Rediscovery.

In 1932, George Palmer, a pilot flying between Las Vegas, Nevada and Blythe, California noticed the Blythe geoglyphs. His find led to a survey of the area in 1932 by Arthur Woodward, Curator of History and Anthropology at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. Malcolm J. Rogers subsequently studied and sketched the Blythe Intaglios in 1939. After National Geographic published an article about the Blythe Intaglios in 1952, people began to visit the site which led to some destruction of the intaglios. The interest in the Blythe intaglios lead to the search for and discovery of more desert intaglios. The Bureau of Land Management erected fences in 1974 to protect the intaglios and the Blythe Intaglios were placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.  Similar intaglios, named the Ripley Group, were found nearby in Arizona across the Colorado River from Ripley, California.

Topock Maze.

The Topock Maze or Mojave Maze, another geoglyph site near Needles, California, covers and consists of a series of parallel windrows approximately five feet apart. However, it is unclear whether the Topock Maze was created by Native Americans.  Edward Curtis reported in 1908 that, "The Mohave Indians near by have utilized the area... in recent years, as a maze into which to lure and escape evil spirits, for it is believed that by running in and out through one of these immense labyrinths, one haunted with a dread may bewilder the spirit occasioning it, and thus elude them." Similarly, an unpublished mid-20th century report cited second-hand ethnographic information that, prior to 1900, the "Mohave used to put some of their men in the center of the area of alignment and left them to find their way out of the maze without crossing the gravel alignments. By doing this they would leave the devil behind them."  However, Ruth Musser-Lopez reviewed historic and archaeological evidence concerning the "maze" and found strong support for the conjecture that the feature was originally created as a result of late-nineteenth-century gravel harvesting for railroad construction and thus unrelated to the Blythe geoglyphs. For instance, old foot trails exist in undisturbed ground and stop at, but do not cross the lines of gravel indicating that the gravel is more recent than the trails. The Mojave people have denied knowing the origin of the Topock Maze.

Figures.

Patterns and circles at the site suggest that local groups may have danced there. Trails lead to the intaglios and rock alignments and rock cairns are often nearby the intaglios. Ethnographer Boma Johnson has tried to place the figures in context of Yuman oral history and cosmology. From this understanding, the figures portray mythic characters, and are often found where mythic events are thought to have occurred. One of the notable mythic figures is a 20-to-25-meter long humanoid figure located next to a second glyph, this of a quadruped resembling a mountain lion. Additionally, -tall figures bearing a likeness to Mastamho and Kataar, the "hero twins of the creation myth," can be seen near Fort Mojave in Arizona.  Some researchers hypothesize that the intaglios are stopping points on a keruk pilgrimage or simply the practice of the keruk ceremony at various places. The keruk was a mourning ceremony that was practiced by various Native Americans in southern California. The keruk included the reenactment of the creator's death and the recognition of the people who had died since the last keruk. Warfare has been offered a possible explanation as to the spread along the Colorado River of ceremonies such as the keruk and the similar style of desert intaglios.  Of the nearly 60 sites containing humanoid figures, almost all of them have a deeply entrenched torso, while the limbs are much more shallowly etched into the surface. Often, the head and/or one or more arms of the figure will not have been represented at all. The largest human figure is 171 feet (52 m) long, while the smallest is 95 feet (29 m) long.

Location.

The majority of the Blythe geoglyphs are located north of Blythe, California, off Highway 95, at the Interstate 10 exit and down several dirt roads for. An historical marker (No. 101) placed by the California Department of Public Works, Division of Highways, commemorates the site. Chain link fences surround several of the figures. The intaglios were featured prominently in the Hardy Boys novel "Mystery of the Desert Giant"', published in 1961.

The Blythe Intaglios or Blythe Geoglyphs are a group of gigantic figures incised on the ground near Blythe, California in the Colorado Desert. The ground drawings or geoglyphs were created by humans for an, as of yet, unknown reason.

Obrazce v Blythe (anglicky "Blythe Intaglios") je skupina velkých kreseb postav na zemském povrchu. Nacházejí se asi 24 kilometrů od kalifornského městečka Blythe nedaleko toku řeky Colorado, kde při pohledu z výšky utvářejí komplexní obraz. Podobné kresby se nacházejí v Peru na plošině Nazca. Obrazce jsou velmi staré a podle tvrzení Indiánů z kmene Quechan představují božstva. Největší postava, nazývaná "Mastamho" a zobrazující člověka s rozpřaženýma rukama, měří 52 metrů.


History.

It was the only channel in France for 28 years, and has often changed its name since the creation of Radio-PTT Vision on 26 April 1935, making it one of the oldest television stations in the world, and one of the very few prewar television stations to remain in existence to the present day. It became Radiodiffusion nationale Télévision (RN Télévision) in 1937, Fernsehsender Paris (Paris Television) during German occupation in 1943, RDF Télévision française in 1944, RTF Télévision in 1949, la Première chaîne de la RTF in 1963 following the creation of the second channel, la Première chaîne de l'ORTF in 1964 and finally Télévision Française 1 (TF1) in 1975.

Radio-PTT Vision (1935–1937).

Radio-PTT Vision began operations on 26 April 1935 as the first television station in France, using a 30-line mechanical television system based on the Nipkow disk. It was operated by the French PTT agency with a transmitter located atop the Eiffel Tower, and was on air three days a week from 11 am to 11:30 am and 8 pm to 8:30 pm and on Sundays from 5:30 pm to 7:30 pm. On 4 January 1937 the broadcasting hours were changed such that television programmes were aired from 5 pm until 10 pm Wednesdays to Fridays, and from 4 pm to 8:30 pm or 9 pm Saturdays to Tuesdays.

Radiodiffusion nationale Télévision (1937–1939).

Following successful trials of a "high-definition" 455-line electronic television system designed by Thomson-Houston which improved on the 405-line system originally designed by EMI-Marconi, Radio-PTT Vision renamed itself as Radiodiffusion nationale Télévision (RN Télévision) in July 1937. However, broadcasts using the Nipkow disk system continued alongside the new electronic system until 10 April 1938. In July 1938, a decree of the French PTT agency fixed the French terrestrial television standard as transmitting on 455 lines VHF (46 MHz, positive modulation, 25 frames per second), to be adopted throughout France within three years. The adoption of the electronic standard marked the end of mechanical television in France, and the advent of electronic television to obtain much better image quality. RN Télévision abruptly stopped broadcasts on 3 September 1939 following the entry of France into the Second World War.

Fernsehsender Paris (1943–1944).

Television broadcasts resumed in occupied France on 7 May 1943 as Fernsehsender Paris, under the control of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht. It was on air in German and French four days a week from 10 am to noon, three days a week from 3 pm to 8 pm and every evening from 8:30 pm to 10 pm. Fernsehsender Paris stopped broadcasts on 12 August 1944, one week before the liberation of Paris.

RDF Télévision française (1944–1949).

Television broadcasts in France resumed on 1 October 1944 under the name "Télévision française", and following the creation of "Radiodiffusion française" on 23 March 1945 the television service was renamed as RDF Télévision française. Following the return of the Eiffel Tower to the French after being in American administration following the liberation of Paris, on 1 October 1945 the official resumption of television broadcasts took place with one hour of programming each day. On 20 November 1948, the Secretary of State for Information, François Mitterrand decreed the adoption of the 819-line high-definition VHF standard, which was in use from 1949 until 1983.

RTF Télévision (1949–1964).

"Radiodiffusion française" was renamed as "Radiodiffusion-télévision française" (RTF) on 9 February 1949, and thus began the growth of television as an accepted mass medium in France. On 29 May 1949 the first news programme aired on RTF TV, and on 30 July 1949 a television licence fee was introduced. Residents living outside Paris could view RTF TV for the first time in February 1952 when Télé Lille (now known as France 3 Nord-Pas-de-Calais), a regional broadcaster operating since 10 April 1950 was co-opted into the RTF TV network and became RTF's first relay outside Paris.

Première chaîne de l'ORTF (1964–1975).

Following the creation of "RTF Télévision 2" (now France 2) in 1963, the first channel was renamed as "Première chaîne de la RTF" (First Channel of the RTF), which was renamed as "Première chaîne de l'ORTF" (First Channel of the ORTF) when the ORTF was created on 25 July 1964. This period marked the introduction of commercial advertising on "Première chaîne de l'ORTF" which began on 1 October 1968. On 8 January 1969, the ORTF created a subsidiary company called "Régie française de publicité" (RFP) to handle all advertising on the ORTF channels.

TF1 (since 1975).

TF1 (which originally stood for "Télévision Française 1" (French Television 1)), was created on 1 January 1975 when law 74-696 7 August 1974 (which split the ORTF into 7 organisations) came into effect, and the rebranding from "Première chaîne de l'ORTF" to TF1 came into effect on 6 January 1975. A new multicoloured logo for TF1 created by Catherine Chaillet came out that same year along with cel-animated idents, and from 1976 until 1985 analogue computer-generated idents produced using the Scanimate system were used on TF1, created by the American company Robert Abel and Associates with background music composed by Vladimir Cosma. The 1975 TF1 logo was later modified in 1984 and again in 1987. Colour television were first introduced to TF1 on 1 September 1975 when FR3 (now France•3) agreed to supply some of its colour programming to TF1, and the conversion to colour on TF1 was completed in late-1977. Since TF1's privatisation in 1987, the abbreviation is no longer expanded, so as to avoid confusion with the government-owned television broadcaster France Télévisions. The channel was also broadcast in Italy alongside La Chaîne Info on digital terrestrial television from 2004 to December 2006 on "Dfree" multiplex. TF1's current logo was unveiled on 2 February 1990, replacing the old logo.

Programmes.

International.

Dubbed and sometimes also subtitled; shown under their original titles except where indicated:

Sports.

Motorsport.

In 2005, TF1 launched TF1Vision, a video on demand service.

Criticism.

