Permanent collection.

Ancient art.

The Walters' collection of ancient art includes examples from Egypt, Nubia, Greece, Rome, Etruria and the Near East. Highlights include two monumental 3,000-pound statues of the Egyptian lion-headed fire goddess Sekhmet; the Walters Mummy; alabaster reliefs from the palace of Ashurnasirpal II; Greek gold jewelry, including the Greek bracelets from Olbia on the shores of the Black Sea; the Praxitelean Satyr; a large assemblage of Roman portrait heads; a Roman bronze banquet couch, and marble sarcophagi from the tombs of the prominent Licinian and Calpurnian families.

Art of the ancient Americas.

In 1911, Henry Walters purchased almost 100 gold artifacts from the Chiriqui region of western Panama in Central America, creating a core collection of ancient American native art. Through subsequent gifts of art and loans, the museum has added works, mostly in pottery and stone, from Mexico, Central America and South America, including pieces from the Mesoamerican Olmec, Aztec, and Maya cultures, as well as the Moche and Inca peoples of South America.

Asian art.

Highlights of the Asian art collection assembled earlier by Baltimorean father and son collectors William T. and Henry Walters include Japanese arms and armor, and Chinese and Japanese porcelains, lacquers, and metalwork. Among the museum's outstanding works of Asian art is a late-12th- or early-13th-century Cambodian bronze of the eight-armed Avalokiteshvara, a T'ang Dynasty earthenware camel, and an intricately painted Ming Dynasty wine jar. The museum owns the oldest surviving Chinese wood-and-lacquer image of the Buddha (late 6th century AD). It is exhibited in a gallery dedicated solely to this work.  The museum holds one of the largest and finest collections of Thai (Siam/Thailand) bronze, scrolls, and banner paintings in the world.

Islamic art.

Islamic art in all media is represented at the Walters. Among the highlights are a 7th-century carved and hammered silver bowl from Iran, (ancient Persia); a 13th-century candlestick made of copper, silver, and gold from the Mamluk era in Egypt; 16th-century mausoleum doors decorated with intricate wood carvings in a radiating star pattern; a 17th-century silk sash from the Mughal Empire in India; and a 17th-century Turkish tile with an image of the Masjid al-Haram ("Great Mosque of Mecca"), the center of Islam in Mecca, (modern Saudi Arabia). The Walters Museum owns an array of Islamic manuscripts. These include a 15th-century Koran from northern India, executed at the height of the Timurid Empire; a 16th-century copy of the "Khamsa of Nizami (British Library, Or. 12208)|Khamsa]]" by Amir Khusraw, illustrated by a number of famous artists for the Emperor Akbar; and a Turkish calligraphy album by Sheikh Hamadullah Al-Amasi, one of the greatest calligraphers of all time. Walters Art Museum, MS W.613 contains five Mughal miniatures from an important "Khamsa of Nizami" made for the Emperor Akbar; the rest are in London, Great Britain.

Medieval European art.

Henry Walters assembled a collection of art produced during the Middle Ages in all the major artistic media of the period. This forms the basis of the Walters' medieval collection, for which the museum is best known internationally. Considered one of the best collections of medieval art in the United States, the museum's holdings include examples of metalwork, sculpture, stained glass, textiles, icons, and other paintings. The collection is especially renowned for its ivories, enamels, reliquaries, early Byzantine silver, post-Byzantine art, illuminated manuscripts, and the largest and finest collection of Ethiopian Orthodox Church art outside Ethiopia.  The Walters' medieval collection features unique objects such as the Byzantine agate Rubens Vase that belonged to the painter Rubens (accession no. 42.562) and the earliest-surviving image of the "Virgin of Tenderness", an ivory carving produced in Egypt in the 6th or 7th century (accession no. 71.297). Sculpted heads from the royal Abbey of St. Denis are rare surviving examples of portal sculptures that are directly connected with the origins of Gothic art in 12th-century France (accession nos. 27.21 and 27.22). An ivory casket covered with scenes of jousting knights is one of about a dozen such objects to survive in the world (accession no. 71.264).  Many of these works are on display in the museum's galleries. Works from the medieval collection are also frequently included in special touring exhibitions, such as "Treasures of Heaven", an exhibition about relics and reliquaries that was on view at the Cleveland Museum of Art in (Cleveland, Ohio), the Walters Art Museum, and the British Museum in London in 2010–11.  Works in the medieval collection are the subject of active research by the curatorial and conservation departments of the museum, and visiting researchers frequently make use of the museum's holdings. In-depth technical research carried on these objects is made available to the public through publications and exhibitions, as in the case of the Amandus Shrine (accession no. 53.9), which was featured in a small special exhibition titled "The Special Dead" in 2008–09. There are also Late Medieval devotional Italian paintings by these painters at the Walters: Tommaso da Modena, Pietro Lorenzetti, Andrea di Bartolo ("Resurrection"), Alberto Sotio, Bartolomeo di Tommaso ("Death of Saint Francis"), Naddo Ceccarelli, Master of Saint Verdiana, Niccolo di Segna ("Saint Lucy"), Orcagna, Olivuccio di Ciccarello, Master of Panzano Triptych and Giovanni del Biondo.

Renaissance, Baroque and 18th-century European art.

The collection of European Renaissance and Baroque art features holdings of paintings, sculpture, furniture, ceramics, metal work, arms and armor. The highlights include Hugo van der Goes' "Donor with Saint John the Baptist", Heemskerck's "Panorama with the Abduction of Helen Amidst the Wonders of the Ancient World", Giambattista Pittoni's "Sacrifice of Polyxena", the "Madonna of the Candelabra", from the studio of Raphael, Veronese's "Portrait Of Countess Livia da Porto Thiene and her Daughter Porzia", El Greco's "Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata", Bernini's "bozzetto" of "Risen Christ", Tiepolo's "Scipio Africanus Freeing Massiva", and "The Ideal City" attributed to Fra Carnevale. The museum has one of ten surviving examples of the Sèvres pot-pourri vase in the shape of a ship from the 1750s and 1760s.

19th-century European art.

William and Henry Walters collected works by late-19th-century French academic masters and Impressionists. Highlights of the collection include "Odalisque with Slave" by Ingres (a second version); Claude Monet's "Springtime"; Alfred Sisley's panoramic view of the Seine Valley; and Édouard Manet's realist masterpiece, "The Café Concert".  Henry Walters was particularly interested in the courtly arts of 18th-century France. The museum's collection of Sèvres porcelain includes a number of pieces that were made for members of the Royal Bourbon Court at Versailles Palace outside of Paris. Portrait miniatures and the examples of goldsmiths' works, especially snuffboxes and watches, are displayed in the Treasury, along with some exceptional 19th- and early-20th-century works. Among them are examples of Art Nouveau-styled jewelry by René Lalique, jeweled objects by the House of Fabergé, including two Russian Imperial Easter eggs, and precious jewels by Tiffany and Co. of New York City.  The Walters' collection presents an overview of 19th-century European art, particularly art from France. From the first half of the century come major paintings by Ingres, Géricault, and Delacroix. William Walters stayed in Paris with his family during the Civil War, because of his notorious Southern-leanings, and he soon developed a keen interest in contemporary European painting. He either commissioned directly from the artists or purchased at auctions such major works by the Barbizon masters, including Jean-François Millet and Henri Rousseau; the academic masters Jean-Léon Gérôme and Lawrence Alma-Tadema; and even the modernists Monet, Manet, and Sisley, the Italian Antonio Rotta.

Buildings.

Charles Street – Old Main Building (1905–1909).

Henry Walters' original gallery was designed by architect William Adams Delano and erected between 1904 and 1909, facing South Washington Place (at the northwest corner with West Centre Street) and attached by an overhead bridge/passageway across the back alley from his adjacent townhouse/mansion to the north on West Mount Vernon Place (facing the Washington Monument to the northeast). Its exterior was inspired by the Renaissance-revival-style Hôtel Pourtalès in Paris and its interior was modeled after the 17th-century "Collegio dei Gesuiti" (now the Palazzo dell'Università) built by the Balbi family for the Jesuits in Genoa. The arts of the Renaissance and Baroque periods, French decorative arts of the 18th and 19th centuries, and manuscripts and rare books are now exhibited in this palazzo-style structure.

Centre Street Annex Building (1974).

Designed by the Boston firm of Shepley, Bullfinch, Richardson, and Abbott, in the "Brutalist" poured-concrete style prevailing in the 1960s, (one of the few others in the region of this extremely modernistic style in the city – such as the recently razed Morris A. Mechanic Theatre in downtown Charles Center on the southwest corner of Charles and Baltimore Streets from 1967), this annex building (which has several horizontal lines paralleled with features in the 1909 structure) to the west along West Centre Street and rear of the original main gallery, extending to Park Avenue, opened in 1974. It was substantially altered in 1998–2001 by another firm of Kallmann McKinnell and Wood, Architects, to provide a four-story glass atrium, with a suspended staircase at the juncture between the older and newer buildings with a new entrance lobby along Centre Street. The new lobby, which also provides easier ground-level handicapped access along with enhanced security provisions for both collections and visitors is also providing a café, an enlarged museum and gift store and a reference library. The ancient, Byzantine, medieval, Ethiopian, and 19th-century European collections are housed in this building, with its large display walls and irregular corridors and galleries. Also here is the museum's famed art conservation laboratory, which is one of the oldest in the country.

Hackerman House (1850/1991).

