Publication history.

1990s.

Created by artist/writer Rob Liefeld and writer Fabian Nicieza, Deadpool made his first appearance in the pages of "The New Mutants" #98 cover dated February 1991. According to Nicieza, Liefeld came up with the character's visual design and name, and Nicieza himself came up with the character's speech mannerisms.  Liefeld's favorite comic title before "X-Men" was "Avengers", which featured weapons like Captain America's shield, Thor's hammer and Hawkeye's bow and arrow, he decided to give weapons to his new characters as well. Liefeld, also a fan of the "Teen Titans" comics, showed his new character to then-writer Fabian Nicieza. Upon seeing the costume and noting his characteristics (killer with super agility), Nicieza contacted Liefeld, saying "this is Deathstroke from Teen Titans". Nicieza gave Deadpool the real name of "Wade Wilson" as an inside-joke to being "related" to "Slade Wilson", Deathstroke.  Other inspirations were Spider-Man and Wolverine. Liefeld states: "Wolverine and Spider-Man were the two properties I was competing with at all times. I didn't have those, I didn't have access to those. I had to make my own Spider-Man and Wolverine. That's what Cable and Deadpool were meant to be, my own Spider-Man and my own Wolverine."  Both Deadpool and Cable were also meant to be tied into Wolverine's history already from the start, as Liefeld describes: "Wolverine was my guy. If I could tie anything into Wolverine, I was winning." Like Wolverine, Deadpool is (or is thought to be) Canadian. The original story had him joining the Weapon X program after being kicked out of the U.S. Army Special Forces and given an artificial healing factor based on Wolverine's thanks to Dr. Emrys Killebrew, one of the head scientists. In his first appearance, Deadpool is hired by Tolliver to attack Cable and the New Mutants. After subsequently appearing in "X-Force" as a recurring character, Deadpool began making guest appearances in a number of different Marvel Comics titles such as "The Avengers", "Daredevil", and "Heroes for Hire". In 1993, the character received his own miniseries, titled "The Circle Chase", written by Fabian Nicieza and pencilled by Joe Madureira. It was a relative success and Deadpool starred in a second, self-titled miniseries written in 1994 by Mark Waid, pencilled by Ian Churchill, and inked by Jason Temujin Minor and Bud LaRosa. Waid later commented, "Frankly, if I'd known Deadpool was such a creep when I agreed to write the mini-series, I wouldn't have done it. Someone who hasn't paid for their crimes presents a problem for me."  In 1997, Deadpool was given his own ongoing title, initially written by Joe Kelly, with then-newcomer Ed McGuinness as an artist. "Deadpool" became an action comedy parody of the cosmic drama, antihero-heavy comics of the time. The series firmly established his supporting cast, including his prisoner/den mother Blind Al and his best friend Weasel. The ongoing series gained cult popularity for its unorthodox main character, its balance of angst and pop culture slapstick and the character became less of a villain, though the element of his moral ambiguity remained. The writer Joe Kelly noted, "With Deadpool, we could do anything we wanted because everybody just expected the book to be cancelled every five seconds, so nobody was paying attention. And we could get away with it." Reportedly Kelly introduced the fourth wall breaking gimmick.  The series was taken over by Christopher Priest who noted that he found Kelly's issues to be "complex and a little hostile to new readers like me" and that by issue 37, he realized that "it was okay to make Deadpool look stupid." Kelly may have introduced Deadpool to breaking the fourth wall, but Priest "could be credited for establishing it as an essential part of the character's personality and worldview." Priest left the series after only one year at issue #45.

2000s.

For a time, writers who followed generally ignored the fourth wall entirely, until Gail Simone took over with issue #65. Her version is remembered for the frequent use of the "little yellow boxes." "Deadpool" lasted until issue #69, at which point it was relaunched as a new title with a similar character called "Agent X" in 2002. This occurred during a line-wide revamp of X-Men related comics, with "Cable" becoming "Soldier X" and "X-Force" becoming "X-Statix". Simone notes that "When I took the Deadpool job, the revamp hadn't been planned, so it was a complete surprise. Thankfully, we heard about it in time to make adjustments to the early scripts." It appeared that Deadpool was killed in an explosion fighting the supervillain Black Swan. Deadpool's manager, Sandi Brandenberg later founded Agency X with a mysterious man called Alex Hayden, who took the name dubbed Agent X. Deadpool later returned to the series. Simone left the title after seven issues due to creative differences with the series editor, but then returned to conclude with issues 13–15.  Deadpool's next starring appearance came in 2004 with the launch of "Cable & Deadpool" written by Fabian Nicieza, where Deadpool became partnered with his former enemy, Cable, teaming up in various adventures. This title was cancelled with issue #50 and replaced by a new "Cable" series in March 2008. Deadpool then appeared briefly in the "" title by writer Daniel Way before Way and Paco Medina launched another "Deadpool" title in September 2008. Medina was the main series artist, with Carlo Barberi filling in on the first issue after the "Secret Invasion" tie-in.  A new "Deadpool" ongoing series written by Daniel Way with artist Paco Medina began as a "Secret Invasion" tie-in. In the first arc, the character is seen working with Nick Fury to steal data on how to kill the Skrull queen Veranke. Norman Osborn steals the information that Deadpool had stolen from the Skrulls, and subsequent stories deal with the fallout from that. Writer Daniel Way explained, "the first thing Osborn does to try and take care of the situation is to bring in a hired gun to take Deadpool down, which would be Tiger-Shark. That would be the standard thing to do, but of course everything about Deadpool is non-standard. So it goes completely awry and Norman has to get more serious about things." The story also sees the return of Bob, Agent of HYDRA; "I don't want the book to become 'Deadpool and Friends' so characters will drift in and out, but Bob was someone I definitely wanted to bring in. It just had to be at the perfect moment and when I was putting this storyline together that moment presented itself." This all led directly to a confrontation with the new Thunderbolts in "Magnum Opus" which crossed over between "Deadpool" vol. 2 #8–9 and "Thunderbolts" #130–131. "Thunderbolts" writer Andy Diggle said, "it's a natural progression for Deadpool to go after Norman, and for Norman to send his personal hit-squad after Deadpool." In "Deadpool" #15, Deadpool decides to become a hero resulting in conflicts with proper heroes like Spider-Man (who he had recently encountered in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #611 as part of "The Gauntlet") and leading to a 3-issue arc where he takes on Hit-Monkey, a character who debuted in the same month in a digital, then-print, one-shot.  Another ongoing Deadpool series, "Deadpool: Merc with a Mouth" launched in July 2009, written by Victor Gischler, with art by Bong Dazo. In it Deadpool teams with Headpool from "Marvel Zombies 3" and "4".  A special anniversary issue titled "Deadpool" #900 was released in October 2009. It features stories written by several authors, with the main feature written by the original "Deadpool" series writer Joe Kelly and drawn by Deadpool's creator Rob Liefeld. A third Deadpool ongoing series, "Deadpool Team-Up", launched in November 2009 (with issue numbers counting in reverse starting with issue #899), written by Fred Van Lente, with art by Dalibor Talajic. This series features Deadpool teaming up with different heroes from the Marvel Universe in each issue, such as Hercules. Deadpool also joined the cast of the new "Uncanny X-Force" team.

2010s.

