History.

Composition.

A demo of the instrumental was developed by Don Felder in a rented house on Malibu Beach. He recorded the basic tracks with a Rhythm Ace drum machine and added a 12 string guitar on a four-track recording deck in his spare bedroom, then mixed in a bassline, and gave Don Henley and Glenn Frey each a copy of the recording. Felder, who met the Eagles through his high school bandmate Bernie Leadon, said that Leadon advised him to make tapes of songs he wrote for the band so that other band members like Henley, whose forte is in writing lyrics, might work with him on finishing the songs they liked. The demos he made were always instrumental, and on every album project he would submit 15 or 16 ideas. The demo he made for "Hotel California" showed influences from Latin and reggae music, and it grabbed the attention of Henley who said he liked the song that "sounds like a Mexican reggae or Bolero", which gave the song its first working title, "Mexican Reggae".  Frey and Henley were both interested in the tune after hearing the demo, and discussed the concept for the lyrics. In 2008, Felder described the writing of the lyrics:  Frey came up with a cinematic scenario of a person who, tired from driving a long distance in a desert, saw a place for a rest and pulled in for the night, but entered "a weird world peopled by freaky characters", and became "quickly spooked by the claustrophobic feeling of being caught in a disturbing web from which he may never escape." In an interview with Cameron Crowe, Frey said that he and Henley wanted the song "to open like an episode of the "Twilight Zone"", and added: "We take this guy and make him like a character in "The Magus", where every time he walks through a door there's a new version of reality. We wanted to write a song just like it was a movie." Frey described the song in an interview with NBC's Bob Costas as a cinematic montage "just one shot to the next... a picture of a guy on the highway, a picture of the hotel, the guy walks in, the door opens, strange people." Frey continued: "We decided to create something strange, just to see if we could do it." Henley then wrote most of the lyrics based on Frey's idea, and sought inspiration for the writing by driving out into the desert as well as from films and theater.  Part of the lyrics, such as "Her mind is Tiffany-twisted, she got the Mercedes-Benz / She got a lot of pretty pretty boys she calls friends", are based on Henley's break-up with his girlfriend Loree Rodkin. According to Frey's liner notes for "The Very Best Of", the use of the word "steely" in the lyric, "They stab it with their steely knives, but they just can't kill the beast," was a playful nod to the band Steely Dan, who had included the lyric "Turn up the Eagles, the neighbors are listening" in their song "Everything You Did". Frey had also said that the writing of the song was inspired by the boldness of Steely Dan's lyrics and its willingness to go "out there", and thought that the song they wrote had "achieved perfect ambiguity."

Recordings.

The Eagles recorded the track with Don Henley on lead vocal three different times, twice at the Record Plant in Los Angeles and finally at the Criteria Studios in Miami. They first recorded a riff, but when it came to recording the vocal, it was found to be in too high a key for Henley's voice, so Felder progressively lowered the key from E minor, eventually settling on B minor. The second recording however was judged too fast. In Miami, the band fine-tuned the instrumentation and the lyrics and recorded numerous takes. Five or six best ones were selected, and the best parts were then spliced together to create the released version. According to the producer Bill Szymczyk, there were 33 edits on the two‐inch master. The final section features a guitar battle between Joe Walsh (who had replaced Bernie Leadon after Leadon's departure from the band in 1975) and Felder, which took the two of them sitting together working for around three days to achieve the necessary precision. Walsh and Felder initially started improvising but Henley insisted that the recording should follow the music as first recorded in Felder's demo.  Henley decided that the song should be a single, although Felder had doubts and the record company was reluctant to release it because, at over six minutes, its duration far exceeded that of the songs generally played by radio stations. The band took a stand and refused the label's request to shorten the song. The song was released as the second single from the album after "New Kid in Town". The front cover art for some overseas editions of the 45rpm single released was a reworked version of the "Hotel California" LP cover art, which used a photograph of the Beverly Hills Hotel by David Alexander, with design and art direction by Kosh. As "Hotel California" became one of the group's most popular songs and a concert staple for the band, live recordings of the song have therefore also been released. The first live recording of the song appeared on the Eagles' 1980 live album, and an acoustic version with an extended intro is a track in the 1994 "Hell Freezes Over" reunion concert CD and video release. The "Hell Freezes Over" version is performed using eight guitars and has a decidedly Spanish sound, with Felder's flamenco-inspired arrangement and intro.

Chart performance.

"Hotel California" first entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart dated February 26, 1977, and topped the Hot 100 singles chart for one week in May 1977, the band's fourth song to reach No. 1 on that chart. It peaked at number 10 on the Easy Listening chart in April 1977. "Billboard" ranked it number 19 on its 1977 Pop Singles year-end chart. Three months after its first release, the single was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), representing one million copies shipped. In 2009, the song was further certified Platinum (Digital Sales Award) by the RIAA for sales of one million digital downloads, and has since sold over 3 million downloads.

Accolades.

The Eagles won the 1977 Grammy Award for Record of the Year for "Hotel California" at the 20th Grammy Awards in 1978.  The song is rated highly in many rock music lists and polls; "Rolling Stone" magazine ranked it number 49 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". It was named one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. At the induction of the Eagles into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998, all seven former and present members of the band reunited to perform "Hotel California".  The song's guitar solo was voted the best solo of all time by readers of "Guitarist" magazine in 1998, and was ranked 8th on "Guitar Magazine"s Top 100 Guitar Solos. The song was also included in the music video game "Guitar Hero World Tour". It was ranked the number 1 in the list of the best 12-string guitar songs of all times by "Guitar World" magazine in 2015.

Themes and interpretations.

Glenn Frey said that originally "We decided to create something strange, just to see if we could do it," and that the song was meant to mimic the imagery of the 1965 novel "The Magus" by John Fowles, about a man in an unfamiliar rural setting who is unsure about what he is experiencing.  Don Henley has given a number of explanations about the song, ranging from "a journey from innocence to experience" to "a sociopolitical statement". In an interview with "Rolling Stone", Henley said that the song was meant to be "more of a symbolic piece about America in general", and added: "Lyrically, the song deals with traditional or classical themes of conflict: darkness and light, good and evil, youth and age, the spiritual versus the secular. I guess you could say it's a song about loss of innocence."  The song has been described as being "all about American decadence and burnout, too much money, corruption, drugs and arrogance; too little humility and heart." It has also been interpreted as an allegory about hedonism, self-destruction, and greed in the music industry of the late 1970s. Henley called it "our interpretation of the high life in Los Angeles", and later said: "It's basically a song about the dark underbelly of the American dream and about excess in America, which is something we knew a lot about." In the 2013 documentary, "History of the Eagles", Henley reiterated:  In a 2009 interview, "The Plain Dealer" music critic John Soeder asked Henley if he regretted writing the lines "So I called up the captain / 'Please bring me my wine' / He said, 'We haven't had that spirit here since 1969'" because wines are fermented while spirits are distilled. Henley responded: In his "Encyclopedia of Great Popular Song Recordings, Volume 1", Steve Sullivan theorizes that the "spirit" that the Hotel California hasn't had since 1969 refers to the spirit of social activism of the 1960s, and how disco and the related pop music of the mid-1970s had turned away from it.

Conjectures.

The metaphorical character of the story related in the lyrics has inspired a number of conjectural interpretations by listeners. In the 1980s the Rev. Paul Risley of Cornerstone Church in Burlington, Wisconsin alleged that "Hotel California" referred to a San Francisco hotel that was purchased by Anton LaVey and converted into his Church of Satan. Other rumors suggested that the Hotel California was the Camarillo State Mental Hospital.  The term "colitas" in the first stanza ("warm smell of colitas, rising up through the air") has been interpreted as a sexual slang or a reference to marijuana. "Colitas" means "little tails" in Spanish; in Mexican slang it refers to buds of the cannabis (marijuana) plant. According to Glenn Frey, the "warm smell" is "colitas... it means little tails, the very top of the plant." The Eagles' manager Irving Azoff appears to lend support to the marijuana hypothesis; however, Felder said: "The colitas is a plant that grows in the desert that blooms at night, and it has this kind of pungent, almost funky smell. Don Henley came up with a lot of the lyrics for that song, and he came up with colitas."  Other interpretations of the song include heroin addiction and cannibalism. On the various interpretations, Henley said: "Some of the wilder interpretations of that song have been amazing. It was really about the excesses of American culture and certain girls we knew. But it was also about the uneasy balance between art and commerce."

Harmonic structure.

The intro and verses' chord pattern counts eight measures, each one assigned to a single chord. Seven different chords are used in the eight measures. As the song opens, it is not until the eighth measure that a chord is repeated. The song is initially in the key of B-minor. The presence of E major gives a hint of B Dorian.  The chords are played as follows:  The eight-measure sequence is repeated in the intro, for each verse and in the outro, providing the harmonic framework for the entire extended dual guitar solo at the end of the song. One explanation of the progression is that it is a common flamenco chord progression called the "Spanish progression" (i–VII–VI–V in a phrygian context) that is interspersed with consecutive fifths. With its descending ostinato pattern, it could be considered a fandango, a forerunner of the Baroque chaconne form.  This chord sequence is not commonly used, and Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull has pointed out its similarity to his song "We Used to Know" from their 1969 album "Stand Up", suggesting the Eagles heard it when they toured together. While the Eagles did open for Jethro Tull in June 1972, Don Felder, who wrote the music, did not join the band until 1974 and would not have been backstage at their concerts. Felder has said that he had never heard "We Used to Know", and that he was unfamiliar with Jethro Tull apart from the fact the frontman plays a flute. Anderson himself indicated that his comments on the similarities between the songs were meant as a joke, and said: "It's not plagiarism. It's just the same chord sequence. It's in a different time signature, different key, different context.... Harmonic progression—it's almost a mathematical certainty that you're gonna crop up with the same thing sooner or later if you're strumming a few chords on a guitar."  The chorus, or refrain, uses five of the song's seven chords, structured with the melody in a way that shifts the key from B-minor to its relative major of D:

Cover versions.