This Greek Revival style townhouse/mansion, one of the most elaborate in the city, was designed by famed local architect John Rudolph Niernsee (1814–1885), and erected between 1848 and 1850 for Dr. John Hanson Thomas, was long regarded as the most "elegant" house along Mount Vernon Place or Washington Place. It sits on the southwest corner of the circle surrounding the Washington Monument and was later owned by the families Jencks and Gladding (later known as the Thomas-Jencks-Gladding Mansion). Considered in its premiere landmark municipal location to be used for Baltimore City's Official Mayor's Residence (similar to other major American cities mayor's mansions such as Gracie Mansion in a river-front park on New York City's east side of Manhattan, facing the East River when it was briefly acquired by the city in the late 1950s and then being considered to be razed for an unfortunately poorly-conceived and planned northern expansion of the Gallery engendered local preservationists' protests before being finally re-sold to the Gladding family of a well-known public-spirited local Chevrolet auto dealership, who promised to restore and preserve the noted mansion.  Among the original owning family of the Thomas's distinguished guests of the mid-19th century were the Prince of Wales (eldest son of Queen Victoria), the future King Edward VII (reigned 1901–1910); and General Lajos Kossuth (1802–1894), the then famous Hungarian freedom fighter, President of an early, brief Hungarian republic, veteran of the European Revolutions of 1847–1848 and the "Father of modern Hungary". Since the mid-1980s when, the Thomas-Jencks-Gladding Mansion was reacquired by the city under Mayor William Donald Schaefer (1921–2011), who served the city from 1971 to 1987, and future Governor of Maryland (1987–1995) from the Gladding family with a donation by the Mayor's loyal friend along with being a developer, industrialist and philanthropist, Willard Hackerman, and transferred to the purposes of "The Walters". Since additional renovations with the addition of a connecting gallery with domed skylight and corridor constructed through the top of the old rear carriage house/garage to the south end of the house, and across the east-west alley to the old 1909 Main Building's north side. Reopened in 1991, the newly renamed "Hackerman House" has been devoted to The Walters' recently expanded holdings of Asian art.

Gallery.

This is a list of selected works from the museum collection.

The Walters Art Museum, located in Mount Vernon-Belvedere, Baltimore, Maryland, United States, is a public art museum founded and opened in 1934. It holds collections established during the mid-19th century. The Museum's collection was amassed substantially by major American art and sculpture collectors, a father and son: William Thompson Walters, (1819–1894), who began serious collecting when he moved to Paris as a nominal Southern/Confederate sympathizer at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861; and Henry Walters (1848–1931), who refined the collection and made arrangements for the construction of a later landmark building to rehouse it. After allowing the Baltimore public to occasionally view his father's and his growing added collections at his West Mount Vernon Place townhouse/mansion during the late 1800s, he arranged for an elaborate stone palazzo-styled structure built for that purpose in 1905–1909. Located across the back alley, a block south of the Walters mansion on West Monument Street/Mount Vernon Place, on the northwest corner of North Charles Street at West Centre Street.

Walters Art Museum či Waltersovo muzeum umění v Baltimore ve státě Maryland je veřejné muzeum ve Spojených státech založené a otevřené roku 1934.


Early life.

Lourd was born July 17, 1992, in Los Angeles, California, the only child of actress Carrie Fisher and talent agent Bryan Lourd. Lourd is also the only grandchild of actress Debbie Reynolds and singer Eddie Fisher, and the niece of Todd Fisher, Joely Fisher, and Tricia Leigh Fisher, all of whom have worked in show business. She has a sister, Ava, from her father's marriage to Bruce Bozzi, whom her father legally adopted. From her mother's side, she is of Russian-Jewish and Scots-Irish/English descent. Her godmother is actress Meryl Streep. Writer Bruce Wagner is Lourd's godfather.  Lourd studied psychology at New York University, graduating in 2014.

Career.

Lourd played the role of Lieutenant Connix in the 2015 "Star Wars" sequel film "". On "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" in 2017, she said that she auditioned for the lead role of Rey, which ultimately went to Daisy Ridley. Lourd also appeared in the second installment, "" (2017), and the third, "" (2019). Lourd also played her mother's character for a brief flashback in the film in which her face was digitally replaced by Fisher's likeness, using imagery from "Return of the Jedi".  In February 2015, Lourd was cast in the Fox horror-comedy series "Scream Queens". Lourd's character, a rich and disaffected sorority girl known as Chanel #3, wears earmuffs as an homage to Fisher's iconic "cinnamon buns" hairstyle from the original "Star Wars" film. In December 2015, Lourd spoke about her initial meeting with "Scream Queens" creator Ryan Murphy:  By December 2015, Lourd had joined the cast of the American biographical crime-drama film "Billionaire Boys Club", in the role of Rosanna, love interest of Kyle Biltmore. The film was released on July 17, 2018. Its release was put off due to claims of sexual harassment committed by actor Kevin Spacey, who stars in the film. In 2016, Lourd returned to "Scream Queens" for its second season. She joined the cast of "American Horror Story" in the role of Winter Anderson for the series'. She also portrayed Linda Kasabian, a former member of the Manson Family cult. She returned to "American Horror Story" for its eighth season, "", playing Mallory, a powerful witch.  In 2019, Lourd played Gigi in "Booksmart", a high school comedy film directed by Olivia Wilde. Lourd also returned to "American Horror Story" for its ninth season, "", portraying serial killer-chased punk rocker Montana Duke. Murphy stated that her work in "1984" impressed him so much that he decided to write Lourd her own miniseries. She appeared in the ninth episode of the eleventh and final season of the NBC sitcom "Will & Grace" as Fiona, the granddaughter of the character that her real-life grandmother, Debbie Reynolds, portrayed during the show's original run. In December 2019, Lourd appeared in a holiday-themed television commercial for Old Navy.  On February 26, 2020, it was announced that Lourd would return to "American Horror Story" for its tenth season.

Billie Catherine Lourd (born July 17, 1992) is an American actress. She is known for starring as Chanel #3 in the Fox horror comedy series "Scream Queens" (2015–2016) and for her roles in the FX horror anthology series "American Horror Story" (2017–present). She also appears as Lieutenant Connix in the "Star Wars" sequel trilogy (2015–2019). Lourd is the only child of actress Carrie Fisher.

Billie Catherine Lourdová (* 17. červenec 1992, Los Angeles, Kalifornie, Spojené státy americké) je americká herečka. Proslavila se rolí Chanel #3 v seriálu "Scream Queens" a rolí Winter Anderson v seriálu "American Horror Story: Cult".


Life, studies and work.

Fernando Ocáriz Braña was born in Paris on 27 October 1944 to José Ocáriz Gómez and María Dolores Braña, and is the youngest of eight children. He joined Opus Dei on September 7, 1961. He studied Physics at the University of Barcelona, where he graduated in 1966.  In the 1960s, as a theology student, he lived in Rome alongside Saint Josemaría Escrivá, the founder of Opus Dei. He received a licentiate in theology from the Pontifical Lateran University in 1969 and a doctorate in theology from the University of Navarra in 1971.  He was ordained a Catholic priest in 1971, and was especially involved in ministry to young people and to university students during the first years of his priesthood.  Since 1986, he has been a consultor of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, as well as other departments of the Roman Curia: the Congregation for the Clergy (since 2003) and the Pontifical Council for Promoting the New Evangelization (since 2011). He has also been a member of the Pontifical Theological Academy since 1989. In 2009, it was announced that he would participate in the doctrinal discussions between the Society of St. Pius X and the Holy See.  In the early 1980s, Ocáriz was among the professors who began the Pontifical University of the Holy Cross, where he was a tenured professor (now Emeritus Professor) in Fundamental Theology.  Ocáriz was appointed Vicar General of the Prelature of Opus Dei on 23 April 1994. In 2014, he was named Auxiliary Vicar of Opus Dei.  He became the provisional head of Opus Dei upon the death of the then Prelate of Opus Dei, Javier Echevarria, in December 2016. He was elected the new prelate of Opus Dei on 23 January 2017, and on the same day was appointed by Pope Francis as such.

Prelate of Opus Dei.

A few weeks after his election, on 14 February 2017, Ocariz transmitted to the members of the prelature the conclusions of the General Congress of Opus Dei, outlining the main priorities of the prelature.  Among the priorities, the foremost place was given to the "centrality of the Person of Jesus Christ". Ocariz explained that this means:  On the process of formation, he stressed, aside from the supernatural means:  On the Catholic Church, Ocariz pointed to:  On new apostolic challenges, the prelate specified:  On the family, the priorities are:  On the youth, Ocariz stressed the importance of this apostolate:

Writings.

He has written a number of philosophical and theological works, specializing in the areas of fundamental theology, christology, ecclesiology and the questions regarding the spirit of Opus Dei.

Fernando Ocáriz Braña (born 27 October 1944) is a Roman Catholic priest who serves as the current Prelate of Opus Dei. Monsignor Ocáriz is the fourth person to head Opus Dei since its founding in 1928. He is widely published in philosophy and has been a consultor of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith since 1986.

Fernando Ocáriz Braña (* 27. října 1944 v Paříži, Francie) je kněz, katolický teolog a prelát Opus Dei. Mons. Ocáriz Braña je autorem řady knih a konzultorem Kongregace pro nauku víry od roku 1986 a dalších dvou orgánů římské kurie: Kongregace pro klérus (2003) a Papežské rady pro novou evangelizaci (2011). Je též jedním ze tří členů komise Svatého stolce, která byla ustanovena v roce 2009 za účelem věroučných rozhovorů s Bratrstvem sv. Pia X.


Background.

In 1991 Boris Yeltsin was elected to a 5-year term as President of Russia, which was still a part of the Soviet Union at the time. The next election was scheduled be held sometime in 1996.  In late December 1991 Russia became a sovereign nation in wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union. This meant that the scheduled election would now be the first ever presidential election to be held in a fully sovereign Russia.  In a 1993 referendum question Russian voters rejected holding an early presidential election. Thus, the presidential election remained scheduled to be held in the year 1996.  Later in 1993 the Constitution of Russia was adopted. In the Constitution, future presidential terms were stipulated to last for four years, meaning that the 1996 election would elect a president to serve a 4-year term.  When incumbent president Boris Yeltsin launched his reelection campaign in early 1996, he was widely predicted to lose. Public opinion of Yeltsin was at a historical low point. Due to this, there was talk about Yeltsin potentially postponing or canceling the election. However, he ultimately decided against this.  Shortly before the election campaign, Yeltsin had faced a number of significant political humiliations which harmed his political stature. In December 1995 the Communist Party of the Russian Federation had achieved dominance in the State Duma. On 9 January 1996 Chechen rebels seized thousands of hostages in Dagestan and Yeltsin's response to this was viewed as a failure. Additionally, Yeltsin was overseeing a terrible economy. Russian economy was still contracting and many workers had continued to be unpaid for months.  By early 1996 Yeltsin's public approval was so poor that he was polling at fifth place among presidential candidates, with only 8 percent support, while Communist Party leader Gennady Zyuganov was in the lead with 21 percent support. When Zyuganov showed up at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, in February 1996, many Western leaders and the international media were eager to see him, and treated him with regards to believing that he would likely be the next president of Russia. However, Yeltsin managed to reverse his fortunes, ultimately defeating Zyuganov in the second round of the election.