Another Deadpool series by Gischler titled "Deadpool Corps" was released in April 2010. Besides Deadpool himself, this series featured alternate versions of Deadpool, including Lady Deadpool (who debuted in "Deadpool: Merc with a Mouth" #7), Headpool (the "Marvel Zombies" universe incarnation, now reduced to a severed head), and two new characters; Kidpool, a child, and Dogpool, a dog. The series lasted twelve issues.  Marvel also published "Deadpool" titles through the Marvel Knights and MAX imprints: "Deadpool: Wade Wilson's War", by Duane Swierczynski and Jason Pearson, and "Deadpool MAX" by David Lapham and Kyle Baker.  Deadpool (vol. 2) was written by Daniel Way and drawn by Alé Garza. In the story arc "DEAD", Wade is "cured" of his healing ability and becomes mortal. As a side effect, he also has his old, unscarred face once again. Although he spent the majority of the story arc looking forward to dying, he suppresses his desires in order to protect his friend and sidekick Hydra Bob.  After he loses his healing factor, Wilson claims he felt "more alive than ever." However, after a harsh beating from Intelligencia, Wade realized that he had let his ability to heal compensate for skill so he decided to ask for help from Taskmaster in training. Taskmaster asked Wilson to help him steal Pym Particles from S.H.I.E.L.D., but actually, he allowed Black Box to study Wade in order to prepare his vengeance against Wilson, even letting him know Deadpool lost his healing factor.  Wade managed to defeat Black Box, Black Tom and Black Swan, but in the process, his face was burned and disfigured again. Former FBI agent Allison Kemp wanted to get revenge on Deadpool because of his involvement in an accident which left her in a wheelchair, and she called other enemies of Deadpool such as T-Ray and Slayback and trained them to kill Deadpool. Deadpool infiltrated their base and managed to get T-Ray and Slayback killed when Kemp was about to kill herself in an explosion which would kill Wade in the process, he convinced her not to attack him. At that moment, he was surprised by the returned Evil Deadpool, who informed Wade that the serum they took was not permanent, the reason why Wade's face didn't heal or a finger he lost grew back, so Wade would return after Evil Deadpool shot him. Daniel Way's Deadpool series concluded with issue 63.  As part of Marvel's Marvel NOW! initiative a new "Deadpool" ongoing series was launched, written by Brian Posehn and Gerry Duggan and illustrated by Tony Moore. He is also a member of the Thunderbolts. In the 27th issue of his new series, as part of "All-New Marvel NOW!", Deadpool was married for the third time. Initially a secret, his bride was revealed in the webcomic "Deadpool: The Gauntlet" to be Shiklah, Queen of the Undead. Deadpool also discovers that he has a daughter by the name of Eleanor from a former flame of Deadpool named Carmelita.  During the events of "Original Sin", it was revealed that Deadpool was tricked into killing his parents by a scientist known as Butler (who abducted Eleanor and gave her to his brother), however Deadpool does not know about it.  Much later, he clashed with Carnage, believing the universe was telling the latter to defeat him. After several fights and getting torn to pieces, Deadpool bonds with four symbiotes: Riot, Phage, Lasher and Agony. Playing mind games, Deadpool tricked Shriek by using his shapeshifting abilities to make her disoriented and having her flee. After the symbiotic Deadpool and Carnage fought again, Deadpool captures Shriek and forces her to impersonate himself, making it trick Carnage into almost killing her in the process. Feeling broken after a mental breakdown, Carnage allowed himself to be arrested and was placed in an unlocked cell. While sitting in the cell until he was his own self, Carnage swore vengeance on Deadpool. Deadpool, after defeating Carnage, gives the four symbiotes to a war dog who helped Deadpool fight Carnage to deliver them to the government.  During the "AXIS" storyline, Deadpool appears as a member of Magneto's unnamed supervillain group during the fight against Red Skull's Red Onslaught form. The group of villains becomes inverted to heroes, after a spell cast by Scarlet Witch and Doctor Doom. This group was later named the Astonishing Avengers. This Deadpool, referred to as "Zenpool" was pivotal in turning Apocalypse to fighting the Inverted Avengers.  Deadpool's death occurs in "Deadpool" #250, involving story ideas that cowriters Gerry Duggan and Brian Posehn have had in mind since the beginning of the NOW series. Issue #250 was technically issue #45, but was so named as it was the cumulative 250th issue of the character's solo series. Deadpool faces off in a final showdown with ULTIMATUM and Flag-Smasher, killing all of them, and gives up the "Deadpool" identity, wishing to have a better life. He, along with his family and friends, ("and presumably everyone on Earth") are all killed when the Earth collides with an alternate universe's Earth. Deadpool laments that the Secret Wars should have stayed an Avengers event, but then dies at peace, content that everybody else is dying with him.

All New, All Different Marvel.

Eight months after the events of "Secret Wars" and the restoration of Earth, Deadpool is seen working for Steve Rogers. After stealing some potentially life-saving chemicals needed by an ailing Rogue, he is offered membership in the Avengers Unity Squad.  In the course of the following months, Deadpool's popularity skyrocketed after the mercenary Solo impersonated him to piggyback on Deadpool's reputation and take jobs at a higher pay rate. One of Solo's jobs in Washington, D.C. had Deadpool's public opinion drastically change for the better when he saved an ambassador from his telepathically-manipulated agents. After learning of Solo's impersonation, Deadpool came up with the idea to form a group of mercenaries called the Mercs for Money to extend his reach across the globe. However, Deadpool's newfound popularity forced him to leave his family behind, fearing his enemies could endanger them. Deadpool additionally joined the Avengers Unity Division and used his popularity as a means of funding the team, with the profit from merchandise.  Madcap additionally returned to Deadpool's life, though Wade was unaware his experience inside his mind left Madcap emotionally damaged and vengeful. Madcap initially posed as an ally, joining the Mercs for Money, but eventually showed his true intentions after he was discovered impersonating Deadpool to defame and threaten his loved ones. Seeing as he had had enough fun, Madcap used an alien weapon to molecularly disintegrate himself. For his second coming, the villain had Deadpool unwittingly become the carrier of a deadly airborne virus with which he infected his family. Wade found a cure, though had to resort to Cable's evil clone Stryfe to find it. Around this time, tensions between Shiklah's domain and the surface word sparked an invasion of Manhattan from Monster Metropolis, which in turn led to Shiklah divorcing Deadpool, opting to return to Dracula instead.  Not long after Wade joined the Avengers Unity Division, the real Steve Rogers was secretly supplanted by an evil fascist counterpart from another timeline that operated as a Hydra sleeper agent within the superhero community. When Phil Coulson became suspicious of Steve, Rogers convinced Deadpool to kill him, claiming that Coulson had gone rogue. A short time afterwards, Captain America's machinations resulted in Hydra rising to power, taking over the United States of America. When Hydra's conquest had barely begun, Preston found out about Coulson's death, and confronted Deadpool about it. The fight ended in Preston's death. As Hydra's empire grew stronger, Wade joined its own version of the Avengers out of blind loyalty for Captain America. Plagued by guilt, Wade held back when tasked with hunting down the rebel alliance known as the Underground, and eventually helped, behind the scenes, to lay part of the foundation of Hydra's eventual defeat. With his mistakes costing the lives of two of his friends, the love of his daughter, and any respect the world had for him, Deadpool turned his back on what little remained of the life he had built.

Characterization.

Personality.

Deadpool is aware that he is a fictional comic book character. He commonly breaks the fourth wall, which is done by few other characters in the Marvel Universe, and this is used to humorous effect. He often has conversations with his two internal monologues, which are shown as caption boxes in his panels; in "Deadpool Annual" #1 (2014) it is revealed that Madcap, a foe of Captain America, is the psychotic voice appearing in white captions with a typewriter serif; the other voice is unidentified and often mistakenly attributed to Dr. Bong, Deadpool's former psychiatrist.  The character's back-story has been presented as vague and subject to change, and within the narrative he is unable to remember his personal history due to a mental condition. Whether or not his name was even Wade Wilson is subject to speculation since one of his nemeses, T-Ray, claims in "Deadpool" #33 that he is the real Wade Wilson and that Deadpool is a vicious murderer who stole his identity. There have been other dubious stories about his history—at one point the supervillain Loki claimed to be his father. Frequently, revelations are later retconned or ignored altogether, and in one issue, Deadpool himself joked that whether or not he is actually Wade Wilson depends on which writer the reader prefers.  Deadpool is depicted as having a regenerative healing factor, which not only prevents him from being permanently injured through enhanced cell regeneration throughout his body, but also causes psychosis and mental instability, as his neurons are also affected by the accelerated regeneration. It is thought that while his psychosis is a handicap, it is also one of his assets as they make him an extremely unpredictable opponent. Taskmaster, who has photo-reflexive memory which allows him to copy anyone's fighting skills by observation, was unable to defeat Deadpool due to his chaotic and improvised fighting style. Taskmaster has also stated that Deadpool is an expert at distracting his opponents.  Deadpool has sometimes been portrayed to have a strong sense of core morality. In "Uncanny X-Force", he storms out after Wolverine tries to rationalize Fantomex killing Apocalypse, who was at the time in a child form. After Wolverine argues that Deadpool is motivated solely by money, Archangel reveals that Deadpool never cashed any of his checks.

Sexual orientation.

In December 2013, Deadpool was confirmed as being pansexual by "Deadpool" writer Gerry Duggan via Twitter. When asked about Deadpool's sexuality, co-creator Fabian Nicieza stated, "Deadpool is whatever sexual inclination his brain tells him he is in THAT moment. And then the moment passes." Nicieza has also stated,  Not trying to be dismissive, but readers always want to'make a character their own' and often that is to the exclusion of what the character might mean to other fans. I've been dogged with the DP sexuality questions for YEARS. It is a bit tiring. He is NO sex and ALL sexes. He is yours and everyone else's. So not dismissive, but rather the epitome of inclusive.

