Proofs.

Algebraic proof.

In general, the product of two polynomials with degrees "m" and "n", respectively, is given by  where we use the convention that "a" = 0 for all integers "i" > "m" and "b" = 0 for all integers "j" > "n". By the binomial theorem,  Using the binomial theorem also for the exponents "m" and "n", and then the above formula for the product of polynomials, we obtain  where the above convention for the coefficients of the polynomials agrees with the definition of the binomial coefficients, because both give zero for all "i" > "m" and "j" > "n", respectively.  By comparing coefficients of "x", Vandermonde's identity follows for all integers "r" with 0 ≤ "r" ≤ "m" + "n". For larger integers "r", both sides of Vandermonde's identity are zero due to the definition of binomial coefficients.

Combinatorial proof.

Vandermonde's identity also admits a combinatorial double counting proof, as follows. Suppose a committee consists of "m" men and "n" women. In how many ways can a subcommittee of "r" members be formed? The answer is  The answer is also the sum over all possible values of "k", of the number of subcommittees consisting of "k" men and "r" − "k" women:

Geometrical proof.

Take a rectangular grid of "r" x ("m"+"n"−"r") squares. There are  paths that start on the bottom left vertex and, moving only upwards or rightwards, end at the top right vertex (this is because "r" right moves and "m"+"n"-"r" up moves must be made (or vice versa) in any order, and the total path length is "m" + "n"). Call the bottom left vertex (0, 0).  There are formula_9 paths starting at (0, 0) that end at ("k", "m"−"k"), as "k" right moves and "m"−"k" upward moves must be made (and the path length is "m"). Similarly, there are formula_10 paths starting at ("k", "m"−"k") that end at ("r", "m"+"n"−"r"), as a total of "r"−"k" right moves and ("m"+"n"−"r") − ("m"−"k") upward moves must be made and the path length must be "r"−"k" + ("m"+"n"−"r") − ("m"−"k") = "n". Thus there are  paths that start at (0, 0), end at ("r", "m"+"n"−"r"), and go through ("k", "m"−"k"). This is a subset of all paths that start at (0, 0) and end at ("r", "m"+"n"−"r"), so sum from "k" = 0 to "k" = "r" (as the point ("k", "m"−"k") is confined to be within the square) to obtain the total number of paths that start at (0, 0) and end at ("r", "m"+"n"−"r").

Generalizations.

Generalized Vandermonde's identity.

One can generalize Vandermonde's identity as follows:  This identity can be obtained through the algebraic derivation above when more than two polynomials are used, or through a simple double counting argument.  On the one hand, one chooses formula_13 elements out of a first set of formula_14 elements; then formula_15 out of another set, and so on, through formula_16 such sets, until a total of formula_17 elements have been chosen from the formula_16 sets. One therefore chooses formula_17 elements out of formula_20 in the left-hand side, which is also exactly what is done in the right-hand side.

Chu–Vandermonde identity.

The identity generalizes to non-integer arguments. In this case, it is known as the Chu–Vandermonde identity (see Askey 1975, pp. 59–60) and takes the form  for general complex-valued "s" and "t" and any non-negative integer "n". It can be proved along the lines of the algebraic proof above by multiplying the binomial series for formula_22 and formula_23 and comparing terms with the binomial series for formula_24.  This identity may be rewritten in terms of the falling Pochhammer symbols as  in which form it is clearly recognizable as an umbral variant of the binomial theorem (for more on umbral variants of the binomial theorem, see binomial type). The Chu–Vandermonde identity can also be seen to be a special case of Gauss's hypergeometric theorem, which states that  where formula_27 is the hypergeometric function and formula_28 is the gamma function. One regains the Chu–Vandermonde identity by taking "a" = −"n" and applying the identity  liberally.  The Rothe–Hagen identity is a further generalization of this identity.

The hypergeometric probability distribution.

When both sides have been divided by the expression on the left, so that the sum is 1, then the terms of the sum may be interpreted as probabilities. The resulting probability distribution is the hypergeometric distribution. That is the probability distribution of the number of red marbles in "r" draws "without replacement" from an urn containing "n" red and "m" blue marbles.

In combinatorics, Vandermonde's identity (or Vandermonde's convolution) is the following identity for binomial coefficients: for any nonnegative integers "r", "m", "n". The identity is named after Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde (1772), although it was already known in 1303 by the Chinese mathematician Zhu Shijie (Chu Shi-Chieh). See Askey 1975, pp. 59–60 for the history.

Vandermondova konvoluce nebo Vandermondova identita je kombinatorická identita pojmenována po francouzském matematikovi Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde, který s ní poprvé přišel roku 1772. Znění identity je: formula_1


History.

Foundation and early years.

Limerick got its first taste of senior soccer in the early 1930s when the Limerick District Management Committee (LDMC) arranged a number of friendly matches between senior clubs such as Waterford United and Bray and a local junior selection. The success of these fixtures prompted the LDMC to form a senior side and attempt to gain entry to the Free State League. Their application was accepted in June 1937 and a Limerick senior team replaced Dolphin who had withdrawn from the league. On 19 July 1937, a new, private company, Limerick Association Football and Sports Co. Ltd, was registered.  On 22 August 1937, Limerick played its first match. It was against Shamrock Rovers in the Dublin City Cup, a prominent competition that ran from the 1930s to the 1970s, and won 1–0. They ended the 1937–38 season in 10th place out of 12 teams, but managed to capture their first trophy when they beat Cork United 1–0 in the replayed final of the Munster Senior Cup at the Markets Field. During those early seasons, Limerick lined out in red-and-white striped jerseys and white shorts. When Waterford resigned from the league in 1941, the club purchased their blue jerseys and would wear blue and white for the next 40 years.  The 1940s saw Limerick make some big improvements on the playing field and they were twice runners-up in the League of Ireland (1943–44 and 1944–45), were beaten in two FAI Cup semi-finals (1942–43 and 1946–47) and were runners-up in the League of Ireland Shield in 1945–46. The latter was the forerunner of the League Cup, the third most important competition after the League and the FAI Cup. They won the Munster Senior Cup again in 1948–49. It was not until the 1950s that Limerick captured their first national title when they won the Shield in 1953. They added to this when they captured the Dublin City Cup in 1958–59, beating Drumcondra in the final.

League of Ireland champions and FAI Cup winners.

Limerick captured their first League of Ireland championship in the 1959–60 season under the management of Limerick man Sonny Price, who had played for Limerick, Waterford and Glentoran. Although they lost their last match 3–2 to St. Patrick's Athletic on Sunday, 17 April 1960, they still managed to win the league by two points from Cork Celtic. Unlike other years, when the majority of the sides were local, this team had a nucleus of Dublin-based players who supplied six to the panel, with five from Limerick, two from Cork and the remainder from junior circles.  The Limerick board decided they wanted to develop an all-local team and so they brought in Ewan Fenton, then aged 29, from Wrexham to implement their plan, starting for the 1960–61 season. He was an immediate hit with staff, players and fans and his quiet and undemonstrative personality ensured he became very popular. He also helped build on the success that Sonny Price had gained with the team and introduced a great number of talented local players to League of Ireland football.  Limerick lost FAI Cup finals in 1965 and again in 1966 to Shamrock Rovers before they finally captured the title in 1971, beating Drogheda United 3–0 in a replay. That team included Andy McEvoy, Richie Hall, Kevin Fitzpatrick, Al Finucane, Dave Barrett, Sean Byrnes, Tony Meaney, Joe O’Mahony, Hughie Hamilton and Paddy Shortt. Fenton also advanced the careers of other notable Limerick players such as Dessie McNamara, Gerry McCarthy, Mick Doyle, Dick O’Connor, Johnny Walsh, Pat Nolan and Ger Duggan. Limerick had captured a further two Dublin City Cups under Fenton, in 1967 and 1970.  Ewan Fenton left Limerick in 1967 to talk up the managerial position with Linfield, and enjoyed considerable success with that club, winning seven titles in three years. The early 1970s saw some turbulent financial times for Limerick coupled with diminishing fortunes on the field. Fenton returned as manager for the 1975–76 season and introduced a number of young players, without much success in the league, but won the League Cup that season, beating Sligo Rovers 4–0 in the final. Frankie Johnson took over as manager for the 1976–77 season and Limerick were beaten 2–0 by Dundalk in the FAI Cup Final, but this was again coupled with a poor league performance.  Eoin Hand arrived as player-manager from Portsmouth for the 1979–80 season and guided the club to its second League of Ireland Championship. Tony Meaney scored a penalty in the ultimate game, a 1–1 draw against Athlone Town, to finish one point ahead of Dundalk. Hand was still in charge when Limerick won the FAI Cup again in 1982, defeating Bohemians in the final at Dalymount Park. This marked Kevin Fitzpatrick’s final game in goal after 22 seasons.

Limerick City.

The club had changed its name to Limerick United in 1977 and won a League of Ireland championship and FAI Cup under this name. Affairs at the club began to deteriorate after the FAI Cup win in 1982 and the beginning of the 1983–84 season saw High Court action with a battle for ownership of the Limerick senior soccer club. Soccer in the city was suspended for eight weeks pending a decision, which went in favour of Pat Grace, who had the Irish franchise for Kentucky Fried Chicken. Grace changed the name of the club to Limerick City and also changed the colours from blue and white to yellow and green. Limerick City won the revived League of Ireland Shield and the Munster Senior Cup in its first season. The Shield was won in the last game played at the Markets Field on 22 April 1984. They moved out of the Market's Field to a new home in Rathbane for the start of the 1984–85 season. This move proved ultimately to be unpopular with the fans and heralded a decline in the club's fortunes. The 1985–86 season saw the League of Ireland being divided into two divisions for the first time - the Premier Division and First Division, with Limerick in the Premier Division.  Billy Hamilton was brought in as player manager in 1987. Hamilton had enjoyed considerable success as a player at Burnley and Oxford United and played in two World Cup finals with Northern Ireland. He stayed at Limerick for two seasons, guiding the club to a third-place finish in the League in his second season in charge. However, the only trophy won during that period was the Munster Senior Cup in 1988. He resigned in September 1989 and Pat Grace followed soon after. The club changed its name back to Limerick FC, the colours back to blue and white and Fr Joe Young became the new chairman.

