History.

1720–1825.

A railroad was reportedly used in the construction of the French fortress at Louisburg, Nova Scotia in 1720. Between 1762 and 1764, at the close of the French and

1826–1850.

During this period, Americans watched closely the development of railways in the United Kingdom. The main competition came from canals, many of which were in operation under state ownership, and from privately owned steamboats plying the nation's vast river system. In 1829, Massachusetts prepared an elaborate plan. Government support, most especially the detailing of officers from the Army Corps of Engineers – the nation's only repository of civil engineering expertise – was crucial in assisting private enterprise in building nearly all the country's railroads. Army Engineer officers surveyed and selected routes, planned, designed,

1851–1900.

By 1850, over of railroad lines had been built. The B&O's westward route reached the Ohio River in 1852, the first eastern seaboard railroad to do so. Railroad companies in the North and Midwest constructed networks that linked nearly every major city by 1860.

Transcontinental railroad.

The First Transcontinental Railroad in the U.S. was built across North America in the 1860s, linking the railroad network of the eastern U.S. with California on the Pacific coast. Finished on May 10, 1869 at the Golden spike event at Promontory Summit, Utah, it created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the American West, catalyzing the transition from the wagon trains of previous decades to a modern transportation system. It achieved the status of first transcontinental railroad by connecting myriad eastern U.S. railroads to the Pacific. However it was not the world's longest railroad, as the Canadian Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) had, by 1867, already accumulated more than of track by connecting Portland, Maine, and the three northern New England states with the Canadian Atlantic provinces, and west as far as

Rail gauge selection.

Many Canadian and U.S. railroads originally used various broad gauges, but most were converted to by 1886, when the conversion

Impact of railroads on the economy.

The railroad had its largest impact on the American transportation system during the second half of the 19th century. The standard historical interpretation holds that the railroads were central to the development of a national market in the United States and served as a model of how to organize, finance and manage a large corporation.

Monopolies, antitrust law, and regulation.

Industrialists such as Cornelius Vanderbilt and Jay Gould became wealthy through railroad ownerships, as large railroad companies such as the New York Central, Grand Trunk Railway and the Southern Pacific spanned several states. In response to monopolistic practices (such as price fixing) and other excesses of some railroads and their owners, Congress created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) in 1887. The ICC indirectly controlled the business activities of the railroads through issuance of extensive regulations. Congress also enacted antitrust legislation to prevent railroad monopolies, beginning with the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890.

1901–1970.

The principal mainline railroads concentrated their efforts on moving freight and passengers over long distances. But many had suburban services near large cities, which might also be served by Streetcar and Interurban lines. The Interurban was an almost uniquely North American concept which relied almost exclusively on passenger traffic for revenue. Unable to survive the Great Depression, the failure of most Interurbans by that time left many cities without suburban passenger railroads, although the largest cities such as New York, Chicago, Boston and Philadelphia continued to

1970–present.

Historically, on routes where a single railroad has had an undisputed monopoly, passenger service was as spartan and as expensive as the market and ICC regulation would bear, since such railroads had no need to advertise their freight services. However, on routes where two or three railroads were in direct competition with each other for freight business, such railroads would spare no expense to make their passenger trains as fast, luxurious, and affordable as possible, as it was considered to be the most effective way of advertising their profitable freight services.  The National Association of Railroad Passengers (NARP) was formed in 1967 to lobby for the continuation of passenger trains. Its lobbying efforts were hampered somewhat by Democratic opposition to any sort of rail subsidies to the privately owned railroads, and Republican opposition to nationalization of the railroad industry. The proponents were aided by the fact that few in the federal government wanted to be held responsible for the seemingly inevitable extinction of the passenger train, which most regarded as tantamount to political suicide. The urgent need to solve the passenger train disaster was heightened by the bankruptcy filing of the

Freight railroads.

Freight railroads play an important role in the U.S. economy, especially for moving imports and exports using containers, and for shipments of coal and oil. According to the British news magazine "The Economist," "They are universally recognised in the industry as the best in the world." Productivity rose 172% between 1981 and 2000, while rates decreased by 55% (after accounting for inflation). Rail's share of the American freight market rose to 43%, the highest for any rich country.  U.S. railroads still play a major role in the nation's freight shipping. They carried 750 billion ton-miles by 1975 which doubled to 1.5 trillion ton-miles in 2005. In the 1950s, the U.S. and Europe moved roughly the same percentage of freight by rail; by 2000, the share of U.S. rail freight was 38% while in Europe only 8% of freight traveled by rail. In 2000, while U.S. trains moved 2,390 billion ton-kilometers of freight, the 15-nation European Union moved only 304 billion ton-kilometers of freight. In terms of ton-miles, railroads annually move more than 25% of the United States' freight and connect businesses with each other across the country and with markets overseas. In 2018, US rail freight had a transport energy efficiency of 473 miles per gallon of fuel per ton of freight.  U.S. freight railroads are separated into three classes, set by the Surface Transportation Board, based on annual revenues:  In 2013, the U.S. moved more oil out of North Dakota by rail than by the Trans-Alaska pipeline. This trend—tenfold in two years and 40-fold in five years—is forecast to increase.

Classes of freight railroads.

There are four different classes of freight railroads: Class I, regional, local line haul, and switching & terminal. Class I railroads are defined as those with revenue of at least $346.8 million in 2006. They comprise just one percent of the number of freight railroads, but account for 67 percent of the industry's mileage, 90 percent of its employees, and 93 percent of its freight revenue.  A regional

Traffic and public benefits.

U.S. freight railroads operate in a highly competitive marketplace. To compete effectively against each other and against other transportation providers, railroads must offer high-quality service at competitive rates. In 2011, within the U.S., railroads carried 39.9% of freight by ton-mile, followed by trucks (33.4%), oil pipelines (14.3%), barges (12%) and air (0.3%). However, railroads' revenue share has been slowly falling for decades, a reflection of the intensity of the competition they face and of the large rate reductions railroads have passed through to their customers over the years.  North American railroads operated 1,471,736 freight cars and 31,875 locomotives, with 215,985 employees. They originated 39.53 million carloads (averaging 63 tons each) and generated $81.7 billion in freight revenue of present 2014. The average haul was 917 miles. The largest (Class 1) U.S. railroads carried 10.17 million intermodal containers and 1.72 million piggyback trailers. Intermodal traffic was 6.2% of tonnage originated and 12.6% of

Freight rail working with passenger rail.

Prior to Amtrak's creation in 1970, intercity passenger rail service in the U.S. was provided by the same companies that provided freight service. When Amtrak was formed, in return for government permission to exit the passenger rail business, freight railroads donated passenger equipment to

Passenger railroads.

The sole long-distance intercity passenger railroad in the continental U.S. is Amtrak, although Virgin Trains USA plans to provide intercity service between Orlando and Miami, and multiple current commuter rail systems provide regional intercity services such as New York-New Heaven, Stockton-San Jose and West Palm Beach-Miami. In Alaska, intercity service is provided by Alaska Railroad instead of Amtrak. Commuter rail systems exist in more than a dozen metropolitan areas, but these systems are not extensively interconnected, so commuter rail cannot be used alone to traverse the country. Commuter systems have been proposed in approximately two dozen other cities, but interplays between various local-government administrative bottlenecks and ripple effects from the 2007–2012 global financial crisis have generally pushed such projects farther and farther into the future, or have even sometimes mothballed them entirely.  The most culturally notable and physically evident exception to the general lack of significant passenger rail transport in the U.S. is the Northeast Corridor between Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York City, and Boston, with significant branches in Connecticut and Massachusetts. The corridor handles frequent passenger service that is both Amtrak and commuter. New York City itself is noteworthy for high usage of passenger rail transport, both subway and commuter rail (Long Island Rail Road, Metro-North Railroad, New Jersey Transit). The subway system is used by one third of all U.S. mass transit users. Chicago also sees high rail ridership, with a local elevated system, one of the world's last interurban lines, and fourth most-ridden commuter rail system in the United States: Metra. Other major cities with substantial rail infrastructure include Philadelphia's SEPTA, Boston's MBTA, and Washington, D.C.'s network of commuter rail and rapid transit. Denver, Colorado constructed a new electrified commuter rail system in the 2000s to compliment the city's light rail system. The commuter rail systems of San Diego and Los Angeles, Coaster and Metrolink, connect in Oceanside, California. The San Francisco Bay Area additionally hosts several local rail operators.  Privately run inter-city passenger rail operations have also been restarted since 2018 in south Florida, with additional routes under development. Virgin Trains USA is a higher-speed rail train, run by All Aboard Florida. It began service in January 2018 between Fort Lauderdale and West Palm Beach; its service was extended to Miami in May 2018, with an extension to Orlando International Airport planned by 2022. Virgin Trains USA has also proposed a further extension of its service from Orlando to Tampa via Walt Disney World, and a high-speed rail service from Victorville, California to Las Vegas. In addition, the Texas Central Railway is currently developing plans for a proposed greenfield high-speed rail line using Japanese Shinkansen trains between Dallas and Houston, which is expected to begin construction in 2020 and open in early 2026.

Rolling stock reporting marks.

Every piece of railroad rolling stock operating in North American interchange service is required to carry a standardized set of reporting marks. The marks are made up of a two- to four-letter code identifying the owner of the equipment accompanied by an identification number and statistics on the equipment's capacity and tare (unloaded) weight. Marks whose codes end in X (such as TTGX) are used on equipment owned by

Regulation.

Federal regulation of railroads is mainly through the United States Department of Transportation, especially the Federal Railroad Administration which regulates safety, and the Surface Transportation Board which regulates rates, service, the construction, acquisition and abandonment of rail lines, carrier mergers and interchange of traffic among carriers.  Railroads are also regulated by the individual states, for example through the Massachusetts Department of Public Utilities.

Rail transportation in the United States consists primarily of freight shipments, with a well integrated network of standard gauge private freight railroads extending into Canada and Mexico. Passenger service is mainly mass transit and commuter rail in major cities. Intercity passenge service, once a large and vital part of the nation's passenger transportation network, plays a limited role as compared to transportation patterns in many other countries.

