Types.

All scarring is composed of the same collagen as the tissue it has replaced, but the composition of the scar tissue, compared to the normal tissue, is different. Scar tissue also lacks elasticity unlike normal tissue which distributes fiber elasticity. Scars differ in the amounts of collagen overexpressed. Labels have been applied to the differences in overexpression. Two of the most common types are hypertrophic and keloid scarring, both of which experience excessive stiff collagen bundled growth overextending the tissue, blocking off regeneration of tissues. Another form is atrophic scarring (sunken scarring), which also has an overexpression of collagen blocking regeneration. This scar type is sunken, because the collagen bundles do not overextend the tissue. Stretch marks (striae) are regarded as scars by some.  High melanin levels and either African or Asian ancestry may make adverse scarring more noticeable.

Hypertrophic.

Hypertrophic scars occur when the body overproduces collagen, which causes the scar to be raised above the surrounding skin. Hypertrophic scars take the form of a red raised lump on the skin. They usually occur within 4 to 8 weeks following wound infection or wound closure with excess tension and/or other traumatic skin injuries.

Keloid.

Keloid scars are a more serious form of excessive scarring, because they can grow indefinitely into large, tumorous (although benign) neoplasms.  Hypertrophic scars are often distinguished from keloid scars by their lack of growth outside the original wound area, but this commonly taught distinction can lead to confusion.  Keloid scars can occur on anyone, but they are most common in dark-skinned people. They can be caused by surgery, accident, acne or, sometimes, body piercings. In some people, keloid scars form spontaneously. Although they can be a cosmetic problem, keloid scars are only inert masses of collagen and therefore completely harmless and not cancerous. However, they can be itchy or painful in some individuals. They tend to be most common on the shoulders and chest. Hypertrophic scars and keloids tend to be more common in wounds closed by secondary intention. Surgical removal of keloid is risky and may excerbate the condition and worsening of the keloid.

Atrophic.

An atrophic scar takes the form of a sunken recess in the skin, which has a pitted appearance. These are caused when underlying structures supporting the skin, such as fat or muscle, are lost. This type of scarring is often associated with acne, chickenpox, other diseases (especially "Staphylococcus" infection), surgery, certain insect and spider bites, or accidents. It can also be caused by a genetic connective tissue disorder, such as Ehlers–Danlos syndrome.

Stretch marks.

Stretch marks (technically called "striae") are also a form of scarring. These are caused when the skin is stretched rapidly (for instance during pregnancy, significant weight gain, or adolescent growth spurts), or when skin is put under tension during the healing process, (usually near joints). This type of scar usually improves in appearance after a few years.  Elevated corticosteroid levels are implicated in striae development.

Umbilical.

Humans and other placental mammals have an umbilical scar (commonly referred to as to a navel) which starts to heal when the umbilical cord is cut after birth. Egg-laying animals have an umbilical scar which, depending on the species, may remain visible for life or disappear within a few days after birth.

Pathophysiology.

A scar is the product of the body's repair mechanism after tissue injury. If a wound heals quickly within two weeks with new formation of skin, minimal collagen will be deposited and no scar will form. When the extracellular matrix senses elevated mechanical stress loading, tissue will scar, and scars can be limited by stress shielding wounds. Small full thickness wounds under 2mm reepithelize fast and heal scar free. Deep second-degree burns heal with scarring and hair loss. Sweat glands do not form in scar tissue, which impairs the regulation of body temperature. Elastic fibers are generally not detected in scar tissue younger than 3 months old. In scars rete pegs are lost; through a lack of rete pegs scars tend to shear easier than normal tissue.  The endometrium, the inner lining of the uterus, is the only adult tissue to undergo rapid cyclic shedding and regeneration without scarring; shedding and restoring roughly inside a 7-day window on a monthly basis. All other adult tissues, upon rapid shedding or injury, can scar.  Prolonged inflammation, as well as the fibroblast proliferation can occur. Redness that often follows an injury to the skin is not a scar, and is generally not permanent (see wound healing). The time it takes for this redness to dissipate may, however, range from a few days to, in some serious and rare cases, a few years.  Scars form differently based on the location of the injury on the body and the age of the person who was injured.  The worse the initial damage is, the worse the scar will generally be.  Skin scars occur when the dermis (the deep, thick layer of skin) is damaged. Most skin scars are flat and leave a trace of the original injury that caused them.  Wounds allowed to heal secondarily tend to scar worse than wounds from primary closure.

Collagen synthesis.

Any injury does not become a scar until the wound has completely healed; this can take many months, or years in the worst pathological cases, such as keloids. To begin to patch the damage, a clot is created; the clot is the beginning process that results in a provisional matrix. In the process, the first layer is a provisional matrix and is not scar. Over time, the wounded body tissue then overexpresses collagen inside the provisional matrix to create a collagen matrix. This collagen overexpression continues and crosslinks the fiber arrangement inside the collagen matrix, making the collagen dense. This densely packed collagen, morphing into an inelastic whitish collagen scar wall, blocks off cell communication and regeneration; as a result, the new tissue generated will have a different texture and quality than the surrounding unwounded tissue. This prolonged collagen-producing process results in a fortuna scar.

Fibroblasts.

The scarring is created by fibroblast proliferation, a process that begins with a reaction to the clot.  To mend the damage, fibroblasts slowly form the collagen scar. The fibroblast proliferation is circular and cyclically, the fibroblast proliferation lays down thick, whitish collagen inside the provisional and collagen matrix, resulting in the abundant production of packed collagen on the fibers giving scars their uneven texture. Over time, the fibroblasts continue to crawl around the matrix, adjusting more fibers and, in the process, the scarring settles and becomes stiff. This fibroblast proliferation also contracts the tissue. In unwounded tissue, these fibers are not overexpressed with thick collagen and do not contract.

Myofibroblast.