Some commentators accuse TF1 of being an excessively populist, commercialised channel. There is a clear emphasis on "light" entertainment programmes over more serious content, and the channel's success is sometimes seen as being founded on the "ménagères de moins de 50 ans" (housewives under 50) audience segment. Certainly, a large proportion of the schedule consists of gameshows, sensational documentaries and dubbed versions of TV series. The channel's news service is perceived as consisting of more celebrity news and human-interest stories than its public-sector competitors.  On 16 April 2009, the employee responsible for the "Web innovation" department was fired for criticizing the HADOPI law in a private email (on 19 February) sent to a Member of Parliament. The management of TF1 was notified about the e-mail by the Ministry for Culture and Communication, whom Ministry Christine Albanel is also one the authors of the HADOPI law.  In 2004 Patrick Le Lay, CEO of TF1 made the following statement about the channel's aims: There are many ways to speak about TV, but in a business perspective, let's be realistic: at the basis, TF1's job is helping Coca-Cola, for example, to sell its product. What we sell to Coca-Cola is available human brain time. Nothing is more difficult than obtaining this availability. This is where permanent change is located. We must always look out for popular programs, follow trends, surf on tendencies, in a context in which information is speeding up, getting manifold and trivialized.  Critics of TF1 also contend that its news coverage is slanted towards supporting right-wing politicians – they were in particular accused of supporting Édouard Balladur in the 1995 presidential elections, and of overstating crime during the 2002 electoral campaign to tilt the balance in favour of former French president Jacques Chirac, who campaigned on a law and order platform.  Key figures within TF1 are close friends to some of the most powerful politicians in France, and the relationship between Bouygues and the public-sector contracting system often raises suspicions. Nicolas Sarkozy (president between 2007 and 2012) is a frequent guest of the channel, and is seen as being given an easier ride than on other networks. Immigration and violence are arguably conflated in the channel's news programmes. In addition, it is occasionally alleged that news reports from TF1 tend to ignore issues yielding a bad light on their parent group (Bouygues), while stressing the problems of competitors (such as Vinci SA).  Such criticism is heavy in the satirical show "Les Guignols de l'info", broadcast on rival network Canal+. However, TF1 now competes in this category with M6, which was initially a generalist channel focusing on musical programmes, but now has programming more resembling TF1 (notably, reality shows that TF1 started running just after M6 introduced them).

TF1 ("té ef un", ; meaning "Télévision française une") is a French free-to-air television channel, controlled by TF1 Group, whose major share-holder is Bouygues. TF1's average market share of 24% makes it the most popular domestic network. Flagship series broadcast on the channel include "", "" and "House M.D."

Télévision française 1, známější pod zkratkou TF1, je první a nejstarší francouzský televizní kanál. Vznikl dne 1. ledna 1975 po zániku Kanceláře pro francouzské rádiové a televizní vysílání (Office de radiodiffusion télévision française). Televize začala vysílat dne 6. ledna 1975.


Plot.

Upon watching the news about the miners' strike, gay activist Mark Ashton realises that the police have stopped harassing the gay community because their attention is elsewhere. He spontaneously arranges a bucket collection for the miners during the Gay Pride Parade in London. Encouraged by the success, he founds "Lesbians and Gays Support the Miners". Among its first members are 20-year old closeted student Joe Cooper and an older gay couple Gethin and Jonathan, whose bookshop (called Gay's the Word) they use as headquarters.  LGSM faces opposition from the mining community who do not wish to associate with them, as well as within the gay community who feel that the miners have mistreated them in the past. Frustrated by the lack of response, the activists instead decide to take their donations directly to a small mining village named Onllwyn in Wales. Dai Donovan, spokesperson for the miners in Onllwyn, comes to London to meet their new allies. Though he is startled by the revelation of what "L" and "G" stand for in their name, he expresses his gratitude in a short, eloquent speech at a gay bar and the cause takes off.  In Onllwyn, the Women's Support group led by Hefina Headon and Maureen Barry debate whether to invite LGSM to the village as a thank you; Hefina's camp favours gratitude from all camps, whilst Maureen's camp considers the gays abhorrent. First-time volunteer Siân James speaks up fiercely in favour of inviting LGSM and is asked to join the committee. When LGSM arrives in Onllwyn, they are met with a frosty reception and Maureen leads a walkout after Mark's speech to the village. However, the next day Jonathan shares with Siân his knowledge of harassment laws and abuse of police power; the fiery Siân marches down to the police station to demand the release of illegally detained miners. Many grateful miners acknowledge LGSM's role in their release, relations begin to thaw and the two communities quickly become close. Finding herself on the outside, Maureen contacts a tabloid about the situation in Onllwyn. The resulting story humiliates The National Union of Miners, who call a vote on whether to accept LGSM's support.  Back in London, Mark declares that they will embrace the labels in the tabloid and throws an enormous concert at the Electric Ballroom headlined by Bronski Beat, attended by Dai, Hefina and a number of the women from the village. Mark is badly shaken when he encounters a former lover who implies that he is terminal with AIDS. The festival "Pits and Perverts" raises thousands of pounds for Onllwyn, but the Union vote moves forward three hours without notice, and without Dai or Hefina, Maureen's camp succeeds in voting to refuse further help from LGSM. Disillusioned and haunted, Mark abandons LGSM. Gethin, who initially refused to participate due to his own experience coming out in a mining village, attempts to campaign alone and is violently assaulted and hospitalised. Joe is outed when his parents find photos from Onllwyn and he is kept away from the group.  In March 1985, the Miners' Strike is over. The miners of Onllwyn gather to go back into the mines. Joe sees the news and sneaks off to Onllwyn to show solidarity, where he encounters Mark. Mark confronts Joe about hiding his activism and homosexuality from his parents. When Siân drives Joe home in the LGSM donated van, humiliating his conservative family, Joe decides to leave home.  On the morning of the 1985 Gay Pride Parade, Mark returns to the group and apologises for abandoning the cause. He leads LGSM to the Parade, where they are joined by hundreds of miners in a show of solidarity. The closing scenes reveal that the Labour Party incorporated rights for gays and lesbians in their party programme under pressure from the National Union of Mineworkers, Siân was later elected to Parliament and that Mark Ashton died of AIDS two years later.

Cast.

LGSM members  Women's Support Group members  Other characters

Release.

Cinema release.

"Pride" premiered at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival, where it received a standing ovation and won the Queer Palm award. The film was also screened at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival, with the "Washington Post" reporting that "Pride" was "hugely popular with preview and festival audiences". It was released to cinemas throughout the UK on 12 September 2014. In France the film received its release on 17 September. The film was in the UK and France by Pathé, with the title being distributed through Pathé's British distribution partner 20th Century Fox. CBS Films acquired the distribution rights for the film in the United States.  The film received a limited release in the US on 26 September 2014, being screened in New York City, Los Angeles and San Francisco.

Controversies.

In the UK the film received a 15 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification for "occasional strong language" and two scenes of a sexual nature, one scene in a gay club where men are depicted "wearing 'bondage' clothing", and a comedic scene where some of the characters discover a pornographic magazine in a bedroom. The MPAA gave the film an R rating, the nearest US equivalent to the UK's 15 certificate. (This reflects common practice; the British Film Institute states that "most" 15 certificate films are R-rated in the US.) "The Independent" published an article calling the MPAA's rating "draconian", alleging that the R rating's higher age restriction ("no unaccompanied under-17s") was specifically applied due to gay content. "The Independent"s article formed the basis for a "Guardian" article which further compounded the issue by mistakenly stating that the MPAA had given the film an NC-17 rating. This error was corrected a few days later.  In January 2015, it was reported that the cover of the US DVD release of the film makes no mention of the gay content. A standard description of "a London-based group of gay and lesbian activists" was reduced to "a group of London-based activists", and a lesbian and gay banner was removed from a photograph on the back cover.

Reception.

Box office.

In its opening weekend "Pride" took £718,778 at the UK box office. The film was the third highest-grossing release of the weekend, behind "Lucy" in second place and "The Boxtrolls", which debuted at the top of the box office. During its second weekend at the UK box office "Pride" retained its third-place position on the charts, with takings of £578,794. "The Guardian" reported that the film had a drop of just 12% in takings during its second weekend at the box office, as well as a strong weekday performance at the box office, commenting: "After a somewhat shaky start, Matthew Warchus' film is displaying signs of solid traction with audiences." In its third weekend at the UK box office, "Pride" dropped to sixth in the charts with takings of £400,247 over the weekend period. By its fourth weekend "Pride" had dropped to tenth place in the box office, with takings of £248,654 and an overall UK gross totalling £3,265,317.  In the US, "Pride" grossed £84,800 from six theatres in its opening weekend. The film expanded slowly, adding theatres in existing markets for its second weekend followed by release in additional cities from 10 October.

Critical response.

"Pride" has been met with critical acclaim. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 92% of critics surveyed have given the film a positive review; based on a sample of 127 reviews, with an average score of 7.6 out of 10. The site's consensus reads: "Earnest without being didactic and uplifting without stooping to sentimentality, "Pride" is a joyous crowd-pleaser that genuinely works." Metacritic gave the film an aggregate score of 79/100 based on 36 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews."  Geoffrey Macnab, of "The Independent", noted how "Pride" followed on from other British films such as "The Full Monty", "Brassed Off" and "Billy Elliot" as "a story set in a Britain whose industrial base is being shattered". Macnab, who gave the film a five-star review, praised the screenplay for combining "broad comedy with subtle observation" and noted that director Matthew Warchus "relishes visual contrasts and jarring juxtapositions" throughout the film. Macnab's review stated that "Pride" retained its humour and accessibility without trivialising the issues addressed in the film.  Peter Bradshaw, reviewing for "The Guardian", described the film as "impassioned and lovable". Bradshaw praised performances of the cast, including Bill Nighy's "taciturn shyness" in his portrayal as Cliff and the "dignified and intelligent performance" from Paddy Considine as Dai. Imelda Staunton's performance as Hefina Headon, who died in October 2013, was met with positive reviews by critics. Geoffrey Macnab said Staunton's performance as the matriarchal Hefina was "part Mother Courage and part Hilda Ogden". Ben Schnetzer's performance as Mark Ashton drew positive reviews. Charlotte O'Sullivan, writing for the "London Evening Standard", said: "Schnetzer is a New Yorker with an unpromising CV (he was one of the few good things about "The Book Thief") and he's fantastic here".  Paul Byrnes in "The Sydney Morning Herald" described the film as "dry, surprising, compassionate, politically savvy, emotionally rewarding and stacked to the gills with great actors doing solid work".  Nigel Andrews, writing for the "Financial Times", gave the film one star out of five, describing it as "a parade of tricks, tropes and tritenesses, designed to keep its balance for two hours atop a political correctness unicycle". Andrews's review read, "Nothing in modern history is more amazing than the cultural rebranding of the UK miners’ strike as a heroic crusade, rather than a Luddite last stand for (inter alia) union demagoguery, greenhouse gas and emphysema." A letter to the "Financial Times" in response to Andrews argued that the film underlined Arthur Scargill's "intransigence" during the strike.