Železniční doprava ve Spojených státech amerických se skládá převážně z nákladní přepravy, zatímco osobní doprava, kdysi velká a životně důležitá součást národní sítě pro přepravu osob, představuje pouze minoritní část. Jedná se o opačný poměr železniční dopravy ve srovnání se spoustou jiných zemí.


Club career.

AC Milan.

Born in Lagos, Nigeria, Henty began his career at Flying Sports before joining AC Milan on 15 September 2012, alongside Favour Anyekan and was assigned to Milan Primavera. After being assigned to Milan Primavera, Henty went on to score 10 times in 22 appearances in all competitions, including scoring two braces against Cittadella Primavera and Udinese Primavera. While at Milan Primavera, Henty began taking responsibility since moving to Europe and have since grown up.  Ahead of the 2013–14 season, Henty was told by AC Milan management that he would need to be loaned out to gain first team experience. The following month, in July, it was announced that Henty was loaned out to Serie B side Spezia for the remainder of the 2013–14 season. After starting out on the substitute bench, Henty then scored his first Spezia goal on 24 September 2013, in a 2–1 win over Ternana. However, he struggled in the first team at Spezia and returned to his parent club, with just six appearances and scoring once.  Shortly after the end of his loan spell at Spezia, Henty joined Lega Pro side Perugia on loan for the rest of the season on 9 January 2014. Henty made his Perugia debut on 12 January 2014, coming on as a late substitute, in a 5–0 win over AS Gubbio. It wasn't until on 24 January 2014 when he scored again, in a 3–2 win over Grosseto. Although his playing time was reduced towards the end of the season, Henty played a role in the play-offs against Virtus Entella when he scored in a 3–1 win to help the club promoted to Serie B. At his time at Perugia, Henty went on to score 2 times in twelve appearances. In the summer of 2014, Henty was linked around Europe with a move to Sivasspor and Vitória. Instead, Henty opted to join Slovenian side Gorica on loan on 29 August 2014. Two days later, on 31 August 2014, he made his Gorica debut, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 2–1 loss against Rudar Velenje. It wasn't until on 29 September 2014 when he scored his first goal for the club, in a 2–1 win over Krka. He then scored again on 19 October 2014, in a 3–0 win over Radomlje. However, he found himself on the sidelined when he suffered an injury in late-October. Despite this, Henty went on to score two times in thirteen appearances for the side.

Olimpija Ljubljana.

It was announced on 31 January 2015 that Henty joined Olimpija Ljubljana on loan for the rest of the season. It came after when he went on a trial at the club and his loan spell at Gorica ended. It was previously hinted that Henty was on a move to Turkey before joining Olimpija Ljubija. He made his Olimpija Ljubljana debut on 28 February 2015, in a 4–0 win over Radomlje. It wasn't until on 14 March 2015 when he scored his first goal for the club, in a 3–1 win over Gorica. Henty scored again on 4 April 2015, in a 3–1 win over Zavrč. After adding two more goals, he went on to finish the season, making 14 appearances and scoring 4 times.  In the summer transfer of 2015, Henty joined Olimpija Ljubljana on a permanent for a transfer fee of €150,000, signing a two-year contract. He then scored his first goals since joining the club, in a 4–1 win over Koper on 12 August 2015, followed up by scoring another brace in a 3–0 win over Maribor four days later. In a 5–0 win over Krško on 4 October 2015, Henty set up two goals, which was then followed up by scoring a brace, in a 2–1 win over Koper. After missing out for one match, he scored again on 2 December 2015, in a 2–1 win over Zavrč.  After making 22 appearances and scoring 9 times for the side, Henty was linked a move away from Olimpija Ljubljana in the January transfer window. As a result, the club began a contract negotiations with Henty, which they claimed the agreement is made in December 2015. Henty, himself, wanted to stay at the club to help the club win the league. However, the club accepted a bid from two Russian teams for €5.5 million, which is believed to be a record-breaking transfer for the club. After the move, Henty reflected on his departure, stating he stand by his decision.

Lokomotiv Moscow.

It was confirmed on 19 February 2016 that Henty joined Lokomotiv Moscow for €5.5 million, confirming a record-breaking transfer. Upon joining the club, Henty was given number 45 shirt instead of 10 shirt, which he initially opted for.  Henty made his Lokomotiv Moscow debut on 6 March 2016, where he came on as a second-half substitute, in a 2–1 loss against Terek Grozny. After making his debut for the club, Henty said his target was to score 7–8 goals in ten matches. However, his time at Lokomotiv Moscow throughout the rest of the season was a disappointment, due to his failure to score goals as he did at Olimpija Ljubljana earlier this season despite being given more time to adapt at Russia. Despite making 10 appearances at the end of the 2015–16 season, Henty managed to redeem himself when he set up a goal for Petar Škuletić, in a 3–0 win over Mordovia Saransk on the last game of the season.  In the 2016–17 season, Henty continued to feature in the first team despite being on the substitute bench at the start of the season. He then scored his first goal for the club, in a 2–1 win over Krasnodar on 28 August 2016. However, Henty continued to struggled in the first team and scoring goals, due to competitions from Aleksei Miranchuk and Maicon Marques. As a result, he was expected to leave the club in January over poor performance and his first team opportunities had become difficult for him to come by.

Baniyas SC (loan).

It was announced on 16 January 2017 that Henty would be loaned out to UAE Arabian Gulf League side Baniyas for the rest of the season. The move also included an option to sign Henty on a permanent basis.  Henty made his Baniyas SC debut five days later on 21 January 2017 after signing for the club, starting the whole game, in a 4–3 loss against Dibba Al-Fujairah. It wasn't until on 3 March 2017 when he scored his first goal for the club, as well as, setting another goal, in a 4–3 loss against Al-Wasl. Six days later, on 9 March 2017, Henty scored twice, in a 6–2 loss against Al Wahda. After adding two more goals, the club was unsuccessful to survive in the league.  At the end of the 2016–17 season, making 12 appearances and scoring five times for the side, Henty returned to his parent club.

Videoton.

It was reported on 19 July 2017 that Henty moved to Hungarian side Videoton, signing a three-year contract. The fee was reported to be €1 million.  Henty made his Videoton debut on 30 July 2017, starting the whole game, in a 2–2 draw against Újpest. He then scored his first goal for the club in a follow up match on 6 August 2017, in a 2–0 win over Mezőkövesdi. Since joining the club, Henty quickly became the club's fan favourite, where he gave a shirt to a fan after the match. Between on 21 October 2017 and 4 November 2017, he scored three goals in three matches against Puskás Akadémia, Újpest (in which he scored just 25 seconds into the match) and Mezőkövesdi. After the match against Újpest, Henty was subjected of racism from Újpest supporters following the end of the match. As a result, Újpest was fined for their role of racially abuse Henty.

Slovan Bratislava.

On 24 January 2020, it was announced that Henty had reached an agreement on a permanent transfer with reigning Slovak champions, Slovan Bratislava. His transfer was understood as a replacement for departing Andraž Šporar, who had left for Sporting CP earlier.

Personal life.

Growing up, Henty said he idolised George Weah. Henty revealed that he wasn't interested in football at first, preferring to focus on his education. This all changed when his mother, who is a football fan, convinced him to play football, having bought him footwear and equipment, which changed his passion.  Henty speaks English, Italian, and some Russian. He has also revealed that he would accept a Slovenian citizenship if he was offered.

Ezekiel Isoken Henty (born 13 May 1993) is a Nigerian footballer who plays as a striker for Slovan Bratislava in the Fortuna Liga.

Ezekiel Isoken Henty (* 13. května 1993, Lagos) je nigerijský fotbalový útočník či záložník, od ledna 2020 hráč slovenského klubu ŠK Slovan Bratislava. Mimo Nigérii působil na klubové úrovni v Itálii, Rusku, Maďarsku, Chorvatsku, na Slovinsku a ve Spojených arabských emirátech. Může nastoupit na téměř všech pozicích v ofenzivě, má výborné fyzické předpoklady, je rychlý a dokáže se prosadit v šestnáctce soupeře.


History.

"Poecilia wingei" is a very colorful guppy species, similar to the fancy guppy often found in pet shops. The species was first collected from Laguna de Patos in Venezuela by Franklyn F. Bond in 1937, and rediscovered by Dr. John Endler in 1975. The latter were the first examples of this fish to make it to the aquarium trade. More have been collected since then, notably by Armando Pou, to expand the captive breeding stock. The original Laguna de Patos population is threatened by runoff from a municipal garbage dump. Though it is rare in pet shops, this species is seen occasionally in the aquaria of enthusiasts.  Although not yet taken up into the IUCN Red List of endangered species, they are in danger of extinction in the wild, as humans enter their natural habitat, polluting and destroying it.  According to Stan Shubel, the author of "Aquarium Care for Fancy Guppies", the Endler guppy is, in fact, not a separate species; claiming it has the same genetic makeup as the common guppy, yet is given its own name, "Poecilia wingei", for conservation purposes. However, in 2009 S. Schories, M. K. Meyer and M. Schartl published on the basis of molecular data that "Poecilia wingei" is a separated taxon at the species level from "P. reticulata" and "P. obscura". In 2014 H. Alexander et al. published a paper that refutes the assertions and conclusions made by S. Schories et al. concerning the status of Poecilia wingei as a species.

Campoma "Poecilia wingei".

The first population of "Poecilia" to be given the name "Poecilia wingei" was discovered in 2005 in the Campoma region of Venezuela by Fred Poeser and Michael Kempkes. This population of Poecilia wingei can be found in Laguna Campoma and in the lagoon's connected streams.  Most "P. wingei" from the Campoma region found in the hobby today are descended from those originally collected by Phil Voisin (Philderodez). The most popular collecting site in the Campoma region for "P. wingei" has been the Campoma bridge location. "P. wingei" phenotypes collected from the Campoma bridge location are identified by a numbering system from 1 through 70.  "Poecilia wingei" from the Campoma region are also known as the Campoma guppy.

Cumana "Poecilia wingei".