Mammalian wounds that involve the dermis of the skin heal by repair not regeneration (except in 1st trimester inter-uterine wounds and in the regeneration of deer antlers). Full thickness wounds heal by a combination of wound contracture and edge re-epitheliasation. Partial thickness wounds heal by edge re-epithelialisation and epidermal migration from adnexal structures (hair follicles, sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The site of keratinocyte stem cells remains unknown but stem cells are likely to reside in the basal layer of the epidermis and below the bulge area of hair follicles.  The fibroblast involved in scarring and contraction is the myofibroblast, which is a specialized contractile fibroblast. These cells express α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA).  The myofibroblasts are absent in the first trimester in the embryonic stage where damage heals scar free; in small incisional or excision wounds less than 2 mm that also heal without scarring; and in adult unwounded tissues where the fibroblast in itself is arrested; however, the myofibroblast is found in massive numbers in adult wound healing which heals with a scar.  The myofibroblasts make up a high proportion of the fibroblasts proliferating in the postembryonic wound at the onset of healing. In the rat model, for instance, myofibroblasts can constitute up to 70% of the fibroblasts, and is responsible for fibrosis on tissue.  Generally, the myofibroblasts disappear from the wound within 30 days, but can stay around in pathological cases in hypertrophy, such as keloids. Myofibroblasts have plasticity and in mice can be transformed into fat cells, instead of scar tissue, via the regeneration of hair follicles.

Treatment.

Early and effective treatment of acne scarring can prevent severe acne and the scarring that often follows. no prescription drugs for the treatment or prevention of scars were available.

Chemical peels.

Chemical peels are chemicals which destroy the epidermis in a controlled manner, leading to exfoliation and the alleviation of certain skin conditions, including superficial acne scars. Various chemicals can be used depending upon the depth of the peel, and caution should be used, particularly for dark-skinned individuals and those individuals susceptible to keloid formation or with active infections.

Filler injections.

Filler injections of collagen can be used to raise atrophic scars to the level of surrounding skin. Risks vary based upon the filler used, and can include further disfigurement and allergic reaction.

Laser treatment.

Nonablative lasers, such as the 585 nm pulsed dye laser, 1064 nm and 1320 nm, or the 1540 nm are used as laser therapy for hypertrophic scars and keloids. There is tentative evidence for burn scars that they improve the appearance.  Ablative lasers such as the carbon dioxide laser (CO) or offer the best results for atrophic and acne scars. Like dermabrasion, ablative lasers work by destroying the dermis to a certain depth. Healing times for ablative therapy are much longer and the risk profile is greater compared to nonablative therapy; however, nonablative therapy offers only minor improvements in cosmetic appearance of atrophic and acne scars. Combination laser therapy and microneedling may offer superior results to single modality treatment. The biggest recent advance in scar management is the use of fractionated CO laser and immediate application of topical steroid (Triamcinolone).

Radiotherapy.

Low-dose, superficial radiotherapy is sometimes used to prevent recurrence of severe keloid and hypertrophic scarring. It is thought to be effective despite a lack of clinical trials, but only used in extreme cases due to the perceived risk of long-term side effects.

Dressings & topical silicone.

Silicone scar treatments are commonly used in preventing scar formation and improving existing scar appearance. A meta-study by the Cochrane collaboration found weak evidence that silicone gel sheeting helps prevent scarring. However, the studies examining it were of poor quality and susceptible to bias.  Pressure dressings are commonly used in managing burn and hypertrophic scars, although supporting evidence is lacking. Care providers commonly report improvements, however, and pressure therapy has been effective in treating ear keloids. The general acceptance of the treatment as effective may prevent it from being further studied in clinical trials.

Steroids.

A long-term course of corticosteroid injections into the scar may help flatten and soften the appearance of keloid or hypertrophic scars.  Topical steroids are ineffective. However, clobetasol propionate can be used as an alternative treatment for keloid scars.  Topical steroid applied immediately after fractionated CO2 laser treatment is however very effective (and more efficacious than laser treatment alone) and has shown benefit in numerous clinical studies.

Surgery.

Scar revision is a process of cutting the scar tissue out. After the excision, the new wound is usually closed up to heal by primary intention, instead of secondary intention. Deeper cuts need a multilayered closure to heal optimally, otherwise depressed or dented scars can result.  Surgical excision of hypertrophic or keloid scars is often associated to other methods, such as pressotherapy or silicone gel sheeting. Lone excision of keloid scars, however, shows a recurrence rate close to 45%. A clinical study is currently ongoing to assess the benefits of a treatment combining surgery and laser-assisted healing in hypertrophic or keloid scars.  "Subcision" is a process used to treat deep rolling scars left behind by acne or other skin diseases. It is also used to lessen the appearance of severe glabella lines, though its effectiveness in this application is debatable. Essentially the process involves separating the skin tissue in the affected area from the deeper scar tissue. This allows the blood to pool under the affected area, eventually causing the deep rolling scar to level off with the rest of the skin area. Once the skin has leveled, treatments such as laser resurfacing, microdermabrasion or chemical peels can be used to smooth out the scarred tissue.

Vitamins.

Research shows the use of vitamin E and onion extract (sold as Mederma) as treatments for scars is ineffective. Vitamin E causes contact dermatitis in up to 33% of users and in some cases it may worsen scar appearance and could cause minor skin irritations, but Vitamin C and some of its esters fade the dark pigment associated with some scars.

Society and culture.

Intentional scarring.

The permanence of scarring has led to its intentional use as a form of body art within some cultures and subcultures. These forms of ritual and non-ritual scarring practices can be found in many groups and cultures around the world.

Etymology.

First attested in English in the late 14th century, the word "scar" derives from a conflation of Old French "escharre", from Late Latin "eschara", which is the latinisation of the Greek ἐσχάρα ("eskhara"), meaning "hearth, fireplace", but in medicine "scab, eschar on a wound caused by burning or otherwise", and Middle English "skar" ("cut, crack, incision"), which is from Old Norse "skarð" ("notch, gap"). The conflation helped to form the English meaning. Compare Scarborough for evolution of "skarð" to "scar".

Research.

An intradermal injection of transforming growth factor beta 3 (TGFβ3) is being tested. The results of three trials already completed were published in the "Lancet" along with an editorial commentary. Another variation under research is a silk-derived sericin hydrogel dressing.  A study implicated the protein ribosomal s6 kinase (RSK) in the formation of scar tissue and found the introduction of a chemical to counteract RSK could halt the formation of cirrhosis. This treatment also has the potential to reduce or even prevent altogether other types of scarring.  Research has also implicated osteopontin in scarring.