Pride is a 2014 British historical comedy-drama film written by Stephen Beresford and directed by Matthew Warchus. Based on a true story, the film depicts a group of lesbian and gay activists who raised money to help families affected by the British miners' strike in 1984, at the outset of what would become the Lesbians and Gays Support the Miners campaign. The alliance was unlike any seen before although ultimately unsuccessful.

Pride (tj. "Hrdost") je britský hraný film z roku 2014, který režíroval Matthew Warchus. Film natočený podle skutečné události vypráví o skupině homosexuálních aktivistů, kteří se v roce 1984 rozhodli podpořit stávkující horníky finanční sbírkou. Snímek měl světovou premiéru na filmovém festivalu v Cannes, kde získal cenu "Queer Palm" a objevil se v sekci "Quinzaine des réalisateurs". V ČR byl uveden v roce 2015.


Career.

1980–1999: Early life and The Melody Makers.

The Melody Makers was formed at the request of their father, Bob Marley, but only after his death did the band come into their own. Their vision, however, was similar to their father's desire to bring people together through music. The band is composed of four of Bob Marley's ten children, vocalist/guitarist Ziggy, vocalist/guitarist/drummer Stephen, vocalist Cedella, and vocalist Sharon. Her young brother Ziggy was the group's leader, with Stephen often sharing in the songwriting and lead vocals.  The group released over ten albums which includes their Grammy-winning albums "Conscious Party", "One Bright Day", and "Fallen Is Babylon". They have scored a number one hit "Tumblin' Down" along with other successful singles "Tomorrow People", "Everyone Wants to Be", "Look Who's Dancin'", and "Power to Move Ya".  In 1989, she made an appearance in the movie "The Mighty Quinn" as "Jody". Her song "I'm Hurting Inside", which features Sheryl Lee Ralph and Cedella Marley, appears on the soundtrack.

2002–present: Disbandment of the Melody Makers and recent work.

In 2002, the group disbanded after their worldwide tour. Sharon now balances her prowess on stage with the Caribbean business of Ghetto Youth United, the Melody Makers support group, and as the curator of the Bob Marley Museum. She is managing director of Total Care Learning Centre (TCLC) on Lady Musgrave Road in Kingston, Jamaica.

Personal life.

Sharon has four children named Donisha, Ingermar, Matthew, and Peter-Shane. She practices yoga and meditates for 15 minutes a day. She also has a husband.

Sharon Marley Prendergast (born 23 November 1964) is a Jamaican singer, dancer, and curator. She is the biological daughter of Rita Marley and was adopted by Bob Marley when the two married. She was in the group Ziggy Marley and the Melody Makers along with her young sister and brothers. With the group, she has won three Grammy awards.

Sharon Marley Prendergast (* 23. listopadu 1964) je jamajská zpěvačka, tanečnice a kurátorka. Je dcerou Rity Marleyové, svého biologického otce nezná. Bob Marley ji adoptoval, když se s Ritou oženil. Byla členem kapely Ziggy Marley and The Melody Makers společně se svými mladšími bratry a sestrami. Se skupinou získala 3 ceny Grammy.


Background and setting.

The novel is Veronica Roth's debut novel and was published a little over a year after Roth graduated with a Bachelor's degree from the Creative Writing program at Northwestern University. Roth wrote the novel during her senior year winter break and sold movie rights to the novel before she graduated. She had been working on the series from Four's point of view but decided that he was not the character she wanted for her series. Four years later, she decided to pick up the novel from a different point of view. Roth wrote the series from Beatrice's point of view.  The novel is set in a post-apocalyptic Chicago. Roth indicated that she did not originally intend to use Chicago as the setting:

Plot.

In post-apocalyptic Chicago (though this is not revealed until "Allegiant"), survivors are divided into five factions: "Abnegation", the selfless; "Amity", the peaceful; "Candor", the honest; "Dauntless", the brave; and "Erudite", the intelligent. All sixteen-year-olds are tested to determine which faction they are best suited for, but select their own faction at the Choosing Ceremony. Those who do not complete initiation become "factionless,” living on the streets.  Sixteen-year-old Beatrice Prior was not able to choose and she took the test. Her inconclusive test results (Abnegation, Dauntless and Erudite) marked her as “Divergent,” and the test administrator Tori warns her never to tell anyone. Agonizing over her future, Beatrice decides to leave Abnegation (her blood) and joined Dauntless. Her brother Caleb chooses Erudite.  The new Dauntless initiates jump onto a moving train to Dauntless headquarters, and are instructed to jump onto the roof. Most make it, but one initiate falls to her death, and another is too afraid to jump. They are then ordered to jump into the compound entrance; Beatrice jumps first. Reaching the bottom, she tells the instructor Four that her name is Tris.  Four explains that, unlike the other factions, who accept all successful initiates, only the top ten Dauntless initiates will stay while the rest become Factionless. Tris befriends several fellow initiates like Christina, Will and Al, but comes into conflict with others like Peter, Drew and Molly. In the first stage of initiation, they are trained in guns, knives and hand-to-hand combat. Despite her lack of physical strength, Tris finishes in sixth place. A relationship emerges between Tris and Four, and Tris is pummeled by Peter in a fight. After the Stage 1 rankings are announced, the second-place Peter stabs first-place Edward in the eye. Edward leaves to become Factionless, followed by his girlfriend Myra. This allows Peter to take Edward's place as the first-place initiate.  On Visiting Day, Tris’ mother tells Tris to stay strong but to not bring too much attention to herself during training.  Erudite stirs dissent against the city's Abnegation leadership and accuses their leader Marcus of abusing his son. The rumors are fueled by the fact that Marcus' son, as well as Tris and Caleb, all left Abnegation, which is also alleged to be hoarding supplies.  The initiates enter Stage 2, facing hallucinations based on their deepest fears. Tris' Divergent abilities give her an advantage and earn her the top rank. Peter, Drew, and Al attack Tris, threatening sexual assault and nearly throwing her to her death, but Four intervenes. Al begs Tris’ forgiveness, but she rejects him; he later commits suicide.  The final stage gathers the initiates’ fears into a simulated “fear landscape,” testing their acquired skills. Tris and Four grow closer, and he lets her into his own fear landscape; she discovers he has only four fears, hence his nickname. In Four's final fear, Tris also learns that he is Marcus' son Tobias, and the claims of abuse were true. Four uncovers Erudite's plans to use Dauntless to stage an attack on Abnegation.  Tris overcomes her fear landscape, and the Dauntless initiates are injected with a "tracking" serum. Tris shares her feelings for Tobias, and is ranked first at the initiation ceremony. The serum transforms the Dauntless into hypnotized soldiers to attack Abnegation. Tris and Tobias' Divergent abilities allow them to remain unaffected by the serum and escape to the Abnegation compound. Tris is shot and they are captured. Erudite leader Jeanine Matthews, mastermind of the attack, injects Tobias with an experimental serum that overrides his Divergence. Under Jeanine's control, Tobias oversees the attack from the Dauntless control room. Tris is almost drowned in a tank, but is rescued by her mother, who reveals she is also Divergent before she is killed whilst helping Tris escape. Tris is forced to kill Will, who attacks her under the influence of the simulation.  She finds her and Tobias' fathers, explaining the truth behind the attack. They fight their way to Dauntless headquarters, where Tris' father sacrifices himself. Tris is attacked by the mind-controlled Tobias; unable to kill him, Tris surrenders, causing Tobias to break free of the serum's control. They shut down the Erudite simulation and free the Dauntless. They rejoin the initiates, and board a train to the Amity sector to find the Abnegation survivors.

Style.

Many reviewers stated that the novel's writing style offers a distinctive, terse prose that creates a fast-paced reading experience. Susan Dominus, writing in "The New York Times" described the style as "brisk pacing, lavish flights of imagination and writing that occasionally startles with fine detail". Abby Nolan, from "The American Prospect", noted that "Divergent" follows the structural and stylistic patterns of "The Hunger Games" and "Blood Red Road".

Themes.

Identity.

As in other children's and young adult fiction, the novel probes placement of authority and identity within the youth's relationship to parents and other social forces. Critic Antero Garcia describes the thematic similarity between these dystopian novels as an interest in the "grasp of power between youth and adult authority" and compared the novel to "Unwind" by Neal Shusterman. In "The New York Times", Susan Dominus stated that "Divergent" "explores a more common adolescent anxiety--the painful realization that coming into one's own sometimes means leaving family behind ideologically and physically". "The Voice of Youth Advocates" agrees, writing that "Divergent" shows the pressure of "having to choose between following in your parents' footsteps or doing something new". Critic Antero Garcia compared the thematic interest in the characters being "forced into limiting constraints of identity and labor associated with their identity" to similar interest in forced identities and labor in the dystopian children's novels "Matched" by Allyson Braithwaite Condie and "The Maze Runner" by James Dashner.

Social structure and knowledge.

Government division of its population into fragmented communities is a frequent device in young adult (YA) and children's fiction. YA classics such as Lois Lowry’s "The Giver", Monica Hughes’s "The Dream Catcher", and Zilpha Snyder’s Green Sky Trilogy use this device to different ends. In her masters thesis, Ashley Ann Haynes describes fractioning of societies within "Divergent" as a supporting comparison with "Hunger Games". Unlike the latter, however, each person can choose which faction they want to join, so long as they follow the rules and pass the tests. Divergent adds a new layer of complexity with its creation of an illusion of democracy for participants in its fractioned society, with the factions controlled by outside forces.  The basis of the social structure in "Divergent" is that each faction fulfils a role in society. If one cannot contribute to society, they are cast aside to become "factionless" and are deprived of access to an identity and resources. In a journal article, Andrea Burgos-Mascarell compares the factionless to illegal immigrants, as they do not have access to certain public services either. Both are marginalised from society because they are unable to contribute to it.  Some reviews criticize the lack of depth and realism of the social structures within the novel. "Kirkus Reviews" called the social structure a "preposterous premise". "Booklist" called the structure a "simplistic, color-coded world [that] stretches credibility on occasion". In a review for the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater's student newspaper "Royal Purple News", Abrielle Backhaus notes how the "entire system seems insubstantial" and asks rhetorically "How could it be possible for any individual, with his or her infinite emotions and experiences, to be condensed to one single quality to tolerate for the rest of their lives and to choose at the mere age of 16?" In an interview Roth describes the social structure to have expanded from her initial conception, adding Candor to fill "a gap in the reasoning behind the world that needed to be filled".  Social structure most affects the novel's themes by socially dividing different knowledge types that characters can access. In her book chapter exploring how literacy in different knowledge types affects the series, Alice Curry describes the factions, and character indoctrination in those factions, as deliberately creating knowledge gaps between initiates to different factions. Because of the initiation process, the characters become illiterate in the knowledge valued by the other factions. Tris's "divergence" allows her to be successful because she can become literate in a broad set of knowledges and information types, and thus she becomes more admirable to the reader. Curry argues that Jeanine's leadership within Erudite represents an academic ivory tower that alienates other types of knowledge, thus the book critiques academic learning, in favor of the broader knowledge embodied by Tris. Curry compares the novel to Julie Bertagna's 2002 "Exodus", describing both as using spaces and landscapes where knowledge is learned to critique "crumbling knowledge institutions", like academic spaces, that "dissemble" knowledge instead of facilitating deeper holistic knowledge literacies that create "understanding".