Powers and abilities.

Deadpool's primary power is an accelerated healing factor, depicted by various writers at differing levels of efficiency. The speed of his healing factor depends on the severity of the wound and Deadpool's mental state. It works most efficiently when he is awake, alert, and in good spirits. Deadpool's accelerated healing factor is strong enough that he has survived complete incineration and decapitation more than once. Although his head normally has to be reunited with his body to heal a decapitation wound, he was able to regrow his head after having it pulverized by the Hulk in the graphic novel "Deadpool Kills the Marvel Universe".  Deadpool's brain cells are similarly affected, with dying neurons being rejuvenated at a super accelerated rate. This allows Deadpool to recover from any head wounds, and it renders him nearly invulnerable to psychic and telepathic powers, although this ability is inconsistent. It has been revealed that at the time his healing ability was given to him, Deadpool suffered from some form of cancer; after the healing factor was given to him, it made his normal cells as well as his cancerous cells unable to die, giving him a heavily scarred appearance beneath his suit.  Deadpool's body is highly resistant to most drugs and toxins, due to his accelerated healing factor. For example, it is extremely difficult for him to become intoxicated. He can be affected by certain drugs, such as tranquilizers if he is exposed to a large enough dosage. Unlike Wolverine, whose wounds sometimes cause excruciating pain as they heal depending on the severity, Deadpool has some degree of pain insensitivity.  Deadpool is effectively immortal, although he has died several times. He is still alive 800 years in the future when the new X-Force encounters him. In addition, Thanos once declared that Deadpool should "consider yourself cursed... with life!" out of jealousy over Deadpool's status as Death's love interest. His enemy T-Ray later resurrected him, under Thanos' instruction, using an artifact he had given him. Later, Deadpool was informed that Thanos had placed a curse on him, and tracked Thanos down. He revealed that the only thing keeping Wade alive was his "spell of darkest necromancy". Although Thanos removed this curse in order to kill Deadpool, he felt forced to immediately bring him back using "a fusion of necromancy and science" in order to request his aid in tracking down Mistress Death, who had gone missing.  Deadpool is a highly trained assassin and mercenary. He is adept in multiple forms of martial arts, including Savate. Deadpool is an extraordinary athlete, and an expert swordsman and marksman. He is skilled in the use of multiple weapons, including katanas, knives, grenades, and guns. His accelerated healing factor may contribute to his abilities, allowing him to perform intense exercise for extended periods of time with minimal aches and fatigue. Although in earlier years he was originally portrayed as having superhuman strength, he is no longer depicted as having this ability.  Over the years, Deadpool has owned a number of personal teleportation devices. Also, during Deadpool's first ongoing comic, he possesses a device which projected holographic disguises, allowing him to go undercover or conceal his appearance. Deadpool is multilingual, with the ability to speak fluently in German, Spanish, ASL, and Japanese, in addition to his native English.  Since Deadpool is aware that he is a fictional character, he uses this knowledge to his advantage to deal with opponents or gain knowledge to which he should not normally have access, such as reading past issues of his and others' comics. For example, Deadpool knows he has a Wikipedia article and hopes his fans keep his page updated.

Other versions.

As a fictional character, Deadpool has appeared in various adaptations, from comic books to films and television series. Each version of the work typically establishes its own continuity, and sometimes introduces parallel universes, to the point where distinct differences in the portrayal of the character can be identified.

Reception.

Deadpool was ranked 182nd on "Wizard" magazine's list of the Top 200 Comic Book Characters of All Time, ranked 45th on "Empire" magazine's list of The 50 Greatest Comic Book Characters, and placed 31st on IGN's list of the Top 100 Comic Book Heroes. DC Rebirth has given Harley Quinn a stalker/friend named Wayne Wilkins AKA "Red Tool", who is a direct parody of Deadpool.

In other media.

Film.

Animation.

Deadpool appears in the animated film "Hulk Vs Wolverine", voiced by Nolan North. Deadpool acts as one of Professor Thorton's military strike team Team X's members (Lady Deathstrike, Omega Red, and Sabretooth) in the Weapon X program, seeking to capture Wolverine and the Hulk in order to brainwash them and convert them into the ultimate weapons. He frequently annoys his teammates with his wisecracks.

Deadpool (Wade Winston Wilson) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Fabian Nicieza and artist/writer Rob Liefeld, the character first appeared in "The New Mutants" #98 (cover-dated February 1991). Initially Deadpool was depicted as a supervillain when he made his first appearance in "The New Mutants" and later in issues of "X-Force", but later evolved into his more recognizable antiheroic persona. Deadpool, whose real name is Wade Wilson, is a disfigured mercenary with the superhuman ability of an accelerated healing factor and physical prowess. The character is known as the "Merc with a Mouth" because of his tendency to talk and joke constantly, including breaking the fourth wall for humorous effect and running gags.

Deadpool je fiktivní komiksová postava vydavatelství Marvel Comics. Poprvé se objevil v sešitu "The New Mutants" #98 (únor 1991) z rukou kreslíře Roba Liefelda a scenáristy Fabiana Niciezy. Při svém prvním objevení byl padouchem, ale postupně se přerodil v antihrdinu. Deadpool je fyzicky znetvořený a psychicky nestabilní žoldák s nadlidskými schopnostmi, například v podobě urychlení uzdravování vlastních zranění. Pro svou upovídanost a tendenci prolamovat čtvrtou stěnu je často přezdívaný „Držkatý žoldák“ („Merc with a Mouth“).


History of vernalization research.

In the history of agriculture, farmers observed a traditional distinction between "winter cereals", whose seeds require chilling (to trigger their subsequent emergence and growth), and "spring cereals", whose seeds can be sown in spring, and germinate, and then flower soon thereafter. Scientists in the early 19th century had discussed how some plants needed cold temperatures to flower. In 1857 an American agriculturist John Hancock Klippart, Secretary of the Ohio Board of Agriculture, reported the importance and effect of winter temperature on the germination of wheat. One of the most significant works was by a German plant physiologist Gustav Gassner who made a detailed discussion in his 1918 paper. Gassner was the first to systematically differentiate the specific requirements of winter plants from those of summer plants, and also that early swollen germinating seeds of winter cereals are sensitive to cold.  In 1928 the Russian agronomist Trofim Lysenko published his works on the effects of cold on cereal seeds, and coined the term "яровизация" ("jarovization") to describe a chilling process he used to make the seeds of winter cereals behave like spring cereals ("Jarovoe" in Russian, originally from "jar" meaning fire or the god of spring). Lysenko himself translated the term into "vernalization" (from the Latin "vernum" meaning Spring). After Lysenko the term was used to explain the ability of flowering in some plants after a period of chilling due to physiological changes and external factors. The formal definition was given in 1960 by a French botanist P. Chouard, as "the acquisition or acceleration of the ability to flower by a chilling treatment".  Lysenko's 1928 paper on vernalization and plant physiology drew wide attention due to its practical consequences for Russian agriculture. Severe cold and lack of winter snow had destroyed many early winter wheat seedlings. By treating wheat seeds with moisture as well as cold, Lysenko induced them to bear a crop when planted in spring. Later however, Lysenko inaccurately asserted that the vernalized state could be inherited, i.e. the offspring of a vernalized plant would behave as if they themselves had also been vernalized and would not require vernalization in order to flower quickly.  Early research on vernalization focused on plant physiology; the increasing availability of molecular biology has made it possible to unravel its underlying mechanisms. For example, a lengthening daylight period (longer days), "as well as" cold temperatures are required for winter wheat plants to go from the vegetative to the reproductive state; the three interacting genes are called "VRN1", "VRN2", and "FT" ("VRN3").

In "Arabidopsis thaliana".