Campaigning.

Vladimir Bryntsalov.

Pharmaceutical businessman Vladimir Bryntsalov ran as the candidate of the Russian Socialist Party.  Brytsalov claimed that his leadership would eliminate the country's poverty, promising that if he were elected, there would be "no poor pensioners, no poor workers, no poor entrepreneurs, no poor farmers."  His plan, which he dubbed "Russian socialism", was for large companies to begin paying wages comparable to companies in other industrialized nations. The plan anticipated that the employees of the companies would consequentially pay larger income taxes, spend more on consumer goods, and increase their productivity at their jobs. The feasibility of this plan was criticized, as Russian companies were considered to be unable to pay such wages.  Brytsalov promoted himself with the superlative claim of being "the richest man in Russia" and flaunted his wealth.  Despite being a (recently elected) deputy of the State Duma, Brytsalov did not have a voting-record. In his legislative career, he had very low attendance and extremely little participation.  Brytsalov was seen as a marginal candidate, and was generally regarded as unlikely to win the election.

Mikhail Gorbachev.

Former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev ran as an independent candidate. He ran as a self-proclaimed social democrat. His campaign was hampered both by strong public disdain towards him and a strong lack of media coverage for his candidacy.

Svyatoslav Fyodorov.

Politician and renown ophthalmologist Svyatoslav Fyodorov ran as the candidate of the Party of Workers' Self-Government. He the founder and leader of the party, which was, at the time, arguably the most influential social-democratic movement in Russia.  Fyodorov was considered to be on the center-left of the political spectrum.  In 1994 Fyodorov had described his political objective by stating, "I want peasants to own farms, workers to own factories, physicians to own clinics, and everyone to pay a 30% tax, and the rest is theirs."  Fyodorov advocated for the mass creation of joint stock companies to guarantee workers a share of profits and allow them to actively participate in management of their companies. He dubbed this concept "democratic capitalism" or "popular socialism". He had advocated such a policy since as early as 1991. Fyodorov advocated for economic freedom, simple and moderate taxation, stimulation of production, and a ban on exports of most raw materials. Fyodorov promised that his policies would double the nation's GDP within five years. Fyodorov proclaimed to draw inspiration in his politics from both Ross Perot and Deng Xiaoping.  Up until early May, Fyodorov unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate the creation of a third force coalition, with negotiations largely centering on a coalition between him and fellow candidates Yavlinsky and Lebed.

Alexander Lebed.

General Alexander Lebed ran as the nominee of the Congress of Russian Communities, a centrist nationalist party. Lebed promoted himself as an authoritative leader that would introduce law and order, tackle corruption and allow capitalism to blossom. While he presented an authoritarian personality, he held moderate positions.  After reaching an informal agreement with Yeltsin in April (under which Lebed promised to endorse Yeltsin in the second round of the election), Lebed began to see positive news coverage, as well as a greater overall quantity of media coverage. This was done as part of an effort by Yeltsin's camp to promote Lebed in the hopes that he would syphon off votes from other nationalist candidates in the first-round.  Up until early May, Lebed had entertained negotiations with Yavlinsky and Fyodorov to jointly form a third force coalition.

Martin Shakkum.

Martin Shakkum ran as an independent candidate. An associate of radical economist Stansilav Shatalin, Shakkum was on the right wing of the Russian political spectrum. While he presented an authoritarian personality, he held moderate positions on many social issues.

Aman Tuleyev.

Independent candidate Aman Tuleyev (a member of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation) styled himself as a "Muslim Communist". The head of the Kemerovo Oblast legislature, Tuleyev was considered to be charismatic, energetic, and well as well-liked by the Communist Party's base. He turned-in his signatures the day before the deadline. He was considered to be a fallback communist candidate, in case Zyuganov's candidacy faltered.  Tuleyev's rhetoric straddled between hard-line communism and social-democracy. Generally a hard-liner, he had nonetheless occasionally taken moderate stances, such as seeking tax cuts. Tuleyev's positions centered upon communism and creating a disciplined (uncorrupt) government.  Tuleyev dropped out of the race on 8 June and endorsed Zyuganov.  Despite the fact that Tuleyev dropped out of the race before the election, he had already been on the ballot during a portion of the early voting period.

Yury Vlasov.

Politician and former Olympic weightlifter Yury Vlasov ran as an independent candidate. His politics were characterized as nationalist. Vlasov openly espoused antisemitic rhetoric. He promoted himself as patriot fighting both communism and an alleged "Zionist conspiracy" against the Russian people.  Vlasov dubbed his politics as "people's patriotism". His campaign platform proclaimed, "There is only one single force that is able to unite almost all and at the same time become the ideological basis of the Russian state – popular patriotism".  While he had been a supporter of democratic reforms in the Soviet Union, following its collapse Vlasov had embraced authoritarian political views.  Vlasov likened his politics to Gaullism. He claimed that his politics were a more effective unifying force than communist or democratic ideals.  While he was nominally an independent candidate, Vlasov's campaign was supported by the People's National Party. However, by the end of the election, many in the party grew dissatisfied with Vlasov's campaign style, believing he failed to campaign aggressively enough.  Despite polling at under one percent, Vlasov had stated that he anticipated capturing between six and seven percent of the vote. He swore to refuse supporting either Yeltsin or support Zyuganov in the runoff.

Grigory Yavlinsky.

Grigory Yavlinsky ran as the nominee of Yabloko. Yavlinsky officially accepted Yabloko's nomination on 27 January.  In terms of social issues, Yavlinsky occupied the political left. In terms of economic issues, Yavlinsky occupied the far-right of the Russian political spectrum. His ideology most strongly appealed to Russia's population of young intellectuals.  Yabloko has been a programmatic party, as opposed to a populist one. This proved to be a weakness for Yavlinsky's campaign, as he and his party opted to maintain their long-established party positions on many issues, rather than reshaping their agenda in order to better capitalize on the political tides. This had also been the case in the preceding 1995 electoral campaign, during which Yabloko similarly had opted to focus on complex economic issues, rather than focusing on bread and butter issues.  Up until early May Yavlinsky unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate the creation of a third force coalition, with negotiations largely centering on a coalition between him and fellow candidates Lebed and Fyodorov.

Boris Yeltsin.

Incumbent Boris Yeltsin ran for reelection as an independent candidate.  While his prospects of winning were originally faltering, Yeltsin was able to resuscitate his image and pull off a successful campaign.  Yeltsin's original strategy, devised by Oleg Soskovets, involved him pivoting towards the nationalist wing of Russia's politics in order to directly compete for votes with Zyuganov and Zhirinovsky. However, this strategy was ultimately abandoned in favor of one devised by reformists. Yeltsin's new campaign strategy was, essentially, to convince voters that they had to choose him as the lesser of two evils. This strategy sought to recast Yeltsin as an individual single-handedly fighting to stave off communist control. The campaign framed a narrative that portrayed Yeltsin as Russia's best hope for stability. The campaign worked to shift the narrative of the election into a referendum on whether voters wanted to return to their communist past (with Zyuganov), or continue with reforms (with Yeltsin).  Yeltsin was able to leverage the power of his office. This included using government funds to finance campaign promises, utilizing state media organizations, and currying favortism amongst financial and media oligarchs.  Two days after the conclusion of the first round, Yeltsin appointed former general Alexander Lebed, who had finished third with 14.7% of vote, to the post of Secretary of Security Council of the Russian Federation and the President's National Security Advisor. Lebed in turn endorsed Yeltsin in the runoff election. Meanwhile, Yeltsin suffered from a serious heart attack and disappeared from public view. His condition was kept secret through 3 July second round election. During this period of time, Yeltsin's campaign team created a "virtual Yeltsin" shown in the media through staged interviews that never happened and pre-recorded radio addresses.

Vladimir Zhirinovsky.

Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR) leader Vladimir Zhirinovsky campaigned on nationalist rhetoric.  After his surprisingly strong third-place finish in the 1991 presidential election and the surprisingly strong first-place performance of the LDPR in the 1993 legislative election, Zhirinivsky had once been seen as a rising force in Russian politics, and a future contender for the presidency. However, boorish and outlandish conduct by Zhirinovsky had diminished the public perception of his stature to such a degree that, by 1996, he was seen as a buffoonish figure and was no longer seen as a viable candidate.

Gennady Zyuganov.

Communist Party of the Russian Federation-leader Gennady Zyuganov successfully advanced to the second-round of the election, where he was defeated by Yeltsin.  Coming off of a very successful Communist Party performance in the 1995 legislative election, when he launched his campaign, Zyuganov had originally been seen as the frontrunner to win the election.

Conduct.

In their report, the International Republican Institute stated that their election observers, "witnessed no deliberate attempts to commit electoral fraud and, indeed, in the tracking of protocols through the various levels of Russia's electoral system, observed transparency in the process."  In their analysis, the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs declared that, while the election failed to be "free and fair" in regards to media coverage and campaign financing, it appeared to have largely succeeded in being "free and fair" in regards to the administration of voting and vote-counting.  Observers from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) reported that the first round of the election, "appeared to be generally well run, and not seriously marred by some problems which occurred in the pre-election campaign. The delegation considered the first round of the Russian Presidential elections to have been conducted in a generally free and fair manner."  The OSCE also reported that, "Delegation members considered voter participation in the political campaign to be quite active compared to previous Russian elections. A relatively open flow of information concerning candidates and their platforms was made available to voters during the pre-election campaign. However, opposition candidates charged that the state controlled electronic broadcast media did not provide fair and balanced coverage, and this was also observed to be the case by delegation members. The bias appeared to be primarily in favor of the President." Additionally, the OSCE reported that, "The delegation found that Polling Station Election Committees (PSECs) "generally" followed proper procedures and enforced the one-man-one-vote principle, although "scattered" instances of minor irregularities, such as family voting and voting outside of polling booths were observed."  In a post-election analysis published in the journal "Presidential Studies Quarterly" Erik Depov asserted, "The inaccuracy of many early predictions was primarily because Yeltsin's successful re-election bid had as much to do with the dynamics of the electoral campaign as with the results of his first term in office. If the 1996 presidential campaign proved anything, it illustrated the danger of underestimating Yeltsin's ability to meet a serious political challenge head on and prevail despite apparently insurmountable odds."  During the campaign Yeltsin's opponents criticized his use of state coffers to fund programs that would bolster his approval with voters. Yeltsin had been utilizing state finances to fund programs (such as pensions) with the aim of convincing voters of his willingness to fulfill promises he which he was making on the campaign trail. Yeltsin's opponents charged that, in doing this, he was essentially buying votes. However, Yeltsin's team argued that he was simply doing his job as President.  During the second round campaign, Zyuganov asserted in a letter to the parliament, the Central Electoral Commission, and the media that Yeltsin was buying votes with money that should be used to pay wage and pension arrears and that he had pressured local leaders into working for his campaign. He also alleged that Yeltsin was using "tens of trillions of rubles" from the state budget for campaign purposes. Zyuganov argued that such practices would call into question the results of the voting and urged immediate measures that would insure equal conditions for the candidates.