Violence and fear.

Like "The Hunger Games", "Divergent" depicts considerable violence for a Young Adult novel. The "Publishers Weekly" review emphasized this stylistic choice, calling it "edgy" and describing the initiation rituals that Tris endures "as spellbinding as they are violent [requiring] sadistic tests of strength and courage". But, as Susan Dominus points out, the novel does not keep this violence at the forefront of reader experience; she writes in "The New York Times", that "Terrible things happen to the people Tris loves, yet the characters absorb these events with disquieting ease. Here, somehow, the novel's flights from reality distance the reader from the emotional impact that might come in a more affecting realistic (or even fantasy) novel."  When describing her inspiration for the Dauntless training their initiates through exposing them to their fears, Roth, in an interview for the website "PopSugar", says, though influenced by many sources, the most important was her "Psych 101 my first year of college [where] I learned about exposure therapy, which is when they treat people with fear, like for anxiety. It exposes them repeatedly to what they're afraid of, and gradually you become less afraid of it, or have a healthy level of fear, and I thought of the Dauntless then, because they're conditioning perfectly normal people to get over perfectly rational fears." Daniel Kraus's "Booklist" review of the novel described the intense psychological pressure as like "akin to joining the marines" but also providing the "built-in tension" that makes the novel a compelling read.

Christianity.

Though the novel does not maintain an overtly Christian thematic interest, some readers place the novel's themes within this context because of Roth's professed religiosity. In the postscript "Acknowledgements", Roth emphasizes her Christian faith saying "Thank you, God, for your Son and for blessing me beyond comprehension." For some reviewers this element of Roth's lifestyle is important to the novel's impact; for example, when reviewing the novel for the Christian Ministry "Break Point", Sherry Early describes Roth as "a Christian" and the novel setting as "post-feminist, maybe even Christian". She also says that though the novel is "not overtly Christian", it follows a "Christian point of view" because it "fight[s] against the restrictions placed upon her by a controlling and totalitarian state" and because "Tris must also explore the cracks and imperfections within her own psyche." K. B. Hoyle also acknowledges that the novel would have a "Christian message", when reviewing it for the Evangelical book review organization The Gospel Coalition. However, Hoyle criticizes the novel for using profane terminology and for never "clarify[ing] what the practices are supposed to mean".  Reviewers outside the Christian community have also noticed the Christian context of the novel. In a review of the book and first movie, David Edelstein observed the book's treatment of intellectuals as following a tendency in Christian culture to question genetic modification and majority: the intellectual Erudite faction are largely depicted as control-hungry villains pitted against the Abnegation faction, who are depicted as righteous and merciful. He wrote "The novelist, Veronica Roth, reserves her loathing for the 'Erudites', who spend their days in intellectual pursuit," and that the trend of intellectualism (thinking without feeling) "makes people apt to seize power and impose Maoist-like uniformity on entire populations — on pain of death."

Reception.

"Divergent" has received mostly positive reviews. In a review in "The New York Times", Susan Dominus wrote that it was "rich in plot and imaginative details", but also that, compared to other such books in the same genre as the "Hunger Games" trilogy, it did "not exactly distinguish itself". In a review for "Entertainment Weekly", Breia Brissey said that it was "flimsier and less nuanced" than "The Hunger Games" but was good, giving it a B+ rating. Similarly, though critiquing the "simplistic, color-coded world", "Booklist" reviewer Daniel Kraus positively concluded that the novel was full of "gutsy action and romance" and called it a "spin on "Brave New World"". "Kirkus" said it was "built with careful details and intriguing scope". Common Sense Media commented on the book's "deep messages about identity and controlling societies" and on the "unstoppable plot that's remarkably original". It was rated 5 out of 5 stars and given an age 13+ rating.  The book debuted at number six on "The New York Times" Children's Chapter Books Best Seller list on May 22, 2011, and remained on the list for 11 weeks. It also spent 39 weeks on the Children's Paperback list in 2012, reaching number one. The Times changed its Children's Best Seller lists in December 2012, eliminating the Children's Paperback list and recognizing "middle grade" and "young adult" books separately; "Divergent" continued its run on the new Young Adult Best Seller list. The novel stayed on the list for 47 weeks until November 3, 2013. According to "Publishers Weekly", the combined three volumes of the Divergent series sold over 6.7 million copies in 2013 (three million hardcovers, 1.7 million paperbacks, and just under two million e-books). In the lead up to the release of the film adaptation, Roth's novel topped "USA Today"s Best-Selling Books list in January 2014.  "Divergent" won Favorite book of 2011 in 2011's Goodreads Readers Choice Awards, and won the senior category of the 2014 Young Reader's Choice Award. It was also number one in the Teens' Top Ten Vote, sponsored by YALSA.

Film adaptation.

Summit Entertainment bought the rights to film an adaptation of the novel in 2011. Summit recruited Neil Burger to direct. Initially, Summit gave the film a budget of $40 million, but Lionsgate later increased it to $80 million (which finally changed to $85 million) due to the success of "The Hunger Games".  Shailene Woodley was chosen to star as Beatrice "Tris" Prior. The role of Tobias "Four" Eaton eventually went to Theo James after an extensive search. Kate Winslet was signed as Jeanine Matthews. Also recruited into the cast were Maggie Q as Tori, Zoe Kravitz as Christina, Ansel Elgort as Caleb, Miles Teller as Peter, Ashley Judd as Natalie Prior, Tony Goldwyn as Andrew Prior, and Jai Courtney as Eric.  Filming began in Chicago on April 16, 2013, and concluded on July 16, 2013, with nearly all filming taking place in Chicago. The film was released March 21, 2014, earning $150,947,895 in North America, and $137,228,004 in other areas, for a worldwide total of $288,175,899. The critic aggregating sites Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic both noted the films mixed reviews. However, audience surveyor CinemaScore showed that audiences were very receptive to the film.

Divergent is the debut novel of American novelist Veronica Roth, published by Harper Collins Children's Books in 2011. The novel is the first of the Divergent trilogy, a series of young adult dystopian novels set in a Divergent Universe. The novel "Divergent" features a post-apocalyptic version of Chicago and follows Beatrice "Tris" Prior as she explores her identity within a society that defines its citizens by their social and personality-related affiliation with five factions, which removes the threat of anyone exercising independent will and re-threatening the population's safety. Underlying the action and dystopian focused main plot is a romantic subplot between Tris and one of her instructors in the Dauntless faction, nicknamed Four.

Divergence je román americké spisovatelky Veroniky Rothové, kterým debutovala v roce 2011. Román je prvním dílem trilogie Divergence. Jedná se o dystopickou trilogii určenou pro mládež odehrávající se v odlišném světě. Román se odehrává v post-apokalyptické verzi Chicaga a sleduje Beatrice "Tris" Priorovou, jak objevuje vlastní identitu ve společnosti, která svoje obyvatele definuje podle jejich charakteristických znaků do pěti frakcí. Každého, kdo projeví nezávislou vůli, pak stíhá v proklamovaném zájmu bezpečnosti společnosti. Vedle hlavní akční dějové linky se zde objevuje také romantická zápletka mezi Tris a jejím instruktorem z frakce Neohrožených přezdívaným Čtyřka. Román je srovnáván s ostatními knihami pro mládež jako je Hunger games nebo – jednak kvůli podobnému tématu, jednak kvůli stejné cílové skupině čtenářů. Fikce pro mládež má společná témata jako autoritu dospělých a přechod od dětství k dospělosti, stejně jako obecnější motivy násilí a sociálních struktur v post-apokalyptické společnosti. Rozdělení společnosti podle osobnostních typů jako hlavní téma používá nejedna sci-fi práce. Za literárním konceptem se Rothová otevřeně vyjadřuje o svém křesťanství. Řada křesťanských komunit její práci podporuje.


Biography.

Early years.

Balthus was born in Paris, in 1908, to Polish expatriate parents. His given name was Balthasar Klossowski – his sobriquet "Balthus" was based on his childhood nickname, alternately spelled Baltus, Baltusz, Balthusz or Balthus.  His father, Erich Klossowski, was an art historian who wrote a noted monograph on Honoré Daumier. Erich grew up in the town of Ragnit in East Prussia, now part of Russia but then in the German Empire. According to Balthus he belonged to the former Polish petty nobility (the drobna szlachta) and his family bore the Rola coat of arms. This largely undocumented family background would later be appropriated by Balthus when he decided to use the surname "Klossowski de Rola". (Had he lived in Poland, the arrangement of the name would have been Rola-Kłossowski or Kłossowski h. Rola). Balthus had the Rola arms embroidered onto many of his kimonos, in the style of a Japanese kamon.  Balthus's mother Elisabeth Dorothée Spiro Klossowska (known as Baladine Klossowska) was descended from Russian Jews who had emigrated to East Prussia. In the catalogue of the Metropolitan Museum of Art's 1984 Balthus exhibition, she was described as the daughter of a cantor from Kovelitz in Novgorod in the Russian Empire. However, Balthus told his biographer Nicholas Fox Weber that this was erroneous, and that his mother came "apparently from a Protestant family in the south of France". But according to Weber, this was a confabulation on Balthus's part. In fact, Balthus would often embroider upon his story of his mother's ancestry, saying that she was also related to the Romanovs and the Narischkins, powerful aristocratic families of Russia. In another confabulatory twist, Weber reports that Baladine's lover, the poet Rainer Maria Rilke, had said that the Spiros were descended from one of the richest families of Sephardic Jews, that is that they were of Spanish, not Eastern European origin. Weber doubted this story too, since Balthus's son Fumio, born in the late 1960s, had Tay–Sachs disease, a genetic disorder commonly associated with Eastern European Jews.  Balthus's older brother Pierre Klossowski (born 1905) later became a noted writer and philosopher.  The Klossowski children grew up in an art-world environment, with frequent visits to their household by famous artists and writers, including Rilke, André Gide (who mentored Pierre), and Jean Cocteau (who would depict the family in scenes of his 1929 novel "Les Enfants Terribles"). The artists Maurice Denis and Pierre Bonnard were also visitors, as was the art dealer Pierre Matisse. The children had a Scottish nanny, and Balthus would later say that his first language was English, although his parents spoke German to one another.  Overall, Balthus had an idyllic memory of these early childhood years, which were disrupted when the first world war forced the family to leave Paris in 1914, shortly after the war began, in order to avoid deportation due to their German citizenship. They settled in Switzerland, near Geneva.  In 1917 his parents separated, and his mother moved with the two boys to Geneva. They lived in a modest flat at 11, rue Pré-Jérôme, a comfortable neighborhood. About a year later his mother became the lover of Rilke. Balthus undoubtedly experienced this replacement of his father as a fairly traumatic event, especially given the romantic ecstasies and agonies of his mother's relationship with Rilke, which probably made him feel jealous and abandoned. However, Rilke was very impressed with the young "Baltusz"'s artistic talent, and helped him to publish his first work in 1921, at the age of 13. This was a book titled "Mitsou" which included forty drawings by Balthus and a preface by Rilke. The comic-book-style pictures depicted the story of a young boy who loses his beloved cat. The themes of the story foreshadowed Balthus's lifelong fascination with cats, along with a feeling of loss or disappearance.  At Christmas of 1921, Baladine, financially destitute, moved to Berlin with her children in order to live with her brother.