"Arabidopsis thaliana" ("thale cress") is a much-studied model for vernalization. Some ecotypes (varieties), called "winter annuals", have delayed flowering without vernalization; others ("summer annuals") do not. The genes that underlie this difference in plant physiology have been intensively studied.  The reproductive phase change of "A. thaliana" occurs by a sequence of two related events: first, the bolting transition (flower stalk elongates), then the floral transition (first flower appears). Bolting is a robust predictor of flower formation, and hence a good indicator for vernalization research.  In winter annual "Arabidopsis", vernalization of the meristem appears to confer competence to respond to floral inductive signals. A vernalized meristem retains competence for as long as 300 days in the absence of an inductive signal.  At the molecular level, flowering is repressed by the protein "Flowering Locus C" ("FLC"), which binds to and represses genes that promote flowering, thus blocking flowering. Winter annual ecotypes of Arabidopsis have an active copy of the gene "FRIGIDA" ("FRI"), which promotes "FLC" expression, thus repression of flowering. Prolonged exposure to cold (vernalization) induces expression of "VERNALIZATION INSENSTIVE3", which interacts with the "VERNALIZATION2" ("VRN2") polycomb-like complex to reduce "FLC" expression through chromatin remodeling. Levels of VRN2 protein increase during long-term cold exposure as a result of inhibition of VRN2 turnover via its N-degron. The events of histone deacetylation at Lysine 9 and 14 followed by methylation at Lys 9 and 27 is associated with the vernalization response. The epigenetic silencing of "FLC" by chromatin remodeling is also thought to involve the cold-induced expression of antisense "FLC COOLAIR" or "COLDAIR" transcripts. Vernalization is registered by the plant by the stable silencing of individual "FLC" loci. The removal of silent chromatin marks at "FLC" during embryogenesis prevents the inheritance of the vernalized state.  Since vernalization also occurs in "flc" mutants (lacking "FLC"), vernalization must also activate a non-"FLC" pathway. A day-length mechanism is also important. Vernalization response works in concert with the photo-periodic genes CO, FT, PHYA, CRY2 to induce flowering.

Devernalization.

It is possible to devernalize a plant by exposure to sometimes low and high temperatures subsequent to vernalization. For example, commercial onion growers store sets at low temperatures, but devernalize them before planting, because they want the plant's energy to go into enlarging its bulb (underground stem), not making flowers.

Vernalization (from Latin "vernus", "of the spring") is the induction of a plant's flowering process by exposure to the prolonged cold of winter, or by an artificial equivalent. After vernalization, plants have acquired the ability to flower, but they may require additional seasonal cues or weeks of growth before they will actually flower. This is sometimes used to refer to herbal (non-woody) plants requiring a cold dormancy to produce new shoots and leaves but this usage is discouraged.

Jarovizace neboli vernalizace je proces v individuálním vývojovém koloběhu rostlin, kdy se semena či cibule vystaví přesně stanovené teplotě po určitou dobu. V důsledku teplotní změny se vyvolá změna fyziologická, nakvétání.


Description.

Azhdarchids are characterized by their long legs and extremely long necks, made up of elongated neck vertebrae which are round in cross section. Most species of azhdarchids are still known mainly from their distinctive neck bones and not much else. The few azhdarchids that are known from reasonably good skeletons include "Zhejiangopterus" and "Quetzalcoatlus". Azhdarchids are also distinguished by their relatively large heads and long, spear-like jaws. There are two major types of azhdarchid morphologies: the "blunt-beaked" forms with shorter and deeper bills and the "slender-beaked" forms with longer and thinner jaws.  It had been suggested azhdarchids were skimmers, but further research has cast doubt on this idea, demonstrating that azhdarchids lacked the necessary adaptations for a skim-feeding lifestyle, and that they may have led a more terrestrial existence similar to modern storks and ground hornbills. Most large azhdarchids probably fed on small prey, including hatchling and small dinosaurs; in an unusual modification of the azhdarchid bauplan, the unusually robust "Hatzegopteryx" may have tackled larger prey as the apex predator in its ecosystem. In another departure from typical azhdarchid lifestyles, the jaw of "Alanqa" may possibly be an adaptation to crushing shellfish and other hard foodstuffs.  Azhdarchids are generally medium- to large-sized pterosaurs, with the largest achieving wingspans of, but several small-sized species have recently been discovered. Another azhdarchid that is currently unnamed, recently discovered in Transylvania, may be the largest representative of the family thus far discovered. This unnamed specimen (nicknamed "Dracula" by paleontologists), currently on display in the Altmühltal Dinosaur Museum in Bavaria is estimated to have a wingspan of, although similarities to the contemporary azhdarchid "Hatzegopteryx" have also been noted.

Systematics.

Azhdarchids were originally classified as close relatives of "Pteranodon" due to their long, toothless beaks. Others have suggested they were more closely related to the toothy ctenochasmatids (which include filter-feeders like "Ctenochasma" and "Pterodaustro"). Currently it is widely agreed that azhdarchids were closely related to pterosaurs such as "Tupuxuara" and "Tapejara".

Taxonomy.

Classification after Unwin 2006, except where noted.

Azhdarchidae (from the Persian word "azhdar" (), a dragon-like creature in Persian mythology) is a family of pterosaurs known primarily from the late Cretaceous Period, though an isolated vertebra apparently from an azhdarchid is known from the early Cretaceous as well (late Berriasian age, about 140 million years ago). Azhdarchids included some of the largest-known flying animals of all time, but members no larger than a cat have also been found. Originally considered a sub-family of Pteranodontidae, Nesov (1984) named the azhdarchinae to include the pterosaurs "Azhdarcho", "Quetzalcoatlus", and "Titanopteryx" (now known as "Arambourgiania"). They were among the last known surviving members of the pterosaurs, and were a rather successful group with a worldwide distribution. By the time of the end-Cretaceous mass extinction, most pterosaur families except for the Azhdarchidae disappear from the fossil record, but recent studies indicate a wealth in pterosaurian faunas, including pteranodontids, nyctosaurids, tapejarids and several indeterminate forms. Some taxa like "Navajodactylus", "Bakonydraco" and "Montanazhdarcho" were moved from Azhdarchidae to other clades.

Azhdarchidae (podle slova "Ajdarxo", názvu mytologického draka z uzbeckých dějin) je čeledí ptakoještěrů z podřádu pterodaktyloidů. Patří sem také největší známí pterosauři, a tím i létající živočichové vůbec, například rody "Arambourgiania", "Hatzegopteryx" nebo "Quetzalcoatlus" s rozpětím křídel až kolem 12 metrů.


Geography.

The historic centre of the town is to the east and south of the rivers Rednitz and Pegnitz, which join to form the Regnitz to the northwest of the Old Town. To the west of the town, on the far side of the Main-Danube Canal, is the Fürth municipal forest ("Fürther Stadtwald"). To the east of Fürth, at roughly the same latitude, lies Nuremberg, and to the north is the fertile market-gardening area known as the "Knoblauchsland" (garlic country), some of which is within the borders of the urban district of Fürth. To the south of the town is an area consisting of wide roads, the canal, and meadows.

Neighbouring municipalities.

The following towns and municipalities share borders with Fürth; they are listed in clockwise order, starting in the north:  Erlangen and Nuremberg, which are independent urban districts; Stein, Oberasbach, Zirndorf, Cadolzburg, Seukendorf, Veitsbronn, and Obermichelbach, which are municipalities within the rural district ("Landkreis") of Fürth.

Parts of town.

Beyond the town proper, the urban district comprises another 20 localities:

History.

The first mention of the settlement of Fürth, which had probably already existed for some time, was in a document dated 1 November 1007, in which the Emperor Heinrich II donated his property in Fürth to the newly created Bishopric of Bamberg. The name "Fürth" derives from the German word for "ford", as the first settlements originated around a ford. In the following years, Fürth was granted market privileges, but these were later lost to the neighbouring Nuremberg, under Heinrich III. From 1062 onward, Fürth was again permitted to have a market, but by that time Nuremberg was already the more important town.  In the following centuries, the town was under varying authority, involving the Bishopric of Bamberg, the Principality of Ansbach and the City of Nuremberg. For a long time, the character of the settlement remained largely agricultural, and in 1600 the population was probably still only between 1000 and 2000.  In the Thirty Years War, the village was almost completely destroyed by fire, in military actions leading up to the September 1632 Battle of Fürth.  In 1835, the first German railway was opened between Nuremberg and Fürth.  Throughout the Cold War, Fürth had a significant NATO presence, especially the U.S. Army, due to its proximity to both the East German and Czechoslovak borders.

Expansion.

In the course of time, a number of municipalities or other administrative divisions were integrated into the urban district of Fürth:

Population development.