Al B. Sure! recorded his rendition for his album, "Private Times...and the Whole 9!" (1990). Gipsy Kings recorded a flamenco version sung in Spanish. The Orb, under the name of Jam On The Mutha, produced a version that charted at No. 62 in the UK in 1990. Mike Piranha recorded "Hotel Honolulu" in 1998, satirizing overdevelopment, crime, and other issues on Oahu; the song became a local hit in Hawaii. The Romanian band Vama Veche recorded its version with different lyrics entitled "", sung in its native language. Alabama 3 covered the song for the album, "La Peste" (2000). Nancy Sinatra recorded a cover version for her 2002 album "California Girl", an album of songs about California. The Cat Empire recorded a version sung in French entitled "L'hotel de Californie" for Triple J's Like a Version segment, and is included in its 2005 compilation album as well as the band's 2003 live album "On the Attack". Vocal Sampling have performed an a cappella version, which is included in their 2008 album "Akapelleando". The Killers and Rhythms del Mundo collaborated their version with Afro-Cuban music for the 2009 Artists' Project Earth charity, and it appeared on the album "Rhythms del Mundo Classics". On April 30, 2020 a six-year-old Chinese girl, Miumiu, released a YouTube version in which she herself multi-tracks five guitars, drums, and harmonized vocals in English, not her native language.  Frank Ocean released a song that samples the entire instrumental track of "Hotel California" on his mixtape "Nostalgia, Ultra" (2011), entitled "American Wedding". Don Henley threatened a lawsuit for copyright infringement.

Cultural influence.

"Hotel California" and its lyrics have become absorbed into the wider culture around the world, and have been used by various writers and commentators to reflect on issues ranging from politics to social media and welfare, or as an observation on a particular situation. The lines "We are programmed to receive / You can check out any time you like / But you can never leave!" were used by an economist to refer to how the appeal of an attractive "Hotel California"-type host country to foreign investors may be countered by the cost of exit on leaving the country. A term "The Hotel California Effect" was then used to refer to the negative effect of financial regulations on investment, and the problems foreign investors faced when getting their money out of China. It has also applied to other ideas such as problem when leaving a service provider or social media network, or when exiting cloud computing. The same analogy has been used by various commentators considering scenarios for Brexit, with the term "Hotel California Brexit".  A book titled "Operation Hotel California: The Clandestine War Inside Iraq" was written about the clandestine operation named after the song title by CIA–US Special Forces teams in Iraqi Kurdistan in the lead-up to the Iraq War.  Although the Eagles were noted for their reluctance to license their songs for use in shows, the song has been used in a number of films and television shows, such as "The Big Lebowski" (performed by the Gipsy Kings), "Absolutely Fabulous", and "The Sopranos". More recently it was used during the final scenes of the premiere episode of "" in October 2015.

Proposed film adaptation.

According to "Rolling Stone", Julia Phillips, the producer of films like "Taxi Driver" and "Close Encounters of the Third Kind," was interested in shooting a movie based on the song's story. The band members and Phillips met to discuss the project. In her memoir "You'll Never Eat Lunch in This Town Again", Phillips wrote that the band members were difficult to deal with and arrogant. Henley said that Phillips offered the band members cocaine and was "nonplussed" when they turned it down. Tension between the two parties ended the pre-development deal for the film. "Rolling Stone" reported that the band was not upset at this development, as they were not particularly enamored with the idea of "Hotel California" being adapted into a film. This was because Henley feared that he would lack control over the project.

"Hotel California" is the title track from the Eagles' album of the same name and was released as a single in February 1977. Writing credits for the song are shared by Don Felder (music), Don Henley, and Glenn Frey (lyrics). The Eagles' original recording of the song features Henley singing the lead vocals and concludes with an extended section of electric guitar interplay between Felder and Joe Walsh.

"Hotel California" je titulní skladba stejnojmenného alba americké country rockové skupiny The Eagles z roku 1976, která vyšla začátkem roku 1977 také na singlu.


Taxonomy.

The common swift was one of the many species described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae". He introduced the binomial name "Hirundo apus". The current genus "Apus" was erected by the Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1777 based on tautonymy. The word "apus" is the Latin word for a swift. It is derived from the Ancient Greek α, "a", "without", and πούς, "pous", "foot", based on the belief that these birds were a form of swallow that lacked feet.  The predecessor of the Central European subspecies which lived during the last ice age has been described as "Apus apus palapus".

Description.

Common swifts are long with a wingspan of and entirely blackish-brown except for a small white or pale grey patch on their chins which is not visible from a distance. They have a short forked tail and very long swept-back wings that resemble a crescent or a boomerang.  Their call is a loud scream in two different tone pitches, the higher of which issues from the female. They often form'screaming parties' during summer evenings, when 10–20 swifts will gather in flight around their nesting area, calling out and being answered by nesting swifts. Larger "screaming parties" are formed at higher altitudes, especially late in the breeding season. The purpose of these parties is uncertain, but may include ascending to sleep on the wing, while still breeding adults tend to spend the night in the nest. Tracking swifts at their breeding colonies using radar has revealed that individuals often occur in flocks during dawn ascent and dawn descent but not during dawn ascent and dusk descent, suggesting that this flocking benefits the swifts via cue acquisition and information exchange between individuals or through extending social behaviour.

Behaviour.

Swifts may nest in former woodpecker tree burrows found in ancient forests, such as some 600 reported nesting in the Białowieża Forest of North Eastern Poland, or the small colony found in a combination of woodpecker holes and tree nestboxes on the RSPB's reserve at the Caledonian Forest in Abernethy, Scotland. While tree holes and cliffs may have comprised their historic nesting resource, the almost complete removal of ancient forest from their nesting range has resulted in adaptation to man-made sites. Swifts build their nests of air-borne material caught in flight, bonded with their saliva, in suitable buildings hollows, such as under tiles, in gaps beneath window sills, and most typically under eaves and within gables.  Swifts form pairs that may couple for years, and often return to the same nesting site and partner year after year, repairing degradation suffered in their 40-week migratory absence. Insects such as clothes moths, carpet and larder beetles may consume all but the most indigestible nest elements, typically feather shafts.  Young nesting swifts are able to survive for a few days without food by dropping their body temperature and metabolic rate, entering a torpid state.  Except when nesting, swifts spend their lives in the air, living on the insects caught in flight; they drink, feed, and often mate and sleep on the wing. Some individuals go 10 months without landing. No other bird spends as much of its life in flight. Their maximum horizontal flying speed is 111.6 km/h. Over a lifetime they can cover millions of kilometers.  Feeding parties can be very large in insect-rich areas, such as wetlands. Reports of as many as 2000 swifts feeding over flooded gravel pits, lakes and marshy river deltas are not uncommon, and may represent an ingress of swifts from within as much as a radius; swifts nesting in Western Scotland are thought to venture to Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland to feed on the abundant and nutritious "Lough Neagh Fly".

Breeding.

Common swifts nest in a wider variety of sites than any other species of "Apus". Swifts usually nest in buildings but they can also be found nesting in holes in trees, cliffs and crevices, and even in nestboxes. Swifts usually enter their nesting holes with direct flight, and take-off is characterized by an initial free-fall. Empty cavities are shallower than those with nests, and the entry size is smaller in the former than in the latter.

Migration.

Common swifts are migratory. Their summer breeding range runs from Portugal and Ireland in the West across to China and Siberia in the East. They breed as far south as Northern Africa (in Morocco and Algeria), with a presence in the Middle East in Israel, Lebanon and Syria, the Near East across Turkey, and the whole of Europe as far north as Norway, Finland, and most of sub-Arctic Russia. Swifts migrate to Africa by a variety of routes, ending up in Equatorial and Sub-Equatorial Africa, excluding the Cape. Common swifts do not breed on the Indian Subcontinent.  Subjects of a geolocator tracking study demonstrated that swifts breeding in Sweden winter in the Congo region of Africa. Swifts spend three to three-and-a-half months in Africa and a similar time breeding - the rest is spent on the wing, flying home or away. Unsuccessful breeders, fledglings, and sexually immature year-old birds are the first to leave their breeding area. Breeding males follow next, and finally the breeding females. The breeding females stay longer in the nest to rebuild their fat reserves. The time of departure is often determined by the light cycle, and begins at the first day of less than 17 hours light. For this reason, birds further north, for instance in Finland, leave later in the second half of August. These latecomers are rushed through the quickly shortening days in Central Europe and are barely seen by bird watchers.  The prevailing direction of travel through Central Europe is south-by-southwest, and so the Alps do not present a barrier. In bad weather, the swifts follow rivers, because they can find a better food supply there. The population of Western and Central Europe traverses the Iberian peninsula and northwestern Africa. Swifts from Russia and southeastern Europe made a long journey over the eastern part of the Mediterranean. It is unclear where the two groups meet. The western group of swifts mostly follow the Atlantic coastline of Africa—otherwise they would have to cross the Sahara. Once they arrive at the humid savanna, they turn southeast to arrive at their winter feeding grounds. During the summer in Africa, there is a great bounty of insects for the swifts, since the region lies in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The swifts have a nearly unbroken presence in the sky.  A few swifts, usually some of the sexually immature one year olds, remain in Africa. The majority fly northwards through Africa, then turn east towards their destinations. The birds use low pressure fronts during their spring migrations to exploit the southwestern flow of warm air, and on the return trip, ride northeastern winds on the back of the low pressure fronts.  In Central Europe, the swifts return in the second half of April and the first third of May, and like to stay in lowlands and near water rather than in high places. In more northerly regions, the swifts arrive later. The weather along the journey has an enormous influence on the arrival date, so in one region the swifts may come back at varying times year to year.

