History.

In 1846, British tobacconist Phillip Morris opened a shop on Bond Street, London, UK, selling tobacco and rolled cigarettes. After his death from cancer in 1873, his brother Leopold and widow Margaret continued the business, growing it and opening a factory on Great Marlborough Street, London. The company being called Phillip Morris Companies Inc. at the time, the owners chose a simple name for the cigarette: Marlboro.  Philip Morris opened a New York subsidiary in 1902 to sell many of its cigarette brands. The mark ""Marlboro"" was registered in the United States in 1908 although no cigarette was marketed under this name until 1923. In 1924, the brand was launched. They were first marketed as "America's luxury cigarette" and were mainly sold in hotels and resorts.  Around the 1930s, it was starting to be advertised as a women's cigarette, based on the slogan ""Mild As May"". The name was taken from a street in London where Philip Morris's British factory was located. However, as early as 1885, a brand called "Marlborough" was already being marketed as a ""ladies' favorite"" by Philip Morris & Co.  In the 1930s, advertising for the cigarette was primarily based on how ladylike the filter cigarette was, in an attempt to appeal to the mass market. To this end, the filter had a printed red band around it to hide lipstick stains, calling it ""Beauty Tips to Keep the Paper from Your Lips"".  Shortly before World War II, the brand's sales stagnated at less than 1% of tobacco sales in the US and was briefly withdrawn from the market. After the war, Camel, Lucky Strike, and Chesterfield were the only common cigarettes.  After scientists published a major study linking smoking to lung cancer in the 1950s, Philip Morris repositioned Marlboro as a men's cigarette in order to fit a market niche of men who were concerned about lung cancer. At the time, filtered cigarettes were considered safer than unfiltered cigarettes, but had been until that time only marketed to women. Men at the time indicated that while they would consider switching to a filtered cigarette, they were concerned about being seen smoking a cigarette marketed to women.  The red and white package was designed by the designer Frank Gianninoto. The emblem is placed on top of the pack and has the popular Latin expression Veni, vidi, vici (""I came; I saw; I conquered""), authored by Julius Caesar. The repositioning of Marlboro as a men's cigarette was handled by Chicago advertiser Leo Burnett. The proposed campaign was to present a lineup of manly figures: sea captains, weightlifters, war correspondents, construction workers, etc. The cowboy was to have been the first in this series. While Philip Morris was concerned about the campaign, they eventually gave the green light.  Marlboro's market share rose from less than one percent to the fourth best-selling brand. This convinced Philip Morris to drop the lineup of manly figures and stick with the cowboy, later known as the Marlboro Man. From 1963, the television advertisements used Elmer Bernstein's theme from "The Magnificent Seven".  Part of Marlboro's rise in market share was its ability to produce “milder, more aromatic, sweeter, and less harsh” cigarettes by adding ammonia to the tobacco. Further usage of diammonium phosphate allowed Marlboro to free base the nicotine in tobacco, allowing for a more efficient delivery. Marlboro kept this process secret for many years, as freebasing is the same process used to produce crack cocaine from normal cocaine. Some experts have called the product that Marlboro sold "crack tobacco."  In the late 1960s, Marlboro "Longhorn 100's" were introduced. Although colour-coded with gold, they were full flavor cigarettes, not lights. In 1972, Marlboro became the best-selling brand of tobacco in the world.  In order to comply with a 2006 court ruling in "United States v. Philip Morris USA, Inc., et al.", Philip Morris (and all other cigarette companies) is now prevented from using words such as ""Lights"", ""Ultra-Lights"", ""Medium"", ""Mild"", or any similar designation that may yield an impression of being safer than regular full flavored cigarettes. Thus Marlboro and other cigarette companies use only color-coding instead; for example, Marlboro Lights are now called Marlboro Gold Pack.  Philip Morris responded to the popularity of Pall Mall, the number three brand, by pushing Marlboro Special Blends, a lower-priced cigarette.  In 2013, Philip Morris International introduced ""Marlboro 2.0"". The pack design was changed; the dark red was replaced with a lighter red, the "Marlboro" and Philip Morris logo became ribbed and transparent, and around 2017 a special ""SmartSEAL"" was introduced to keep the stored cigarettes fresh for a longer period of time. The Marlboro 2.0 packs are mainly available in Europe and some parts of Africa, Asia and Latin America, but not in the United States, Canada, Australia (due to plain packaging), and New Zealand.  In 2015, Philip Morris announced they would introduce a ""Firm Filter"" to their Marlboro Red, Gold, Silver Blue, Ice Blast and White Menthol variants. Philip Morris managing director for the United Kingdom and Ireland, Martin Inkster, said that the Firm Filter technique was added to "offer quality you can feel, and it is a cleaner way to stub out your cigarette".

Advertising.

In the 1920s, advertising for the cigarette was primarily based on how ladylike the filter cigarette was, in an attempt to appeal to the mass market. To this end, the filter had a printed red band around it to hide lipstick stains, calling it ""Beauty Tips to Keep the Paper from Your Lips"".  The red and white package was designed by the designer "Frank Gianninoto". The repositioning of Marlboro as a men's cigarette was handled by Chicago advertiser Leo Burnett. The proposed campaign was to present a lineup of manly figures: sea captains, weightlifters, war correspondents, construction workers, etc. The cowboy was to have been the first in this series. While Philip Morris was concerned about the campaign, they eventually gave the green light.  Marlboro's market share rose from less than one percent to the fourth best-selling brand. This convinced Philip Morris to drop the lineup of manly figures and stick with the cowboy, later known as the Marlboro Man. From 1963, the television advertisements used Elmer Bernstein's theme from "The Magnificent Seven".  Over the years, Philip Morris has made many billboard, poster and magazine adverts.  Philip Morris also made various sports-related billboards, stickers and other memorabilia throughout the years, mainly promoting the Marlboro brand via its McLaren and Ferrari teams partnerships in places like Russia and Monaco.  Through licensees, Philip Morris sells various merchandising products, such as lighters, ashtrays, sunglasses and other accessories, which are sometimes given away to the target group as part of marketing promotions. In 1983, the campaign ""Marlboro Adventure Team Adventure Camp"" was launched, for which the participants had to apply, there was a collection of clothing and accessories.

Sport sponsorship.

Formula One.

Marlboro is well known for its association with motor racing. This started in the season with the sponsorship of Formula One team BRM. The first win for a Marlboro-sponsored F1 car was achieved at the 1972 Monaco Grand Prix by Jean-Pierre Beltoise driving for BRM. In and, the cigarette giant backed Frank Williams Racing Cars team, whose cars were registered as "Iso-Marlboro".  In the 1974 season, Marlboro became famously associated with the McLaren team, which brought it its first Constructors' Championship and its drivers title for Emerson Fittipaldi in the very first season of the partnership between McLaren and Marlboro. The team won another drivers title in for James Hunt. Following that, the partnership went through a dry patch until Ron Dennis's Project Four Organization took over the team in. Marlboro-sponsored McLaren dominated F1 for much of the 1980s and early 1990s, with Niki Lauda, Alain Prost and Ayrton Senna between them winning the Drivers' Championship all but one year from to. After the departure of Ayrton Senna at the end of the season, Marlboro McLaren never won a race again. Marlboro ended their sponsorship of the team in, which ended the famous red and white McLaren livery. McLaren was sponsored by West from the start of the season onwards. McLaren and Marlboro had the longest sponsorship deal between a team and its title sponsor in F1 history which lasted for 23 consecutive seasons (–).  Over the years, McLaren had to alter the Marlboro livery to comply with regional anti-tobacco sponsorship laws which were in place in countries like France, the United Kingdom and later Germany. The Marlboro logo was replaced by a chevron in, with a barcode in and and from to or with ""McLaren"" in and from to and to. At the 1986 Portuguese Grand Prix, Keke Rosberg's car was painted yellow and white rather than red and white, to advertise Marlboro Lights.  Marlboro also sponsored Scuderia Ferrari's drivers since (the brand appeared only on helmets and suits) but only in became a minor sponsor on Ferrari's Formula One cars. Until then, Enzo Ferrari allowed only technical suppliers brands to appear on his team cars. In, Marlboro became the main sponsor, and in became the title sponsor as the team was officially renamed as ""Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro"". Marlboro remained Ferrari ́s title sponsor until the 2011 European Grand Prix and the main sponsor until the end of the season.  Over the years, Ferrari, just like McLaren, had to alter the Marlboro livery in various ways to comply with regional anti-tobacco sponsoring laws which were in place in countries like France, the United Kingdom and later Germany. The Marlboro logo was removed completely or replaced with a white space from to (The Ferrari cars had white spaces over Marlboro occasionally in and ), changed to a ""bar code"" from to 1999 and in and, or the text was removed while keeping the chevron with the driver's name () and in the team member clothing, the Marlboro logo became a white square with a red stripe above with the driver's written name from the 1980s until. The team used a special livery for the 2001 Italian Grand Prix in remembrance of the September 11 attacks in the United States; both cars ran without any sponsorship livery and sported matte black nose-cones. In the 2005 Bahrain Grand Prix the cars sported black nosecones as a sign of mourning for Pope John Paul II.  In September 2005, Ferrari signed an extension of their sponsorship arrangement with Marlboro until 2011. This agreement came at a time when tobacco sponsorship had become wholly banned in the European Union, and other major F1 teams ended their relationships with tobacco companies. In reporting the deal, "F1 Racing" magazine judged it to be a "black day" for the sport, putting non-tobacco funded teams at a disadvantage and discouraging other brands from entering a sport still associated with tobacco. The magazine estimated that in the period between 2005 and 2011, Ferrari received $1 billion from the agreement. Depending on the venue of races and the particular national laws, the Marlboro branding became largely subliminal in most countries.  In mid-2006, special "racing editions" of Marlboro Red were sold in the UK, with a Ferrari-inspired design, although the Ferrari name and badge were not used. In April 2008, Marlboro displayed explicit on-car branding on Ferrari for the last time, then permanently replaced with a variety of barcodes in place of it. Since then, there were calls from leading health officials, the European Commissioner for Health and influential doctors for a review of the subliminal advertising contract Marlboro has with Advertising Guerrilla and Ferrari, due to the implications of influencing the purchase of cigarettes with possible subliminal advertising, as no tobacco products can be promoted in sporting events in Europe. The Ferrari team claimed the barcode was part of the car design, not an advertising message.  The controversial barcode design was removed by Ferrari for the start of the Spanish Grand Prix in the 2010 season, but the barcode remained on drivers' team gear. In January 2011, the Scuderia Ferrari presented a new logo for its racing team. This logo is considered by a specialised F1-website as a subliminal advertisement for Marlboro, evocating the top-left corner design of a Marlboro cigarettes pack.  In June 2011, Ferrari extended its collaboration with Marlboro through to the end of 2015, despite cigarette advertising being banned in the sport. The deal has been subsequently renewed for three more years, through 2018. In February 2018, Philip Morris renewed their partnership deal with Ferrari until the end of 2021. While the logo, which has been in place since 2011, has been removed on this year's car. Before 2018 Japanese Grand Prix, Ferrari launches their revised SF71H livery featuring PMI's Mission Winnow brand.  Marlboro had provided financial support to many racing drivers, the most illustrious of whom are Alain Prost, Ayrton Senna and Mika Häkkinen. From 1970 until the mid-1990s, the logos of the cigaretiers could be present on the combinations of the drivers if they were not present on the cars. Marlboro has also sponsored many grand prix races up until 2005.  Marlboro also sponsored a multitude of other, smaller teams in Formula One. It was the main sponsor of Alfa Romeo F1 Team between and, although unable to match up to its pre-war and 1950s heyday, the team only achieving one pole position, one fastest lap and four podium finishes. In the Italian clothing brand Benetton took over Alfa Romeo's livery sponsorship, which they held until the withdrawal of Alfa Romeo from Formula One at the end of. The Marlboro logo was replaced with a barcode at certain races, due to tobacco or alcohol sponsorship bans in place.  Marlboro sponsored the BMS Scuderia Italia team from until, when Chesterfield became their main sponsor. The livery was very similar to the Ferrari and Alfa Romeo ones. The Marlboro logo was displayed on the front and side of the cars and on the drivers helmets. In some races where explicit tobacco sponsoring was forbidden, the Marlboro logo was removed.  Marlboro sponsored the Arrows F1 (by the time known as ""Footwork"") team in. While Ruffles, a potato chips brand sponsored the car, Marlboro sponsored the drivers helmets.  Marlboro sponsored the EuroBrun team in. The ER188, driven by Oscar Larrauri, Stefano Modena and Gregor Foitek, featured the Marlboro logo on the helmets of the drivers, as well as the Marlboro logo and name on the side of the cars.  Marlboro sponsored the Fittipaldi Automotive team in. The Marlboro logo was displayed on the helmets of the drivers.  Marlboro sponsored the Forti F1 team in and. The logo was displayed on the top side of the car, as well as on the helmets of the drivers.  Marlboro sponsored the Merzario team from until the team's collapse in. The Marlboro logo's were displayed on the front, side and on the drivers helmets.  Marlboro sponsored the Minardi team in. The Marlboro logo was displayed on the front and side of the cars and on the drivers helmets. In some races where explicit tobacco sponsoring was forbidden, the Marlboro logo was replaced with a barcode.  Marlboro sponsored the Onyx Grand Prix team in and. The Marlboro logo was displayed on the front and side of the cars and on the drivers helmets. In some races where explicit tobacco sponsoring was forbidden, the Marlboro logo was replaced with a barcode, but the Chevron logo was retained.  Marlboro sponsored Team Rebaque in. The Marlboro logo was displayed on the front and side of the cars and on the drivers helmets. In some races where explicit tobacco sponsoring was forbidden, the Marlboro logo was removed.  Marlboro sponsored the Rial Racing team in and. The Marlboro logo was displayed on the front and side of the cars and on the drivers helmets. In some races where explicit tobacco sponsoring was forbidden, the Marlboro logo was replaced with a barcode.  Marlboro sponsored the Spirit Racing team in and. The Marlboro logo was displayed on the front and side of the cars and on the drivers helmets.