"Poecilia wingei" from the Cumana region were originally known as the Endler's guppy. Ender's livebearer originally discovered in 1975 by John Endler and are found in Laguna Patos and in the lagoon's connected streams and canals, was actually a micropoecilia species that are believed to extinct. In 2009 the Schories et al. publication broadened the definition of "P. wingei" to include Endler's livebearer. Most "P. wingei" from the Cumana region found in the hobby today are descended from those collected by Armando Pau and were line bred and distributed to hobbyists by Adrian Hernandez (AdrianHD).  "P. wingei" from the Cumana region are also known as the Cumana guppy.

El Tigre.

El Tigre are "Poecilia wingei" collected from the El Tigre stream in the Campoma region of Venezuela. The El Tigre stream is not connected to Laguna Campoma so the El Tigre belong to their own distinct population. All El Tigre found in the hobby today are descended from those collected by Phil Voisin (Philderodez).

In the aquarium.

Endler's livebearers are hardy and undemanding in the aquarium, though they prefer hard, warm water. The warmer the water, the faster they will grow; however, this also seems to shorten their lifespans. They can be kept at 18–29 °C (64–84 °F), but their optimum temperature seems to be 24–27 °C (75-81 °F). This is slightly higher than their guppy cousins, which prefer 23–25 °C (73-77 °F). They do best if kept in tanks with plants (preferably live plants, but fake will do) to give them hiding places and (although they may be less likely than guppies to eat their own young) give the fry a better chance at survival. Some of them are determinedly suicidal jumpers, so a cover on the tank is a must.  Endler's may be fed any of a variety of dried, frozen, or freeze-dried foods, as long as the food will fit into their relatively small mouths. They are particularly fond of frozen bloodworms, and will often attempt to consume worms nearly as long as they are.  Endler's are very responsive to light and movement. After they learn that humans equate to food, human movement will trigger frantic "begging", regardless of whether the fish are actually hungry or not. Darkness will signal it is time to sleep. Most Endler's will sink to the bottom of the tank and lie there until the light returns, although in community tanks with larger fish that inhabit the depths, some Endler's will "sleep" near the top.

Breeding.

The colors of Endler's livebearer males are very intense, especially the black, orange, and metallic green colors. Their natural patterns are highly variable, though many display a double sword tail. Breeders have developed numerous lines displaying specific patterns and colors, such as red chest, black bar, peacock, yellow sword, etc.  They are prolific breeders like their guppy relatives. They give birth to live young approximately every 23 days. Fry "drops" can range in size from one to 30 babies (or possibly more, depending on several variables, including the age and size of the mother). Their first few hours of life will primarily be spent on the bottom of the tank, where they consume their yolk sacs. At this time they are most vulnerable to predators, including their own mothers and other Endler females (males seem less interested in cannibalism).  The fry can be fed powdered fry food, baby brine shrimp, and crushed flake food. They will also nibble on the layer of algae and microorganisms that forms on aquatic plants. Even adult brine shrimp are not beyond their capability, as several fry will gang up on a brine shrimp their own size and tear it apart.  The males will start to show color in approximately three to four weeks, but it can be several months before they develop the full depth and richness of color that characterizes Endlers. The colors of a male Endler will gradually intensify over the first six months of their lives. Tail extensions similar to that seen in a swordtail are not uncommon, but are much shorter. Most often, what appears to be a sword extension can be seen as intense coloring along the edge of an otherwise transparent tail. While giving the impression of a sword it turns out to just be good coloring.  Females will spend their entire lives with rather unexciting coloring. Depending on their environments, females will range from a pale silver to a dull, dark gold, but have the ability to change their coloring somewhat if they are moved from a light environment to a dark one (or vice versa). When full-grown, adult females can be as much as twice the size of males.  The birth process can be stressful for the females, and some will not survive long after large births. The ones that do not do well will often turn grey and will start to "wither away" until they eventually die.

Hybrids.

Endlers ("P. wingei") can be crossed with guppies species ("P. reticulata", "P. obscura" guppies), and the hybrid offspring will be fertile. This is considered to dilute the gene pool and therefore is avoided by fish breeders who wish to maintain pure strains. Avid hobbyists maintain registry records to ensure their Endlers are purebred; undocumented fish sold in pet stores as Endler's livebearers are assumed to have some degree of guppy hybridization. In addition, as "P. reticulata" has been found in the same bodies of water as "P. wingei", natural hybridization may also occur in the wild.  Hybridisation with fancy guppy strains (selectively bred "P. reticulata") often produces bright and colourful offspring. This has led to some hybrids being selectively bred themselves and have become so common that they may be sold under any number of names such as peacock, snake, tiger, paradise, fancy, or sword Endler and sometimes as flame tail.

Etymology.

The specific name of "Poecilia wingei" honours the Danish biologist Øjvind Winge (1886-1964) who worked extensively on the genetics of "Poecilia" including this species.

Poecilia wingei, known to aquarists as Endlers or Endler's livebearer, in the genus "Poecilia", is a small fish native to the Paria Peninsula in Venezuela. They are prolific breeders and often hybridize with guppies. These very colorful hybrids are the easiest to find being offered in pet-shops, typically under the name Endler's guppy.

Živorodka Wingeova česká synonyma "Gupka Endlerova, Živorodka Endlerova" (latinsky: "Poecilia wingei", slovensky: "Živorodka wingei", anglicky: "Endlers livebearer, Endler guppy, "ELB""). Druh byl poprvé odebrán z laguny de Patos ve Venezuele Franklynem F. Bondem v roce 1937. Znovuobjeven Dr. Johnem Endlerem v roce 1975. Vědecky popsán v roce 2005 třemi ichtyology Fredem N. Poeserem, Michaelem Kempkesem a Isaäcem J. H. Isbrückerem. Ti na základě molekulárních údajů zveřejnili, že "Poecilia wingei" je na úrovni druhů oddělený taxon od "P. reticulata" a "P. obscura". V roce 2014 H. Alexander a kol. publikovali referát, který vyvracel tvrzení a závěry Schoriese, Meyera a Schartla o "Poecilia wingei" jako samostatném druhu. Název "P. wingei" uznal dánský biolog Øjvind Winge (1886–1964), který pracoval na genetice "Poecilia", vč. tohoto druhu.


Background.

The film retains most of Shakespeare's original play, and does not change the order of scenes, as do Olivier's "Hamlet" and "Richard III". The only major omission is the Fool's scene, although other minor lines are cut here and there (the stage version contained more of the play than the film did). Derek Jacobi (Cassio) and Michael Gambon both made their film debuts in "Othello", while Edward Hardwicke (Montano) would go on to work with the National for seven years.  The film of "Othello" used enlarged duplicates of the original stage settings, rather than having elaborate new sets built. Olivier's former backers for his Shakespeare films were all deceased by 1965, and he was unable to raise the money to do a film version on location or on elaborate sets. Nearly a decade earlier, Olivier had been attempting to find financial backing for his own film version of "Macbeth" after he performed the role in 1955 at Stratford, but ultimately without success. The National Theatre Company had already produced a staged film of Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya" (1963) and would later produce Strindberg's "The Dance of Death" (1969). The Olivier "Othello" is the first English-language filmed version of the play made in color (there had been a Russian version in color in 1955) and widescreen. It was the second major film adaption of the work after a production in 1952 by Orson Welles. In the U.S., it did not play the usual several-week run given to most films; instead, it played for only two days. The film was exhibited as a roadshow presentation.  Of all Olivier's Shakespeare films, "Othello" is the one with the least music. Iago and the soldiers sing a drinking song in one scene, and in another, musicians are seen playing briefly on exotic instruments, but, otherwise, the film has no music.

Reception.

Olivier played Othello in blackface. He also adopted an exotic accent of his own invention, developed a special walk, and learned how to speak in a voice considerably deeper than his normal one. Columnist Inez Robb disparagingly compared Olivier's performance to Al Jolson in "The Jazz Singer". She described Olivier's performance as "high camp", and said "I was certainly in tune with the gentleman sitting next to me who kept asking 'When does he sing "Mammy"?" Film critic Pauline Kael gave the production and Olivier's portrayal one of her most glowing reviews, shaming the major movie studios for giving Olivier so little money to make the film that he and the public had to be content with what was almost literally a filmed stage production, while other films received multimillion dollar budgets. John Simon, while disagreeing with the approach the production's interpretation took, declared that, "Olivier plays this misconceived Othello spectacularly, in a manner that is always a perverse joy to behold".  Of particular offence, and a device which primarily works in film rather than on-stage, was Olivier's rolling of his eyes: a stock "niggerism" of early depictions of negroes in blackface films. This device specifically links to Al Jolson and is unconnected to any Shakespeareian stage direction.  It is, so far, the only Shakespeare film in which all the principals were nominated for Oscars. Finlay (Iago) was nominated for Best Supporting Actor despite having the role with the most lines in the play: 1117 to Olivier's 856. Olivier did, however, appear on screen three minutes longer than Finlay.

Othello is a 1965 film based on the National Theatre Company's staging of Shakespeare's "Othello" (1964-1966) staged by John Dexter. Directed by Stuart Burge, the film starred Laurence Olivier, Maggie Smith, Joyce Redman, and Frank Finlay, who all received Oscar nominations, and provided film debuts for both Derek Jacobi and Michael Gambon.

Othello je britský film z roku 1965, který vychází z divadelního představení Royal National Theatre, které se hrálo v letech 1964–1966, režisérem inscenace byl John Dexter. Režisérem filmové verze byl Stuart Burge, ve film hráli Laurence Olivier, Maggie Smithová, Joyce Redmanová a Frank Finlay, kteří všichni obdrželi nominace na Oscara. Pro Dereka Jacobiho a Michaela Gambona to byl filmový debut.


Biography.