A scar is an area of fibrous tissue that replaces normal skin after an injury. Scars result from the biological process of wound repair in the skin, as well as in other organs and tissues of the body. Thus, scarring is a natural part of the healing process. With the exception of very minor lesions, every wound (e.g., after accident, disease, or surgery) results in some degree of scarring. An exception to this are animals with complete regeneration, which regrow tissue without scar formation.

Jizva je druh útvaru na kůži a ve tkáni, který vzniká na místě, kde byl organismus poraněn vlivem protržení ochranné vrstvy – kůže. Vzniká při vniknutí cizího tělesa pod kůži, během prasknutí, či jiném druhu poškození jako například popálení.


Characteristics.

The cluster is a fairly heterogeneous mixture of spirals and ellipticals., it is believed that the spiral galaxies of the cluster are distributed in an oblong prolate filament, approximately four times as long as it is wide, stretching along the line of sight from the Milky Way. The elliptical galaxies are more centrally concentrated than the spiral galaxies.  The cluster is an aggregate of at least three separate subclumps: "Virgo A", centered on M87, a second centered on the galaxy M86, and "Virgo B", centered on M49, with some authors including a "Virgo C" subcluster, centered on the galaxy M60 as well as a "LVC" (Low Velocity Cloud) subclump, centered on the large spiral galaxy NGC 4216.  Of all of the subclumps, "Virgo A", formed by a mixture of elliptical, lenticular, and (usually) gas-poor spiral galaxies, is the dominant one, with a mass of approximately 10, which is approximately an order of magnitude larger than the other two subclumps.  The three subgroups are in the process of merging to form a larger single cluster and are surrounded by other smaller galaxy clouds, mostly composed of spiral galaxies, known as "N Cloud", "S Cloud", and "Virgo E" that are in the process of infalling to merge with them, plus other farther isolated galaxies and galaxy groups (like the galaxy cloud Coma I) that are also attracted by the gravity of Virgo to merge with it in the future. This strongly suggests the Virgo cluster is a dynamically young cluster that is still forming.  Other two nearby aggregations known as "M Cloud", "W Cloud", and "W' Cloud" seem to be background systems independent of the main cluster.  The large mass of the cluster is indicated by the high peculiar velocities of many of its galaxies, sometimes as high as 1,600 km/s with respect to the cluster's center.  The Virgo cluster lies within the Virgo Supercluster, and its gravitational effect slows down the nearby galaxies. The large mass of the cluster has the effect of slowing down the recession of the Local Group from the cluster by approximately ten percent.

Intracluster medium.

As with many other rich galaxy clusters, Virgo's intracluster medium is filled with a hot, rarefied plasma at temperatures of 30 million kelvins that emits X-Rays. Within the intracluster medium (ICM) are found a large number of intergalactic stars (up to 10% of the stars in the cluster), including some planetary nebulae. It is theorized that these were expelled from their home galaxies by interactions with other galaxies. The ICM also contains some globular clusters, possibly stripped off dwarf galaxies, and even at least one star formation region.

Galaxies.

Below is given a table of bright or notable objects in the Virgo Cluster and the subunit of the cluster in which they are located. Note that in some cases a galaxy may be considered in a different subunit by other researchers (sources:)  Fainter galaxies within the cluster are usually known by their numbers in the Virgo Cluster Catalog, particularly members of the numerous dwarf galaxy population.

The Virgo Cluster is a cluster of galaxies whose center is 53.8 ± 0.3 Mly (16.5 ± 0.1 Mpc) away in the constellation Virgo. Comprising approximately 1300 (and possibly up to 2000) member galaxies, the cluster forms the heart of the larger Virgo Supercluster, of which the Local Group (containing our Milky Way galaxy) is a member. The Local Group actually experiences the mass of the Virgo Supercluster as the Virgocentric flow. It is estimated that the Virgo Cluster's mass is 1.2 out to 8 degrees of the cluster's center or a radius of about 2.2 Mpc.

Kupa galaxií v Panně (také Kupa Virgo, Kupa v Panně I nebo Říše galaxií) obsahuje okolo 1300 známých galaxií. Odhaduje se, že celkový počet by mohl dosahovat až 2000 galaxií. Kupa tvoří jádro Místní nadkupy galaxií, kam patří i Mléčná dráha.


Types.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines a clog as a "thick piece of wood", and later as a "wooden soled overshoe" and a "shoe with a thick wooden sole".  Welsh traditional clog maker Trefor Owen identified three main varieties of clogs: wooden upper, wooden soled and overshoes. These divisions are not fixed: some overshoes look more like whole foot clogs, like Spanish albarca, whilst other wooden soled clogs raise and protect clothing in the way that overshoes do, such as Japanese geta.  The type of upper determines how the clogs are worn. Whole foot clogs need to be close fitting and can be secured by curling the toes. In contrast wooden soled clogs are fastened by laces or buckles on the welt and therefore the toes are relaxed as in shoes. Half open clogs may either be secured like whole foot clogs, or have an additional strap over the top of the foot. Some sandal types, and in particular toe peg styles, are worn more like "flip-flops" and rely on the grip between the big and next toe.

Flexing the foot.

As they are primarily made from wood, clogs cannot flex under the ball of the foot as softer shoes do. To allow the foot to roll forward most clogs have the bottom of the toe curved up, known as the cast. Some styles of clogs have "feet", such as Spanish albarca. The clog rotates around the front edge of the front "feet". Some Japanese and Indian clogs have "teeth" or very high pegs attached to the soles. The clog can rotate around the front edge of the front "tooth" as the wearer strides forward. Some medieval pattens were in two pieces, heel through to ball and ball to toes. Joining the two was a leather strip forming a hinge, thus allowing the shoe above to flex. Klompen may have a carefully-placed ease (space left around the foot), which allows the foot to bend, and the heel to lift within or out of the clog. Thick, springy wool socks provide flexibility in the fit.

Origins.

The origin of wooden footwear in Europe is not precisely known. De Boer-Olij makes reference to the high, thick-soled boots of the Greek tragedy actors in Antiquity (the buskin) and to the shoes worn by Roman soldiers (the caligae). However, there is a possibility that the Celtic and Germanic peoples from Southern and Northern Europe were familiar with some sort of wooden foot covering. Archaeological finds of these are not known. Wooden footwear often ended up as firewood and, because of its nature, wood will rot away in the long run. The oldest surviving wooden footwear in Europe is found in Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the Netherlands, and dates from 1230 and 1280. These finds look very similar to the wooden shoes that are still worn in The Netherlands.