Pro-Yeltsin media bias.

Yeltsin benefited from an immense media bias favoring his campaign.  In 1991, at the time of the previous presidential election, Russia had only two major television channels. RTR had supported Yeltsin, while Russian Public TV had criticized him and provided broad coverage of the views of his opponents. In the 1996 election, however, none of Russia's major television networks were critical of Yeltsin. Yeltsin had successfully enlisted the national television channels (ORT, RTR, NTV) and most of the written press to essentially act as agents of his campaign.  The European Institute for Media found that Yeltsin received 53% of all media coverage of the campaign, while Zyuganov received only 18%. In their evaluation of the biases of news stories, EIM awarded each candidate 1 point for every positive story they received and subtracted a point for every negative story they received. In the first round of the election, Yeltsin scored +492 and Zyuganov scored −313. In the second round of the election, Yeltsin scored +247 and Zyuganov scored −240.  Television networks marginalized all of Yeltsin's opponents aside from Zyuganov, helping to create the perception that there were only two viable candidates. This allowed Yeltsin to pose as the lesser-evil. Near the end of the election, however, the networks began also providing coverage to the candidacy of Lebed, who had already agreed to support Yeltsin in the second round.  Supplementing the work of the numerous public relations and media firms that were hired by the Yeltsin campaign, a number of media outlets "volunteered" their services to Yeltsin's reelection effort. For instance, "Kommersant" (one of the most prominent business newspapers in the country) published an anti-communist paper called "Ne Dai Bog" (meaning, "God forbid"). At ORT, a special committee was placed in charge of planning a marathon of anticommunist films and documentaries to be broadcast on the channel ahead of the election.  Led by the efforts of Mikhail Lesin, the media painted a picture of a fateful choice for Russia, between Yeltsin and a "return to totalitarianism." They even played up the threat of civil war if a Communist were elected president.  One of the reasons for the media's overwhelming favoritism of Yeltsin was their fear that a Communist government would dismantle Russia's right to a free press. Another factor contributing to the media's support of Yeltsin was that his government still owned two of the national television channels, and still provided the majority of funding to the majority of independent newspapers. In addition, Yeltsin's government also was in charge of supplying licenses to media outlets. Yeltsin's government and Luzhkov, mayor of Moscow, flexed their power and reminded the owners, publishers, and editors that newspaper licenses and Moscow leases for facilities were "under review". There were also instances of direct payments made for positive coverage (so-called "dollar journalism").  Yeltsin had managed to enlist Russia's emerging business elite to work in his campaign, including those who ran media corporations. This included Vladimir Gusinsky, owner of Most Bank, Independent Television and NTV. NTV which had, prior to the campaign, been critical towards Yeltsin's actions in Chechnya, changed the tone of their coverage. Igor Malashenko, Gusinsky's appointed head of NTV, even joined the Yeltsin campaign and led its media relations in a rather visible conflict-of-interest. In early 1996, Gusinsky and his political rival Boris Berezovskii (chairman of the Board of ORT) decided that they would put aside their differences in order to work together to support the reelection Boris Yeltsin. By mid-1996, Yeltsin had recruited a team of a handful of financial and media oligarchs to bankroll the Yeltsin campaign and guarantee favorable media coverage the president on national television and in leading newspapers. In return, Yeltsin's presidential administration allowed well-connected Russian business leaders to acquire majority stakes in some of Russia's most valuable state-owned assets.  Additionally, to further guarantee consistent media coverage, in February Yeltsin had fired the chairperson of the All-Russia State Television and Radio Broadcasting Company and replaced him with Eduard Sagalaev.  While the anti-communist pro-Yeltsin media bias certainly contributed to Yeltsin's victory, it was not the sole factor. A similar anti-communist media bias in the run-up to the 1995 parliamentary elections had failed to prevent a communist victory. Additionally, Yeltsin himself had been able to win the 1991 presidential election in spite of a strongly unfavorable media bias towards him.

Violations of campaign laws.

Yeltsin's campaign disregarded numerous campaign regulations. Analysis has indicated that Yeltsin's campaign spent well in excess of spending limits. Yeltsin also violated a law against broadcasting advertisements before 15 March. Yeltsin undertook many abuses of his power in order to assist his campaign effort.  Following the election a financial fraud investigation was launched against Yeltsin's campaign.

Fraud.

While a number of instances of election fraud were found, there has been no evidence that they had any material consequence on the overall result of the election.  The Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation found that the original second-round results reported from Mordovia were falsified. A significant number of votes that had been cast for Zyuganov were recorded as "Against All Candidates". The vote totals from Mordovia were subsequently adjusted by the Central Election Commission in order to remedy this.  The Central Election Commission also discovered fraud in Dagestan, an ethnic republic which had experienced a very improbable change in voting patterns between rounds. The vote totals were revised to remedy this.  Another instance of fraud was discovered in Karachay-Cherkessia by the Central Election Commission. The vote totals were adjusted to remedy for this as well.

Allegations of fraud.

There have been a number of allegations issues claiming that there were further, and greater, instances of fraud than the aforementioned instances that had been discovered by the Central Election Commission. These include a number of allegations which assert that the election was unfair, favoring Yeltsin, as well as some allegations that go as far as to assert that the entire election was fraudulent.  In addition to federal subjects in which fraud was discovered by the CEC, some results, such as those from Russia's ethnic republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, showed highly unlikely changes in voting patterns between the two rounds of voting. This has aroused suspicions of fraud. However, any fraud that may have contributed to these discrepancies is unlikely to have had a material effect on the outcome of the election. One hypothesis that has been given for the dramatic increase in support that Yeltsin saw in some regions was that, prior to the second round vote, administrative pressure was applied in these regions to coerce voters into supporting Yeltsin.  Allegations have been made that, in the first round of the election, several regions of Russia committed electoral fraud in favor of Zyuganov. It has also been further alleged that several of these Republics switched the direction of their fraud during the second-round, favoring Yeltsin instead.  Mikhail Gorbachev has voiced a belief that the results of the election were falsified. He has stated that he believes that the results under-reported his actual share of the vote.  At a meeting with opposition leaders in 2012, then-president Dmitry Medvedev was reported to have said, "There is hardly any doubt who won [that race]. It was not Boris Nikolaevich Yeltsin."

Allegations of American interference.

Some have argued that the role of American president Bill Clinton's administration in securing an International Monetary Fund loan for Russia was an act of foreign electoral intervention. The United States favored Yeltsin and in 2016, Dick Morris alleged that Bill Clinton was involved in assembling a trio of American consultants advising Yeltsin's campaign. The topic of American influence on Russian elections is developed in US popular culture, for example, in the 2003 comedy "Spinning Boris".  Knowing that his voter base was pro-Western, Yeltsin lobbied President Clinton to speak praisefully of Russia's transition to democracy. Yeltsin believed that this would strengthen his support from voters.  Yeltsin warned President Clinton of the possible ramifications of a Zyuganov victory, saying,  In their conversations President Clinton assured Yeltsin that he would give him his publicly declared personal endorsement, saying, "I've been trying to find a way to say to the Russian people 'this election will have consequences,' and we are clear about what it is we support." However, President Clinton providing his endorsement was not an extraordinary act. It is not unusual for national leaders to provide their endorsements to candidates in other nations. For instance, in the 2016 US presidential election Donald Trump received endorsements from a number of then-incumbent national leaders, as did his opponent Hillary Clinton. Not only is it not unusual for a national leader to lend their endorsement to a politician abroad but, in fact, the 1996 election cycle even saw instances in which Russian politicians lent their endorsement to candidates for the US presidential election. For instance, Zhirinovsky lent (and later rescinded) his endorsement to Pat Buchanan, who was running in the primaries for the Republican nomination in the US presidential election.  In January 1997, noting the support Yeltsin had received in 1996 from the Clinton administration, former candidate Alexander Lebed visited the United States to rally support from American businesses for a potential run in the 2000 Russian presidential election. As one analyst wrote at the time (of Lebed): "He may perceive that Yeltsin benefited greatly from support from the Americans in the last campaign. Bill Clinton made a trip to Moscow during the campaign. And the International Monetary Fund extended loans that enabled the Government to make credible promises to pay wages."

The 1996 Russian presidential election took place in Russia on 16 June 1996, with a second round on 3 July. It resulted in a victory for the incumbent President Boris Yeltsin, who ran as an independent. Yeltsin defeated Communist challenger Gennady Zyuganov in the run-off, receiving 54.4% of the vote. His inauguration ceremony took place on 9 August.

Prezidentské volby v Rusku se uskutečnily v létě 1996 (první kolo 16. června a druhé kolo 3. července). Šlo o první prezidentské volby po rozpadu Sovětského svazu v roce 1991. Vítězem voleb se stal dosavadní prezident Boris Jelcin, který ve druhém kole porazil komunistického kandidáta Gennadije Zjuganova. Voleb se účastnilo celkem 11 kandidátů. Odehrály se v atmosféře první čečenské války a různých ruských vnitropolitických konfliktů.


Early years.

Williams attended Queen Elizabeth High School (Halifax, Nova Scotia), where he played competitive football, soccer and basketball. In football, he was an All-star selection at both quarterback and wide receiver. As a senior, he also was an All-star selection at forward on the basketball team.

College career.