In the Middle Ages and early Renaissance, the population of Fürth grew slowly, owing to the numerous wars, epidemics and famines. In the Thirty Years War, the town lost about half its population. When Croatian soldiers set fire to Fürth in 1634, it burned for several days, and was almost completely destroyed. At the end of the war, the population was a mere 800. In 1685, Reformed Christians from France, or Huguenots, settled in Fürth. By 1700 the restoration of the town had been completed, and the population rose to about 6000.  With the beginning of industrialization in the 19th century, the population began to increase rapidly. In 1800 Fürth had a population of 12,000; by 1895 it had multiplied fourfold to 47,000. In 1950 the population of the town exceeded 100,000, making it a "Großstadt". At the end of 2005, as recorded by the Bavarian Statistical Office ("Landesamt für Statistik und Datenverarbeitung"), the population (based on principal residence) was 113,076, a historical record. This makes Fürth the second largest town in Middle Franconia, after Nuremberg, and the seventh largest town in Bavaria. As of 2015, the proportion of foreign nationals in Fürth is about 18 percent.  The following table shows the population of Fürth over time. Up to 1818 the figures are mainly estimates; after that they are mostly based on census results (1) or official projections from the appropriate statistical offices or the town administration itself.  1 Census result

Religions.

Christianity.

The population of Fürth was originally under the Bishopric of Würzburg and from 1007 it belonged to the Bishopric of Bamberg. In 1524, as part of the Reformation, it became a Protestant town like Nuremberg, and it remained so for many years. However, because of the connections with Bamberg, there were always some Catholics in the town.  After 1792, the Protestant congregations in Fürth were under the authority of the Prussian Ansbach Consistory, and when Brandenburg-Ansbach was ceded to Bavaria they became part of the Bavarian Protestant Church, which initially comprised Lutheran and Reformed congregations. The congregations later belonged to the Deanery of Zirndorf. In 1885, Fürth became a deanery ("Dekanat"), subsidiary to Nuremberg.  Beside the Bavarian Protestant Church there are also Protestant congregations of free churches in Fürth, e. g. a small congregation of the United Methodist Church.  From the 18th century or earlier, the number of Catholics rose, and in 1829 the first Catholic church since the Reformation was consecrated: the Church of Our Lady. St. Michael Church was originally a Catholic church until taken by the Protestant's during the Reformation. In 1961, Fürth became a Catholic Deanery within the Archdiocese.  The proportion of Protestants to Catholics in the 20th century was about two to one.

Judaism.

The position enjoyed by Jews in Fürth (compared with other towns) led to the sobriquet "Franconian Jerusalem", though this is based on an older, pejoratively intended reference to Fürth.  Jewish residents are mentioned as early as 1440; in 1528 the Margrave of Ansbach, George the Pious, permitted two Jews, Perman and Uriel, to settle in Fürth (in return for high taxes), and from then on the number of Jewish residents increased.  By the 17th century, there was a local Yeshiva (Talmudic academy) of considerable repute, and in 1617, a synagogue was built. In 1653, the first Jewish hospital in Germany (and Fürth's first hospital) was built.  When Emperor Leopold I deported the Viennese Jews in 1670, many upper-class Jewish families moved to Fürth, and by 1716 there were about 400 Jewish families in the town. In 1807, the proportion of Jews in the overall population was about 19%. Following the Mediatization and the Bavarian "Judenedikt" (Jewish Edict) of 1813, there were more restrictions on Jews. In particular, the "Matrikelparagraph" provisions prevented Jewish immigration. In 1824, the Talmudic academy was closed. The Bavarian "Judenedikt" of 1813, with its restrictions on Jewish life and Jewish immigration was rescinded by the law of 29 June 1851, and further laws dated 16 April 1868, and 22 April 1871, which led to further emancipation of the Jews, and restrictions on residence were removed. By 1840, there were 2535 Jews living in Fürth, more than half of all Bavarian Jews.  In 1862, a Jewish primary school was founded, followed by a secondary school in 1882. The highest number of Jewish residents was reached in 1880, at about 3,300.  In 1933, there were 1,990 Jews in Fürth. By early 1938 after the rise of the Nazis, there were 1,400 Jews in Fürth. In November 1938, there were about 1,200 when the synagogue was destroyed in the Kristallnacht pogroms, and 132 Jews were deported to Dachau. All except a handful of those who remained in Fürth after Kristallnacht either fled while they still could (abroad or to other areas in Germany) or were deported to concentration camps and/or death camps; virtually all those who remained in Germany were deported to their deaths. By 1944, perhaps 23 Jews were left in Furth. Overall, 1,068 Jews from Furth were murdered in the Holocaust.  After the end of the Second World War, a Displaced persons camp for Jewish Holocaust survivors was established in Fürth (Finkenschlag). In 1945 it housed 850 inhabitants; it was shut down in July 1950.  There is a memorial to the Jewish community in the Geleitsgasse square, just off Königstrasse. Archaeologists discovered a Mikvah (ritual bath) in a house in the centre of Fürth. This building now houses the Jewish Museum of Franconia, which opened in 1998.  The old Jewish cemetery (Weiherstraße), which was established in 1607, is one of the oldest in Germany. It suffered considerable destruction and desecration during the Nazi regime and the Second World War, but was restored in 1949 and is now one of the best-preserved Jewish cemeteries in Germany. A new Jewish cemetery was consecrated in 1880, which has been in use from 1906 to the present day.

Nature.

The "Nature Trail for Urban Ecology" was established in 1999 (3 km, 10 stops) and expanded in 2003 to include a second route (7 km, 10 stops). Both tours begin at the Stadthalle underground railway station. Along the nature trail, different habitats and their importance for the flora and fauna of the area are explained (e.g. the churchyard of St. Michael's Church, the municipal cemetery, Scherbsgraben stream). The trail references the designation of some areas as protected areas, and explains problems of measures that affect the environment, such as river regulation.  Average sunshine duration is 1766 hours per year.  The Gustav-Adolf natural spring, near Weikershof, by the River Rednitz was restored in 2000 and a pavilion was erected. Until the 1980s, the spring water, which comes out of the ground at 19 °C, was used for a swimming pool.

Politics.

Coat of arms.

The Fürth coat of arms depicts a green trefoil (three-leaved clover) on a white (argent) background. The town colours are green and white. The trefoil first appeared on a seal of the governor of the city for the Bamberg Diocese, which depicted a trefoil held by a hand and between two crescents. Its origin is unclear, but the trefoil probably represents the three powers responsible for Fürth during the Middle Ages as well as being a symbol of the Trinity. From 1792 onward, there were three trefoils on a triple hill. In 1818, the town acquired a new coat of arms depicting a green trefoil surrounded by an oak branch (acorned). This coat of arms was retained for over 100 years. However, in 1939, the oak branch was removed. At that time, a new flag was introduced; it had two green stripes on a green background and the coat of arms on a green background on the upper part. Later, however, the flag was simplified to the colours white (below) and green (above).

Administration.

Until the end of the 18th century, the administration of Fürth was in the hands of a representative of the Diocese of Bamberg. Fürth was transferred to Bavaria in 1806; in 1808 it was made a "class II" city and was under the direct authority of the state. From 1818 Fürth became a "class I" city; this meant that it was responsible for its own administration.  Since 2002 Thomas Jung, (SPD), has been the First Mayor.

International relations.

Fürth is twinned with:

Economy and infrastructure.

As of July 2019, unemployment in Fürth was 2.9 percent.  The toy industry is a major employer in the Fürth economy, with a variety of toy-makers ranging from small crafts to large industrial enterprises.  Brewing was once important in Fürth. The five large breweries were Humbser, Geismann, Grüner, Evora & Meyer, and Berg Bräu. Around the turn of the 19th century, Fürth was more important than Munich as a "beer town".  Quelle, once the largest mail-order company in Europe, was based in Fürth before its insolvency and liquidation in 2009.  Fürth is also a centre of solar technology. An average of two megawatt of electricity are fed into the grid on sunny days by Infra Fürth, the local energy utility, using photovoltaic technology. A ground-based plant in Atzenhof located on a former landfill produces 1 MW, the largest individual share.  A new pumping station was built in 2003 near the confluence of the Pegnitz and Rednitz rivers. It provides artificial irrigation to the "Knoblauchsland" market garden area to the north-east of the city.

Transport.

Airports.