Manufacture.

Since wooden footwear was a hand-made product, the shape of the footwear, as well as its production process showed great local and regional diversity in style. At the beginning of the 20th century machine-made wooden footwear was introduced. After WW2, in particular, wooden shoes disappeared from sight. They were replaced by more fashionable all-leather and synthetic footwear. At present, only the so-called Swedish clogs (wooden bottom and leather top) is still seen as a trendy fashion item, often as ladies’ high-heeled boots. Nevertheless, traditional wooden footwear is still popular in several regions in Europe and in some occupations, for its practical use. Some historic local variations have recently been replaced by uniform national models.  More information on the various methods of manufacture can be found from the gallery below.

Gallery.

Presented below are typical clogs from the countries where they are found. Like many folk items, the boundaries of manufacture and use are regional and therefore do not always exactly follow those of modern states. So, in some countries two or more different types can be found. It is also possible that one type can be found in bordering countries. For example, Danish, German, Dutch, Belgian and clogs from Northwest France look quite similar. The links provide access to pages dealing with the different types of clog, their design, origin and manufacture.

Fashion clogs.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Swedish clogs became popular fashion accessories for both sexes. They were usually worn without socks and were considered suitable attire for the "avant-garde" man.  In the 1980s and 1990s, clogs based on Swedish clogs returned in fashion for women. Platform clogs or sandals, often raised as high as 6 or even 8 inches right through between sole and insole, were worn in many western countries. The large mid layer was often made of solid cork, although some were merely of plastic with a cork covering. The sole, more often than not, was made of a light sandy-colored rubber. Some of the platforms of these clogs were encompassed about with a string-laced effect.  In 2007, Dutch designers Viktor & Rolf introduced high heeled Dutch clogs on the catwalk, with their winter collection of 2007/08. In 2010, Swedish clogs for women returned again in Chanel's and Louis Vuitton's Spring / Summer 2010 collection.

Clogs are a type of footwear made in part or completely from wood. Clogs are used worldwide and although the form may vary by culture, within a culture the form often remained unchanged for centuries.

Dřeváky jsou obuv, vyrobená zpravidla zcela či částečně ze dřeva. V minulosti se jednalo o levnou a snadno vyrobitelnou lidovou obuv, jako takové se používaly v mnoha zemích na světě. Pracovní dřeváky byly obvykle hladké a jednoduché. Dřeváky pro sváteční chvíle bývaly oproti tomu velmi často řezbářsky zdobeny různými lidovými či přírodními motivy.


History.

Association football, like many sports, has experienced many changes in tactics resulting in the generation and elimination of different positions. Goalkeeper is the only position that is certain to have existed since the codification of the sport. Even in the early days of organised football, when systems were limited or non-existent and the main idea was for all players to attack and defend, teams had a designated member to play as the goalkeeper.  The earliest account of football teams with player positions comes from Richard Mulcaster in 1581 and does not specify goalkeepers. The earliest specific reference to keeping goal comes from Cornish Hurling in 1602. According to Carew: "they pitch two bushes in the ground, some eight or ten foot asunder; and directly against them, ten or twelve score off, other twayne in like distance, which they term their Goals. One of these is appointed by lots, to the one side, and the other to his adverse party. There is assigned for their guard, a couple of their best stopping Hurlers". Other references to scoring goals begin in English literature in the early 16th century; for example, in John Day's play "The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green" (performed circa 1600; published 1659): "I'll play a gole at camp-ball" (an extremely violent variety of football, popular in East Anglia). Similarly, in a 1613 poem, Michael Drayton refers to "when the Ball to throw, And drive it to the Gole, in squadrons forth they goe". It seems inevitable that wherever a game has evolved goals, some form of goalkeeping must also be developed. David Wedderburn refers to what has been translated from Latin as to "keep goal" in 1633, though this does not necessarily imply a fixed goalkeeper position.  The word "goal-keeper" is used in the novel "Tom Brown's School Days" (published in 1857, but set in the 1830s). The author is here referring to an early form of rugby football:  The word "goal-keeper" appeared in the Sheffield Rules of 1867, but the term did not refer to a designated player, but rather to "that player on the defending side who for the time being is nearest to his own goal". The goal-keeper, thus defined, did not enjoy any special handling privileges.  The FA's first Laws of the Game of 1863 did not make any special provision for a goalkeeper, with any player being allowed to catch or knock-on the ball. Handling the ball was completely forbidden (for all players) in 1870. The next year, 1871, the laws were amended to introduce the goalkeeper and specify that the keeper was allowed to handle the ball "for the protection of his goal". The restrictions on the ability of the goalkeeper to handle the ball were changed several times in subsequent revisions of the laws:  Initially, goalkeepers typically played between the goalposts and had limited mobility, except when trying to save opposition shots. Throughout the years, the role of the goalkeeper has evolved, due to the changes in systems of play, to become more active. The goalkeeper is the only player in association football allowed to use their hands to control the ball (other than during throw-ins).  During the 1935–36 English football season, young Sunderland AFC goalkeeper of the team, Jimmy Thorpe, died as a result of a kick in the head and chest after he had picked up the ball following a backpass in a game against Chelsea at Roker Park. He continued to take part until the match finished, but collapsed at home afterwards and died in hospital four days later from diabetes mellitus and heart failure 'accelerated by the rough usage of the opposing team' his tragic end to Thorpe's career led to a change in the rules, where players were no longer allowed to raise their foot to a goalkeeper when he had control of the ball in his arms.  Due to several time-wasting techniques which were used by goalkeepers, such as bouncing the ball on the ground or throwing it in the air and then catching it again, in the 1960s, the Laws of the game were revised further, and the goalkeeper was given a maximum of four steps to travel while holding, bouncing or throwing the ball in the air and catching it again, without having to release it into play. The FIFA Board later also devised an anti-parrying rule, saying that such deliberate parrying for the purpose of evading the Law was to be regarded also as holding the ball.  In 1992, the International Football Association Board made changes in the laws of the game that affected goalkeepers – notably the back-pass rule, which prohibits goalkeepers from handling the ball when receiving a deliberate pass from a teammate that is made with their feet. This rule change was made to discourage time-wasting and overly defensive play after the 1990 FIFA World Cup which was described as exceedingly dull, rife with back-passing and goalkeepers holding the ball. Also, goalkeepers would frequently drop the ball and dribble it around, only to pick it up again once opponents came closer to put them under pressure, a typical time-wasting technique. Therefore, another rule was introduced at the same time as the back-pass rule. This rule prohibits the goalkeeper from handling the ball again once he or she has released it for play; an offence results in an indirect free kick to the opposition. Furthermore any player negating the spirit of the new rule would be likely to be cautioned for unsporting behaviour and punished by an indirect free-kick.  On 1 July 1997, FIFA decided to extend the back-pass rule by applying it also to throw-ins from defenders to their own goalkeeper; in order to prevent further time-wasting, FIFA also established that if a goalkeeper holds the ball for more than five or six seconds the referee must adjudge this as time-wasting and award an indirect free-kick to the opposing team.