GP2.

From 2005 to 2007, GP2 Series team ART Grand Prix was sponsored by Marlboro. The Marlboro logo's were prominently shown on the car in the 2005 and 2006 seasons, but in 2007 the team only sponsored the brand on the rear wing. In countries where the sponsoring of tobacco was forbidden, the Marlboro logos were replaced with a barcode.

Grand Prix motorcycle racing.

Marlboro entered the Grand Prix motorcycle racing in the seventies as personal sponsor of riders like Giacomo Agostini, Angel Nieto and Jarno Saarinen. In 1976, Marlboro backed Agostini's team, who raced MV Agusta bikes with little factory support.  Since 1983, the cigarette brand sponsored the Yamaha 500 cc works team, which was managed by Agostini until 1989 and then by Kenny Roberts until 1996. During that period, the Japanese bikes won six World Championships and, as a result of their sponsorship, Marlboro decals on race replica bikes became one of the most popular decal kits that were available.  In the 1990s, Marlboro's livery also appeared on other bikes, especially the Hondas entered by Team Pileri (from 1992 to 1995), Pons Racing (in 1993) and Erv Kanemoto's team (in 1997 and 1998) who achieved the 1997 250 cc World Championship with Max Biaggi.  The Yamaha works team was again associated with Marlboro between 1999 and 2002.  Marlboro sponsored the Ducati Corse MotoGP team from 2003. Casey Stoner took his first MotoGP title in 2007. As of the 2009 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season they were only allowed to brand the bikes at one round, in Qatar at the Losail International Circuit, using the barcode in other races. The controversial barcode design was then removed by Ducati for the start of the French motorcycle Grand Prix in the 2010 season. In January 2011 the Ducati Team presented a new logo which was regarded as a subliminal advertisement for Marlboro, evocating the top-left corner design of a Marlboro cigarettes pack, similar to the one used by Ferrari.  In January 2018, it was speculated that Ducati would carry sponsorship by Philip Morris' heat-not-burn brand iQOS instead, bypassing currently in-place laws that prohibit specific advertising of tobacco products.

Superbike World Championship.

Marlboro sponsored the Yamaha Dealer Team from its inaugural season in 1988 to 1990.

CART/IndyCar.

Marlboro sponsorship in IndyCar dates back to 1986 when the livery appeared on the Emerson Fittipaldi's car entered by Patrick Racing. In 1990 Penske Racing hired Fittipaldi and started a 20 years-long association with Marlboro and its distinctive red and white livery. However, in the 2007 season Marlboro logos were hided and subsequently replaced with Team Penske branding but the team retained the color scheme as Philip Morris USA was still Penske's main sponsor (similar case to Scuderia Ferrari and Ducati MotoGP Team that had Marlboro sponsorship but both Ferrari and Ducati teams forced to hide the Marlboro logos due to anti-tobacco advertising law).  2009 was the final year of the Penske-Marlboro association.

24 Hours of Le Mans.

Since their start in Formula One, Marlboro has also sponsored numerous teams and races, from Joest Racing in Group C in 1983 to Toyota at the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1999 (despite a tobacco ban in France).

Masters of Formula 3.

Marlboro sponsored the Marlboro Masters Formula Three race in Zandvoort.

World Rally Championship.

Marlboro has a long history in rallying sponsorship, including the factory World Rally Championship teams of Lancia (between 1972 and 1974), Mitsubishi (from to ), and Peugeot (from to ). The cigarette brand appeared on helmets and suits of some of the best rally drivers, being personal sponsor of Markku Alén, Timo Salonen, Juha Kankkunen, Miki Biasion and others. Between 1987 and 1992, Marlboro backed Carlos Sainz, appearing on his cars (Ford Sierra in 1987–88 and then Toyota Celica since 1989). In 1993 the cigarette brand started an association with Belgian rally driver Freddy Loix, who was racing for Opel in the Belgian rally championship. Between 1996 and 1998 Loix raced with Toyota Team Belgium in the WRC, carrying the Marlboro livery on his car. In 1999 he moved to Mitsubishi Ralliart works team, with the iconic livery remaining on successive Lancer Evolutions until the marque's temporary WRC withdrawal at the end of 2002.  Marlboro also sponsored the cars of Emirati rally driver Mohammed bin Sulayem and has sponsored a number of rallies including the Safari Rally (between 1982 and 1990), the Rally Argentina, the Rally of Lebanon, the Jordan Rally, and the UAE Desert Challenge.

Australian touring car racing.

Marlboro was the naming rights sponsor of the Holden Dealer Team from 1974 until 1984.

IMSA SportsCar.

Marlboro sponsored the Italo-American IMSA SportsCar Le Mans GT team Risi Competizione since 2004 but Risi Competizione opting to invisible the Marlboro logo due to the team respecting Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement regulations and also ban of cigarette advertising in sports.

Badminton.

Marlboro sponsored the Thomas and Uber Cup from 1984 to 1990, as well as the Sudirman Cup from 1991 to 1995 and 2001 to 2013.

Products.

Phillip Morris markets cigarettes, snus, and Heatsticks under the Marlboro brand.

International cigarette varieties.

Philip Morris International organized Marlboro products into three divisions – "Flavor line", which are original red/full flavor cigarettes, "Gold line" are former lights and "Fresh line" comprises flavored cigarettes.  In the United Kingdom, the company sells Marlboro Red, Gold and Silver King Size. Until 2020, Marlboro Green (menthol) and Ice Blast Capsule cigarettes were sold until they were outlawed across Europe.

Marlboro in Canada.

Philip Morris sold the Canadian rights to the "Marlboro" name to Imperial Tobacco Canada in 1932. After the brand's successful American relaunch in the 1950s – which later became well known to Canadians through exposure to the brand's international sponsorships and advertising – Philip Morris tried several legal manoeuvres in attempting to reacquire the Canadian rights, to no avail. Imperial Tobacco continues to sell a line of cigarettes under the Marlboro name in Canada, albeit with very different packaging from that of the Philip Morris product. Philip Morris retains the rights to the "rooftop" trade dress and other elements of Marlboro's branding which were developed after the 1932 sale, and has historically used that trade dress in Canada in combination with the names "Matador" or occasionally "Maverick" for a line of Virginia blend cigarettes.  In 2006, Philip Morris International's Canadian affiliate Rothmans, Benson & Hedges introduced a new product with the "rooftop" trade dress, and marked as being the "World Famous Imported Blend", but not bearing any actual brand name. This led to a legal challenge from Imperial, contending that the new packaging created customer confusion by merely "suggesting" the Marlboro brand, thereby infringing on Imperial's Canadian trademark rights. Canada's Federal Court of Appeal ruled in favour of Imperial in June 2012. The judgment noted that Canadian regulations which (in most cases) prohibit the public display of tobacco products at retail locations – i.e., customers must ask for a brand by name – exacerbated the situation, as there were now two products that customers might be referring to when asking for "Marlboro". Though PMI is expected to appeal, shortly after the ruling it began using the brand name "Rooftop" on packaging for the previously unbranded cigarettes.

Marlboro (, ) is an American brand of cigarettes, currently owned and manufactured by Philip Morris USA (a branch of Altria) within the United States, and by Philip Morris International (now separate from Altria) outside the United States. Richmond, Virginia, is the location of the largest Marlboro cigarette manufacturing plant. Marlboro is the best-selling cigarette brand in the world since 1972. As of 2017, Marlboro had 40% market share in the United States, more than the next 7 competing brands combined.