Williams was recruited by University of Western Ontario (now Western University) football coach Larry Haylor in 1988. He made an immediate impact in his freshman season with the Mustangs, setting a team receiving record for most yards per catch with 21.9, and was named an Ontario Universities Athletic Association (OUAA) second-team all-star.  Williams was named an OUAA all-star again in 1989, a season in which the Mustangs won their fifth Vanier Cup title. Williams caught five passes for 157 yards and a touchdown to earn the Ted Morris Memorial Trophy as the game's most outstanding player as Western beat the Saskatchewan Huskies 35-10 to win the Canadian Interuniversity Athletic Union football championship. Williams earned All-Canadian honours in 1990 and again 1991, and graduated Western with a degree in economics, and school records for most receptions and most yards receiving. Those records stood for nearly two decades until they were surpassed by future CFL star Andy Fantuz.  Williams' accomplishments in Canada caught the attention of American scouts, and after his final season at Western ended, he received an invitation to play in the Senior Bowl in Birmingham, Alabama. Not only was Williams the first Canadian university player to earn an invitation to the NCAA's annual showcase for graduating US college football players, he also caught a 36-yard touchdown pass in a 13-10 AFC victory, the game's only offensive touchdown, earning him the AT&T Long Distance Play of the Game for the longest play of the game.

National Football League.

Phoenix Cardinals.

Williams was selected by the Calgary Stampeders seventh overall in the first round of the CFL draft in February 1992, but decided to wait for the NFL draft in April before deciding on his professional future. He was selected by the Phoenix Cardinals in the ninth round (239th overall) of the 1992 NFL draft, becoming the first Canadian Interuniversity Athletic Union player selected in the NFL draft since the Los Angeles Rams selected offensive lineman Mike Schad of the Queen's University Golden Gaels in the first round (23rd overall) in 1986. Not since University of Toronto Varsity Blues quarterback Dan Feraday, who was selected in the 12th round by the Cincinnati Bengals in 1982, had a skill-position player from a Canadian university been taken by an NFL team.  Williams was not the first Western graduate to go to the NFL. Future Canadian Football Hall of Fame inductee Joe Krol played two games with the Detroit Lions in 1945, and offensive guard Dave Sparenberg played one game for the Cleveland Browns as a replacement player during the National Football League Players Association strike in 1987. Nor was Williams the first Mustang to be drafted by the NFL. Linebacker John Priestner was an 11th round pick (280th overall) of the Baltimore Colts in 1979. Priestner did not play in any regular season games with the Colts and returned to Canada to play for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats.  Williams' NFL career did not start off smoothly. In 1992, he missed the first two weeks of the Cardinals training camp because his work visa did not arrive, and after falling behind the competition, he was waived on September 1.

Dallas Cowboys.

On September 2, 1992, Williams was signed by the Dallas Cowboys to the team's practice squad. During the season he never dressed for a regular or playoff game. Although he was deactivated, he earned his first Super Bowl ring watching from the sidelines as the Cowboys crushed the Buffalo Bills 52-17 in Super Bowl XXVII.  In 1993, the on-field high point of Williams' time with Dallas came on August 8, when he hooked up with quarterback Jason Garrett for 5 catches and 157 yards, including a game-tying 53 yard touchdown pass in the Cowboys' 13-13 tie with the Detroit Lions in a preseason game at Wembley Stadium in London, England. He dressed for 9 games during the Cowboys' 1993 regular season, and played in 5 games catching one pass for 25 yards. The Cowboys earned a berth in Super Bowl XXVIII, but Williams was relegated to the inactive list when the team decided to dress an extra running back. He did not play in the game, but earned a second Super Bowl ring as the Cowboys defeated the Bills 30-13 to win their second consecutive NFL championship.  On July 11, 1994, Williams parted with the Cowboys, and was claimed by the Chicago Bears on July 12, but he was released during the team's final cuts. After sitting out the 1994 season, Williams was invited to the Buffalo Bills training camp on January 26, 1995. He was released on August 26, and decided to look for new opportunities back in Canada.

Canadian Football League.

Calgary Stampeders.

On September 12, 1995, after leaving Buffalo's training camp which finished midway through the CFL season, he signed with the Calgary Stampeders, which still retained his negotiation rights from the 1992 CFL draft. He joined former Mustangs teammate Dave Sapunjis in the Stampeders receiving corps, registering six passes for 81 yards and one touchdown in seven games. The team nearly won the CFL's championship in his first year in the league, catching one pass for 13 yards in Calgary's 37-20 loss to the Baltimore Stallions in the 83rd Grey Cup.

Toronto Argonauts.

On May 23, 1996, Williams was acquired by the Toronto Argonauts in exchange for the negotiation rights to quarterback Dave Dickenson. Williams enjoyed his finest professional season, playing a full schedule and catching passes for almost 900 yards. Led by quarterback Doug Flutie, the Argonauts cruised to a 15-3 record and won the 84th Grey Cup over the Edmonton Eskimos 43-37. With the victory, Williams became the first player to win the Vanier Cup, the Super Bowl and the Grey Cup.

Retirement.

On March 11, 1997, the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League signed Williams to a two-year contract as a free agent. He chose to retire in May of that year and was released on May 12. Retiring from pro football at the age of 27, he never gave an official explanation for his decision.

Personal life.

In recognition of his accomplishments as an amateur and professional athlete, Williams was inducted into the Nova Scotia Sports Hall of Fame in 2004. His uncle is Tommy Kane who played wide receiver in the NFL for the Seattle Seahawks. Williams works as a substitute teacher in the Halifax Regional School Board.

Tyrone Williams (born March 26, 1970) is a former American football wide receiver in the National Football League for the Dallas Cowboys. He also was a member of the Calgary Stampeders and Toronto Argonauts in the Canadian Football League. He is the first player to win a Vanier Cup, a Super Bowl and a Grey Cup. He played college football at the University of Western Ontario.

Tyrone Williams (* 26. března 1970 Halifax, Nové Skotsko) je bývalý kanadský hráč kanadského a amerického fotbalu, nastupoval na pozici Wide-Reciever. Byl draftován Národní Fotbalovou Ligou v roce 1992 jako 239. v 9.kole draftu (v roce 1992 & 1993 vyhrál se svým týmem v Super Bowlu a v roce 1996 ve finále Kanadské Fotbalové Ligy Grey Cup.


International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War

Mezinárodní sankce v průběhu ukrajinské krize

Background.

In response to the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, some governments and international organisations, led by the United States and European Union, imposed sanctions on Russian individuals and businesses. As the unrest expanded into other parts of Eastern Ukraine, and later escalated into the ongoing war in the Donbass region, the scope of the

Sanctions against Russian and Ukrainian individuals, companies and officials.

First round : March/April 2014.

On 6 March 2014, U.S. President Barack Obama, invoking, "inter alia", the "International Emergency Economic Powers Act" and the "National Emergencies Act", signed an executive order declaring a national emergency and ordering sanctions, including travel bans and the freezing of U.S. assets, against not-yet-specified individuals who had "asserted governmental authority in the Crimean region without the authorization of the Government of Ukraine" and whose actions were found, "inter alia", to "undermine democratic processes and institutions in Ukraine".  On 17 March 2014, the U.S., the EU and Canada introduced specifically targeted sanctions, the day after the Crimean referendum and a few hours before Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a decree recognizing Crimea as an independent state, laying the groundwork for its annexation of Crimea by Russia. The principal EU sanction aimed to "prevent the entry into... their territories of the natural persons responsible for actions which undermine... the territorial integrity... of Ukraine, and of natural persons associated with them, as listed in the Annex". The EU imposed its sanctions "in the absence of de-escalatory steps by the Russian Federation" in order

Second round: April 2014.

On 10 April, the Council of Europe suspended the voting rights of Russia's delegation.  On 28 April, the United States imposed a ban on business transactions within its territory on 7 Russian officials, including Igor Sechin, executive chairman of the Russian state oil company Rosneft, and 17 Russian companies.  On the same day, the

Third round: 2014–present.

In response to the escalating War in Donbass, on 17 July 2014 the United States extended its transactions ban to two major Russian energy firms, Rosneft and Novatek, and to two banks, Gazprombank and Vnesheconombank. United States also urged EU leaders to join the third wave leading EU to start drafting European sanctions a day before. On 25 July, the EU officially expanded its sanctions to an additional 15 individuals and 18 entities, followed by an additional eight individuals and three entities on 30 July. On 31 July 2014 the EU introduced the third round of sanctions which included an embargo on arms and related material, and embargo on dual-use goods and technology intended for military use or a military end user, a ban on imports of arms and related material, controls on export of equipment for the oil industry, and a restriction on the issuance of and trade in certain bonds, equity or similar financial instruments on a maturity greater than 90 days (In September 2014

Sanctions against Crimea.

The United States, Canada, the European Union and other European countries (including Ukraine) imposed economic sanctions specifically targeting Crimea. Sanctions prohibit the sale, supply, transfer, or export of goods and technology in several sectors, including services directly related to tourism

Sanctions over Ukrainians held by Russia.

In April 2016, Lithuania sanctioned 46 individuals who were involved in the detention and sentencing of Ukrainian citizens Nadiya Savchenko, Oleh Sentsov, and Olexandr Kolchenko. Lithuanian Foreign Minister

Opposition to sanctions.