Laws of the Game and general play.

The position of goalkeeper is the only position in the game which is technically distinct from the others in the course of normal play. The Laws of the Game distinguish the goalkeeper from the other players in several ways, most significantly exempting them from the prohibition on handling the ball, though only within their own penalty area. Once a goalkeeper has control of the ball in their hands, opponents are not permitted to challenge them. Goalkeepers have a specialised role as the sole defender in penalty kicks and penalty shoot-outs. Goalkeepers are required to wear distinct colours from other players, and are permitted to wear caps and tracksuit bottoms.  The Laws mandate that one player on the team must be designated as the goalkeeper at all times, meaning that if a goalkeeper is sent off or injured and unable to continue another player must assume the goalkeeper position. The Laws allow for teams to change the player designated as goalkeeper at stoppages in play, but in practice this is rarely exercised.  The Laws place no restrictions on a goalkeeper leaving their penalty area and acting as an ordinary player, though generally goalkeepers stay close to their goal throughout the match.  Goalkeepers routinely perform extension dives. To execute this, they push off the ground with the foot nearest to the ball, launching themselves into a horizontal position. At this point, the ball may be caught or parried away from the goal. In the latter case, a good goalkeeper will attempt to ensure that the rebound cannot be taken by a player of the opposing team, although this is not always possible.

Responsibilities.

The tactical responsibilities of goalkeepers include:  Although goalkeepers have special privileges, including the ability to handle the ball in the penalty area, they are otherwise subject to the same rules as any other player.

Playmaking and attack.

Goalkeepers are not required to stay in the penalty area; they may get involved in play anywhere on the pitch, and it is common for them to act as an additional defender (or'sweeper') during certain passages of the game. Goalkeepers with a long throwing range or accurate long-distance kicks may be able to quickly create attacking positions for a team and generate goal-scoring chances from defensive situations, a tactic known as the long ball.

Sweeper-keeper.

Gyula Grosics from the Hungary "Golden Team" of the 1950s was thought to be the first goalkeeper to play as the'sweeper-keeper'. Tommy Lawrence has also been credited with revolutionising the role of the goalkeeper by effectively acting as an 11th outfield player. The rushing playing style used by Liverpool legend Bruce Grobbelaar seen during the 1980s–90s makes him one of the original sweeper-keepers of the modern era. René Higuita was another who became known for his unorthodox, skillful but sometimes reckless techniques. As of 2011, Manuel Neuer has been described as a sweeper-keeper due to his speed and unique style of play which occasionally includes him acting as a sweeper for his team by rushing off his line to anticipate opposing forwards who have beaten the offside trap. With his excellent ball control and distribution, which enables him to start plays from the back, he has said he could play in the German third division as a centre-back if he wanted to. Hugo Lloris of Tottenham Hotspur and France and former goalkeepers Fabien Barthez and Edwin van der Sar, have also been described as sweeper-keepers, while Claudio Bravo and Ederson Moraes of Manchester City have even been described as "playmakers" in the media.  Other players who have been labelled "sweeper-keepers" in the media include Marc-Andre Ter Stegen of FC Barcelona and Germany, Spanish former goalkeeper Víctor Valdés, and former Soviet keeper Lev Yashin, the latter of whom is often cited by pundits as one of the goalkeepers who pioneered the role of the sweeper-keeper. Sweeper-keepers have been popularised by managers who usually employ tactics inspired by total football, such as Johan Cruyff and Pep Guardiola, for example, and are chosen not only for their shot-stopping and goalkeeping abilities, but also due to their skill with the ball at their feet, their ability to pick out passes and contribute to the build-up play of their team, and their speed when rushing out of the penalty area to anticipate opponents, which enables their team to maintain a high defensive line. However, sweeper-keepers have also been associated with recklessness on occasion, sometimes putting their own team in danger; for example, Manuel Neuer's rushing into the midfield, leaving the goal exposed in his team's final group match against South Korea at the 2018 World Cup, led to a goal being conceded, after he had been robbed of the ball.

Goalscorers.

Some goalkeepers have scored goals. Other than by accident when a long kicked clearance reaches the other end of the field and evades the opposing goalkeeper with the aid of strong winds and/or unexpected bounces, this most commonly occurs where a goalkeeper has rushed up to the opposite end of the pitch to give his team a numerical advantage in attack, leaving his own goal undefended. As such, it is normally only done late in a game at set-pieces where the consequences of scoring far outweigh those of conceding a further goal, such as for a team trailing in a knock-out tournament.  Some goalkeepers, such as Higuita, Rogério Ceni, Hans-Jörg Butt and José Luis Chilavert, are also expert set-piece takers. These players may take their team's attacking free kicks or penalties. Ceni, São Paulo's long-time custodian, has scored 132 goals in his career, more than many outfield players.

Equipment and attire.

