Building and equipment.

Blohm+Voss in Hamburg built "Cap Arcona", launching and completing her in 1927. She was, overall and a beam of.  She was driven by eight steam turbines, single-reduction geared to two propeller shafts. She had three funnels, and her passenger comforts included a full-size tennis court abaft her third funnel. The ship had at least 26 lifeboats, most of which were mounted in two tiers (see image).  "Cap Arcona" had modern navigation and communication equipment. She was equipped for submarine signalling which allowed a ship to hear acoustic signals from aids to navigation. She also had wireless direction finding equipment, and from 1934 she had an echo sounding device and a gyrocompass.

Peacetime service.

"Cap Arcona" entered service in 1927, commencing her maiden voyage on Hamburg Süd's route to Buenos Aires 29 October. She joined the older liner on the route, which had been Hamburg Süd's flagship until "Cap Arcona"s completion. "Cap Polonio" was laid up in 1931 and scrapped in 1935, leaving "Cap Arcona" as Hamburg Süd's sole prestige ship on its South American route.  On 6 October 1932 "Cap Arcona" collided with the French cargo ship in the North Sea off the Elbe 4 Lightship. "Agen" was beached, but later was refloated and escorted into Hamburg, Germany.

Accommodation ship.

In 1940 the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) requisitioned "Cap Arcona", had her painted overall grey and used her in the Baltic Sea as an accommodation ship in Gotenhafen (formerly Gdynia, Poland).  In 1942 "Cap Arcona" was used as a stand-in for, to supply outside locations for the filming of the Nazi film version of the disaster in the harbour of Gotenhafen. The production was completed, although the first director, Herbert Selpin, was arrested for disparaging remarks he made about Kriegsmarine sailors. His later self-destructive interrogation at the hands of propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels all but sealed his fate. He was found the next day hanged in his cell by his suspenders.

Evacuation of East Prussia.

On 31 January 1945, the Kriegsmarine reactivated her for Operation Hannibal, where she was used to transport 25,795 German soldiers and civilians from East Prussia to safer areas in western Germany. By now these trips were made very dangerous by mines and submarines. On 30 January, carrying a total of 10,582 passengers and crew, was torpedoed by the and sank in 40 minutes. An estimated 9,400 people died. Early on the morning of 11 February, the same submarine torpedoed the on its way to Copenhagen with wounded and bed-ridden soldiers and civilian passengers, killing over 4,000 people. On 20 February, "Cap Arcona"s captain, Johannes Gertz, shot himself in his cabin while berthed in Copenhagen rather than face another trip back to Gotenhafen.  On 30 March 1945, "Cap Arcona" finished her third and last trip between Gdynia and Copenhagen, carrying 9,000 soldiers and refugees. However, her turbines were completely worn out. They could only be partially repaired and her days of long-distance travel were over. She was decommissioned, returned to her owners Hamburg-Süd and ordered out of Copenhagen Harbour to Neustadt Bay.

Concentration ship.

During March and April 1945, concentration camp prisoners from Scandinavian countries had been transported from all over the Reich to the Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg, in the White Bus programme co-ordinated through the Swedish Red Cross - with prisoners of other nationalities displaced to make room for them. Eventually Himmler agreed that these Scandinavians, and selected others regarded as less harmful to Germany, could be transported through Denmark to freedom in Sweden. Then between 16 and 28 April 1945, Neuengamme was systematically emptied of all its remaining prisoners, together with other groups of concentration camp inmates and Soviet POWs; with the intention that they would be relocated to a secret new camp, either on the Baltic island of Fehmarn; or at Mysen in Norway where preparations were put in hand to house them under the control of concentration camp guards evacuated from Sachsenhausen. In the interim, they were to be concealed from the advancing British and Canadian forces; and for this purpose the "SS" assembled a prison flotilla of decommissioned ships in the Bay of Lübeck, consisting of the liners "Cap Arcona" and, the freighter, and the motor launch. Since the steering motors were out of use in "Thielbek" and the turbines were out of use in "Cap Arcona", "Athen" was used to transfer prisoners from Lübeck to the larger ships and between ships; they were locked below decks and in the holds, and denied food and medical attention.  On 30 April 1945 the two Swedish ships "Magdalena" and "Lillie Matthiessen", previously employed as support vessels for the White Bus evacuations, made a final rescue trip to Lübeck and back. Amongst the prisoners rescued were some transferred from the prison flotilla. On the evening of 2 May 1945 more prisoners, mainly women and children from the Stutthof and Mittelbau-Dora camps were loaded onto barges and brought out to the anchored vessels; although, as the "Cap Arcona" refused to accept any more prisoners, over eight hundred were returned to the beach at Neustadt in the morning of 3 May, where around five hundred were killed in their barges by machine-gunning, or beaten to death on the beach, their SS guards then seeking to make their escape unencumbered.  The order to transfer the prisoners to the prison ships had come from Gauleiter Karl Kaufmann in Hamburg. Marc Buggeln has challenged Kaufmann's subsequent claim that he had been acting on orders from SS Headquarters in Berlin, arguing that the decision in fact resulted from political and business pressures from leading industrialists in Hamburg, who were already at this stage plotting with Kaufmann to hand the city over to British forces undefended and unharmed, and who consequently wished to whitewash away (literally so in the case of the Neuengamme concentration camp) all evidence for the prisoners' former presence within the city and its industries.  By early May however, any relocation plans had been scotched by the rapid British military advance to the Baltic; so the SS leadership, which had moved to Flensburg on 28 April, discussed scuttling the ships with the prisoners still aboard. Later, at a war crimes tribunal, Kaufmann claimed that the prisoners were intended to be sent to Sweden although, as none of the ships carried Red Cross hospital markings, nor were they seaworthy, this was scarcely credible. Georg-Henning Graf von Bassewitz-Behr, Hamburg's last Higher SS and Police Leader (HSSPF), testified at the same trial that the prisoners were in fact to be killed "in compliance with Himmler's orders". Kurt Rickert, who had worked for Bassewitz-Behr, testified at the Hamburg War Crimes Trial that he believed the ships were to be sunk by U-boats or Luftwaffe aircraft. Eva Neurath, who was present in Neustadt, and whose husband survived the disaster, said she was told by a police officer that the ships held convicts and were going to be blown up.  On 2 May 1945, the British Second Army discovered the empty camp at Neuengamme, and reached the towns of Lübeck and Wismar. No. 6 Commando, 1st Special Service Brigade commanded by Brigadier Derek Mills-Roberts, and 11th Armoured Division, commanded by Major-General Philip Roberts, entered Lübeck without resistance. Lübeck contained a permanent Red Cross office in its function as a Red Cross port, and Mr. De Blonay of the International Committee of the Red Cross informed Major-General Roberts that 7,000–8,000 prisoners were aboard ships in the Bay of Lübeck. In the afternoon of 3 May 1945, the British 5th reconnaissance regiment advanced northwards to Neustadt, witnessing the ships burning in the bay and rescuing some severely emaciated prisoners on the beach at Neustadt, but otherwise finding mostly the bodies of women and children massacred that morning.

Sinking.

On 3 May 1945, three days after Hitler's suicide and only one day before the unconditional surrender of the German troops in northwestern Germany at Lüneburg Heath to Field Marshal Montgomery, "Cap Arcona", "Thielbek", and the passenger liner "Deutschland" were attacked as part of general strikes on shipping in the Baltic Sea by Royal Air Force (RAF) Hawker Typhoons of 83 Group of the 2nd Tactical Air Force. Through Ultra Intelligence, the Western Allies had become aware that most of the SS leadership and former concentration camp commandants had gathered with Heinrich Himmler in Flensburg, hoping to contrive an escape to Norway. The western allies had intercepted orders from the rump Dönitz government, also at Flensburg, that the SS leadership were to be facilitated in escaping Allied capture - or otherwise issued with false naval uniforms to conceal their identities - as Dönitz sought, while surrendering, to maintain the fiction that his administration had been free from involvement in the camps, or in Hitler's policies of genocide.  The aircraft were from No. 184 Squadron, No. 193 Squadron, No. 263 Squadron, No. 197 Squadron RAF, and No. 198 Squadron. Besides four 20 mm cannon, these Hawker Typhoon Mark 1B fighter-bombers carried either eight HE "60-lb" RP-3 unguided rockets or two bombs.  None of the prison flotilla were Red Cross marked (although the "Deutschland" had previously been intended as a hospital ship, and retained one white painted funnel with a red cross), and all prisoners were concealed below deck, so the pilots in the attacking force were unaware that they were laden with concentration camp survivors. Although Swedish and Swiss Red Cross officials had informed British intelligence on 2 May 1945 of the presence of large numbers of prisoners on ships at anchor in Lübeck Bay, this vital information was not passed on. The RAF commanders ordering the strike believed that a flotilla of ships was being prepared in Lübeck Bay, to accommodate leading SS personnel fleeing to German-controlled Norway in accordance with Dönitz's orders. "The ships are gathering in the area of Lübeck and Kiel. At SHAEF it is believed that important Nazis who have escaped from Berlin to Flensburg are onboard, and are fleeing to Norway or neutral countries".  Equipped with lifejackets from locked storage compartments, most of the SS guards managed to jump overboard from "Cap Arcona". German trawlers sent to rescue "Cap Arcona"s crew members and guards managed to save 16 sailors, 400 SS men, and 20 SS women. Only 350 of the 5,000 former concentration camp inmates aboard "Cap Arcona" survived. From 2,800 prisoners on board the "Thielbek" only 50 were saved; whereas all 2,000 prisoners on the "Deutschland " were safely taken off onto the "Athen", before the "Deutschland" capsized.  RAF Pilot Allan Wyse of No. 193 Squadron recalled, "We used our cannon fire at the chaps in the water... we shot them up with 20 mm cannons in the water. Horrible thing, but we were told to do it and we did it. That's war."  Severely damaged and set on fire, "Cap Arcona" eventually capsized. Photos of the burning ships, listed as "Deutschland", "Thielbek", and "Cap Arcona", and of the emaciated survivors swimming in the very cold Baltic Sea, around 7 °C (44.6 °F), were taken on a reconnaissance mission over the Bay of Lübeck by F-6 Mustang (the photo-reconnaissance version of the P-51) of the USAAF's 161st Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron around 1700 hrs, shortly after the attack.  On 4 May 1945, a British reconnaissance plane took photos of the two wrecks, "Thielbek" and "Cap Arcona", the Bay of Neustadt being shallow. The capsized hulk of "Cap Arcona" later drifted ashore, and the beached wreck was finally broken up in 1949. For weeks after the attack, bodies of victims washed ashore, where they were collected and buried in mass graves at Neustadt in Holstein, Scharbeutz and Timmendorfer Strand. Parts of skeletons washed ashore over the next 30 years, with the last find in 1971.  The prisoners aboard the ships were of at least 30 nationalities: American, Belarusian, Belgian, Canadian, Czechoslovakian, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Luxembourger, Norwegian, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Spanish, Swiss, Ukrainian, and possibly others.