Born at Livorno Vercellese (Kingdom of Sardinia), Ferraris gained a master's degree in engineering and became an assistant of technical physics near the Regal Italian Industrial Museum. Ferraris independently researched the rotary magnetic field in 1885. Ferraris experimented with different types of asynchronous electric motors. The research and his studies resulted in the development of an alternator, which may be thought of as an alternating-current motor operating in reverse, so as to convert mechanical (rotating) power into electric power (as alternating current). On 11 March 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin (two months later Nikola Tesla gained, application filed October 12, 1887. Serial Number 252,132). These alternators operated by creating systems of alternating currents displaced from one another in phase by definite amounts, and depended on rotating magnetic field for their operation. The resulting source of polyphase power soon found widespread acceptance. The invention of the polyphase alternator is key in the history of electrification, as is the power transformer. These inventions enabled power to be transmitted by wires economically over considerable distances. Polyphase power enabled the use of water-power (via hydroelectric generating plants in large dams) in remote places, thereby allowing the mechanical energy of the falling water to be converted to electricity, which then could be fed to an electric motor at any location where mechanical work needed to be done. This versatility sparked the growth of power-transmission network grids on continents around the globe.  In 1889, Ferraris worked at the Italian Industrial Institution, a school of electrical engineering (the first school of this kind in Italy, subsequently incorporated in the Politecnico di Torino). In 1896, Ferraris joined the Italian Electrotechnical Association and became the first national president of the organization.  Galileo Ferraris did not confine his research interests to electricity. He also researched the fundamental properties of dioptric instruments and made elementary representation of the theory and its applications. His work contains a detailed description of the geometric dioptrics for uncentered systems. He provided a greater generality as previously found in the telescopic system treatments, with less emphasis on applications.  In the second main sections, the results obtained are applied to optical instruments. The magnification, field of view, and the brightness of the instrument were dealt with in great detail. The field denned as the author of the cone opening angle, the tip of the first main points of the lens, and its base formed by the parts of the object in view, will possess the same brightness. The eye is not treated.

Memorials.

The city of Turin honored the contributions that Ferraris made to science. A general committee proposed an addition to the Royal Industrial Museum of Turin with a permanent monument commemorating his scientific and industrial achievements. Additionally, an avenue was named in honor of Ferraris.

Galileo Ferraris (31 October 1847 – 7 February 1897) was an Italian physicist and electrical engineer, one of the pioneers of AC power system and an inventor of the three-phase induction motor. Many newspapers touted that his work on the induction motor and power transmission systems were some of the greatest inventions of all ages. He published an extensive and complete monograph on the experimental results obtained with open-circuit transformers of the type designed by the power engineers Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs.

Galileo Ferraris (31. října 1847 – 7. února 1897) byl italský fyzik, elektrotechnik, jeden z průkopníků systémů přenosu elektrické energie a vynálezce třífázového indukčního motoru. Publikoval rozsáhlou a úplnou monografii o experimentálních výsledcích získaných o transformátorech s otevřeným obvodem, které navrhli energetičtí inženýři Lucien Gaulard a John Dixon Gibbs. Do historie se tak zapsal Ferrarisovým principem, využívaným například v elektroměrech.


Early life and family.

Alice Hamilton, the second child of Montgomery Hamilton (1843–1909) and Gertrude (née Pond) Hamilton (1840–1917), was born on February 27, 1869, in Manhattan, New York City, New York. She spent a sheltered childhood among an extended family in Fort Wayne, Indiana, where her grandfather, Allen Hamilton, an Irish immigrant, had settled in 1823. He married Emerine Holman, the daughter of Indiana Supreme Court Justice Jesse Lynch Holman, in 1828 and became a successful Fort Wayne businessman and a land speculator. Much of the city of Fort Wayne was built on land that he once owned. Alice grew up on the Hamilton family's large estate that encompassed a three-block area of downtown Fort Wayne. The Hamilton family also spent many summers at Mackinac Island, Michigan. For the most part, the second and third generations of the extended Hamilton family, which included Alice's family, as well as her uncles, aunts, and cousins, lived on inherited wealth.  Montgomery Hamilton, Alice's father, attended Princeton University and Harvard Law School. He also studied in Germany, where he met Gertrude Pond, the daughter of a wealthy sugar importer. They were married in 1866. Alice's father became a partner in a wholesale grocery business in Fort Wayne, but the partnership dissolved in 1885 and he withdrew from public life. Although the business failure caused a financial loss for the family, Alice's outspoken mother, Gertrude, remained socially active in the Fort Wayne community.  Alice was the second oldest of five siblings that included three sisters (Edith, Margaret, and Norah) and a brother (Arthur "Quint"), all of whom were accomplished in their respective fields. The girls remained especially close throughout their childhood and into their professional careers. Edith (1867–1963), an educator and headmistress at Bryn Mawr School in Baltimore, became a classicist and renowned author for her essays and best-selling books on ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Margaret (1871–1969), like her older sister Edith, became an educator and headmistress at Bryn Mawr School. Norah (1873–1945) was an artist, living and working at Hull House. Arthur (1886–1967), the youngest Hamilton sibling, became a writer, professor of Spanish, and assistant dean for foreign students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Arthur was the only sibling to marry; he and his wife, Mary (Neal) Hamilton, had no children.

Education.

Hamilton's parents homeschooled their children from an early age. Following a family tradition among the Hamilton women, Alice completed her early education at Miss Porter's Finishing School for Young Ladies (also known as Miss Porter's School) in Farmington, Connecticut, from 1886 to 1888. In addition to Alice, three of her aunts, three cousins, and all three of her sisters were alumnae of the school.  Although Hamilton had led a privileged life in Fort Wayne, she aspired to provide some type of useful service to the world and chose medicine as a way to financially support herself. Hamilton, who was an avid reader, also cited literary influence for inspiring her to become a physician, even though she had not yet received any training in the sciences: "I meant to be a medical missionary to Teheran, having been fascinated by the description of Persia in [Edmond] O'Donovan's "The Merv Oasis." I doubted if I could ever be good enough to be a real missionary, but if I could care for the sick, that would do instead."  After her return to Indiana from school in Connecticut, Hamilton studied science with a high school teacher in Fort Wayne and anatomy at Fort Wayne College of Medicine for a year before enrolling at the University of Michigan Medical School in 1892. There she had the opportunity of studying with "a remarkable group of men" – John Jacob Abel (pharmacology), William Henry Howell (physiology), Frederick George Novy (bacteriology), Victor C. Vaughan (biochemistry) and George Dock (medicine). During her last year of study she served on Dr. Dock's staff, going on rounds, taking histories and doing clinical laboratory work. Hamilton earned a medical degree from the university in 1893.  In 1893–94, after graduation from medical school, Hamilton completed internships at the Northwestern Hospital for Women and Children in Minneapolis and at the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Roxbury, a suburban neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to gain some clinical experience. Hamilton had already decided that she was not interested in establishing a medical practice and returned to the University of Michigan in February 1895 to study bacteriology as a resident graduate and lab assistant of Frederick George Novy. She also began to develop an interest in public health.  In the fall of 1895, Alice and her older sister, Edith, traveled to Germany. Alice planned to study bacteriology and pathology at the advice of her professors at Michigan, while Edith intended to study the classics and attend lectures. The Hamilton sisters faced some opposition to their efforts to study abroad. Although Alice was welcomed in Frankfurt, her requests to study in Berlin were rejected and she experienced some prejudice against women when the two sisters studied at universities in Munich and Leipzig.  When Alice returned to the United States in September 1896, she continued postgraduate studies for a year at the Johns Hopkins University Medical School. There she worked with Simon Flexner on pathological anatomy. She also had the opportunity to learn from William H. Welch and William Osler.

Career.

Early years at Chicago's Hull House.

In 1897 Hamilton accepted an offer to become a professor of pathology at the Woman's Medical School of Northwestern University. Soon after her move to Chicago, Illinois, Hamilton fulfilled a longtime ambition to become a member and resident of Hull House, the settlement house founded by social reformer Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. While Hamilton taught and did research at the medical school during the day, she maintained an active life at Hull House, her full-time residence from 1897 to 1919. Hamilton became Jane Addams' personal physician and volunteered her time at Hull House to teach English and art. She also directed the men's fencing and athletic clubs, operated a well-baby clinic, and visited the sick in their homes. Other inhabitants of Hull House included Alice's sister Norah, and her friends Rachelle and Victor Yarros. Although Hamilton moved away from Chicago in 1919 when she accepted a position as an assistant professor at Harvard Medical School, she returned to Hull House and stayed for several months each spring until Jane Addams's death in 1935.  Through her association and work at Hull House and living side by side with the poor residents of the community, Hamilton witnessed the effects that the dangerous trades had on workers' health through exposure to carbon monoxide and lead poisoning. As a result, she became increasingly interested in the problems the workers faced, especially occupational injuries and illnesses. The experience also caused Hamilton to begin considering how to merge her interests in medical science and social reform to improve the health of American workers.  When the Woman's Medical School closed in 1902, Hamilton took a position as bacteriologist with the Memorial Institute for Infectious Diseases, working with Ludvig Hektoen. During this time, she also formed a friendship with bacteriologist Ruth Tunnicliffe. Hamilton investigated a typhoid epidemic in Chicago before focusing her research on the investigation of industrial diseases. Some of Hamilton's early research in this area included attempts to identify causes of typhoid and tuberculosis in the community surrounding Hull House. Her work on typhoid in 1902 led to the replacement of the chief sanitary inspector of the area by the Chicago Board of Health.  The study of industrial medicine (work-related illnesses) had become increasingly important because the Industrial Revolution of the late nineteenth century had led to new dangers in the workplace. In 1907 Hamilton began exploring existing literature from abroad and noticed that industrial medicine was not being studied as much in America. She set out to change the situation and published her first article on the topic in 1908.

Medical Investigator.