Young adulthood.

In 1926 Balthus visited Florence, where he copied many frescos by the Renaissance master Piero della Francesca. This inspired an early ambitious work of his: the tempera wall paintings of the Protestant church of the Swiss village of Beatenberg which he executed in 1927.  From 1930 to 1932 Balthus lived in Morocco. He was drafted into the Moroccan infantry in Kenitra and Fes, worked as a secretary, and sketched his painting "La Caserne" (1933).  In 1933 he moved to Paris, taking a studio in the Rue de Furstemberg. Later he would move to another studio at the nearby Cour de Rohan. Balthus showed no interest in modernist styles such as Cubism. His paintings were realistic but introverted, in the manner of the second generation of Surrealist painters such as Salvador Dali, who often used realistic techniques to depict psychological motifs or dream images. Balthus often depicted pubescent girls in erotic and voyeuristic poses. One of the most notorious works from his first exhibition in Paris was "The Guitar Lesson" (1934), which caused controversy due to its sadistic and sexually explicit imagery. It depicts a young girl arched on her back over the lap of her female teacher, whose hands are positioned on the girl as if to play her like a guitar: one hand near her exposed vulva, and the other hand grasping her hair. Other works from the same exhibition included "The Street" (1933), "Cathy Dressing" (1933) and "Alice" (1933).  Early on his work was admired by writers and fellow painters, especially by André Breton and Pablo Picasso. His circle of friends in Paris included the novelists Pierre Jean Jouve, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Joseph Breitbach, Pierre Leyris, Henri Michaux, Michel Leiris and René Char, the photographer Man Ray, the playwright and actor Antonin Artaud, and the painters André Derain, Joan Miró and Alberto Giacometti (one of the most faithful of his friends). In 1948, another friend, Albert Camus, asked him to design the sets and costumes for his play "L'État de Siège" ("The State of Siege", directed by Jean-Louis Barrault). Balthus also designed the sets and costumes for Artaud's adaptation for Percy Bysshe Shelley's "The Cenci" (1935), Ugo Betti's "Delitto all'isola delle capre" (Crime on Goat-Island, 1953) and Barrault's adaptation of "Julius Caesar" (1959–1960).  In 1937 he married Antoinette de Watteville, who was from an influential aristocratic family from Bern. He had met her as early as 1924, and she was the model for the aforementioned "Cathy Dressing" and for a series of portraits. Balthus had two children from this marriage, Thaddeus and Stanislas Klossowski (born 1942), who recently published books on their father, including the letters by their parents. Stanislas, known as "Stash", became a figure in swinging London and Paris in the 1960s.

Champrovent to Chassy.

In 1940, with the invasion of France by German forces, Balthus fled with his wife Antoinette to Savoy to a farm in Champrovent near Aix-les-Bains, where he began work on two major paintings: "Landscape near Champrovent" (1942–1945) and "The Living Room" (1942). In 1942, he escaped from Nazi France to Switzerland, first to Bern and in 1945 to Geneva, where he became a friend of the publisher Albert Skira as well as the writer and member of the French Resistance, André Malraux. Balthus returned to France in 1946 and a year later traveled with André Masson to Southern France, meeting figures such as Picasso and Jacques Lacan, who eventually became a collector of his work. With Adolphe Mouron Cassandre in 1950, Balthus designed stage decor for a production of Mozart's opera Così fan tutte in Aix-en-Provence. Three years later he moved into the Chateau de Chassy in the Morvan, living with his step-niece Frédérique Tison and finishing his large-scale masterpieces "La Chambre" ("The Room" 1952, possibly influenced by Pierre Klossowski's novels) and "Le Passage du Commerce Saint-André" (1954).

Later years.

As international fame grew with exhibitions in the gallery of Pierre Matisse (1938) and the Museum of Modern Art (1956) in New York City, he cultivated the image of himself as an enigma. In 1964, he moved to Rome where he presided over the Villa de Medici as director (appointed by the French Minister of Culture André Malraux) of the French Academy in Rome, and became a friend of the filmmaker Federico Fellini and the painter Renato Guttuso.  In 1977 he moved to Rossinière, Switzerland. That he had a second, Japanese wife Setsuko Ideta whom he married in 1967 and was thirty-five years his junior, simply added to the air of mystery around him (he met her in Japan, during a diplomatic mission also initiated by Malraux). A son, Fumio, was born in 1968 but died two years later.  The photographers and friends Henri Cartier-Bresson and Martine Franck (Cartier-Bresson's wife) both portrayed the painter and his wife and their daughter Harumi (born 1973) in his Grand Chalet in Rossinière in 1999.  Balthus was one of the few living artists to be represented in the Louvre, when his painting "The Children" (1937) was acquired from the private collection of Pablo Picasso.  He died in Rossinière, Switzerland. Prime ministers and rock stars alike attended his funeral. Bono, lead singer of U2, sang for the hundreds of mourners at the funeral, including the President of France, the Prince Sadruddhin Aga Khan, supermodel Elle Macpherson, and Cartier-Bresson.

Style and themes.

Balthus's style is primarily classical. His work shows numerous influences, including the writings of Emily Brontë, the writings and photography of Lewis Carroll, and the paintings of Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Simone Martini, Poussin, Jean-Étienne Liotard, Joseph Reinhardt, Géricault, Ingres, Goya, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Courbet, Edgar Degas, Félix Vallotton and Paul Cézanne. Although his technique and compositions were inspired by pre-Renaissance painters, there also are eerie intimations of contemporary surrealists like de Chirico. Painting the figure at a time when figurative art was largely ignored, he is widely recognised as an important 20th-century artist.  Many of his paintings show young girls in an erotic context. Balthus insisted that his work was not erotic but that it recognized the discomforting facts of children's sexuality. In 2013, Balthus's paintings of adolescent girls were described by Roberta Smith in "The New York Times" as both "alluring and disturbing".

Influence and legacy.

His work has influenced several contemporary artists, notably Duane Michals and Émile Chambon. He has also influenced the filmmaker Jacques Rivette of the French New Wave, whose film "Hurlevent" (1985) was inspired by Balthus's drawings made at the beginning of the 1930s: "Seeing as he's a bit of an eccentric and all that, I am very fond of Balthus (...) I was struck by the fact that Balthus enormously simplified the costumes and stripped away the imagery trappings (...)".  His widow, Setsuko Klossowska de Rola, heads the Balthus Foundation established in 1998.  A reproduction of Balthus's "Girl at a Window" (a painting from 1957) prominently appears in François Truffaut's film "Domicile Conjugal" ("Bed and Board", 1970). The two principal characters, Antoine Doinel (Jean-Pierre Léaud) and his wife Christine (Claude Jade), are arguing. Christine takes down from the wall a small drawing of about 25×25 cm and gives it to her husband: Christine: "Here, take the small Balthus." Antoine: "Ah, the small Balthus. I offered it to you, it's yours, keep it."  During December 2017, a public petition was circulated requesting that Balthus's painting "Thérèse Dreaming" be removed from display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York due to its alleged explicit content and suggestive portrayal. Philip Kennicott, writing for "The Washington Post" on 5 December 2017, in an article titled "This painting might be sexually disturbing. But that's no reason to take it out of a museum", summarized the museum's long-standing position against censorship. The painting had previously been on display at the Museum Ludwig in Cologne, Germany in 2007 without incident.

Exhibitions.

Balthus held his first exhibition at Galerie Pierre, Paris, in 1934. Following the ensuing scandal, he exhibited at the Pierre Matisse Gallery, New York, from 1938 to 1977, although he never visited the United States. Balthus's first major museum exhibition was at the Museum of Modern Art in 1956. Other museum exhibitions of note include Musée des Arts Decoratifs, Paris (1966); Tate Gallery, London (1968); La Biennale di Venezia (1980); Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago (1980); Musée cantonal des beaux-arts de Lausanne (1993); Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris (1984, traveled to Metropolitan Museum, Kyoto); Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (1984); and Palazzo Grassi, Venice (2001). "Balthus: Cats and Girls: Paintings and Provocations" at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (September 25, 2013 – January 12, 2014) was the first U.S. museum survey of the artist's work in 30 years. A major retrospective overseen by the artist's wife, Ideta Setsuko, was held in 2014 at the Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum. An exhibition of Polaroid photographs taken by Balthus at the Museum Folkwang in Essen, Germany, was canceled over accusations of pedophilia. The German newspaper Die Zeit called the images, which depict a model named Anna from ages eight to 16, “documents of pedophile greed.”

Balthasar Klossowski de Rola (February 29, 1908 – February 18, 2001), known as Balthus, was a Polish-French modern artist. He is known for his erotically charged images of pubescent girls, but also for the refined, dreamlike quality of his imagery.