Cap Arcona, named after Cape Arkona on the island of Rügen, was a large German ocean liner and the flagship of the Hamburg Südamerikanische Dampfschifffahrts-Gesellschaft ("Hamburg-South America Line"). She took her maiden voyage on 29 October 1927, carrying passengers and cargo between Germany and the east coast of South America, and in her time was the largest and quickest ship on the route.

Cap Arcona byla luxusní německá zaoceánská loď, která byla spuštěna na vodu v květnu roku 1927. Na konci druhé světové války byla potopena po útoku britského letectva dne 3. května 1945 v Lübecké zátoce. Při jejím potopení, které je čtvrtou největší námořní katastrofou v dějinách lidstva, přišlo o život zhruba 4 500 lidí, zejména vězňů z koncentračních táborů.


Identities of the king.

Samten Karmay attempted to identify the different personages known as Indrabhutai.

Conflation of Indrabhuti related to conflation of Oddiyana.

The matter of the conflation of Indrabhuti and at least one evocation of the historicity of a particular personage by that name is intimately connected with the location of 'Oddiyana' (the locality denoted by the term 'Oddiyana' whether in each case cited is Swat Valley or Odisha or some other location is glossed with a suite of orthographic representations and near homophones which require further case-by-case examination and exploration), Odisha and the cult of Jaganath and a number of texts that inform the matter such as the "Sādhanamālā", "Kālikā Purāṇa", "Caturāsiti-siddha-Pravṛtti", "Jñānasiddhi" as Donaldson (2001: p. 11) frames an overview of some of the debate and then ventures further salience: In his argument, P. C. Bagchi states that there are two distinct series of names in Tibetan: (1) O-rgyān, U-rgyān, O-ḍi-yā-na, and (2) O-ḍi-vi-śā, with the first series connected with Indrabhūti, i.e., Oḍiyăna and Uḍḍiyāna, while the second series falls back on Oḍi and Oḍiviśa, i.e., Uḍra (Orissa) and has nothing to do with Indrabhūti. N.K. Sahu objects, however, and points out that these two sets of names are seldom distinguished in Buddhist Tantra literature, and opines that the words Oḍa, Oḍra, Uḍra, Oḍiviśa and Oḍiyāna are all used as variants of Uḍḍiyāna. In the "Sādhanamālā", he further points out, Uḍḍiyāna is also spelt as Oḍrayāna while in the "Kālikā Purāṇa", as indicated earlier, it is spelt either Uḍḍiyāna or Oḍra. There is also evidence, Sahu continues, that Indrabhūti is the king of Orissa rather than of the Swāt valley. The "Caturāsiti-siddha-Pravṛtti", for example, mentions him as the king of Oḍiviśa while Cordier, in his "Bṣtān-ḥgyur" catalogue, gives sufficient indications of his being the king of Orissa. Also, in his famous work "Jñānasiddhi", king Indrabhūti opens it with an invocation to Lord Jagannātha, a deity intimately associated with Orissa and with no other area of India.

King Ja, receiver of gifts from the sky.

According to Nyingma tradition, King Ja (also known as Indrabhuti) taught himself intuitively from "the Book" of the Tantric Way of Secret Mantra (that is Mantrayana) that magically fell from the sky along with other sacred objects and relics "upon the roof of King Ja" according to Dudjom (1904–1987)," et al." (1991: p. 613 History) this happened on the Tibetan calendar year of the Earth Monkey, which Dudjom " et al." identify as 853 BC[E]. King Ja taught Kukuraja, the "Dog King", from "the Book." This date of 853 BC[E] is problematic as it puts the event prior to the dates of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni circa 500 BCE as well as prior to the emergence of Tantra in any of its historical permutations according to modern Western peer-reviewed scholarship bar the lineages of the Bonpo (the dates are according to Bonpo tradition which are contended with) which not 'officially' tantric have many elements akin to tantra traditions. Moreover, it should be stated that the falling of Buddhadharma relics upon a Tibetan royal palace also happened in the case of Thothori Nyantsen and these two stories (i.e. the story of Thothori Nyantsen and the narrative of King Ja) may have influenced each other as they share a distinctive motif of magical realism.  Dudjom (1904–1987), "et al." (1991: p. 460 History) also include another important source that impacts on this story of King Ja and salient dates for the greater tantric tradition, particularly the dating of the emergence of the texts of Anuyoga with the provision of a quote of what Dudjom "et al." identify as a "prediction" found in the fifth chapter of the "<nowiki>'</nowiki>Tantra which Comprises the Supreme Path of the Means which Clearly Reveal All-Positive Pristine Cognition<nowiki>'</nowiki>" (Wylie: kun bzang ye shes gsal bar ston pa'i thabs kyi lam mchog 'dus pa'i rgyud," Nyingma Gyubum" Vol.3) which Dudjom, " et al.", render in English thus: The Mahayoga tantras will fall onto the palace of King Ja. The Anuyoga tantras will emerge in the forests of Singhala [Dudjom "et al." identify Singhala as located in Ceylon].

Indrabhuti, at the time of Tilopa, disciple of Kambalapada.

Choudhury (2007: p. 6) states in relation to Indrabhuti who was the disciple of Kambalapada (fl. 10th century):  The Sidhacharyas popularised the tenets of vajrayana by composing numerous texts. Indrabhuti, disciple of the saint Kambalapada, created a sensation by composing his famous treatise 'yajnasidhi'. Indrabhuti learned of 'insight' (Sanskrit: "prajñā") though the instruction of Tilopa (988–1069 CE).

Indrabhuti (alternatively King Ja) is a name attributed to a number of individuals that have become conflated in Vajrayana Buddhism. One Indrabhuti, considered a Mahasiddha, was a disciple of Lawapa.

Indraboddhi ("Indrabhuti") byl králem legendární krajiny Odijany, mistr vadžrajány z Indie. Král Indraboddhi byl jedním z 84 - mahásiddhů a také samotným žákem Buddhy. Gautama Buddha králi Indrabhuti podle tradice a nauk tibetského buddhismu, předal nejhlubší techniky mantrajány., doplňujíc tímto třetí otočení kolem Dharmy. Jednoho dne přišel samotný král Indrabodhi k Buddhovi prosíc o nauky. Buddha poradil ať přijme mniší sliby. Král Indrabodhi však přiznal že není schopen dodržet tyto sliby z důvodů silného připoutání k smyslným potěšením. Král proto poprosil Buddhu o nauky kde by to nebylo překážkou, v jedné chvíli se Buddha Šakjámuni objevil jako Guhjasamádža s celou mandalou a překázal mu všechny nauky spojené s tímto jidamem nejvyšších tanter, kterými jsou Anuttara tantry..


Work and writings.

Although his work appears to have been well-known and influential, mention of him by other early Christian apologists, notably in the extensive writings of Eusebius, is strangely absent. It may be that his treatises, circulating anonymously, were for a time considered as the work of another apologist, or there may have been other circumstances now lost. There are only two mentions of him in early Christian literature: several accredited quotations from his "Apology" in a fragment of Methodius of Olympus (died 312) and some untrustworthy biographical details in the fragments of the "Christian History" of Philip of Side (c. 425). Philip of Side claims that Athenagoras headed the Catechetical School of Alexandria (which is probably incorrect and contradicted by Eusebius) and notes that Athenagoras converted to Christianity after initially familiarizing himself with the Scriptures in an attempt to controvert them.  His writings bear witness to his erudition and culture, his power as a philosopher and rhetorician, his keen appreciation of the intellectual temper of his age, and his tact and delicacy in dealing with the powerful opponents of his religion. Thus his writings are credited by some later scholars as having had a more significant impact on their intended audience than the now better-known writings of his more polemical and religiously-grounded contemporaries.  Of his writings, of which there were likely many, there have been preserved but a few: his "Embassy (πρεσβεία) for the Christians" (more usually called by the Latin titled "Legatio Pro Christianis" or simply the "Legatio" and often referred to as the "Apology"), and a treatise titled the "Resurrection of the Dead" a.k.a. "On the Resurrection of the Body".  The "Embassy for the Christians", the date of which is fixed by internal evidence as late in 176 or 177, was a carefully written plea for justice to the Christians made by a philosopher, on philosophical grounds, to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, whom he flatters as conquerors, "but above all, philosophers". He first complains of the illogical and unjust discrimination against the Christians and of the calumnies they suffer, and then meets the charge of atheism (a major complaint directed at the Christians of the day was that by disbelieving in the Roman gods, they were showing themselves to be atheists). He establishes the principle of monotheism, citing pagan poets and philosophers in support of the very doctrines for which Christians are condemned, and argues for the superiority of the Christian belief in God to that of pagans. This first strongly-reasoned argument for the unity of God in Christian literature is supplemented by an able exposition of the Trinity. Assuming then the defensive, he justifies the Christian abstention from worship of the national deities by arguing that it is absurd and indecent, quoting at length the pagan poets and philosophers in support of his contention. Finally, he meets the charges of immorality by exposing the Christian ideal of purity, even in thought, and the inviolable sanctity of the marriage bond. In refuting the charge of cannibalism Athenagoras states that Christians detest all cruelty and murder, refusing to attend contests of gladiators and wild beasts and holding that women who use drugs to bring on abortion commit murder for which they will have to give an account to God.  The treatise on the "Resurrection of the Dead", the first complete exposition of the doctrine in Christian literature, was written later than the "Apology", to which it may be considered as an appendix. The writer brings to the defence of the doctrine the best that contemporary philosophy could adduce. After meeting the objections common to his time, he seeks to prove the possibility of a resurrection in view either of the power of the Creator, or of the nature of our bodies. To exercise such powers is neither unworthy of God nor unjust to other creatures. He argues that the nature and end of man demand a perpetuation of the life of body and soul. Although he clearly teaches the immortality of the soul and of the resurrection body, he argues that the soul is unconscious between death and resurrection: "[T]hose who are dead and those who sleep are subject to similar states, as regards at least the stillness and the absence of all sense of the present or the past, or rather of existence itself and their own life." There are reasons to think that "De resurrectione" is not by Athenagoras but by some 4th-century author, e.g. the use of at least one term (ἀγαλματοφορέω) coined by Philo of Alexandria and not widely known before the time of Origen.

