Architecture.

Visual Studio does not support any programming language, solution or tool intrinsically; instead, it allows the plugging of functionality coded as a VSPackage. When installed, the functionality is available as a "Service". The IDE provides three services: SVsSolution, which provides the ability to enumerate projects and solutions; SVsUIShell, which provides windowing and UI functionality (including tabs, toolbars, and tool windows); and SVsShell, which deals with registration of VSPackages. In addition, the IDE is also responsible for coordinating and enabling communication between services. All editors, designers, project types and other tools are implemented as VSPackages. Visual Studio uses COM to access the VSPackages. The Visual Studio SDK also includes the "Managed Package Framework" ("MPF"), which is a set of managed wrappers around the COM-interfaces that allow the Packages to be written in any CLI compliant language. However, MPF does not provide all the functionality exposed by the Visual Studio COM interfaces. The services can then be consumed for creation of other packages, which add functionality to the Visual Studio IDE.  Support for programming languages is added by using a specific VSPackage called a "Language Service". A language service defines various interfaces which the VSPackage implementation can implement to add support for various functionalities. Functionalities that can be added this way include syntax coloring, statement completion, brace matching, parameter information tooltips, member lists, and error markers for background compilation. If the interface is implemented, the functionality will be available for the language. Language services are implemented on a per-language

Features.

Code editor.

Like any other IDE, it includes a code editor that supports syntax highlighting and code completion using IntelliSense for variables, functions, methods, loops, and LINQ queries. IntelliSense is supported for the included languages, as well as for XML, Cascading Style Sheets, and JavaScript when developing web sites and web applications. Autocomplete suggestions appear in a modeless list box over the code editor window, in proximity of the editing cursor. In Visual Studio 2008 onwards, it can be made temporarily semi-transparent to see the code obstructed by it. The code editor is used for all supported languages.  The Visual Studio code editor also supports setting bookmarks in code for quick navigation. Other navigational aids include collapsing code blocks and incremental search, in addition to normal text search

Debugger.

Visual Studio includes a debugger that works both as a source-level debugger and as a machine-level debugger. It works with both managed code as well as native code and can be used for debugging applications written in any language supported by Visual Studio. In addition, it can also attach to running processes, monitor, and debug those processes. If source code for the running process is available, it displays the code as it is being run. If source code is not available, it can show the disassembly. The Visual Studio debugger can also create memory dumps as well as load them later for debugging. Multi-threaded programs are also supported. The debugger can be configured

Designer.

Visual Studio includes a host of visual

Extensibility.

Visual Studio allows developers to write extensions for Visual Studio to extend its capabilities. These extensions "plug into" Visual Studio and extend its functionality. Extensions come in the form of "macros", "add-ins", and "packages". Macros represent repeatable tasks and actions that developers can record programmatically for saving, replaying, and distributing. Macros, however, cannot implement new commands or create tool windows. They are written using Visual Basic and are not compiled. Add-Ins provide access to the Visual Studio object model and can interact with the IDE tools. Add-Ins can be used to implement new functionality and can add new tool windows. Add-Ins are plugged into the IDE via COM and can be created in any COM-compliant languages. Packages are created using the Visual Studio SDK and provide the highest level of extensibility. They can create designers and other tools, as well as integrate other programming languages. The Visual Studio SDK provides unmanaged APIs as well as a managed API to accomplish these tasks. However, the managed API isn't as comprehensive as the unmanaged one. Extensions are supported in the Standard

Editions.

Microsoft Visual Studio is available in the following editions or SKUs:

Community.

The Community edition was announced on 12 November 2014, as a new free version, with similar functionality to Visual Studio Professional. Prior to this date, the only free editions of Visual Studio were the feature-limited Express variants. Unlike the Express variants, Visual Studio Community supports multiple languages, and provides support for extensions. Individual developers have no restrictions on their use of the Community edition. The following uses

Professional.

As of Visual Studio 2010, the Professional edition is the entry level commercial edition of Visual Studio. (Previously, a more feature restricted Standard edition was available.) It provides an IDE for all supported development languages. MSDN support is available as MSDN Essentials or the full MSDN library depending on licensing. It supports XML and XSLT

Enterprise.

In addition to the features provided by the Professional edition, the Enterprise

History.

The first version of Visual Studio was Visual Studio 97. Before that, Visual Basic, Visual C++, Visual FoxPro and Visual SourceSafe were sold as separate products.

97.

Microsoft first released Visual Studio (codenamed "Boston", for the city of the same name, thus beginning the VS codenames related to places) in 1997, bundling many of its programming tools together for the first time. Visual Studio 97 came in two editions: Visual Studio Professional and Visual Studio Enterprise, the professional edition has three CDs, and the enterprise four CDs.

6.0 (1998).

The next version, version 6.0 (codenamed "Aspen", after the ski resort in Colorado), was released in June 1998 and is the last version to run on the Windows 9x platform. Each version of each language in part also settled to v6.0, including Visual J++ which was prior v1.1, and Visual InterDev at the 1st release. The v6 edition of Microsoft was the core environment for the next four releases

.NET 2002.

Microsoft released Visual Studio.NET (VS.NET), codenamed "Rainier" (for Washington's Mount Rainier), in February 2002 (the beta version was released via Microsoft Developer Network in 2001). The biggest change was the introduction of a managed code development environment using the.NET Framework. Programs developed using.NET are not compiled to machine language (like C++ is, for example) but instead to a format called Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) or Common Intermediate Language (CIL). When a CIL application executes, it is compiled while being executed into the appropriate machine language for the platform it is being executed on, thereby making code portable across several platforms. Programs compiled into CIL can be executed only on platforms which have an implementation of Common Language Infrastructure. It is possible to run CIL programs in Linux or Mac OS X using non-Microsoft.NET implementations like Mono and DotGNU.  This was the first version of Visual Studio to require an NT-based Windows platform. The installer enforces this requirement.

.NET 2003.

In April 2003, Microsoft introduced a minor upgrade to Visual Studio.NET called Visual Studio.NET 2003, codenamed "Everett" (for the city of the same name). It includes an upgrade to the.NET Framework, version 1.1, and is the first release to support developing programs for mobile devices, using ASP.NET or the.NET Compact Framework. The Visual C++ compiler's standards-compliance improved, especially in the area of partial template specialization. Visual C++ Toolkit 2003 is a version of the same C++ compiler shipped with Visual Studio

2005.

Visual Studio 2005, codenamed "Whidbey" (a reference to Whidbey Island in Puget Sound region), was released online in October 2005 and to retail stores a few weeks later. Microsoft removed the ".NET" moniker from Visual Studio 2005 (as well as every other product with.NET in its name), but it still primarily targets the.NET Framework, which was upgraded to version 2.0. It is the last version available for Windows 2000 and also the last version to be able to target

2008.

Visual Studio 2008, and Visual Studio Team System 2008 codenamed "Orcas" (a reference to Orcas Island, also an island in Puget Sound region, like Whidbey for the previous 2005 release), were released to MSDN subscribers on 19 November 2007 alongside.NET Framework 3.5. The source code for the Visual Studio 2008 IDE is available under a shared source license to some of Microsoft's partners and ISVs. Microsoft released Service Pack 1 for Visual Studio 2008 on 11 August 2008. The internal version number of Visual Studio 2008 is

2010.

On 12 April 2010, Microsoft released Visual Studio 2010, codenamed "Dev10", and.NET Framework 4.  The Visual Studio 2010 IDE was redesigned which, according to Microsoft, clears the UI organization and "reduces clutter and complexity." The new IDE better supports multiple document windows and floating tool windows, while offering better multi-monitor support. The IDE shell has been rewritten using the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF), whereas the internals have been redesigned using Managed Extensibility Framework (MEF) that offers more extensibility points than previous versions of the IDE that enabled add-ins to modify the behavior of the IDE.  The new multi-paradigm ML-variant F# forms part of Visual Studio 2010.  Visual Studio 2010 comes with.NET Framework 4 and supports developing applications targeting Windows 7. It supports IBM DB2 and Oracle databases, in addition to Microsoft SQL Server. It has integrated support for developing Microsoft Silverlight applications, including an interactive designer. Visual Studio 2010 offers several tools to make parallel programming simpler: in addition to the Parallel Extensions for the.NET Framework and the Parallel Patterns Library for native code, Visual Studio 2010 includes tools for debugging parallel applications. The new tools allow the visualization of parallel Tasks and their runtime

2012.

The final build of Visual Studio 2012 was announced on 1 August 2012 and the official launch event was held on 12 September 2012.  Unlike prior versions, Visual Studio 2012 cannot record and play macros and the macro editor has been removed.  New features include support for WinRT and C++/CX (Component Extensions) and C++ AMP (GPGPU programming) Semantic Colorization.  On 16 September 2011, a complete 'Developer Preview' of Visual Studio 11 was published on Microsoft's website. Visual Studio 11 Developer Preview requires Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows 8, or later operating systems. Versions of Microsoft Foundation Class Library (MFC) and C runtime (CRT) included with this

Interface backlash.

During Visual Studio 11 beta, Microsoft eliminated the use of color within tools except in cases where color is used for notification or status change purposes. However, the use of color was returned after feedback demanding more contrast, differentiation, clarity and "energy" in the user interface.  In Visual Studio 2012 RC, a major change to the interface is the use of all-caps menu bar, as part of the campaign to keep Visual Studio consistent with the direction of other Microsoft user interfaces, and to provide added structure to the top menu bar area. The redesign was criticized for being hard to read, and going against the trends started by developers to use CamelCase to make words stand out better. Some speculated that the root cause of the redesign was to incorporate the simplistic look and feel of Metro programs. However, there exists a Windows Registry option to allow users to disable the all-caps interface.