Marlboro je značka cigaret firmy Altria Group, Inc. Ve sportovním světě je značka sponzorem stáje Formule 1 Ferrari a v MotoGP sponzor Ducati. Značka je známá pro své reklamy s kovbojem a je pojmenovaná po "Great Marlborough Street", ve které sídlila původní londýnská továrna.


Origins.

Wine was first recorded as spiced and heated in Rome during the 2nd century. The Romans travelled across Europe, conquering much of it and trading with the rest. The legions brought wine and viticulture with them up to the Rhine and Danube rivers and to the Scottish border, along with their recipes.  The Forme of Cury, a medieval English cookery book from 1390, which mentioned mulled wine, says: "Pur fait Ypocras..." grinding together cinnamon, ginger, galangal, cloves, long pepper, nutmeg, marjoram, cardamom, and grains of paradise ("spykenard de Spayn", rosemary may be substituted). This is mixed with red wine and sugar (form and quantity unstated).

Britain.

Mulled wine is very popular and traditional in the United Kingdom at Christmas, and less commonly throughout winter. Mulled cider (and sometimes mulled ale, traditional yet no longer common) is also served, with a mulled apple juice as a non-alcoholic alternative.

In traditional culture.

Over the years the recipe for mulled wine has evolved with the tastes and fashions of the time. One Victorian example of this is Smoking Bishop, mentioned by Charles Dickens but no longer drunk or known in modern culture. A more traditional recipe can be found in "Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management" at paragraph 1961 on page 929 to 930 of the revised edition dated 1869:

In contemporary culture.

In contemporary British culture, there is no specific recipe for mulled wine and the spices involved in its recipe. It is commonly a combination of orange, lemon, cinnamon, nutmeg, fennel seed (or star anise), cloves, cardamom, and ginger. The spices may be combined and boiled in a sugar syrup before red wine is added, heated, and served. Variations include adding brandy or ginger wine. A tea bag of spices can be added to the wine, which is heated along with slices of orange as a convenient alternative to a full recipe. Mulled wine is often served in small (200 ml) porcelain or glass mugs, sometimes with an orange slice garnish studded with cloves.  Mulled wine and ales infused with mulling spices are available in the UK in the winter months. Wassail punch is a warm mulled beer or cider drunk in winter in Victorian times.

"Glühwein".

"Glühwein" (roughly translated as "glowing-wine", from the temperature the wine is heated to) is popular in German-speaking countries and in the region of Alsace in France. It is a traditional beverage offered during the Christmas holidays. In Alsace Christmas markets, it is traditionally the only alcoholic beverage served. The oldest documented "Glühwein" tankard is attributed to Count John IV of Katzenelnbogen, a German nobleman who was the first grower of Riesling grapes. This gold-plated lockable silver tankard is dated to c. 1420.  "Glühwein" is usually prepared from red wine, heated and spiced with cinnamon sticks, cloves, star aniseed, orange, sugar and at times vanilla pods. It is sometimes drunk "mit Schuss" (with a shot), which means that rum or some other liquor has been added. Fruit wines, such as blueberry wine and cherry wine, are occasionally used instead of grape wine in some parts of Germany. There is also a variation of "Glühwein" which is made with white wine. However, white "Glühwein" is less popular than its red counterpart. For children, the non-alcoholic "Kinderpunsch" is offered on Christmas markets, which is a punch with similar spices.  Another popular variant of "Glühwein" in Germany is "Feuerzangenbowle". It shares the same recipe, but for this drink a rum-soaked sugarloaf is set on fire and allowed to drip into the wine.

Nordic "glögg".

"Glögg", "gløgg", "glögi" and similar words are the terms used for mulled wine in the Nordic countries (sometimes spelled as "glog" or "glug"). It is spelled "gløgg" in Norwegian and Danish, "glögg" in Swedish and Icelandic and "glögi" in Finnish and Estonian. In Denmark, Norway and Sweden, "gløgg" or "glögg" is often drunk at Christmas events.  Non-alcoholic and alcoholic versions of "glögg" can be bought ready-made or prepared with fruit juices instead of wine. The main ingredients of alcoholic "glögg" are red wine, sugar, spices such as cinnamon, cardamom, ginger, cloves, and bitter orange, and optionally also stronger spirits such as vodka, akvavit, rum or brandy. Throughout Scandinavia, "glögg" spice extract and ready-mixed spices can be purchased in grocery stores. To prepare "glögg", spices or spice extract are mixed into the wine, which is then heated to 60-70 °C. When preparing homemade "glögg" using spices, the hot mixture is allowed to infuse for at least an hour, often longer, and then reheated before serving. Ready-made wine "glögg", as well as low- or non-alcoholic varieties, is normally sold at Systembolaget in Sweden, and in Alko in Finland, ready to heat and serve, and not in concentrate or extract form. "Glögg" is generally served with raisins, dried cloves, blanched almonds and Ginger biscuits (Ginger Snaps), and is a popular hot drink during the Christmas season.  In Sweden, ginger bread and "lussebullar" (also called "lussekatter"), a type of sweet bun with saffron and raisins, are typically served on December 13 to celebrate Saint Lucia's Day. It is also traditionally served at the julbord, the Christmas version of the classic, Swedish buffet smörgåsbord. In Denmark, "gløgg" pairings typically include æbleskiver sprinkled with powdered sugar and accompanied with strawberry marmalade. In Norway, "gløgg" is paired with rice pudding (Norwegian: "riskrem"). In such cases, the word "graut-"/"grøtfest" is more precise, taking the name from the rice pudding which is served as a course. Typically, "gløgg" is drunk before eating the rice pudding, which is often served with cold, red cordial (saus).  "Glögg" recipes vary widely; variations with white wine or sweet wine such as Port or Madeira, or spirits such as brandy or whisky are also popular. "Glögg" can also be made without alcohol by replacing the wine with fruit or berry juices (often blackcurrant) or by boiling the "glögg" to evaporate the alcohol. "Glögg" is similar in taste to modern Wassail or mulled cider.

Other countries.

In Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Slovenia and Serbia, "kuhano vino"/"kuvano vino"/"кувано вино" ("cooked wine"), is made from red or white wine and various combinations of nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, sugar and orange zest, often served with slices of orange or lemon.  In the south and southeast of Brazil, where a large amount of European descendants live, it is called "vinho quente". It is typically made with red wine, cinnamon sticks and cloves. It is served as part of the Festa Junina, celebrated during winter in the month of June.  In Bulgaria, it is called "greyano vino" () ("heated wine"), and consists of red wine, honey and peppercorn. Sometimes apples or citrus fruits, such as lemon or oranges, can be added.  In Chile it is called "candola" in the south and "vino navega'o" in the north ('navegado' is considered a hypercorrection) ['sailor; navigated']. Navega'o is a hot drink made from red wine, orange peels, cinnamon sticks, cloves, and sugar. Although being considered a southern Chile beverage, it is served throughout the country. Many people regard it as Winter drink. Saint John's Eve (Spanish tradition which replaced 'Wetripantru', the Mapuche New Year's Day that coincides with the Winter Solstice in the southern hemisphere—Midsummer in the northern hemisphere) on the evening of 23 June would be, for example, a good moment to drink 'navega'o'.  In the Czech Republic, mulled wine is called "svařené víno" ("boiled wine"), colloquially "svařák".  In Slovakia, mulled wine is called "varené víno" (“boiled wine”), and is usually served during the Christmas season.  In France, "vin chaud" ("hot wine") typically consists of red wine mixed with honey, cinnamon, and orange. It must not be too sweet. Beverage noted in the Alps for winter sports.  In Hungary, "forralt bor" ("boiled wine") is typically made from the country's popular Egri Bikavér and spiced with cinnamon, sugar and cloves. Sometimes Amaretto is added for extra taste.  In Italy, mulled wine is typical in the northern part of the country and is called "vin brulé" (from the French "vin brûlé", "burnt wine", though the expression is not used in France).  In Latvia, it is called "karstvīns" ("hot wine"). When out of wine, it is prepared using grape (or currant) juice and Riga Black Balsam.  In Lithuania, it is called "glintveinas" or "karštas vynas" ("hot wine").  In Moldova and Romania, the "izvar" is made from red wine with black pepper and honey.  In the Netherlands, the drink is known as "bisschopswijn" (literally "bishop's wine"). Bisschopswijn is drunk during the Sinterklaas holidays.  In North Macedonia, it is called "vareno vino" (, boiled wine) or "greeno vino" (, heated wine) and is usually served in late autumn or winter. It is made of red wine, usually from the Tikvešh region, combined with cinnamon and sugar or honey. The wine heated in a combination with pepper is used as a prevention from flu or cold.  In Poland, "grzane wino " ("heated wine"), or "grzaniec" in highlander dialect, is very similar to the Czech variant, especially in the southern regions. There is also a similar method for preparing mulled beer or "grzane piwo" which is popular with Belgian beers because of the sweet flavor of that particular type of beer, which uses the same spices as mulled wine and is heated.  In Portugal, mainly in the Douro and Minho Provinces it is called "vinho quente" and made with Madeira wine and Port wine, in the Porto region Porto Quente is more popular.  In Russia, "Глинтвейн" ("Glintvein") is a popular drink during winters and has same recipe as the German Glühwein. Additionally, the traditional Russian winter herbal drink sbiten, although usually a non-alcoholic tisane made with hot water, may also be made with red wine replacing some or all of the water.

Mulled wine, also known as "spiced wine", is a beverage usually made with red wine along with various mulling spices and sometimes raisins. It is served hot or warm and is alcoholic, although there are non-alcoholic versions of it. It is a traditional drink during winter, especially around Christmas. It is served at Christmas markets in Europe.

Svařené víno neboli svařák je teplý nápoj vyráběný typicky z červeného vína nejrůznější kvality smícháním s bylinným odvarem. V dřívějších dobách se takto „napravovalo“ nekvalitní víno. V současnosti se často doslazuje cukrem a podává s plátky citrónu.


Etymology.