Balthus, původním jménem Balthasar Klossowski de Rola (29. únor 1908, Paříž – 18. únor 2001, Rossinière) byl polsko-francouzský malíř. Námětem jeho tvorby jsou interiérové žánrové scény a krajinomalba. Balthusovy obrazy jsou naplněné atmosférou tajemna a erotična. Mnohá malířova díla zachycují dospívající dívky v okamžiku snění a jako akty. Balthus se prosadil také jako scénograf.


Biography.

Before becoming a free-thinker, Faure was a seminarist. He engaged in politics as a socialist before turning to anarchism in 1888.  In 1894, he was prosecuted in "The Trial of the thirty" ("Procès des trente"), but was acquitted. In 1895, he cofounded ""Le Libertaire"" with Louise Michel, taking the name of the earlier journal by Joseph Déjacque. At the time of the Dreyfus affair, he was one of the leading supporters of Alfred Dreyfus. In 1904, he created a libertarian school called ""La Ruche"" (The Hive) close to Rambouillet. In 1916, he launched the periodical ""Ce qu'il faut dire"". Faure also co-founded (with Voline) the Synthesis, or also known as synthesis anarchism which was an influential form of conceiving anarchist federations.  In 1918, he was imprisoned for organizing an illegal meeting. He is recognized for his pedagogy and his qualities as a speaker, and is the author of several books:  He was also the founder of the Anarchist encyclopedia, as well as the namesake of the Sébastien Faure Century, the French-speaking contingent of the Durruti Column during the civil war in Spain.

Synthesis anarchism.

The discussion about the Anarchist Synthesis arises in the context of the discussion on the Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists, written by the Dielo Truda group of Russian exiles in 1926.  Two texts made as responses to the Platform, each proposing a different organizational model, became the basis for what is known as the organisation of synthesis, or simply "synthesism". Voline published in 1924 a paper calling for "the anarchist synthesis" and was also the author of the article in Sébastien Faure's "Encyclopedie Anarchiste" on the same topic. The main purpose behind the synthesis was that the anarchist movement in most countries was divided into three main tendencies: communist anarchism, anarcho-syndicalism, and individualist anarchism and so such an organization could contain anarchists of these three tendencies very well.  The platformists wanted to push their ideas forward through organizing an international anarchist congress on 12 February 1927. Shortly later in the National Congress of the French Anarchist Union (UAF), the Dielo Truda Group achieved making their platform more popular and so they made the UAF change its name into Revolutionary Anarcho-Communist Union (UACR). Sébastien Faure led a faction within the UACR that decided to separate themselves from this organization and form outside it the Association of Federalist Anarchists (AFA), thinking that traditional anarchist ideas were being threatened by the Dielo Truda platform. Shortly later in his text "Anarchist synthesis" he exposes the view that "these currents were not contradictory but complementary, each having a role within anarchism: anarcho-syndicalism as the strength of the mass organisations and the best way for the practice of anarchism; libertarian communism as a proposed future society based on the distribution of the fruits of labour according to the needs of each one; anarcho-individualism as a negation of oppression and affirming the individual right to development of the individual, seeking to please them in every way. Sebastian Faure had strong contacts in Spain and so his proposal had more impact with Spanish anarchists than the Dielo Truda platform even though individualist anarchist influence in Spain was less strong than it was in France. The main goal there was reconciling anarcho-communism with anarcho-syndicalism.

Views.

Faure's view of pedagogy was that every single aspect of a human being had to be developed. Faure identified three aspects: physical, mental and moral. He thought that a man or a woman needed to be able to accomplish physical, manual tasks as well as to have a minimum of culture and think and be able to develop ideas. All this in a respectful, mutual, equal and free environment.

La Ruche.

Created in 1904, the source of capital for La Ruche (The Hive) at the beginning was the product of Faure's seminars. It became self-sufficient in three years' time. Its founding principles were similar to Proudhon's Permanent Education and Paul Robin's "good birth, good education and good social organisation."  The three main spheres of pedagogy were fulfilled through classes, work in the field and all the different activities necessary to ensure the self-sufficiency of the Hive. The moral values were implemented through respect of the child's autonomy, positive method, absence of ranking or any form of categorization (except some activities were reserved to particular groups of age), coeducation, and sexual education (all activities being mixed.)

Sébastien Faure (born 6 January 1858 in Saint-Étienne, Loire, France; died 14 July 1942 in Royan, Charente-Maritime, France) was a French anarchist, freethought and secularist activist and a principal proponent of synthesis anarchism.

Sébastien Faure (6. ledna 1858, Saint-Étienne, Francie – 14. července 1942, Royan, Francie) byl francouzský anarchista, volnomyšlenkář, sekularistický aktivista a zastánce syntetického anarchismu.


Taxonomy.

"Felis venatica" was proposed by Edward Griffith in 1821 and based on a sketch of a maneless cheetah from India. Griffith's description was published in "Le Règne Animal" with the help of Griffith's assistant Charles Hamilton Smith in 1827.  "Acinonyx raddei" was proposed by in 1913 for the cheetah population in Central Asia, the Trans-Caspian cheetah. Hilzheimer's type specimen originated in Merv, Turkmenistan.

Evolutionary history.

Results of a five-year phylogeographic study on cheetah subspecies indicate that Asiatic and African cheetah populations separated between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago and are genetically distinct. Samples of 94 cheetahs for extracting mitochondrial DNA were collected in nine countries from wild, seized and captive individuals and from museum specimen. The population in Iran is considered autochthonous monophyletic and the last remaining representative of the Asiatic subspecies.

Characteristics.

The Asiatic cheetah has a buff- to light fawn-coloured fur that is paler on the sides, on the front of the muzzle, below the eyes and inner legs. Small black spots are arranged in lines on the head and nape, but irregularly scattered on body, legs, paws and tail. The tail tip has black stripes. The coat and mane are shorter than of African cheetah subspecies. The head and body of an adult Asiatic cheetah measure about with a long tail. It weighs about. Males are slightly larger than the females.  The cheetah is the fastest land animal in the world. It was previously thought that the body temperature of a cheetah increases during a hunt due to high metabolic activity. In a short period of time during a chase, a cheetah may produce 60 times more heat than at rest, with much of the heat, produced from glycolysis, stored to possibly raise the body temperature. The claim was supported by data from experiments in which two cheetahs ran on a treadmill for minutes on end but contradicted by studies in natural settings, which indicate that body temperature stays relatively the same during a hunt. A 2013 study suggested stress hyperthermia and a slight increase in body temperature after a hunt. The cheetah's nervousness after a hunt may induce stress hyperthermia, which involves high sympathetic nervous activity and raises the body temperature. After a hunt, the risk of another predator taking its kill is great, and the cheetah is on high alert and stressed. The increased sympathetic activity prepares the cheetah's body to run when another predator approaches. In the 2013 study, even the cheetah that did not chase the prey experienced an increase in body temperature once the prey was caught, showing increased sympathetic activity.

Distribution and habitat.

The cheetah thrives in open lands, small plains, semi-desert areas, and other open habitats where prey is available. The Asiatic cheetah mainly inhabits the desert areas around Dasht-e Kavir in the eastern half of Iran, including parts of the Kerman, Khorasan, Semnan, Yazd, Tehran, and Markazi provinces. Most live in five protected areas, viz Kavir National Park, Touran National Park, Bafq Protected Area, Dar-e Anjir Wildlife Refuge, and Naybandan Wildlife Reserve.  During the 1970s, the Asiatic cheetah population in Iran was estimated to number about 200 individuals in 11 protected areas. By the end of the 1990s, the population was estimated at 50 to 100 individuals. During camera-trapping surveys conducted across 18 protected areas between 2001 and 2012, a total of 82 individuals in 15–17 families were recorded and identified. Of these, only six individuals were recorded for more than three years. In this period, 42 cheetahs died due to poaching, in road accidents and due to natural causes. Populations are fragmented and known to survive in the Semnan, North Khorasan, South Khorasan, Yazd, Esfahan, and Kerman Provinces.  In summer 2018, a female cheetah and four cubs were sighted in Touran Wildlife Refuge Iran's Semnan province.

Former range.

The Asiatic cheetah once ranged from the Arabian Peninsula and Near East to Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Pakistan to India.  The population in Turkey was extinct already in the 19th century. In Iraq, the cheetah was still recorded in the desert west of Basrah in 1926. The last record was published in 1991, and it was a cheetah that had been killed by a car. In the Sinai peninsula, a sighting of two cheetahs was reported in 1946. In the Arabian peninsula, it used to occur in the northern and southeastern fringes and had been reported in both Saudi Arabia and Kuwait before 1974. Two cheetahs were killed in the northern Saudi region of Ha'il in 1973. In Yemen, the last known cheetah was sighted in Wadi Mitan in 1963, near the international border with Oman. In Oman's Dhofar Mountains, a cheetah was shot near Jibjat in 1977.  In Central Asia, uncontrolled hunting of cheetahs and their prey, severe winters and conversion of grassland to areas used for agriculture contributed to the population's decline. By the early 20th century, the range in Central Asia had decreased significantly. By the 1930s, cheetahs were confined to the Ustyurt plateau and Mangyshlak Peninsula in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, and to the foothills of the Kopet Dag mountains and a region in the south of Turkmenistan bordering Iran and Afghanistan. The last known record in this area between the Tejen and Murghab Rivers dates to 1957, in the Ustyurt plateau to July 1983, and in the Kopet Dag to November 1984. Officers of the Badhyz State Nature Reserve did not sight a cheetah in this area until 2014; the border fence between Iran and Turkmenistan might impede dispersal.  The cheetah population in Afghanistan decreased to the extent that it has been considered extinct since the 1950s. Two skins were sighted in markets in the country, one in 1971, and another in 2006, the latter reportedly from Samangan Province.  In India, the cheetah occurred in Rajputana, Punjab, Sind, and south of the Ganges from Bengal to the northern part of the Deccan Plateau. It was also present in the Kaimur District, Darrah and other desert regions of Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat and Central India. Akbar the Great was introduced to cheetahs around the mid-16th century and used them for coursing blackbucks, chinkaras and antelopes. He allegedly possessed 1,000 cheetahs during his reign but this figure is exaggerated since there is neither evidence of housing facilities for so many animals, nor of facilities to provide them with sufficient meat every day. Trapping of adult cheetahs, who had already learned hunting skills from wild mothers, for assisting in royal hunts is said to be another major cause of the species' rapid decline in India as there is only one record of a litter ever born to captive animals. By the beginning of the 20th century, wild Asiatic cheetahs were so rare in India, that between 1918 and 1945, Indian princes imported cheetahs from Africa for coursing. Three of India's last cheetahs were shot by the Maharajah of Surguja in 1948. A female was sighted in 1951 in Koriya district, northwestern Chhattisgarh.  In the 2015 update of the IUCN Red List, the Asiatic cheetah is considered regionally extinct in Iraq, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.