Goalkeepers must wear kit that distinguishes them clearly from other players and match officials, as this is all that the FIFA Laws of the Game require. Some goalkeepers have received recognition for their match attire, like Lev Yashin of the Soviet Union, who was nicknamed the "Black Spider" for his distinctive all-black outfit; Klaus Lindenberger of Austria, who designed his own variation of a clown's costume; Jorge Campos of Mexico, who was popular for his colourful attire; Raul Plassmann of Cruzeiro Esporte Clube and his all-yellow outfit; and Gábor Király for wearing a pair of grey tracksuit bottoms instead of shorts.  Although it was initially more common for goalkeepers to wear long-sleeved jerseys, recently several goalkeepers, such as Gianluigi Buffon, have also been known to wear short-sleeves.  Most goalkeepers also wear gloves to improve their grip on the ball, and to protect themselves from injury. Some gloves now include rigid plastic spines down each finger to help prevent injuries such as jammed, fractured, and sprained fingers. Though gloves are not mandatory attire, it is uncommon for goalkeepers to opt against them due to the advantages they offer. At UEFA Euro 2004, Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo famously took off his gloves during the quarter-final penalty shoot-out against England, knowing he was the next taker for his side. He then went on to save Darius Vassell's penalty using his bare hands before scoring his own kick to win it for Portugal.  Though rare, goalkeepers are permitted to wear visored headgear (such as a baseball cap) to minimize glare from bright sunlight, or a knit cap to insulate from cold weather, at any time if they elect to do so.  After recovering from a serious skull fracture that he had sustained in 2006, Petr Čech has subsequently worn a rugby style headguard during his matches.

Careers and injuries.

Goalkeepers have a very physically demanding job. They are the only players allowed to use their hands, except for throw-ins. Because of this, goalkeepers are often injured during breakaways, corner kicks, and free kicks since they put their bodies on the line. Several famous goalkeepers have been injured in ways their counterparts could not possibly sustain. For example, Petr Čech received a head injury after colliding with another player during a 2006 game. He made his debut match a couple of months later wearing a rugby-style headpiece. However, some goalkeepers manage to avoid injury and continue to play, many not retiring until their late thirties or early forties. Notably, Peter Shilton played for thirty-one years between 1966 and 1997 before retiring at the age of forty-seven.  In general, goalkeepers can sustain any injury to which their outfield counterparts are vulnerable. Common lower and upper extremity injuries include cartilage tears, anterior cruciate ligament tears, and knee sprains. On the other hand, goalkeepers rarely fall victim to fatigue-related injuries, such as leg cramps, pulled hamstrings, and dehydration.

Records.

Goalkeepers are crucial in penalty shootouts. The record for most penalties saved in a shootout is held by Helmuth Duckadam of Steaua București in the 1986 European Cup Final against Barcelona and Ciarán Kelly who saved all 4 penalties for Sligo Rovers against Shamrock Rovers in the 2010 FAI Cup Final. Stefano Tacconi is the only goalkeeper to have won all official club competitions for which he was eligible.  José Luis Chilavert is the only goalkeeper to score a hat-trick (three goals in a game), doing so through penalty kicks. Rogério Ceni has scored the most goals for a goalkeeper, having scored his hundredth goal in official games on 27 March 2011. Ceni scored his goals through free kicks and penalty kicks.  Gianluigi Buffon is the only goalkeeper to have won the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year Award. Oliver Kahn holds the record for most UEFA Best Club Goalkeeper and Best European Goalkeeper Awards with four. Iker Casillas holds the record for most appearances by a goalkeeper in the FIFPro World XI and in the UEFA Team of the Year and most IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper Awards, alongside Buffon, winning the award for five consecutive years between 2008 and 2012. Casillas holds the record for the most clean sheets in UEFA Champions League history.  At the international level, Dino Zoff has remained unbeaten for the longest period of time, whilst Walter Zenga holds the record for longest unbeaten run in a FIFA World Cup tournament at five hundred seventeen minutes. Gianluigi Buffon, Fabien Barthez and Iker Casillas hold the record for fewest goals conceded by a winning goalkeeper in a World Cup tournament at two each. Buffon is the only World Cup–winning goalkeeper not to have conceded a goal in open play throughout the entire tournament, one goal having resulted from an own goal after a free kick, the other from a penalty. Fabien Barthez and Peter Shilton hold the record for most clean sheets in World Cup matches with ten each Mohamed Al-Deayea holds the record for most international caps by a goalkeeper with one hundred seventy-eight official appearances for Saudi Arabia.  Pascal Zuberbühler holds the record for fewest goals conceded by a goalkeeper in a World Cup tournament and holds the record for most successive matches at an international tournament without conceding a goal with five. He did not concede a goal in four hundred sixty-three minutes of World Cup play against France, Korea, and Togo—making Switzerland the only team in the history of the tournament not to concede a goal in normal time. Tim Howard holds the record for most saves made in a FIFA World Cup match, with sixteen against Belgium in the 2014 Round of 16. Oliver Kahn is the only goalkeeper to have won the Adidas Golden Ball for the best player of the tournament in a World Cup (in the 2002 competition); Lev Yashin is the only goalkeeper to have won the Ballon d'Or. Gianluca Pagliuca of Italy became the first goalkeeper to be sent off in a World Cup Finals match, dismissed for handling outside his area against Norway in 1994. His team went on to win 1–0 and reached the final before losing to Brazil in a penalty shootout, in which he became the first goalkeeper ever to stop a penalty in a final shootout.  Iker Casillas holds both the record for fewest goals conceded in a European Championship with one in 2012) and the record for longest unbeaten run at a European Championship, beating the previous record held by Dino Zoff. He also holds the records for most international clean sheets (one hundred two) by a male goalkeeper, beating the previous record held by Edwin van der Sar (seventy-two), and became the first goalkeeper in history, male or female, to keep one hundred clean sheets at international level in 2015; he also shares the overall record for the most international clean sheets along with Hope Solo. Buffon holds the record for most minutes without conceding a goal in European Championship Qualifying matches at six hundred forty-four.

Highest fees.

, the most expensive goalkeeper of all time was Kepa Arrizabalaga following his 2018 €80 million (£71 million) transfer to Chelsea from Athletic Bilbao.

The goalkeeper, often shortened to keeper or goalie, is one of the major positions of association football. It is the most specialised position in the sport. The goalkeeper's primary role is to prevent the opposing team from scoring (moving the ball over the defended goal-line within the frame of the goal). This is accomplished by the goalkeeper moving into the path of the ball and either catching it or directing it away from the vicinity of the goal line. Within the penalty area goalkeepers are able to use their hands, making them (outside throw-ins) the only players on the field permitted to handle the ball. The special status of goalkeepers is indicated by them wearing different coloured kits from their teammates.

Pojem fotbalový brankář definuje zvláštní postavení, práva a povinnosti jednoho předem vybraného fotbalisty z každého týmu na fotbalovém hřišti při fotbalovém utkání.


Observation.