1990 to 2005.

Limerick were relegated for the first time in 1990–91, a year which also saw them lose a League Cup Final to Derry City. Sam Allardyce was appointed as player manager for the 1991–92 season and immediately brought the club back to the top flight. Allardyce only remained for one season, scoring three times in 23 appearances, before departing to take up a coaching role at Preston North End. Limerick finished a respectable sixth in the Premier Division the following season and also won the League Cup, beating St Patrick's Athletic in the final. Relegation was to follow the next season and a long period of mediocrity and disappointment was to follow.  Financial problems plagued the club and they had to rely on the goodwill of a local junior side, Pike Rovers, for a home ground for the 2000–01 season. Fr Joe Young departed as chairman and the new chairman, Danny Drew, took the club back to Rathbane in an attempt to revive their fortunes. The 2001–02 season saw another League Cup victory, this time over Derry City in the final, but no improvement in the league followed over the coming seasons.

Limerick 37.

The necessity for a new League of Ireland franchise in Limerick first became apparent in December 2006, when the FAI Club Licensing Appeal Board rejected Limerick FC's appeal against its prior failure to attain the UEFA licence necessary for admission to the League of Ireland's First Division for the 2007 season.  The FAI's decision effectively disenfranchised the incumbent Limerick FC and its chairman Danny Drew, although the organisation remained receptive to the continued participation of Limerick within senior football. To this end, FAI chief executive John Delaney openly solicited approaches from other interested parties within the city of Limerick even as he announced the rejection of Limerick FC's appeal: "We want a healthy Limerick based club in the new Eircom League of Ireland and if interested entities seek a licence, we would assess them carefully for their suitability to meet the criteria required to play in the league." On 3 January 2007, the FAI confirmed that its appeal for Limerick-based applicants to the league had garnered interest from a number of parties, one of which identified itself as Soccer Limerick, a consortium purporting to represent the entire spectrum of Limerick football, from schoolboy to Junior (amateur) level, and operating under the auspices of the Limerick Sports Partnership.  Eight days later, Soccer Limerick confirmed that its constituent committees had approved the submission of a formal application for a UEFA club licence, with a view to gaining entry to the First Division of the National League for the 2007 season, with a team called Limerick 37, named after the year that the original club was founded. Soccer Limerick spokesman Ger Finnan confirmed that Limerick 37 planned to stage home fixtures at Jackman Park, headquarters of the LDMC, and would announce the appointment of a first-team manager on Monday 15 January 2007. Paul McGee was subsequently appointed manager of Limerick 37, and signed 11 players before the start of the season.  With McGee's results and style of play not going down well with the home fans, the club opted to replace him with former player and manager Mike Kerley, who brought about mid-table respectability, as well as an end of season run which saw Limerick end Waterford's promotion hopes with a 5–1 win in Limerick, a 1–0 away defeat of eventual division winners Dundalk and a 1–1 draw away to Shelbourne, with Colin Scanlan's late equaliser denying Shelbourne the title and promotion in the 2008 season.  However, just weeks before the start of the 2009 season, Kerley and the club unexpectedly parted ways, and following a brief and unsuccessful stop-gap solution of a three-man management team, Limerick moved to appoint Pat Scully.

Limerick F.C..

The name of the club was changed back to Limerick F.C. for the start of the 2009 season. By mid-2009, the club was in serious financial difficulty. A Limerick businessman, Pat O'Sullivan, made a significant donation to the club that July. He joined the Board as Chairman in August 2009 and became the owner in February 2010. Among his stated objectives were to stabilise the finances of the club and to build strong community links such as community based club programmes and youth development programmes.  Under manager Pat Scully, Limerick finally ended their long stay in the First Division, winning promotion to the Premier Division at the end of the 2012 season. Scully left the club at the end of the season and Stuart Taylor was brought in as manager. With a number of signings from both the UK and Europe, Limerick enjoyed a comfortable first season back in the Premier Division. The following season, however, Taylor was fired due to the club's poor form, and Martin Russell was appointed as his replacement. Russell steadied the ship and the club avoided relegation in 2014. However, in 2015, the club were relegated. A terrible start to the season saw Limerick stranded at the bottom after failing to win any of the first 21 games, and despite an incredible run of form which saw Limerick avoid automatic relegation, they were demoted after losing 2–1 on aggregate to Finn Harps in a playoff.  The following season, with a squad of full-time professionals in a division of part-time teams, was little more than a procession for Limerick as they cruised to the 2016 First Division title. They won their first 12 games to open up a huge points lead and only lost one match all season, winning the division with 6 games to spare. They also beat two Premier Division teams along the way to a place in the final of the League Cup, but lost 4-1 to St. Patricks Athletic.  After a poor start to the 2017 Premier Division, Martin Russell left his position and was temporarily replaced by Willie Boland, who had been manager of underage teams. Limerick secured a permanent replacement with the appointment of Neil McDonald, and the club finished the season in 7th place, as well as advancing to the FAI Cup semi-final for the first time in many years. In January, McDonald left the club in January 2018 to take up a position at Scunthorpe United and was replaced by Tommy Barrett, while Pat O'Sullivan announced his intention to sell his stake in the club.

Treaty United.

In December 2019, Limerick FC were on the verge of extinction after the examinership process to try to keep their trading company afloat ended unsuccessfully. The club have debts of approximately €490,000 and did not receive a League of Ireland licence for the 2020 season. A new entity under the name Limerick United were granted a League of Ireland First Division license in January 2020. However, they were forced to change the name before the season started to Treaty United. Treaty United withdrew applications to join the League of Ireland underage structures for the 2020 season in February 2020.

Stadiums.

Limerick FC has used a number of venues around the city as their home ground over the years, including Markets Field in Garryowen, Jackman Park on Carey's Road, Hogan Park in Rathbane, Thomond Park and Pike Rovers ground at Crossagalla. The Markets Field has always been considered to be the spiritual home of football in the city as the club enjoyed considerable success at the venue and moving from there to Hogan Park heralded a serious decline in the club's fortunes. Up until 2012, and Limerick progress into the Premier Division the club was using Jackman Park, which belongs to the Limerick District League (LDMC), for home games. It has a training base at Knocklisheen, on the north side of the city. For the beginning of the new 2013 season, it was announced that Thomond Park would play host to Limerick FC's home games for the coming seasons with some sources estimating it would be 2015 before Limerick would get to return to the Markets Field  In March 2011 it was announced that the Markets Field had been purchased by the Limerick Enterprise Development Partnership (LEDP) with a charitable donation from the JP McManus Charitable Foundation, with a view towards Limerick FC returning to the venue sometime during 2012. The club has plans to develop the site into an 8,000 capacity, all-seated stadium. On promotion to the Airtricity League of Ireland Premier Division for the 2013 Season, Limerick moved to 26,500 capacity stadium Thomond Park for their home games. The club returned to the Markets Field on Friday 5 June 2015 for the first time in 31 years, losing 1–2 to Drogheda United in the League of Ireland Premier Division.

European record.

Limerick appeared in European competitions on six occasions in its history. In 12 matches they scored seven goals and while the club never won a European game, it drew twice. One of those draws was achieved at The Dell against a Southampton team that included former European Footballer of the Year Kevin Keegan and Mick Channon. In the home fixture famous rugby international Tony Ward gave Yugoslav international defender Ivan Golac a roasting.  Limerick first competed in 1960 in the European Cup against Young Boys Berne, but suffered their heaviest aggregate defeat. Limerick moved their 1965 Cup Winners' Cup home leg to Dalymount Park – one of only two 'home' games played outside of Limerick. Pat Nolan is the only player ever to have scored for Limerick in Limerick in a European game.  The most famous European game was the 'home' match against Real Madrid in the European Cup in 1980. Because of concerns over crowd control at both The Markets Field and Thomond Park, the match was played at Lansdowne Road in Dublin. Although a crowd of up to 30,000 was expected, Dublin football fans stayed away en masse and only 6,500 people saw a Limerick team, under Eoin Hand, almost beat the aristocrats of European football. A number of controversial refereeing decisions, including a disallowed Johnny Matthews goal and a dubious penalty award, went against Limerick and they were beaten by 2–1. Des Kennedy scored twice in the tie, one at home and one in the 5–1 away defeat, in front of a crowd of 60,000 in Madrid.

Notable former players.

This list includes former Limerick FC players who had distinguished careers at both Limerick and other League of Ireland or British clubs, or who gained international honours with their country.

Soccer Writers' Association of Ireland Awards.

Personality of the Year.

The Personality of the Year was first presented in 1961 and is the flagship award of the Soccer Writers’ Association of Ireland (SWAI).

Player of the Month.

The SWAI Player of the Month Award has been in existence since 1971.

Limerick Football Club () was an association football club based in Limerick, Ireland who played in the League of Ireland. In 2019 they were forced to pull out of the League due to financial problems.

Limerick Football Club je irský fotbalový klub z města Limerick ve stejnojmenném hrabství, který hraje 1. irskou fotbalovou ligu. Domácím stadionem klubu je Markets Field s kapacitou 3 000 míst. Klubovou barvou je modrá, odkud také pramení přezdívky "The Blues" nebo "Super Blues".


Lineage.