The origin of the word "walrus" is thought by J.R.R. Tolkien to derive from a Germanic language, and it has been attributed largely to either the Dutch language or Old Norse. Its first part is thought to derive from a word such as Dutch "walvis" "whale". Its second part has also been hypothesized to come from the Old Norse word for "horse". For example, the Old Norse word "hrossvalr" means "horse-whale" and is thought to have been passed in an inverted form to both Dutch and the dialects of northern Germany as "walros" and "Walross". An alternative theory is that it comes from the Dutch words "wal" "shore" and "reus" "giant".  The species name "rosmarus" is Scandinavian. The Norwegian manuscript "Konungsskuggsja", thought to date from around AD 1240, refers to the walrus as "rosmhvalr" in Iceland and "rostungr" in Greenland (walruses were by now extinct in Iceland and Norway, while the word evolved in Greenland). Several place names in Iceland, Greenland and Norway may originate from walrus sites: Hvalfjord, Hvallatrar and Hvalsnes to name some, all being typical walrus breeding grounds.  The archaic English word for walrus—"morse"—is widely thought to have come from the Slavic languages, which in turn borrowed it from Finno-Ugric languages. Compare морж ("morž") in Russian, "mursu" in Finnish, "morša" in Northern Saami, and "morse" in French. Olaus Magnus, who depicted the walrus in the "Carta Marina" in 1539, first referred to the walrus as the "ros marus", probably a Latinization of "morž", and this was adopted by Linnaeus in his binomial nomenclature.  The coincidental similarity between "morse" and the Latin word "morsus" ("a bite") supposedly contributed to the walrus's reputation as a "terrible monster".  The compound "Odobenus" comes from'(Greek for "teeth") and'(Greek for "walk"), based on observations of walruses using their tusks to pull themselves out of the water. The term "divergens" in Latin means "turning apart", referring to their tusks.

Taxonomy and evolution.

The walrus is a mammal in the order Carnivora. It is the sole surviving member of the family Odobenidae, one of three lineages in the suborder Pinnipedia along with true seals (Phocidae) and eared seals (Otariidae). While there has been some debate as to whether all three lineages are monophyletic, i.e. descended from a single ancestor, or diphyletic, recent genetic evidence suggests all three descended from a caniform ancestor most closely related to modern bears. Recent multigene analysis indicates the odobenids and otariids diverged from the phocids about 20–26 million years ago, while the odobenids and the otariids separated 15–20 million years ago. Odobenidae was once a highly diverse and widespread family, including at least twenty species in the subfamilies Imagotariinae, Dusignathinae and Odobeninae. The key distinguishing feature was the development of a squirt/suction feeding mechanism; tusks are a later feature specific to Odobeninae, of which the modern walrus is the last remaining (relict) species.  Two subspecies of walrus are widely recognized: the Atlantic walrus, "O. r. rosmarus" (Linnaeus, 1758) and the Pacific walrus, "O. r. divergens" (Illiger, 1815). Fixed genetic differences between the Atlantic and Pacific subspecies indicate very restricted gene flow, but relatively recent separation, estimated at 500,000 and 785,000 years ago. These dates coincide with the hypothesis derived from fossils that the walrus evolved from a tropical or subtropical ancestor that became isolated in the Atlantic Ocean and gradually adapted to colder conditions in the Arctic. From there, it presumably recolonized the North Pacific Ocean during high glaciation periods in the Pleistocene via the Central American Seaway.  An isolated population in the Laptev Sea was considered by some authorities, including many Russian biologists and the canonical "Mammal Species of the World", to be a third subspecies, "O. r. laptevi" (Chapskii, 1940), but has since been determined to be of Pacific walrus origin.

Anatomy.

While some outsized Pacific males can weigh as much as, most weigh between. An occasional male of the Pacific subspecies far exceeds normal dimensions. In 1909, a walrus hide weighing was collected from an enormous bull in Franz Josef Land, while in August 1910, Jack Woodson shot a walrus, harvesting its hide. Since a walrus's hide usually accounts for about 20% of its body weight, the total body mass of these two giants is estimated to have been at least. The Atlantic subspecies weighs about 10–20% less than the Pacific subspecies. Male Atlantic walrus weigh an average of. The Atlantic walrus also tends to have relatively shorter tusks and somewhat more flattened snout. Females weigh about two-thirds as much as males, with the Atlantic females averaging, sometimes weighing as little as, and the Pacific female averaging. Length typically ranges from. Newborn walruses are already quite large, averaging in weight and in length across both sexes and subspecies. All told, the walrus is the third largest pinniped species, after the two elephant seals. Walruses maintain such a high body weight because of the blubber stored underneath their skin. This blubber keeps them warm and the fat provides energy to the walrus.  The walrus's body shape shares features with both sea lions (eared seals: Otariidae) and seals (true seals: Phocidae). As with otariids, it can turn its rear flippers forward and move on all fours; however, its swimming technique is more like that of true seals, relying less on flippers and more on sinuous whole body movements. Also like phocids, it lacks external ears.  The extraocular muscles of the walrus are well-developed. This and its lack of orbital roof allow it to protrude its eyes and see in both a frontal and dorsal direction. However, vision in this species appears to be more suited for short-range.

Tusks and dentition.

While this was not true of all extinct walruses, the most prominent feature of the living species is its long tusks. These are elongated canines, which are present in both male and female walruses and can reach a length of 1 m (3 ft 3 in) and weigh up to 5.4 kg (12 lb). Tusks are slightly longer and thicker among males, which use them for fighting, dominance and display; the strongest males with the largest tusks typically dominate social groups. Tusks are also used to form and maintain holes in the ice and aid the walrus in climbing out of water onto ice. Tusks were once thought to be used to dig out prey from the seabed, but analyses of abrasion patterns on the tusks indicate they are dragged through the sediment while the upper edge of the snout is used for digging. While the dentition of walruses is highly variable, they generally have relatively few teeth other than the tusks. The maximal number of teeth is 38 with dentition formula:, but over half of the teeth are rudimentary and occur with less than 50% frequency, such that a typical dentition includes only 18 teeth

Vibrissae (whiskers).

Surrounding the tusks is a broad mat of stiff bristles ("mystacial vibrissae"), giving the walrus a characteristic whiskered appearance. There can be 400 to 700 vibrissae in 13 to 15 rows reaching 30 cm (12 in) in length, though in the wild they are often worn to much shorter lengths due to constant use in foraging. The vibrissae are attached to muscles and are supplied with blood and nerves, making them highly sensitive organs capable of differentiating shapes thick and wide.

Skin.

Aside from the vibrissae, the walrus is sparsely covered with fur and appears bald. Its skin is highly wrinkled and thick, up to around the neck and shoulders of males. The blubber layer beneath is up to thick. Young walruses are deep brown and grow paler and more cinnamon-colored as they age. Old males, in particular, become nearly pink. Because skin blood vessels constrict in cold water, the walrus can appear almost white when swimming. As a secondary sexual characteristic, males also acquire significant nodules, called "bosses", particularly around the neck and shoulders. The walrus has an air sac under its throat which acts like a flotation bubble and allows it to bob vertically in the water and sleep. The males possess a large baculum (penis bone), up to in length, the largest of any land mammal, both in absolute size and relative to body size.

Life history.

Reproduction.

Walruses live to about 20–30 years old in the wild. The males reach sexual maturity as early as seven years, but do not typically mate until fully developed at around 15 years of age. They rut from January through April, decreasing their food intake dramatically. The females begin ovulating as soon as four to six years old. The females are diestrous, coming into heat in late summer and also around February, yet the males are fertile only around February; the potential fertility of this second period is unknown. Breeding occurs from January to March, peaking in February. Males aggregate in the water around ice-bound groups of estrous females and engage in competitive vocal displays. The females join them and copulate in the water. Gestation lasts 15 to 16 months. The first three to four months are spent with the blastula in suspended development before it implants itself in the uterus. This strategy of delayed implantation, common among pinnipeds, presumably evolved to optimize both the mating season and the birthing season, determined by ecological conditions that promote newborn survival. Calves are born during the spring migration, from April to June. They weigh at birth and are able to swim. The mothers nurse for over a year before weaning, but the young can spend up to five years with the mothers. Walrus milk contains higher amounts of fats and protein compared to land animals but lower compared to phocid seals. This lower fat content in turn causes a slower growth rate among calves and a longer nursing investment for their mothers. Because ovulation is suppressed until the calf is weaned, females give birth at most every two years, leaving the walrus with the lowest reproductive rate of any pinniped.

Migration.

The rest of the year (late summer and fall), walruses tend to form massive aggregations of tens of thousands of individuals on rocky beaches or outcrops. The migration between the ice and the beach can be long-distance and dramatic. In late spring and summer, for example, several hundred thousand Pacific walruses migrate from the Bering Sea into the Chukchi Sea through the relatively narrow Bering Strait.

Ecology.

Range and habitat.

The majority of the population of the Pacific walrus spends its summers north of the Bering Strait in the Chukchi Sea of the Arctic Ocean along the northern coast of eastern Siberia, around Wrangel Island, in the Beaufort Sea along the northern shore of Alaska south to Unimak Island, and in the waters between those locations. Smaller numbers of males summer in the Gulf of Anadyr on the southern coast of the Siberian Chukchi Peninsula, and in Bristol Bay off the southern coast of Alaska, west of the Alaska Peninsula. In the spring and fall, walruses congregate throughout the Bering Strait, reaching from the western coast of Alaska to the Gulf of Anadyr. They winter over in the Bering Sea along the eastern coast of Siberia south to the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and along the southern coast of Alaska. A 28,000-year-old fossil walrus was dredged up from the bottom of San Francisco Bay, indicating that Pacific walruses ranged that far south during the last Ice Age.  Commercial harvesting reduced the population of the Pacific walrus to between 50,000-100,000 in the 1950s-1960s. Limits on commercial hunting allowed the population to increase to a peak in the 1970s-1980s, but subsequently, walrus numbers have again declined. Early aerial censuses of Pacific walrus conducted at five-year intervals between 1975 and 1985 estimated populations of above 220,000 in each of the three surveys.  In 2006, the population of the Pacific walrus was estimated to be around 129,000 on the basis of an aerial census combined with satellite tracking. There were roughly 200,000 Pacific walruses in 1990.  The much smaller population of Atlantic walruses ranges from the Canadian Arctic, across Greenland, Svalbard, and the western part of Arctic Russia. There are eight hypothetical subpopulations of Atlantic walruses, based largely on their geographical distribution and movements: five west of Greenland and three east of Greenland. The Atlantic walrus once ranged south to Sable Island, Nova Scotia, and as late as the 18th century was found in large numbers in the Greater Gulf of St. Lawrence region, sometimes in colonies of up to 7,000 to 8,000 individuals. This population was nearly eradicated by commercial harvest; their current numbers, though difficult to estimate, probably remain below 20,000. In April 2006, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the population of the northwestern Atlantic walrus in Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Labrador as having been eradicated in Canada.  The isolated population of Laptev Sea walruses is confined year-round to the central and western regions of the Laptev Sea, the eastmost regions of the Kara Sea, and the westmost regions of the East Siberian Sea. The current population of these walruses has been estimated to be between 5,000 and 10,000.  Even though walruses can dive to depths beyond 500 meters, they spend most of their time in shallow waters (and the nearby ice floes) hunting for food.