Procyon is usually the eighth-brightest star in the night sky, culminating at midnight on January 14. It forms one of the three vertices of the Winter Triangle asterism, in combination with Sirius and Betelgeuse. The prime period for evening viewing of Procyon is in late winter in the northern hemisphere.  It has a color index of 0.42, and its hue has been described as having a faint yellow tinge to it.

Stellar system.

Procyon is a binary star system with a bright primary component, Procyon A, having an apparent magnitude of 0.34, and a faint companion, Procyon B, at magnitude 10.7. The pair orbit each other with a period of 40.82 years along an elliptical orbit with an eccentricity of 0.407, more eccentric than Mercury's. The plane of their orbit is inclined at an angle of 31.1° to the line of sight with the Earth. The average separation of the two components is 15.0 AU, a little less than the distance between Uranus and the Sun, though the eccentric orbit carries them as close as 8.9 AU and as far as 21.0 AU.

Procyon A.

The primary has a stellar classification of F5IV–V, indicating that it is a late-stage F-type main-sequence star. Procyon A is bright for its spectral class, suggesting that it is evolving into a subgiant that has nearly fused its hydrogen core into helium, after which it will expand as the nuclear reactions move outside the core. As it continues to expand, the star will eventually swell to about 80 to 150 times its current diameter and become a red or orange color. This will probably happen within 10 to 100 million years.  The effective temperature of the stellar atmosphere is an estimated 6,530 K, giving Procyon A a white hue. It is 1.5 times the solar mass (), twice the solar radius (), and has 7 times the Sun's luminosity (). Both the core and the envelope of this star are convective; the two regions being separated by a wide radiation zone.

Oscillations.

In late June 2004, Canada's orbital MOST satellite telescope carried out a 32-day survey of Procyon A. The continuous optical monitoring was intended to confirm solar-like oscillations in its brightness observed from Earth and to permit asteroseismology. No oscillations were detected and the authors concluded that the theory of stellar oscillations may need to be reconsidered. However, others argued that the non-detection was consistent with published ground-based radial velocity observations of solar-like oscillations. Subsequent observations in radial velocity have confirmed that Procyon is indeed oscillating.  Photometric measurements from the NASA Wide Field Infrared Explorer (WIRE) satellite from 1999 and 2000 showed evidence of granulation (convection near the surface of the star) and solar-like oscillations. Unlike the MOST result, the variation seen in the WIRE photometry was in agreement with radial velocity measurements from the ground. Additional observations with MOST taken in 2007 were able to detect oscillations.

Procyon B.

Like Sirius B, Procyon B is a white dwarf that was inferred from astrometric data long before it was observed. Its existence had been postulated by German astronomer Friedrich Bessel as early as 1844, and, although its orbital elements had been calculated by his countryman Arthur Auwers in 1862 as part of his thesis, Procyon B was not visually confirmed until 1896 when John Martin Schaeberle observed it at the predicted position using the 36-inch refractor at Lick Observatory. It is more difficult to observe from Earth than Sirius B, due to a greater apparent magnitude difference and smaller angular separation from its primary.  At, Procyon B is considerably less massive than Sirius B; however, the peculiarities of degenerate matter ensure that it is larger than its more famous neighbor, with an estimated radius of 8,600 km, versus 5,800 km for Sirius B. The radius agrees with white dwarf models that assume a carbon core. It has a stellar classification of DQZ, having a helium-dominated atmosphere with traces of heavy elements. For reasons that remain unclear, the mass of Procyon B is unusually low for a white dwarf star of its type. With a surface temperature of 7,740 K, it is also much cooler than Sirius B; this is a testament to its lesser mass and greater age. The mass of the progenitor star for Procyon B was about and it came to the end of its life some billion years ago, after a main-sequence lifetime of million years.

X-ray emission.

Attempts to detect X-ray emission from Procyon with nonimaging, soft X-ray–sensitive detectors prior to 1975 failed. Extensive observations of Procyon were carried out with the Copernicus and TD-1A satellites in the late 1970s. The X-ray source associated with Procyon AB was observed on April 1, 1979, with the Einstein Observatory high-resolution imager (HRI). The HRI X-ray pointlike source location is ~4" south of Procyon A, on the edge of the 90% confidence error circle, indicating identification with Procyon A rather than Procyon B which was located about 5" north of Procyon A (about 9" from the X-ray source location).

Etymology and cultural significance.

"α Canis Minoris" (Latinised to "Alpha Canis Minoris") is the star's Bayer designation.  The name "Procyon" comes from the Ancient Greek (""), meaning "before the dog", since it precedes the "Dog Star" Sirius as it travels across the sky due to Earth's rotation. (Although Procyon has a greater right ascension, it also has a more northerly declination, which means it will rise above the horizon earlier than Sirius from most northerly latitudes.) In Greek mythology, Procyon is associated with Maera, a hound belonging to Erigone, daughter of Icarius of Athens. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included "Procyon" for the star α Canis Minoris A.  The two dog stars are referred to in the most ancient literature and were venerated by the Babylonians and the Egyptians, In Babylonian mythology, Procyon was known as Nangar (the Carpenter), an aspect of Marduk, involved in constructing and organising the celestial sky.  The constellations in Macedonian folklore represented agricultural items and animals, reflecting their village way of life. To them, Procyon and Sirius were "Volci" "the wolves", circling hungrily around Orion which depicted a plough with oxen.  Rarer names are the Latin translation of Procyon, "Antecanis", and the Arabic-derived names "Al Shira" and "Elgomaisa". Medieval astrolabes of England and Western Europe used a variant of this, "Algomeiza/Algomeyza". "Al Shira" derives from ', "the Syrian sign" (the other sign being Sirius; "Syria" is supposedly a reference to its northern location relative to Sirius); "Elgomaisa" derives from'"the bleary-eyed (woman)", in contrast to "the teary-eyed (woman)", which is Sirius. (See Gomeisa.) At the same time this name is synonymous with the Turkish name "Rumeysa", and it is a commonly used name in Turkey.  In Chinese, (), meaning "South River", refers to an asterism consisting of Procyon, ε Canis Minoris and β Canis Minoris. Consequently, Procyon itself is known as (, ). It is part of the Vermilion Bird.  The Hawaiians saw Procyon as part of an asterism "Ke ka o Makali'i" ("the canoe bailer of Makali'i") that helped them navigate at sea. Called "Puana" ("blossom"), it formed this asterism with Capella, Sirius, Castor, and Pollux. In Tahitian lore, Procyon was one of the pillars propping up the sky, known as "Anâ-tahu'a-vahine-o-toa-te-manava" ("star-the-priestess-of-brave-heart"), the pillar for elocution. The Maori knew the star as "Puangahori".  Procyon appears on the flag of Brazil, symbolising the state of Amazonas. The Kalapalo people of Mato Grosso state in Brazil called Procyon and Canopus "Kofongo" ("Duck"), with Castor and Pollux representing his hands. The asterism's appearance signified the coming of the rainy season and increase in food staple manioc, used at feasts to feed guests.  Known as "Sikuliarsiujuittuq" to the Inuit, Procyon was quite significant in their astronomy and mythology. Its eponymous name means "the one who never goes onto the newly formed sea-ice", and refers to a man who stole food from his village's hunters because he was too obese to hunt on ice. He was killed by the other hunters who convinced him to go on the sea ice. Procyon received this designation because it typically appears red (though sometimes slightly greenish) as it rises during the Arctic winter; this red color was associated with Sikuliarsiujuittuq's bloody end.