2013.

The preview for Visual Studio 2013 was announced at the Build 2013 conference and made available on 26 June 2013. The Visual Studio 2013 RC (Release Candidate) was made available to developers on MSDN on 9 September 2013.  The final release of Visual Studio 2013 became available for download on 17 October 2013 along with.NET 4.5.1. Visual Studio 2013 officially launched on 13 November 2013 at a virtual launch event

2015.

Initially referred to as Visual Studio "14", the first Community Technology Preview (CTP) was released on 3 June 2014 and the Release Candidate was released on 29 April 2015; Visual Studio 2015 was officially announced

2017.

Initially referred to as Visual Studio "15", it was released on 7 March 2017. The first Preview was released on 30 March 2016. Visual Studio "15" Preview 2 was released 10 May 2016. Visual Studio "15" Preview 3 was released on 7 July 2016. Visual Studio "15" Preview 4 was released on 22 August 2016. Visual Studio "15" Preview 5 was released on 5 October 2016.  On 14 November 2016, for a brief period of time, Microsoft released a blog post revealing Visual Studio 2017 product name version alongside upcoming features.  On 16 November 2016, "Visual Studio 2017" was announced as the final name, and Visual Studio 2017 RC was released.  On 7 March 2017, Visual Studio 2017 was released for general availability.  On 14 March 2017, first fix was released for Visual Studio 2017 due to failures during installation or opening solutions in the first release.  On 5 April 2017, Visual Studio 2017 15.1 was released and added support for targeting the.NET Framework 4.7.

2019.

On 6 June 2018 Microsoft announced Visual Studio 2019 (version 16).  On 4 December 2018 Visual Studio 2019 Preview 1 was released. On 24 January 2019 Visual

Related products.

Azure DevOps Services.

On 13 November 2013, Microsoft announced the release of a software as a service offering of Visual Studio on Microsoft Azure platform; at the time, Microsoft called it Visual Studio Online. Previously announced as Team Foundation Services, it expanded over the on-premises Team Foundation Server (TFS; now known as Azure DevOps Server) by making it available on the Internet and implementing a rolling release model. Customers could use Azure portal to subscribe

Visual Studio Application Lifecycle Management.

Visual Studio Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) is a collection of integrated software development tools developed by Microsoft. These tools currently consist of the IDE (Visual Studio 2015 Community and greater editions), server (Team Foundation Server), and cloud services (Visual Studio Team Services). Visual Studio ALM supports team-based development and collaboration, Agile project

Visual Studio Lab Management.

Visual Studio Lab Management is a software development tool developed by Microsoft for software testers to create and manage virtual environments. Lab Management extends the existing

Visual Studio LightSwitch.

Microsoft Visual Studio LightSwitch is an extension and framework specifically tailored for creating line-of-business applications built on existing.NET technologies and Microsoft platforms. The applications produced are architecturally 3-tier: the user interface runs on either Microsoft Silverlight or HTML 5 client, or as a SharePoint 2013 app; the logic and data-access tier is built on WCF Data Services and exposed as an OData feed hosted in ASP.NET; and the primary data storage supports Microsoft SQL Server Express, Microsoft SQL Server and Microsoft SQL Azure. LightSwitch also supports other data sources including Microsoft SharePoint, OData and WCF RIA Services.  LightSwitch

Visual Studio Code.

Visual Studio Code is a source code editor, along with other features, for Linux, Mac OS,

Visual Studio Team System Profiler.

Visual Studio Team System Profiler (VSTS Profiler) is a tool to analyze the performance of.NET projects that

Microsoft Visual Studio is an integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft. It is used to develop computer programs, as well as websites, web apps, web services and mobile apps. Visual Studio uses Microsoft software development platforms such as Windows API, Windows Forms, Windows Presentation Foundation, Windows Store and Microsoft Silverlight. It can produce both native code and managed code.

Microsoft Visual Studio je vývojové prostředí (IDE) od Microsoftu. Může být použito pro vývoj konzolových aplikací a aplikací s grafickým rozhraním spolu s aplikacemi Windows Forms, webovými stránkami, webovými aplikacemi a webovými službami jak ve strojovém kódu, tak v řízeném kódu na platformách Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, Windows CE,.NET,.NET Compact Framework a Microsoft Silverlight. Aktuálně je na trhu Visual Studio 2019.


Personal life.

Ferlito was born to an Italian-American family in Brooklyn, New York. Her father died of a heroin overdose when she was two years old. Her mother and stepfather own a hair salon in Brooklyn. Before becoming an actress, Ferlito was a Wilhelmina model, and a New York City "club kid". Ferlito is a single mother who gave birth to a son in September 2007.

Career.

Ferlito developed acting aspirations early in her life and broke into the entertainment business through a series of guest spots and recurring roles.  In 2003, Ferlito starred as Lizette Sanchez in John Leguizamo's boxing drama "Undefeated", which earned her an NAACP nomination for Outstanding Actress in a TV movie. This was followed in 2004 by a role in "Spider-Man 2". In 2005 Ferlito appeared in Stephen Herek's "Man of the House", opposite Tommy Lee Jones, for which she received positive notice, with "Variety's" Joe Leydon stating that "Vanessa Ferlito is the standout, mainly because she’s the only one who gets enough to do to make a strong impression as a distinctive personality."  On the small screen, Ferlito was a series regular on the first two seasons (2004–2005) of CBS's "", as Aiden Burn, a member of the forensic investigation team led by Gary Sinise. Ferlito has also appeared in other television series, including HBO’s "The Sopranos", NBC’s "Law & Order" and "Third Watch", and had a recurring role as Claudia in FOX's series "24".  After "CSI: NY", Ferlito starred in several films, among them ""; Nora Ephron's "Julie & Julia" opposite Meryl Streep, Stanley Tucci and Amy Adams; Tyler Perry's "Madea Goes to Jail"; and Alfredo De Villa’s "Nothing like the Holidays" (originally titled "Humboldt Park") with Alfred Molina, John Leguizamo and Jay Hernandez. Prior to these, Ferlito appeared in Quentin Tarantino’s "Death Proof" opposite Kurt Russell, a role Tarantino wrote specifically for Ferlito. She also appeared Lee Daniel’s "Shadowboxer" with Helen Mirren and Cuba Gooding Jr.  In 2012, Ferlito was cast in the feature film, "Stand Up Guys", opposite Al Pacino, Christopher Walken and Alan Arkin. She also played Charlie DeMarco on USA Network's "Graceland", which ran between 2013 and 2015. In 2016, Ferlito was added to the cast of "" for the show's third season, playing an FBI special agent who is sent from DC to investigate the NCIS team.

Vanessa Ferlito is an American actress. She is known for appearing as Detective Aiden Burn in "", as well as her recurring portrayal of Claudia Hernandez in "24" and her starring roles as FBI Agent Charlie DeMarco in "Graceland" and as on "". She has also appeared in a number of films, including "Spider-Man 2" (2004), "Shadowboxer" (2005), "Man of the House" (2005), "Death Proof" (2007), "Nothing like the Holidays" (2008), "Madea Goes to Jail" (2009), "Julie & Julia" (2009), "" (2010), and "Stand Up Guys" (2012). Ferlito currently stars in the CBS series "", playing Special Agent.

Vanessa Ferlito (28. prosince 1980, Brooklyn, New York, USA) je americká herečka. Nejvíce se proslavila díky rolím v seriálech "Kriminálka New York" a "Graceland". Dále se objevila ve filmech jako "Spider-Man 2" (2004), "" (2010) a "Jako za starejch časů" (2012).


Taxonomy and evolution.

The least weasel was given its scientific name "Mustela nivalis" by Carl Linnaeus in his 12th edition of Systema Naturae in 1766. The type locality was Västerbotten in Sweden. As an animal with a very wide distribution, the morphology of the least weasel varies geographically. The species was reviewed by Reichstein in 1957 and again by van Zyll de Jong in 1992 and Reig in 1997. Youngman (1982) placed it in the subgenus "Mustela" while Abramov (1999) considered it should be included in the subgenus "Gale". Based on skull characteristics, Reig (1997) proposed that the taxon should be split into four species, "M. subpalmata", "M. rixosa", "M. vulgaris" and "M. eskimo". Abrimov and Baryshinikov (2000) disagreed, recognising only "M. subpalmata" as a separate species.  Within the genus "Mustela", the least weasel is a relatively unspecialised form, as evidenced by its pedomorphic skull, which occurs even in large subspecies. Its direct ancestor was "Mustela praenivalis", which lived in Europe during the Middle Pleistocene and Villafranchian. "M. praenivalis" itself was probably preceded by "M. pliocaenica" of the Pliocene. The modern species probably arose during the Late Pleistocene. The least weasel is the product of a process begun 5–7 million years ago, when northern forests were replaced by open grassland, thus prompting an explosive evolution of small, burrowing rodents. The weasel's ancestors were larger than the current form, and underwent a reduction in size to exploit the new food source. The least weasel thrived during the Ice Age, as its small size and long body allowed it to easily operate beneath snow, as well as hunt in burrows. It probably crossed to North America through the Bering land bridge 200,000 years ago.

Subspecies.

The least weasel has a high geographic variation, a fact which has historically led to numerous disagreements among biologists studying its systematics. The least weasel's subspecies are divided into three categories:

Description.