Diet.

Walruses prefer shallow shelf regions and forage primarily on the sea floor, often from sea ice platforms. They are not particularly deep divers compared to other pinnipeds; their deepest recorded dives are around 80 m (260 ft). They can remain submerged for as long as half an hour.  The walrus has a diverse and opportunistic diet, feeding on more than 60 genera of marine organisms, including shrimp, crabs, tube worms, soft corals, tunicates, sea cucumbers, various mollusks, and even parts of other pinnipeds. However, it prefers benthic bivalve mollusks, especially clams, for which it forages by grazing along the sea bottom, searching and identifying prey with its sensitive vibrissae and clearing the murky bottoms with jets of water and active flipper movements. The walrus sucks the meat out by sealing its powerful lips to the organism and withdrawing its piston-like tongue rapidly into its mouth, creating a vacuum. The walrus palate is uniquely vaulted, enabling effective suction. The diet of the Pacific walrus consist almost exclusively of benthic invertebrates (97 percent).  Aside from the large numbers of organisms actually consumed by the walrus, its foraging has a large peripheral impact on benthic communities. It disturbs (bioturbates) the sea floor, releasing nutrients into the water column, encouraging mixing and movement of many organisms and increasing the patchiness of the benthos.  Seal tissue has been observed in fairly significant proportion of walrus stomachs in the Pacific, but the importance of seals in the walrus diet is under debate. There have been isolated observations of walruses preying on seals up to the size of a bearded seal. Rarely, incidents of walruses preying on seabirds, particularly the Brünnich's guillemot ("Uria lomvia"), have been documented. Walruses may occasionally prey on ice-entrapped narwhals and scavenge on whale carcasses but there is little evidence to prove this.

Predators.

Due to its great size and tusks, the walrus has only two natural predators: the killer whale (orca) and the polar bear. The walrus does not, however, comprise a significant component of either of these predators' diets. Both the killer whale and the polar bear are also most likely to prey on walrus calves. The polar bear often hunts the walrus by rushing at beached aggregations and consuming the individuals crushed or wounded in the sudden exodus, typically younger or infirm animals. The bears also isolate walruses when they overwinter and are unable to escape a charging bear due to inaccessible diving holes in the ice. However, even an injured walrus is a formidable opponent for a polar bear, and direct attacks are rare. Walruses have been known to fatally injure polar bears in battles if the latter follows the other into the water, where the bear is at a disadvantage. Polar bear–walrus battles are often extremely protracted and exhausting, and bears have been known to forgo the attack after injuring a walrus. Killer whales regularly attack walruses, although walruses are believed to have successfully defended themselves via counterattack against the larger cetacean. However, killer whales have been observed successfully attacking walruses with few or no injuries.

Relation to humans.

Conservation.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the walrus was heavily exploited by American and European sealers and whalers, leading to the near-extirpation of the Atlantic subspecies. Commercial walrus harvesting is now outlawed throughout its range, although Chukchi, Yupik and Inuit peoples are permitted to kill small numbers towards the end of each summer.  Traditional hunters used all parts of the walrus. The meat, often preserved, is an important winter nutrition source; the flippers are fermented and stored as a delicacy until spring; tusks and bone were historically used for tools, as well as material for handicrafts; the oil was rendered for warmth and light; the tough hide made rope and house and boat coverings; and the intestines and gut linings made waterproof parkas. While some of these uses have faded with access to alternative technologies, walrus meat remains an important part of local diets, and tusk carving and engraving remain a vital art form.  According to Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, European hunters and Arctic explorers found walrus meat not particularly tasty, and only ate it in case of necessity; however walrus tongue was a delicacy.  Walrus hunts are regulated by resource managers in Russia, the United States, Canada, and Denmark, and representatives of the respective hunting communities. An estimated four to seven thousand Pacific walruses are harvested in Alaska and in Russia, including a significant portion (about 42%) of struck and lost animals. Several hundred are removed annually around Greenland. The sustainability of these levels of harvest is difficult to determine given uncertain population estimates and parameters such as fecundity and mortality. The "Boone and Crockett Big Game Record" book has entries for Atlantic and Pacific walrus. The recorded largest tusks are just over 30 inches and 37 inches long respectively.  The effects of global climate change are another element of concern. The extent and thickness of the pack ice has reached unusually low levels in several recent years. The walrus relies on this ice while giving birth and aggregating in the reproductive period. Thinner pack ice over the Bering Sea has reduced the amount of resting habitat near optimal feeding grounds. This more widely separates lactating females from their calves, increasing nutritional stress for the young and lower reproductive rates. Reduced coastal sea ice has also been implicated in the increase of stampeding deaths crowding the shorelines of the Chukchi Sea between eastern Russia and western Alaska. Analysis of trends in ice cover published in 2012 indicate that Pacific walrus populations are likely to continue to decline for the foreseeable future, and shift further north, but that careful conservation management might be able to limit these effects.  Currently, two of the three walrus subspecies are listed as "least-concern" by the IUCN, while the third is "data deficient". The Pacific walrus is not listed as "depleted" according to the Marine Mammal Protection Act nor as "threatened" or "endangered" under the Endangered Species Act. The Russian Atlantic and Laptev Sea populations are classified as Category 2 (decreasing) and Category 3 (rare) in the Russian Red Book. Global trade in walrus ivory is restricted according to a CITES Appendix 3 listing. In October 2017, the Center for Biological Diversity announced they would sue the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to force it to classify the Pacific Walrus as a threatened or endangered species.

Culture.

The walrus plays an important role in the religion and folklore of many Arctic peoples. Skin and bone are used in some ceremonies, and the animal appears frequently in legends. For example, in a Chukchi version of the widespread myth of the Raven, in which Raven recovers the sun and the moon from an evil spirit by seducing his daughter, the angry father throws the daughter from a high cliff and, as she drops into the water, she turns into a walrus – possibly the original walrus. According to various legends, the tusks are formed either by the trails of mucus from the weeping girl or her long braids. This myth is possibly related to the Chukchi myth of the old walrus-headed woman who rules the bottom of the sea, who is in turn linked to the Inuit goddess Sedna. Both in Chukotka and Alaska, the aurora borealis is believed to be a special world inhabited by those who died by violence, the changing rays representing deceased souls playing ball with a walrus head.  The distinctive 12th-century Lewis Chessmen from northern Europe are carved from walrus ivory.  Because of its distinctive appearance, great bulk, and immediately recognizable whiskers and tusks, the walrus also appears in the popular cultures of peoples with little direct experience with the animal, particularly in English children's literature. Perhaps its best-known appearance is in Lewis Carroll's whimsical poem "The Walrus and the Carpenter" that appears in his 1871 book "Through the Looking-Glass". In the poem, the eponymous antiheroes use trickery to consume a great number of oysters. Although Carroll accurately portrays the biological walrus's appetite for bivalve mollusks, oysters, primarily nearshore and intertidal inhabitants, these organisms in fact comprise an insignificant portion of its diet in captivity.  The "walrus" in the cryptic Beatles song "I Am the Walrus" is a reference to the Lewis Carroll poem.  Another appearance of the walrus in literature is in the story "The White Seal" in Rudyard Kipling's "The Jungle Book", where it is the "old Sea Vitch—the big, ugly, bloated, pimpled, fat-necked, long-tusked walrus of the North Pacific, who has no manners except when he is asleep".

The walrus ("Odobenus rosmarus") is a large flippered marine mammal with a discontinuous distribution about the North Pole in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas of the Northern Hemisphere. The walrus is the only living species in the family Odobenidae and genus "Odobenus". This species is subdivided into two subspecies: the Atlantic walrus ("O. r. rosmarus"), which lives in the Atlantic Ocean, and the Pacific walrus ("O. r. divergens"), which lives in the Pacific Ocean.

Mrož lední ("Odobenus rosmarus – v překladu znamená mořský kůň chodící po zubech") je jediným zástupcem rodu mrož ("Odobenus") z ploutvonožců (Pinnipedia), kterého řadíme do samostatné čeledi mrožovitých (Odobenidae). Je typickým zástupcem savců obývajících Severní ledový oceán, příležitostně i sever Atlantského oceánu a rozeznáváme u něj dva poddruhy – mrože pacifického ("Odobenus rosmarus divergens") a mrože atlantského ("Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus"). Autorem českého a slovenského rodového názvu je Jan Svatopluk Presl.


Conjugation.

The "passé composé" is formed by the auxiliary verb, usually the "avoir" auxiliary, followed by the past participle. The construction is parallel to that of the present perfect (there is no difference in French between perfect and non-perfect forms).  The "passé composé" is usually translated into English as a simple past tense, "I saw", or as a present perfect, "I have seen". It could also be translated as emphatic past tense, "I did see". The auxiliary may actually be used similarly in any tense, leading to the French compound tenses.

Auxiliary "avoir".

The auxiliary verb is typically "avoir" ‘to have’, but is sometimes "être" ‘to be’ (see below).  This is the conjugation of "avoir", with a past participle:

Auxiliary "être".

The verbs that use "être" as an auxiliary verb are intransitive verbs that usually indicate motion or change of state.  Since some of these verbs can be used as a transitive verb as well, they will instead take "avoir" as an auxiliary in those instances; e.g. "Sortir", "monter", "descendre", "entrer", "retourner", and "passer" all have transitive and intransitive uses.  This is the conjugation of "être", with a past participle:  The following is a list of verbs that use "être" (for intransitive usage) as their auxiliary verbs in "passé composé":  The above are commonly remembered using the acronym DR and MRS VANDERTRAMP. In addition to these, at least one other verb is conjugated with être:

Reflexive forms.

In addition to the above verbs, all reflexive/pronominal verbs use "être" as their auxiliary verb. A reflexive/pronominal verb is one that relates back to the speaker, either as an object e.g. "Je me suis trompé" ‘I'm mistaken, I made a mistake’ (= "*j'ai trompé moi-même", literally ‘I fooled myself’), or as a dative form e.g. "Je me suis donné du temps" (= "* j'ai donné du temps à moi-même", I gave myself some time).

Formation of French past participles.

To form the past participle for first-group verbs (-ER verbs) and "aller" too, drop the "-er" and add -é.  To form the past participle for second-group verbs (-IR verbs with -ISSANT gerund), drop the "-ir" and add -i.  To form the past participle for third-group verbs (-RE verbs), drop the "-re" and add -u.

Agreement between participle and object.