Ecology and behaviour.

Most sightings of cheetahs in the Miandasht Wildlife Refuge between January 2003 and March 2006 occurred during the day and near watercourses. These observations suggest that they are most active when their prey is.  Camera-trapping data obtained between 2009 and 2011 indicate that some cheetahs travel long distances. A female was recorded in two protected areas that are about apart and intersected by railway and two highways. Her three male siblings and a different adult male were recorded in three reserves, indicating that they have large home ranges.

Diet.

The Asiatic cheetah preys on medium-sized herbivores including chinkara, goitered gazelle, wild sheep, wild goat and cape hare. In Turan Biosphere Reserve, cheetahs use a wide range of habitats, but prefer areas close to water sources. This habitat overlaps to 61% with wild sheep, 36% with onager, and 30% with gazelle.  In India, prey was formerly abundant. Before its extinction in the country, the cheetah fed on the blackbuck, the chinkara, and sometimes the chital and the nilgai.  Before the end of the 10th Century, in the Trans-Caucasus, when conditions were different, numbers of ungulates like Roe deer and wild boars were large enough to sustain predators like the Asiatic lion and cheetah. Eventually, when the number of humans increased, and environmental conditions changed, the number of ungulates dwindled, thus adversely affecting predators, though the Caspian tiger managed to survive there up to the 20th Century, and the Persian leopard still occurs there. The cheetah may have survived in the Trans-Caucasus up to the 13th Century (Vereshchagin, 1952; Avaliani, 1965).

Reproduction.

Evidence of females successfully raising cubs is very rare. A few observations in Iran indicate that they give birth throughout the year to one to four cubs. In April 2003, four cubs were found in a den that had their eyes still closed. In November 2004, a cub was recorded by a camera-trap that was about 6–8 months old. Breeding success depends on availability of prey. In January 2008, a male cub aged about 7–8 months was recovered from a sheep herder and brought into captivity.  In October 2013, conservationists from the Persian Wildlife Heritage Foundation filmed a mother with four cubs in Khar Turan National Park. In December 2014, four cheetahs were sighted and photographed by camera traps in the same national park. In January 2015, three other adult Asiatic cheetahs and a female with her cub were sighted in Miandasht Wildlife Refuge. Eleven cheetahs were also sighted at the time, and another four a month later. In July 2015, five adult cheetahs and three cubs were spotted in Khar Turan National Park.  The Asiatic cheetah population is considered to be on the rise. In December 2015, it is reported that 18 new Asiatic cheetah cubs had recently been born and it was hoped for two captive Asian cheetahs at Pardisan Park would produce cubs.

Threats.

The Asiatic cheetah has been listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1996. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, wildlife conservation was interrupted for several years. Manoeuvres with armed vehicles were carried in steppes, and local people hunted cheetahs and prey species unchecked. The gazelle population declined in many areas, and cheetahs retreated to remote mountainous habitats.  Reduced gazelle numbers, persecution, land-use change, habitat degradation and fragmentation, and desertification contributed to the decline of the cheetah population. The cheetah is affected by loss of prey as a result of antelope hunting and overgrazing from introduced livestock. Its prey was pushed out as herders entered game reserves with their herds. A herder pursued a female cheetah with two cubs on his motorbike, until one of the cubs was so exhausted that it collapsed. He caught and kept it chained in his home for two weeks, until it was rescued by officers of the Iranian Department of Environment.  Mining development and road construction near reserves also threaten the population. Coal, copper, and iron have been mined in cheetah habitat in three different regions in central and eastern Iran. It is estimated that the two regions for coal (Nayband) and iron (Bafq) have the largest cheetah population outside protected areas. Mining itself is not a direct threat to the population; road construction and the resulting traffic have made the cheetah accessible to humans, including poachers. The Iranian border regions to Afghanistan and Pakistan, viz the Baluchistan Province, are major passages for armed outlaws and opium smugglers who are active in the central and western regions of Iran, and pass through cheetah habitat. Uncontrolled hunting throughout the desert cannot be effectively controlled by the governments of the three countries.  Conflict between livestock herders and cheetahs is also threatening the population outside protected areas. Several herders killed cheetahs to prevent livestock loss, or for trophies, trade and fun. Some herders are accompanied by large mastiff-type dogs into protected areas. These dogs killed five cheetahs between 2013 and 2016.  Between 2007 and 2011, six cheetahs, 13 predators and 12 Persian gazelles died in Yazd Province following collisions with vehicles on a transit road. At least 11 Asiatic cheetahs were killed in road accidents between 2001 and 2014. The road network in Iran constitutes a very high risk for the small population as it impedes connectivity between population units. Efforts to stop the construction of a road through the core of the Bafq Protected Area were unsuccessful.

Conservation efforts.

In September 2001, the project "Conservation of the Asiatic Cheetah and its Associated Biota" was launched by the Iranian Department of Environment (DoE) in cooperation with the United Nations Development Programme's Global Environment Facility, the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), the IUCN Cat Specialist Group, the Cheetah Conservation Fund and the Iranian Cheetah Society.  Personnel of WCS and DoE started radio-collaring Asiatic cheetahs in February 2007. The cats' movements are monitored using GPS collars. International sanctions have made some projects, such as obtaining camera traps, difficult.  A few orphaned cubs have been raised in captivity, such as Marita who died at the age of nine years in 2003. Beginning in 2006, the day of his death, 30 August, became the Cheetah Conservation Day, used to inform the public about conservation programs. In 2014, the Iranian national football team announced that their 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2015 AFC Asian Cup kits are imprinted with pictures of the Asiatic cheetah in order to bring attention to conservation efforts. In February 2015, Iran launched a search engine, Yooz, that features a cheetah as logo. In May 2015, the DoE announced plans to quintuple the penalty for poaching a cheetah to 100 million tomans (about $30,000). In September 2015, Meraj Airlines introduced the new livery of Iranian Cheetah to support its conservation efforts. Iranian officials have discussed constructing wildlife crossings to reduce the number of deaths in traffic accidents.

Projects.

"Training course for herders": It was estimated that ten cheetahs live in the Bafq Protected Area. According to the Iranian Cheetah Society (ICS), herders are considered as a significant target group which generally confuses the cheetah with other similar-sized carnivores, including wolf, leopard, striped hyena, and even caracal and wild cat. On the basis of the results of conflict assessment, a specific Herders Training Course was developed in 2007, in which they learned how to identify the cheetah as well as other carnivores, since these were the main causes for livestock kills. These courses were a result of cooperation between UNDP/GEF, Iran's Department of Environment, ICS, and the councils of five main villages in this region.  "Cheetah Friends": Another incentive in the region is the formation of young core groups of Cheetah Friends, who after a short instructive course, are able to educate people and organize cheetah events and become an informational instance in cheetah matters for a number of villages. Young people have expressed growing interest in the issue of cheetah and other wildlife conservation.  "Ex-situ conservation": India, where the Asiatic cheetah is now extinct, is interested in cloning the cheetah to reintroduce it to the country. It was claimed that Iran – the donor country – was willing to participate in the project. Later, however, Iran refused to send a male and female cheetah or to allow experts to collect tissue samples from a cheetah kept in a zoo there. In 2009, the Indian government considered reintroducing cheetahs through importing from Africa through captive breeding.  In 2014, an Asiatic cheetah was cloned for the first time by scientists from the University of Buenos Aires. The embryo was not born.

Semi-captive breeding.

In February 2010, Mehr News Agency, Payvand Iran News released the photos of an Asiatic/Iranian cheetah in a seemingly large compound within natural habitat enclosed by chain link fence, this location was reported in this news article to be the "Semi-Captive Breeding and Research Center of Iranian Cheetah" in Iran's Semnan province. The Asiatic cheetah pictured had a winter coat with longer fur. Another news report stated that the centre is home to about ten Asiatic cheetahs in a semi-wild environment protected by wire fencing all around.  Wildlife officials in Miandasht Wildlife Refuge and the Turan National Park have raised a few orphaned cubs. In May 2014, officials said they would bring together a pair of grown individuals in the hope they would produce cubs, while acknowledging that cheetahs are difficult to breed.  In March 2015, a pair of adult male and female Asiatic cheetahs are part of a captive breeding project somewhere close to the Milad Tower in Tehran for the first time.

Re-introduction proposals.

Cheetahs have been known to exist in India for a very long time, but hunting led to their extinction in the country in the late 1940s. The Indian government planned to reintroduce cheetahs to India. The IUCN's Species Survival Commission has approved a feasibility study, stressing to follow the IUCN guidelines on reintroduction and introducing the same subspecies, if and when the reasons for extinction have been removed. Then Minister of Environment and Forests, Jairam Ramesh, told the Rajya Sabha on 7 July 2009 that "The cheetah is the only animal that has been described extinct in India in the last 100 years. We have to get them from abroad to repopulate the species." He was responding to a notice from the Bharatiya Janata Party. "The plan to bring back the cheetah which fell to indiscriminate hunting and complex factors like a fragile breeding pattern is audacious given the problems besetting tiger conservation." Two naturalists suggested the idea of importing the South African cheetahs from Namibia, breeding them in captivity in India and release their offspring into the wild.  In September 2009, international biologists, representatives from the Wildlife Institute of India and Indian politicians held a meeting about cheetah reintroduction in India. During this meeting, it was decided to conduct a feasibility study and assess 10 sites located in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The survey members proposed Kuno-Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary, Shahgarh Landscape and Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary as potential reintroduction sites, if resources and personnel for habitat restoration, fencing, relocation of about 80 human settlements and the establishment of a compensation system for livestock loss can be allocated. They suggested to source cheetahs from either Iran or Africa, and hoped that the revenues generated from tourism at reintroduction sites would increase substantially. In 2012, India's Supreme Court suspended attempts to introduce African cheetahs when new genetic evidence suggested that the Asiatic and African cheetahs separated between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. The government tried reviving the project in 2014, but to no avail.

The Asiatic cheetah ("Acinonyx jubatus venaticus"), also known as Iranian or Persian cheetah, is a Critically Endangered cheetah subspecies surviving today only in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Kyzylkum Desert, Pakistan and India, but has been extirpated there during the 20th century.