The date of Ricimer's birth is unknown, although it was probably around 418. Some scholars have dated it as late as the early 430s, which would make him unusually young at the time of his rise to power. The names of his parents are also unknown. In his panegyric to Anthemius, given in 468, the poet Sidonius Apollinaris claimed that he was Suevic on his father's side and Visigothic on his mother's, specifying that his maternal grandfather was Wallia, King of the Visigoths, who died 418. It has been suggested that his Suevic father may have been a son of Hermeric, the king of the Suevi around 418, or else possibly Hermegarius, a Suevic war leader who died in 429.  It has been surmised that Ricimer was the offspring of a marriage alliance between the ruling Suevic and Gothic houses. Such an alliance has been suggested as occurring in the year 431, but a more likely date is anterior to Wallia's death in 418. Wallia's successors as leader of the Visigoths were not his close relatives and may have become hostile toward the family members of the deceased king. As entry into the Western Empire's military was a frequent option for "losers of struggles for leadership among the barbarians", Ricimer's family may have entered the service of Rome.  Ricimer's younger sister later married Gondioc, the king of the Burgundians.

Rise to power.

According to Sidonius Apollinaris, Ricimer served under the "magister militum" Flavius Aetius alongside the "comes domesticorum" Majorian, whom he befriended.  A power vacuum was created in the Western Empire after the events of 454 and 455, which saw the consecutive murders of Aetius and of the Western Emperor Valentinian III, who had been responsible for the "magister militum's" assassination. After the assassinations, the Roman Senator Petronius Maximus proclaimed himself emperor. Petronius, however, was killed by a Roman mob immediately prior to the Vandal sacking of the city in 455. After the sack, the Visigothic King Theodoric II proclaimed as Emperor Avitus, the Roman military commander in Gaul. In return for Theodoric's support, Avitus agreed to allow the Visigoths to enter Suevi-controlled Hispania. Theodoric consented to Avitus's offers and the new emperor, with the Visigoths under his command, marched on Rome to secure the throne. Avitus named the Visigoth Remistus as "magister militum", a position which had been vacant since Aetius's death.  Following the arrival of Avitus in Rome, Majorian gave his support, albeit reluctantly, to the new emperor. Avitus subsequently appointed Ricimer as a "comes", or count of the empire, a prominent military position. By this point, however, the Western Empire encompassed only the Italian Peninsula and portions of southern Gaul, a mere fraction of the territory held by Rome in previous centuries.  Ricimer raised an army and navy from the Germanic mercenaries available to him, and commenced campaigns directed against "barbarian" tribes in conflict with the empire. Ricimer achieved his first important victory in 456, when he defeated the Vandals in the Battle of Agrigentum and the Battle of Corsica. Although Priscus wrote that Avitus had sent him to Sicily to engage the Vandals, Hydatius states he defeated the Vandals near Corsica. After his Mediterranean victory, Ricimer was appointed by Avitus as "magister militum praesentalis", the commander of the Western Empire's field army in Italy and effectively the second-highest rank available to a general of the West.  Ricimer used his new position to assist his colleague Majorian in plotting against Avitus, who had not yet been recognized as Emperor of the West by Marcian, the Eastern Emperor. Ricimer and Majorian convinced the Roman Senate to authorize a military expedition against Avitus, who had established himself at the imperial capital of Ravenna. The two led an army against an imperial force commanded by the "magister militum" Remistus and defeated it at Piacenza on October 16, 456. They then besieged Avitus in Ravenna, which fell. Avitus was captured, forced to assume the bishopric of Piacenza, and finally executed. With the Western throne vacant, the new Eastern Emperor, Leo I, granted Ricimer the title of patrician and the rank of "magister militum" on February 28, 457. Leo appointed Majorian to replace Ricimer in his Italian command. Without a Western Emperor, Leo hoped to use Ricimer as his effective viceregent in the West.

"Magister militum".

Majorian (457–461).

As a Germanic tribesman of Arian faith, Ricimer was felt to be ineligible the imperial throne himself, but as "magister militum" he gained influence over the Germanic peoples occupying Gaul, Hispania, and Northern Africa. He was left with the options of dissolving the Western Empire and ruling as an official viceroy of Leo in Constantinople or exerting his power over the West through a puppet emperor. Though he had hoped to take the first option, the Roman aristocracy refused to consent to this step and Ricimer was forced to take the latter.  With a vacant Western throne, the Alamanni invaded Italy. They moved from Raetia and managed to penetrate Italy, reaching Lake Maggiore. Majorian led his field army north to fight the Alamanni, defeating them. Majorian was proclaimed emperor by his troops in a place called "ad Columellas" on April 1, 457. Realizing Majorian's potential as a puppet, Ricimer induced Leo to give his consent to this arrangement.  Though Ricimer had expected to control his friend, Majorian proved to be a capable ruler and soon distanced himself from his "magister militum". Majorian demonstrated his military skill through his re-conquest of Gaul and his campaigns in Hispania. Majorian's campaigns effectively subdued the Visigoths and returned them to their pre-Avitus "foederati" status, greatly increasing his standing among the senate and army. Majorian then prepared for a campaign against the Vandals of Genseric. With Majorian in Hispania, Ricimer was left in Italy.  Majorian was defeated by Genseric, possibly through treachery, near modern-day Valencia, Spain, while organizing a mercenary army. During his absence, Ricimer convinced the senate to turn against the emperor, who soon disbanded his army and returned to Italy. Learning that the emperor was in Tortona, Ricimer led a detachment there and arrested him. Deposing Majorian on August 3, 461, Ricimer had the emperor tortured and finally beheaded on August 7.

Libius Severus (461–465).

Ricimer's murder of Majorian did not sit well with some portions of the military establishment, especially the commanding general in Gaul, Aegidius, and the commanding general in Dalmatia, Marcellinus, who ruled their respective domains independent from imperial authority. These two generals entered open hostilities with Ricimer and refused to recognize Ricimer's position. Ricimer ruled the West without an emperor for three months. Facing pressure from the senate and Italian aristocracy, Ricimer named the undistinguished Senator Libius Severus as his puppet emperor. Though Severus was recognized by the senate, the Eastern Emperor Leo I refused to recognize him as his Western counterpart. Though he faced open military opposition from Western generals, with the docile Severus as emperor, Ricimer was master of Rome.  The principal problems facing Ricimer during Severus' "reign" were military opposition from the Vandals and political opposition from the Eastern Empire. The Vandals had continuously raided the Italian coast since the assassination of Valentinian III in 455, wreaking havoc upon the Italian economy. At the same time, because Leo did not recognize Severus as Western Emperor, he refused to provide assistance to the Western government. Constantinople had made peace with Genseric in 462, but had refused to intervene in the Vandal raids. Due to diminished tax revenues and with the key armies of the West under opposition control, Ricimer needed assistance from the East in order to maintain order in the West. As such, Severus, despite his docile nature, represented an obstacle to Ricimer's power. Upon Severus' death in 465—rumored, according to Cassiodorus, to have been poisoned by Ricimer—Ricimer proceeded to rule the West for eighteen months without an emperor as he waited for Leo to name Severus' successor.

Anthemius (467–472).

The Vandals saw the unoccupied Western throne as an opportunity to increase their role in imperial politics. Genseric supported Olybrius' candidacy for appointment as emperor. Genseric had family ties with Olybrius as both Olybrius and Genseric's son Huneric had married the two daughters of Valentinian III. With Olybrius on the throne, Genseric would become the real power behind the throne in the West, replacing Ricimer. To put Leo under pressure, the Vandals extended their attacks on Sicily and Italy to the territories of the Eastern Empire, sacking and enslaving people living in Illyricum, the Peloponnese and other parts of Greece.  Faced with increased Vandal impingement, in 467 Leo named the commanding general of the Illyrian Army, Anthemius, as Western Emperor. Leo sent Anthemius to Italy with an army led by the commanding general of the Dalmatian Army, Marcellinus, who had previously rebelled against Ricimer, to secure the Western throne and recapture North Africa from the Vandals. Ricimer must have initially viewed Anthemius' appointment as undermining his position. Unlike Libius Severus, Anthemius had a proven history of military success and had family ties to the Theodosian Dynasty. However, needing the support of the Eastern Empire, Ricimer was forced to accept him. To solidify his connections with the new emperor, Ricimer diplomatically married Anthemius' daughter Alypia, and for some time lived in peace with Anthemius.  Soon after assuming the Western throne, Anthemius granted Marcellinus the rank of patrician in an effort to counterbalance the authority of Ricimer. In the East, it was established practice for there to be two supreme commanders where in the West it had become common to only have one. With his experience with the Eastern military structure, this may have been an attempt by Anthemius to introduce the Eastern structure and rule like an Eastern Emperor using the successful and trustworthy Marcellinus as co-supreme commander with Ricimer. Both Eastern Emperor Leo and Anthemius had seen the difficulty any Western Emperor had in maintaining control over the Western military with the existence of a singular unchallenged supreme commander.  In 468, Leo organized a grand campaign against the Vandals in North Africa, to which the East and West would commit substantial forces. The commanding general of the Thracian Army, Basiliscus, brother-in-law of Leo, assumed supreme command over the joint West-East assault, with Marcellinus given direct command of the forces from the West. The overall plan called for a three-pronged attack led by Basiliscus, Marcellinus, and the Military Count of Egypt, Heraclius of Edessa. Basiliscus was to land at a distance from Carthage with the main army (transported by an armada of over 1,000 ships) and then link up with Heraclius, advancing from Tripolitania. Marcellinus was to secure Sicily and Sardinia and then advance to Carthage. Ricimer, under the overall command of Marcellinus, commanded a large portion of the Western forces in the expedition. Ricimer's behavior raised suspicions that he secretly wanted the expedition to fail, which it ultimately did following the disastrous battle of Cape Bon. Most of the joint armada was destroyed, with Marcellinus himself being assassinated by his own soldiers while in Sicily, perhaps at the instigation of Ricimer.  The failed joint expedition against the Vandals bankrupted the Western and Eastern Empires and greatly reduced their military might. Upon hearing of the disastrous defeat, the Visigoths resumed their wars of expansion against the West and the Vandals resumed raids on Italy. Additionally, with Marcellinus dead, Ricimer was left as the sole Supreme Commander of the West. Marcellinus had been Anthemius' favorite of the two generals, and his death served to widen the divide between the emperor and Ricimer. The tipping point of their relationship was the trial of Romanus, the imperial chancellor ("magister officiorum") and supporter of Ricimer, whom Anthemius accused of treachery and condemned to death in 470. Following the execution of Romanus by Anthemius, Ricimer moved north to Mediolanum with a force of several thousand soldiers. Relations between the two deteriorated to the point that Epiphanius of Pavia, bishop of Milan, was asked to negotiate peace between them.  Despite the bishop's efforts, open warfare broke out between Ricimer and Anthemius again in 472. Ricimer, along with his barbarian mercenary units (including the soldiers of Odoacer), marched on Rome. Besieged, Anthemius took refuge in St. Peter's Basilica. Leo dispatched Olybrius to mediate a truce between Ricimer and Anthemius but, according to John Malalas, had sent a secret letter to Anthemius, urging him to kill Olybrius. Ricimer intercepted the letter, showed it to Olybrius, and had him proclaimed emperor. The siege lasted for five months. Ricimer finally entered the city and succeeded in separating the port on the Tiber from the Palatine, starving the supporters of the emperor. Both sides appealed to the field army in Gaul, but the Burgundian commanding general of Gaul, Gundobad, supported his uncle Ricimer.  Anthemius held out until his supporters deserted him. Disguised as a beggar, the emperor was caught attempting to flee the city at the Church of Santa Maria in Trastevere, where he was beheaded on July 11, 472. Ricimer then proclaimed Olybrius as emperor, who was the candidate for emperor that he and Genseric had once favored.