The use of the past participle in compound tenses in French is complicated by occasional "agreement" with the object of the action. In French, agreement is accomplished by adding an -e to the end of the past participle if the grammatical gender of the subject or direct object in question is feminine and an -s if it is plural. (Note that for verbs of the first and second group, the past participle ends with a vowel, thus the masculine and feminine, singular and plural forms are all pronounced the same. Within the third-group verbs, one can find past participles ending with a mute consonant, such as "mis" and "fait", and those do change pronunciation.)  Examples :  For more information, see French verbs, and see for complete details (This last reference is in French.)

The passé composé (, "compound past") is the most used past tense in the modern French language. It is used to express an action that has been finished completely or incompletely at the time of speech, or at some (possibly unknown) time in the past. The "passé composé" originally corresponded in function to the English present perfect, but is now used mainly as the equivalent of the simple past.

Passé composé je nejčastěji používaný minulý čas v moderní francouzštině. Je to složené perfektum, které se používá k vyjádření děje nebo činnosti, které byly v minulosti dokončeny. Passé composé byl původně srovnatelný s předpřítomným časem (present perfect) v angličtině, a je tak stále příležitostně používán (např. "Ça y est, j'ai fini"). Passé composé se tvoří za pomoci přítomného času pomocného slovesa "avoir (mít)" nebo "être (být)", za kterým následuje významové sloveso v příčestí minulém. U pravidelných sloves se toto příčestí odvozuje od infinitivu, u nepravidelných sloves má příčestí minulé zvláštní tvar, který si je třeba pamatovat.


Geography.

It is located in the Krupina Plain (Slovak: "Krupinská planina") on the Krtíš and "Riečka" rivers. It is around 5 km from Veľký Krtíš and 50 km from Zvolen. With a population of around 1,600 it is the second smallest town in Slovakia.

History.

The name of the town was first mentioned as "Keykkw" (Hungarian: "Kékkő") in 1290. The name of the settlement means "Blue rock". Ruins of the castle Modrý Kameň stand on a rock pinnacle above the town. The castle was built in the second half of the 13th century by the ancestors of the Balassa noble family. They had to recapture the castle from sons of Casimir of the Hunt-Poznan clan by a siege in 1290. The castle was captured by Ottoman troops in 1576, because its guard fled when they heard the approaching Ottomans. The castle was given up and subsequently destroyed by Ottoman troops in 1593. It was restored between 1609 and 1612 by Sigismund Balassa. The castle was ravaged many times during the 17th century, so it became ruined and abandoned. The Balassa family built a new Baroque mansion house on the side of castle hill in the early 18th century; stones of the former castle were used in the mansion building operations. The last member of the Balassa noble family died in 1899. After the demise of the Balassa family, the Almásy noble family became the proprietors of castle Modrý Kameň. They sold the demesne to the Czechoslovakian state in 1923.  In 1910 the settlement had 1347 mostly Slovak inhabitants, though a significant Hungarian minority lived in Modrý Kameň (then Kékkő) too. Modrý Kameň belonged to Nógrád county until the end of World War I. The settlement was the center of district Modrý Kameň (Slovakian okres Modrý Kameň, Hungarian Kékkői járás) between 1912 and 1960. Electric network was built in 1943.  During World War II, an illegal antifascist communist organization operated in the settlement. During the Slovak National Uprising, Modrý Kameň was the center of the national revolutionary committee of the district, and partisan groups operated on the outskirts.  Modrý Kameň was pronounced a town in 1969.

Demographics.

According to the 2001 census, the town had 1,434 inhabitants. 92.82% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 2.79% Roma, 2.02% Hungarians and 0.35% Czechs. The religious make-up was 79.22% Roman Catholics, 8.44% people with no religious affiliation and 7.60% Lutherans.

Twin towns.

Modrý Kameň is twinned with:

Modrý Kameň (lit. "Blue Stone"; ; ) is a town and municipality in the Veľký Krtíš District of the Banská Bystrica Region of southern Slovakia.

Modrý Kameň ( "Blauenstein", "Kékkő") je městečko na jižním Slovensku, v Banskobystrickém kraji. Podle sčítání z roku 2001 to bylo město s nejmenším počtem obyvatel na Slovensku, k roku 2012 je druhým nejmenším městem na Slovensku - nejmenším městem se staly Dudince.


Etymology.

The word "limousine" is derived from the name of the French region Limousin. A particular type of carriage hood or roof physically resembled the raised hood of the cloak worn by the shepherds there.  An alternate etymology has the chauffeur wearing a Limousin-style cloak in the open driver's compartment, for protection from the weather.  The name was then extended to this particular type of car with a permanent top projecting over the chauffeur. This former type of automobile had an enclosed passenger compartment seating three to five persons, with only a roof projecting forward over the open driver's area in the front.

History.

Rich owners of expensive carriages and their passengers were accustomed to their own private compartment leaving their coachman or driver outside in all weathers. When automobiles arrived the same people required a similar arrangement for their chauffeurs. As such, the 1916 definition of limousine by the US Society of Automobile Engineers is "a closed car seating three to five inside, with driver's seat outside".  In Great Britain, the limousine de-ville was a version of the "limousine town car" where the driver's compartment was outside and had no weather protection. The limousine-landaulet variant (also sold in the United States) had a removable or folding roof section over the rear passenger seat..  In the United States, sub-categories of limousines in 1916 were the berline defined as "a limousine having the driver's seat entirely enclosed", and the brougham, defined as "a limousine with no roof over the driver's seat."

Characteristics.

The limousine body style usually has a partition separating the driver from the rear passenger compartment. This partition includes a usually openable glass section so passengers may see the road. Communication with the driver is possible either by opening the window in the partition or by using an intercom system.  Limousines are often long-wheelbase vehicles, in order to provide extra legroom in the passenger compartment. There will usually be occasional or jump seat at the front of the compartment (either forwards-facing, rear-facing or able to face either direction).  Many nations have official state cars designed to transport government officials. The top leaders have dedicated and specially equipped limousines. Presidential state car describes the history of United States presidential limousines.

Stretch limousines.

Stretch limousines are longer than regular limousines, usually in order to accommodate more passengers. Stretch limousines may have seating along the sides of the cabin.  A "stretch limousine" was created in Fort Smith, Arkansas, around 1928 by a coach company named Armbruster. Armbruster's cars were primarily used to transport famous "big band" leaders, such as Glenn Miller and Benny Goodman, and their bands and equipment. These early stretch limousines were often called "big band buses". Armbruster called their lengthened cars "extended-wheelbase multi-door auto-coaches". Their 12-passenger people movers were used by hotels, taxis, airlines, corporations and tour companies.

Novelty limousines.

A variety of vehicles have been converted into novelty limousines. They are used for weddings, parties and other social occasions. Another style of novelty limousine are those painted in bright colours, such as purple or pink.  Vehicles converted into novelty stretch limousines include the East German Trabant, Volkswagen Beetle, Fiat Panda, and Citroën 2CV. There are even instances of Corvettes, Ferraris, and Mini Coopers being stretched to accommodate up to 10 passengers.

United States.

The last production limousine, by Cadillac, with forward-facing jump seats was in 1987 (with their Fleetwood Series 75 model), the last Packard in 1954, and the last Lincoln in 1939, though Lincoln has offered limousines through their dealers as special order vehicles at times. Several Lincoln Premier cars were also built, one being owned by Elvis Presley. Vehicles of this type in private use may contain expensive audio players, televisions, video players, and bars, often with refrigerators. The President of the United States has ridden in a variety of types of limousine stretching back to 1899.  In the United States, the most popular vehicles for stretch limousines conversion are the Lincoln Town Car, Cadillac XTS, Cadillac Escalade, Chrysler 300, Hummer H2, Ford Excursion, and the Lincoln Navigator.

United Kingdom.

Due to the partition behind the driver, the London black cabs are a type of limousine. The jump seats, also referred to as taxi-tip-seats, usually carry advertising on the underside; the advertisements are visible to the passengers when the tip-seats are not in use.

Current limousine production.

Examples of limousines currently produced by vehicle manufacturers include:

"Limousine service" hire cars.

In the U.S., Canada, and Australia, "limousine service" (also known as "car service") is the process of pre-booked hire of any car with a driver. The car is usually a luxury car, but not necessarily a limousine.

A limousine ( or ) is a large luxury vehicle driven by a chauffeur with a partition between the driver's compartment and the passenger's compartment.

Limuzína je zpravidla čtyř až šesti dveřový automobil s tříprostorovou karoserií s prostorem pro 6 až 9 cestujících s pevnou střechou. Prostor pro cestující je zpravidla oddělen mezistěnou od prostoru řidiče umístěnou za přední řadou sedadel. Největší sériově vyráběnou evropskou limuzínou je Mercedes 600 Pullman.


Goaltenders in ice hockey.

Roster.

Goaltending is a specialized position in ice hockey; at higher levels in the game, no goaltenders play other positions and no other players play goaltender. At minor levels and recreational games, goaltenders do occasionally switch with others players that have been taught goaltending; however, most recreational hockey rules are now forbidding position swapping due to an increase in injuries.  A typical ice hockey team may have two or three goaltenders on its roster. Most teams typically have a starting goaltender who plays the majority of the regular season games and all of the playoffs, with the backup goaltender only stepping in if the starter is pulled or injured, or in cases where the schedule is too heavy for one goaltender to play every game.  The NHL requires each team have a list of "emergency" goaltenders. The list provides goaltender options for both the home and visiting teams. These goaltenders are to be called to a game if a team does not have two goaltenders to start the game. An "emergency" goaltender may also be called if both roster goaltenders are injured in the same game.

Goalie tandem.

Some teams have used a goaltender tandem where two goaltenders split the regular season playing duties, though often one of them is considered the number one goaltender who gets the start in the playoffs. An example is the 1982-83 New York Islanders with Billy Smith and Roland Melanson; Melanson was named to the NHL Second All-Star Team for his regular season play while Smith won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoff MVP and both players shared the William M. Jennings Trophy for fewest goals allowed. Another instance is the Edmonton Oilers' Andy Moog and Grant Fuhr; both of them earned All-Star Game appearances for the regular season play, with Moog being the starter in the 1983 playoffs and Fuhr for the 1984 playoffs (although Moog started Game 4 and 5 of the 1984 Stanley Cup Finals due to Fuhr's injury) and subsequent postseasons.  The Toronto Maple Leafs had Terry Sawchuk and Johnny Bower share goaltending duties in the regular season and playoffs, winning the 1964–65 Vezina Trophy (shared) and the 1967 Stanley Cup. The 1996-97 Philadelphia Flyers' Ron Hextall and Garth Snow alternated in the playoffs; Snow started nine of the ten games during the first two rounds, but Hextall took over in game two of Conference Finals and remained the starting goaltender for the remainder of the playoffs, though Snow started for game two of the Stanley Cup Finals.

Privileges.