In 1914, an aerodrome was built at Atzenhof for the Third Bavarian Army Corps, which was extended in the following years. After the First World War, it became "Fürth–Nuremberg" international airport, which saved it from being completely dismantled. Fürth-Nuremberg Airport was the eighth largest of the 88 German airports. The importance of the airport increased further when Junkers transferred first its central repair workshop, and then the final assembly line for its aircraft from Dessau to Fürth. Under the Nazis, the airport at Atzenhof was expanded and used as a flying school. After Fürth was occupied by Allied troops, the US Army used the site as a barracks, until 1993 ( Monteith Barracks Army Heliport. The US Army built the "Monteith Barracks" golf course on the site and maintained the historic buildings. In 1928, the city of Nuremberg took over the main share of the airport's operations. Until civil aviation operations ended in 1933, the airport was called " Flughafen Nuremberg-Fürth".  There was a second airport built at Fürth-Hardhöhe by the Gothaer Waggonfabrik, later called Industrieflughafen. It existed from 1919 until 6. April 1955. 1919-1938 Gothaer Waggonfabrik, 1939-1945 Bachmann, v.Blumenthal, 1945-1949 U.S. Army Airfield R-30 and 1949-1955 "International Airport Nürnberg-Fürth".

Rail.

The first railway line with steam trains in Germany was between Fürth and Nuremberg, and opened on December 7, 1835. The locomotive, named "Adler" (Eagle) was built in Newcastle by Stephenson, the builder of the famous Rocket. Nuremberg and Fürth are joined by an underground railway (subway) connection. In Fürth there are currently seven underground stations: Stadtgrenze (partly in Fürth), Jakobinenstraße, Fürth Hauptbahnhof, Rathaus, Stadthalle, Klinikum, and Hardhöhe.  See also: Fürth Hauptbahnhof, Nuremberg U-Bahn

Water transport.

A canal between Bamberg and Nuremberg started operation in 1843. There was a port at Poppenreuth. A new canal with a port in Fürth, the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal, was completed in 1992, creating a navigable connection from the Rhine delta in Rotterdam to the Danube Delta on the Black Sea.

Local public transport.

Public transport is managed by "Infra Fürth".

Media.

The "Fürther Nachrichten" is published daily. It was first published in 1946 as a local page in Nürnberger Nachrichten; today it is a separate newspaper but is in fact the same newspaper as "Nürnberger Nachrichten" with some additional sections for the town and the rural district of Fürth, respectively.

Companies in Fürth.

The mail-order business Quelle, now merged with Karstadt to form KarstadtQuelle, was founded by Gustav Schickedanz on 26 October 1927. KarstadtQuelle Versicherungen, an insurance arm, was created in 1984.  Grundig had its headquarters and a number of manufacturing plants in Fürth, from the time the company was founded until the middle of 2000. The former headquarters on Kurgartenstraße was converted into a technology park ("Uferstadt Fürth"), and it now accommodates "Technikum Neue Materialien" (research center into new materials), an institute of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, Sellbytel (a call centre operation), Computec Media AG, and the Radio Museum.  Siemens AG, based in Munich has several locations in Fürth.  Uvex headquarters and a manufacturing unit are in Fürth.  The toy manufacturers Simba Dickie Group (Simba, Dickie, BIG) and Bruder are based in Fürth.

Education.

In Fürth, there are a total of 22 elementary schools. There are also 3 high schools ("gymnasia"), in order of foundation: Hardenberg-Gymnasium (1833), Heinrich-Schliemann-Gymnasium (1896), and Helene-Lange-Gymnasium (1907). There are two "commercial" schools (Wirtschaftsschule/Realschule): the Hans Böckler School and the Leopold Ullstein School; there are also a number of vocational schools.  The siting of Erlangen-Nuremberg University's Central Institute for New Materials and Process Technology in Fürth in 2004 makes Fürth a university town. Some practical trainings of Erlangen University medicine studies are at Fürth municipal hospital. Wilhelm Löhe Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaften is a private University of Applied Sciences for health care and welfare.

Municipal amenities.

At Scherbsgraben, there was an indoor and an outdoor swimming pool, a diving pool with a 10-metre tower, a large pool for non-swimmers and a sauna. These facilities were completely renovated 2006/2007. The open-air pool was re-opened in June 2006 and a new thermal spa (called Fürthermare)was opened 2007. The complex is not longer run by the municipal authorities but is completely privatized and called Bäderland Fürth.  Fürth has a municipal library, with a number of branches; since 2003 it has been possible to access the catalogue via the Internet. There is a town archive in Burgfarrnbach.

Culture and sights.

Theatre.

The municipal theatre ("Stadttheater Fürth") was built by the Viennese theatre architects Fellner & Helmer in the Italian Renaissance and Baroque styles. It is very similar to the municipal theatre of the Ukrainian town of Chernivtsi, which was designed by the same architects.  Another playhouse, the Comödie Fürth, is now housed in the Jugendstil building known as the "Berolzheimerianum". Regular appearances are made by the Franconian cult comedians Volker Heißmann and Martin Rassau, better known by their "alter ego"s Waltraud and Mariechen. The playhouse hosts other appearances by German stars of comedy theatre.

Pubs, restaurants, shopping etc..

Fürth's main district for eating out and drinking is around the Gustavstraße, which is in the Old Town, near the Rathaus. There are many small pubs, cafés and cocktail bars, as well as restaurants serving Franconian cuisine. Esp. in suburbs und Stadtwald are some traditional franconian restaurants with beer garden / open air area.  Shopping facilities in Fürth include two malls City Center and Neue Mitte as well as many retail shops and an open market.

Sights.

Monuments.

Fürth survived the Second World War with less damage than most German cities, and many historic buildings remain. Fürth has a very high density of historic buildings and monuments per head of population (17 per 1000 inhabitants).  The city centre is typified by the streets with intact architecture from the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the old town, around the Church of St. Michael, there are ensembles of buildings from the 17th and 18th centuries. Of particular note is the Hornschuch Promenade with "Gründerzeit" and "Jugendstil" apartment houses. The "Südstadt", the southern part of the town, also has many historic buildings, but these tend to be former workers' tenements, so the house fronts are less grand. A lot of frame and freestones houses from 17.-19. century can be found in quarters and suburbs, f.e. Poppenreuth, Burgfarrnbach, Vach and Dambach.  The Rathaus, built in the Italian style by Friedrich Bürklein between 1840 and 1850, is modelled on the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence.

Churches.

The Protestant Church of St. Michael is the oldest building in Fürth. Its beginnings go back to around 1100, the 45-metre (150 ft) tower was added around 1400 at the beginning of the Late Gothic period, and most of the building work was carried out in the 15th century. The interior of the church is mainly Neo-Gothic in character, with most of the Late Gothic ornaments having been replaced in the 19th century. The only remaining late Gothic ornament is the tabernacle on the North wall; it is 6.8 metres (22 ft 4 in) high and was probably created around 1500-1510 by artists near to Adam Kraft. It is the church's most valuable work of art. Other churches with gothic parts from 14.-16. century are St.Johannis in Burgfarrnbach, St.Peter and Paul in Poppenreuth and St.Matthäus in Vach. St. Peter and Paul probably has some older parts, the previous building was probably founded around 900 - 1000 and was mother Church of many other churches f.e. St.Sebald in Nuremberg.  The Catholic Church of Our Lady (1824-1828) is a Classical building, as is the Protestant "Church of the Resurrection" (1825/26), originally belonging to the cemetery and therefore aligned in a north-south direction. In the Südstadt area are the Neo-Gothic Church of St. Paul and the Neo-Baroque Church of St. Henry and Kunigunde. Other churches include the Catholic Church of Christ the King ("Christkönig"), which was built in the 1970s.

Secular buildings.

The renovated Liershof was built in 1621 as a two-story stone-block building with high house ends and a two-story timber-framed spire.  The Lochnersche Gartenhaus (Theaterstraße 33) was built about 1700; the polygonal staircase tower was probably added about 1750.  Fürth Rathaus (Town Hall), with its 55 m high tower in the Italian style, was built in 1840-50 by Georg Friedrich Christian Bürklein with the help of Eduard Bürklein, both students of Friedrich von Gärtner. The tower is modelled on the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence and is now the main landmark of Fürth. The Rathaus was built after Fürth was granted the right to self-administration.  The station building of the historic main rail station was designed by Eduard Rüber and built in 1863/1864. in front of main station is Centaurenbrunnen, in naturalistic and neo baroque style. 1890 it was created by Rudolf Maison and was built to celebrate railway and water supply in Fürth.  The former abattoir, now a "cultural" centre is to be found below the "Stadthalle" near the River Rednitz.  On the Schwabacher Straße is a brewery with buildings from the beginning of the 20th century.  The Gauklerbrunnen, (2004), created by Harro Frey at the Grüner Markt is the most recent fountain in Fürth; it comprises 3 independent groups of figures, two of which are connected by water elements.  Schloss Burgfarrnbach (Burgfarrnbach Palace) built in 1830 - 1834 is South Germany's largest neo-classical palace. It was built by Leonhard Schmidtner as residence for the counts of Pückler-Limpurg. Since the 1980s it is used as municipal archive, academic library, for concerts and special exhibitions and Stadtmuseum depot.  Schloss Steinach is a manor house from 17. century.