Hamilton began her long career in public health and workplace safety in 1910, when Illinois governor Charles S. Deneen appointed her as a medical investigator to the newly-formed Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases. Hamilton led the commission's investigations, which focused on industrial poisons such as lead and other toxins. She also authored the "Illinois Survey," the commission's report that documented its findings of industrial processes that exposed workers to lead poisoning and other illnesses. The commission's efforts resulted in the passage of the first workers' compensation laws in Illinois in 1911, in Indiana in 1915, and occupational disease laws in other states. The new laws required employers to take safety precautions to protect workers.  By 1916 Hamilton had become America's leading authority on lead poisoning. For the next decade she investigated a range of issues for a variety of state and federal health committees. Hamilton focused her explorations on occupational toxic disorders, examining the effects of substances such as aniline dyes, carbon monoxide, mercury, tetraethyl lead, radium, benzene, carbon disulfide and hydrogen sulfide gases. In 1925, at a Public Health Service conference on the use of lead in gasoline, she testified against the use of lead and warned of the danger it posed to people and the environment. Nevertheless, leaded gasoline was allowed. The EPA in 1988 estimated that over the previous 60 years that 68 million children suffered high toxic exposure to lead from leaded fuels.  Her work on the manufacture of white lead and lead oxide, as a special investigator for the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, is considered a "landmark study". Relying primarily on "shoe leather epidemiology" (her process of making personal visits to factories, conducting interviews with workers, and compiling details of diagnosed poisoning cases) and the emerging laboratory science of toxicology, Hamilton pioneered occupational epidemiology and industrial hygiene. She also created the specialized field of industrial medicine in the United States. Her findings were scientifically persuasive and influenced sweeping health reforms that changed laws and general practice to improve the health of workers.  During World War I, the US Army tasked her with solving a mysterious ailment striking workers at a munitions plant in New Jersey. She led a team that included George Minot, a professor at Harvard Medical School. She deduced that the workers were being sickened through contact with the explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT). She recommended that workers wear protective clothing to be removed and washed at the end of each shift, solving the problem.  Hamilton's best-known research included her studies on carbon monoxide poisoning among American steelworkers, mercury poisoning of hatters, and "a debilitating hand condition developed by workers using jackhammers." At the request of the U.S. Department of Labor, she also investigated industries involved in developing high explosives, "spastic anemia known as 'dead fingers'" among Bedford, Indiana, limestone cutters, and the "unusually high incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis" among tombstone carvers working in the granite mills of Quincy, Massachusetts, and Barre, Vermont. Hamilton was also a member of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of the Mortality from Tuberculosis in Dusty Trades, whose efforts "laid the groundwork for further studies and eventual widespread reform in the industry."

Women's rights and peace activist.

During her years at Hull House, Hamilton was active in the women's rights and peace movements. She traveled with Jane Addams and Emily Greene Balch to the 1915 International Congress of Women in The Hague, where they met Aletta Jacobs, a Dutch pacifist, feminist, and suffragist. Rediscovered historical footage shows Addams, Hamilton, and Jacobs before the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin on May 24, 1915, during a visit to Germany to meet government leaders. She also visited German-occupied Belgium.  Hamilton returned to Europe with Addams in May 1919 to attend the second International Congress of Women at Zurich, Switzerland. In addition, Hamilton, Addams, Jacobs, and American Quaker Carolena M. Wood became involved in a humanitarian mission to Germany to distribute food aid and investigate reports of famine.

Assistant professor, Harvard Medical School.

In January 1919 Hamilton accepted a position as assistant professor in a newly-formed Department of Industrial Medicine (and after 1925 the School of Public Health) at Harvard Medical School, making her the first woman appointed to the Harvard University faculty in any field. Her appointment was hailed by the "New York Tribune" with the headline: "A Woman on Harvard Faculty—The Last Citadel Has Fallen—The Sex Has Come Into Its Own". Her own comment was "Yes, I am the first woman on the Harvard faculty—but not the first one who should have been appointed!"  During her years at Harvard, from 1919 to her retirement in 1935, Hamilton never received a faculty promotion and held only a series of three-year appointments. At her request, the half-time appointments for which she taught one semester per year allowed her to continue her research and spend several months of each year at Hull House. Hamilton also faced discrimination as a woman. She was excluded from social activities, could not enter the Harvard Union, attend the Faculty Club, or receive a quota of football tickets. In addition, Hamilton was not allowed to march in the university's commencement ceremonies as the male faculty members did.  Hamilton became a successful fundraiser for Harvard as she continued to write and conduct research on the dangerous trades. In addition to publishing "landmark reports for the U.S. Department of Labor" on research related to workers in Arizona copper mines and stonecutters at Indiana's limestone quarries, Hamilton also wrote "Industrial Poisons in the United States" (1925), the first American textbook on the subject, and another related textbook, "Industrial Toxicology" (1934). At tetraethyl lead conference in Washington, D.C. in 1925, Hamilton was a prominent critic of adding tetraethyl lead to gasoline.  Hamilton also remained an activist in social reform efforts. Her specific interests in civil liberties, peace, birth control, and protective labor legislation for women caused some of her critics to consider her a "radical" and a "subversive." From 1924 to 1930, she served as the only woman member of the League of Nations Health Committee. She also visited the Soviet Union in 1924 and Nazi Germany in April 1933. Hamilton wrote "The Youth Who Are Hitler's Strength," which was published in "The New York Times". The article described Nazi exploitation of youth in the years between the two world wars. She also criticized the Nazi education, especially its domestic training for girls.

Later years.

After her retirement from Harvard in 1935, Hamilton became a medical consultant to the U.S. Division of Labor Standards. Her last field survey, which was made in 1937–38, investigated the viscose rayon industry. In addition, Hamilton served as president of the National Consumers League from 1944 to 1949.  Hamilton spent her retirement years in Hadlyme, Connecticut, at the home she had purchased in 1916 with her sister, Margaret. Hamilton remained an active writer in retirement. Her autobiography, "Exploring the Dangerous Trades", was published in 1943. Hamilton and coauthor Harriet Louise Hardy also revised "Industrial Toxicology" (1949), the textbook that Hamilton had initially written in 1934. Hamilton also enjoyed leisure activities such as reading, sketching, and writing, as well as spending time among her family and friends.

Death and legacy.

Hamilton died of a stroke at her home in Hadlyme, Connecticut, on September 22, 1970, at the age of 101. She is buried at Cove Cemetery in Hadlyme.  Hamilton was a tireless researcher and crusader against the use of toxic substances in the workplace. Within three months of her death in 1970, the U.S. Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act to improve workplace safety in the United States.

Selected published works.

Books:  Articles:

Alice Hamilton (February 27, 1869 – September 22, 1970) was an American physician, research scientist, and author who is best known as a leading expert in the field of occupational health and a pioneer in the field of industrial toxicology.

Alice Hamilton (27. února 1869 – 22. září 1970) byla americká lékařka, výzkumnice a spisovatelka, známá především jako přední expertka ochrany zdraví při práci a průkopnice pracovní toxikologie.


History and development.

MidnightBSD began as a fork from FreeBSD in 2005. The founder of the project, Lucas Holt, wished to create a BSD derived desktop operating system. He was familiar with several live CD projects, but not the work on TrueOS or DesktopBSD. At the same time, he also had an interest in GNUstep. The two ideas were folded into a plan to create a user friendly desktop environment. MidnightBSD 0.1 was released based on the efforts of Lucas Holt, Caryn Holt, D. Adam Karim, Phil Pereira of bsdnexus, and Christian Reinhardt. This release features a modified version of the FreeBSD ports system. The ports system evolved into "mports" which includes fake support, generation of packages before installation, license tagging, and strict rules about package list generation and modification of files outside the destination. Many of these features were introduced in MidnightBSD 0.1.1.  Christian Reinhardt replaced Phil Pereira as the lead "mports" maintainer prior to the release of MidnightBSD 0.1. D. Adam Karim acted as the security officer for the first release. All release engineering is handled by Lucas Holt.  0.2 introduced a refined imports system with over 2000 packages. The Portable C Compiler was added on i386 in addition to the GNU Compiler Collection. Other changes include enabling ipfw and sound card detection on startup, newer versions of many software packages including Bind, GCC, OpenSSH, and Sendmail, as well as a Live CD creation system.  Currently, the project is focusing on finishing the Magus build cluster software, creating a new installer, finishing the new package installation and management tools called mport, and beginning work on the 0.3 release. The next release will feature some enhancements found in FreeBSD 7.0 and DragonFly BSD.

Etymology.

MidnightBSD is named after Lucas and Caryn Holt's cat, Midnight. Midnight was a ten-pound black Turkish Angora.

License.

MidnightBSD is released under several licenses. The kernel code and most newly created code is released under the two-clause BSD license. There are parts under the GPL, LGPL, ISC, and Beerware licenses, along with three- and four-clause BSD licenses.

Reception.

Jesse Smith reviewed MidnightBSD 0.6 for DistroWatch Weekly:

MidnightBSD is a free Unix-like, desktop-oriented operating system originally forked from FreeBSD 6.1, and periodically updated with code and drivers from later FreeBSD releases. Its default desktop environment, GNUStep, borrows heavily from the NeXTSTEP graphical user interface.

MidnightBSD je unixovitý operační systém z rodiny BSD. Vznikl forkem operačního systému FreeBSD. Jako předvolené desktopové prostředí používá GNUstep vycházející vzhledově z NeXTSTEPu.


Flight.

History of the flight.

On Saturday, July 2, 1994, the plane, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9 registered "N954VJ", departed Columbia Metropolitan Airport at 18:15 EDT for the 35-minute flight to Charlotte/Douglas International Airport with Captain Mike Greenlee (38), First Officer James "Phil" Hayes (41), three flight attendants, and 52 passengers (including two infants) on board. The flight was uneventful until the approach to Charlotte, where several severe thunderstorms were in the vicinity of the airport. At 18:38, Flight 1016 was cleared by Charlotte approach control for an instrument landing system (ILS) approach to Douglas Airport's runway 18R (now 18C). The plane, flown by first officer Hayes, approached the runway in heavy rain conditions. The flight switched over to the local tower controller handling landings for runway 18R, and at 18:39, the tower controller gave Flight 1016 clearance to land. Captain Greenlee asked the tower controller for a weather report from the plane ahead of Flight 1016, a Fokker 100 that had just landed on runway 18R. The tower told Flight 1016 that the Fokker pilot reported "smooth sailing." In post-crash interviews, multiple passengers and flight attendants told the NTSB that the flight seemed normal until the plane entered a storm with heavy rain while on final approach.  At 18:40, a tower controller issued a windshear warning to all aircraft, but on a different radio frequency than that used by Flight 1016. About a minute later, as Flight 1016 was on final approach, the captain, realizing that his aircraft was in a serious predicament, attempted to abort the landing by instructing the first officer to "take it around, go to the right". The captain then radioed the control tower and stated "USAir ten sixteen's on the go"; the tower acknowledged the missed approach and cleared Flight 1016 to climb to. The plane struggled to climb due to the severe weather conditions, veered to the right and rapidly descended. The flight crew desperately tried to control the airplane as it plummeted toward the ground. It was later determined that the wind shear alert system did not alert them with a red indicator and aural warning because of a software discrepancy that lowered the sensitivity while the flaps were in transit from 40 degrees to 15 degrees during the go around procedure. A Honeywell engineer stated that the pilots should have received a warning 8–9 seconds before impact.