The least weasel has a thin, greatly elongated and extremely flexible body with a small, yet elongated, blunt-muzzled head which is no thicker than the neck. The eyes are small in relation to their head size and are bulging and dark colored. The legs and tail are relatively short, the latter constituting less than half the body length. The feet have sharp, dark-coloured claws, and the soles are heavily haired. The skull, especially that of the small "rixosa" group, has an infantile appearance when compared with that of other members of the genus "Mustela" (in particular, the stoat and kolonok). This is expressed in the relatively large size of the cranium and shortened facial region. The skull is, overall, similar to that of the stoat, but smaller, though the skulls of large male weasels tend to overlap in size with those of small female stoats. There are usually four pairs of nipples but these are only visible in females. The baculum is short,, with a thick, straight shaft. Fat is deposited along the spine, kidneys, gut mesentries and around the limbs. The least weasel has muscular anal glands under the tail, which measure, and contain sulphurous volatiles, including thietanes and dithiacyclopentanes. The smell and chemical composition of these chemicals are distinct from those of the stoat. The least weasel moves by jumping, the distance between the tracks of the fore and hind limbs being. Dimensions vary geographically, to an extent rarely found among other mammals. Least weasels of the "boccamela" group, for example, may outweigh the smaller races by almost four times. In some large subspecies, the male may be 1.5 times longer than the female. Variations in tail length are also variable, constituting from 13–30% of the length of the body. Average body length in males is, while females average. The tail measures in males and in females. Males weigh, while females weigh. The winter fur is dense, but short and closely fitting. In northern subspecies, the fur is soft and silky, but coarse in southern forms. The summer fur is very short, sparser and rougher. The upper parts in the summer fur are dark, but vary geographically from dark-tawny or dark-chocolate to light pale tawny or sandy. The lower parts, including the lower jaw and inner sides of the legs, are white. There is often a brown spot at the corner of the mouth. The dividing line between the dark upper and light lower parts is usually straight but sometimes forms an irregular line. The tail is brown, and sometimes the tip is a little darker but it is never black. In the northern part of its range and at high altitudes, the least weasel changes colour in the winter, the coat becoming pure white and exhibiting a few black hairs in rare circumstances.

Behaviour and ecology.

Reproduction and development.

The least weasel mates in April–July and there is a 34- to 37-day gestation period. In the Northern Hemisphere, the average litter size consists of 6 kits and these reach sexual maturity in 3 to 4 months. Males may mate during their first year of life, though this is usually unsuccessful. They are fecund in February–October, though the early stages of spermatogenesis do occur throughout the winter months. Anestrus in females lasts from September until February.  The female raises its kits without help from the male. They are in weight at birth. Newborn kits are born pink, naked, blind and deaf, but gain a white coat of downy fur at the age of 4 days. At 10 days, the margin between the dark upper parts and light under parts becomes visible. The milk teeth erupt at 2 to 3 weeks of age, at which point the young start to eat solid food, though lactation can last 12 weeks. The eyes and ears open at 3 to 4 weeks of age, and by 8 weeks, killing behaviour is developed. The family breaks up after 9 to 12 weeks. There is a single litter each year and least weasels can live for 7 or 8 years.

Territorial and social behaviours.

The least weasel has a typical mustelid territorial pattern, consisting of exclusive male ranges encompassing multiple female ranges. The population density of each territory depends greatly on food supply and reproductive success, thus the social structure and population density of any given territory is unstable and flexible. Like the stoat, the male least weasel extends its range during spring or during food shortages. Its scent marking behaviour is similar to that of the stoat; it uses faeces, urine and anal and dermal gland secretions, the latter two of which are deposited by anal dragging and body rubbing. The least weasel does not dig its own den, but nests in the abandoned burrow of another species such as a mole or rat. The burrow entrance measures about across and leads to the nest chamber located up to below ground. The nest chamber (which is used for sleeping, rearing kits and storing food) measures in diameter, and is lined with straw and the skins of the weasel's prey.  The least weasel has four basic vocalisations; a guttural hiss emitted when alarmed, which is interspersed with short screaming barks and shrieks when provoked. When defensive, it emits a shrill wail or squeal. During encounters between males and females or between a mother and kits, the least weasel emits a high-pitched trilling. The least weasel's way of expressing aggression is similar to that of the stoat. Dominant weasels exhibit lunges and shrieks during aggressive encounters, while subdominant weasels will emit submissive squeals.

Diet.

The least weasel feeds predominantly on mouse-like rodents, including mice, hamsters, gerbils and others. It usually does not attack adult hamsters and rats. Frogs, fish, small birds and bird eggs are rarely eaten. It can deal with adult pikas and gerbils, but usually cannot overcome brown rats and sousliks. Exceptional cases are known of least weasels killing prey far larger than themselves, such as capercaillie, hazel hen and hares. In England, a favoured prey item is the field vole ("Microtus agrestis"). These have fluctuations in population size, and in years of abundance may form up to 54% of the weasel's diet. In years of scarcity, birds form a greater proportion of the diet and female least weasels may fail to breed.  Despite its small size, the least weasel is a fierce hunter, capable of killing a rabbit five to 10 times its own weight. Although they are commonly taken, the rabbits are usually young specimens, and become an important food source during the spring, when small rodents are scarce and rabbit kits are plentiful. Male least weasels take a higher proportion of rabbits than females, as well as an overall greater variety of prey. This is linked to the fact that being larger, and having vaster territorial ranges than females, males have more opportunities to hunt a greater diversity of prey.  The least weasel forages undercover, to avoid being seen by foxes and birds of prey. It is adapted for pursuing its prey down tunnels, though it may also bolt prey from a burrow and kill it in the open. The least weasel kills small prey, such as voles, with a bite to the occipital region of the skull or the neck, dislocating the cervical vertebrae. Large prey typically dies of blood loss or circulatory shock. When food is abundant, only a small portion of the prey is eaten, usually the brain. The average daily food intake is, which is equivalent to 30–35% of the animal's body weight.

Predators and competitors.

The least weasel is small enough to be preyed upon by a range of other predators. Least weasel remains have been found in the excrement of red foxes, sables, steppe and forest polecat, stoats, eagle owls and buzzards. The owls most efficient at capturing least weasels are barn, barred, and great horned owls. Other birds of prey threatening to the least weasel include broad-winged and rough-legged buzzards. Some snake species may prey on the least weasel, including the black rat snake and copperhead. Aside from its smaller size, the least weasel is more vulnerable to predation than the stoat because it lacks a black predator deflection mark on the tail.  In areas where the least weasel is sympatric with the stoat, the two species compete with each other for rodent prey. The weasel manages to avoid too much competition by living in more upland areas, feeding on smaller prey and being capable of entering smaller holes. It actively avoids encounters with stoats, though female weasels are less likely to stop foraging in the presence of stoats, perhaps because their smaller size allows them to quickly escape into holes.

Diseases and parasites.

Ectoparasites known to infest weasels include the louse "Trichodectes mustelae" and the mites "Demodex" and "Psoregates mustela". The species may catch fleas from the nests and burrows of its prey. Flea species known to infest weasels include "Ctenophthalmus bisoctodentatus" and "Palaeopsylla m. minor", which they get from moles, "P. s. soricis", which they get from shrews, "Nosopsyllus fasciatus", which they get from rodents and "Dasypsyllus gallinulae" which they get from birds.  Helminths known to infest weasels include the trematode "Alaria", the nematodes "Capillaria", "Filaroides" and "Trichinella" and the cestode "Taenia". Least weasels are commonly infected with the nematode "Skrjabingylus nasicola", adults of which are found in the nasal sinuses and can damage the skull. There is no evidence that this has serious detrimental effects on even heavily infested animals.

Distribution and habitat.

The least weasel has a circumboreal, Holarctic distribution, encompassing much of Europe and North Africa, Asia and parts of northern North America, where it occurs mainly in places where the stoat is not found, and has recently been extirpated from New York. It has been introduced in New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azore Islands and also São Tomé off West Africa. It is found throughout Europe (but not Ireland) and on many islands, including the Azores, Great Britain, and all major Mediterranean islands. It also occurs on Honshu and Hokkaido Islands in Japan and on Kunashir, Iturup, and Sakhalin Islands in Russia.  The least weasel occupies a similar type of habitat as the stoat, but it frequents wet places less often. It can be found in fields, open woodland, bushy or rocky areas, parks and gardens, and at altitudes of up to about.

Conservation status.

The least weasel has a very wide circumboreal range and a large total population and is therefore listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of "least concern". Its chosen habitat is in areas of coarse vegetation and in some regions its numbers may be decreasing because of changes in agricultural practices, but altogether its population trend is thought to be steady. It is relatively common in Eurasia but less abundant in North America and is thought to be rare in the southeastern United States. It is subject to considerable variations in numbers in areas where its main rodent prey is liable to large population fluctuations. In years of rodent population booms, the least weasel numbers may rise by up to ten-fold, only to slump again as prey becomes scarce again in the following years.

In folklore and mythology.