Athenagoras (; ; c. 133 – c. 190 AD) was a Father of the Church, an Ante-Nicene Christian apologist who lived during the second half of the 2nd century of whom little is known for certain, besides that he was Athenian (though possibly not originally from Athens), a philosopher, and a convert to Christianity. In his writings he styles himself as "Athenagoras, the Athenian, Philosopher, and Christian". There is some evidence that he was a Platonist before his conversion, but this is not certain.

Athénagorás patří mezi nejvýřečnější křesťanské apologety, církevní otce 2. století, které řadíme za apoštolské otce. Byl aténským filosofem. Pod vlivem dějinných událostí své doby (kdy, jak víme, byli křesťané pronásledováni za své učení) byli nuceni hájit křesťanství v pohanském světě.


Biography.

He was born in the village of Vyritsa in Saint Petersburg Governorate on April 9 (22), 1908. His parents divorced during the Russian Revolution. His mother married a Red Army commander and left the children in Kherson to be cared for by an aunt who soon died of typhus. Yefremov survived on his own for some time, after which he joined a Red Army unit as a "son of the regiment" and went to Perekop with it. In 1921, he was discharged and went to Petrograd (today's Saint Petersburg) to study. He completed his education there while combining his studies with a variety of odd jobs. He later commented that "the Revolution was also my own liberation from philistinism" ("Революция была также и моим освобождением от мещанства").

Academic career.

In 1924, due to the influence of academician Petr Petrovich Sushkin, he became interested in paleontology. Yefremov entered the Leningrad State University but dropped out later. As early as in 19 years he made several discoveries and published a monograph co-authored with Alexey Bystrow, which was later awarded by the Linnean Society of London.  In mid-1930s, he took part in several paleontological expeditions to the Volga region, the Urals, and Central Asia. He headed a research laboratory at the Institute of Paleontology. In 1935, he took exit examinations and graduated from the Leningrad Mining Institute. The same year he got his Candidate of Science degree in biological sciences. In 1941, he got his doctorate degree in biological sciences. In 1943 he received the title of Professor.  In the 1940s, Yefremov developed a new scientific field called taphonomy, for which he was awarded the Stalin prize in 1952. His book "Taphonomy" was published in 1950. He applied many taphonomic principles in his field work during a paleontological expedition to the Gobi desert in Mongolia. During these years, he was recognized as a successful scientist and won a state science award. Many American researches called Yefremov the father of modern palaeontology, who merged geological and palaeontological data into a single science.

Literature career.

Yefremov wrote his first work of fiction, a short story, in 1944. His first novel "The Land of Foam" ("Great Arc", 1946) was published in 1946. The "Road of Winds" novel was written on a basis of scientific expeditions in Mongolia (1946–1949). His most widely recognized science fiction novel "Andromeda Nebula" came out in 1957. This book is a panegyric to utopian "communist" future of mankind. The society developed such that there is no material inequality between individuals, and each person is able to pursue their self-development unrestricted. The intergalactic communication system binds mankind into the commonwealth of sentient civilizations of the Universe - the Great Ring of Civilizations. The book became a moral guideline for many people in the Soviet Union. Besides the heavy didactic aspect, the book also contained an interesting space travel adventure subplot, so a lot of people appreciated it for its educational and entertainment value. Algis Budrys compared Yefremov's fiction style to that of Hugo Gernsback.  With the time the socio-political circumstances in the world changed to more and more worrying, that changes were reflected in The Bull's Hour novel. Yefremov tried to give a warning about forthcoming catastrophes in environment, ethics and social sphere. Many considered the novel as a disguised criticism of the USSR, though the later researchers proved it wrong. The novel mostly showed the dead-end presprectives of Maoism and gangster capitalism. The government accused the novel of Anti-Sovietism and banned it from publishing up to the end of the 1980s.  Yefremov's last novel was "Thais of Athens", published in 1972. The narration was placed in the times of Alexander the Great. Its multiple topics included little-known female cults, questions of women inner worlds, their roles in global history; he raised questions of religion, cultural genesis, search for beauty and truth.

Personal life.

Yefremov was married three times. His first marriage in the early 1930s, to Ksenia Svitalskaya, was short-lived and ended in divorce. In 1936, he married paleontologist Elena Dometevna Konzhukova, with whom they had a son, Allan Ivanovich Yefremov. After his wife died on 1 August 1961, he married Taisiya Iosifovna Yukhnevskaya in 1962. His last novel "Thais of Athens", which was posthumously published in 1973, is dedicated to her.

Honors and awards.

A minor planet 2269 Efremiana discovered in 1976 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh is named after him.  The primitive therapsid "" was discovered by and named after his tutor Yefremov.

Bibliography.

Scientific works.

Ivan Yefremov has written more than 100 scientific works, especially about Permian tetrapods found in Russia, and on taphonomy. Only few of them were published in languages other than Russian. Below is a list of the works published in German or English. Source - the book "Ivan Antonovich Yefremov" by Petr Tchudinov (issued in 1987 by the Publishing House "Nauka", Moscow)

Ivan Antonovich (real patronymic Antipovich) Yefremov (; April 22, 1908 – October 5, 1972; last name sometimes spelled Efremov) was a Soviet paleontologist, science fiction author and social thinker. He is the founder of taphonomy, the study of fossilization patterns.

Ivan Antonovič Jefremov (, Vyrica u Petrohradu – 5. října 1972 Leningrad) byl sovětský paleontolog a spisovatel sci-fi. Svá první díla začal publikovat až ve věku 38 let. Mezi jeho nejslavnější díla patří kniha "Hvězdné koráby", napsaná v roce 1944 a publikovaná o čtyři roky později. V knize nabízí autor – sám zdatný objevitel dinosauřích fosilií z mongolské pouště Gobi – mimo jiné zajímavou, byť jen nevážně míněnou hypotézu o vyhynutí dinosaurů. Měli být vyhlazeni mimozemskými nájezdníky, čerpajícími energii a zdroje z vhodných planet, přičemž k Zemi se dostali právě na konci křídy.


History.

According to the Almanach de Gotha, the family was first recorded in 1242. They temporarily served as "ministeriales" of the Patriarchs of Aquileia, owners of Slovenj Gradec until the mid 14th century. One Conrad of Windischgracz (d. 1339) acted as a Habsburg administrator in the Habsburg Duchy of Styria from 1323 onwards.  In 1574 the dynasty obtained "Inkolat" in Bohemia; later, however, several members converted to Lutheranism and lost their estates in the course of the Thirty Years' War. The Austrian diplomat Gottlieb of Windisch-Graetz (1630–1695) again converted to Roman Catholicism in 1682 and was elevated to the rank of Count of the Holy Roman Empire by Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, in the same year. In 1693 his son Ernest Frederick (1670–1727) acquired Červená Lhota Castle in Southern Bohemia, which his descendant Joseph Nicholas of Windisch-Graetz (1744–1802) had to sell in 1755.  Count Alfred Candidus Ferdinand zu Windisch-Graetz (1787–1862) was elevated to the rank of "Fürst" (Prince) in 1804. After the Holy Roman Empire was abolished two years later, their territories were mediatized to Württemberg and Austria. Alfred and his brother Weriand were both created Princes of the Austrian Empire in 1822, with Alfred and his successors being the first line of Princes of Windisch-Graetz, and Weriand and his successors being the second line.  Great Britain's Princess Michael of Kent is descended from this family through her maternal grandmother, while her husband Prince Michael of Kent is a first cousin once removed of Archduchess Sophie Franziska of Austria, Princess of Windisch-Graetz.

(Mediatized) Princes of Windisch-Graetz.

Joseph Nicholas of Windisch-Graetz (1744–1802) was the father of both of the men whose lines are given below.

Coat of arms.

Gules, a wolf's head couped argent.

The House of Windisch-Graetz, also spelled Windisch-Grätz, is an Austrian-Slovenian aristocratic family, descending from Windischgraz in Lower Styria (present-day Slovenj Gradec, Slovenia). The noble dynasty serving the House of Habsburg achieved the rank of "Freiherren" in 1551, of Imperial Counts in 1682 and of Princes of the Holy Roman Empire in 1804. The family belongs to high nobility.

Windischgrätzové jsou rakouský šlechtický rod původem ze Štýrska, připomínaný od 13. století. Jejich původním sídlem bylo panství Windisch-Graetz (dnešní Slovenj Gradec ve Slovinsku), později vlastnili řadu statků ve Štýrsku a dalších rakouských zemích. Roku 1551 rod dostal stav svobodných pánů Svaté říše římské a dědičných zemí s predikátem "zu Waldstein und im Thal", roku 1557 hraběcí stav Svaté říše římské a dědičných zemí, v roce 1658 říšský hraběcí stav s predikátem Vysoce urozený (něm. "Hoch- und Wohlgebohren)". Český inkolát získal rod roku 1689. V 19. století se rod rozdělil do dvou hlavních větví, jejichž další osudy se odvíjely odlišně:


Monetary or fiscal policy?