Differences between swifts and swallows.

The barn swallow and house martin hunt for airborne insects in a manner similar to that of the slightly larger swift, and occasionally mixed groups of the species form. The most noticeable differences between the three types are:

Parasites.

Swift nests commonly support populations of the chewing louse "Dennyus hirundinis" and the lousefly "Crataerina pallida".

In heraldry.

The heraldic bird known as the "martlet", which is represented without feet, may have been based on the swift, but is generally assumed to refer to the house martin; it was used for the arms of younger sons, perhaps because it symbolized their landless wandering.

The common swift ("Apus apus") is a medium-sized bird, superficially similar to the barn swallow or house martin but somewhat larger, though not stemming from those passerine species, being in the order Apodiformes. The resemblances between the groups are due to convergent evolution, reflecting similar contextual development. The swifts' nearest relatives are the New World hummingbirds and the Southeast Asian treeswifts.

Rorýs obecný ("Apus apus") je malý stěhovavý pták z řádu svišťounů (Apodiformes), patřící k nejlepším letcům vůbec. S výjimkou hnízdního období se téměř stále zdržuje ve vzduchu.


Life and career.

Early life.

Flynt was born in Lakeville, Magoffin County, Kentucky, the first of three children to Larry Claxton Flynt Sr. (1919–2005), a sharecropper and a World War II veteran, Edith (née Arnett; 1925–1982), a homemaker. He had two younger siblings: sister Judy (1947–1951) and brother Jimmy Ray Flynt (born June 20, 1948). His father served in the United States Army in the European Theatre of World War II. Due to his father's absence, Flynt was raised solely by his mother and maternal grandmother for the first three years of his life. Flynt was raised in poverty, and claimed Magoffin County was the poorest county in the nation during the Great Depression. In 1951, Flynt's sister, Judy, died of leukemia at age four. The death provoked his parents' divorce one year later; Flynt was raised by his mother in Hamlet, Indiana, and his brother, Jimmy, was raised by his maternal grandmother in Magoffin County. Two years later, Flynt returned to live in Magoffin County with his father because he disliked his mother's new boyfriend.  Flynt attended Salyersville High School (now Magoffin County High School) in the ninth grade. However, he ran away from home and, despite being only 15 years old, joined the United States Army using a counterfeit birth certificate. It was around that time that he developed a passion for the game of poker. After being honorably discharged, Flynt returned to his mother in Indiana and found employment at the Inland Manufacturing Company, an affiliate of General Motors. However, there was a union-led slowdown and he was laid off after only three months. He then returned to his father in Kentucky. For a brief period, he became a bootlegger but stopped when he learned that county deputies were searching for him. After living on his savings for two months, he enlisted in the United States Navy in July 1960. He became a radar operator on. He was the operator on duty when the ship was assigned to recover John Glenn's space capsule. He was honorably discharged in July 1964.

First enterprises.

In early 1965, Flynt took $1,800 from his savings and bought his mother's bar in Dayton, Ohio, called the Keewee. He refitted it and was soon making $1,000 a week; he used the profits to buy two other bars. He worked as many as 20 hours a day, taking amphetamines to stay awake. He frequently had to break up fistfights between drunken customers.  Flynt decided to open a new, higher-class bar, which would also be the first in the area to feature nude hostess dancers; he named it the Hustler Club. From 1968 onward, with the help of his brother Jimmy and later his girlfriend Althea Leasure, he opened Hustler Clubs in Akron, Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati, and Toledo, Ohio. Soon each club grossed between $260,000 and $520,000 a year. He also acquired the Dayton franchise of a small newspaper called "Bachelor's Beat", which he published for two years before selling it. At the same time, he closed a money-losing vending-machine business.

"Hustler" magazine.

In January 1972, Flynt created the "Hustler Newsletter", a two-page, black-and-white publication about his clubs. This item became so popular with his customers that by May 1972, he expanded the "Hustler Newsletter" to 16 pages, then to 32 pages in August 1973. As a result of the 1973 oil crisis, the American economy entered recession. Revenues of Hustler Clubs declined, and Flynt had to refinance his debts or declare bankruptcy. He decided to turn the "Hustler Newsletter" into a sexually explicit magazine with national distribution. He paid the start-up costs of the new magazine by deferring payment of sales taxes his clubs owed on their activities.  In July 1974, the first issue of "Hustler" was published. Although the first few issues were largely unnoticed, within a year the magazine became highly lucrative and Flynt was able to pay his tax debts. Flynt's friend Al Goldstein said that "Hustler" took its inspiration from his own tabloid "SCREW", but credited him with accomplishing what he had not: creating a national publication. In November 1974, "Hustler" showed the first "pink-shots," or photos of open vulvas. Flynt had to fight to publish each issue, as many people, including some at his distribution company, found the magazine too explicit and threatened to remove it from the market. Shortly thereafter, Flynt was approached by a paparazzo who had taken pictures of former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis while she was sunbathing nude on vacation in 1971. He purchased them for $18,000 and published them in the August 1975 issue. That issue attracted widespread attention, and 1 million copies were sold within a few days. Now a millionaire, Flynt bought a $375,000 mansion.

Shooting.

On March 6, 1978, during a legal battle related to obscenity in Gwinnett County, Georgia, Flynt and his local lawyer, Gene Reeves Jr., were returning to the Gwinnett County Courthouse when they were shot on the sidewalk in front of 136 South Perry Street in Lawrenceville by a gunman standing near an alley across the street. The shooting left Flynt partially paralyzed with permanent spinal cord damage, and in need of a wheelchair. Flynt's injuries caused him constant, excruciating pain and he was addicted to painkillers until multiple surgeries deadened the affected nerves. He also suffered a stroke caused by one of several overdoses on his analgesic medication. He recovered but has had pronunciation difficulties since.  Joseph Paul Franklin, a white supremacist and serial killer, confessed to the shootings many years later, claiming he was outraged by an interracial photo shoot in "Hustler". Franklin was never brought to trial for the attempted killing of Flynt, who has made statements indicating he believes Franklin's story. Franklin was eventually charged in Missouri with eight unrelated counts of murder and sentenced to death. A month before Franklin's execution, in October 2013, Flynt expressed his opposition to the death penalty and stated he did not want Franklin to be executed. Franklin was executed by lethal injection on November 20, 2013.

Personal life.

Flynt has been married five times. He married his fourth wife, Althea, in 1976 and they remained married until her death in 1987. He married his current wife, Elizabeth Berrios, in 1998. He has four daughters and a son.  He claimed to be an evangelical Christian for one year, "converted" in 1977 by evangelist Ruth Carter Stapleton, the sister of President Jimmy Carter. He said he became "born again" and that he had a vision from God while flying with Stapleton in his jet. He continued to publish his magazine, however, vowing to "hustle for God." He has since declared himself an atheist.  Flynt disowned his eldest daughter, Tonya Flynt-Vega, after she became a Christian anti-pornography activist. In her 1998 book "Hustled", she claims that Flynt sexually abused her as a child, often calling her names. Flynt has denied the charges, claiming to have passed a polygraph test and to be in possession of a tape recording of his daughter admitting she made up the accusations for money.  In 1994, Flynt bought a Gulfstream II private jet, which was used in the movie "The People vs. Larry Flynt". In 2005, he replaced it with a Gulfstream IV. He currently resides in the Hollywood Hills. He also still owns property near Lakeville in Magoffin County, Kentucky.  Flynt has mentioned that he has bipolar disorder.  His daughter Lisa Flynt-Fugate died in a car crash in Ohio in October 2014 at the age of 47.

Flynt's enterprises.

By 1970, he ran eight strip clubs throughout Ohio in Cincinnati, Toledo, Akron and Cleveland.  In July 1974, Flynt first published "Hustler" as a step forward from the "Hustler Newsletter", which was advertising for his businesses. The magazine struggled for the first year, partly because many distributors and wholesalers refused to handle it as its nude photos became increasingly graphic. It targeted working-class men and grew from a shaky start to a peak circulation of around three million. The publication of nude paparazzi pictures of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis in August 1975 was a major coup. "Hustler" has often featured more explicit photographs than comparable magazines and has contained depictions of women that some find demeaning, such as a naked woman in a meat grinder or presented as a dog on a leash – though Flynt later said that the meat grinder image was a criticism of the pornography industry itself.  Flynt created his privately held company Larry Flynt Publications (LFP) in 1976. LFP published several other magazines and also controlled distribution. LFP launched "Ohio Magazine" in 1977, and later its output included other mainstream work. LFP sold the distribution business, as well as several mainstream magazines, beginning in 1996. LFP started to produce pornographic movies in 1998, through the Hustler Video film studio, that bought VCA Pictures in 2003. In 2014, Flynt said his print portfolio made up only 10% of his company's revenue, and predicted the demise of "Hustler" due to competition from the Internet.  On June 22, 2000, Flynt opened the Hustler Casino, a card room located in the Los Angeles suburb of Gardena. After it opened, many observers in the gaming industry speculated that, because of his past legal troubles, Flynt might not be able to get a license to operate a card room. However, the California Gambling Control Commission has confirmed that Flynt is the sole proprietor and gaming licensee of the Hustler Casino.  Other ventures either wholly owned by or licensed by Flynt or LFP, Inc. include the Hustler Clubs and the Hustler Hollywood Store. LFP also publishes "Barely Legal", a pornographic magazine featuring young women who have recently turned 18, the minimum age for a pornographic or erotic model.

Legal battles.