Crash.

At 18:42 EDT, the DC-9 touched down in a field within the airport boundary, about from the threshold of runway 18R. It then crashed through the airport fence and impacted several trees, breaking apart while skidding down a residential street that was on the airport boundary. The plane broke into four major sections; the front of the airplane, including the cockpit and the unoccupied first class passenger cabin, came to rest in the middle of Wallace Neel Road. The rear section of the fuselage, including the tail and the rear-mounted engines, came to rest in the carport of a house.  Of the 52 passengers on board, 37 died due to blunt force trauma, burns from the fire, or carbon monoxide inhalation. An additional 14 passengers suffered serious injuries, and one had minor injuries. Of the five crew members, both pilots suffered minor injuries, two flight attendants were seriously injured and the remaining flight attendant sustained minor injuries. No one on the ground was injured.  The airport's previous major incident was twenty years earlier, Eastern Air Lines Flight 212, also a DC-9, in September 1974.

Investigation and response.

The NTSB immediately dispatched an investigation team, which recovered the CVR and FDR from the plane's wreckage. After a lengthy investigation by the NTSB, it was concluded that a microburst had been generated by the thunderstorm that was over the airport at the time of the crash. The NTSB listed these contributing factors:

In the media.

The Flight 1016 crash is discussed in a "Mayday" ("Air Disasters" in the U.S.) television series episode, "Racing the Storm" (S1E2), about American Airlines Flight 1420, which also crashed while landing in inclement weather. The accident was later featured in "Mayday" episode "Storming Out" (S17E6). Flight 1016 was also the subject of an episode of "The Unexplained", a Biography Channel series.

USAir Flight 1016 was a regularly scheduled flight in the southeastern United States, between Columbia, South Carolina, and Charlotte, North Carolina. On July 2, 1994, the flight encountered heavy thunderstorms and microburst-induced windshear while attempting to land, and crashed into heavy trees and a private residence near the The crash and ensuing fire caused 37 fatalities and seriously injured

Let US Air 1016 byl pravidelný let společnosti USAir v jihovýchodních Spojených státech, mezi Columbií v Jižní Karolíně a Charlotte v Severní Karolíně. Dne 2. července 1994, vletěli do bouře a microburst při pokusu přistát srazil letoun k zemi a následná dezorientace kapitána měla za příčinu potlačení a náraz do lesa, letoun DC-9 se zastavil až na silnici přibližně 1,5 km od letiště. Havárie a následný požár způsobily 37 úmrtí a vážně zranily šestnáct dalších.


History.

Tuyên Quang, the capital city of the province has a rich history of the battles fought in the region. The earliest history is to the First Indochina War when it served as a garrison. During this war the Viet Minh made the Legionnaires surrender at the memorial to the Battle of Tuyên Quang. Another historical event is the Siege of Tuyên Quang, commemorated in the first verse of "Le Boudin", its principal marching song. The French garrison posted at Tuyên Quang defended the town for four months against 12,000 troops of the Yunnan Army and the Black Flag Army. Two companies of the French Foreign Legion1 company of Tonkinese Tirailleurs, 31 naval gunners with four mountain guns, and eight sappers, commanded by Sergeant Bobillot, plus the gunboat Mitrailleuse. were involved during the Sino-French War (August 1884 to April 1885).  Tuyên Quang was once entirely settled by Thai people, but from the 13th century onwards were integrated into the Trần Dynasty, who named it Quốc Oai before naming it Châu Tuyên Quang. Under the rule of Emperor Trần Hiến Tông (reigned 1329–1341), Tuyên Quang was given the status of a trấn, before being categorised a thành phủ when the Ming Dynasty of China briefly annexed Vietnam at the start of the 15th century. After Lê Lợi expelled the Chinese and started the Lê Dynasty, he made Tuyên Hóa a part of Tây Đạo. During the reign of Emperor Lê Thánh Tông, Tuyên Quang comprised one phủ and five districts (huyện) and became the province of Minh Quang under the rule of Emperor Lê Uy Mục. During the reign of Lê Trang Tông, Minh Quang became An Tại, and control of the region was given to the Vũ family, ethnic Thai people.  By the end of the 17th century, the Lê Dynasty sent ethnic Vietnamese officials to the area to supervise the Thais. After Gia Long started the Nguyễn Dynasty, he changed the region to the trấn of Tuyên Quang, and it became a province under the rule of his successor Emperor Minh Mạng. When the French carried out their colonial conquest, the phủ of Yên Bình was at the forefront of the resistance movement. People from the Thái, Mường, Mèo, Thổ, Nùng and another ethnic groups engaged the French in many battles in the area in 1884–85. The Black Flags were also prominent. It was not until 1894 that the French had pacified the region. Prior to 1975, the province comprised the districts of Yên Sơn, Yên Bình, Hàm Yên, Sơn Dương, Chiêm Hóa and Đại Thi.

Geography and climate.

The province has widely varying topography covering high mountains deep valleys; the dominant elevation of the province is in the range. The province is in the foothills of the Northern Highlands, which forms a broad crescent around the Tonkin Delta; its southern part has narrow river basins and mountain ranges (elevation below ) and the northern part, particularly in Chiêm Hoá and Nà Hang districts the slopes are steep with hills taller than (the highest mountain is Cham Chu at ). The Tam Dao range is located in this province.  In the southern part of the province, about away from Hanoi as the crow flies, is the provincial capital, also bearing the name of the capital city of the province, Tuyên Quang has an elevation below located on the right bank of the Lô River, a tributary of the Red River which rises at Hà Giang, near the Chinese border. Its major tributary is the Gâm River on its left bank. The province has a land area. The province's territory has only 7.2% of natural forest comprising both rain forest and monsoon forest.

Water resources.

The distribution of river and stream network in the province is 0.98 km/km. There are three main rivers: Lô, Gâm and Pho Day. The Lô River originates in Van Nam, China, flows through Hà Giang to this province; it flows for a length of in the province and drains an area of. Its maximum flow is 11,700 m/s, while the minimum flow recorded is 128 m/s. It is a navigable river and is a major water route of the province to carry goods to other provinces. The second major river is the Gâm, which originates in China and flows through Cao Bằng and Hà Giang, before entering Tuyên Quang. The Gâm joins the Lô at Tu Hiep. The river flows for length in the province darining an area of. The next major river of importance is the Pho Day River which rises in the Tam Dao Mountains in Bắc Kạn Province. It traverses in the province through Yên Sơn, Sơn Dương District to Phú Thọ, and has a drainage area of. The navigation possibilities of this river are very limited. In addition to the three major rivers, there is an abundance of small rivers, lakes and ponds (2000 ponds). The total volume of surface water available from all these sources is estimated at 10 BCM. River water is potable, clear and tasteless, has a pH value ranging from 6.5 and 7.5. The underground water resources of the province, according to preliminary assessments done in the past, was about 3,500,000 m/ngd. The water is potable with low mineral content. In addition, the province has three mineral water sources: two hot and one cool.

Mineral resources.

Transport network.

The province has no railway or airline links. However, the province has National Highway No. 2 and 37 road network. Major water transport routes are on the Lô, Gâm, and Pho Day Rivers which connect Tuyên Quang with neighboring provinces. Tuyên Quang township is from Hanoi by road.

Climate.

The tropical climatic seasons are the monsoon and dry season. Rainfall occurs generally during the monsoon months of May to October, which is also the summer season. However, it is unevenly distributed due to varying topography. The average annual rainfall in the province is in 150 rainy days. Monsoon rainfall accounts for about 94% while the balance occurs during the dry months, which is the winter period. Depending on the season, the wind direction also varies significantly. Thunderstorms from April to August are also a climatic feature with maximum recorded rainfall of during one thunderstorm in some areas. Cyclonic effects with wind speed reaching /s have been recorded in some areas. Cyclones occur every year during the transitional months between two seasons namely April and May. Other weather features noted are Mist and the hoarfrost; mist occurs at the beginning of the winter months; recorded for 25 to 55 days in the south and 60 to 80 days in the North. Hoarfrost occurs once every 2 years on average in January or November and for just one day.  The temperate to subtropical, tropical climate facilitates growth of natural flora and a diversified plant mechanism. The northern region of the province experiences a long winter with low temperatures. However, the region gets more rain during summer. The southern region has a diversified climate with a short winter and hot summer followed by a monsoonal season. Frequently, the strong intensity rainstorms result in floods, which occasionally cause damage to people and property. The average temperature in the province is.

Administrative divisions.

Tuyên Quang is subdivided into 7 district-level sub-divisions:  They are further subdivided into 5 commune-level towns (or townlets), 129 communes, and 7 wards.

Demographics.

According to the General Statistics Office of the Government of Vietnam, the population of Tuyên Quang province as of 2011 was 730,800 with a density of 125 persons per square kilometre over a total land area of of the province. The male population during this period was 369,100 with females accounting for 377,800. The rural population was 676,200 against an urban population of 70,700.

Economy and development.