The Ancient Macedonians believed that to see a least weasel was a good omen. In some districts of Macedon, women who suffered from headaches after having washed their heads in water drawn overnight would assume that a weasel had previously used the water as a mirror, but they would refrain from mentioning the animal's name for fear that it would destroy their clothes. Similarly, a popular superstition in southern Greece had it that the least weasel had previously been a bride, who was transformed into a bitter animal which would destroy the wedding dresses of other brides out of jealousy. According to Pliny the Elder, the least weasel was the only animal that was capable of killing the basilisk:  To this dreadful monster the effluvium of the weasel is fatal, a thing that has been tried with success, for kings have often desired to see its body when killed; so true is it that it has pleased Nature that there should be nothing without its antidote. The animal is thrown into the hole of the basilisk, which is easily known from the soil around it being infected. The weasel destroys the basilisk by its odour, but dies itself in this struggle of nature against its own self.  The Ojibwe believed that the least weasel could kill the dreaded wendigo by rushing up its anus. In Inuit mythology, the least weasel is credited with both great wisdom and courage, and whenever a mythical Inuit hero wished to accomplish a valorous task, he would generally change himself into a least weasel. According to Matthew Hopkins, a witch hunter general during the English Civil War, least weasels were the familiars of witches.

The least weasel ("Mustela nivalis"), little weasel, common weasel, or simply weasel in the UK and much of the world, is the smallest member of the genus "Mustela," family Mustelidae and order Carnivora. It is native to Eurasia, North America and North Africa, and has been introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, Bermuda, Madeira Island, the Azores, the Canary Islands, São Tomé, the Falkland Islands, Argentina and Chile. It is classified as least concern by the IUCN, due to its wide distribution and large population throughout the Northern Hemisphere.

Lasice kolčava ("Mustela nivalis") je nejmenší a zároveň nejhojnější šelma v ČR z čeledi lasicovití (Mustelidae). Patří mezi savce, které myslivci ve svých revírech příliš rádi nevidí, patří i některé kunovité šelmy včetně kolčavy. Je to proto, že kolčava útočí na drobnou zvěř, např. na koroptve, bažanty, mladé zajíce nebo králíky. Na druhou stranu však tyto škody mnohonásobně vynahrazuje chytáním hrabošů, myší, syslů a křečků, kteří ničí obilí a jiné plodiny. K chytání drobných hlodavců má kolčava výborně tvarované tělo. Štíhlý a hadovitě protáhlý trup na krátkých bězích se neobyčejně snadno protáhne každou hraboší chodbičkou a co kolčava jednou uchopí do silného chrupu s 34 ostrými zuby, nemá naději na uniknutí.


History.

Built between 1703 and 1792 during the Qing dynasty, the Mountain Resort took 89 years to complete. It covers a total area of, almost half of Chengde's urban area. It is a vast complex of palaces and administrative and ceremonial buildings. Temples of various architectural styles and imperial gardens blend harmoniously into a landscape of lakes, pastureland and forests.  The Kangxi, Qianlong and Jiaqing emperors often spent several months a year here to escape the summer heat in the capital city of Beijing and the palace zone in the southern part of the resort was therefore designed to resemble the Forbidden City in Beijing. It consists of two parts: a court in front, where the emperor received high officials, nobles of various minority nationalities, and foreign envoys; and bed chambers in the rear, which were the imperial family's living quarters, notably the Yanbozhishuang Hall, where the Kangxi Emperor spent a total of 12 summers while the Qianlong Emperor spent 52 summers in the hall during the course of their reign. The Jiaqing and Xianfeng emperors both died while staying at Chengde in 1820 and 1861 respectively.

Climate.

Chengde Mountain Resort is located in the transition zone from warm temperate zone to cold temperate zone. It has semi - temperate, semi - arid continental monsoon climate. It has a large difference in temperature between day and night. In winter, it is cold and has little snow. It has much thundershowers in summer, basically there is no hot period. Chengde Mountain Resort is suitable for traveling in every season, but best from April to October.

Scenic spots.

The Mountain Resort is most famous for the 72 scenic spots which were named by the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors. Many of the scenic spots around the resort's lake area were copied from famous landscaped gardens in southern China. For instance, the main building on the Green Lotus Island, "Tower of Mist and Rain," () is modeled upon a tower in Nanhu Lake at Jiaxing in Zhejiang Province.  The resort's plain area also possesses characteristics of the scenery of the Mongolian grasslands. Forested mountains and valleys are dotted with various buildings. This includes a tall stone Chinese pagoda, one of the tallest in China, built in 1751 during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor. The pagoda is shaped with an octagonal base, while the pagoda's nine stories are decorated with colorful glazed tiles and the steeple is crowned with a gilded round spire.  In December 1994 the Mountain Resort was listed by UNESCO on its list of World Heritage Sites.

Events.

The 2018 Women's Bandy World Championship was held at a naturally frozen ice at the lake in the complex.

The Mountain Resort in Chengde (; Manchu: "Halhūn be jailara gurung") or Ligong (), is a large complex of imperial palaces and gardens situated in the city of Chengde in Hebei, China. Because of its vast and rich collection of Chinese landscapes and architecture, the Mountain Resort in many ways is a culmination of all the variety of gardens, pagodas, temples and palaces from various regions of China.

Letovisko v Čcheng-te (; mandžusky: Halhūn be jailara gurung) je císařské letní sídlo dynastie Čching, které se nachází v čínské provincii Che-pej, severně od města Čcheng-te (dříve též Džehol), asi 250 km severně od Pekingu. Jeho součástí jsou nejrozlehlejší císařské zahrady na světě, zaujímající plochu 5,6 km2.


Geography.

The park encompasses an area of (of which is marine), most of which lies on a peninsula reaching into the Indian Ocean. The explosion of nearby Krakatau in 1883 produced a tsunami (giant wave) that eliminated the villages and crops of the coastal areas on the western peninsula, and covered the entire area in a layer of ash averaging thick. This caused the total evacuation of the peninsula by humans, thereby allowing it to become a repository for much of Java’s flora and fauna, and most of the remaining lowland forest on the island.

History.

It is Indonesia's first proposed national park and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991 for containing the largest remaining lowland rainforest in Java. The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa and its tsunami wiped out many settlements in the later park area, and they were never repopulated.  Parts of today's national park and World Heritage site have been protected since the early 20th century. Krakatoa (or rather, the three islets which remain of it) was declared as a Nature Reserve in 1921, followed by Pulau Panaitan and Pulau Peucang Nature Reserve in 1937, the Ujung Kulon Nature Reserve in 1958, the Gunung Honje Nature Reserve in 1967, and most recently Ujung Kulon National Park in 1992. In 2005 the park was designated as an ASEAN Heritage Park.

Flora and fauna.

Ujung Kulon is the last known refuge for the critically endangered Javan rhinoceros after poachers killed the last remaining rhino in Cát Tiên National Park of Vietnam, where a small population of 10 or less remained in 2010. In Ujung Kulon the population has been estimated at 40-60 in the 1980s. Within 2001-2010 there have been 14 rhino births identified using camera and video traps. Based on recordings taken between February and October 2011, 35 rhinoceros have been identified, of which 22 were males and 13 females. Of these 7 were old, 18 adults, 5 youngsters, and 5 infant rhinos. Increasing from previous years, in 2013 there were 8 calves which 3 of them were female and 50 teenage and adult which 20 of them were female identified using 120 video cameras functioning at night with moving sensor. It was accurate data, because every rhino has unique morphology as finger print, mainly skin wrinkles around the eyes.  By 2013 feeding areas of "Eupatorium odoratum" vegetation have been reduced from 10 locations comprising to 5 locations comprising. Thus competition for feeding ground between the solitary rhinoceros and banteng also increased.  The park also protects 57 rare species of plant. The 35 mammal species include banteng, silvery gibbon, Javan lutung, crab-eating macaque, Javan leopard, Sumatran dhole, Java mouse-deer, Javan rusa, and smooth-coated otter. There are also 72 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 240 species of birds.  The status of crocodiles within the park is largely unknown; sightings are rare and occur occasionally. There are reports of the false gharial within the park, but these are not confirmed. In addition, the saltwater crocodile was historically present throughout Java's coastal river systems but is currently extirpated in these regions. Small, isolated populations of the saltwater crocodile are reported to exist within Ujung Kulon but confirmation is needed.

Extinct.

Javan tigers survived in the protected area until the mid-1960s.

Google Doodle.

The search engine company Google, helped raise the profile of the park and celebrate its 25th anniversary by changing the Google logo to a 'doodle' of two Javan rhinos. The doodle was used in Indonesia on February 26, 2017.

Ujung Kulon National Park is at the westernmost tip of Java, in Banten province of Indonesia. It includes the volcanic island group of Krakatoa in Lampung province, and other islands including Panaitan, as well as smaller offshore islets such as Handeuleum and Peucang in the Sunda Strait.

Národní park Ujung Kulon je chráněné území v Indonésii, v provincii Banten. Rozkládá se v nejzápadnější části ostrova Jáva (poloostrov Ujung Kulon), ostrově Panaitan a na přilehlých menších ostrůvcích Sundského průlivu. Rozloha parku je přibližně 1200 km2 (z toho 64% připadá na pevninu a 36% na okolní moře). V roce 1991 se celý park společně s nedalekou rezervací ostrovů Krakatoy stal součástí světového přírodního dědictví UNESCO. Park je vysoce ceněný zejména díky faktu, že je posledním útočištěm kriticky ohroženého jávského nosorožce.


Early life and education.

William Edgar Thornton was born April 14, 1929. He attended primary and secondary schools in Faison, North Carolina. He received a bachelor of science degree in physics from the University of North Carolina (UNC) in 1952. In 1963, he received a doctorate in medicine from UNC.

Experience.