Since the 1970s, it became clear that monetary policy performance has some benefits over fiscal policy due to the fact that it reduces political influence, as it is set by the central bank (to have an expanding economy before the general election, politicians might cut the interest rates). Additionally, fiscal policy can potentially have more supply-side effects on the economy: to reduce inflation, the measures of increasing taxes and lowering spending would not be preferred, so the government might be reluctant to use these. Monetary policy is generally quicker to implement as interest rates can be set every month, while the decision to increase government spending might take time to figure out which area the money should be spent on.  The recession of the 2000s decade shows that monetary policy also has certain limitations. A liquidity trap occurs when interest rate cuts are insufficient as a demand booster as banks do not want to lend and the consumers are reluctant to increase spending due to negative expectations for the economy. Government spending is responsible for creating the demand in the economy and can provide a kick-start to get the economy out of the recession. When a deep recession takes place, it is not sufficient to rely just on monetary policy to restore the economic equilibrium. Each side of these two policies has its differences, therefore, combining aspects of both policies to deal with economic problems has become a solution that is now used by the US. These policies have limited effects; however, fiscal policy seems to have a greater effect over the long-run period, while monetary policy tends to have a short-run success.  In 2000, a survey of 298 members of the American Economic Association (AEA) found that while 84 percent generally agreed with the statement "Fiscal policy has a significant stimulative impact on a less than fully employed economy", 71 percent also generally agreed with the statement "Management of the business cycle should be left to the Federal Reserve; activist fiscal policy should be avoided." In 2011, a follow-up survey of 568 AEA members found that the previous consensus about the latter proposition had dissolved and was by then roughly evenly disputed.

Stances.

Depending on the state of the economy, fiscal policy may reach for different objectives: its focus can be to restrict economic growth by mediating inflation or, in turn, increase economic growth by decreasing taxes, encouraging spending on different projects that act as stimuli to economic growth and enabling borrowing and spending. The three stances of fiscal policy are the following:  However, these definitions can be misleading because, even with no changes in spending or tax laws at all, cyclic fluctuations of the economy cause cyclic fluctuations of tax revenues and of some types of government spending, altering the deficit situation; these are not considered to be policy changes. Therefore, for purposes of the above definitions, "government spending" and "tax revenue" are normally replaced by "cyclically adjusted government spending" and "cyclically adjusted tax revenue". Thus, for example, a government budget that is balanced over the course of the business cycle is considered to represent a neutral and effective fiscal policy stance.

Methods of fiscal policy funding.

Governments spend money on a wide variety of things, from the military and police to services such as education and health care, as well as transfer payments such as welfare benefits. This expenditure can be funded in a number of different ways:

Borrowing.

A fiscal deficit is often funded by issuing bonds, such as Treasury bills or consols and gilt-edged securities. These pay interest, either for a fixed period or indefinitely. If the interest and capital requirements are too large, a nation may default on its debts, usually to foreign creditors. Public debt or borrowing refers to the government borrowing from the public.

Dipping into prior surpluses.

A fiscal surplus is often saved for future use, and may be invested in either local currency or any financial instrument that may be traded later once resources are needed and the additional debt is not needed.

Fiscal straitjacket.

The concept of a fiscal straitjacket is a general economic principle that suggests strict constraints on government spending and public sector borrowing, to limit or regulate the budget deficit over a time period. Most US states have balanced budget rules that prevent them from running a deficit. The United States federal government technically has a legal cap on the total amount of money it can borrow, but it is not a meaningful constraint because the cap can be raised as easily as spending can be authorized, and the cap is almost always raised before the debt gets that high.

Economic effects.

Governments use fiscal policy to influence the level of aggregate demand in the economy, so that certain economic goals can be achieved:  The Keynesian view of economics suggests that increasing government spending and decreasing the rate of taxes are the best ways to have an influence on aggregate demand, stimulate it, while decreasing spending and increasing taxes after the economic expansion has already taken place. Additionally, Keynesians argue that expansionary fiscal policy should be used in times of recession or low economic activity as an essential tool for building the framework for strong economic growth and working towards full employment. In theory, the resulting deficits would be paid for by an expanded economy during the expansion that would follow; this was the reasoning behind the New Deal.  Governments can use a budget surplus to do two things: Keynesian theory posits that removing spending from the economy will reduce levels of aggregate demand and contract the economy, thus stabilizing prices.  But economists still debate the effectiveness of fiscal stimulus. The argument mostly centers on crowding out: whether government borrowing leads to higher interest rates that may offset the stimulative impact of spending. When the government runs a budget deficit, funds will need to come from public borrowing (the issue of government bonds), overseas borrowing, or monetizing the debt. When governments fund a deficit with the issuing of government bonds, interest rates can increase across the market, because government borrowing creates higher demand for credit in the financial markets. This decreases aggregate demand for goods and services, either partially or entirely offsetting the direct expansionary impact of the deficit spending, thus diminishing or eliminating the achievement of the objective of a fiscal stimulus. Neoclassical economists generally emphasize crowding out while Keynesians argue that fiscal policy can still be effective, especially in a liquidity trap where, they argue, crowding out is minimal.  In the classical view, expansionary fiscal policy also decreases net exports, which has a mitigating effect on national output and income. When government borrowing increases interest rates it attracts foreign capital from foreign investors. This is because, all other things being equal, the bonds issued from a country executing expansionary fiscal policy now offer a higher rate of return. In other words, companies wanting to finance projects must compete with their government for capital so they offer higher rates of return. To purchase bonds originating from a certain country, foreign investors must obtain that country's currency. Therefore, when foreign capital flows into the country undergoing fiscal expansion, demand for that country's currency increases. The increased demand, in turn, causes the currency to appreciate, reducing the cost of imports and making exports from that country more expensive to foreigners. Consequently, exports decrease and imports increase, reducing demand from net exports.  Some economists oppose the discretionary use of fiscal stimulus because of the inside lag (the time lag involved in implementing it), which is almost inevitably long because of the substantial legislative effort involved. Further, the outside lag between the time of implementation and the time that most of the effects of the stimulus are felt could mean that the stimulus hits an already-recovering economy and overheats the ensuing h rather than stimulating the economy when it needs it.  Some economists are concerned about potential inflationary effects driven by increased demand engendered by a fiscal stimulus. In theory, fiscal stimulus does not cause inflation when it uses resources that would have otherwise been idle. For instance, if a fiscal stimulus employs a worker who otherwise would have been unemployed, there is no inflationary effect; however, if the stimulus employs a worker who otherwise would have had a job, the stimulus is increasing labor demand while labor supply remains fixed, leading to wage inflation and therefore price inflation.

In economics and political science, fiscal policy is the use of government revenue collection (taxes or tax cuts) and expenditure (spending) to influence a country's economy. The use of government revenues and expenditures to influence macroeconomic variables developed as a result of the Great Depression, when the previous laissez-faire approach to economic management became unpopular. Fiscal policy is based on the theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes, whose Keynesian economics theorized that government changes in the levels of taxation and government spending influences aggregate demand and the level of economic activity. Fiscal and monetary policy are the key strategies used by a country's government and central bank to advance its economic objectives. The combination of these policies enables these authorities to target inflation (which is considered "healthy" at the level in the range 2%–3%) and to increase employment. Additionally, it is designed to try to keep GDP growth at 2%–3% and the unemployment rate near the natural unemployment rate of 4%–5%. This implies that fiscal policy is used to stabilize the economy over the course of the business cycle.

Fiskální politika (rozpočtová) je součást hospodářské politiky státu, která se snaží ovlivnit vývoj ekonomiky změnami výše a struktury veřejných výdajů a daní. Na rozdíl od monetární politiky, která pečuje o stabilitu měny, je fiskální politika nástrojem aktivního zasahování státu do hospodářství.


History.

The extinct unclassified Boime language (also spelled "Poyme") was spoken by indigenous peoples near Aracajú on the São Francisco River.

Economy.

The economy is based on services and industry.  The GDP for the city was (2013).  In recent years, the city has been invigorated by major investors from both eastern Europe (especially from Belarus and Russia) and China setting to be a key city on the Brics relations worldwide as well as a 'Mercocity' (adopted from Mercosur).

Tourism and recreation.

The city has emerged as a good choice in low-cost tourism. Seen and recognized as one of the safest (63 murders per 100,000; No. 12 city in world; List of cities by murder rate) capitals in the Northeast region and the lowest costs of living in the country, more recently has focused its tourism business in creating quality accommodation, such as world-renowned hostels. Planned public transportation improvements were aimed at increasing the comfort and integration to the visitors users. In advance of seeking access facilities, bus lines have been reformed and can be monitored in real time here

Sports.

At the 2016 Summer Olympics the city hosted teams from seven countries. Football athletes from Japan and gymnasts and swimmers curiously mostly from many eastern European countries like Poland, Austria, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Ukraine and Czech Republic established the city as home-base for training.  For the 2016 Summer Paralympics Games the city is accommodating athletes from Eurasian Economic Community countries such as the Kazakhstani paralympic team and the Belarus paralympic team, including paralympic swimmer champion Ihar Boki.

Transportation.

Air.

Aracaju is served by Santa Maria Airport, a domestic commercial airport. It dates to 1952 and became fully functional in 1958. The airport is located in the Santa Maria neighborhood of the city and is located from downtown Aracaju.

Roads.

Aracaju is located on the northern segment of BR-101, a major north-south longitudinal highway in Brazil. It is also the easternmost point of BR-235, an incomplete highway which is projected to run from Aracaju west to Novo Progresso, Pará.

Geography.

Climate.

Aracaju's climate is hot and humid, and the city experiences a tropical monsoon climate. The average annual temperature is and average annual rainfall is.  The hottest months Aracaju experiences are January, February and March, with temperatures averaging, while the average highs are and the minimum is. The mildest are July and August, with temperatures averaging, with a mean maximum not exceeding, and at night the temperature drops to. However, it may happen that the temperature gets warmer in “winter” and cooler in “summer,” as in 2002.  Aracaju experiences its wettest months between March and July, owing to the strong wind created by lower temperatures in the South and Southeast. During this period, the average amount of rainfall exceeds per month, and the rainiest month of all is May, when rainfall averages approximately. The driest months, between September and February, see the winds weakening and only really managing to bring light clouds. There is also less rain. The driest month is November, when rainfall averages approximately. The average rainfall during these months is between approximately.

Aracaju () is the capital of the State of Sergipe, Brazil, located in the northeastern part of the country on the coast, about 350 km (217 mi) north of Salvador. According to the 2016 Census, the city has 641 523 inhabitants, which represents approximately 33% of the state population. Adding to the populations of the municipalities forming the Metropolitan area: Barra dos Coqueiros, Nossa Senhora do Socorro and São Cristóvão.