Flynt has been embroiled in many legal battles regarding the regulation of pornography and free speech within the United States, especially attacking the "Miller v. California" (1973) obscenity exception to the First Amendment. He was first prosecuted on obscenity and organized crime charges in Cincinnati in 1976 by Simon Leis, who headed a local anti-pornography committee. He was given a sentence of 7 to 25 years in prison, but served only six days in jail; the sentence was overturned on appeal following allegations of prosecutorial misconduct, as well as judicial and jury bias. One argument resulting from this case was reviewed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1981. Flynt made an appearance in a feature film based on the trial, "The People vs. Larry Flynt", playing the judge who sentenced him in that case.  Outraged by a derogatory cartoon published in "Hustler" in 1976, Kathy Keeton, then girlfriend of "Penthouse" publisher Bob Guccione, filed a libel suit against Flynt in Ohio. Her lawsuit was dismissed because she had missed the deadline under the statute of limitations. She then filed a new lawsuit in New Hampshire, where Hustler's sales were very small. The question of whether she could sue there reached the U.S. Supreme Court in 1983, with Flynt losing the case. This case is occasionally reviewed today in first-year law school Civil Procedure courses, due to its implications regarding personal jurisdiction over a defendant.  During the proceedings in "Keeton v. Hustler Magazine", Flynt reportedly shouted "Fuck this court!" and called the justices "nothing but eight assholes and a token cunt" (referring to Justice Sandra Day O'Connor). Chief Justice Warren E. Burger had him arrested for contempt of court, but the charge was later dismissed.  Also in 1983, he leaked an FBI surveillance tape to the media regarding John DeLorean. In the videos, when arresting DeLorean, the FBI is shown asking him whether he would rather defend himself or have "his daughter's head smashed in". During the subsequent trial, Flynt wore an American flag as a diaper and was jailed for six months for desecration of the flag.  In 1988, Flynt won a Supreme Court decision, "Hustler Magazine v. Falwell", after being sued by Reverend Jerry Falwell in 1983, over an offensive ad parody in "Hustler" that suggested that Falwell's first sexual encounter was with his mother in an out-house. Falwell sued Flynt, citing emotional distress caused by the ad. The decision clarified that public figures cannot recover damages for "intentional infliction of emotional distress" based on parodies. After Falwell's death, Flynt said despite their differences, he and Falwell had become friends over the years, adding, "I always appreciated his sincerity even though I knew what he was selling and he knew what I was selling."  As a result of a sting operation in April 1998, Flynt was charged with a number of obscenity-related offenses concerning the sale of sex videos to a youth in a Cincinnati adult store he owned. In a plea agreement in 1999, LFP, Inc. (Flynt's corporate holdings group) pleaded guilty to two counts of pandering obscenity and agreed to stop selling adult videos in Cincinnati.  In June 2003, prosecutors in Hamilton County, Ohio, attempted to revive criminal charges of pandering obscene material against Flynt and his brother Jimmy Flynt, charging that they had violated the 1999 agreement. Flynt claimed that he no longer had an interest in the Hustler Shops and that prosecutors had no basis for the lawsuit.  In January 2009, Flynt filed suit against two nephews, Jimmy Flynt II and Dustin Flynt, for the use of his family name in producing pornography. He regarded their pornography to be inferior. He prevailed on the main trademark infringement issue, but lost on invasion of privacy claims.

Politics.

Flynt was a Democrat when Bill Clinton was president. In 2013, he said he was "a civil libertarian to the core", though he once attempted a presidential run as a Republican. He is a staunch critic of the Warren Commission and offered $1 million for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the assassin of John F. Kennedy. In 2003, Flynt was a candidate in the recall election of California governor Gray Davis, calling himself a "smut peddler who cares". He finished 7th in a field of 135 candidates with 17,458 votes (0.2%).  Flynt has repeatedly weighed in on public debates by trying to expose conservative or Republican politicians with sexual scandals. He did so during the impeachment proceedings against President Clinton in 1998, offering $1 million for evidence and publishing the results in "The Flynt Report". These publications led to the resignation of incoming House Speaker Bob Livingston. In 2007, Flynt repeated his $1 million offer and also wrote the foreword to Joseph Minton Amann and Tom Breuer's "The Brotherhood of Disappearing Pants: A Field Guide to Conservative Sex Scandals", which contained some cases published by Flynt.  In 2003, Flynt purchased nude photographs of Private Jessica Lynch, who was captured by Iraqi forces, rescued from an Iraqi hospital by US troops and celebrated as a hero by the media. He said he would never show any of the photographs, calling Lynch a "good kid" who became "a pawn for the government". Flynt has supported activist groups opposed to the war in Iraq in 2004 and 2005, and is also a strong supporter of LGBT rights and same-sex marriage.  On September 7, 2012, Flynt offered a $1 million reward for information on Mitt Romney's unreleased tax returns. On September 10, 2012, two full-page ads appeared in "USA Today" and "The Washington Post" to promote the offer.  On April 30, 2013, Flynt endorsed Mark Sanford in the 2013 special election for South Carolina's 1st congressional district, saying "His open embrace of his mistress in the name of love, breaking his sacred marriage vows, was an act of bravery that has drawn my support."  In May 2015, Flynt endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election. In an interview with "Marfa Journal" later that year, he described his political views as "progressively liberal".  In October 2017, Flynt offered a $10 million reward for any evidence that would lead to the impeachment of President Donald Trump. A 2019 Christmas card from Larry Flynt Publications, sent to several Republican congressmen, depicted Trump's assassination.

Works about Flynt.

In 1996, Flynt published his autobiography, "An Unseemly Man: My Life as a Pornographer, Pundit, and Social Outcast" ().  A film, "The People vs. Larry Flynt" (1996), was based on his life which features Woody Harrelson in the title role. Flynt himself made a cameo appearance as an Ohio judge and also a jury member in the court scene of the Jerry Falwell case. The film was directed by Miloš Forman and co-produced by Oliver Stone. Harrelson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance as Flynt.  Laura Kipnis's analysis of "Hustler" magazine in "(Male) Desire and (Female) Disgust: Reading "Hustler"" was reprinted in Kipnis's "" (Duke, 1999).  A documentary, available on DVD, "Larry Flynt: The Right to Be Left Alone", directed by Joan Brooker-Marks was released in 2008.  Larry Flynt was invited to participate on the music video "Afraid" with the American rock band Mötley Crüe, aired on June 9, 1997.  "One Nation Under Sex", which documents the colorful sex lives of the most powerful leaders of the U.S., was co-written by Larry Flynt and Columbia University history professor David Eisenbach and published in 2011. ().  The documentary "" features an interview with Larry Flynt conducted by director Nicholas Tana, in which Flynt discusses his personal views on masturbation.

William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke (1146 or 114714 May 1219), also called William the Marshal (Norman French: ', French: '), was an Anglo-Norman soldier and statesman. He served five English kings – Henry II, his sons the "Young King" Henry, Richard I, John, and John's son Henry III.

Vilém Maréchal (francouzsky "Guillaume le Maréchal", anglicky "William Marshal", 1145 – 14. května 1219) byl rytíř normanského původu, učitel a vychovatel dvou anglických králů – Jindřicha Mladíka a Jindřicha III. V letech 1216 – 1219 byl poručníkem a regentem nezletilého krále Jindřicha III. a rovněž vítězem bitvy u Lincolnu, po níž byla navždy vyhnána francouzská vojska z Anglie. Patřil mezi nejslavnější rytíře své doby, věrně sloužil pěti anglickým králům a byl uznávaným a respektovaným účastníkem rytířských turnajů.


History.

Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek was the driving spirit behind the establishment of the Israel Museum, one of the leading art and archaeology museums in the world. The Museum houses works dating from prehistory to the present day in its Archaeology, Fine Arts, and Jewish Art and Life Wings, and features extensive holdings of biblical and Land of Israel archaeology. Since its establishment in 1965, the Museum has built up a collection of nearly 500,000 objects, representing a broad sample of world material culture.  On October 25, 2017, Prof. Ido Bruno was appointed Director of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem as the Anne and Jerome Fisher Director. Bruno served as a professor in the Industrial Design Department of the Bezalel Academy of Arts & Design, Jerusalem. He brings to the position decades of experience as a curator and designer of exhibitions presented in Israel and across the world with a focus on art, archeology, science, and history. He was unanimously elected by the Museum's Board of Directors, chaired by Isaac Molho, following an extensive search and review process of candidates from Israel and abroad. Bruno assumed his position at the Museum in November 2017.  James S. Snyder, former Deputy Director of the Museum of Modern Art in New York, was appointed director of the museum in 1997.  From 1965, the museum was housed in a series of masonry buildings designed by the Russian-born Israeli architect Alfred Mansfeld. A $100-million campaign to renovate the museum and double its gallery space was completed by Israeli architects Efrat-Kowalsky Architects who renovated the existing buildings in July 2010. The wings for archaeology, the fine arts, and Jewish art and life were completely rebuilt and the original buildings were linked through a new entrance pavilion. The passageways that connect between the buildings and five new pavilions were designed by James Carpenter.  The museum covers nearly 50,000 sq. meters and attracts 800,000 visitors a year, including 100,000 children who visit and attend classes in its Youth Wing.

Archaeology Wing.