Following graduation from the University of North Carolina and having completed Air Force ROTC training, Thornton served as officer-in-charge of the Instrumentation Lab at the Flight Test Air Proving Ground. He later became a consultant to Air Proving Ground Command.  As chief engineer of the electronics division of the Del Mar Engineering Labs at Los Angeles from 1956 to 1959, he also organized and directed its Avionics Division. He returned to the University of North Carolina Medical School in 1959, graduated in 1963, and completed internship training in 1964 at the Wilford Hall USAF Hospital at Lackland Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas.  Thornton returned to active duty with the United States Air Force and was then assigned to the USAF Aerospace Medical Division, Brooks Air Force Base, San Antonio, where he completed the Primary Flight Surgeon's training in 1964. It was during his two-year tour of duty there that he became involved in space medicine research and subsequently applied and was selected for astronaut training. Dr. Thornton developed and designed the first mass measuring devices for space, which remain in use today.  Thornton has logged over 2,500 hours pilot flying time in jet aircraft.

NASA experience.

Thornton was selected as a scientist-astronaut by NASA in August 1967. He completed the required flight training at Reese Air Force Base, Texas. Thornton was physician crew member on the highly successful Skylab Medical Experiments Altitude Test (SMEAT)—a 56-day simulation of a Skylab mission enabling crewmen to collect medical experiments baseline data and evaluate equipment, operations, and procedures. Thornton was also the mission specialist on SMD III, a simulation of a Spacelab life sciences mission.  Thornton was a member of the astronaut support crew for the Skylab 2, 3, and 4 missions, and principal investigator for Skylab experiments on mass measurement, anthropometric measurements, hemodynamics, and human fluid shifts and physical conditioning. He first documented the shift and loss of fluid changes in body posture size and shape, including increase in height and the rapid loss of muscle strength and mass in space flight.  As a member of the Astronaut Office Operations Missions Development group, Thornton was responsible for developing crew procedures and techniques for deployable payloads, and for maintenance of crew conditions in flight. He developed advanced techniques for, and made studies in, kinesiology and kinesimetry related to space operations.  During Space Shuttle operations he continued physiological investigations in the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal and neurological areas. He developed the Shuttle treadmill for in-flight exercise and several other on-board devices. He was long an advocate for exercise as a countermeasure for conditions such as bone loss in space. His work concentrated on the space adaptation syndrome, with relevant investigations on STS-4, STS-5, STS-6, STS-7, and STS-8.  Thornton holds more than 60 patents that range from military weapons systems through the first real-time EKG computer analysis. Space-related items include the first in-flight mass measurement devices, shock and vibration isolation systems, an improved waste collection system, an improved lower body negative pressure (LBNP) apparatus, and others.  Thornton continued his work in space medicine while awaiting his next flight opportunity. He worked on problems relative to extending mission durations in the Space Shuttle, in the Space station, and in space exploration, and has designed the necessary exercise and other hardware to support such missions. He continued analysis and publication of results from studies of neurological adaptation, and the study of neuromuscular inhibition following flight, osteoporosis in space and on Earth, and post-flight orthostatic hypotension. He has completed designs for exercise and other countermeasure equipment for the Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO), and for Space Station Freedom, including improved treadmills, rowing machines, isotonic exercise devices, and a bicycle. Much of this is currently scheduled for flight.

Spaceflight experience.

STS-8.

STS-8 "Challenger" (August 30 to September 5, 1983). This was the third flight for the Challenger and the first mission with a night launch from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and a night landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Thornton, participating as a scientist-astronaut, was one of five crew members. During the flight Thornton made almost continuous measurements and investigations of adaptation of the human body to weightlessness, especially of the nervous system and of the space adaptation syndrome. This was a continuation of his previous work in these areas. Much of the equipment used was designed and developed by Thornton. The mission was accomplished in 98 orbits of the Earth, traveling 2.2 million miles in 145 hours, 8 minutes, 4 seconds. He became the oldest person to fly in space.

STS-51B.

STS-51B/Spacelab-3 "Challenger" (April 29 to May 6, 1985). The Spacelab-3 science mission was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and returned for a night landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the 7-day flight, Thornton was responsible for the first animal payload on a shuttle mission and other medical investigations. The mission was accomplished in 110 orbits of the Earth, traveling 2.9 million miles (4.7 million km) in 169 hours and 39 minutes.  At the conclusion of the STS-51B flight, Thornton had logged over 313 hours in space across his two missions.

Post-NASA career.

Thornton retired from NASA effective May 31, 1994. Thornton is currently a Clinical Assistant Professor in the Department of Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, and is an adjunct professor at the University of Houston–Clear Lake. He resides in Texas.

Personal life.

Thornton is married with two sons to the former Elizabeth Jennifer Fowler of Hertfordshire, England.

William Edgar Thornton (M.D.) (born April 14, 1929) is a former NASA astronaut. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in physics from University of North Carolina and a doctorate in medicine, also from UNC. He flew on "Challenger" twice, the STS-8 and STS-51B missions.

William Edgar Thornton (* 14. dubna 1929 Faison, Severní Karolína, USA), je americký kosmonaut z programu Skylab a letů s raketoplány.


History.

1999: Formation.

Alison Goldfrapp began her musical career performing with Dance Company Catherine Massin throughout the Netherlands during her early twenties. Afterwards, she attended Middlesex University, where she studied fine art and started creating live performance pieces. In the early 1990s Goldfrapp served as a guest vocalist with the electronic band Orbital and trip hop artist Tricky. In 1999, she was introduced to composer Will Gregory after he had listened to an early version of the song "Human". Gregory and Goldfrapp felt a mutual connection and subsequently wrote the track "Lovely Head". Following several months of phone calls, they decided to form a musical band and began performing under Goldfrapp's last name.  In August 1999, Goldfrapp signed a recording contract with London-based record label Mute Records. The pair began recording their début album over a six-month period, beginning in September 1999, in a rented bungalow in the Wiltshire countryside. The recording process was difficult for Alison and Will, who found themselves alone and disturbed by the mice and insects in the bungalow.

2000–02: "Felt Mountain".

Goldfrapp's début album "Felt Mountain" was released in September 2000 and produced the singles "Lovely Head", "Utopia", "Pilots (On a Star)" and "Human". The album featured Alison Goldfrapp's vocals over cinematic soundscapes and is influenced by a variety of music styles including cabaret, folk and electronic music. The album was well received by music critics, including Pitchfork Media who described its sound as "simultaneously smarmy and seductive, yet elegant and graceful". It reached number 57 on the UK Albums Chart, and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry. In 2001, "Felt Mountain" was shortlisted for the Mercury Prize, an annual music prize awarded for the best British or Irish album from the previous year.  The lyrics on "Felt Mountain" were written by Alison Goldfrapp and are abstract obsessional tales inspired by films and her childhood. The song "Oompa Radar" was inspired by Roman Polanski's film "Cul-de-sac", while "Pilots" describes travellers floating in the atmosphere above the earth.  To promote "Felt Mountain", Goldfrapp toured the U.K., Europe and North America, supporting the alternative music bands Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds and Doves. The band found it difficult to perform songs from the album live because of their complex arrangements which required up to forty musicians. They eventually settled on performing with violinist Davide Rossi, drummer Rowan Oliver and keyboardist Andy Davies.

2003–04: "Black Cherry".

Goldfrapp's second album "Black Cherry" was released in April 2003. The band recorded the album in a darkened studio in Bath, England. The album focused more heavily on dance music and glam rock-inspired synths than its predecessor. Alison Goldfrapp commented that the album differed from "Felt Mountain" because the band "felt that we really didn't want to repeat what we had done...we kind of wanted to do something that felt equally as fresh to us as the first one felt fresh to us, and we wanted to put more kind of "oomph" in it." The album received positive reviews from critics. "The Guardian" found it to be an "unexpected delight" and About.com called it a "rare electronica album of warmth and depth...the ultimate chillout pleasure". "Black Cherry" peaked at number 19 on the UK Albums Chart and number four on the "Billboard" Top Electronic Albums chart in the United States. It sold well, reaching platinum status in the UK and selling 52,000 copies in the U.S. as of August 2006.  The first single released from the album was "Train", which reached number 23 on the UK Singles Chart. The song's lyrics discuss obsession and overindulgence and were inspired by Goldfrapp's visit to Los Angeles while touring in support of "Felt Mountain". "Strict Machine" was released as the album's second single. The song proved successful on several formats, and reached number one on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart. In 2004, "Strict Machine" won an Ivor Novello Award for "Best Dance Single". The third single released from "Black Cherry" was "Twist", a song inspired by a fantasy that Goldfrapp had about a boy who worked in a fairground. The title track was released as the album's fourth single and reached number 28 in the UK.  In 2003, Alison Goldfrapp modified her image, from a sophisticated Marlene Dietrich inspired look to that of a new wave diva. The reinvented image included false eyelashes, customised T-shirts, military uniforms and fishnet stockings. Starting in March 2003, the band toured the album, with a concert series entitled Black Cherry Tour. In 2004, the band further toured Australia, Japan, Europe and North America and embarked on the Wonderful Electric Tour. Sections of the stage show featured Goldfrapp in a white dress wearing a horse tail and dancers with deer heads, and were inspired by Goldfrapp's interest in animals and mythology.

2005–06: "Supernature".