Aracaju je brazilské město, hlavní město státu Sergipe. Nachází se v severovýchodní části země, asi 350 km severně od Salvadoru. V současnosti zde žije více než 505 000 obyvatel, tedy zhruba třetina státu Sergipe. Město je známé pro svou moderní architekturu, čisté pláže a karnevaly. Ve městě se nachází mezinárodní letiště. S ostatními velkými městy je "Aracaju" propojeno dálnicemi BR-235 a BR-101.


Socio-political importance.

According to some observers, interlocks allow for cohesion, coordinated action, and unified political-economic power of corporate executives. They allow corporations to increase their influence by exerting power as a group, and to work together towards common goals. They help corporate executives maintain an advantage, and gain more power over workers and consumers, by reducing intra-class competition and increasing cooperation. In the words of Scott R. Bowman, interlocks "facilitate a community of interest among the elite of the corporate world that supplants the competitive and socially divisive ethos of an earlier stage of capitalism with an ethic of cooperation and a sense of shared values and goals."  Interlocks act as communication channels, enabling information to be shared between boards via multiple directors who have access to inside information for multiple companies. The system of interlocks forms what Michael Useem calls a "transcorporate network, overarching all sectors of business". Interlocks have benefits over trusts, cartels, and other monopolistic/oligopolistic forms of organization, due to their greater fluidity, and lower visibility (making them less open to public scrutiny). They also benefit the involved companies, due to reduced competition, increased information availability for directors, and increased prestige.  Some theorists believe that because multiple directors often have interests in firms in different industries, they are more likely to think in terms of general corporate class interests, rather than simply the narrow interests of individual corporations. Also, these individuals tend to come from wealthy backgrounds, socialize with the upper classes, and tend to have worked their way up the corporate hierarchy, making it more likely that they have internalized values that will cause them to personally support policies that are beneficial to business in general.  Furthermore, multiple directors tend to be more frequently appointed to government positions, and sit on more non-profit/foundation boards than other directors. Thus, these individuals (known as the "inner circle" of the corporate class) tend to contribute disproportionately to the policy-planning and government groups that represent the interests of the corporate class, and are the ones that are most likely to deal with general policy issues and handle political problems for the business class as a whole. These individuals and the people around them are often considered to be the "ruling class" in modern politics. However, they do not wield absolute power, and they are not monolithic, often differing on which policies will best serve the interests of the upper classes.  Interlocks not only occur between corporations, but also between corporations and non-profit institutions such as foundations, think tanks, policy-planning groups, and universities. They can also be seen as a subset of connections in a larger upper class social network which includes all of the aforementioned types of institutions as well as elite social clubs, schools, resorts, and gatherings. Multiple directors are "roughly twice as likely as single directors to be in the Social Register, to have attended a prestigious private school, or to belong to an elite social club."

Modern interlock networks.

Analyses of corporate interlocks have found a high degree of interconnectedness amongst large corporations. It has also been shown that inbound interlocks (i.e. a network link from external firms into a focal firm) have a much greater impact and importance than outbound interlocks, a finding that laid the foundation for further research on inter-organizational networks based on overlapping memberships and other linkages such as joint ventures and patent backward and forward citations. Virtually all large U.S. corporations are linked together in a network of interlocks. Most corporations are within 3 or 4 "steps" from each other within this network. Approximately 15–20% of all directors sit on two or more boards.  The largest corporations tend to have the most interlocks, and also tend to have interlocks with each other, placing them at the center of the network. Major banks, in particular, tend to be at the center of the network and have large numbers of interlocks. With the globalization of financial capital following World War II, multinational interlocks have become progressively more common. As the Cold War escalated, well-connected members of the CIA harnessed these interconnections to launder money through front foundations, as well as more substantial institutions such as the Ford Foundation. A relatively small number of individuals—a few dozen—bind this multinational network together by participating in transnational interlocks and sitting on the boards of multiple global policy groups (such as the Council on Foreign Relations).

Legality.

In the United States, the Clayton Act prohibits interlocking directorates by U.S. companies competing in the same industry, if those corporations would violate antitrust laws if combined into a single corporation. However, at least 1 in 8 of the interlocks in the United States are between corporations that are supposedly competitors.

1970 graphs.

In 1979 Levin and Roy reported on interlocking directors at 797 corporations in 1970 where the board of directors ranged from 3 to 47 members, with a mean size of 13. Only 18% of the 8623 directors were on more than one board, though the mean number of interlockers for a corporation was 8. The components of the graph were 62 isolated boards, four pairs of corporations interlocked by one or more directors, a triad of interlocked corporations, and the greater component of 724 corporations. For an arbitrary pair of corporations in this component the median path length was 3. Levin and Roy tested the graph for cut points and failed to find any with their search starting with corporations with large boards.  In a study of clustering in the graph, Levin and Roy demonstrated the use of a bipartite graph with corporations listed on one side and directors with multiple seats on the other. The clusters become evident in a physical model using elastic bands and paper clips. The directors and corporations are listed arbitrarily to begin and the elastic bands placed as edges of the bipartite graph. Then a perusal of the elastics may suggest a re-ordering on one side or the other with the elastics slightly less tense. After some iteration this procedure reveals a cluster structure in the bipartite graph.

Interlocking directorate refers to the practice of members of a corporate board of directors serving on the boards of multiple corporations. A person that sits on multiple boards is known as a "multiple director". Two firms have a "direct interlock" if a director or executive of one firm is also a director of the other, and an "indirect interlock" if a director of each sits on the board of a third firm. This practice, although widespread and lawful, raises questions about the quality and independence of board decisions.

Interlocking Directorates (z angl., do češtiny by se dalo přeložit jako "střetávající se/prolínající se představenstva/vedení") je případ, kdy dvě nebo více podniků, firem, společností nebo korporací sdílí ve svém nejvyšším managementu tytéž lidi.


History.

The hall of fame and museum are located in the Newport Casino, which was commissioned in 1879 by James Gordon Bennett Jr. as part of an exclusive resort for wealthy Newport summer residents. It was designed by Charles McKim along with Stanford White, who did the interiors. It is an example of Victorian Shingle Style architecture. In 1881, the Real Tennis Court (housing the National Tennis Club) and the Casino Theatre were constructed at the east end of the campus. The club was opened on July 1, 1880 after a six-month construction period and quickly became a fashionable venue for Newport summer residents.  The United States Lawn Tennis Association held its first championships at the Newport Casino in 1881. The event was held annually through 1914, by which time tennis had become the key attraction at the resort. The championship was suspended during World War I.  But by the 1950s, the retreat was struggling financially, as tourism preferences changed. It was at risk of being demolished for redevelopment of modern retail space, but the building was purchased and saved by Jimmy and Candy Van Alen, wealthy Newport summer residents. A sportsman himself, in 1954, Jimmy Van Alen established the Tennis Hall of Fame and Museum in the Casino. The combination of tennis matches and the museum allowed the building to be saved. Van Alen intended the facility to be "a shrine to the ideals of the game", and was elected president of the hall in 1957. The International Tennis Hall of Fame was officially sanctioned by the United States Tennis Association at its foundation in 1954. It was recognized by the International Tennis Federation in 1986. The first Hall of Fame members were inducted in 1955; as of 2017, a total of 252 inductees from 23 countries have been recognized..  In 2015, Martina Hingis was appointed as the first Global Ambassador for the International Tennis Hall of Fame. The current Board of Governors includes former professional tennis players Todd Martin, Stan Smith and Katrina Adams.

Collection.

The museum houses a large collection of artifacts and memorabilia – including videos, photographs, audio recordings, tennis equipment and apparel, trophies, and art – highlighting the history of tennis from its origins up through the modern era. The collection is displayed year-round in the museum's of exhibit space.

Hall of Fame Tennis Championships.

The Hall of Fame hosts several tournaments, including the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships. Part of the men's ATP World Tour, the tournament is the only grass court event in North America. Top male players come to Newport directly from Wimbledon to compete for the Van Alen Cup at the International Tennis Hall of Fame. Past champions include Americans John Isner, and Mardy Fish, as well as two-time champion Fabrice Santoro of France.

The International Tennis Hall of Fame is located in Newport, Rhode Island, United States. It honors both players and other contributors to the sport of tennis. The complex, the former Newport Casino, includes a museum, grass tennis courts, an indoor tennis facility, and a court tennis (or real tennis) facility.

Mezinárodní tenisová síň slávy (angl.: "International Tennis Hall of Fame") je nezisková expozice a muzeum ve městě Newport na Rhode Islandu (USA).


Early life.

Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 during the Dutch East Indies era, in a plaited-bamboo-walled house in the hamlet of Kemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean. The village is west of Yogyakarta, the cultural heartland of the Javanese. Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the only child of his father's second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage and was a village irrigation official. His mother, Sukirah, a local woman, was distantly related to Hamengkubuwana V by his first concubine.  Five weeks after Suharto's birth, his mother suffered a nervous breakdown, and he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt, Kromodirjo. Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto's life and both later remarried. At the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies. In 1929, Suharto's father took him to live with his sister, who was married to an agricultural supervisor, Prawirowihardjo, in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low-yielding farming area near Wonogiri. Over the following two years, he was taken back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and

Military career.

World War II and Japanese occupation.

Suharto finished middle school at the age of 18 and took a clerical job at a bank in Wuryantaro. He was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes. Following a spell of unemployment, he joined the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) in June 1940 and undertook basic training in Gombong near Yogyakarta. With the Netherlands under German occupation and the Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies, the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese. Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal, graduated from a short training course at KNIL "Kaderschool" in Gombong to become a sergeant, and was posted to a KNIL reserve battalion in Cisarua.  Following the Dutch surrender to the invading Japanese forces in March 1942, Suharto abandoned his KNIL uniform and went back to Wurjantoro. After months

Indonesian National Revolution.

Two days after the Japanese surrender in the Pacific, independence leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian independence and were appointed president and vice-president respectively of the new Republic. Suharto disbanded his regiment under orders from the Japanese command and returned to Yogyakarta. As republican groups rose to assert Indonesian independence, Suharto joined a new unit of the newly formed Indonesian army. Based on his PETA experience, he was appointed deputy commander, and subsequently, a battalion commander when the republican forces were formally organised in October 1945. Suharto was involved in fighting against Allied troops around Magelang and Semarang and was subsequently appointed the head of a brigade as

Post-Independence military career.