Parks.

The Stadtpark (municipal park) is by the Pegnitz and there is a gradual transition to the water meadows further down the river. As well as paths and park benches, the park offers duck ponds, a children's playground, a minigolf course, a rose garden, a grassland orchard laid out in 2001, a few statues, and a botanical educational (school project) garden.  In the latter half of 2004 the Südstadtpark, on a former barracks, was opened to the public.

Prizes awarded by the town of Fürth.

Every two years, since 1996, Fürth has awarded the Jakob-Wassermann prize, a prize for literature in honour of Fürth's famous author Jakob Wassermann.

Sport and leisure.

Sport.

In the sporting world, Fürth came to fame through its football club "SpVgg Fürth", which was German football champion three times. Since merging with the football section of TSV Vestenbergsgreuth the club is now called SpVgg Greuther Fürth. After winning the 2nd Bundesliga in 2011-12, the team moved up to the top level Bundesliga for the first time. The football stadium is in Ronhof (Stadion am Laubenweg).  The baseball team Fürth Pirates was promoted to the premier national baseball league in 2002 and became vice-champion in the 2004 season.  Each August, Fürth plays host to the annual Paul Hunter Classic, which is now a pro-am minor ranking snooker event and part of the European Players Tour Championship.

Leisure.

The largest public barbecue area within Fürth is on the Rednitz, near the railway line to Würzburg and the swimming pool. It is shaded by trees and has barbecue facilities and fixed seating.  There are minigolf courses in the Stadtpark, by the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal, near Burgfarrnbach, and by the Pegnitz, a little upstream from the confluence with the Rednitz and near the municipal cemetery.

Fürth (; East Franconian: ; ) is a city in northern Bavaria, Germany, in the administrative division ("Regierungsbezirk") of Middle Franconia. It is now contiguous with the larger city of Nuremberg, the centres of the two cities being only 7 km apart.

Fürth je severobavorské město s postavením městského okresu ( "kreisfreie Stadt") v bavorském vládním obvodu Střední Franky ("Mittelfranken"). Na východě splývá s Norimberkem. Centra obou měst jsou od sebe vzdálena pouhých asi 7 kilometrů.


Biography.

Braverman studied statistics and economics at Tel Aviv University, and received his PhD in economics from Stanford University in the United States. After serving for 14 years as a senior official in the World Bank in Washington, specializing in economic development with an emphasis on social justice, Braverman returned to Israel to become president of the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev for the next 16 years (after which he was succeeded by Rivka Carmi), following President Chaim Elata. He was well regarded in this position and received an award from the city of Be'er Sheva for his work.  In November 2005, Braverman announced his intention to become involved in politics. Despite rumors that he would join Kadima, in a move viewed as surprising, he ended up joining Labor Party. He was elected to the Knesset in the 2006 elections. Within the party, he was initially associated with Amir Peretz and later with Ami Ayalon.  Prior to the 2009 elections he won fourth place in the party's primaries, retaining his seat in the subsequent election. Braverman opposed the decision of the Labor Party to enter the Netanyahu government in March 2009, but shortly afterwards it was announced that he would be entering the government as Minister without Portfolio, focusing on Minority Affairs, later transformed into the Minister of Minority Affairs. He resigned from the cabinet after Ehud Barak left the Labor Party to establish Independence in January 2011. He was re-elected to the Knesset in 2013.  In December 2014 Braverman announced that he would not run in the 2015 elections, stating that he felt he had done all he could as a Knesset member.

Avishay Braverman (, born 15 January 1948) is an Israeli economist and politician. A former president of the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, he served as a member of the Knesset for the Labor Party between 2006 and 2015, and as Minister of Minority Affairs between 2009 and 2011.

Avišaj Braverman (hebrejsky: אבישי ברוורמן, * 15. ledna 1948, Britský mandát Palestina) je izraelský politik, ekonom a poslanec Knesetu za Stranu práce. V minulosti zastával post rektora Ben Gurionovy univerzity v Negevu. Od roku 2009 zastával v izraelské vládě post ministra pro záležitosti menšin. Na ministerskou funkci rezignoval v lednu 2011 v důsledku odchodu části poslanců Strany práce včetně jejího předsedy Ehuda Baraka do nové politické formace Acma'ut.


Career.

As an undergraduate, Falk studied mathematics and anthropology. Since receiving her PhD from the University of Michigan in 1976, she has taught courses in anatomy, neuroanatomy, and anthropology. Falk is interested in the evolution of the brain and cognition. She formulated the “radiator theory” that cranial blood vessels were important for hominin brain evolution, and the “putting the baby down” hypothesis that prehistoric mothers and infants facilitated the emergence of language.  She and colleagues described the brain of "Homo floresiensis" ("Hobbit") in 2005. In 2013, Falk and colleagues described the cerebral cortex of Albert Einstein from recently emerged photographs of his whole brain. In 2017, Falk coauthored a study with Charles Hildebolt on warfare in small-scale and state societies, which found that people are no less violent today than they were in the past. Falk coauthored a 2018 book on Asperger's syndrome with her 24-year-old granddaughter who has Asperger's, and, in 2019, published a refutation of the allegation that Hans Asperger was a Nazi sympathizer. This was in turn refuted by the original author, Herwig Czech, who opined that Falk's paper abounded "with mistranslations, misrepresentations of the content of sources, and basic factual errors, and omits everything that does not support the author’s agenda of defending Hans Asperger’s record." He declared that the paper should never have passed the peer review process and should be retracted.

"Homo floresiensis".

After the skeletal remains of a "Hobbit"-sized human (museum number LB1) that are now dated to over 65,000 years ago were discovered on the Indonesian island of Flores in 2003 they were identified as a new species labelled "Homo floresiensis" (“Hobbit”). Some scientists thought that the specimen must have been a pygmy or a microcephalic — a human with an abnormally small skull. Falk undertook a collaborative study in 2005 that described Hobbit's endocast and supported the claim that the find represented a new species.  Falk's 2005 study was criticized by other experts. In response, in 2007 with an international team of experts, Falk compared detailed maps of imprints left on the ancient hominid's braincase (endocasts) with those from microcephalic individuals and concluded that LB1, indeed, represented a new species that may have been descended from either "Homo erectus" or an earlier small-bodied hominin. Falk's team have repeatedly asserted that their findings confirm that the species cataloged as LB1, "Homo floresiensis", is definitely not a human born with microcephalia — a somewhat rare pathological condition that still occurs today. She has also participated in other studies that refute the idea that LB1 had Laron syndrome or Down syndrome. Today, most experts do not think that LB1 was a diseased human. As noted by Westaway "et al." (MC Westaway et al. [2015]. Mandibular evidence supports Homo floresiensis as a distinct species. "PNAS" 112[7], E604-E605), "Many interesting questions about the Liang Bua fossils remain unanswered, but whether LB1 is a pathological "H. sapiens" is not one of them".

Human Brain Evolution.

In 2014, Dean Falk published her work on "Interpreting sulci on hominin endocasts: old hypotheses and new findings in "Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"". Her work summarized what paleoneurologists could potentially learn about human brain evolution from fossils, which is confined to information about the evolution of brain size and how limited parts of the cerebral cortex became reorganized during evolution. Falk noted that the cerebral cortex is a highly evolved part of the human brain and that it facilitates conscious thought, planning, language, social skills, and scientific, artistic, and musical creativity. The cerebral cortex may leave imprints in skulls which are sometimes reproduced on endocasts. Falk observed that these studies exclude the internal brain structures that cannot be described by paleoneurologists because they do not show up on endocasts. These parts of the brain also evolved, and they are extremely important for processing memories, gut-level feelings, and social interactions in ways that set humans apart from other animals.  In 2018, Falk and colleagues published an "in vivo" MRI study of the cerebral cortices of eight adult chimpanzees in which they identified sulcal patterns and compared them to those known from australopithecines and "Homo naledi". This study showed that the frontal lobe sulcal patterns of australopiths (and "H. naledi)" were not derived compared to extant apes, contrary to Falk's 2014 paper.