"Supernature", Goldfrapp's third album, was released in August 2005. The album comprises pop and electronic dance music prominently featured on "Black Cherry", but focuses more on subtle hooks instead of the large choruses that made up its predecessor. The band never intended to create dance music, however, previous releases were popular across nightclubs in North America and as a result, they decided to write a more dance-oriented album. "Supernature" débuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart and was certified platinum in the UK. As of February 2008, it had sold one million copies worldwide. The album received a Grammy Award nomination in 2007 for Best Electronic/Dance Album and "Ooh La La" was nominated for Best Dance Recording. The song was used for the iPhone 5S's commercial in 2013.  "Ooh La La", the album's lead single, became Goldfrapp's first UK top five single. The song was chosen as the lead single "because it was up and in your face and carried on the theme of the glammy, discoey beat from the last album". "Ooh La La" became the first song performed by the band to feature the electric guitar and was cited as a highlight of the album by Allmusic. "Number 1" was released as the album's second single. Constructed around a synthesiser and bass arrangement, it was written about the importance of relationships. The album's third single "Ride a White Horse" was inspired by the disco era and reached number 15 in the UK. "Fly Me Away" was released as the album's fourth single, but did not perform as well as its predecessors.  In 2006, Goldfrapp released "We Are Glitter", a North American-only compilation of remixes from "Supernature". It included a Flaming Lips remix of "Satin Chic", the band's favourite song from the album.

2006–08: "Seventh Tree".

Goldfrapp began writing and recording their fourth album at the end of 2006 in Bath, England. "Seventh Tree", their fourth album, was released in February 2008, and débuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart. The album is a departure from the pop and electronic-dance music featured on "Supernature", and features ambient and downtempo music. The band were inspired by an acoustic radio session they had performed, which led the duo to incorporate acoustic guitars into their music to create "warm" and "delicate" sounds.  The album's lead single, "A&E", reached number ten in the UK. The single received positive reviews from critics, musicOMH found it to be "a beautifully paced ballad" and Digital Spy called it "lush, folky and organic". "Happiness", the album's second single, reached number 25 in the UK. The third single, "Caravan Girl", which describes the story of a girl that suffers from amnesia, reached number 54 in the UK.  In 2008, Alison Goldfrapp took inspiration from the character of Pierrot and English Folk. The artwork for "Seventh Tree" featured her dressed as a clown because it is an "iconic image" with "so many different connotations". Goldfrapp chose to tone down her overtly sexual image because she felt that it was taking over the music. Her new image, inspired by Paganism, featured her dressed in white or natural-coloured flowing gowns with loose, curly blond hair.

2009–2012: "Head First" and "The Singles".

Goldfrapp's fifth album, "Head First", was released in March 2010. Recorded over a six-month period, it was a return to the dance oriented sound on previous albums. The album took inspiration from 1980s pop music and bands such as Van Halen and The Pointer Sisters. Alison Goldfrapp described its sound as "optimistic and vibrant." The album received positive reviews from critics, with Allmusic describing it as "a love letter to the frothy, fleeting, but very vital joys of pop music." "Head First" peaked at number six on the UK Albums Chart and number 45 on the US "Billboard" 200. The album earned Goldfrapp a Grammy Award nomination in 2011 for Best Electronic/Dance Album and "Rocket" was nominated for Best Dance Recording. The album's first single was "Rocket", a song about an unfaithful lover. Musically, "The Times" and "Spin" have compared the song to "Jump" by American rock band Van Halen. In the US, "Rocket" peaked at number one on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart. "Alive" was released as the album's second single. The song's music video featured Alison Goldfrapp as a 1980s inspired aerobics instructor who leads a group of black metal fans and vampires through a fitness routine. The album's third single "Believer" featured remixes by Vince Clarke and Davide Rossi.  In February 2012, Goldfrapp released the compilation album "The Singles". The album contained previously released material as well as two newly recorded songs.

2013 – 2014: "Tales of Us".

In mid-June, Goldfrapp announced their forthcoming sixth album, "Tales of Us", to be released 9 September 2013. The album features ten tracks. All the track titles, with the exception of "Stranger", are given people's names. Goldfrapp confirmed via Twitter that the sound of the album focuses on their softer sounds similar to that of their début piece "Felt Mountain" as well as their 2008 release "Seventh Tree". Accompanying this announcement was the re-launch of the duo's website which features a trailer video directed by Lisa Gunning with the first dates announced for their Tales of Us Tour. "Drew", the first single from the album, was released on 2 September 2013 with an accompanying film directed by Gunning, the first of five films subsequently released to promote the album. Preceding the album's release, Goldfrapp performed the album in its entirety with a 24-piece orchestra and choir over two nights at the Manchester International Festival. "Tales of Us" was nominally successful upon release, charting in the top 20 in over 15 countries. In March 2014, the Tales Of Us worldwide cinema event took place, featuring the full Tales Of Us film and a live performance from Air Studios in London. Further singles from the album included "Annabel" and "Stranger".

2015 – present: "Silver Eye".

In July 2015, Alison Goldfrapp announced on Twitter that the group had returned to the studio to work on music for the forthcoming seventh album, but as far as a release date she could only state it would be "sometime in 2017". in December 2016 Goldfrapp posted on their Instagram page the covers of their first six studio albums. On 23 December 2016 Goldfrapp posted an image of two topless figures holding each other's heads, with bleached blonde hair covering their faces, and a black substance slicked across their forearms, along with the hashtag #goldfrapp7. The social media upload was initially assumed to be the seventh album's cover art. This turned out not to be the case. The title of the album was confirmed as "Silver Eye". The first track to be played from the album, titled "Anymore", was premiered on Lauren Laverne's BBC 6 Music show on 23 January 2017. "Silver Eye" was eventually released on March 31, 2017. "Silver Eye: Deluxe Edition" was released on 6 July 2018. This was the original Silver Eye album with an additional 8 remixes, including a collaboration with Dave Gahan of Depeche Mode on the track 'Ocean'.

Musical style.

Although Goldfrapp's musical style has changed over time, they are considered to be an electronic music act. Goldfrapp has explored a range of musical styles in their songs, although many songs are characterised by Alison Goldfrapp's distinctive breathy, soft soprano vocals and Will Gregory's multi-layered synthesiser / string arrangements. "Pitchfork" described Goldfrapp's voice as "a cross between Kylie Minogue and PJ Harvey, between Annie [Lennox] and Siouxsie Sioux, between Rachel Stevens and Beth Gibbons".

Album style and genre progression.

The band's sound has progressed from electronic in "Felt Mountain", through synth-pop in "Black Cherry" to a more glam rock-influenced sound in "Supernature", and to a blend of ambient, folk, and electronic sounds in "Seventh Tree" and a 1980s synth-pop influence in "Head First". However, they have experimented with other genres of music, such as cabaret ("Cologne Cerrone Houdini", "Human", "Oompa Radar"), operatic pop ("Utopia" and "Pilots"), folktronica ("A&E"), and trip hop ("Little Bird" and "Lovely Head").

Musical, cinematic and other inspiration.

Alison Goldfrapp listened to Kate Bush, Prince, T. Rex, Donna Summer, and Iggy Pop and The Stooges as a teenager. In the early 1990s, while working in Belgium and travelling Europe, she discovered Serge Gainsbourg, 1970s Polish disco music, and Weimar cabaret. Will Gregory's musical background was in classical music and has cited Ennio Morricone as his main influence. Other media, including film, have influenced Goldfrapp; Alison Goldfrapp cites Roman Polanski's psychological thriller "Cul-de-sac" and the cult film "The Wicker Man" as influences. They also draw inspiration from surrealism and nature, both of which are reflected in the band's album artwork, which Goldfrapp designs in collaboration with Big Active.

Collaboration and composition technique.

All the band's songs are composed jointly by Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory, although they have collaborated with Nick Batt on several tracks. They have called their writing relationship a "democracy", playing off one another while in the recording studio. While writing, Alison uses her vocals to create melodies and drumbeats. Will composes on vintage keyboards. The band believe that "music is a visual experience" and often visualise their songs before writing them.

Goldfrapp are an English electronic music duo from London, formed in 1999. The duo consists of Alison Goldfrapp (vocals, synthesizer) and Will Gregory (synthesizer).

Goldfrapp je britská hudební skupina založená v roce 1999 v Londýně, zástupce žánru synthpop. Skupina má pouze dva členy: Alison Goldfrapp (zpěv, syntetizátor) a Willa Gregoryho (syntetizátor).


Geography.

Territory.

The boundaries of the town extend obliquely in a north-northeast turn around the hilly area of the Alban Hills and the plains of Agro Romanus. It is included and protected by the Regional Park of Castelli Romani, formed in 1984. Most of the soil is of volcanic origin, with prevalence of materials such as tuff and pozzolana. Its seismic classification is rated a Zone 2 (medium-high seismicity)

Hydrography.

The main water body is Lake Albano, often called Lake Castel Gandolfo. The Metropolitan City of Rome currently manages the lake. Up to 1802, it was the property of the Abbey of Saint Nilus Grottaferrata, the Apostolic Camera (Catholic Church Financial Administration) and then owned by Prince Stanislaus Poniatowski in 1870.

Topography.

The maximum elevation registered in the territory is above sea level, at the Collegio di Propaganda Fide adjoining Villa Barberini. On the crown of the hills around the Lake Albano, the elevation is only above sea level, at the summit of Monte Cucco, bordering Marino.  Towards the Tyrrhenian Sea, the land slopes gently, so from from the Casale Santa Cristina, below Castel Savello bordering Albano, goes to above sea level at Colle Lilli, to above sea level at Pozzo di Valle, to Quarto Santa bordering Marino, to above sea level of the Laghetto di Turno. The lowest elevation of the territory is above sea level at the village of Pavona.