The Samuel and Saidye Bronfman Archaeology Wing tells the story of the ancient Land of Israel, home to peoples of different cultures and faiths, using unique examples from the Museum's collection of Holy Land archaeology, the foremost holding in the world. Organized chronologically, from prehistory through the Ottoman Empire, the transformed wing presents seven “chapters” of this archaeological narrative, weaving together momentous historical events, cultural achievements, and technological advances, while providing a glimpse into the everyday lives of the peoples of the region. This narrative is supplemented by thematic groupings highlighting aspects of ancient Israeli archaeology that are unique to the region's history, among them Hebrew writing, glass, and coins. Treasures from neighboring cultures that have had a decisive impact on the Land of Israel – such as Egypt, the Near East, Greece and Italy, and the Islamic world – are on view in adjacent and connecting galleries. A special gallery at the entrance to the wing showcases new findings and other temporary exhibition displays.  Highlights on view include: Pilate Stone, "House of David” inscription (9th century BCE), A comparative display of two shrines (8th–7th century BCE), The Heliodorus Stele (178 BCE), Royal Herodian bathhouse (1st century BCE), Hadrian’s Triumph: Inscription from a triumphal arch (136 CE), the Mosaic of Rehob (3rd century CE) and Gold-glass bases from the Roman Catacombs (4th century CE), the Ossuary of Jesus son of Joseph.

Shrine of the Book.

The Shrine of the Book houses the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest biblical manuscripts in the world, as well as rare early medieval biblical manuscripts. The scrolls were discovered in 1947–56 in 11 caves in and around the Wadi Qumran. An elaborate planning process of seven years led to the building's eventual construction in 1965 which was funded by the family of David Samuel Gottesman, a Hungarian émigré, the philanthropist who had purchased the scrolls as a gift to the State of Israel.  The building consists of a white dome over a building located two-thirds below the ground. The dome is reflected in a pool of water that surrounds it. Across from the white dome is a black basalt wall. The colors and shapes of the building are based on the imagery of the Scroll of the "War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness", whereas the white dome symbolizes the Sons of Light and the black wall symbolizes the Sons of Darkness. The interior of the shrine was designed to depict the environment in which the scrolls were found. There is also a permanent display on life in the Qumran, where the scrolls were written. The entire structure was designed to resemble a pot in which the scrolls were found. The shrine was designed by Armand Bartos and Frederick Kiesler, and was opened in 1965.  As the fragility of the scrolls makes it impossible to display all on a continuous basis, a system of rotation is used. After a scroll has been exhibited for 3–6 months, it is removed from its showcase and placed temporarily in a special storeroom, where it "rests" from exposure. The museum also holds other rare ancient manuscripts and displays the Aleppo Codex, which is from the 10th-century and is believed to be the oldest Bible codex in Hebrew.

Second Temple model.

Adjacent to the Shrine is the Model of Jerusalem in the Second Temple Period, which reconstructs the topography and architectural character of the city as it was prior to its destruction by the Romans in 66 CE, and provides historical context to the Shrine's presentation of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Originally constructed on the grounds of Jerusalem's Holyland Hotel, the model, which includes a replica of Herod's Temple, is now a permanent feature of the museum's campus.

Fine Arts Wing.

The Edmond and Lily Safra Fine Arts Wing reflects the wide-ranging, interdisciplinary nature of the Museum's collections, encompassing works of art from across the ages in Western and non-Western cultures. The wing has been reorganized to highlight connections among works from its diverse curatorial collections, which include: European Art; Modern Art; Contemporary Art; Israeli Art; the Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas; Asian Art; Photography; Design and Architecture; and Prints and Drawings. Installations are organized to underscore visual affinities and shared themes and to inspire new insight into the arts of different times and places, as well as an appreciation of the common threads of human culture. The reconfigured wing includes the Museum's first permanent galleries for Israeli art; more than doubled gallery space for the Museum's extensive collections in modern art; providing meaningful connecting points between Western and non-Western holdings; and a full 2,200-square-meter (7,200-square-foot) gallery floor devoted to changing displays from the Museum's collection of contemporary art.  Highlights newly on view include: The Noel and Harriette Levine Photography Collection, The Jacques Lipchitz Collection, Gustave Courbet, Jura Landscape with Shepherd and Donkey (ca. 1866), Alberto Giacometti, Alfred Barye, Diego in the Studio (1952), Ohad Meromi, The Boy from South Tel Aviv (2001).

European, Modern, and Israeli art.

The Israel Museum holds a large collection of paintings representing a wide range of periods, styles, subjects, and regions of origin. Painters in the collection include such international figures as Rembrandt and Camille Pissarro as well as such Israeli and Jewish artists as Marc Chagall, Abel Pann, and Reuven Rubin.  The Israel Museum's commitment to Israeli art is central to the Museum's mission. As Israel's national museum, it plays a major role in preserving Israel's artistic heritage by collecting works by Israeli artists - in Israel and abroad - and by encouraging Israel's artists to develop in their careers. The Museum's Israeli Art collection spans the late 19th century through today, and it reflects the evolution of Israel's cultural history in the visual arts. The Information Center for Israeli Art provides scholars and the public with comprehensive archival information on several thousand Israeli artists, including biographical notes, press materials, videos, photographs, and other forms of documentation.

Mandel Wing for Jewish Art and Life.

The holdings of the "Jack, Joseph, and Morton Mandel Wing for Jewish Art and Life" represent the religious and secular material culture of Jewish communities worldwide, spanning centuries from the Middle Ages to the present day. The collection reflects the depth and beauty of Jewish heritage and creativity as well as the aesthetic and stylistic influences of other cultures in places where Jews lived.  The origins of the collection can be traced to the early twentieth century with the establishment of the Bezalel National Museum under the directorship of Mordechai Narkiss, who expanded significantly the collection of ritual art objects through important treasures rescued between the two world wars and after the Holocaust. Later on, this treasure was integrated in the newly established Israel Museum in 1965 into the departments of Jewish Art and of Jewish Ethnography. In 1995 they were united into a new independent wing. Over the years the Wing's holdings have been strengthened through gifts and acquisitions of individual objects; gift of private collections; and fieldwork within communities in Israel and abroad. The Wing's prominent collections are the Stieglitz Collection and the Feuchtwanger Collection for Jewish ritual objects, Torah scroll ornaments, and life cycle objects, as well as the Schulmann Collection and Rathjens Collection for North African and Yemenite material culture, dress, jewelry and ritual objects.  The wing's collection contains many unique treasures, among them, are rare manuscripts, four reconstructed synagogue interiors, a wide variety of ceremonial and ritual objects, as well as diverse material culture including dress, jewelry, and everyday artifacts. In the new permanent display, important objects drawn from this extensive collection from the public and the private realm, are integrated into a multifaceted narrative. This comparative display explores the objects’ history and the social context in which they were used while underscoring their aesthetic qualities and emotional resonance. It reflects a vivid cultural tapestry weaving together the individual and the communal, the sacred and the mundane, the heritage of the past and the creative innovations of the present.  Five principal themes unfold as you walk through the galleries:

Isidore and Anne Falk Information Center for Jewish Art and Life.

The Information Center has a research library and a unique archival collection, constantly growing, of some twenty thousand photographs. Many of them are extremely rare, documenting the daily life of Jewish communities around the world, some no longer exist, including images of synagogues, cemeteries, ceremonial objects and many other subjects.  The information center offers access to resources of the collections as well as virtual tours in former exhibitions in order to broaden and deepen knowledge behind the objects in the Wing's collections.

Art Garden.

The Billy Rose Art Garden is a 20-dunam garden featuring modern and abstract sculptures. The Art Garden, designed for the original campus by Japanese-American sculptor Isamu Noguchi, is counted among the finest outdoor sculpture settings of the 20th century. An Oriental landscape combined with an ancient Jerusalem hillside, the garden serves as the backdrop for the Israel Museum's display of the evolution of the modern western sculptural tradition. On view are works by modern masters including Jacques Lipchitz, Henry Moore, Claes Oldenburg, Pablo Picasso, Auguste Rodin, and David Smith, together with more recent site-specific commissions by such artists as Magdalena Abakanowicz, Mark Dion, James Turrell, and Micha Ullman.

Youth Wing.

The Ruth Youth Wing for Art Education was opened in 1966. It is unique in its size and scope of activities, presents a wide range of programming to more than 100,000 schoolchildren each year, and features exhibition galleries, art studios, classrooms, a library of illustrated children's books, and a recycling room. Special programs foster intercultural understanding between Arab and Jewish students and reach out to the wide spectrum of Israel's communities. The wing combines annual original artworks of Israeli and international artists, with educational activities. There are also a variety of workshops for children and adults.

Rockefeller Archaeological Museum and the Ticho House.

In addition to the extensive programming offered on its main campus, the Israel Museum also operates two off-site locations: the Rockefeller Archaeological Museum that opened in 1938 for the display of artifacts unearthed mainly in the excavations conducted in Mandatory Palestine, in the 1920s and 1930s; and Ticho House, which offers an ongoing program of exhibitions by younger Israeli artists in a historic house and garden setting.

Management.

Funding.

The Israel Museum receives only 10% to 12% of its operating budget from state and municipal sources. The Israeli government provides varying amounts of funds each year. The institution must raise 88% of its yearly operating budget, all of its $200 million endowment and $100 million for its recent capital project, while paying 17.5% VAT as well as real-estate taxes on the campus property.  The most active of the international support groups of the museum, the American Friends of the Israel Museum raised $270 million in cash, of which $47 million is in endowment funds, and donated $210 million in the art from 1972 to 2008. In 2009, the Israel Museum received $12 million from the Edmond J. Safra Philanthropic Foundation, towards the renovation, reinstallation, and endowment of its fine arts wing, which will be renamed after Edmond and Lily Safra.

Attendance.

As of 2012, attendance is about 827,000 per year.

Prizes awarded by the Museum.

Among the prizes awarded by the museum is the "Jesselson Prize for Contemporary Judaica Design," which recognizes outstanding design of Jewish ritual objects. Winners include Moshe Zabari (1990).