Dean Falk (born June 25, 1944) is an American academic Neuroanthropologist who specializes in the evolution of the brain and cognition in higher primates. She is the Hale G. Smith Professor of Anthropology and a Distinguished Research Professor at Florida State University.

Dean Falková (* 25. června 1944) je americká antropoložka a paleoneuroložka, zabývající se vývojem mozku a vědomí vyšších primátů. Pracuje jako profesorka antropologie na.


History.

Informal beginnings.

What became known as the Aden Protectorate was initially informal arrangements of protection with nine tribes in the immediate hinterland of the port city of Aden: British expansion into the area was designed to secure the important port that was, at the time, governed from British India. From 1874, these protection arrangements existed with the tacit acceptance of the Ottoman Empire that maintained suzerainty over Yemen to the north and the polities became known collectively as the "Nine Tribes" or the "Nine Cantons."

Formal treaties of protection.

Beginning with a formal treaty of protection with the Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra in 1886, Britain embarked on a slow formalisation of protection arrangements that included over 30 major treaties of protection with the last signed only in 1954. These treaties, together with a number of other minor agreements, created the Aden Protectorate that extended well east of Aden to Hadhramaut and included all of the territory that would become South Yemen except for the immediate environs and port of the colonial capital, Aden.  Aden with its harbour was the only area under full British sovereignty and, together with some offshore islands, was known as Aden Settlement (1839–1932), Aden Province (1932–1937), Aden Colony (1937–1963) and finally State of Aden (1963–1967).  In exchange for British protection, the rulers of the constituent territories of the Protectorate agreed not to enter into treaties with or cede territory to any other foreign power. In 1917, control of Aden Protectorate was transferred from the Government of India, which had inherited the British East India Company's interests in various princely states on the strategically important naval route from Europe to India, to the British Foreign Office. For administrative purposes, the protectorate was informally divided into the Eastern Protectorate (with its own Political Officer, a British advisor, stationed at Mukalla in Qu'aiti from 1937 to ca. 1967) and the Western Protectorate (with its own Political Officer, stationed at Lahej from 1 April 1937 to 1967), for some separation of administration.  In 1928, the British established Aden Command, under Royal Air Force leadership, to preserve the security of the Protectorate. It was renamed British Forces Aden in 1936 and was later known as British Forces Arabian Peninsula and then Middle East Command (Aden).

Polities.

The boundaries between the polities and even their number fluctuated over time. Some such as the Mahra Sultanate barely had any functioning administration.  Not included in the protectorate were Aden Colony and the insular areas of Perim, Kamaran, and Khuriya Muriya that accrued to it.

Eastern Protectorate.

The Eastern Protectorate (c. 230,000 km) came to include the following entities (mostly in Hadhramaut):

Western Protectorate.

The Western Protectorate (c. 55,000 km) included:

Advisory treaties.

In 1938, Britain signed an advisory treaty with the Qu'aiti sultan and, throughout the 1940s and 1950s, signed similar treaties with twelve other protectorate states. The following were the states with advisory treaties:  These agreements allowed for the stationing of a Resident Advisor in the signatory states which gave the British a greater degree of control over their domestic affairs. This rationalised and stabilised the rulers' status and laws of succession but had the effect of ossifying the leadership and encouraging official corruption. Aerial bombardment and collective punishment were sometimes used against wayward tribes to enforce the rule of Britain's clients. British protection came to be seen as an impediment to progress, a view reinforced by the arrival of news of Arab nationalism from the outside world on newly available transistor radios.

Challenges to the status quo.

British control was also challenged by King Ahmad bin Yahya of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen to the north who did not recognise British suzerainty in South Arabia and had ambitions of creating a unified Greater Yemen. In the late 1940s and the early 1950s, Yemen was involved in a series of border skirmishes along the disputed Violet Line, a 1914 Anglo-Ottoman demarcation that served to separate Yemen from the Aden Protectorate.  In 1950, Kennedy Trevaskis, the Advisor for the Western Protectorate drew up a plan for the protectorate states to form two federations, corresponding to the two-halves of the protectorate. Although little progress was made in bringing the plan to fruition, it was considered a provocation by Ahmad bin Yahya. In addition to his role as king, he also served as the imam of the ruling Zaidi branch of Shi'a Islam. He feared that a successful federation in the Shafi'i Sunnite protectorates would serve as a beacon for discontented Shafi'ites who inhabited the coastal regions of Yemen. To counter the threat, Ahmad stepped up Yemeni efforts to undermine British control and, in the mid-1950s, Yemen supported a number of revolts by disgruntled tribes against protectorate states. The appeal of Yemen was limited initially in the protectorate but a growing intimacy between Yemen and the popular Arab nationalist president of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser and the formation of United Arab States increased its attraction.

Federation and the end of the Protectorate.

Aden had been of interest to Britain as a link to British India and then, after the loss of most of Britain's colonies from 1945 and the disastrous Suez Crisis in 1956, as a valuable port for accessing crucial Middle Eastern oil. It had also been chosen as the new location for Middle East Command.  Nationalist pressure prodded the threatened rulers of the Aden Protectorate states to revive efforts at forming a federation and, on 11 February 1959, six of them signed an accord forming the "Federation of Arab Emirates of the South". In the next three years, they were joined by nine others and, on 18 January 1963, Aden Colony was merged with the federation creating the new "Federation of South Arabia". At the same time, the (mostly eastern) states that had not joined the federation became the "Protectorate of South Arabia", thus ending the existence of the Aden Protectorate.

Aden Emergency.

On 10 December 1963, a state of emergency was declared in the former protectorate and the newly created State of Aden.  The Emergency was precipitated in large part by a wave of Arab nationalism spreading to the Arabian Peninsula and stemming largely from the Socialist and pan-Arabist doctrines of the Egyptian leader Gamel Abdel Nasser. The British, French, and Israeli invasion forces that had invaded Egypt following Nasser's nationalisation of the Suez Canal in 1956 had been forced to withdraw following intervention from both the United States and the Soviet Union.  Nasser had only limited success in spreading his pan-Arabist doctrines through the Arab world, with his 1958 attempt to unify Egypt and Syria as the United Arab Republic collapsing in failure only 3 years later. An anti-colonial uprising in Aden in 1963 provided another potential opportunity for his doctrines, though it is not clear whether the revolt among the Arabs in Aden had the Yemeni guerrilla groups drawing inspiration from Nasser's pan-Arabist ideas or acting independently themselves.  By 1963 and in the ensuing years, anti-British guerrilla groups with varying political objectives began to coalesce into two larger, rival organisations: first the Egyptian-supported National Liberation Front (NLF) and then the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY), who attacked each other as well as the British.  By 1965, the RAF station (RAF Khormaksar) was operating nine squadrons. These included transport units with helicopters and a number of Hawker Hunter ground attack aircraft. They were called in by the army for strikes against positions using "60 lb" high explosive rockets and 30 mm Aden cannon.  The Battle of Crater brought Lt-Col Colin Campbell Mitchell (AKA "Mad Mitch") to prominence. On 20 June 1967 there was a mutiny in the South Arabian Federation Army, which spread to the police. Order was restored by the British, mainly due to the efforts of the 1st Battalion Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, under the command of Lt-Col Mitchell.  Nevertheless, deadly guerrilla attacks particularly by the NLF soon resumed against British forces, with the British leaving Aden by the end of November 1967, earlier than had been planned by British Prime Minister Harold Wilson and without an agreement on the succeeding governance. The NLF then seized power.

The Aden Protectorate ( "") was a British protectorate in southern Arabia which evolved in the hinterland of the port of Aden and in the Hadramaut following the conquest of Aden by Great Britain in 1839, and it continued until the 1960s. In 1940 it was divided for administrative purposes into the Western Protectorate and the Eastern Protectorate. Today the territory forms part of the Republic of Yemen.

Adenský protektorát ("arabsky:" حمية عدن, "anglicky:" Aden Protectorate) byl britský protektorát v letech 1886 až 1963. Byl utvořen v roce 1886 z jihoarabských emirátů doposud patřících pod Osmanskou suverenitu. V roce 1959 se z jeho západní části utvořila Federace jihoarabských emirátů resp. v roce 1962 Jihoarabská federace a z východní části byl vytvořen v roce 1963 Jihoarabský protektorát, čímž Adenský protektorát definitivně zanikl. V současnosti je území bývalého Adenského protektorátu součástí Jemenské republiky.