Climate.

In terms of climate, the area falls within the domain of the temperate Mediterranean climate with mild winters, autumn temperatures higher than those of spring and ventilated summers. In the area of Colli Albani, and at Castel Gandolfo, the phenomenon known as stau, which is the reduction of water vapor in the clouds as the ground rises can be observed. Summers are hot and dry, while winter is mild and rainy without, in general, extreme low temperatures and snow. In summer, temperatures can reach with peaks of in rare cases. Climate classification: Zone D, 1966 GR / G.

Etymology.

The name "Castel Gandolfo" is derived from the Latin "Castrum Gandulphi", the name of the castle on this site was presumably owned by the family of Gandolfi, originally from Genoa. Another hypothesis, supported by Pope Pius II in his commentary (1462), is that the name results from Gandulphi Sabinorum, from a certain Gandolfo Savelli.

History.

The site of the modern town is a candidate for the site of legendary ancient Alba Longa, capital of the Latin League. It was later developed by emperor Domitian into his vast palace.  Its name is derived from a fortification of the ducal Gandolfi family (of Genoese origin, named after St. Gondolfus) in the 12th century, which passed to the Savelli family from whom the Apostolic Camera purchased it in 1596 for 150,000 scudi. Pope Clement VIII was the first pope to come to Castel Gandolfo, but the rebuilding of the old castle was the project of Urban VIII who first came in 1626.  Archaeological findings from the 16th century BC have been found in the area of what is now Castel Gandolfo.  During the Napoleonic Wars, some 900 anti-French citizens of neighboring Velletri held out in Castel Gandolfo, resisting the siege by Joachim Murat.  During World War II, Pope Pius XII opened up the grounds of Castel Gandolfo to refugees escaping the fighting taking place around Rome. On January 22, 1944, the first of what became 12,000 people began arriving on the property, often bringing with them their cows, horses, mules and sheep. Included were many Roman Jews, and other non-Catholics. During the time they lived there, 36 children were born, almost all of whom were named for the Pope who gave them safe harbor. The pope's private apartment was turned into a nursery.

Education.

Castel Gandolfo does not host secondary schools. Within the municipal area lie a private kindergarten run by the Paul VI Pontifical Municipal School, which is primary and secondary level. The Scuola Media Statale "Dante Alighieri" and other religious institutions deal with primary education.  Walsh University, which has its main campus in North Canton, Ohio, United States, holds a small campus in Castel Gandolfo. Classes are held in the fall, spring and summer for Walsh students.

Video games.

Castel Gandolfo has been portrayed in the video games "" and" ", in which the castle is a multiplayer map location.

Frazioni.

Pavona was centered around a tavern on the way to Nettuno and the villa of Cardinal Flavio Chigi (1631–1693), nephew of Pope Alexander VII. The place was urbanized during the 20th century, thanks to the opening of the railway Roma-Velletri, and today is divided between the municipalities of Castel Gandolfo, Albano Laziale and Rome. The part castle, known as Pavona Pond due to the above-named for Round Pond, has about 3,000 inhabitants and has as its patron saint St. Eugene III of Toledo.  Mole di Castel Gandolfo, divided in part by the town of Albano Laziale, owe their name to the presence in the place of ancient mass fed by the waters of the Emissary of Lake Albano, which were used until the 19th century by the inhabitants of Castel Gandolfo and Albano Laziale to crush the grain.

Economy.

In all the municipalities in the Alban Hills, agriculture, and particularly wine production, has always been the main economic voice and employer. Wines include the Frascati, the Marino, the Velletri and the Colli Lanuvini.  The production of wine is maintained by major producers such as Cantina Sociale Gotto d'Oro of Marino and Frascati, which is based in the nearby town of Castelluccia, and the Wine Cellar Social Albano Laziale and Ariccia, based in Fontana di Papa.

Services.

Municipal Statute prohibits installation of equipment and systems, fixed telecommunication and radio devices, particularly equipment for radio, television and mobile telephony, and systems for radio amateurs. This prohibition is exempt for military installations, civil protection and forest protection.  Most services such as hospitals or cinemas are based outside the city in larger centers like Marino, Frascati, Albano Laziale and Genzano di Roma. However, these centres are all reached by car or public transport. In return, the city is commercially very lively, thanks to the continuous influx of Italian tourists and foreigners linked to the presence of the Papal Palace and, at certain times of the Pope.

Tourism.

Castel Gandolfo is undoubtedly the most popular tourist town of Castelli Romani. Regular groups of Italian and foreign tourists utilize all of the parking built specifically for tourists. On the occasion of Angelus or the hearings on the Pope during his stay, many foreign pilgrims arrive in town, so that the streets and squares in the center are filled.

Sports.

For the 1960 XVII Olympiad held in Rome, the Italian Olympic Committee built the Olympic Stadium and the Federal Center for Canoeing and Kayaking on Lake Albano. At this stage the races were held in this discipline, and even today the Italian Federation of Canoe / Kayak considers this one of its most important training sites.

Canoeing/kayaking.

Since 1960, Lake Albano has been used for Olympic competitions for the sport. Currently, the Master Line Canoeing Sports Association, active since 2005, scored important achievements promote the sport. Another school of kayaking is held by the ASD Polisportiva Giovanile Salesiana Castel Gandolfo.

Football.

Castel Gandolfo has had an amateur football club since 2005 at Oratory Parish St. Thomas of Villanova which organizes friendly matches with other teams in the area.

Golf.

In the 1970s, Castel Gandolfo Country Club opened in Pavona. The complex is located in the crater of the ancient dried up lake and in the ancient villa of Cardinal Flavio Chigi.

Rugby.

The league includes youth ranging from Under 6 to 16, a senior women's team, a men's and a senior men's team. The latter, formed in 2009, playing in the regional championship of the C series (season 2009/2010).

Twin towns – sister cities.

Castel Gandolfo is twinned with the following cities:

Castel Gandolfo (,, ; ), colloquially just Castello in the Castelli Romani dialects, is a town located southeast of Rome in the Lazio region of Italy. Occupying a height on the Alban Hills overlooking Lake Albano, Castel Gandolfo has a population of approximately 8,900 residents and is considered one of Italy's most scenic towns.

Castel Gandolfo je malé italské město ležící asi 30 km jihovýchodně od Říma, v regionu Lazio, na břehu jezera Albani. Patronem města je svatý Šebestián.


History.

Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law, and had a historically independent school of legal theory and practice. The Dharmaśāstras played an important role. The "Arthashastra", dating from 400 BC and the "Manusmriti", from 100 AD, were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance. Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across Southeast Asia.  Early in this period, which culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire, relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent. The appearance of similar fundamental institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and tradition. Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear-cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semi-permanent character.  After the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent, Islamic Sharia law spread with the establishment of Delhi Sultanate, Bengal Sultanate and Gujarat Sultanate. The Corps of Forty also played a major role by establishing some Turkish law in India.  In the 17th century, when the Mughal Empire became the world's largest economy, its sixth ruler, Aurangzeb, compiled the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri with several Arab and Iraqi Islamic scholars, which served as the main governing body in most parts of South Asia.  With the advent of the British Raj, there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were abolished in favour of British common law. As a result, the present judicial system of the country derives largely from the British system and has few, if any, connections to Indian legal institutions of the pre-British era.

Constitutional and administrative law.

The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950 is the lengthiest written constitution in the world. Although its administrative provisions are to a large extent based on the Government of India Act 1935, it also contains various other provisions that were drawn from other constitutions in the world at the time of its creation. It provides details of the administration of both the Union and the States, and codifies the relations between the Federal Government and the State Governments. Also incorporated into the text are a chapter on the fundamental rights of citizens, as well as a chapter on directive principles of state policy.  The constitution prescribes a federal structure of government, with a clearly defined separation of legislative and executive powers between the Federation and the States. Each State Government has the freedom to draft its own laws on subjects classified as state subjects. Laws passed by the Parliament of India and other pre-existing central laws on subjects classified as central subjects are binding on all citizens. However, the Constitution also has certain unitary features, such as vesting power of amendment solely in the Federal Government, the absence of dual citizenship, and the overriding authority assumed by the Federal Government in times of emergency.

Criminal law.

The Indian Penal Code formulated by the British during the British Raj in 1860, forms the backbone of criminal law in India. The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 governs the procedural aspects of the criminal law.  Jury trials were abolished by the government in 1960 on the grounds they would be susceptible to media and public influence. This decision was based on an 8-1 acquittal of Kawas Nanavati in "K. M. Nanavati vs. State of Maharashtra", which was overturned by higher courts.  In February 2011, the Supreme Court of India ruled that criminal defendants have a constitutional right to counsel.  Capital punishment in India is legal. The last execution was conducted on February 28, 2017, when two women, Renuka Shinde and Seema Mohan Gavit, who were guilty of kidnapping and killing at least 13 children under 6 years, were executed at Yerwada Central Jail in the morning. They were also the first women in India to be given capital punishment.

Contract law.

The main contract law in India is codified in the Indian Contract Act, which came into effect on 1 September 1872 and extends to all India. It governs entrance into contract, and effects of breach of contract. Indian Contract law is popularly known as mercantile law of India. Originally Indian Sales of Goods Act and Partnership Act were part of Indian Contract act, but due to needed amendment these acts were separated from Contract Act. The Contract act is the main and act of legal agreements in India.

Labour law.