Gepard indický ("Acinonyx jubatus venaticus") je poddruh geparda štíhlého ("Acinonyx jubatus") patřící do čeledi kočkovití ("Felidae") a podčeledi malé kočky ("Felinae"), i když byli gepardi dříve řazeni do podčeledi "Acinonychinae". Druh popsal Edward Griffith.


Club career.

Roma.

Born in Rome, Curci is a product of the A.S. Roma youth academy. At only 19, he became the club's first choice goalkeeper for the second half of the 2004–05 season after injuries to fellow goalkeepers Ivan Pelizzoli and Carlo Zotti. He was replaced in the 2005–06 season by new Brazilian keeper Doni. Curci signed a new four-year contract on 16 July 2007.

Siena.

On 25 June 2008, Siena confirmed they signed Curci in a co-ownership deal from Roma for €1.75 million and signed the remaining 50% rights of Daniele Galloppa for another €1.75M. In exchange, Roma signed keeper Artur for €750,000 and defender Simone Loria for €2.8M.  Curci impressed in all his matches, notably his last two Serie A matches, helping Siena overcome Roma 1–0, and preventing Genoa from scoring more than they did. Curci then impressed in the "Tuscan Derby" against Fiorentina, performing 3 incredible reaction saves to help Siena win 1–0.

Sampdoria.

On 1 July 2010, Sampdoria bought Siena's half for €2.25 million. Roma retained their half. Curci played for Sampdoria in a match for qualification to the Champions League, against Werder Bremen, but his team lost. Curci was a key player for Sampdoria during the 2010–11 season and he made some crucial saves for the club. He was an ever-present and the club's undisputed first choice goalkeeper.

Roma return.

On 24 June 2011, Roma bought back Curci and Stefano Guberti from Sampdoria for a nominal fee of €1,000 on two-year (Guberti) and three-year deals (Curci) respectively. On 22 April 2012, Curci made a substitute appearance in a Serie A match against Juventus after Roma's starting goalkeeper Maarten Stekelenburg received a red card.

Bologna.

On 16 July 2012, Curci was signed by Bologna in a temporary deal with an option to purchase for €1 million. On 8 July 2013, the loan was extended for another season, with an option to purchase for €1.2 million. Curci also extended his contract with Roma to last until 30 June 2015.

Roma return.

On 2 September 2014, Curci was included in Roma's squad for the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League as one of the four club trained players required under UEFA rules.

Mainz 05.

On 15 August 2015, Curci was signed by Bundesliga side Mainz on a two-year contract as a free agent. In January 2017, Curci had an unsuccessful trial with Bristol Rovers.  He left the club on 30 January 2017, after failing to make a single league appearance.

AFC Eskilstuna.

On 18 January 2018, Curci signed a two-year deal with Swedish Superettan side AFC Eskilstuna. He kept 18 clean sheets in 27 league appearances, a new club record, as Eskilstuna won a promotion to Allsvenskan through qualifiers.  Curci terminated his contract with AFC by mutual consent on 21 January 2019, with the club citing "personal reasons" for his departure. However, according to Curci himself, he sought to leave Eskilstuna due to differences with the club's management.

Hammarby IF.

On 24 January 2019, Curci signed a six-month contract with fellow Swedish club Hammarby IF, replacing the injured starting goalkeeper Johan Wiland, with an extension option of a further one-and-a-half year. Curci confirmed his departure from the club on 8 July 2019 as his contract had expired.

International career.

Curci has represented Italy multiple times at youth level. He received his first call-up to the Azzurri squad for a friendly against Hungary.  He has not been called up since November 2008.

Honours.

Club.

Roma

Gianluca Curci (; born 12 July 1985) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper, most recently for Hammarby IF in the Swedish Allsvenskan.

Gianluca Curci (* 12. července 1985, Řím, Itálie) je italský fotbalový brankář, který od srpna 2015 působí v německém klubu 1. FSV Mainz 05. Je bývalým mládežnickým reprezentantem Itálie.


Function.

Protein complex formation sometimes serves to activate or inhibit one or more of the complex members and in this way, protein complex formation can be similar to phosphorylation. Individual proteins can participate in the formation of a variety of different protein complexes. Different complexes perform different functions, and the same complex can perform very different functions that depend on a variety of factors. Some of these factors are:  Many protein complexes are well understood, particularly in the model organism "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" (a strain of yeast). For this relatively simple organism, the study of protein complexes is now being performed genome wide and the elucidation of most protein complexes of the yeast is ongoing.

Types of protein complexes.

Obligate vs non-obligate protein complex.

If a protein can form a stable well-folded structure on its own (without any other associated protein) "in vivo", then the complexes formed by such proteins are termed "non-obligate protein complexes". However, some proteins can't be found to create a stable well-folded structure alone, but can be found as a part of a protein complex which stabilizes the constituent proteins. Such protein complexes are called "obligate protein complexes".

Transient vs permanent/stable protein complex.

Transient protein complexes form and break down transiently "in vivo", whereas permanent complexes have a relatively long half-life. Typically, the obligate interactions (protein–protein interactions in an obligate complex) are permanent, whereas non-obligate interactions have been found to be either permanent or transient. Note that there is no clear distinction between obligate and non-obligate interaction, rather there exist a continuum between them which depends on various conditions e.g. pH, protein concentration etc. However, there are important distinctions between the properties of transient and permanent/stable interactions: stable interactions are highly conserved but transient interactions are far less conserved, interacting proteins on the two sides of a stable interaction have more tendency of being co-expressed than those of a transient interaction (in fact, co-expression probability between two transiently interacting proteins is not higher than two random proteins), and transient interactions are much less co-localized than stable interactions. Though, transient by nature, transient interactions are very important for cell biology: human interactome is enriched in such interactions, these interactions are the dominating players of gene regulation and signal transduction, and proteins with "intrinsically disordered regions" (IDR: regions in protein that show dynamic inter-converting structures in the native state) are found to be enriched in transient regulatory and signaling interactions.

Fuzzy complex.

Fuzzy protein complexes have more than one structural form or dynamic structural disorder in the bound state. This means that proteins may not fold completely in either transient or permanent complexes. Consequently, specific complexes can have ambiguous interactions, which vary according to the environmental signals. Hence different ensemble of structures result in different (even opposite) biological functions. Post-translational modifications, protein interactions or alternative splicing modulate the conformational ensembles of fuzzy complexes, to fine-tune affinity or specificity of interactions. These mechanisms are often used for regulation within the eukaryotic transcription machinery.

Essential proteins in protein complexes.

Although some early studies suggested a strong correlation between essentiality and protein interaction degree (the “centrality-lethality” rule) subsequent analyses have shown that this correlation is weak for binary or transient interactions (e.g., yeast two-hybrid). However, the correlation is robust for networks of stable co-complex interactions. In fact, a disproportionate number of essential genes belong to protein complexes. This led to the conclusion that essentiality is a property of molecular machines (i.e. complexes) rather than individual components. Wang et al. (2009) noted that larger protein complexes are more likely to be essential, explaining why essential genes are more likely to have high co-complex interaction degree. Ryan et al. (2013) referred to the observation that entire complexes appear essential as "modular essentiality". These authors also showed that complexes tend to be composed of either essential or non-essential proteins rather than showing a random distribution (see Figure). However, this not an all or nothing phenomenon: only about 26% (105/401) of yeast complexes consist of solely essential or solely nonessential subunits.  In humans, genes whose protein products belong to the same complex are more likely to result in the same disease phenotype.

Homomultimeric and heteromultimeric proteins.

The subunits of a multimeric protein may be identical as in a homomultimeric (homooligomeric) protein or different as in a heteromultimeric protein. Many soluble and membrane proteins form homomultimeric complexes in a cell, majority of proteins in the Protein Data Bank are homomultimeric. Homooligomers are responsible for the diversity and specificity of many pathways, may mediate and regulate gene expression, activity of enzymes, ion channels, receptors, and cell adhesion processes.  The voltage-gated potassium channels in the plasma membrane of a neuron are heteromultimeric proteins composed of four of forty known alpha subunits. Subunits must be of the same subfamily to form the multimeric protein channel. The tertiary structure of the channel allows ions to flow through the hydrophobic plasma membrane. Connexons are an example of a homomultimeric protein composed of six identical connexins. A cluster of connexons forms the gap-junction in two neurons that transmit signals through an electrical synapse.

Structure determination.

The molecular structure of protein complexes can be determined by experimental techniques such as X-ray crystallography, Single particle analysis or nuclear magnetic resonance. Increasingly the theoretical option of protein–protein docking is also becoming available. One method that is commonly used for identifying the meomplexes immunoprecipitation. Recently, Raicu and coworkers developed a method to determine the quaternary structure of protein complexes in living cells. This method is based on the determination of pixel-level Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) efficiency in conjunction with spectrally resolved two-photon microscope. The distribution of FRET efficiencies are simulated against different models to get the geometry and stoichiometry of the complexes.

Assembly.

Proper assembly of multiprotein complexes is important, since misassembly can lead to disastrous consequences. In order to study pathway assembly, researchers look at intermediate steps in the pathway. One such technique that allows one to do that is electrospray mass spectrometry, which can identify different intermediate states simultaneously. This has led to the discovery that most complexes follow an ordered assembly pathway. In the cases where disordered assembly is possible, the change from an ordered to a disordered state leads to a transition from function to dysfunction of the complex, since disordered assembly leads to aggregation.  The structure of proteins play a role in how the multiprotein complex assembles. The interfaces between proteins can be used to predict assembly pathways. The intrinsic flexibility of proteins also plays a role: more flexible proteins allow for a greater surface area available for interaction.  While assembly is a different process from disassembly, the two are reversible in both homomeric and heteromeric complexes. Thus, the overall process can be referred to as (dis)assembly.

Evolutionary significance of multiprotein complex assembly.

In homomultimeric complexes, the homomeric proteins assemble in a way that mimics evolution. That is, an intermediate in the assembly process is present in the complex’s evolutionary history. The opposite phenomenon is observed in heteromultimeric complexes, where gene fusion occurs in a manner that preserves the original assembly pathway.

A protein complex or multiprotein complex is a group of two or more associated polypeptide chains. Different polypeptide chains may have different functions. This is distinct from a multienzyme complex, in which multiple catalytic domains are found in a single polypeptide chain.

Proteinový komplex je seskupení dvou či více asociovaných polypeptidů. Jednotlivé polypeptidové řetězce (často označované jako podjednotky) se mohou v rámci komplexu specializovat na určité dílčí funkce.