Death.

Ricimer's rule lasted until his death from a hemorrhage on August 18, 472, six weeks after deposing Anthemius. His title of patrician and position as supreme commander were assumed by his nephew Gundobad.  Without a powerful figure to guide it, the Western Roman Empire experienced an even more rapid succession of emperors, none of whom were able to effectively consolidate power. The line of Western Roman Emperors ended arguably in either 476 (with Odoacer's deposition of Romulus Augustulus) or 480 (with Julius Nepos's death), concentrating the remaining imperial power in far-off Constantinople.

Appearances in opera.

Ricimer's life was used as a subject of opera libretti in the 17th and 18th centuries, embellishing his biography with romantic and political intrigues. The earliest setting was Matteo Noris's "Ricimero re de' Vandali" (set by Carlo Pallavicino, 1684), which focuses on the installation of Anthemius in Rome and the promise of marriage to his daughter Domizia. A better-known setting was Apostolo Zeno and Pietro Pariati's libretto "Flavio Anicio Olibrio", set by Francesco Gasparini (1708), Nicola Porpora (1711), Leonardo Vinci (1728), and Niccolò Jommelli (1740). This libretto is based on Ricimer's siege of Rome and his relationship with Olybrius and their loves.

Flavius Ricimer (, ; – August 18, 472) was a Romanized Germanic general who effectively ruled the remaining territory of the Western Roman Empire from 461 until his death in 472, with a brief interlude in which he contested power with Anthemius. Deriving his power from his position as "magister militum" of the Western Empire, Ricimer exercised political control through a series of puppet emperors.

Ricimer (okolo 405 - 18. srpna 472) byl germánský velitel císařských legií několika západořímských císařů, nazývaný "tvůrce císařů". Původem pocházel z germánského kmene Svébů. Jeho otec byl Rechila.


History.

Eskilstuna's history dates back to medieval times when English monk Saint Eskil made "Tuna" his base and diocese of the South coast of Lake Mälaren. Saint Eskil was stoned to death by the pagan vikings of neighbouring town Strängnäs, east of Eskilstuna, trying to convert them to Christianity. Saint Eskil was buried in his monastery church in Tuna. Later the pagan city of Strängnäs was Christianised and was given the privilege of becoming diocese of South Lake Mälaren. Later "Eskil" was added in to the word "Tuna". However, the town of Eskilstuna did not receive municipal privileges due to its proximity to the medieval city of Torshälla. The monastery of Saint Eskil was completely destroyed by Swedish king Gustav Vasa during the Protestant Reformation and was replaced with the royal castle of Eskilstuna House. The city's first city privileges were granted in 1659, and its boundaries included Tunafors and the newly founded town of "Karl Gustavs Stad" ("City of Karl Gustav"), located on the west side of the river. Karl Gustavs Stad was built around the iron forges of master smith Reinhold Rademacher, encouraged by King Karl X Gustav. The first products of the forges were small arms and artillery.  Karl Gustavs Stad was a free town from 1771, where manufacturers and craftsmen were allowed to establish tax-free workshops and factories. The town was merged with the rest of Eskilstuna in 1879.  The city grew enormously during the Industrial Revolution and became one of the most important industrial cities of Sweden, earning the nickname "Stålstaden" ("The City of Steel"). Aside from firearms, the city also produced cutlery, scissors, keys, machine tools and precision instruments. As a tribute to the steel industry, the figure of a steel worker is included in the city's coat of arms. Eskilstuna is sometimes called "The Sheffield of Sweden". Both cities at their peak were home to numerous steel production companies.

Economy.

Eskilstuna remains an important industrial city with internationally known companies such as Volvo Wheel loaders, main site for the heavy construction equipment division of Volvo, Assa (locks, keys), and Stainless steel manufacturer Outokumpu, Thin Strip Nyby in Torshälla.  Mälardalen University ("Mälardalens högskola"), founded in cooperation with the neighboring city of Västerås, has a campus in the city. The city also has a combined zoo and amusement park - Parken Zoo.  The hospital, Mälarsjukhuset is one of the largest in the region, employing around 3000 people.

Demography.

As of December 31st 2019 Eskilstuna has a population of 106 859 people, making it the 15th largest city in Sweden.

Sport.

The successful handball club Eskilstuna Guif remains in the top division. They have reached the Swedish Championship final four times (1997, 2001, 2009 and 2011), but lost on each occasion. Eskilstuna is also home to EFK (Eskilstuna Flygklubb), Sweden's largest glider Flying Club which hosted the World Gliding Championships in 2006.  Since 2017, Eskilstuna has a football team in the highest tier Allsvenskan, named AFC Eskilstuna, who changed both the team name and location from Solna after qualifying for the top league after the 2016 season, making them the first team in the Swedish top leagues of football changing hometown. The women's football team, Eskilstuna United DFF, has played in the highest tier since 2014, and finished as runner up in the 2015 season, making them qualify for the 2016–17 UEFA Women's Champions League.  The speedway team in Eskilstuna, Smederna, competes in the highest speedway league in Sweden, Elitserien and race its home matches at Smedstadion outside Eskilstuna.  In eSports, Eskilstuna is home to player Maikelele.  The stadium Tunavallen was a venue for the 1958 FIFA World Cup, hosting one match between Paraguay and Yugoslavia. It has also been used for several practice games for the Swedish National Youth Teams. Sports clubs using Tunavallen include AFC Eskilstuna, Eskilstuna United DFF, Eskilstuna City FK and IFK Eskilstuna. Eskilstuna Södra FF are based at Skogsängens IP and BK Sport is based at Ekängen.

Transport.

Eskilstuna is served by the Svealandsbanan railway line between Stockholm and Hallsberg. European route E20 passes the city. The city has an airport, east of the centre.

European Cooperation.

Eskilstuna is a member city of Eurotowns network

Other notable natives.

Joachim Berg

Eskilstuna () is a city and the seat of Eskilstuna Municipality, Södermanland County, Sweden. The city of Eskilstuna had 67,359 inhabitants in 2015, with a total population of 100,092 inhabitants in Eskilstuna municipality (2014). Eskilstuna has a large Sweden Finn population. The town is located on the River Eskilstunaån, which connects Lake Hjälmaren and Lake Mälaren.

Eskilstuna je město ve švédském kraji Södermanland. V roce 2010 mělo město 64 679 obyvatel. Eskilstuna leží na říčce Eskilstunaån mezi jezery Hjälmaren a Mälaren.


Early life.

Mitchell was born in Southport in Lancashire (now Merseyside), England, and raised in Malvern, Worcestershire. He was educated at Hanley Castle High School and at the University of Kent, where he obtained a degree in English and American Literature followed by an M.A. in Comparative Literature.  Mitchell lived in Sicily for a year, then moved to Hiroshima, Japan, where he taught English to technical students for eight years, before returning to England, where he could live on his earnings as a writer and support his pregnant wife.

Work.

Mitchell's first novel, "Ghostwritten" (1999), moves around the globe, from Okinawa to Mongolia to pre-Millennial New York City, as nine narrators tell stories that interlock and intersect. The novel won the John Llewellyn Rhys Prize (for best work of British literature written by an author under 35) and was shortlisted for the Guardian First Book Award. His two subsequent novels, "number9dream" (2001) and "Cloud Atlas" (2004), were both shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize. In 2003, he was selected as one of Granta's Best of Young British Novelists. In 2007, Mitchell was listed among "Time" magazine's 100 Most Influential People in The World.  In 2012 his novel "Cloud Atlas" was made into a film. One segment of "number9dream" was made into a BAFTA-nominated short film in 2013 starring Martin Freeman, titled "The Voorman Problem". In recent years he has also written opera libretti. "Wake", based on the 2000 Enschede fireworks disaster and with music by Klaas de Vries, was performed by the Dutch Nationale Reisopera in 2010. He has also finished another opera, "Sunken Garden", with the Dutch composer Michel van der Aa, which premiered in 2013 by the English National Opera.  Several of Mitchell's book covers were created by design duo Kai and Sunny. Mitchell has also collaborated with the duo, by contributing two short stories to their art exhibits in 2011 and 2014.  Mitchell's sixth novel, "The Bone Clocks", was published on 2 September 2014. In an interview in "The Spectator", Mitchell said that the novel has "dollops of the fantastic in it", and is about "stuff between life and death". "The Bone Clocks" was longlisted for the 2014 Man Booker Prize.  Mitchell was the second author to contribute to the Future Library project and delivered his book "From Me Flows What You Call Time" on 28 May 2016.  "Utopia Avenue", Mitchell's ninth novel, will be published by Hodder & Stoughton on 14 July 2020.