Indian labour law are among the most comprehensive in the world. They have been criticised by the World Bank, primarily on the grounds of the inflexibility that results from government needing to approve dismissals. In practice, there is a large informal sector of workers, between 80 or 90 per cent of the labour force, to whom labour rights are not actually available and laws are not enforced.

Company law.

The current Indian company law was updated and recodified in the Companies Act 2013.

Tort law.

The development of constitutional tort law in India began in the early 1980s. It influenced the direction tort law in India took during the 1990s. In recognising state liability, constitutional tort deviates from established norms in tort law. This covers custodial deaths, police atrocities, encounter killings, illegal detention and disappearances. Law commission of India's first report was relating to the Liability of the State in Tort. This report was submitted by the Law commission of India on 11 May 1956. State owes tortious Liability under Article 300 of Indian Constitution.

Tax law.

Indian tax law involves several different taxes levied by different governments. Income Tax is levied by the Central Government under the Income Tax Act 1961. Customs and excise duties are also levied by the Central government. Sales tax is levied under VAT legislation at the state level.  The authority to levy a tax is derived from the Constitution of India which allocates the power to levy various taxes between the Centre and the State. An important restriction on this power is Article 265 of the Constitution which states that "No tax shall be levied or collected except by the authority of law." Therefore, each tax levied or collected has to be backed by an accompanying law, passed either by the Parliament or the State Legislature. In 2010-11, the gross tax collection amounted to 7.92 billion (Long scale), with direct tax and indirect tax contributing 56% and 44% respectively.

Central Board of Direct Taxes.

The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) is a part of the Department of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance, Government of India. The CBDT provides essential inputs for policy and planning of direct taxes in India and is also responsible for administration of the direct tax laws through Income Tax Department. The CBDT is a statutory authority functioning under the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963. It is India’s official FATF unit. The Central Board of Revenue as the Department apex body charged with the administration of taxes came into existence as a result of the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1924. Initially the Board was in charge of both direct and indirect taxes. However, when the administration of taxes became too unwieldy for one Board to handle, the Board was split up into two, namely the Central Board of Direct Taxes and Central Board of Excise and Customs with effect from 1 January 1964. This bifurcation was brought about by constitution of the two Boards u/s 3 of the Central Boards of Revenue Act, 1963.

Income Tax Act of 1961.

The major tax enactment is the "Income Tax Act " of 1961 passed by the Parliament, which establishes and governs the taxation of the incomes of individuals and corporations. This Act imposes a tax on income under the following five heads:  However, this Act may soon be repealed and be replaced with a new Act consolidating the law relating to Income Tax and Wealth Tax, the new proposed legislation is called the Direct Taxes Code (to become the Direct Taxes Code, Act 2010). Act was referred to Parliamentary standing committee which has submitted its recommendations. Act is expected to be implemented with changes from the Financial Year 2013–14.

Goods and Services Tax.

Goods and Services Tax (India) is a comprehensive indirect tax on manufacture, sale and consumption of goods and services throughout India to replace taxes levied by the central and state governments. It was introduced as The Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act 2016, following the passage of Constitution 101st Amendment Bill. The GST is governed by GST Council and its Chairman is Union Finance Minister of India - Nirmala Sitaraman (working finance minister)  This method allows GST-registered businesses to claim tax credit to the value of GST they paid on purchase of goods or services as part of their normal commercial activity. Administrative responsibility would generally rest with a single authority to levy tax on goods and services. Exports would be considered as zero-rated supply and imports would be levied the same taxes as domestic goods and services adhering to the destination principle in addition to the Customs Duty which will not be subsumed in the GST.  Introduction of Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a significant step in the reform of indirect taxation in India. Amalgamating several Central and State taxes into a single tax would mitigate cascading or double taxation, facilitating a common national market. The simplicity of the tax should lead to easier administration and enforcement. From the consumer point of view, the biggest advantage would be in terms of a reduction in the overall tax burden on goods, which is currently estimated at 25%-30%, free movement of goods from one state to another without stopping at state borders for hours for payment of state tax or entry tax and reduction in paperwork to a large extent.  GST is applicable from 1 July 2017.

Trust law.

Trust law in India is mainly codified in the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, which came into force on March 1, 1882. It extends to the whole of India except for the state of Jammu and Kashmir and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian law follows principles of English law in most areas of law, but the law of trusts is a notable exception. Indian law does not recognise "double ownership", and a beneficiary of trust property is not the equitable owner of the property in Indian law.

Family law – Personal law.

Family laws in India are different when Warren Hastings in 1772 created provisions prescribing Hindu law for Hindus and Islamic law for Muslims, for litigation relating to personal matters. However, after independence, efforts have been made to modernise various aspects of personal law and bring about uniformity among various religions. Recent reform has affected custody and guardianship laws, adoption laws, succession law, and laws concerning domestic violence and child marriage.

Hindu Law.

As far as Hindus are concerned "Hindu Law" is a specific branch of law. Though the attempt made by the first parliament after independence did not succeed in bringing forth a Hindu Code comprising the entire field of Hindu family law, laws could be enacted touching upon all major areas that affect family life among Hindus in India. Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists are also covered by Hindu law

Muslim law.

Indian Muslims' personal laws are based upon the Sharia, which is thus partially applied in India, and laws and legal judgements adapting and adjusting Sharia for Indian society. The portion of the "fiqh" applicable to Indian Muslims as personal law is termed Mohammedan law. Despite being largely uncodified, Mohammedan law has the same legal status as other codified statutes. The development of the law is largely on the basis of judicial precedent, which in recent times has been subject to review by the courts. The concept of the judicial precedent and of'review by the courts' is a key component of the British common law upon which Indian law is based. The contribution of Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer in the matter of interpretation of the statutory as well as personal law is significant.  Sunni Law:  As per Shia Law:  Usooli Shia up  Akhbari Shia  2. "Secondary Source"  Polygamy and triple talaq is a subject of debate from long time. It has been abolished in many Islamic countries, but still holds its legal validity in the secular country of India. Supreme court asked the central government for its views, to which it replied that polygamy should be done away with.

Christian Law.

For Christians, a distinct branch of law known as Christian Law, mostly based on specific statutes, applies.  Christian law of Succession and Divorce in India have undergone changes in recent years. The Indian Divorce (Amendment) Act of 2001 has brought in considerable changes in the grounds available for divorce. By now Christian law in India has emerged as a separate branch of law. It covers the entire spectrum of family law so far as it concerns Christians in India. Christian law, to a great extent is based on English law but there are laws that originated on the strength of customary practices and precedents.  Christian family law has now distinct sub branches like laws on marriage, divorce, restitution, judicial separation, succession, adoption, guardianship, maintenance, custody of minor children and relevance of canon law and all that regulates familial relationship.

Nationality law.

Nationality law or citizenship law is mainly codified in the constitution of India and the Citizenship Act of 1955. Although the Constitution of India bars multiple citizenship, the Parliament of India passed on 7 January 2004, a law creating a new form of very limited dual nationality called "Overseas Citizenship of India". Overseas citizens of India have no form of political rights or participation in the government, however, and there are no plans to issue to overseas citizens any form of Indian passport.

Law enforcement.

Law enforcement in India is undertaken by numerous law enforcement agencies. Like many federal structures, the nature of the Constitution of India mandates law and order as a subject of the state, therefore the bulk of the policing lies with the respective states and territories of India.  At the federal level, the many agencies are part of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, and support the states in their duties. Larger cities also operate metropolitan police forces, under respective state governments. All senior police officers in the state police forces, as well as those in the federal agencies, are members of the Indian Police Service (IPS) and Indian Revenue Service (IRS), two of the several kinds of civil services. They are recruited by the Union Public Service Commission.

Police Force.

The federal police are controlled by the central Government of India. The majority of federal law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The head of each of the federal law enforcement agencies is always an Indian Police Service officer (IPS). The constitution assigns responsibility for maintaining law and order to the states and territories, and almost all routine policing—including apprehension of criminals—is carried out by state-level police forces. The constitution also permits the central government to participate in police operations and organisation by authorising the maintenance of the Indian Police Service. Indian Police Service (IPS) officers are recruited by the Union Public Service Commission through a competitive nationwide examination. On completion of a nationwide basic public-service course, the Indian Police Service recruits attend the National Police Academy at Hyderabad, Telangana, for training. They are then assigned to particular state or union territory forces, where they usually remain for the rest of their careers. About 50 percent of the officers are regularly assigned to states or territories other than their own in an effort to promote national integration.

Law reforms.

Government usually appoints Law Commission panels to study and make non-binding recommendations for the law reform. In first 65 years 1,301 obsolete laws were repealed, including 1029 old laws in 1950 by Jawaharlal Nehru and 272 old laws in 2004 by Atal Bihari Vajpayee. After that 1,824 such laws were repealed by Narendra Modi government between May 2014 to December 2017, taking the total to 3,125.

Laws of India refers to the system of law across the Indian nation. India maintains a hybrid legal system with a mixture of civil, common law and customary, Islamic ethics, or religious law within the legal framework inherited from the colonial era and various legislation first introduced by the British are still in effect in modified forms today. Since the drafting of the Indian Constitution, Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines on human rights law and the environmental law.

Indické právo představuje právní systém, který je uplatňován na území Indie. Je založen na anglickém common law. V oblasti osobnostního práva se uplatňují zvláštní právní pravidla pro jednotlivé velké náboženské komunity – hindy, muslimy a příslušníky dalších náboženských směrů. V indickém právu se tedy uplatňuje jak teritorialita práva, tak i personalita práva.