In the years following Indonesian independence, Suharto served in the Indonesian National Army, primarily in Java. In 1950, as a colonel, he led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing the Makassar Uprising, a rebellion of former colonial soldiers who supported the Dutch-established State of East Indonesia and its federal entity, the United States of Indonesia. During his year in Makassar, Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours, the Habibie family, whose eldest son BJ Habibie was later Suharto's vice-president, and went on to succeed him as president. In 1951–1952, Suharto led his troops in defeating the Islamic-inspired rebellion of Battalion 426 in the Klaten area of Central Java. Appointed to lead four battalions in early 1953, he organised their participation in battling Darul Islam insurgents in northwestern Central Java and anti-bandit operations in the Mount Merapi area. He also sought to stem leftist sympathies amongst his troops. His experience in this period left Suharto with a deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism. Between 1956 and 1959, he

Overthrow of Sukarno (1965).

Background.

Tensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when Sukarno endorsed the immediate implementation of the PKI's proposal for a "fifth armed force" consisting of armed peasants and workers. However, this idea was rejected by the army's leadership as being tantamount to the PKI establishing its own armed forces. In May, the "Gilchrist Document" aroused Sukarno's fear of a military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he repeatedly mentioned during the next few months. On his independence day speech in August, Sukarno declared his intention to

Abortive coup and anti-communist purge.

Before dawn on 1 October 1965, six army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by soldiers from the Presidential Guard, Diponegoro Division, and Brawidjaja Division. Soldiers occupied Merdeka Square including the areas in front of the Presidential Palace, the national radio station, and telecommunications centre. At 7:10 am Untung bin Syamsuri announced on the radio that the "30 September Movement" had forestalled a coup attempt on Sukarno by "CIA-backed power-mad generals", and that it was "an internal army affair". The Movement never made any attempt on Suharto's life.

Power struggle.

Sukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population, and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of the 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats.  In January 1966, university students under the banner of KAMI, begin demonstrations against

The "New Order" (1967–1998).

Ideology.

Suharto promoted his "New Order", as opposed to Sukarno's "Old Order", as a society based on the Pancasila ideology. After initially being careful not to offend sensitivities of Islamic scholars who feared Pancasila might develop into a quasi-religious cult, Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1983 which obliged all organisations in Indonesia

Consolidation of power.

Having been appointed president, Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mere "primus inter pares", and Islamic and student groups who participated in the anti-Communist purge. Suharto, aided by his "Office of Personal Assistants" ("Aspri") clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division, particularly Ali Murtopo, began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives.  Having successfully stood-down MPRS chairman General Nasution's 1968 attempt to introduce a bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority, Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972. In 1967, generals Hartono Rekso Dharsono, Kemal Idris, and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo (dubbed "New Order Radicals") opposed Suharto's decision to allow participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of a non-ideological two-party system similar to those found in many Western countries. Suharto sent Dharsono overseas as an ambassador, while Idris and Wibowo were sent to distant North Sumatra and South Sulawesi as regional commanders.  Suharto's previously strong relationship

Domestic politics and security.

To placate demands from civilian politicians for the holding of elections, as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967, Suharto government formulated a series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations. The law provided for a parliament ("Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat"/MPR) with the power to elect presidents, consisting of a house of representatives ("Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat"/DPR) and regional representatives. 100 of the 460 members of DPR would be directly appointed by the government, while the remaining seats were allocated to political organizations based on results of the general election. This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs, particularly the appointment of presidents.  To participate in the elections, Suharto realised the need to align himself with a political party. After initially considering alignment with Sukarno's old party the PNI, in 1969 Suharto decided to take over control of an obscure military-run

Economy.

To stabilize the economy and to ensure long-term support for the New Order, Suharto's administration enlisted a group of mostly US-educated Indonesian economists, dubbed the "Berkeley Mafia", to formulate significant changes in economic policy. By cutting subsidies, decreasing government debt, and reforming the exchange rate mechanism, inflation was lowered from 660% in 1966 to 19% in 1969. The threat of famine was alleviated by the influx of USAID rice aid shipments from 1967 to 1968.  With a lack of domestic capital that was required for economic growth, the New Order reversed Sukarno's economic self-sufficiency policies and opened selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment through the 1967 Foreign Investment Law. Suharto travelled to Western Europe and Japan to promote investment in Indonesia. The first foreign investors to re-enter Indonesia included mining companies Freeport Sulphur

Foreign policy.

Upon assuming power, Suharto government adopted a policy of neutrality in the Cold War but was nevertheless quietly aligned with the Western bloc (including Japan and South Korea) to secure support for Indonesia's economic recovery. Western countries, impressed by Suharto's strong anti-communist credentials, were quick to offer their support. Diplomatic relations with China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in the 30 September Movement (diplomatic relations was only restored in 1990). Due to Suharto's destruction of PKI, the Soviet Union embargoed military sales to Indonesia. However, from 1967 to 1970 foreign minister Adam Malik managed to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from the Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states. Regionally, having ended confrontation with Malaysia in August 1966, Indonesia became a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in August 1967. This organisation is

Socio-economic progress and growing corruption.

Real socio-economic progress sustained support for Suharto's regime across three decades. By 1996, Indonesia's poverty rate has dropped to around 11% compared with 45% in 1970. From 1966 to 1997, Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5.03% pa, pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US$806 to US$4,114. In 1966, the manufacturing sector made up less than 10% of GDP (mostly industries related to oil and agriculture). By 1997, manufacturing had risen to 25% of GDP, and 53% of exports consisted of manufactured products. The government invested in massive infrastructure development (notably the launching of a series of Palapa telecommunication satellites); consequently, Indonesian infrastructure in the mid-1990s was considered at par with China. Suharto was keen to capitalize on such achievements to justify his regime, and

The New Order in the 1980s and 1990s.

By the 1980s, Suharto's grip on power was maintained by the emasculation of civil society, engineered elections, and use of the military's coercive powers. Upon his retirement from the military in June 1976, Suharto undertook a re-organisation of the armed forces that concentrated power away from commanders to the president. In March 1983, he appointed General Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani as head of the armed forces who adopted a hard-line approach on elements who challenged the administration. As a Roman Catholic, he was not a political threat to Suharto.  From 1983 to 1985, army squads killed up to 10,000 suspected criminals in response to a spike in the crime rate (see "Petrus Killings"). Suharto's imposition of Pancasila as the sole ideology

Economic crisis and resignation.

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. From mid-1997 there were large capital outflows and against the US dollar. Due to poor bank lending practices, many Indonesian companies borrowed cheaper US dollar loans while their income is mainly in Indonesian rupiah. The weakening rupiah spurred panic buying of US dollar by these companies, causing the Indonesian rupiah to drop in value from a pre-crisis level of Rp. 2,600 to a low point in early 1998 of around Rp. 17,000. Consequently, many companies were bankrupted and the economy shrank by 13.7%, leading to sharp increases in unemployment and poverty across the country. Efforts by the central bank to defend the rupiah proved futile and only drained the country's

Post-presidency.

After resigning from the presidency, Suharto became a recluse in his family's compound in the Menteng area of Jakarta, protected by soldiers and rarely making public appearances. Suharto's family spent much of their time fending-off corruption investigations. However, Suharto himself was protected from grave prosecution by politicians who owed their positions to the former president, as indicated in the leaked telephone conversation between President Habibie and attorney-general Andi Muhammad Ghalib in February 1999.  In May 1999, "Time Asia" estimated Suharto's family fortune at US$15 billion in cash, shares, corporate assets, real estate, jewellery and fine art. Suharto sued the magazine seeking more than $US 27 billion in damages for libel over the article. On 10 September 2007, Indonesia's Supreme Court awarded Suharto damages against "Time Asia" magazine, ordering it to pay him one trillion rupiah ($128.59 million). The High Court reversed the judgement of an appellate court and Central Jakarta district court (made in 2000 and 2001).  Suharto was placed highest on Transparency International's list of corrupt leaders with alleged misappropriation of between US$15–35 billion during his 32-year presidency.  On 29 May 2000, Suharto was placed under house arrest when Indonesian authorities began to investigate the corruption during his presidency. In July 2000, it was announced that he was to be accused of embezzling US$571 million of government donations to one of several foundations under his control and then using the money to finance family investments. However, in September court-appointed doctors announced that he could not stand trial because of his declining health. State prosecutors tried again in 2002, but then doctors cited an unspecified brain disease. On 26 March 2008, a civil court judge acquitted Suharto of corruption but ordered his charitable foundation, Supersemar, to pay US$110 m (£55 m).  In 2002, Suharto's son Tommy was sentenced to 15 years' jail for ordering the killing of a judge (who had previously convicted him of corruption), illegal weapons possession and fleeing justice. In 2006, he was freed on "conditional release".  In 2003, Suharto's half-brother Probosutedjo was tried and convicted for corruption and the loss of $10 million from the Indonesian state. He was sentenced to four years in jail. He later won a reduction of his sentence to two years, initiating a probe by the Indonesian Corruption Eradication Commission into the alleged scandal of the "judicial mafia" which uncovered offers of $600,000 to various judges. Probosutedjo confessed to the scheme in October 2005, leading to the arrest of his lawyers. His full four-year term was reinstated. After a brief standoff at a hospital, in which he was reportedly protected by a group of police officers, he was arrested on 30 November 2005.  On 9 July 2007, Indonesian prosecutors filed a civil lawsuit against former President Suharto, to recover state funds ($440 m or £219 m, which allegedly disappeared from a scholarship fund, and a further $1.1 billion in damages).

Health.

After resigning from the presidency, Suharto was hospitalised repeatedly for stroke, heart, and intestinal problems. His declining health hindered attempts to prosecute him as his lawyers successfully claimed that his condition rendered him unfit for trial. Moreover, there was little support within Indonesia for any attempts to prosecute him. In 2006, Attorney

Death.