Other works.

In 2015, Mitchell contributed plotting and scripted scenes for the second season of the Netflix show "Sense8" by the Wachowskis, who had adapted his novel "Cloud Atlas" into film. Mitchell had signed a contract to write season three before Netflix cancelled the show. He wrote the series finale special with Lana Wachowski and Aleksandar Hemon.  In August 2019, it was announced that Mitchell would continue his collaboration with Lana Wachowski and Hemon on the fourth film in "The Matrix" series, writing the screenplay with them.

Personal life.

After another stint in Japan, Mitchell currently lives with his wife, Keiko Yoshida, and their two children in Ardfield, Clonakilty in County Cork, Ireland. In an essay for Random House, Mitchell wrote: "I knew I wanted to be a writer since I was a kid, but until I came to Japan to live in 1994 I was too easily distracted to do much about it. I would probably have become a writer wherever I lived, but would I have become the same writer if I'd spent the last six years in London, or Cape Town, or Moose Jaw, on an oil rig or in the circus? This is my answer to myself."  Mitchell has the speech disorder of stammering and considers the film "The King's Speech" (2010) to be one of the most accurate portrayals of what it's like to be a stammerer: "I'd probably still be avoiding the subject today had I not outed myself by writing a semi-autobiographical novel, "Black Swan Green", narrated by a stammering 13-year-old." Mitchell is also a patron of the British Stammering Association.  Mitchell's son has autism. In 2013 he and his wife Keiko Yoshida translated a book which they claimed was written by Naoki Higashida, a 13-year-old Japanese boy with autism, titled "". In 2017, Mitchell and his wife translated the follow-up book which they also claimed was written by Higashida, "Fall Down 7 Times Get Up 8: A Young Man's Voice from the Silence of Autism". Researchers are doubtful that he wrote the book himself, with psychologist Jens Hellman claiming that Higashida's accounts "resemble what I would deem very close to an autistic child’s parents' dream".

Facilitated communication controversy.

Mitchell has translated the novels "The Reason I Jump" and "Fall Down 7 Times Get Up 8" from Japanese to English, which are credited to, a severely autistic Japanese individual. Researchers have doubted that Mitchell should give Higashida credit with writing the original Japanese versions, as those works were done through facilitated communication, which is scientifically debunked. Writing for "In-Mind", psychologist Jens Hellman is also skeptical that Higashida should get credit, claiming that Higashida's accounts "resemble what I would deem very close to an autistic child’s parents' dream". Higashida can speak but can only repeat certain phrases. Some sources have mistakenly claimed that he is mute.  Michael Fitzpatrick, a medical writer known for writing about controversies in autism from the perspective of someone who is both a physician and a parent of a child with autism, said some skepticism of how much Higashida contributed to the book was justified because of the "scant explanation" of the process Higashida's mother used for helping him write using the character grid and expressed concern that the book "reinforces more myths than it challenges". Fitzpatrick also disagrees with Mitchell's claim that this book will make parents of severely autistic children feel better, as he reinforces the myth that most severely autistic individuals have significant hidden potential.  Sallie Tisdale, writing for "The New York Times", said the book raised questions about autism, but also about translation and she wondered how much the work was influenced by the three adults (Higashida's mother, Yoshida, and Mitchell) involved in translating the book and their experiences as parents of autistic children. She concluded, "We have to be careful about turning what we find into what we want."  Mitchell has claimed in response to skeptics that there are videos of Higashida typing independently; however, Dr. Deborah Fein and Dr. Yoko Kamio claim that in one video where he is featured, his mother is constantly guiding his arm. Others, including Dr. Temple Grandin who is an autistic person writing for a National Institutes of Health journal, is "confident that Naoki... was not using the controversial method of facilitated communication, in which a person supports the wrist of the nonverbal person with autism."

List of works.

Novels  Short stories  Articles  Libretto  Other

David Stephen Mitchell (born 12 January 1969) is an English novelist and screenwriter. He has published seven novels, two of which, "number9dream" (2001) and "Cloud Atlas" (2004), were shortlisted for the Booker Prize. He has also written articles for several newspapers, most notably for "The Guardian", and translated several books about autism from Japanese to English.

David Mitchell (* 12. ledna 1969 Southport, Merseyside, Severozápadní Anglie) je anglický spisovatel, který byl pětkrát nominován na Bookerovu cenu (do užší nominace se dostaly romány "sencislo9" a "Atlas mraků", do širší nominace romány "Třináct měsíců", "Tisíc podzimů Jacoba de Zoeta" a "Hodiny z kostí").


History.

Junior years (1898–1921).

Crusaders Football Club was formed in the year 1898, with the exact date unknown. The first meeting of the Club is believed to have been held at 182 North Queen Street, Belfast, the home of Thomas Palmer who, along with James McEldowney, John Hume and Thomas Wade, was a member of the original committee.  Many names were suggested for the club, including Rowan Star, Cultra United, Mervue Wanderers, Moyola (all names from local streets), and others such as Queen's Rovers, and the Lilliputians. Thomas Palmer felt a name of more international significance should be adopted and he suggested "Crusaders", after the medieval Christian knights.  Initially the club was only able to undertake friendly fixtures until it was admitted to one of the local junior leagues. Players were compelled to pay a match fee of two pence before they could take the field. It was strictly "no pay-no play". The very first competitive game of which there is any existing record was on 10 December 1898. It came in the North Belfast Alliance against opponents named Bedford at Alexandra Park and reports state that, "after a splendid game Crusaders won by 5 to 2."  Crusaders went on to compete in the Dunville Alliance, Ormeau Junior Alliance, Alexandra Alliance, Woodvale Alliance and Irish Football Alliance (the latter of which they won three years in a row from 1916–1918) until their election to the Irish Intermediate League in 1921.

Intermediate years (1921–1949).

The Crues quickly became one of the top intermediate sides in the country, and won an impressive collection of trophies, including the Intermediate League championship six times in ten years from 1923–1933. In addition, the side were very successful in the top junior cup competition, the Steel & Sons Cup, winning the competition on seven occasions as a junior side (the first team would win the cup again in 2005, after relegation to intermediate football).  The side also reached the Irish Cup semi finals three times in the 1920s. The first came in the 1923–24 season, where they were defeated by that season's Irish League champions Queen's Island in a replay at Pirrie Park. In the 1924–25 season the Crues knocked out senior sides Larne and Belfast Celtic before being halted by Glentoran at The Oval in the semi finals (who also went on to be champions that year). They reached the semi-finals once again in 1927, losing 2–4 at home to derby rivals Cliftonville. The Crues also reached the final of the Belfast Charities Cup in 1923 (losing to Glentoran), also an impressive achievement as the competition was open to all senior clubs in Belfast and the surrounding area.  Despite these feats, all applications for entry to the senior Irish League were turned down. The frustration was such that consideration was given to making application either to the Scottish Football League or to the League of Ireland. The Second World War meant that there was no football played by the Crues between April 1941 and September 1945. Crusaders began competing once more in the Intermediate League after the war, beginning with the 1945–46 season.

Early Irish League beginnings (1949–1960).

Crusaders won the 1948–49 Intermediate League with a record number of points, and coupled with Belfast Celtic's dramatic withdrawal from the senior ranks in 1949 resulted in Crusaders finally being elected to the senior Irish League in time for the start of the 1949–50 season. Their first competitive game as a senior club was on 20 August 1949 and resulted in a 1–0 City Cup win at Portadown – ex-Belfast Celtic striker Vincent Morrison, signed in the summer, had the honour of scoring the club's first ever goal as a senior club. Morrison was the club's top scorer of their first senior season with 11 goals in all competitions. The Crues' first league match took place on 26 November, a 1–4 defeat to Linfield at Windsor Park, and their first victory came on 10 December away to Ballymena United by 3–1, but the side would have to wait until 1 April 1950 for the first league win at Seaview, with a 4–1 victory over Glenavon. The season was tough going for the 'Hatchetmen', as they were known, and they had to apply for re-election after finishing in 11th place out of 12 clubs.  As has always been the case, however, Crusaders never lacked determination. On 17 May 1952 they participated in their first senior final, the Festival of Britain Cup final, which they lost 0–3 to Ballymena United. Under the player-managership of Jackie Vernon they recovered to win their first senior trophy in the 1953–54 season by defeating Linfield 2–1 in the final of the Ulster Cup. The 1950s were not easy in spite of the presence in the side of some excellent individuals and the end of the 1957–58 season saw another application for re-election. The decade also saw the emergence of Curry Mulholland, who represented the club from 1951 until 1960, setting a goalscoring record of 149 which would not be beaten until the 1990s.

Irish Cup wins and European forays (1960–1970).