Whilst Russia's annexation of Crimea is the primary justification for sanctions, this is at odds with the strong local support for the transfer of territory by the public of Crimea themselves.  Italy, Hungary, Greece, France, Cyprus and Slovakia are among the EU states most skeptical about the sanctions and have called for review of sanctions. The Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán stated that Europe "shot itself in the foot" by introducing economic sanctions. Bulgarian Prime Minister Boiko Borisov stated, "I don't know how Russia is affected by the sanctions, but Bulgaria is affected severely"; Czech President Miloš Zeman and Slovakian Prime Minister Robert Fico also said that the sanctions should be lifted. In October 2017, the Hungarian Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade Péter Szijjártó added that the sanctions "were totally unsuccessful because Russia is not on its knees economically, but also because there have been many harms to our own economies and, politically speaking, we have had no real forward progress regarding the Minsk agreement".  In 2015, the Greek Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras repeatedly said that Greece would seek to mend ties between Russia and EU through European institutions. Tsipras also said that Greece was not in favour of Western sanctions imposed on Russia, adding that it risked the start of another Cold War.  A number of business figures in France and Germany have opposed the sanctions. The German Economy Minister Sigmar Gabriel said that the Ukrainian crisis should be resolved by dialogue rather than economic confrontation, later adding that the reinforcement of anti-Russian sanctions will "provoke an even more dangerous situation... in Europe".  Paolo Gentiloni, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs, said that the sanctions "are not the solution to the conflict". In January 2017, Swiss Economics Minister and former President of Switzerland Johann Schneider-Ammann stated his concern about the sanctions' harm to the Swiss economy, and expressed hope that they will soon come to an end. Some companies, most notably Siemens Gas Turbine Technologies LLC and Lufthansa Service Holding were reported to attempt bypassing the sanctions and exporting power generation turbines to the annexed Crimea.  In August 2015, the British think tank Bow Group released a report on sanctions, calling for the removal of them. According to the report, the sanctions have had "adverse consequences for European and American businesses, and if they are prolonged... they can have even more deleterious effects in the future"; the potential cost of sanctions for the Western countries has been estimated as over $700 billion.  In June 2017, Germany and Austria criticized the U.S. Senate over new sanctions against Russia that target the planned Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline from Russia to Germany, stating that the United States was threatening Europe's energy supplies (see also Russia in the European energy sector). In a joint statement Austria's Chancellor Christian Kern and Germany's Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel said that "Europe's energy supply is a matter for Europe, and not for the United States of America." They also said: "To threaten companies from Germany, Austria and other European states with penalties on the U.S. market if they participate in natural gas projects such as Nord Stream 2 with Russia or finance them introduces a completely new and very negative quality into European-American relations."  In May 2018, the vice chairman of Free Democratic Party of Germany and the Vice President of the Bundestag Wolfgang Kubicki said that Germany should "take a first step towards Russia with the easing of the economic sanctions" because "this can be decided by Germany alone" and "does not need the consent of others".  In February 2019, advisor to Municipal Councilor of Municipality of Verona, member of House of Representatives Vito Comencini said that the anti-Russian sanctions have caused significant damage to the Italian economy, with the result that the country suffers losses every day in the amount of millions of euros.

Other sanctions on Russia.

In December 2012, the United States enacted the "Magnitsky Act", intended to punish Russian officials responsible for the death of Russian tax accountant Sergei Magnitsky in a Moscow prison in 2009 by prohibiting their entrance to the United States and their use of its banking system. 18 individuals were originally affected by the Act. In December 2016, Congress enacted the "Global Magnitsky Act" to allow the US Government to sanction foreign government officials implicated in human rights abuses anywhere in the world. On 21 December 2017, 13 additional names were added to the list of sanctioned individuals, not just Russians. Other countries passed similar laws to ban foreigners deemed guilty of human rights abuses from entering their countries.  On 29 December 2016, US President Barack Obama signed an order that expels 35 Russian diplomats, locks down two Russian diplomatic compounds, and expands sanctions against Russia for its interference in the 2016 United States elections.  In August 2017, United States Congress passed the "Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act" that imposed new sanctions on Russia for interference in the 2016 elections and its involvement in Ukraine and Syria. The Act prevents the easing, suspending or ending of sanctions by the President without the approval of the United States Congress.  In January 2018 the EU sanctioned entities who participated in the construction of the Crimea Bridge: Institute Giprostroymost, the firm which designed the bridge; Mostotrest, which has a contract to maintain the bridge; Zaliv Shipyard, which built a railroad line to the bridge; Stroygazmontazh Corporation, the main construction company that built the bridge; a subsidiary of Stroygazmontazh called Stroygazmontazh-Most and VAD, which built the roadway over the bridge, as well as access roads.  On 15 March 2018, Trump imposed financial sanctions under the Act on the 13 Russian government hackers and front organizations that had been indicted by Mueller's investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.  In March 2018, 29 Western countries and NATO expelled in total at least 149 Russian diplomats, including 60 by the United States, in response to the poisoning of Skripal and his daughter on 4 March in the United Kingdom, which has been blamed on Russia. Other measures were also taken.

Consequences and assessment.

The sanctions introduced both by and against Russia slowed down the trade between Russia and EU, causing damage to both Russian and European economy.

Effect on Russia.

The economic sanctions are generally believed to have helped weaken the Russian economy slightly and to intensify the challenges that Russia was facing.  A 2015 data analysis suggested Russia's entry into a recession, with negative GDP growth of −2.2% for the first quarter of 2015, as compared to the first quarter of 2014. Further, the combined effect of the sanctions and the rapid decline in oil prices in 2014 has caused significant downward pressure on the value of the

Effect on US and EU countries.

As of 2015, the losses of EU have been estimated as at least €100 billion. The German business sector, with around 30,000 workplaces depending on trade with the Russian Federation, also reported being affected significantly by the sanctions. The sanctions affected numerous European market sectors, including energy, agriculture, and aviation among others. In March 2016, the Finnish farmers' union MTK stated that the Russian sanctions and falling prices have put farmers under tremendous pressure. Finland's Natural Resources Institute LUKE has estimated that last year farmers saw

Russian counter-sanctions.

Three days after the first sanctions against Russia, on 20 March 2014, the Russian Foreign Ministry published a list of reciprocal sanctions against certain American citizens, which consisted of ten names, including Speaker of the House of Representatives John Boehner, Senator John McCain, and two advisers to Barack Obama. The ministry said in the statement, "Treating our country in such way, as Washington could have already ascertained, is inappropriate and counterproductive", and reiterated that sanctions against Russia would have a boomerang effect. On 24 March, Russia banned thirteen Canadian officials, including members of the Parliament of Canada, from entering the country.  On 6 August 2014, Putin signed a decree "On the use of specific economic measures", which mandated an effective embargo for a one-year period on imports of most of the agricultural products whose country of origin had either "adopted the decision on introduction of economic sanctions in respect of Russian legal and (or) physical entities, or joined same". The next day, the Russian government ordinance was adopted and published with immediate effect, which specified the banned items as well as the countries of provenance: the United States, the EU, Norway, Canada and Australia, including a ban on fruit, vegetables, meat, fish, milk and dairy imports. Prior to the embargo, food exports from the EU to Russia were worth around €11.8 billion, or 10% of the total EU exports to Russia. Food exports from the United States to Russia were worth around €972 million. Food exports from Canada were worth around €385 million. Food exports from Australia, mainly meat and live cattle, were worth around €170 million per year.  Russia had previously taken a position that it would not engage in "tit-for-tat" sanctions, but, announcing the embargo, Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev said, "There is nothing good in sanctions and it was not an easy decision to take, but we had to do it." He indicated that sanctions relating to the

List of sanctioned individuals.

Sanctioned individuals include notable and high-level central government personnel and businessmen on all sides. In addition, companies suggested for possible involvement in the controversial issues have also been sanctioned.

International sanctions were imposed during the Russo-Ukrainian War by a large number of countries against Russia and Crimea following the Russian military intervention in Ukraine, which began in late February 2014. The sanctions were imposed by the United States, the European Union (EU) and other countries and international organisations against individuals, businesses and officials from Russia and Ukraine. Russia responded with sanctions against a number of countries, including a total ban on food imports from the EU, United States, Norway, Canada and Australia.

Řada států Západního světa na Rusko uvalilo embargo na ruské zboží, firmy a jednotlivce, poté co se v únoru 2014 Rusko zapojilo do ukrajinské krize, v rámci které po krymském referendu anektovalo poloostrov Krym a podpořilo separatisty ve válce na východě Ukrajiny. Sankce byly schválené kolektivně EU a některými dalšími státy v Evropě, USA, Kanadou, Austrálií a Japonskem.


History.

The origin of churros is unclear. One theory suggests they were brought to Europe from China by the Portuguese. The Portuguese sailed for the Orient and as they returned from Ming-dynasty China to Portugal, they brought along with them new culinary techniques, including altering dough for "youtiao", also known as "yóuzháguǐ" in southern China which bears a resemblance to the churro. The new pastry was soon introduced in Spain, where it was modified to have the dough extruded through a star-shaped nozzle rather than pulled.  Another theory is that the churro was made by Spanish shepherds to substitute for fresh baked goods. Churro paste was easy to make and fry in an open fire in the mountains, where shepherds spend most of their time.

Preparation.

Churros are fried until they become crunchy, and may be sprinkled with sugar. The surface of a churro is ridged due to having been piped from a churrera, a syringe-like tool with a star-shaped nozzle. Churros are generally prisms in shape, and may be straight, curled or spirally twisted.  Like pretzels, churros are sold by street vendors, who may fry them freshly on the street stand and sell them hot. In Spain and much of Latin America, churros are available in cafes for breakfast, although they may be eaten throughout the day as a snack. Specialized "churrerías", in the form of a shop or a trailer, can be found during the holiday period. In addition, countries like Colombia, Peru, Spain, and Venezuela have churrerías throughout their streets. In Portugal, they are commonly eaten at carnivals, fairs and other celebrations, where they are made freshly at street stands.  The dough is a mixture of flour, water and salt. Some versions are made of potato dough.

Variations.

In Seville (Andalusia), the name "calientes" (meaning hot) or "calentitos de rueda" is sometimes used instead of the word "churro". These tend to refer to the thicker variant, called "porra". Calientes are usually fried in the shape of a continuous spiral and cut into portions afterwards. The center of the spiral is thicker and softer, and for many a delicacy in itself. The standard "churro" is also sold under the name "calentitos de papas", the name referring to the softer mashed potato–like texture.  In parts of Eastern Andalusia, a much thinner dough is used, which does not allow for the typical ridges to be formed on the surface of the churro. The final result therefore has a smooth surface, and is more pliable and of a slightly thinner diameter than standard Spanish churros. Another difference is that sugar is never sprinkled on them, because the flavour is not considered suitable.  Filled, straight "churros" are found in Cuba (with fruit, such as guava), Brazil (with chocolate, "doce de leite", among others), and in Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Chile and Mexico (usually filled with "dulce de leche" or "cajeta" but also with chocolate and vanilla). In Colombia and Venezuela, churros are glazed with arequipe and sweetened condensed milk. In Spain, a considerably wider diameter is used to accommodate the filling. In Uruguay, churros can also come in a savoury version, filled with melted cheese.  In the Philippines, "churros" are typically straight, or bent into U-shapes or circular shapes. They are usually dusted with white sugar. "Churros" are almost always eaten with "tsokolate" drinks (a pairing known as "churros con tsokolate"), which can also serve as a dip. They are popular during the Christmas season.  Churros in American theme parks and street fairs are most often rolled in cinnamon sugar or other flavored sugars.

A churro (, ) is a fried-dough pastry—predominantly choux—based snack. Churros are traditional in Spain and Portugal, where they originated, as well as in the Philippines and Ibero-America. They are also consumed around the world, especially in the Southwestern United States, France, and other areas that have received immigration from Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries. In Spain, churros can either be thin (and sometimes knotted) or long and thick, where they are known as "porras" in some regions. They are normally eaten for breakfast dipped in champurrado, hot chocolate, dulce de leche or café con leche. Sugar is often sprinkled on top.