The province's economy is dependent on its primary industries. In 2005, the economic breakdown is as follows: construction 30.7%, services 33.6%, agriculture, forestry and fishery 35.7%. Rice is the staple food. Also grown are maize, cassava, potato, tea, lemongrass and citrus fruits, as well as beans. Livestock includes buffalo, pigs and poultry. The most important mineral reserves are zinc ore, manganese ore, tin and antimony. The province is also a producer of paper, cement and limestone.  The land economy is dependent on the agricultural growth in the province, which is dependent to a land area of ) under agriculture, about 20% of the province. However, this has also caused deforestation. However, the practice of shifting cultivation called the "swidden agriculture"(practiced by ethnic minorities) is limited to 3000 ha, as in 1992, and is said to be reducing under a UNDP funded project; has covered the aquaculture development in ponds. However, the Lô River which flows through the province has much potential for development of aquaculture.  The province has 900 villages in upland areas, which are inhabited mostly by impoverished ethnic minorities. Under an IFAD funded project for Rural Development (IFAD loan:US$20.9 million), agricultural training has been provided to the farmers on pilot plots to teach them to adopt new practices and techniques in the field of agriculture, animal husbandry, credit, food storage and processing that are appropriate for the local environment. In addition, infrastructure, health services and village level institutions like the savings and credit groups, user groups and village development boards have also been supported by this funding. The forestry sector of the economy is influenced by the Bai Bang pulp and paper mill, said to be one of the largest in Vietnam, located in the adjoining Vinh Phu Province. It was established in the 1980s with financial help from Sweden. Commercial logging is carried out in the plantation forests by the state-sponsored enterprises to supply pulp to the factory.

Economic indicators.

As against the national figure of 7,592 agriculture, forestry and fishery cooperatives, there are only 147 agriculture cooperatives in the province (142 are farming and 6 are fishery cooperatives). There are 54 farms in the province compared to the national number of 120,699.  The output value of agricultural produce at constant 1994 prices in the province was 959.5 billion đồngs, compared to the national value of 156,681.9 billion dongs. The province produced 569,400 tonnes of cereals as against the national production of 324,200 tonnes.  The per capita production of cereals in the district was as against the national figure of 501.8 kg in 2007. In 2007, the industrial output of the province was a meagre 1102.7 billion đồngs against the national output of 1.47 million billion dongs.

Tuyên Quang hydroelectric plant.

The Tuyên Quang Hydropower Plant, also known as "Dai Thi", is a major hydroelectric power project located within the province on the Gam River near Pac Ta Mountain. Construction began on December 22, 2002 and the first unit was commissioned in March 2008 followed by the two other units by end of 2008. The power plant has a capacity of 342 MW (the second largest in the north), and has an energy generating potential of 1200 GWh/year. The project's estimated approved cost was US$490 million. The project, as built, has a rock fill dam and long (crest length), called the Na Hang Dam. It has a gross storage capacity of 2.3 billion cubic metres (BCM) (including 1 BCM of flood storage) on the Gâm River.

Biodiversity.

Forest.

Cultivated land including permanent cropland are mainly in the south of the province. The large closed forest is typical of the northern districts and is widespread in about 12% of the area. Bamboo forests are present recorded in all districts of the province, except Na Hang. The area of forests have reduced due to conversion into agricultural land or because they have become barren. However, this reduction could not be exactly correlated to the changes in the biodiversity of the province.

Flora and fauna.

The province has a rich range of flora and fauna. Data compiled for the province has recorded flora from 90 families, 258 classes, and 597 species, and many of them are listed as endangered. The Vietnamese Red Book lists 18 scarce and precious plants in the province including aloe wood, pantace vietnamiensis, textured wood, limestone vatica, hoang dan and abony-tree.  There are 293 faunal species, of which there are 51 animal species belonging to 19 families; there are 175 bird species of 45 families; there are 5 reptile species and 17 amphibian species from 5 families. The animal species are found in abundance, although 39 animal species are listed in the scarce and precious category. Fauna in danger of extinction comprise 18 species of animals, 12 species of birds, 12 species of reptiles and one species of amphibian. The six mammal species particularly identified in the area are the tiger, the Asian black bear, the clouded leopard, the Indian muntjac (a small cervine), black gibbon, the apricot panther, the sambar (another small cervine) and the Sumatran serow (a small caprine). The primates identified are the Tonkin snub-nosed monkey and Phayre's leaf monkey; the last named is reported to be extinct. The habitat of the mammals, including primates, is stated to be shrinking due to deforestation and expansion of agricultural activities.

Historical places.

Historical places in the province include the Cave Pagoda at Yên Sơn; the Dat Nong Tien and the Thuong Temple in Tuyên Quang. The natural beauty of the province is provided by the mountain ranges with peaks exceeding, and the My Lam Mineral Spring. There are 26 registered historical monuments, eight cultural centres and 42 communal cultural houses in the province. The predominant Christian churches in the province are the seven Roman Catholic churches; 60% of the province is believed to be Catholic.

Festivals.

The popular festivals celebrated in the province are the Gieng Tanh village festival and the Qua Tang festival of the Dao people.

Tuyên Quang () is a province of Vietnam, located in the northeastern part of the country to the northwest of Hanoi, at the centre of Lô River valley, a tributary of the Red River. The delta formation in the province is called the Tonkin Delta. Its capital is Tuyên Quang township. The province had a population of 730,800 in 2011, with a density of 125 persons per km over a total land area of.

Tuyen Quang () je provincie na severu Vietnamu. Žije zde přes 770 tisíc obyvatel, hlavní město je Tuyên Quang. Sousedí s provinciemi Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc, Phu Tho a Yen Bai.


Career.

Ónodi, also known as "Henni" in the gymnastics community, began gymnastics in 1978 and made her international debut in 1986. Too young to qualify for the 1988 Olympics, she made her senior debut in 1989 and represented Hungary at the World Championships that year, where she placed 19th in the all-around and 5th in the balance beam event finals.  Over the next few years, Ónodi established herself as a medal contender at major events. In 1989 she became the first female Hungarian gymnast to medal at the European Championships with a gold on the uneven bars; at the 1990 Europeans she placed third in the all-around and the floor exercise. In 1990, she also finished third in the all-around at the Goodwill Games and the World Cup where she won the vault event. At the 1991 World Championships Ónodi suffered a sudden back injury but was able to win a silver medal on vault and helped the Hungarian squad qualify for the 1992 Olympics with an eighth-place finish in the team final.  The next year at the Olympics in Barcelona, Ónodi became the first female Hungarian gymnast in over 30 years to win an Olympic gold medal. She tied with Romanian Lavinia Miloșovici for the gold in the vault event final; on floor exercise, performing to "Hungarian Rhapsody" she finished second behind Miloşovici. Ónodi's difficulty level on vault was actually higher than Miloșovici's (they both used full twisting Yurchenkos but Henrietta did a piked barani and Milosovici a tucked). Ónodi also performed the difficult triple twist on floor, then an unusual move (nobody else in the Barcelona floor finals did it).  Ónodi semi-retired after Barcelona Olympics to focus on her studies. She returned to international competitions in 1995 at the World University Games and subsequently led the Hungarian team at the 1996 Olympics. She retired again in 1997 after attending her second University Games.

Skills and style.

Ónodi made many contributions to gymnastics during her competitive career. She was lauded for her unique style and power on vaulting and floor. Her uneven bars routine consisted of elements on the low bar at a time when most gymnasts did the minimum two elements on the low bar.

Post-retirement.

In 2001 Ónodi graduated in marketing and found a job in Miami, Florida, as Director of Community Relations for the World Olympians Association. She married Jimbo Haley, an American pentathlete who also competed at the 1992 Olympics, and became a naturalized U.S. citizen. In 2010, she was inducted into the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame.

Henrietta Ónodi (born May 22, 1974) is a Hungarian artistic gymnast. She competed at the 1992 and 1996 Olympics and won a gold and a silver medal in 1992. After retiring from gymnastics in 1997 she moved to the United States, married American Olympic pentathlete Jimbo Haley, and became a naturalized U.S. citizen. In 2010, she was inducted into the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame.

Henriette „Henni“ Ónodiová (* 22. května 1974 Békéscsaba) je bývalá maďarská sportovní gymnastka. Na mistrovství Evropy ve sportovní gymnastice vyhrála v roce 1989 na bradlech a byla třetí v prostných, v roce 1990 získala bronzové medaile ve víceboji a prostných. V roce 1990 vyhrála Světový pohár ve sportovní gymnastice v přeskoku. Na mistrovství světa ve sportovní gymnastice skončila v roce 1991 druhá v přeskoku a v roce 1992 se stala mistryní světa v přeskoku a byla druhá v prostných. Na Letních olympijských hrách 1992 zvítězila v přeskoku, byla druhá v prostných, šestá skončila ve víceboji družstev a osmá ve víceboji jednotlivkyň. Startovala také na Letních olympijských hrách 1996, kde nepostoupila do finále na žádném nářadí a s družstvem obsadila deváté místo.


Svatá Lucie na Letních olympijských hrách 2008

Background.

The Saint Lucia Olympic Committee sent President Richard Peterkin, Minister of Youth and Sports Lenard Montoute, Chief de Mission Alfred Emmanuel, Coach Henry Bailey, and Coach Karen Beaubrun to Beijing alongside the four-person athletic delegation. Saint Lucia was the 67th nation in line at the 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, in which high jumper Levern Spencer was the flagbearer. Saint Lucians were unable to view the 7:00 am opening ceremony because of issues with the local cable provider.

Athletics.

Three of Saint Lucia's four athletes competed in athletics: Dominic Johnson, Lavern Spencer, and Erma-Gene Evans. Johnson, at age 32, was the oldest of Saint Lucia's athletes to participate in the 2008 Summer Olympics.  Erma-Gene Evans participated in athletics as a javelin thrower. The 2008 Summer Olympics was her Olympic debut. Evans moved forward through two rounds after qualifying under the B standard during her event on 18 August 2008, but did not rank in the third qualifying round. With a best mark distance of 56.27, Evans ranked thirtieth overall. She did not advance.  Dominic Johnson participated in athletics as a pole vaulter, returning to the Olympics for his third time; Johnson had previously participated as a pole vaulter (and, at one time, a relay runner) on behalf of Saint Lucia in the 2000 Summer Olympics and 1996 Summer Olympics. Johnson flew to San Diego days before the competition cutoff and made the qualifying preliminary height for the Olympics shortly after winning a silver medal at the Central American and Caribbean Championships in Cali, Colombia. Johnson's event took place on 20 August 2008. With a height of 5.30 metres, Johnson did not qualify, although he tied for seventeenth place in his qualifying group. As such, he did not advance. Johnson tied with the Czech pole vaulter Štěpán Janáček for thirtieth place overall.  Levern Spencer participated in athletics as a high jumper, making her first appearance in the Olympics. Spencer trained with Coach Wayne Norton of the University of Georgia to hone her skills in the time preceding her performance in the Olympics. Levern Spencer's personal best time has been compared to medal winners in the event from the 2004 Summer Olympics. Spencer's best height cleared was 1.85, placing fourteenth in Qualifying Group B. However, during her event on 20 August 2008, Spencer placed twenty-seventh overall, and did not advance.