The 1960s brought much more success. On 17 May 1960 they won the County Antrim Shield for the first time, repeating the feat in 1965 with a 6–0 victory over Larne (this was the joint-biggest margin of victory in the final of the competition until Linfields 9–1 victory over Bangor in 1973). With Jimmy Murdough as coach they also picked up another Ulster Cup final win on 1 October 1963, with a reply victory of 1–0 over Glenavon. These successes were overshadowed by two unexpected victories in the Irish Cup finals of 1967 and 1968 against the might of Glentoran and Linfield respectively. This led to Crusaders' first sojourn into European competition, against Valencia CF in August 1967. Also in 1968, they narrowly missed out on winning the Blaxnit Cup and becoming champions of all of Ireland, losing 3–4 on aggregate to Shamrock Rovers. The 1960s also saw the emergence of some of the greatest players in Crusaders' history, such as Albert Campbell, (who was the club's most capped international player until surpassed by Colin Coates), Danny Trainor, Joe Meldrum, Walter McFarland and Danny Hale, who scored an incredible 143 goals in just four seasons, including a club record of 55 goals in the 1965–66 season, which still stands to this day.

Billy Johnston era (1971–1979).

Jimmy Todd had won the second of those Irish Cups with the side in 1968, however by the early 1970s the Crues had declined slightly as the side of the 1960s broke up. Todd was replaced with Billy Johnston in early 1971, and he set about restructuring the squad. Under Johnston unprecedented success was to follow, with the Irish League championship trophy finding a home at Seaview in 1972–73, with the attacking duo of Tommy Finney and Jackie Fullerton scoring 47 goals between them. The club also set a record of going through the whole league campaign unbeaten at home, a feat which was repeated 40 years later in the 2012–13 season. This led to the club's first ever participation in the European Cup, in which they faced Dinamo Bucharest and had the misfortune of setting the record for a defeat in that competition, losing 0–11 in the away leg on 3 October 1973.  In the 1975–76 season the Crues won the league for the second time, largely aided by the goalscoring of Ronnie McAteer who scored 20 league goals in 22 games. Sandwiched in between these successes was a County Antrim Shield and Carlsberg Cup success in 1973–74.  The second championship triumph resulted in the never-to-be-forgotten European Cup-tie with Liverpool which saw the brave Cruemen fall to the might of Kevin Keegan and John Toshack among others at Anfield by just 0–2 through a Phil Neal penalty and a Toshack strike. The home leg which followed was played before a crowd hanging from the rafters that would undoubtedly give the current health and safety legislators a heart attack. The Crues put up a dogged performance – Keegan scored in the 34th minute, and the Crues battled until the final ten minutes, when Liverpool's superior fitness told with four goals coming in the final ten minutes through David Johnson (2), Terry McDermott, and Steve Heighway.  However the 1970s also saw The Troubles begin to affect Irish League football, with two incidents in particular affecting the football club. On 21 August 1979 there were more than 1,900 police officers on duty for a match between Crusaders and Cliftonville, more than has ever been recorded at a football match in the United Kingdom. Another black day shadowed the club on 12 January 1980, when RUC constable David Purse was shot dead by an IRA gunman during a match with Portadown – the only murder at a football ground during the Troubles.

The Eighties (1980–1989).

Johnston had left the club in 1977, and after a two-year spell of management by ex-player Norman Pavis, Ian Russell took charge of the club in 1979. While there was great promise shown initially during Russell's spell, with the club reaching both the County Antrim Shield and Irish Cup final in 1980, they did not build on this and Russell left in 1983.  Although performances on the pitch in the 1980s were steady, they certainly were not spectacular and the club paid the penalty for not building on earlier successes. Tommy Jackson took over in 1983, and led the Crues to their sole cup triumph during the decade, with the club winning the Gold Cup for the first time in the 1985–86 season.  Jackson left in 1986 and new manager Jackie Hutton had no money with which to buy players but he did the club a great service when he somehow completed the deal which brought Roy Walker, initially as a player, to Seaview in 1988.

Roy Walker era (1989–1998).

Hutton was quick to recognise the leadership qualities in Walker and saw him as his potential successor. Walker took over as player-manager in September 1989, two years after his arrival as a player. One of his first tasks was to apply for re-election as the Crues finished 13th out of 14 clubs. Notable players to begin their association with the club during this era were the likes of Sid Burrows, Glenn Hunter and Kirk Hunter.  At the same time, local businessman Harry Corry, pumped some desperately needed sponsorship money into the club. As the revival began, southern businessman Tony O'Connell also became involved.  Walker's sides – he dubbed them "the team with no boots" – went on to win nearly everything in sight whilst wealthier and bigger-supported clubs could only watch and wonder. There were two further championship titles won (1995 and 1997) whilst Crusaders also finished runners-up in 1993 (losing the title on goal difference) and 1996. Other trophies won were the County Antrim Shield (1992), Ulster Cup (1993) and Gold Cup (1996).  In turn, this meant more expeditions into Europe as the Crues took on teams from Switzerland, Denmark, Lithuania and Georgia within a five-year span. The team of the 1990s is regarded as one of the best in the history of the club, with a large part of the success revolving around the core of Kevin McKeown, Glenn Dunlop, Martin Murray, Sid Burrows, and the attacking duo of Glenn Hunter (who would go on to set a club goalscoring record of 157 goals) and Stephen Baxter.  The team was affectionately known as the "God Squad", due to the large number of Christians in the playing squad and staff. In addition to the first team and the reserves, teams at under-16 and under-18 level were introduced for the first time as the club looked to nurture and develop local talent in the area. Roy Walker suddenly resigned as manager in May 1998, just prior to the club's centenary dinner celebrations at Belfast City Hall. He was the longest serving manager in the club's history until surpassed by Stephen Baxter in October 2013.

Gradual decline (1998–2005).

Subsequently, a lack of funds saw the Seaview fortunes decline as the decade came to a close, with Dublin-based player-managers Aaron Callaghan and Martin Murray both resigning after one year apiece in charge. Callaghan managed to lead the club to third place in his sole season in charge, but it would be many years before the Crues would challenge at such a high level again. Former player Gary McCartney took over the managerial reins in July 2000. The team narrowly retained Premier Division status after a nail-biting play-off success over Lisburn Distillery thanks to a hat-trick from veteran Stephen Baxter in May 2001 but McCartney resigned just over twelve months later because of the limited budget at his disposal.  Popular veteran defender Alan Dornan was appointed as McCartney's successor at the end of June 2002 and the side retained Premier Division status that season under his guidance, although the squad was very inexperienced and often included six or seven teenagers. The emphasis on youth continued in 2003–04 as the Crues achieved a mid-table finish, an improvement compared to preceding seasons.  Dornan's next season in charge was not as successful. He was sacked just after midway through the season, as the Crues lay at the bottom of the table, despite having guided the team to the County Antrim Shield final, which they lost to Linfield. Dornan was the first ever Crusaders manager to be sacked. Former striker and fans' favourite Stephen Baxter was appointed as manager but despite an improvement in results, he could not keep the club in the Premier League, with the Crues losing out to Glenavon in a relegation play-off, the first ever Premier League team to lose to a First Division side in the play-offs. The relegation was the first time Crusaders had ever been relegated from any league, and meant an end to 56 consecutive seasons of senior football.

Stephen Baxter era (2005–present).

