prevents boats from coming too close.

Inagua is the southernmost district of the Bahamas, comprising the islands of Great Inagua and Little Inagua. The headquarters for the district council are in Matthew Town.

Inagua je nejjižnější administrativní jednotka Baham. Skládá se z ostrovů Velká Inagua a Malá Inagua. K roku 2010 zde žilo 913 obyvatel. Hlavní město je Matthew Town.