Swimming.

Danielle Beaubrun was the only Saint Lucian swimmer to participate in the Beijing Olympics. She was the youngest member of the Saint Lucian delegation, at age 18. The 2008 Summer Olympics served as Beaubrun's Olympic debut. Beaubrun did not initially qualify for Olympic standards. However, because Saint Lucia had no naturally qualifying swimmers, the country was invited by FINA to send two swimmers to the Olympics, granted the swimmer had participated in the 2007 World Championships. Beaubrun met this criterion, and was selected for this reason. At the time, Beaubrun was enrolled at The Bolles School in Jacksonville, Florida and trained with coach Sergio Lopez.  The event in which Beaubrun participated was the 100 meter breaststroke. This event took place on 10 August 2008. In the second heat of the qualifying round, Beaubrun scored third, with a time of 1:12.85. However, overall, Danielle Beaubrun ranked forty-second, and, as a result, did not advance.

Saint Lucia sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. The 2008 Saint Lucian team included four athletes that competed in two sports: swimming and athletics. Of these four athletes, Danielle Beaubrun, at age 18, was the youngest of the competitors. Dominic Johnson, at age 32, was the oldest, and was the only man sent as part of the 2008 delegation; additionally, Johnson was the only Saint Lucian athlete in the 2008 delegation who had previously participated in the Olympics.

Svatá Lucie se účastnila Letních olympijských her 2008 a zastupovali ji 4 sportovci ve 2 sportech (1 muž a 3 ženy). Vlajkonoškou výpravy byla atletka Levern Spencerová. Nejmladší z výpravy byla Danielle Beaubrunová, které bylo v době konání her 18 let. Nejstarším z výpravy byl Dominic Johnson, kterému bylo v době konání her 32 let. Nikomu z výpravy se během her nepodařilo získat medaili.


Description.

The shell of "Pecten maximus" is quite robust and is characterised by having "ears" of equal size on either side of the apex. The right, or lower, valve is convex and slightly overlaps the flat left, or upper, valve, which is flat. Larger specimens have a nearly circular outline and the largest may measure 21 cm in length. The "ears" are prominent and are a minimum of half the width of the shell with the byssal notch situated in the right anterior ear being slight and not serrated. The sculpture of the valves is distinctive and consists of 12 to 17 wide radiating ribs and numerous concentric lines which clearly show the scallop's growth history, while the "ears" show a few thin ribs which radiate from the beaks. The radiating ribs reach the margins of the valves and this creates a crenulated form. The left valve is normally reddish-brown while the right valve varies from white through cream to shades of pale brown contrasting with pink, red or pale yellow tints; either valve may show zigzag patterns and may also show bands and spots of red, pink or bright yellow.  The colour of the body of "Pecten maximus" is pink or red with the mantle marbled brown and white. When young they are attached to the substrate by a byssus but mature animals are capable of swimming by the opening and rapid closing of the valves. The adductor muscle which is used to close and open the valves is very large and powerful. The foot is a finger-like organ, which spins the byssal threads, which pass through the byssal notch on the ears. The margin of the mantle has two layers the inner layer is finely fringed while the outer is lined with long tentacles with two series totalling 30-36 dark blue or green simple eyes or ocelli in two rows at their base.

Distribution.

"Pecten maximus" occurs in the eastern Atlantic along the European coast from northern Norway, south to the Iberian peninsula, it has also been reported off West Africa, off the Macaronesian Islands. In Great Britain and Ireland it is distributed all round the coast but it is uncommon and localised on the eastern North Sea coast. It prefers offshore waters down to 100m

Biology.

"Pecten maximus" frequently creates a slight hollow in the substrate for its shell to lie in by opening and closing the valve to eject water from the mantle cavity, which raises the shell at an angle to the substrate so that subsequent water jets into the sediment and create a recess. Once settled, sand, mud, gravel or living organisms coat the upper valve, and the margin of the shell, with the tentacles and eyes, is all that is visible. They are filter feeders which extract particles from the surrounding water via a feeding current which is drawn by cilia across the gills where the food particles are trapped, then taken to the mouth in a stream of mucous.  "Pecten maximus" swims but this is generally limited to escape reactions. The main predators which cause this reaction when detected are the mollusc eating starfish "Asterias rubens" and "Astropecten irregularis", although starfish which do not feed on molluscs can cause limited jumping or valve-closing reactions. The swimming action is performed by rapidly clapping the valves and expelling jets of water from each side of the hinge so that it moves with the curved edge of the shell at the front. The scallop jumps forwards by gradually relaxing the adductor muscle and then rapidly opening and closing the valves.  "Pecten maximus" tends to be more numerous in areas where they are not fully exposed to strong currents. Scallops which live in sheltered habitats grow faster than scallops in areas exposed to wave action, possibly due to the filter feeding apparatus being unable to function because of high concentrations of particulate matter in the water in areas subject to high levels of wave exposure. Another factor that may be significant is that the processes of larval settlement and byssal attachment are rather delicate and would be disturbed in strong currents. Abundance and growth rates are negatively correlated with the amount of mud in the substrate.  Scallops use larval motility to distribute themselves, as the adult scallops have limited mobility. The distribution of the larvae is affected by factors such as local hydrographic regimes and their survival, and this results in the scallops having an aggregated distribution within their geographic range. This means that the major fishing grounds are normally widely separated and each fishing ground's environmental conditions mean there are marked differences in structures of the populations, although the genetics of scallops are rather uniform across its range.  The reproductive cycle of "Pecten maximus" is extremely variable and the spawning may be influenced by both internal and external factors such as age and temperature respectively but is also influenced by genetic adaptation. Generally, mature scallops spawn over the summer months starting in April or May and lasting to September. They are hermaphroditic and have distinct tongue-shaped gonads which are red or orange in colour for the female gonad and white for the male. It is estimated that a three-year old scallop releases 15 - 21 million oocytes per emission. There appear to be two spawnings in many parts of the range, normally there is a partial one in the Spring and a full one in late August, however younger scallops have a single spawning event in the late summer. In some areas this pattern is reversed and the major spawning is in the Spring. After spawning the animals undergo period of recovery of the gonad before they spawn again. Fertilization of the gametes is external and either sperm or oocytes can be released into the water column first.  Since the larval stage of "Pecten maximus" is relatively long, up to a month, the potential for dispersal is quite high, even smaller adults can use the byssus to drift too. However, in at least some populations, genetic studies show that there is little contribution from more distant populations and that these populations probably sustain themselves.  In waters around the United Kingdom "Pecten maximus" become sexually mature at around 2–3 years old and when they reach 80 to 90 mm in shell length. Where they are not exploited, they may live for more than 20 years and reach shell lengths of more than 200mm. Scallops in shallow water grow faster than those in deeper water; the growth halts in winter and starts again in spring, producing concentric growth rings which are used to age the scallops.

Predators and diseases.

As well as "Asterias rubens" and "Astropecten irregularis" major predators on "Pecten maximus" are crabs such as "Cancer pagurus", "Carcinus maenas", "Liocarcinus puber" and "Liocarcinus depurator" will prey on the scallops as they grow. The anemone "Anthopleura ballii" was found preying on young specimens of "P.maximus" in south-western Ireland.  The larvae of "Pecten maximus" are attacked by the bacterium "Vibrio pectenicida", which was described in 1998 as a new species after incidents of mortality among cultured scallops in France in the early 1990s. Other strains of pathogenic bacteria were detected in Norway following mass mortality of larvae in culture.

Fisheries and aquaculture.

In 1999 the total catch reported by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation was 35,411 tonnes with the two biggest catches being reported from the United Kingdom and France which landed 19,108 tonnes and 12.745 tonnes respectively. It is believed that some natural stocks are showing indications of over exploitation resulting in strict enforcement of fisheries legislation and by the development of stock enhancement practices. Great scallops are fished for using Newhaven scallop dredges although a very small percentage, i.e. less than 5% is gathered by hand by divers. In total the scallop fisher for "P. maximus". and for the Queen scallop "Aequipecten opercularis" are one of the top five fisheries by value in United Kingdom waters. However, the use of towed great to harvest scallops causes damage to the wider ecosystem.  "Pecten maximus" can be cultivated in aquaculture and this is reasonably advanced in France and Norway. Spain, France, Ireland, United Kingdom and Norway have been involved in the aquaculture of scallops; production peaked in 1998 when 512 tonnes were landed but production later recessed, with only 213 tonnes landed in 2004, having an estimated value of €852 000, equivalent to €4 per kilogramme.  "Pecten maximus" has been found to contain domoic acid, a toxin that can cause Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning. The risk associated with scallop consumption is regarded as a significant threat to both public health and the shellfish industry.

Cultural significance.

The oil company Royal Dutch Shell derives its highly recognizable logo from this species.  Pilgrims travelling to the town of Santiago de Compostella in Galicia took the shells of scallop with them, in honor of Saint James. This gave rise to the alternative name St James shell.

Pecten maximus, common names the great scallop, king scallop, St James shell or escallop, is a northeast Atlantic species of scallop, an edible saltwater clam, a marine bivalve mollusc in the family Pectinidae. This is the type species of the genus. This species may be conspecific with "Pecten jacobaeus", the pilgrim's scallop, which has a much more restricted distribution.

Hřebenatka kuchyňská, Pecten maximus, anglicky "great scallop, king scallop, St James shell," francouzsky "coquille Saint-Jacques," na českém trhu zpravidla "(svato)jakubská mušle" apod., je jedlý mořský mlž z čeledi Pectinidae. Je typovým druhem rodu Pecten. Je možné, že tvoří týž druh s hřebenatkou svatojakubskou ("P." "jacobaeus," angl. "pilgrim's scallop"), která má mnohem užší areál rozšíření.