They immediately bounced back the following year under Baxter by winning the IFA Intermediate League, the Intermediate League Cup, and Steel & Sons Cup. After their first season back in the top flight after promotion, the Hatchetmen finished in a creditable 6th place, after briefly topping the table at the beginning of the season. In the 2007–08 season, the Crues finished in 7th position in the League after a somewhat inconsistent start to the season. They appeared in two finals, losing both the County Antrim Shield 1–2 to Glentoran, and the Irish League Cup, 2–3 to Linfield.  During 2008–09 season, they finished in the top three of the League for the first time in 10 years. The club also won their first Irish Cup final since 1968, thanks to a Mark Dickson goal, in a 1–0 victory over Cliftonville at Windsor Park on 9 May 2009. The same season, Crusaders began a partnership with fellow North Belfast club Newington in a cross-community initiative, which saw Newington play their home matches at Seaview. This became their permanent venue for home matches in 2011.  As a result, Crusaders entered Europe for the first time in 12 years and faced Macedonian side FK Rabotnicki in the Europa League second qualifying round. The game was drawn 1–1 with David Rainey scoring on the 89th minute. On 23 July 2009 in their second leg encounter with FK Rabotnicki in Macedonia they lost the game 4–2 and exited the competition 5–3 on aggregate.  In a move endorsed by UEFA President Michel Platini, the club changed from a grass pitch to a 4G-synthetic pitch. The artificial football turf pitch was manufactured by Act Global. They played their first game on the new pitch against Glentoran on 14 November 2009. This move has turned out to be fruitful for the club, with matches at Seaview being the only games in Northern Ireland to survive the weather over the Christmas period. The same season the side won their second major trophy in a year, picking up the County Antrim Shield after a 3–2 extra time victory over Linfield.  In the 2010–11 season Crusaders challenged Linfield for the league title, after being 13 points behind at one stage. They ended up as runners up. The Crues also reached final of the Irish Cup where they played Linfield at Windsor Park. Crusaders went 1–0 up through Declan Caddell, but goals from Peter Thompson and Mark McAllister condemned the Crues to defeat.  The Crues then entered the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League and received their biggest draw since the famous game against Liverpool 35 years before, as the side drew Premier League team Fulham in the second qualifying round. In the home tie the side put up a brave fight, with new signing Timmy Adamson scoring an equalising goal and striking the bar with the score poised at 1–1, before eventually succumbing 1–3. In the second leg, the Premier League side proved too strong for the Hatchetmen, as they dominated the game and won 4–0.  At the same time, Seaview underwent extensive renovation, with two new stands and new seating installed, making the ground all-seater and one of the most modern sports stadiums in Northern Ireland. That same season they won the Irish League Cup, defeating Coleraine 1–0 at the Ballymena Showgrounds thanks to a Chris Morrow strike. Crusaders also became champions of Ireland for the first time, after defeating Derry City in the 2012 Setanta Cup Final 5–4 in a penalty shootout after a 2–2 draw after extra time. Captain Colin Coates scored both goals during the match, with Coates, Chris Morrow, Matthew Snoddy, Stuart Dallas and Gareth McKeown successfully converting their penalties.  Crusaders played Cliftonville on 26 January 2013 in the Irish League Cup final at Windsor Park losing 0–4 – a joint-record defeat in the competition's final. The following season, the same two teams reached the final, playing out a drab 0–0 draw at Solitude, with Cliftonville retaining the trophy by winning 3–2 on penalties.  The 2014–15 season was a groundbreaking one for Crusaders. The season started with the side earning their first win in European competition for 18 years, defeating FK Ekranas of Lithuania in the UEFA Europa League 3–1 at home. In the return leg, Crusaders earned their first ever away victory in Europe, winning 2–1 thanks to two goals from Paul Heatley, and earning their first aggregate victory in Europe. In the second qualifying round, Crusaders bowed out against Swedish side IF Brommapojkarna after a 1–4 aggregate defeat. In cup competition, Crusaders reached the quarter-final of the Northern Ireland Football League Cup and the semi-final of the County Antrim Shield, losing both ties to Bangor, and the semi-final of the Irish Cup, losing out to Glentoran. Despite this, the side saved their best performances for the league, going unbeaten from December to April and winning 12 of 13 games. A 1–0 derby victory away to Cliftonville thanks to a Paul Heatley goal all but sealed the title, with a 2–0 home win the following week against Glentoran with goals from Declan Caddell and yet another from Heatley confirming the Gibson Cup's place at Seaview.  In the 2015–16 season, Crusaders retained the league title for the first time in their history, after a 3–1 victory over Cliftonville at Solitude on 19 April 2016. In the following season they narrowly missed out on winning the Gibson Cup for the 3rd time in a row, finishing 2nd to Linfield after a dramatic dip in Crusaders' form late in the season, with a 1–0 defeat to David Healy's side at Windsor Park on 8 April 2017 proving to be the match that decided the league title. The 2016–17 season was the first since 2013–14 that Crusaders failed to win any silverware.  However, the Hatchetmen bounced back in the 2017–18 season, regaining the Gibson Cup in a title race that went to the final day of the season. In the end it was a 2-1 victory at the Ballymena Showgrounds on 28 April 2018 that brought the league title back to Seaview for the 3rd time in 4 years, thanks to goals from Philip Lowry and David Cushley, after Cathair Friel opened the scoring for Ballymena United and threatened to send the title to eventual runners-up Coleraine. Crusaders also won the County Antrim Shield at the Ballymena Showgrounds after a 4-2 victory over Ballymena United on 23 January 2018. Crusaders finished the season having scored an incredible 106 league goals, with over half of this tally coming from the attacking trio of Paul Heatley, Gavin Whyte and Jordan Owens.  In the first qualifying round of the 2018–19 Champions League, Crusaders received their biggest European draw since facing Fulham 7 years earlier, being drawn against European group stage regulars and Bulgarian champions Ludogorets Razgrad. However, the tie turned out to be no contest as the Crues were thrashed 7-0 at the Ludogorets Arena, with goals from Marcelinho, Claudiu Keșerü and a 7-minute hat-trick from substitute Jakub Swierczok. The return leg at Seaview then ended 2-0 to the Bulgarian visitors, thanks to a strike from Swierczok and an own goal from left-back Rodney Brown. After an uneventful league campaign, the Crues completed a cup double by winning the County Antrim Shield with a 4-3 victory over Linfield, and the Irish Cup with a 3-0 victory over Ballinamallard United.  In the 2019-2020 UEFA Europa League qualifiers, Crusaders beat FC Torshavn 5-2 on aggregate to reach the second qualifier. They faced English Premier League side Wolverhampton Wanderers. In the first leg, Wolverhampton Wanderers beat Crusaders 2-0 at Molineux. Wolverhampton Wanderers then visited Seaview and Crusaders were beaten 4-1. And an overall aggregate loss of 6–1

Stadium.

The team played at a variety of venues before settling at Seaview in 1921, which is still their home to this day. Earlier home venues included the Glen (which later became part of Alexandra Park), Simpson's Boiler Fields on the Cavehill Road, the Shore Road (opposite the Grove Leisure Centre) and Rokeby Park. Seaview was officially opened on 3 September 1921 by William Grant MP, prior to kick-off in a 3–1 Intermediate League fixture victory against Cliftonville Olympic.  In July 1966 the original social club, dressing rooms and administration areas were destroyed by fire. They were replaced in 1970 by the present bigger and better facilities. Lisburn Distillery (known as Distillery prior to 1999) shared Seaview with Crusaders from 1971 until 1979, after their original Grosvenor Park home was destroyed in an arson attack. Since 1972, Seaview has the been the venue for the Steel & Sons Cup Final, which is traditionally held on Christmas Day (unless the game falls on a Sunday). Only two finals have not been played at Seaview since then, the 1975 final and the 1984 final replay (both of which were played at Solitude).  In 2009, Crusaders became the first team in the Irish League to install a 4G artificial pitch, endorsed by UEFA. The move has ensured that postponements due to bad weather have not affected Seaview as much as some other grounds. Other clubs have since followed suit, with Cliftonville installing a 3G artificial pitch the following year and Bangor in 2013.  Crusaders also ground-share with amateur side Newington. In 2010, after European funding was declined, funding was secured from a private investor for the club to move to a new stadium in the Duncrue area of Belfast, near the docks (about 3/4 miles from Seaview) within "5 or 6 years". However, with a stadium move seemingly shelved, the club have submitted plans to redevelop the current stadium, and had planning permission approved in 2015.

Supporters and rivalry.

Crusaders has traditionally drawn its support from the people of north Belfast, Newtownabbey, and the south and east of County Antrim. From these members it elects its committee and its particular ethos, with a strong emphasis on community relations. An example of this is their local connection with Seaview Primary School, who have a long-established connection with the club through fundraisers and charity events, as well as school fetes.  However, the club's serious financial plight became very apparent in the early 2000s and in 2002 consideration was given to changing the structure from one of a membership-based organisation to that of a public limited company. Members voted at the AGM against such a change in May 2002. In 2009, club members voted to become a company limited by guarantee.  Crusaders attract a loyal support and had the fourth-highest average attendance in Northern Ireland for the 2014–15 season, with an average of 1,275. In the 2015–16 season, their average attendance was the second-highest in the league after Linfield.

North Belfast rivalry.

Crusaders biggest rivals are Cliftonville, with whom they contest the North Belfast derby. Crusaders traditionally dominated the rivalry (not failing to score in home league matches against the Reds from 1949 until 1998) mainly due to Cliftonville's amateur status; since the mid-1970s the derby has been much more competitive.  Crusaders have won 150 games to Cliftonville's 83, and since competing at the same level have won 26 senior honours to Cliftonville's 19. The sides have contested four cup finals together, with Cliftonville winning the 1979 County Antrim Shield final, the 2013 and 2014 League Cup finals, and Crusaders winning the 2009 Irish Cup final.

Other rivalries.

Brantwood (who play in Skegoneill Avenue about 500 yards away from Seaview) were historically the Crues main rival when both sides were junior teams. With Crusaders election to the Irish League in 1949, the intense rivalry gradually faded away. Crusaders also share city rivalries with other Belfast clubs Linfield and Glentoran.

European record.

"Updated 1 August 2019"

Current squad.

Managerial history.

(*) – Caretaker manager

Crusaders Football Club is a semi-professional Northern Irish football club playing in the NIFL Premiership. The club, founded in 1898, hails from Belfast and plays its home matches at Seaview.

Crusaders Football Club je fotbalový klub ze Severního Irska z Belfastu. Založen byl roku 1898. Klubové barvy jsou červená a bílá.


Biography.

Rosen Plevneliev was born in Gotse Delchev. His mother, Slavka Plevnelieva, was a teacher, and his father, Asen Plevneliev, was an activist of the Communist Party. He relocated to Blagoevgrad alongside his parents when he turned 10 years old. His family descended from Bulgarian refugees from southern Macedonia who resettled from today's village of Petrousa in the municipality of Prosotsani in Drama regional unit, Greek Macedonia, in 1913. The Plevneliev family name refers to the Bulgarian name of the village Petroussa, Plevnya (Плевня, "barn").  Plevneliev studied at Blagoevgrad Mathematical and Natural Sciences High School, from which he graduated in 1982. In 1989 he graduated from the Higher Mechanical-Electrotechnical Institute, Sofia, and in the same year become a fellow at the Institute for Microprocessing Technology, Pravets. While studying in the university, he was a Komsomol member of the Bulgarian Communist Party. After the political changes, in 1990, Plevneliev started a private building company in Bulgaria. Among other projects, the company built the Sofia Business Park.  He was married to the journalist Yuliyana Plevnelieva from 2000 until their divorce in 2017; they had three sons: Filip, Asen and Pavel. One of the sons, Filip, died in 2015 at the age of 14. In addition to his native Bulgarian, he speaks English and German fluently.

Political career.

Plevneliev became Minister of Regional Development and Public Works under Deputy Prime Minister Simeon Djankov on 27 July 2009. Minister Plevneliev was one of a handful of"reformers"in the government, together with Deputy Prime Minister Simeon Djankov, the Minister of Economy Traicho Traikov and the Minister of Environment Nona Karadzhova.  He was announced as GERB's candidate for President of Bulgaria on 4 September 2011. He subsequently won the presidential election in a second round held on 30 October 2011, with a majority of 52.58% of the vote. He defeated Ivaylo Kalfin from the Bulgarian Socialist Party in the second round. He took the presidential oath on 19 January 2012 and officially took over from his predecessor Georgi Parvanov on 22 January 2012. Among his priorities are administrative reforms, energy efficiency and energy independence and removing of ambassadors of Bulgaria in foreign countries who have served as secret agents during the Communist regime.  As a result of the 2013 Bulgarian protests against monopoly and high electricity prices, the conservative government of Prime Minister Boyko Borisov tendered its resignation on 20 February 2013. President Plevneliev, acting in accordance with the constitution, offered a mandate to form a new government within the term of the current Parliament to GERB, BSP and DPS but after each of them declined, Plevneliev appointed a caretaker government on 13 March 2013, with Marin Raykov, the Bulgarian ambassador in Paris as Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs.  In 2013, due to the prolonged protests against the involvement of oligarchy in politics and the government, Plevneliev organised the 'Dialogue with citizens' initiative, which involved three debates, focused on market economy, the judicial system and media freedom.  Plevneliev advocates for closer relations between Bulgaria and the People's Republic of China.  Plevneliev has frequently criticized the immigration policy in the UK set by the former Prime Minister, David Cameron.  By appointing the Bliznashki Government on 6 August 2014, Plevneliev has become the first President of Bulgaria to appoint more than one caretaker government.