The goaltender has special privileges and training that other players do not. He wears special goaltending equipment that is different from that worn by other players and is subject to specific regulations. Goaltenders may use any part of their bodies to block shots. The goaltender may legally hold (or freeze) the puck with his hands to cause a stoppage of play. If a player from the other team hits the goaltender without making an attempt to get out of his way, the offending player may be penalized. In some leagues (including the NHL), if a goaltender's stick breaks, he can continue playing with a broken stick until the play is stopped, unlike other players who must drop any broken sticks immediately.  Additionally, if a goaltender acts in such a way that would cause a normal player to be given a penalty, such as slashing or tripping another player, the goaltender cannot be sent to the penalty box. Instead, one of the goaltender's teammates who was on the ice at the time of the infraction is sent to the penalty box in his place. However, the goaltender does receive the penalty minutes on the scoresheet. If the goaltender receives a Game Misconduct or Match penalty, he is removed from the ice and a replacement goaltender is played.  Normally, the goaltender plays in or near the goal crease the entire game, unlike the other positions where players are on ice for shifts and make line changes. However, goaltenders are often pulled if they have allowed several goals in a short period of time, whether they were at fault for the surrendered goals or not, and usually a substituted goaltender does not return for the rest of the game. In 1995, Patrick Roy was famously kept in net by the head coach as "humiliation" despite allowing nine goals on 26 shots.  Eleven goaltenders have scored a total of fourteen goals in National Hockey League (NHL) games. A goalkeeper can score by either shooting the puck into the net, or being awarded the goal as the last player on his team to touch the puck when an opponent scored an "own goal". A goal scored by shooting the puck is particularly challenging as the goaltender has to aim for a six-foot-wide net that is close to 180 feet away, while avoiding opposing defencemen; in the case of own goals, the combined circumstance of the own goal itself in addition to the goaltender being the last player to touch the puck makes it a very rare occurrence. Of the fourteen goals, seven were scored by shooting the puck and seven were the result of own goals.  A team is not required to use a goaltender. At any time in a game, a team may remove its goaltender from the ice in favor of an extra attacker. Using an extra attacker is usually intended to overwhelm the opposing team's defense, and unlike during a power play, the defense cannot legally ice the puck, (if they are not already shorthanded due to a penalty. If the team on defense is serving a penalty, then the usual icing rules prevail.) putting the team without a goaltender at a significant advantage on offense. The vulnerability that comes with leaving the net untended means that, if the opposing team does manage to advance the puck out of their own defensive zone, a far easier empty net goal can be scored. NHL rules strongly encourage that teams use goaltenders in overtime; if a team opts for the extra attacker in overtime and an empty-net goal is scored, the game is credited as a regulation loss instead of an overtime loss. (An overtime loss earns one standings point, as opposed to two for a win of any sort and none for a regulation loss or overtime loss incurred under an empty net.) Teams thus typically forgo using a goaltender only in situations where they are trailing by one or two goals with only a short time (typically less than four minutes) left in the game and have possession of the puck in their opponent's defensive zone.  The rules of the IIHF, NHL and Hockey Canada do not permit goaltenders to be designated as on-ice captains, because of the logistical challenge of having the goaltender relay rules discussions between referees and coaches and then return to the crease. (The Vancouver Canucks named goaltender Roberto Luongo as their captain during the 2008–09 and 2009–10 seasons, but due to NHL rules, he did not serve as the official on-ice captain.) In the NCAA, there is no position-based restriction on the team captain.  Out of the five positions on the rink, goaltenders are frequently candidates for the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP, as they have won this honor in four of the last ten playoffs. Patrick Roy has won a record three times, and four goaltenders have won the Conn Smythe as part of the losing team in the Finals.

Saves.

When a goaltender blocks or stops a shot from going into his goal net, that action is called a save. Goaltenders often use a particular style, but in general they make saves any way they can: catching the puck with their glove hand, deflecting the shot with their stick, blocking it with their leg pads or blocker or another part of their body, or collapsing to butterfly position to block any low shot coming, especially in close proximity. After making a save, the goaltender attempts to control the rebound to avoid a goal scored by an opposing player when the goaltender is out of position ('scoring on a rebound'), or to allow the goaltender's own team to get control of the puck. Goaltenders may catch or hold a puck shot at the net to better control how it re-enters play. If there is immediate pressure from the opposing team, a goaltender may choose to hold on to the puck (for a second or more, with judgment from the referee) to stop play for a face-off. If a goaltender holds on to the puck for too long without any pressure they may be subject to a 2-minute delay of game penalty. Recently, in the NHL and AHL, goaltenders have been restricted as to where they can play the puck behind the net.

Playing styles.

Stand-up style.

The oldest playing style is the stand-up style. In this style, goaltenders are to stop the puck from a standing position, not going down. The goaltenders may bend over to stop the puck with their upper body or may kick the puck. Such saves made by kicking are known as kick saves or skate saves. They may also simply use their stick to stop it, known as a stick save. This was the style seen in the early NHL and was most commonly used up until the early 60s. One of the more notable goaltenders who was last seen using stand up was Bill Ranford, but most of the goaltenders from earlier decades such as Jacques Plante were considered pure stand up goaltenders.  As the name suggests, the "stand-up style" refers to a style of goaltending in which the goaltender makes the majority of the saves standing up. This style is not as popular in the modern era, with the majority of contemporary goaltenders switching to the butterfly style and the hybrid style. The stand-up style is in contrast to the butterfly style, where goaltenders protect the net against incoming shots by dropping to their knees and shifting their legs out.  The advantage of the stand-up style is in the continued mobility of the goaltender mid save. While standing, a stand-up goaltender can remain square to the puck and adjust his positioning to ensure that he is covering as much of the net as possible at all times. The goaltender is also in a better position to stop pucks that are headed towards the upper part of the net.  The main disadvantage of the stand-up style, however, is a susceptibility to shots travelling along the bottom half of the net. A larger percentage of shots occur in the bottom portion of the net, and a goaltender utilizing the butterfly will cover a larger portion of that area. If there is a screen, however, a stand-up goaltender is generally in a better position to see the slapshot.

Butterfly style.

Another style is the "Butterfly", where goaltenders go down on both pads with their toes pointing outwards and the tops of their pads meeting in the middle, thus closing up the five hole. This results in a "wall" of padding without any holes, lowering the chances of low angle shots getting in. These goaltenders rely on timing and position. Early innovators of this style were goaltending greats Glenn Hall and Tony Esposito who played during the 50s-60s and 70s-80s, respectively. Hall is credited to be among the very first to use this style, and both he and Esposito had tremendous success with it. The most successful goaltender to adopt this style was Patrick Roy, who has 550 career wins in the NHL. This is the most widely used style in the NHL today. "Butterfly" goaltenders have developed methods of sliding in the "Butterfly" position in order to move around fast in one-timer situations. As pad size increased, it became a more notable style of goaltending and is still evolving.

Hybrid style.

This style of goaltending is a combination of both stand-up and butterfly style, where the goaltender primarily relies on reaction, save selection, and positioning to make saves. Hybrid goaltenders will usually control rebounds well, deflect low shots with their sticks, will utilize the butterfly, and are generally not as predictable as goaltenders who rely heavily on the butterfly as a save selection. Most players are not pure stand-up or butterfly, but simply tend to prefer stand-up or butterfly over the other. If a player does not have any preferences, he is considered a hybrid goaltender. All modern NHL goaltenders generally use some form of this style. Some goaltenders who do this effectively are Ryan Miller, Jaroslav Halák, Jimmy Howard, Tuukka Rask, Carey Price and formerly Evgeni Nabokov and Martin Brodeur.

Empty net situations.

Normally, the goaltender plays in or near the goal crease the entire game. However, teams may legally "pull the goalie" by substituting in a normal skater and taking the goaltender off the ice. A team temporarily playing with no goaltender is said to be playing with an "empty net". This gives the team an extra attacker, but at significant risk—if the opposing team gains control of the puck, they may easily score a goal. However, shooters that attempt to score on an empty net from the opposite side of the red line face getting called for icing the puck if they miss the net. There are two common situations where a goaltender is generally pulled, as well as two less common situations:  A goal scored in an empty net situation is not recorded as a shot faced or goal against on the personal stats of the goaltender who has left the ice.

Back-up goaltender.

In professional ice hockey, the back-up goaltender fills an important team role. Although the back-up will spend most games sitting on the bench, the back-up must be prepared to play every game. A back-up may be forced into duty at any time to relieve the starting goaltender in the event of an injury or poor game performance. The back-up will also be called upon to start some games to give the starter the opportunity to rest from game-play during the season.  Most professional leagues require each home team to maintain a list of local non-professional goaltenders, available to either team, who can be used in the exceptional case that one or both of a team's normal goaltenders are injured or unavailable (such as a player acquired in a trade or minor league call-up arriving late on short notice); such a goaltender who fulfills that role is known as an emergency back–up goaltender (or EBUG). Similar rules are in place for the NHL's minor leagues, where emergency goaltenders are used much more frequently. Those on a team's emergency list are given free attendance to home games they are assigned and may also help out as a practice goalie. Emergency goalies are often called from nearby college teams, adult semi-pro/amateur leagues, or the home team's own coaching/facilities staff. If activated for a game, most emergency goaltenders only dress to sit on the bench, as a team's normal back-up takes over; only three emergency goalies (David Ayres, Scott Foster, and Jorge Alves) have ever seen recorded playing time in an NHL game. Emergency goalies who are activated sign either an amateur or professional tryout contract.

Goaltenders credited with goals.

A goaltender scoring a goal in an NHL game is a very rare feat, having occurred only fifteen times in the history of the NHL, the first time occurring in 1979 after the league had been in existence for six decades. NHL rules forbid goaltenders from participating in play past the center line, so a goal by a goaltender is possible only under unusual circumstances.  Eight of those fifteen goals resulted from the goaltender shooting into an empty net. The remaining seven goals were not actually shot into the net by the goaltender; rather the goaltender was awarded the goal because he was the last player on his team to touch the puck before the opposition scored on themselves. Martin Brodeur is the only NHL goaltender to be credited with three career goals (two in the regular season and one in the playoffs), Ron Hextall is the only goaltender who has scored two goals by shooting the puck into an empty net (once in the regular season and once in the playoffs). Damian Rhodes and José Théodore are the only goaltenders in NHL history to score a goal in which they also had a shutout game. Evgeni Nabokov of the San Jose Sharks was the first goaltender to score a power play goal. If a goaltender crosses the center line and shoots the puck from that location or any other location past the center line, the goal does not count.

AHL.

A chronological list of goals scored in the AHL by goaltenders:

ECHL.

A chronological list of goals scored in the ECHL by goaltenders:

CHL.