The Israel Museum (, "Muze'on Yisrael") was established in 1965 as Israel's foremost cultural institution and one of the world’s leading encyclopedic museums. It is situated on a hill in the Givat Ram neighborhood of Jerusalem, adjacent to the Bible Lands Museum, the Knesset, the Israeli Supreme Court, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Izraelské muzeum, Jeruzalém (: מוזיאון ישראל, ירושלים, "Muze'on Jisra'el, Jerušalajim"; : "Israel Museum, Jerusalem") je izraelské národní muzeum, založené roku 1965. Nachází se na pahorku v jeruzalémské čtvrti Giv'at Ram, v sousedství vládního komplexu s Knesetem, Nejvyšším soudem a Hebrejské univerzity. <mapframe text="Izraelské muzeum: V: vstup • S: Svatyně knihy • M: model Jeruzaléma z doby druhého chrámu • A: oddělení archeologie • U: oddělení umění • J: judaika • E: nestálé expozice " latitude=31.7723 longitude=35.203 width=440 height=480 zoom=17 align=center> </mapframe>


Early life.

Augustin Pyramus de Candolle was born on 4 February 1778 in Geneva, Switzerland, to Augustin de Candolle, a former official, and his wife, Louise Eléonore Brière. His family descended from one of the ancient families of Provence in France, but relocated to Geneva at the end of the 16th century to escape religious persecution.  At age seven de Candolle contracted of a severe case of hydrocephalus, which significantly affected his childhood. Nevertheless, he is said to have had great aptitude for learning, distinguishing himself in school with his rapid acquisition of knowledge in classical and general literature and his ability to write fine poetry. In 1794, he began his scientific studies at the Collège de Genève, where he studied under Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher, who later inspired de Candolle to make botanical science the chief pursuit of his life.

Career in botany.

He spent four years at the Geneva Academy, studying science and law according to his father's wishes. In 1798, he moved to Paris after Geneva had been annexed to the French Republic. His botanical career formally began with the help of René Louiche Desfontaines, who recommended de Candolle for work in the herbarium of Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle during the summer of 1798. The position elevated de Candolle's reputation and also led to valuable instruction from Desfontaines himself. de Candolle established his first genus, "Senebiera", in 1799.  De Candolle's first books, "Plantarum historia succulentarum" (4 vols., 1799) and "Astragalogia" (1802), brought him to the notice of Georges Cuvier and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. de Candolle, with Cuvier's approval, acted as deputy at the Collège de France in 1802. Lamarck entrusted him with the publication of the third edition of the "Flore française" (1805–1815), and in the introduction entitled "Principes élémentaires de botanique", de Candolle proposed a natural method of plant classification as opposed to the artificial Linnaean method. The premise of de Candolle's method is that taxa do not fall along a linear scale; they are discrete, not continuous. Lamarck had originally published this work in 1778, with a second edition in 1795. The third edition, which bears the name of both Lamarck and de Candolle, was in reality the work of the latter, the former having only lent his name and access to his collection.  In 1804, de Candolle published his "Essai sur les propriétés médicales des plantes" and was granted a doctor of medicine degree by the medical faculty of Paris. Two years later, he published "Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum". de Candolle then spent the next six summers making a botanical and agricultural survey of France at the request of the French government, which was published in 1813. In 1807 he was appointed professor of botany in the medical faculty of the University of Montpellier, where he would later become the first chair of botany in 1810. His teaching at the University of Montpellier consisted of field classes attended by 200–300 students, starting at 5:00 am and finishing at 7:00 pm. While in Montpellier, de Candolle published his "Théorie élémentaire de la botanique" (Elementary Theory of Botany, 1813), which introduced a new classification system and the word "taxonomy". Candolle moved back to Geneva in 1816 and in the following year was invited by the government of the Canton of Geneva to fill the newly created chair of natural history. De Candolle spent the rest of his life in an attempt to elaborate and complete his natural system of botanical classification. de Candolle published initial work in his "Regni vegetabillis systema naturale", but after two volumes he realized he could not complete the project on such a large scale. Consequently, he began his less extensive "Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis" in 1824. However, he was able to finish only seven volumes, or two-thirds of the whole. Even so, he was able to characterize over one hundred families of plants, helping to lay the empirical basis of general botany. Although de Candolle's main focus was botany, throughout his career he also dabbled in fields related to botany, such as phytogeography, agronomy, paleontology, medical botany, and economic botany.  In 1827 he was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.

Later life.

Augustin de Candolle was the first of four generations of botanists in the de Candolle dynasty. His son, Alphonse de Candolle, whom he fathered with his wife, Mademoiselle Torras, eventually succeeded to his father's chair in botany and continued the "Prodromus". Casimir Pyrame de Candolle, Augustin de Candolle's grandson, also contributed to the "Prodromus" through his detailed, extensive research and characterization of the plant family Piperaceae. Augustin de Candolle's great-grandson, Richard Émile Augustin de Candolle, was also a botanist. Augustin de Candolle died on 9 September 1841 in Geneva, after being sick for many years.  In 2017, a book was written in French about his life and one of his greatest contributions, the Botanical Garden of Geneva.

Legacy.

He is remembered in the plant genera "Candollea" and "Candolleodendron", several plant species like "Eugenia candolleana" or "Diospyros candolleana" and the mushroom "Psathyrella candolleana". "Candollea", a scientific journal that publishes papers on systematic botany and phylotaxonomy, was named after de Candolle and his descendants in honor of their contribution to the field of botany. He was a mentor to the French-Mexican botanist Jean-Louis Berlandier and is credited with encouraging Marie-Anne Libert to investigate cryptogamic flora.

Classification system.

de Candolle was the first to put forward the idea of "Nature's war", writing of plants being "at war one with another" with the meaning of different species fighting each other for space and resources. Charles Darwin studied de Candolle's "natural system" of classification in 1826 when at the University of Edinburgh, and in the inception of Darwin's theory in 1838 he considered "the warring of the species", adding that it was even more strongly conveyed by Thomas Malthus, producing the pressures that Darwin later called natural selection. In 1839 de Candolle visited Britain and Darwin invited him to dinner, allowing the two scientists the opportunity to discuss the idea.  De Candolle was also among the first to recognize the difference between the morphological and physiological characteristics of organs. He ascribed plant morphology as being related to the number of organs and their positions relative to each other rather than to their various physiological properties. Consequently, this made him the first to attempt to attribute specific reasons for structural and numerical relationships amongst organs, and thus to distinguish between major and minor aspects of plant symmetry. To account for modifications of symmetry in parts of different plants, an occurrence that could hinder the discovery of an evolutionary relationship, de Candolle introduced the concept of homology.

Chronobiology.

De Candolle also made contributions to the field of chronobiology. Building upon earlier work on plant circadian leaf movements contributed by such scientists as Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan and Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau, de Candolle observed in 1832 that the plant "Mimosa pudica" had a free-running period of leaf opening and closing of approximately 22–23 hours in constant light, significantly less than the approximate 24-hour period of the Earth's light-dark cycles. Since the period was shorter than 24 hours, he hypothesized that a different clock had to be responsible for the rhythm; the shortened period was not entrained—coordinated—by environmental cues, thus the clock appeared to be endogenous. Despite these findings, a number of scientists continued to search for "factor X", an unknown exogenous factor associated with the earth's rotation that was driving circadian oscillations in the absence of a light dark schedule, until the mid-twentieth century. In the mid-1920s, Erwin Bunning repeated Candolle's findings and came to similar conclusions, and studies that showed the persistence of circadian rhythm in the South Pole and in a space lab further confirmed the existence of oscillations in the absence of environmental cues.

Augustin Pyramus (or Pyrame) de Candolle (,, ; 4 February 17789 September 1841) was a Swiss botanist. René Louiche Desfontaines launched de Candolle's botanical career by recommending him at an herbarium. Within a couple of years de Candolle had established a new genus, and he went on to document hundreds of plant families and create a new natural plant classification system. Although de Candolle's main focus was botany, he also contributed to related fields such as phytogeography, agronomy, paleontology, medical botany, and economic botany.

Augustin Pyramus de Candolle nebo Augustin Pyrame de Candolle (latinizováno jako Augustus-Pyramus Decandolle či Augustinus Pyramus Candolleus; 4. února 1778 Ženeva – 9. září 1841 Ženeva), byl švýcarský botanik. Svými myšlenkami silně ovlivnil i Charlese Darwina.


Strange New World (Star Trek: Enterprise)

Plot.

"Enterprise" passes a previously unknown Minshara-class planet with an Earth-like atmosphere and surface. Captain Archer orders a shuttle to be prepared for an away mission. After an afternoon studying the planet, Sub-Commander T'Pol, Commander Tucker, and Ensign Mayweather request further time on the planet, and do so with Archer's approval. Crewmen Cutler and Novakovich are also allowed to remain on the surface to study nocturnal life. The Captain and Lieutenant Reed then return to "Enterprise".  Later that evening, a violent storm front approaches so Tucker suggests that the landing party use the cave that T'Pol discovered earlier for shelter. Once there, Mayweather goes back to the original camp-site to recover food, and notices three humanoid life-forms wandering around, but T'Pol's scans reveal no unusual bio-signs. In the confines of the cave, Crewmen Cutler and Novakovich begin seeing and hearing humanoids too. Tucker also reports to Archer about seeing a mysterious alien life form too. Searching for these other lifeforms, T'Pol takes a phase pistol and walks deeper into the cave. In her absence however, the landing party then become increasingly suspicious of her behavior, thinking that she is withholding information about the aliens from them.  Concerned, Archer and Reed attempt to reach the landing party in a shuttlepod, but cannot do so until the wind dies down. Novakavich is emergency beamed up due to his erratic behavior and bio-sign, and Doctor Phlox finds he has been exposed to tropolisine, a hallucinogenic compound found in pollen. Phlox also discovers he is near-death, poisoned by an unexpected side-effect of the chemical. On the planet, Tucker is increasingly suffering from hallucinations. T'Pol reports to Archer that he is irrational and that Mayweather and Cutler are nearly unconscious. Reed beams an antidote down to the cave, and despite Tucker's interference, T'Pol is able to administer it. The next morning, the storm blows over, and everyone is fine.