On 4 January 2008, Suharto was taken to the Pertamina hospital, Jakarta with complications arising from poor health, swelling of limbs and stomach, and partial renal failure. His health fluctuated for several weeks but progressively worsened with anaemia and low blood pressure due to heart and kidney complications, internal bleeding, fluid on his lungs, and blood in his faeces and urine which caused a haemoglobin drop. On 23 January, Suharto's health worsened further, as a sepsis infection spread through his body. His family consented to the removal of life support machines if his condition did not improve and he died on 27 January at 1:09 pm.  Minutes

Suharto (; ; 8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian military leader and politician who served as the second president of Indonesia, holding the office for 31 years, from the ousting of Sukarno in 1967 until his resignation in 1998. He was widely regarded by foreign observers as a dictator. However, the legacy of his 31-year rule is still debated at home and abroad.

Suharto, starým pravopisem Soeharto (8. června 1921, Kemusuk, Yogyakarta – 27. ledna 2008, Jakarta, Indonésie), byl indonéský vojenský a politický vůdce. V Indonéské národní revoluci sloužil jako vojenský důstojník, ale lépe je znám jako dlouhovládnoucí 2. prezident Indonésie.


Biography.

Early life and education.

Alexander was born in Philadelphia on January 30, 1924 and grew up in Drexel Hill, a section of Upper Darby just west of the city. His father was a stockbroker and the family was much affected by the Great Depression. His parents only read newspapers, but they did buy books "at the Salvation Army to fill up empty shelves." Lloyd was a reader of books: "Shakespeare, Dickens, Mark Twain and so many others were my dearest friends and greatest teachers. I loved all the world's mythologies; King Arthur was one of my heroes". In addition to being interested in art, Alexander wanted to become an Episcopalian priest; however, his family could not afford to send him to Divinity School. Passionate about writing, Alexander believed he could preach and worship God through his writing and his art. In high school, he began writing romantic poetry modeled after the work of nineteenth-century poets and writing narrative short stories; however, he failed to acquire interest from publishers. His parents found him a job as a bank messenger, which inspired a satire that would become his first book published fifteen years later, "And Let the Credit Go" (1955). He graduated at age sixteen in 1940 from Upper Darby High School, where he was inducted into the school's Wall of Fame in 1995.  He attended West Chester State Teachers College for only one term because he did not find the curriculum rigorous enough. After dropping out of college, Alexander worked for six months in the mailroom of the Atlantic Refining Company. Alexander judged that adventure, not college, was the best school for a writer and that US Army participation in World War II was an opportunity. The army shipped him to Texas where he played cymbals in the band and served as a chaplain's assistant. He had the opportunity to study French language, politics, customs, and geography at Lafayette College through the army. He was later moved to Camp Ritchie, Maryland, to receive specialized intelligence training. He rose to be a staff sergeant in intelligence and counterintelligence.  Alexander was stationed in Wales and England briefly and then was assigned to the 7th army in eastern France where he translated radio messages for six months. His next assignment was for the Paris office of the Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC) where he worked as a translator and an interpreter until the end of 1945. After the war, Alexander attended the University of Paris where he studied French literature and was fascinated by the poetry of Paul Éluard. Alexander managed to arrange a visit with Éluard and showed him his English translations of his work. Éluard immediately named Alexander his sole English translator. In Paris, he met Janine Denni who had a young daughter named Madeleine. Alexander and Denni were married on January 8, 1946, and soon moved to Philadelphia. The three moved into the attic of his parents home where Alexander spent twelve hours a day translating Éluard's work and writing his own works.

Writing career.

For about fifteen years in Philadelphia, Alexander wrote primarily fiction, non-fiction, and translations for adults. He wrote "novel after novel" for seven years before his first book was published (1955). In order to make extra income, Alexander worked as a potter's apprentice for his sister Florence. At the end of 1948, Alexander found a job writing advertising copy and he began to receive more royalties for his translations, leading him to purchase a house for his family in Kellytown. However, he lost his job after three months requiring his wife to take up employment in a textile mill to make ends meet. Alexander's breakthrough came with his novel "And Let the Credit Go" (1955), his first autobiographical work which he focused on his experience as a bank messenger in his adolescence. He wrote his second novel "My Five Tigers" (1956) about his cats, continuing the trend of writing about subjects familiar to him. He found work as a copyeditor and a cartoonist where he finished his last four adult publications. He wrote two semi-autobiographical novels: "Janine is French" (1959) and "My Love Affair with Music" (1960). Alexander co-authored "Park Avenue Vet" (1960) with Louis Camuti, who specialized in treating cats. The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals subsequently commissioned their history, which Alexander wrote as "Fifty Years in the Doghouse" (1964). During that time he wrote two non-fiction books for children, biographies for August Bondi and Aaron Lopez commissioned by the Jewish Publication Society, the former of which won the National Jewish Book Award in 1959. Alexander's subsequent novel was his first of the fantasy genre "Time Cat" (1963), which he later called "the most creative and liberating experience of my life".  Almost forty years old, he then specialized in children's fantasy, the genre of his best-known works. His wartime tenure in Wales introduced him to castles and scenery that would inspire settings for many of his books and to Welsh language whose medieval literature—Welsh mythology, especially the "Mabinogion"—was a source for "The Chronicles of Prydain" in particular. Alexander signed a book deal with Henry Holt and Company for a trilogy called The Sons of Llyr. After the release of the first novel, "The Book of Three" (1964), the series became known as The Chronicles of Prydain. The second book of the series "The Black Cauldron" followed in 1965. After beginning the third book "The Castle of Llyr" (1966), Alexander decided his story needed to be told in four books, not three, and he planned his fourth and final novel "The High King of Prydain". After having a near-death experience, Alexander hastily finished "The High King", concerned he would be unable to finish his saga. However, the book was not well received by his editor Ann Durell who suggested that he write a fourth book in-between "The Castle of Llyr" and "The High King" (1968); this book became "Taran Wanderer" (1967). The five novels detail the adventures of a young man named Taran, who dreams of being a sword-bearing hero but has only the title Assistant Pig-Keeper. He progresses from youth to maturity and must finally choose whether to be High King of Prydain. Alexander also wrote two spin-off children's books from the Prydain series "Coll and His White Pig" (1965) and "The Truthful Harp" (1967). Alexander won the John Newberry Medal for "The High King" in 1969.  Alexander's novel "The Marvelous Misadventures of Sebastian" (1970) was rejected after its first submission, and Alexander rewrote it three times before it was published. It won the National Book Award in 1971. He published two picture books: "The King's Fountain" (1971) for which he collaborated with the author Ezra Jack Keats, and "The Four Donkeys" (1972). He wrote the novel "The Cat Who Wished to be a Man" in 1973. The same year Alexander published "The Foundling: And Other Tales of Prydain", a companion book to the Prydain series. After the success of "Prydain", Alexander was chosen to be author-in-residence at Temple University from 1970 to 1974. He once described it as being educational for him and as "rather like being a visiting uncle, who has a marvelous time with his nephews and nieces, then goes off leaving the parents to cope with attacks of whooping cough, mending socks and blackmailing the kids to straighten up the mess in their rooms." Alexander wrote "The Wizard in the Tree" while suffering from depression and published it in 1975. The character Arbican was based on Alexander and his personal struggles. In 1977 Alexander published "The Town Cats", which received more favorable critical reception than "The Wizard in the Tree". His next book "The First Two Lives of Lukas-Kasha", set in a fantasy world based on 15th century Persia, was published in 1978. It won the Silver Slate Pencil Award in Holland and the Austrian Book Award in Austria.  Alexander's other fiction series are "Westmark" (1981 to 1984) and "Vesper Holly" (1987 to 1990 and 2005). "Westmark" features a former printer's apprentice involved in rebellion and civil war in a fictional European kingdom around 1800. Vesper Holly is a wealthy and brilliant Philadelphia orphan who has adventures in various fictional countries during the 1870s. There was some controversy about "The Fortune-Tellers" (1992), a picture book illustrated by Trina Schart Hyman. Some felt that the story was European in origin and therefore inappropriate for its African setting. Alexander's last novel, "The Golden Dream of Carlo Chuchio", was published in August 2007. According to "Dictionary of Literary Biography", Alexander's books had "the special depth and insight provided by characters who not only act, but think, feel and struggle with the same kinds of problems that confuse and trouble people in the twentieth century." Alexander helped create the children's literary magazine "Cricket". Alexander has indicated that he modeled the bard character Fflewddur Fflam in "The Chronicles of Prydain" partly after himself: "Rumor has is that we have very similar personalities. I will neither confirm nor deny that". Alexander died on May 17, 2007, of cancer, a few weeks after the death of his wife of sixty-one years. He is buried at Arlington Cemetery in Drexel Hill.

Awards and honors.

He first garnered significant critical acclaim with his "The Chronicles of Prydain" series. The second volume ("The Black Cauldron") was a runner-up for the 1966 Newbery Medal; the fourth ("Taran Wanderer") was a "School Library Journal" Best Book of the Year; the fifth and concluding volume ("The High King") won the 1969 Newbery. The Newbery Medal from the American Library Association annually recognizes one book as the "most distinguished contribution to American literature for children". For his contribution as a children's writer, Alexander was U.S. nominee in 1996 and again in 2008 for the biennial, international Hans Christian Andersen Award, the highest recognition available to creators of children's books. Many of Alexander's later books were praised. "The Marvelous Misadventures of Sebastian" won the 1971 National Book Award in category Children's Books and in 1982 "Westmark" also won a National Book Award. "The Fortune-Tellers", illustrated by Trina Schart Hyman, won the 1992 Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in the Picture Book category. Alexander was included in the 1972 third volume of the HW Wilson reference series, "Book of Junior Authors and Illustrators"—early in his career as a children's writer, but after "Prydain" was complete. He received at least three lifetime achievement awards. In 1991 the Free Library of Philadelphia and the Pennsylvania Center for the Book awarded him the Pennbook Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2001 he received the inaugural Parents' Choice Foundation Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2003 Alexander received the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement.  On January 28, 2010 an exhibit opened at the Harold B. Lee Library on the campus of Brigham Young University, displaying several items from Alexander's home office, which he referred to as "the Box." Items include manuscripts, editions of all his books, his violin, typewriter, and desk. On October 19, 2012 a documentary chronicling the life and writings of Alexander was released. The film is titled "Lloyd Alexander". On September 23, 2014 to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the series, Henry Holt published a special "50th Anniversary Edition" of "The Book of Three".

Works.

Other.