Controversies.

In January 2014 the tax authorities launched an investigation on President Rosen Plevneliev and his relatives. This action was perceived as politically motivated assault by the Oresharski Government. Other reformist members of the Boyko Borisov government were also subject to such investigations.

Rosen Asenov Plevneliev (; born 14 May 1964) is a Bulgarian politician who was the 4th President of Bulgaria, holding the position from January 2012 to January 2017. He was the Minister of Regional Development and Public Works from July 2009 to September 2011 as part of the cabinet of Boyko Borisov. In October 2011, Plevneliev was elected as President in a second round of voting; he was inaugurated on 18 January 2012.

Rosen Asenov Plevneliev (bulharsky "Росен Асенов Плевнелиев", * 14. května 1964, Goce Delčev) je bulharský politik, bývalý prezident Bulharska. V letech 2009–2011 působil ve vládě Bojka Borisova jako ministr pro místní rozvoj a veřejné práce. V říjnu 2011 zvítězil v prezidentských volbách, úřad prezidenta pak vykonával od 22. ledna 2012 do 22. ledna 2017.


Introduction.

An air brake is a panel conforming the shape of an aircraft that can be opened with hydraulic pressure in order to create drag, similar to spoilers which are on the edges of the aircraft wings and open in an upward position forcing the plane towards the ground. Air brakes are used when the aircraft needs to reduce its airspeed, while spoilers are only able to be opened when the airplane is approaching the runway and about to touch down. Lift dumpers, a type of air brake, are mounted on the top of a fuselage. When the panel is opened, it acts as a small spoiler, gently pushing the aircraft down. Flaps also increase drag and decrease airspeed, but are primarily for reducing the stall speed, allowing the aircraft to land at a slower speed.

History.

Following the invention of powered flight, and the rapid development of fixed-wing aircraft in the early 20th century, designers endeavoured for several decades to make airplanes faster than before. A universal goal for all manufacturers for some time, was to reach the speed of sound (supersonic speed), approximately 740 miles per hour (mph). Apart from the challenge of developing an engine capable of producing such a speed, and preventing the aircraft from breaking apart under the stress, one major concern was how to keep the aircraft in stable flight and then return it to a normal flying speed using a stronger braking system.  In the 1930s, air brake systems were still using simple flaps that were manually controlled by a lever in the cockpit, with mechanical devices running through the wings. However, in order for the air brakes to be effective at 740 mph, they needed to be mounted on the fuselage for improved wing control, and operated through some form of dampener or hydraulic system, allowing the pilot to physically pull a lever in order to create an excessive amount of air resistance.  The concept of fuselage-mounted air brakes, or speed brakes, spread throughout the 1930s, eventually becoming more commonplace in the 1940s. In the 1930s, pilots would land with the nose of the plane tilted upwards at a 45-degree angle for short landings in order to effect rapid deceleration. With this method, "the drag or resistance is increased by 300 percent, and the distance required to land is cut down to one third of the usual stopping distance". However, there was an urgent need to develop an alternate way of drastically reducing speed on landing that would not cause the pilot to lose sight of what was ahead of him. This led to the development of a new air braking system with additional flaps, mounted on the wing, that opened in two directions simultaneously. This wing-mounted design allowed the effective surface area of the flaps to be increased by 100 percent for landing, producing substantially more drag than the conceptual fuselage design and resulting in a sharper reduction in air speed. This meant that the pilot was able to see the landing strip in front of the aircraft as there was no longer the need to tilt the nose upwards at a steep angle at close to stalling speeds.  The rate of deceleration and foot pounds of force applied to each brake is dependent upon where the brake is located. Upper and lower surface flaps positioned along the wings provide the steadiest braking curve (comparing force applied against deceleration rate), but the flaps are subjected to greater stresses at theoretically higher speeds. Spoilers on the wings experience less force, but cannot slow down the aircraft at higher speeds. Brake plates mounted on the fuselage of an aircraft experience much more force applied per square inch but they can also reduce the speed of the aircraft far more effectively at higher speeds when used with some form of wing-mounted assisting brake. With the use of panels mounted along the body of the plane, the brake plates themselves can be made thicker to withstand the greater amount of force applied to them. In theory, air brakes are increasingly less useful at very high altitudes because simply creating more surface area on the aircraft does not create sufficient air resistance due to the thinning of the Earth's atmosphere at such altitudes. According to their technology, the drag coefficient for a vertical dive at 40,000 feet or above is too much for a simple air brake to handle. Before the 1950s, British researchers found that different drag patterns were produced by altering the shape of the air brakes and flaps being tested. The use of two flaps per wing on military fighter aircraft, with one flap opening upwards and the other opening downwards, allows the most rapid deceleration while maintaining accurate control of the plane. Flaps that open upwards create a downforce in addition to reducing air speed, thus forcing the plane towards the ground; conversely, flaps that open downwards create an upforce which pushes the nose of the aircraft into the air. Wing-mounted air brakes that open in both directions allow the opposing upward and downward forces to cancel each other out, creating resistance that forces the aircraft to decelerate. At the same time, different styles of brake panel were being tested for newer jet aircraft. A flat-plat panel would provide the most air resistance, thus reducing the air speed more effectively, but the huge amount of stress on the panel made it unsuitable at the time for high speed flights. With the excessive speeds produced by a jet aircraft, these forces could be too much for the brakes to handle. Additionally, with no air passing through the brake panels, the slightest turbulence or change in air pressure could throw the aircraft off balance. With slotted or perforated brake plates, the distortion in the air flow is greatly reduced, making the aircraft more stable when braking from high speeds, but at the cost of the rate of deceleration. The more open space provided by the plates, the better the control of the aircraft due to the reduced amount of air flow disturbance. There are various different brake plate options for different aircraft, each with their own individual design purpose and usage.

Scientific principles.

Principles such as plotting semi-empirical relations in order to estimate aircraft component parasite drag are necessary for developing and understanding the physical properties behind flight. Essentially, everything on the aircraft is taken into consideration for its size, surface area and amount of drag created. Everything from the location and size of the jet engines, to the shape of the fuselage, to wings and winglets and flaps are all noted, and equations are derived to develop an idea on the drag being created. Specifically, on the subject of air brakes and the intentional act of reducing air speed, slotted fowler flaps are examined, and a graph is constructed on the angle degree in which the flaps are tilted and the amount of lift and drag created by the distortion in the direction of air flow. Additionally, to reduce air speed, "whether in combat or landing, flat plates are used which are attached to the fuselage and shaped to its geometric contour when retracted". In the circumstance of air brakes used during subsonic flight, the equation for drag would be CDπ_brake=1.2-2.0 (with an average of 1.6).

Technology.

There are several styles of wing-based flaps and spoilers found on today's aircraft that greatly resemble some of the first air speed brakes invented. Slotted and fowler flaps are "both designed to physically increase the overall surface area of the wing, literally making the wing bigger". In slotted flaps, there at least one open gap or slot in between the actual fixed wind of the aircraft and the adjustable flap. With these types, air passing underneath the wing of the aircraft is allowed to escape up through the slot due to the position of the flap tilting down. This directional flow of air and the extra surface area underneath the wing causes slight downforce pressure as well as reduced airspeed. Spoilers are often used in larger aircraft and used more temporarily and for less amounts of time than typical flaps as they are designed to not only slow the craft down, but it creates downforce pushing the plane towards the ground. Spoilers are essentially an upside-down wing where the length on the bottom of the spoiler exceeds that on the top, resulting in the high air pressure on top of the spoiler to push down towards that of lower air pressure underneath. Lips are also used for the air running across the top of a wing to be forced further up, creating more drag and also pushing the plane closer to the ground. Spoilers on aircraft are only used when landing, not in midair, often with conjunction of slotted flaps. Together the flaps and spoiler disrupt the smooth flow of the wind and force it up and down across different surfaces protruding from or through the wing, causing a large amount of wind resistance and drag reducing overall air speed, acting as an air brake.

Split control surfaces.

The deceleron is an aileron that functions normally in flight but can split in half such that the top half goes up as the bottom half goes down to brake. This technique was first used on the F-89 Scorpion and has since been used by Northrop on several aircraft, including the B-2 Spirit.  The Space Shuttle used a similar system. The vertically-split rudder opened in "clamshell" fashion on landing to act as a speed brake.

In aeronautics, air brakes or speed brakes are a type of flight control surfaces used on an aircraft to increase drag or increase the angle of approach during landing. Air brakes differ from spoilers in that air brakes are designed to increase drag while making little change to lift, whereas spoilers reduce the lift-to-drag ratio and require a higher angle of attack to maintain lift, resulting in a higher stall speed.

Aerodynamická brzda je pevná nebo nastavitelná plocha, která záměrně zvyšuje aerodynamický odpor pohybujícího se tělesa. Používá se zejména v letectví, méně často také při konstrukci rychlých strojů, ale i k regulaci otáček hracích strojků. Podobnou funkci jako aerodynamická brzda zastává i spoiler.