Production.

"Strange New World" marked the first occasion in which Anthony Montgomery participated in stunt work, finding that his previous work in the television series "Awesome Adventures" proved beneficial. He explained in an interview shortly after that he wanted to participate in as many stunt activities as the producers would let him.

Reception.

"Strange New World" was noted by USA Today as an interesting episode of the franchise, pointing out the tension between humans and vulcan aliens in the Pre-Federation setting of this show. They note the fresh take on the "Star Trek" universe is a "whole lot of fun" highlighting the tension between first time space-explorer Captain Archer and Vulcan T'Pol.

"Strange New World" is the fourth episode (production #104) of the television series "" and was written by Brannon Braga and Rick Berman. David Livingston served as director for the episode.

Tajemný nový svět (v originále Strange New World) je epizoda seriálu "". Jde o čtvrtý díl první řady pátého seriálu ze světa Star Treku.


Design and development.

The Skyray was designed to meet a Navy requirement issued in 1947 for a fighter aircraft that could intercept and destroy an enemy aircraft at an altitude of 50,000 ft (15,240 m) within five minutes of the alarm being sounded. The Navy also wanted an aircraft that followed the designs and research of the German aerodynamicist Alexander Lippisch, who moved to the U.S. after World War II.  The F4D Skyray was a wide delta wing design with long, sharply swept, rounded wings. The design was named for its resemblance to the manta ray. The thick wing roots contained the air intakes feeding a single turbojet engine. Fuel was contained both in the wings and the deep fuselage. Leading edge slats were fitted for increased lift during takeoff and landing, while the trailing edges were mostly elevon control surfaces. Additional pitch trimmers were fitted inboard near the jet exhaust, and were locked upwards on takeoff and landing.  The Westinghouse J40 turbojet was the intended powerplant, but Douglas took a conservative view and designed in contingency options for other power plants. The J40 proved troublesome and was eventually cancelled, and the Skyray was fitted instead with the Pratt & Whitney J57, a more powerful but larger engine.  Production aircraft were not delivered until early 1956, while the United States Marine Corps received their first in 1957. In total, 419 F4D-1 (later designated F-6 in the unified designation system) aircraft were produced.  Its unique design also played a part in making the Skyray one of the best-known early jet fighters. It was affectionately known as the "Ford" (after the "Four" and "D" of its designation). In 1953, Edward H. Heinemann was awarded the Collier Trophy in recognition of his design work on the F4D.

Operational history.

In April 1956, VC-3 was the first squadron operational with the F4D-1. This unit was later redesignated VFAW-3 and assigned to NORAD, as the only United States Navy fighter squadron in what was predominantly a United States Air Force and Royal Canadian Air Force organization. VFAW-3 was permanently based at NAS North Island in San Diego.  The U.S. Marine Corps also flew the Skyray. When the Department of Defense adopted a uniform aircraft designation system patterned on the U.S. Air Force aircraft designation system in September 1962, the F4D was redesignated as the F-6A Skyray. In addition to multiple Navy and Marine Corps squadrons, Naval Air Reserve and Marine Air Reserve squadrons VF-881, VF-882 and VMF-215 also flew the Skyray. The last operational squadron was VMF(AW)-115, which flew the Skyray until February 1964.  The Skyray was designed exclusively for the high-altitude interception role, with a high rate and angle of climb. It set a new time-to-altitude record, flying from a standing start to in 2 minutes and 36 seconds, all while flying at a 70° pitch angle. As a dedicated interceptor, the F4D was unsuited to the multi-mission capabilities soon in demand, so it had a short career in Navy and Marine Corps service, the last aircraft being withdrawn from service in 1964. Four aircraft were used by NACA (soon to be NASA) until 1969.  Under the new 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system, the F4D-1 was redesignated the F-6A. The F4D (old designation) should not be confused with the F-4D (new designation) – the latter being the "D" variant of the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II operated by the U.S. Air Force.

F5D Skylancer.

The F5D Skylancer was derived from the F4D and intended to be a Mach 2 capable successor to the Skyray. Although four prototypes were built and flown, the project was cancelled as being too similar in mission parameters to the F8U Crusader and also to reduce dependence upon Douglas Aircraft, which was also producing several other aircraft for the U.S. Navy.

The Douglas F4D Skyray (later redesignated F-6 Skyray) is an American carrier-based fighter/interceptor built by the Douglas Aircraft Company. Although it was in service for a relatively short time (1956–1964) and never entered combat, it was the first carrier-launched aircraft to hold the world's absolute speed record, at 752.943 mph, and was the first United States Navy and United States Marine Corps fighter that could exceed Mach 1 in level flight. It was the last fighter produced by the Douglas Aircraft Company before it merged with McDonnell Aircraft and became McDonnell Douglas. The F5D Skylancer was an advanced development of the F4D Skyray that did not go into service.

Douglas F4D Skyray (F-6 Skyray) byl proudový palubní stíhací letoun postavený výrobcem Douglas Aircraft pro americké námořnictvo na počátku studené války. Přestože byl operačně používán jen krátkou dobu a nikdy nebyl použit ve skutečném boji, byl vůbec prvním palubním letounem, který se stal držitelem absolutního světového rychlostního rekordu. Byl také prvním palubním letounem amerického námořnictva, který byl schopný dosáhnout nadzvukové rychlosti ve vodorovném letu.


History.

Non-heraldic designs.

The political thinker and revolutionary Rigas Feraios was the first to propose a national emblem for Greece, including a hand-drawing rendition of it in his hand-written "New Political Constitution" of 1797. Rigas' proposal was composed of a club of Heracles, with the words superimposed on it, and three crosses topping it. In his "Map of Greece" of 17961797, Rigas explains that the club stands for the power of Greece, but its use was not limited to ethnic Greeks and could also be used by any of the other Balkan peoples he envisaged would make up his multi-ethnic "Hellenic Republic". In his selection of this device, however, he was directly influenced by the Jacobin radicalism of the French Revolution, which utilised the device of the club of Heracles as a symbol of democratic power. The national colours he proposed were red, white, and black, symbolising self-determination, purity, and sacrifice respectively. The club, sewn onto a white cockade, would be the identifying mark by which "free democrats and equal brothers" would recognise each other. This design was never officially adopted.  The first official Greek national emblem was described in the Provisional Constitution adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus on 1 January 1822 and was established by decree on 15 March of the same year. The national emblem was described as a simple cockade of white and blue. These colours were chosen as the national colours over more "revolutionary" choices such as black and red, popular in Greece ever since Rigas had proposed them, so as to disassociate the government and the revolution from any perceived links to radical movements in the eyes of the conservative European royal courts.  Since its establishment, the emblem has undergone many changes in shape and in design, mainly due to changes of regime. Apart from the cockade, the Provisional Administration of Greece used a seal depicting the goddess Athena and her symbol, the Owl of Athena, encircled by the words "Provisional Administration of Greece". During the governorate of Ioannis Kapodistrias (1827–1831), a new seal based on the phoenix, the symbol of rebirth, was created. The words "Hellenic State", accompanied with the date "1821" (the year the Greek War of Independence began) in Greek numerals, surrounded it. This seal gave Greece's first currency, the Phoenix, its name. The phoenix was also used as a symbol by later Greek non-monarchical governments, including the Second Hellenic Republic (1924–1935) and the junta-proclaimed republic of 1973–1974.

Heraldic designs.

The current coat of arms of Greece derives from the Greek national flag, which was adopted in March 1822. Theories published retrospectively in Greece try to justify this use by making a connection to Byzantine flags and insignia. The 1934 edition of the "Great Greek Encyclopedia" explains that "the current national emblem of Greece shares this with the last emblem of Medieval [Greece], that it is made up of a cross dividing the emblem into four quarters. The difference is that the emblem of the Imperial house of the Palaiologoi also had a capital B in each of the quarters". This design is well attested in Byzantine and Western sources during the 14th and 15th centuries, but as the Byzantines entirely lacked the Western tradition of "national" or family heraldic designs as coats of arms, this design was only used in flags.

Wittelsbach dynasty.

The introduction of the blue shield with the white cross as the heraldic device to represent Greece occurred on, when the regency which was governing Greece on behalf of its first king, Otto, announced the official design for the coat of arms. Approved by Prime Minister Josef Ludwig von Armansperg, it detailed the entire heraldic achievement and described, in Greek and German, its constituent parts. The lesser arms are described as an "equidistant azure escutcheon, pointed towards the middle of its lower side, and containing the Greek cross, argent, bearing at its centre a smaller escutcheon with the lozenges of the Royal House of Bavaria." The shade of blue is specified as light blue (). The escutcheon itself was supported by two crowned lions rampant and surmounted by the royal crown. The entire composition was contained within a mantle and pavilion, purple on the outside and ermine on the inside, topped again with the royal crown. This emblem was discarded following the 23 October 1862 Revolution and Otto's subsequent exile. Despite this fact, however, the blue shield with the white cross remained the basis upon which all subsequent coats of arms were based, including the current arms of the Third Hellenic Republic. The white and blue cockade of the revolutionary period was reinstated in March 1833, this time blue on the outside and white on the inside, so that the blue centre was equal to two thirds of the diameter of the cockade. This design, described both as a "national emblem" (ἐθνόσημον) and a "cockade" (κοκάρδα) in Greek and as the "national cockade" ("National-Kokarde") in German, was to be worn on caps by uniformed military and civilian personnel as well as on the hats of private citizens that wished to display their national pride.

Glücksburg dynasty and Second Republic.