Two of the first six books are historical biographies, four are autobiographical, according to the Internet Speculative Fiction Database.

Film adaptations.

In 1985, a Disney animated film, "The Black Cauldron" (1985) was based on the first two books. The first Disney animated film to employ computer-generated images, it was a box-office failure and received mixed critical reviews. It was not released for home video for over a decade later. As of 2016, Disney is in early production of another adaptation of the "Prydain" series.

Lloyd Chudley Alexander (January 30, 1924 – May 17, 2007) was an American author of more than forty books, primarily fantasy novels for children and young adults. Over his seven decade career, Alexander wrote 48 books and his work has been translated into 20 languages. His most famous work is "The Chronicles of Prydain", a series of five high fantasy novels whose conclusion, "The High King", was awarded the 1969 Newbery Medal for excellence in American children's literature. He won U.S. National Book Awards in 1971 and 1982.

Lloyd Chudley Alexander (30. ledna 1924 – 17. května 2007) byl americký autor více než čtyřiceti knih, převážně žánru fantasy. Jeho nejvýznamnějším příspěvkem na poli literatury je v českém vydání dvoudílná fantasy série "Kroniky Prydainu" ( "The Chronicles of Prydain") (v angličnině byla vydávána po částech).


List of Israeli universities and colleges

Universities.

Israel's universities are listed below, followed by their English acronym, establishment date, location, latest data about the number of students and the institute's academic rank of the top world universities, according to WebOMetrics (top 3000), Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU) (top 500) and The Times Higher Education Supplement (THES) (top 200):  Most universities offer the full range of graduate and undergraduate degrees – bachelor's, master's and the doctorate. However, the Weizmann Institute does not offer the bachelor's degree and the Open University does not offer the doctorate.  The Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya is awaiting accreditation by the CHEI to award an Israeli PhD degree in Law. Currently, IDC Herzliya offers Bachelor's, Master's, and doctoral degrees with non-Israeli accreditation.

Colleges.

Other institutes of higher education that are accredited by CHEI to confer a bachelor's (and in some cases a master's) degree are known as "colleges" ( "Mikhlala"; pl. "Mikhlalot"). There are also over twenty teacher training colleges - most of which will award only the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.).  Located in the Israeli occupied territories

Non-degree post-secondary education schools.

The Ministry of Education has also certified certain institutions to award Professional Certificates instead of academic degrees. These include certificates in technology and in the performing arts.

Non-Israeli certified Colleges.

Several colleges – primarily religious institutions – operate in Israel that are "not" certified by the CHEI, but rather are accredited by international bodies outside of Israel.

Foreign university campuses.

The following foreign colleges and universities maintain international branch campuses in Israel:  Of note, the prestigious NYU, which enrolls the largest number of Jewish students of any public or private university in the United States, and is ranked in the top 34 globally in all major publications of university rankings, has a campus in Tel Aviv.

This is a list of universities and colleges in Israel. There are eight universities and several dozen colleges in Israel, which are recognized and academically supervised by the Council for Higher Education in Israel. In addition, Israel founded a university in Ariel in the West Bank, which is recognized and academically supervised by the Council for Higher Education in Judea and Samaria. As many course offerings are varied, Israeli universities are considered to be of top quality, and they are inexpensive to attend. Israel's quality university education is largely responsible for spurring the country's high tech boom and rapid economic development.

V Izraeli existuje celkem devět univerzit. Mimo ně zde působí další instituce vyššího vzdělávání typu "college" a řada detašovaných pracovišť zahraničních univerzit. Všechny instituce vyššího vzdělávání dohlíží Rada pro vyšší vzdělávání. Hlavní rozdíl mezi univerzitou a college je v Izraeli ten, že pouze na univerzitě lze získat doktorský titul. V níže uvedené tabulce je výčet oficiálních izraelských univerzit. Součástí je internetová adresa, datum založení, počet studentů a pořadí v rámci světových univerzit. Těmito žebříčky jsou TOP 3000 univerzit podle "WebOMetrics", TOP 500 univerzit podle "Academic Ranking of World Universities" (ARWU) a TOP 200 univerzit podle "The Times Higher Education Supplement" (THES).


Biography.

He was nicknamed "Invincible" after he earned a perfect score for 19 straight wins in the annual castle games. Some say that he was not stronger than his teacher, Honinbō Shuwa. Out of respect for his teacher, Shusaku refused to play with white against his teacher thus there is no clear gauge of the difference in strength between them. Shusaku, for example, had a plus score against Ōta Yūzo but still found him a tough opponent, while Shuwa beat him easily.  Only two other people have been given the title "Go Sage" (Kisei) in addition to Shusaku, the others being Honinbō Dosaku (1645–1702) and Honinbo Jowa (1787–1847). However, Jowa's title was posthumously revoked due to a biased account of his machinations (in the Zain Danso) towards obtaining the post of Meijin Godokoro. Today, Shusaku's reputation is more balanced in Japan, where a wide number of texts on Shusaku and Jowa have since been published, but remains somewhat inflated in the West where the sources are more sparse.

Early years.

He was born on the island of Innoshima near the town of Onomichi, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan to a merchant, Kuwabara Wazo. Asano Tadahiro, lord of Mihara Castle, became his patron after playing a game with him, and allowed him to study under Lord Asano's personal trainer, the priest Hoshin, a player of professional level.  In 1837, at age 8, Shusaku was already almost a player of professional caliber. He left home to join the Honinbō school (the most important institute in the game of Go in Japan at the time having produced the Go Saint Dosaku and many Meijins) officially as a student of Honinbo Jowa but his study would mainly be with senior students. On January 3, 1840, he received his shodan (first dan) professional diploma.

Meteoric rise.

In 1840 Shusaku left Edo and returned to his home for a period of over a year. In the following years, he made steady progress up the ranks, reaching 4 dan in 1844, after which he again returned home for a prolonged period. In April–May 1846, returning to Edo, he played against Gennan Inseki, arguably the strongest player of that time. Shusaku played with a handicap of two stones, but Gennan found that Shusaku was too strong, so he called off the game. A new game was started with Shusaku just playing black, the ear-reddening game. Gennan played a new joseki (opening variation in a corner), and Shusaku erred in responding. He fought back hard, but still by the time of the middlegame, all the people watching the game thought Gennan was winning, except for one, a doctor. He admitted that he was not skilled in Go, but noticed that Gennan's ears became red after a certain move by Shusaku, a sign that Gennan was surprised. In the end, Shusaku won the game by two points.  Returning to Edo, Shusaku not only got promoted to 5 dan, but he was also made the official heir of Honinbo Shuwa, who was to become the head of the Honinbo house. Shusaku declined at first, citing his obligations towards Lord Asano as the reason. After that issue was settled, Shusaku accepted.  As the official heir to the head of the Honinbo house, Shusaku had an eminent position. His grade also increased, he finally reached 7 dan, although it is not known exactly when—some think in 1849 while others say in 1853. After forcing his main rival and friend Ōta Yūzo to take a handicap, he was generally accepted to be the strongest player with the exception of Shuwa.

Sanjubango.

In 1853, a group of players gathered in a mansion in Edo. The players were Yasui Sanchi, Ito Showa, Sakaguchi Sentoku, Hattori Seitetsu, and Ōta Yūzo. They were discussing Shusaku, to the point where they had come to the idea that Shusaku was the strongest player of the time, but Ota did not agree. He said he was in the middle of a series of games with Shusaku, tied at 3 apiece. Akai Gorosaku, who was a famous sponsor of Go during the time, had heard this and decided to sponsor an unheard of 30-game go competition (a "Sanjubango") between Ota and Shusaku. The series had begun in 1853, when Ota was 46 and a 7 dan, while Shusaku was 24 years old and a 6 dan. The games were played once a week, faster than a typical 10-game match. Ota was doing well until the 11th game, when Shusaku started to fight back. Ota was behind by 4 games after the 17th game. The 21st game was played in July, but the 22nd game was not played until October of that year, a reason of which is not known. The 22nd game was played in Ota's house, which was different than the others, considering they were played in more neutral venues. Ota had lost once more, and the venue was changed to a more neutral one. It is believed, however, the 23rd game, was fixed. It had lasted almost 24 straight hours, and had resulted in a tie. It saved Ota from embarrassment. It was thought as a great achievement, having a tie after taking white, so much that it was used, along with Shusaku's calling up for the castle games, as an excuse to adjourn the match.

Death and legacy.

In 1862, a cholera epidemic swept through Japan. Shusaku tended the patients within the Honinbō house, and fell ill himself, dying of it on September 3 at the age of 33.  Shusaku's name is connected to the Shusaku fuseki, a certain method of opening the game on black, which was developed to perfection (but not invented) by him, and was the basis of the popular opening style up to the 1930s.  Shusaku is also remembered by the Shusaku number, an equivalent of the Erdős number for Go players.  On 6 June 2014, a Google doodle commemorated Shusaku's 185th birthday. This caused controversy in the United Kingdom, as it was felt that preempting the 70th anniversary of the Normandy landings to honour a Japanese person was impolitic. Google.uk was hurriedly amended.

Fiction.

In the manga and anime series "Hikaru no Go", Shusaku discovered the spirit of fictional Go player Fujiwara-no-Sai. Shusaku became the medium through which Sai played the great games ascribed to Shusaku.

Shusaku (本因坊秀策, Yasuda Eisai, Kuwahara Shusaku, "Invincible Shusaku", born as Kuwabara Torajiro (桑原虎次郎); May 5, 1829 – September 3, 1862) was a Japanese professional Go player from the 19th century. He is known for his undefeated streak of 19-games during the annual castle games; his thirty-game match with Ota Yuzo; the eponymous Shusaku opening; and his posthumous veneration as a "Go sage". Next to his teacher, Hon'inbō Shūwa, he is considered to have been the strongest player from 1847/8 to his death in 1862. He was nicknamed "Invincible Shusaku" because of his castle games performance.

Honinbó Šúsaku (: 本因坊 秀策, "Hon'inbó Šúsaku", narozen jako Toradžiró Kuwabara 桑原 虎次郎, "Kuwabara Toradžiró"; 6. června 1829 — 10. srpna 1862) byl profesionálním hráčem go a je považován za nejlepšího hráče zlaté doby go v polovině 19. století.