Churro (výslovnost [ˈtʃuro]) nebo množným číslem "churros", krajově také "tejeringos", "porras" nebo "calientes", je pečivo podobné koblihám, rozšířené na Pyrenejském poloostrově a v Latinské Americe. Připravuje se z prosáté pšeničné mouky, vody, olivového nebo slunečnicového oleje, cukru a soli, které se zpracují na odpalované těsto. Těstem se naplní válec s pístem a tryskou zvaný "churrero" a z něj se vytlačují tyčinky nebo spirály s hvězdicovitým průřezem, které se rychle osmaží na rozpáleném oleji do zlatova. Podélné vroubky zvyšují poměr povrchu k objemu a usnadňují tak prosmažení. Daly také jídlu jméno, protože připomínají rohy ovce plemene churra.


History.

Boma was founded by European merchants in the 16th century as an entrepôt, including for the slave trade. Trade was chiefly in the hands of Dutch merchants, but British, French and Portuguese firms also had factories there. No European power exercised sovereignty, though claims were from time to time put forward by Portugal.  British explorer Henry Morton Stanley arrived here on 9 Aug. 1877, after crossing Africa from east to west.  In 1884 the people of Boma were forced to grant a protectorate of their country to the International Association of the Congo, made up of European powers. In 1886 King Leopold of Belgium established the Congo Free State, designating Boma as its capital. He ran the state as his personal fiefdom for several years, nearly enslaving many Congolese with a private military, and abusing them to force rubber production. International outrage and action by the Belgian legislature resulted in the government taking over supervision of what was established as the colony of the Belgian Congo.  Boma continued as the capital of the Belgian Congo until 1926. Léopoldville, since renamed as Kinshasa, was designated as the new capital. (This territory is now the modern Democratic Republic of the Congo).

Transport.

Boma lies on the north bank of the Congo River, some 100 km upstream from Muanda, where the river flows into the Atlantic Ocean. The great width and depth of the river allow seagoing ships to reach Boma, which is the second-largest port of DR Congo, after Matadi. Between 1889 and 1984, the port was served by a 610 mm gauge railway line from Tshela.

Climate.

Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as tropical wet and dry (Aw).  The highest record temperature was on February 25, 1976, while the lowest record temperature was on October 21, 1976.

Boma is a port town on the Congo River, some 100 km upstream from the Atlantic Ocean, in the Kongo Central province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, adjacent to the border with Angola. It had an estimated population of 162,521 in 2012.

Boma je přístavní město v Konžské demokratické republice v provincii Bas-Congo. Bylo hlavním městem Svobodného konžského státu a Belgického Konga od 1. května 1886 do roku 1926, kdy se hlavní město přestěhovalo do Léopoldville (dnešní Kinshasa).


Taxonomy and systematics.

When Carl Linnaeus first described the chimney swift in 1758, he named it, believing it to be a swallow. This misconception continued well into the 1800s, with ornithologists calling it "American Swallow" (e.g. Mark Catesby) or "Chimney Swallow" (e.g. John James Audubon). In 1825, James Francis Stephens moved this and other small, short-tailed New World swifts to the genus "Chaetura", where it has since remained, although some authorities in the 1800s assigned it to a variety of now obsolete genera. It has no subspecies. The chimney swift's closest relative is Vaux's swift. Scientists believe that the two species evolved from a common ancestor that was forced to North America's southeastern and southwestern corners by glacial advances. Separated for millennia by vast ice sheets, the survivors evolved into two species which are still separated by a wide gap across the continent's midsection. It is also closely related to the Chapman's swift; in the past, the three were sometimes treated as a single species.  The chimney swift's genus name, "Chaetura", is a combination of two Ancient Greek words: "chaite", which means "bristle" or "spine", and "oura" which means "tail". This is an apt description of the bird's tail, as the shafts of all ten tail feathers (rectrices) end in sharp, protruding points. The specific name "pelagica" is derived from the Greek word "pelagikos", which means "of the sea". This is thought to be a reference to its nomadic lifestyle rather than to any reference to the sea, a theory strengthened by the later assignment of the specific name "pelasgia" (after the nomadic Pelasgi tribe of ancient Greece) to the same species by other ornithologists. Its common name refers to its preferred nesting site and its speedy flight.

Description.

This is a medium-sized swift, measuring from in length, with a wingspan of and a weight ranging from. The sexes are identical in plumage, though males average slightly heavier than females. The adult's plumage is a dark sooty olive above and grayish brown below, with a slightly paler rump and uppertail covert feathers, and a significantly paler throat. Its upperparts are the most uniformly colored of all the "Chaetura" swifts, showing little contrast between back and rump. Its beak is black, as are its feet and legs. Its iris is dark brown. Juvenal plumage (that held by juvenile birds) is very similar to that of adults, but with whitish tips to the outer webs of the secondaries and tertials.  The chimney swift's wings are slender, curved and long, extending as much as beyond the bird's tail when folded. Its wingtips are pointed, which helps to decrease air turbulence (and therefore drag) during flight. Its humerus (the bone in the inner part of the wing) is quite short, while the bones farther out (more distally) along the wing are elongated, a combination which allows the bird to flap very quickly. In flight, it holds its wings stiffly, alternating between rapid, quivering flaps and longer glides. Its flight profile is widely described as a "cigar with wings"—a description first used by Roger Tory Peterson. Although the bird often appears to beat its wings asynchronously during flight, photographic and stroboscopic studies have shown that it beats them in unison. The illusion that it does otherwise is heightened by its very fast and highly erratic flight, with many rapid changes of direction.  The legs of the chimney swift, like those of all swifts, are very short. Its feet are small but strong, with very short toes that are tipped with sharp, curved claws. The toes are anisodactyl—three forward, one back—like those of most birds, but the chimney swift can swivel its back toe (its hallux) forward to help it get a better grip. Unlike the legs and feet of most birds, those of the chimney swift have no scales; instead, they are covered with smooth skin.  Its tail is short and square, measuring only in length. All ten of its tail feathers have shafts which extend as much as beyond the vanes, ending in sharp, stiff points. These help the bird to prop itself against vertical surfaces.  The chimney swift has large, deep set eyes. These are protected by small patches of coarse, black, bristly feathers, which are located in front of each eye. The swift can change the angle of these feathers, which may help to reduce glare. It is far-sighted and, like some birds of prey, this swift is bifoveal: each eye having both a temporal and a central fovea. These are small depressions in the retina where visual acuity is highest, and help to make its vision especially acute. Like most vertebrates, it is able to focus both eyes at once; however, it is also able to focus a single eye independently.  Its bill is very small, with a culmen that measures a mere in length. However, its gape is huge, extending back below its eyes, and allowing the bird to open its mouth very widely. Unlike many insectivorous birds, it lacks rictal bristles at the base of the beak.

Similar species.

The chimney swift looks very much like the closely related Vaux's swift, but is slightly larger, with relatively longer wings and tail, slower wingbeats and a greater tendency to soar. It tends to be darker on the breast and rump than the Vaux's swift, though there is some overlap in plumage coloring. It can be as much as 30 percent heavier than Vaux's swift, and its wings, which are proportionately narrower, show a pronounced bulge in the inner secondaries. The chimney swift is smaller, paler and shorter tailed than the black swift. In Central America, it is most similar to Chapman's swift, but it is paler (matte olive rather than glossy black) and has a stronger contrast between its pale throat and the rest of its underparts than does its more uniformly colored relative.

Distribution and habitat.

A widespread breeding visitor to much of the eastern half of the United States and the southern reaches of eastern Canada, the chimney swift migrates to South America for the winter. It is a rare summer visitor to the western U.S, and has been recorded as a vagrant in Anguilla, Barbados, Greenland, Jamaica, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the U.S. Virgin Islands. It is found over open country, savanna, wooded slopes and humid forests.  The chimney swift's wintering grounds were only discovered in 1944, when bands from birds banded (ringed) in North America were recovered in Peru. An indigenous Peruvian had been wearing the bands as a necklace.

Behavior.

The chimney swift is a gregarious species, and is seldom seen alone. It generally hunts in groups of two or three, migrates in loose flocks of 6–20, and (once the breeding season is over) sleeps in huge communal roosts of hundreds or thousands of birds. Like all swifts, it is a superb aerialist, and only rarely seen at rest. It drinks on the wing, skimming the surface of the water with its beak. It also bathes on the wing, gliding above the surface of a body of water, briefly smacking its breast into the water, then flying off again, shaking its feathers as it goes. It has been recorded by pilots flying more than a mile above the surface of the earth, including one seen at. It is incapable of perching upright like most birds do; instead, it clings to vertical surfaces. If it is disturbed while at rest, the chimney swift will clap its wings loudly once or twice against its body; it does this either in place, or while dropping down several feet to a lower location. This behavior can result in a loud "thundering" sound if large roosts of the birds are disturbed. The sound is thought to be the bird's way of scaring away potential predators.

Feeding.

Like all swifts, the chimney swift forages on the wing. Studies have shown that of its food items are flying insects, including various species of flies, ants, wasps, bees, whiteflies, aphids, scale insects, stoneflies and mayflies. It also eats airborne spiders drifting on their threads. It is an important predator of pest species such as the red imported fire ant and the clover root curculio. Researchers estimate that a pair of adults provisioning a nest with three youngsters consume the weight equivalent of at least insects per day. Like many bird species, the chimney swift periodically coughs up pellets composed of indigestible bits of prey items.  During the breeding season, at least half of the chimney swift's forays occur within of its nest; however, it ranges up to away. While most of its food is seized following aerial pursuit, some is gleaned from the foliage of trees; the bird hovers near the ends of branches or drops through upper canopy levels. The chimney swift generally flies quite high, though it descends during cold or rainy weather. When feeding, it regularly occurs in small groups, and sometimes hunts with swallows, particularly barn swallows and purple martins; in mixed-species flocks, it is typically among the lower fliers. There is at least one record of a chimney swift attempting to steal a dragonfly from a purple martin, and it has been observed chasing other purple martins. In general, it is a diurnal feeder which remains active into early evening. However, there are records, particularly during migration periods, of chimney swifts feeding well after dark over brightly lit buildings.  The species shows two-weight peaks each year: one at the start of the breeding season, and a higher one shortly before it begins its migration south in the autumn. Its lowest weights are typically recorded during the breeding season, when it also begins a complete molt of its plumage. The chimney swift's weight gain before migration is smaller than that of some passerines, suggesting that it must refuel en route at various stopover points.