The first recorded instance of a professional goaltender scoring a goal occurred on February 21, 1971, in the CHL. In a game between the Oklahoma City Blazers and the Kansas City Blues, the Oklahoma City Blazers were trailing 2-1 and decided to pull their goaltender. Michel Plasse, the goaltender for the Kansas City Blues then scored on an open net.  Subsequently, four goaltenders have scored empty-net goals in the CHL: Phil Groeneveld of the Fort Worth Fire scored against the Thunder in Wichita, Kansas, on November 20, 1995; Bryan McMullen scored for the Austin Ice Bats on February 17, 2002; and Mike Wall of the Arizona Sundogs scored a goal against Corpus Christi on March 16, 2007. Danny Battochio is the most recent vs the Tulsa Oilers on December 31, 2011.

References.

Bibliography Notes

In ice hockey, the goaltender or goalie is the player responsible for preventing the hockey puck from entering their team's net, thus preventing the opposing team from scoring. The goaltender usually plays in or near the area in front of the net called the "goal crease" (often referred to simply as " the crease" or "the net"). Goaltenders tend to stay at or beyond the top of the crease to cut down on the angle of shots. In today's age of goaltending there are two common styles, butterfly and hybrid (hybrid is a mix of the traditional stand-up style and butterfly technique). Because of the power of shots, the goaltender wears special equipment designed to protect the body from direct impact. The goalie is one of the most valuable players on the ice, as their performance can greatly change the outcome or score of the game. One-on-one situations, such as breakaways and shootouts, have the tendency to highlight a goaltender's pure skill, or lack thereof. No more than one goaltender is allowed to be on the ice for each team at any given time. Teams are not required to use a goaltender and may instead opt to play with an additional skater, but the defensive disadvantage this poses generally means that the strategy is only used as a desperation maneuver when trailing late in a game or can be used if the opposing team has a delayed penalty (if the team receiving the penalty touches the puck the play will stop).

Hokejový brankář je člen hokejového týmu, jehož hlavní činností během zápasu je zabránit puku v překročení brankové čáry, tedy vstřelení gólu.


Literature.

Arwen was the youngest child of Elrond and Celebrían. Her elder brothers were the twins Elladan and Elrohir. Her name ""Ar-wen"" means 'noble maiden' in Sindarin. She bore the sobriquet "Evenstar" (Evening Star), as the most beautiful of the last generation of High Elves in Middle-earth.  As told in "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen", Aragorn in his twentieth year met Arwen for the first time in Rivendell, where he lived under Elrond's protection. Arwen, then over 2,700 years old, had recently returned to her father's home after living with her grandmother Lady Galadriel in Lothlórien. Aragorn fell in love with Arwen at first sight. 30 years later, the two were reunited in Lórien. Arwen reciprocated Aragorn's love, and on the mound of Cerin Amroth they committed themselves to marry each other. In making that choice, Arwen gave up the Elvish immortality available to her as a daughter of Elrond and agreed to remain in Middle-earth instead of traveling to the Undying Lands.  Arwen first appears in the text of "The Lord of the Rings" in Rivendell, shortly after Frodo Baggins wakes in the House of Elrond: she sits beside her father at the celebratory feast. When the Fellowship of the Ring comes to Lothlórien, Aragorn remembers his earlier meeting with Arwen and pauses in reverence.  Shortly before Aragorn takes the Paths of the Dead, he is joined by a contingent of his people accompanied by Arwen's brothers, Elladan and Elrohir, who bring him a gift from Arwen: a banner of black cloth. The banner is unfurled at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields to reveal the emblem of Elendil figured in "mithril", gems, and gold; this becomes the first triumphant public announcement of the king's return.  After the ring is destroyed, Aragorn becomes king of Arnor and Gondor. Arwen arrives at Minas Tirith, and they are married. She gives Frodo the Evenstar: her necklace with a white stone, to aid him when his injuries trouble him.  Arwen is a minor character in "The Lord of the Rings", but she serves as inspiration and motivation for Aragorn, who must become King of both Arnor and Gondor before Elrond will allow her to marry him.  "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" relates that Aragorn and Arwen had a son, Eldarion, and at least two unnamed daughters. One year after Aragorn's death, Arwen dies at the age of 2,901.

Background.

Through her father, Elrond, Arwen was the granddaughter of Eärendil the Mariner (the second of the Half-elven), great-granddaughter of Tuor of Gondolin, and therefore a direct descendant of the ancient House of Hador. Through her great-grandmother, Idril, Arwen was also a descendant of King Turgon of the Noldor. Through her mother, she was the granddaughter of Lady Galadriel and the great-granddaughter of Finarfin. Éomer of Rohan said that the Lady Arwen was fairer than the Lady Galadriel of Lórien, but Gimli son of Glóin thought differently. Through both of her parents, Arwen was a direct descendant of the ancient Elven House of Finwë. Furthermore, Arwen was a descendant of Beren and Lúthien Tinúviel, whose story resembled hers. Indeed, Arwen was held to be the reappearance in likeness of her ancestor Lúthien, fairest of all the Elves, who was called Nightingale (Tinúviel).  Arwen was a very distant relative of her husband Aragorn. Aragorn's ancestor, Elros Tar-Minyatur, the first King of Númenor, was her father Elrond's brother, who chose to live as a Man rather than as one of the Eldar. Arwen eventually became Queen of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor when she married Aragorn, who was of the line of the Kings of Arnor. By Arwen and Aragorn's marriage, the long-sundered lines of the Half-elven were joined. Their union also served to unite and preserve the bloodlines of the Three Kings of the High Elves (Ingwë, Finwë, and the brothers Olwë and Elwë) as well as the only line with Maiarin blood through Arwen's great-great-great grandmother, Melian, Queen of Doriath, and also on Aragorn's side, through the line of kings of Arnor and Númenor to Elros, Elrond's brother, whose great-great-grandmother was also Melian.

Concept and creation.

As related in "The History of Middle-earth", Tolkien conceived the character of "Elrond's daughter" late in the writing. Prior to this, he considered having Aragorn marry Éowyn.

Adaptations.

Arwen does not appear in Ralph Bakshi's 1978 adaptation of "The Lord of the Rings", nor in the 1980 Rankin-Bass adaptation of "The Return of the King".  In Peter Jackson's "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, Arwen is played by Liv Tyler. The films give her a more prominent role than her literary counterpart.  In the first film, Arwen searches for Aragorn and single-handedly rescues Frodo Baggins from the Black Riders at Bruinen, thwarting them with a sudden flood, summoned by an incantation. (In the novel, Elrond summons the flood, and Glorfindel takes Frodo to Rivendell.) During this flight Arwen wields the sword Hadhafang, which according to film merchandise was once wielded by her father and had belonged to his grandmother Idril Celebrindal. In the film adaptation of "", the injured Aragorn is revived by a dream or vision of Arwen, who kisses him and asks the Valar to protect him.  Throughout the films Elrond begs her to accompany her kin to the Undying Lands because he does not wish to see another of his family die. Elrond shows her a vision of her sorrow-filled life after Aragorn's death, and tells her that only death awaits her in Middle-earth. Arwen reluctantly departs for Valinor. However, on the road to the Grey Havens she has a vision of her future son, Eldarion, which belies her father's one-sided prophecy. She returns to Rivendell, where Elrond admits that her mortal life will have happiness as well as grief, though he stresses that Sauron's rising power means that future is growing more and more distant. Arwen convinces her father to reforge the sword Narsil for Aragorn so that he can reclaim the throne of the King. Elrond initially refuses, but eventually agrees when Arwen begins to fall ill through her loss of immortality.  Elrond takes Narsil, reforged as Andúril, to Aragorn at Dunharrow, and tells him that Arwen's fate has become bound to the One Ring, and that she is dying. In the extended version of "The Return of the King", Sauron (through a "palantír") shows Aragorn a dying Arwen in order to dissuade him from battle. After Sauron's defeat, however, Aragorn reunites with Arwen at his coronation. The movies portray her as becoming human through her love for Aragorn; as in the novel, Arwen follows the choice of her ancestor Lúthien to become a mortal woman for the love of a mortal man.  The movies introduce a jeweled pendant called the "Evenstar" which Arwen gives to Aragorn as a token of their love. A similar pendant appears in the short story "The Jewel of Arwen" by Marion Zimmer Bradley, although in that story Arwen gives it to "the Ring-Bearer" rather than to Aragorn. In Tolkien's novel, Arwen gives Frodo "a white gem like a star...hanging upon a silver chain" before he leaves Minas Tirith, saying, "When the memory of the fear and the darkness troubles you...this will bring you aid".  In earlier versions of the script, when the movies were supposed to be filmed in two parts under another production company, Arwen fought in the Battle of Helm's Deep and brought the sword Andúril to Aragorn. Some scenes of Arwen fighting in Helm's Deep were filmed before both the film's writers (with Liv Tyler's approval) reconsidered the change and deleted her from the sequence.  In the musical theatre adaptation of "Lord of the Rings", Arwen sings the Prologue, as well as three musical numbers: "The Song of Hope", "Star of Eärendil" (with the Elven chorus) and "The Song of Hope Duet" (with Aragorn).  In the 2009 fan film "The Hunt for Gollum", Arwen is played by Rita Ramnani; she appears as a vision to Aragorn after he is wounded by an orc weapon.  In the Mythopoeic Society's "Tolkien on Film: Essays on Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings" (Mythopoeic Press, 2005), Cathy Akers-Jordan, Jane Chance, Victoria Gaydosik, and Maureen Thum all contend that the portrayal of Arwen and other women in the Jackson films is thematically faithful to or compatible with Tolkien's writings, despite the differences.  John Howe's rendition of Arwen for the "Lord of the Rings" board game was inspired by French actress Isabelle Adjani.

Namesakes.

The International Astronomical Union names all colles (small hills) on Saturn's moon Titan after characters in Tolkien's work. In 2012, they named a hilly area "Arwen Colles" after Arwen.

Arwen Undómiel is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium. She appears in the novel "The Lord of the Rings", usually published in three volumes. Arwen is one of the half-elven (Peredhil) who lived during the Third Age.

Arwen Undómiel (241 Třetího věku – 121 Čtvrtého věku, bylo jí 2 901 let) je literární postavou v knize J. R. R. Tolkiena Pán prstenů. Byla nejmladší dcerou Elronda a Celebrían a vnučkou Paní Galadriel. Patřila mezi půlelfy a měla tak možnost volby, zda bude počítána mezi elfy nebo lidi. Odložila svou elfskou nesmrtelnost, aby si mohla vzít Aragorna a zemřít s ním. Arwen žila ve Třetím věku v Roklince. V sindarštině Arwen znamená "Vznešená paní". Její přízvisko "Undómiel" znamená "Večernice", proto je nazývána též "Arwen Večernice".