Following Otto's deposition in 1862, the 17-year old Prince William of Denmark was chosen in 1863 as Greece's new king. The coat of arms was suitably altered by the Royal Decree of 9 November 1863. The text of the decree was almost identical to that of 1833, with minor additions and removals to accommodate Greece's new royal house, the House of Glücksburg. The escutcheon remained the same, but the dynastic arms of the Glücksburg family, including the three lions of the arms of Denmark proper, the two lions of Schleswig, the nettle leaf of Holstein, the horse head of Lauenburg, the two red bars of the House of Oldenburg and the yellow cross of Delmenhorst, were added in the centre of the cross when the coat of arms was used to represent members of the Greek royal family. The shield remained surmounted by the royal crown but the supporters were changed to figures of Heracles, similar to the "wild men" of the coat of arms of Denmark. This gave rise to the use of "Ἡρακλεῖς τοῦ Στέμματος" ("Heracleses of the Crown") as a derogatory term for Greek monarchists. The Order of the Redeemer was also added, while the royal motto, " Ἰσχύς μου ἡ ἀγάπη τοῦ λαοῦ" ("The people's love is my strength"), was also introduced in gold lettering on an azure band.  When Greece became a republic in 1924, all ornamentation was discarded and a simple escutcheon adopted as the coat of arms. During the short-lived dictatorship of Theodoros Pangalos four symbols were added to the national emblem in the four quarters created by the cross: the head of Athena, symbolising the ancient Greek period; a helmet and spear, symbolising the Hellenistic period; a double-headed eagle, symbolising the Byzantine period; and a phoenix rising from its ashes, symbolising the modern Greek period. A wreath of oak and laurel surrounded the emblem, symbolising power and glory, respectively. This particular emblem was criticised for being inappropriate and violating heraldic rules before being again replaced by the simple shield following the fall of Pangalos and his dictatorship. This lasted until the abolition of the republic in 1935; sometimes a phoenix was added in the centre of the cross as a symbol of republicanism.  Following the return of the monarchy in 1935, the original smaller version of the coat of arms of Denmark representing the royal family was supplanted by the greater coat of arms of Denmark of 1819–1903, and consequently also in 1863 when the Danish prince William accepted the Greek throne as King George I. This greater arms included all the former elements, as well as the three crowns of the former Kalmar Union, the stockfish of Iceland, the ram of Faroe Islands, the polar bear of Greenland, the lion and hearts of the King of the Goths, the wyvern of the King of the Wends, the swan with a crown of Stormarn, and the knight on horseback of Dithmarschen.  In 1973, the then-ruling military junta abolished the monarchy, which was confirmed by a subsequent referendum. After the collapse of the military regime in 1974, the new government decided to hold another referendum regarding the form of government as acts of the junta were considered to be illegal. The 1974 referendum resulted in the republican form of government being maintained. This abolished the royal coats of arms, but the achievement remains in use by the current pretenders of the Greek royal family.

Current design.

The current emblem is defined by Law 48/1975. The blue shield with the white cross was restored, and the proportions of the escutcheon specified as longer than its width. The shield is surrounded entirely by two branches of laurel; their colour is not specified but in practice they are almost universally shown as monochromatic. The coat of arms was designed in 1974 by Greek artist. The government uses a stylised version of the coat of arms as a government logo. The design was implemented beginning in 2010 as a means of standardising the branding of the various Greek government ministries. It specified the design and colour of the national emblem when used as a logo, and designated FF Meta as the official typeface for use across all media to represent the Government of Greece. Instead of showing the blue parts of the shield as solid colour, the government logo utilises heraldic hatching, with horizontal lines signifying azure (blue).  The Great Seal of the State (Μεγάλη του Κράτους Σφραγίς) is Greece's official Great Seal, used to confirm official documents. The current design was set out in the same law that specified the coat of arms in 1975; it is made up of the coat of arms, surrounded by the words "Hellenic Republic" (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία) in capital letters, contained within a circle in diameter. Previous Great Seals were also specified by previous decrees specifying the older coats of arms in 1833 and 1863.

Colour.

The colours used to render the coat of arms are inconsistent. The original regulation does not specify a colour for the branches of laurel surrounding the escutcheon, implying that they should be green, or proper tincture. In effect, however, usage varies greatly. The 2003 version of the provide a scalable vector graphic file of the coat of arms in black, without specifying any colours. Other government guidelines, such as that used in the Publicity Guidelines for public works (as part of the European Globalisation Adjustment Fund), are heraldically inconsistent and require the laurel branches to be green (if not black-and-white), but the blue of the escutcheon is shown as horizontal hatching instead of solid colour. Similar guidelines were issued by the Independent Authority for Public Revenue as late as 2017. The most common usage is that of the laurel branches in monochrome. The general government guidelines which regulate the government logo are monochromatic, and so the laurel branches are not coloured.  The official shade of blue that the coat of arms should be rendered in is also not specified. Historically, the shade has varied from light blue under King Otto to darker shades in later years. Differing shades of blue were also used by different departments of the Government of Greece, until the guidelines regulating the government logo were implemented in 2010. These specified the various colour codes to be used:  The military of Greece uses a version of the coat of arms which has the laurel branches in gold. The standard of the President of Greece also uses this design, in his capacity as nominal commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The various branches of the military have their own specifications for different types of usage. For example, the 2009 specifications for the colours of threads to be used on service caps, specified in CIELAB color space coordinates, were:

The coat of arms of Greece (, ) comprises a white Greek cross on a blue escutcheon, surrounded by two laurel branches. It has been in use in its current form since 1975. Prior to the adoption of the current coat of arms, Greece used a number of different designs, some of which were not heraldic; the first heraldic design was introduced in 1832 and its main element, the blue shield with the white cross, has been the base for all other national coats of arms since then. The origin of the design is unclear, but it is most likely a heraldic representation of the Greek national flag adopted in 1822, which featured a white cross on a blue field.

Státní znak Řecka se užívá od 7. července 1975. Je jím modrý štít, do něhož je položen bílý (stříbrný) heroldský kříž. Kolem štítu je zelený vavřínový věnec s plody.


Early life.

Born in New York City to parents from the Dominican Republic, Santana's career in show business began with a push from his parents, who wanted to keep him off the tough streets of New York. He began his career at the age of three as an advertising model for a fast food chain. His first screen appearance was as an extra in the Woody Allen film, "The Purple Rose of Cairo".

Acting career.

In 1991, Santana landed a recurring role on "The Cosby Show" as Stanley, the boyfriend of Rudy Huxtable and the rival of Rudy's friend Kenny (Deon Richmond). He was then cast as Marcus Dixon in the short-lived sitcom, "Getting By", starring Cindy Williams and Telma Hopkins. Deon Richmond was cast as his brother Darren, due to their interaction on "The Cosby Show".  In November 1994, Santana appeared on "Sister, Sister" as Joey, in which he falls in love with Tia and Tamera (Tia and Tamera Mowry) at Rocket Burger.  In 1995, Santana was cast as Marcus Henry in the short-lived CBS family drama "Under One Roof", co-starring with James Earl Jones, Joe Morton and Vanessa Bell Calloway. Between 1996 and 1999, he played the role of Ohagi on "Moesha".  In 1996, he landed the role of Romeo Santana on "The Steve Harvey Show". In 2001, he played the role of Jermaine in the movie "Flossin". In 2002, he appeared in the VH1 TV movie, "Play'd: A Hip Hop Story" with Toni Braxton. That same year, Santana had a role in the Eddie Murphy comedy "Showtime". His last television acting role was on the UPN series, "Half & Half", his last film role was a 2003 comedy film, "The Blues" with Deon Richmond.

Death.

On November 9, 2002, Santana was shot in the head and killed as he and his best friend, former child actor Brandon Quintin Adams were in a car leaving another man's home in the Crenshaw District of Los Angeles. Damien Andre Gates fired the shot that entered through the trunk of the vehicle in which Santana was a passenger. The bullet penetrated the right-front passenger headrest and entered Santana's head, killing him instantly. Gates was convicted of the first-degree murder of Santana and the attempted murder of Adams and was sentenced to three consecutive life sentences plus 70 years in prison. Brandon Douglas Bynes received a 23-year sentence after pleading guilty to voluntary manslaughter and assault with a deadly weapon, even though none of the shots fired from his revolver entered the vehicle. An officer involved in the case testified that Monique King, reportedly Gates's girlfriend, who was age 15 at the time of Santana's death, falsely claimed that Santana made sexual advances towards her, which prompted Gates's and Bynes's attack. King was found guilty of second-degree murder and attempted murder but acquitted on two murder charges, receiving ten years in juvenile custody. Santana was 26 years old at the time of his death. He was buried on November 18, 2002, at Saint Raymond's Cemetery in The Bronx, New York.

Merlin Santana (March 14, 1976November 9, 2002) was an American actor and rapper. Santana was best known for his roles as Rudy Huxtable's boyfriend Stanley on "The Cosby Show", Marcus Dixon on "Getting By", Marcus Henry in "Under One Roof" and as high school student Romeo Santana on The WB sitcom "The Steve Harvey Show".

Merlin Santana (14. březen 1976, New York, USA – 9. listopad 2002, Los Angeles, USA) byl americko-dominikánský filmový herec. Narozen již v USA rodičům z Dominikánské republiky. Svou kariéru začal už ve třech letech jako model pro "fast-foodovou" společnost. První malou roli dostal ve filmu Woody Allena, Purple Rose of Cairo. Poté byl obsazen do seriálů, jako Cosby Show, Getting By, Sister, sister a především do hlavní role v sériích The Steve Harvey Show. Český divák ho mohl zahlédnout v malé roli ve filmu Showtime s Eddie Murphym a Robertem De Nirem.