Breeding.

The chimney swift is a monogamous breeder which normally mates for life, though a small percentage of birds change partners. Pairs perform display flights together, gliding with their wings upraised in a steep "V", and sometimes rocking from side to side. Breeding birds arrive as early as mid March in the southern U.S., and as late as mid-May in the Canadian provinces.  Before the arrival of European colonists into North America, the chimney swift nested in hollow trees; now, it uses human-built structures almost exclusively. While the occasional nest is still built in a hollow tree (or, exceptionally, in an abandoned woodpecker nest), most are now found in chimneys, with smaller numbers in airshafts, the dark corners of lightly used buildings, cisterns, or wells. The nest is a shallow bracket made of sticks, which the birds gather in flight, breaking them off trees. The sticks are glued together (and the nest to a vertical surface) with copious amounts of the bird's saliva. During the breeding season, each adult's salivary glands more than double in size, from in the non-breeding season to during the breeding season.  Unlike some swift species, which mate in flight, chimney swifts mate while clinging to a vertical surface near their nest. They copulate daily, until the clutch is complete. The female typically lays, though clutch sizes range from. The eggs, which are long and elliptical in shape, are moderately glossy, smooth and white, and measure. Each weighs nearly of the female's body weight. Incubated by both parents, the eggs hatch after. Baby chimney swifts are altricial—naked, blind and helpless when they hatch. Fledglings leave the nest after a month.  The average chimney swift's life span is, but one is known to have lived more than. It was originally banded as an adult, and was recaptured in another banding operation some later.

Predators and parasites.

Mississippi kites, peregrine falcons and merlins are raptors that are known to take adult chimney swifts in flight, being among the select few avian hunters fast enough to overtake the appropriately named swift on the wing. Eastern screech-owls have been seen attacking colonies, as have non-avian predators including eastern rat snakes, northern raccoons and tree squirrels. These are most likely to take nestlings but may take some nesting adults as well. When disturbed by potential predators (including humans) at the colony, adult chimney swifts slap their wings together after arching back and taking flight, making a very loud noise known either as "booming" or "thunder noises". When disturbed, nestlings make a loud, raspy "raah, raah, raah" sound. Both sounds seem designed to startle potential predators.  The chimney swift carries a number of internal and external parasites. It is the type host for the nematode species "Aproctella nuda", the feather mite species "Euchineustathia tricapitosetosa", and the biting lice species " Dennyus dubius", and is also known to carry the tapeworm species "Pseudochoanotaenia collocaliae". Its nest is known to host the Hemiptera species "Cimexopsis nyctali", which is similar to the bed bug and can (on rare occasions) become a pest species in houses.

Voice.

The chimney swift has a twittering call, consisting of a rapid series of hard, high-pitched chirps. It sometimes gives single chirps.

Conservation status.

In 2010, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature changed the chimney swift's status from least concern to near threatened. In 2018, the IUCN changed the chimney swift's status from near threatened to vulnerable. Although the global population is estimated at, it has declined precipitously across the majority of its range. The causes of population declines are largely unclear, but may be related to the alteration of the insect community due to pesticide use in the early half of the 20th century. In Canada, they were listed as threatened by COSEWIC for several years with a likely future listing as a Schedule 1 species of the Species at Risk Act. In the U.S., the chimney swift is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. Neither birds nor nests can be removed from chimneys without a federally-issued permit. Populations may have increased historically with the introduction of chimneys to North America by European settlers, providing plentiful nesting opportunities.  After sudden temperature drops, the chimney swift sometimes hunts low over concrete roads (presumably following insect prey drawn to the warmer road), where collisions with vehicles become more likely. Severe storms, such as hurricanes, encountered during migration can seriously impact the chimney's swift's survival rates. Swifts caught up in 2005's Hurricane Wilma were swept as far north as Atlantic Canada and Western Europe. More than 700 were found dead. The following year, roost counts in the province of Quebec, Canada showed a decrease of 62 percent, and the overall population in the province was halved.

History of observation.

In 1899, Mary Day of New Jersey observed a pair of chimney swifts nesting in a chimney, and noted the incubation period was 19 days. The first detailed study of chimney swifts began in 1915 by self-taught ornithologist Althea Sherman in Iowa. She commissioned a 28 foot tall tower, of a similar design to a chimney, with ladders and peep holes installed to facilitate observation. Chimney swifts nested in her tower, and for over fifteen years, she meticulously recorded her observations, filling over 400 pages. Sherman remarked that although the tower had been designed with a limited knowledge of the nesting behaviour of chimney swifts, after many years of observation she believed that the original design was ideal.

The chimney swift ("Chaetura pelagica") is a bird belonging to the swift family Apodidae. A member of the genus "Chaetura", it is closely related to both the Vaux's swift and the Chapman's swift; in the past, the three were sometimes considered to be conspecific. It has no subspecies. The chimney swift is a medium-sized, sooty gray bird with very long, slender wings and very short legs. Like all swifts, it is incapable of perching, and can only cling vertically to surfaces.

Rorýs ostnitý ("Chaetura pelagica") je malý stěhovavý pták z řádu svišťounů (Apodiformes). Je zástupce rodu "Chaetura" a je blízce příbuzný s rorýsem srpokřídlým a rorýsem Chapmanovým. V minulosti tvořily všechny tři druhy jeden – konspecifické druhy. Nemá poddruhy. Rorýs ostnitý je středně velký černošedý pták s dlouhými štíhlými křídly a velmi krátkýma nohama. Jako ostatní rorýsi nesedá na zem, ale zavěšuje se na svislých površích. Požírá především létající hmyz, ale i vzduchem nesené pavouky. Žije v trvalých párech. Staví si hnízda na svislých stěnách a téměř výlučně na lidských stavbách – typicky v komínech, hnízda jsou z větviček slepených slinami. Samice klade 4–5 bílých vajíček. Altriciální mláďata se líhnou po 19 dnech a o měsíc později jsou již opeřená. Dožívají se průměrně 4,6 let.


Geography.

The island group is administered by Russia as part of Khabarovsk Krai.

History.

The Nivkh people populated the Shantar islands until the 1730s.  The first recorded exploration of the Shantar Islands was in April 1640, when Russian explorer Ivan Moskvitin allegedly sailed to the mouth of the Amur River with a group of Cossacks and spotted the Shantar Islands on the way back. Moskvitin reported his discoveries to Prince Shcherbatov, the Muscovite voivode in Tomsk. Based on Ivan Moskvitin's account, the first Russian map of the Far East was drawn in March 1642. The Shantar Islands were also explored by Russian surveyors between 1711 and 1725.  American whaleships cruised for bowhead whales around the Shantar Islands between 1852 and 1907. They anchored among the islands to send whaleboats into the bays to the south and west, including Uda, Tugur, and Ulban Bays. They sought shelter under Bolshoy Shantar, Medvezhy, Malyy Shantar, and Feklistova Islands from strong winds and gales as well as to obtain wood and water. At least four ships were wrecked on the islands: one on the Pinnacle Rocks, one on Medvezhy and two on Bolshoy Shantar during gales in October 1858 and August 1907.  At the end of 2013, the Shantar Islands National Park was created by Russian scientists and conservationists with support from WWF and several international organizations to protect the wildlife of the islands.

Ecology.

There is no permanent population on the Shantar Islands, but they are often visited by commercial fishermen who use them as a base. Other economic activities undertaken on these islands are fur hunting and trapping as well as logging, which in the past were often done illegally. There are spruce forests on the largest islands. Other trees in the island taiga are the Siberian spruce, the Dahurian larch and the mountain pine.  There are many endangered birds on these islands, including the Blakiston's fish owl, osprey, black stork, red-necked grebe, gyrfalcon, solitary snipe, Steller's sea eagle and the Siberian grouse. In the spring and summer, a number of seabird species nest on the islands, including black-headed and slaty-backed gull, common and thick-billed murre, horned and tufted puffin, spectacled guillemot, Aleutian tern, long-billed murrelet, and pelagic cormorant.  The Kamchatka brown bear ("Ursus arctos beringianus"), sable and marten, caribou, red fox, and river otter are common on the Shantar Islands. Reindeer can be seen as well. Rivers on these islands are populated by sturgeon, salmon, trout, and various other fish.  The waters around these coastal islands are frozen for about eight months of the year on average. Pinnipeds (such as harbour seals, bearded seals, common seals, ribbon seals (on sea ice) and Steller sea lions), sea otters, and cetaceans such as minke whales, killer whales, and the critically endangered bowhead whales, western gray whales and belugas can be seen off the islands.  Although there is little visible evidence of human impact, the Shantar island ecosystem is under threat. One of the most severe threats to the environment of the Shantar Islands is a proposed tidal hydroelectric power station, which is currently on hold for lack of funds. Lack of restrictions on tourism and resorting is also a problem as the number of people visiting the islands is increasing in recent years.

The Shantar Islands () are a group of fifteen islands located off the northwestern shore of the Sea of Okhotsk east of Uda Gulf and north of Academy Bay. Most of the islands have rugged cliffs, but they are of moderate height; the highest point in the island group is 720 metres. The name of the island group has its origins in the Nivkh language from the word ч’андь "č’and’" meaning "to be white". The islands are currently uninhabited.

Šantarské ostrovy ( "Шантарские острова") je souostroví v západní části Ochotského moře naproti ústí řeky Udy, které patří k Chabarovskému kraji Ruska. Na rozdíl od přilehlé pevniny, od níž ostrovy odděluje Lindholmův průliv, jsou řazeny k regionu Dálný sever. Ostrovy jsou bez stálého lidského osídlení, občas je navštěvují rybáři a lovci, velrybáři nebo vědecké týmy. V roce 2013 byly i s okolním mořem vyhlášeny národním parkem. Celková rozloha souostroví činí 2 500 km2, z toho na hlavní ostrov Velký Šantar připadá 1 790 km2. Dalšími většími ostrovy jsou Malý Šantar, Feklistovův ostrov, Medvědí ostrov a Veverčí ostrov ("Běličij"). Souostroví objevil v roce 1640 Ivan Moskvitin.