View from this system.

Were the Sun to be observed from this star system, it would appear to be a magnitude 2.55 star in the constellation Aquila with the exact opposite coordinates at right ascension, declination. It would be as bright as β Scorpii is in our sky. Canis Minor would obviously be missing its brightest star.  Procyon's closest neighboring star is Luyten's Star, about away, and the latter would appear as a visual magnitude 2.7 star in the night sky of a hypothetical planet orbiting Procyon.

Procyon is the brightest star in the constellation of Canis Minor and usually the eighth-brightest star in the night sky, with a visual apparent magnitude of 0.34. It has the Bayer designation α Canis Minoris, which is Latinised to Alpha Canis Minoris, and abbreviated α CMi or Alpha CMi, respectively. As determined by the European Space Agency Hipparcos astrometry satellite, this system lies at a distance of just, and is therefore one of Earth's nearest stellar neighbours.

Prokyon (alfa Canis Minoris) je nejjasnější hvězda v souhvězdí Malého psa a osmá nejjasnější hvězda na obloze. Tvoří vrchol zimního šestiúhelníku.


History.

In ancient times the "rione" was densely populated: in Monti there were the Forum Romanum and the so-called "Suburra": this was the place poor people lived, full of disreputable locals and brothels.  In the Middle Ages the situation was completely different: the Roman aqueducts were damaged, and it was very difficult to bring water to Monti since it was on the hills. Hence many inhabitants moved to Campus Martius, a lower level part, where they could drink the water from the river Tiber.  From the Middle Ages to the beginning of the 19th century, the "rione" remained an area full of vineyards and vegetable gardens. Monti was not densely populated because of the lack of water and because it was quite far from the Vatican, the center of Christian culture. The area did not become abandoned thanks to the church of San Giovanni in Laterano and the constant high number of pilgrims.  Still in the Middle Ages the inhabitants of Monti, called "monticiani", developed a strong identity: their Roman dialect was different from that spoken in the other rioni. Their main enemies were the people from the other rione with a strong identity, Trastevere, and they often used to fight with one another.  Then, with growing urbanization at the end of the 19th century after Rome had become the capital of a united Italy, the great changes of the Fascist period completely changed the appearance of the rione. In particular, between 1924 and 1936, a large part of the rione, consisting of small streets and popular houses, was destroyed to make way for the Via dei Fori Imperiali (the street artificially dividing the Roman Forum and most of the Imperial forums) and the archaeological buildings of the Forum Romanum were excavated.  Thanks to its position, Monti is full of archaeological sites such as:

Geography.

Boundaries.

To the north, the "rione" borders with Trevi (R. II), from which it is separated by the Foro Traiano, Via IV Novembre, Largo Magnanapoli, Via XXIV Maggio and Via del Quirinale; and with Castro Pretorio (R. XVIII), the boundary being defined by Via delle Quattro Fontane, Via Agostino Depretis, Piazza dell'Esquilino and Via dell'Esquilino.  To the east, the "rione" borders with Esquilino (R. XV): the boundary is marked by Piazza di Santa Maria Maggiore, Via Merulana, Piazza di San Giovanni in Laterano and Piazza di Porta San Giovanni.  To the south, it is separated from "Quartiere" Appio-Latino (Q. IX) by the stretch of the Aurelian Walls between Porta San Giovanni and Porta Metronia.  To the west, Monti borders with Celio (R. XIX), whose boundary is marked by Piazza di Porta Metronia, Via della Navicella, Via di Santo Stefano Rotondo, Via di San Giovanni in Laterano and Piazza del Colosseo; it also borders with Campitelli (R. X), whose boundary is marked by Via dei Fori Imperiali.

Places of interest.

Education.

The "biblioteca federata" "Scaffale d'arte Palaexpo" is located in Monti.  The Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Angelicum" is located in "Monti"

Monti is the 1st "rione" of Rome, identified by the initials R. I, located in Municipio I. The name literally means "mountains" in Italian and comes from the fact that the Esquiline, the Viminal Hills, and parts of the Quirinal and the Caelian Hills belonged to this "rione": currently, however, the Esquiline Hill belongs to the rione Esquilino.

Monti (česky "kopec" nebo "hora") je I. římská čtvrť (rione). Zahrnuje pahorky Esquilin, Viminál a Kvirinál, které patří k tradičním sedmi římským pahorkům.


Overview.

Newspapers generally adhere to an expository writing style. Over time and place, journalism ethics and standards have varied in the degree of objectivity or sensationalism they incorporate. It is considered unethical not to attribute a scoop to the journalist(s) who broke a story, even if they are employed by a rival organization. Definitions of professionalism differ among news agencies; their reputations, according to both professional standards and reader expectations, are often tied to the appearance of objectivity. In its most ideal form, news writing strives to be intelligible to the majority of readers, engaging, and succinct. Within these limits, news stories also aim to be comprehensive. However, other factors are involved, some stylistic and some derived from the media form.  Among the larger and more respected newspapers, fairness and balance is a major factor in presenting information. Commentary is usually confined to a separate section, though each paper may have a different overall slant. Editorial policies dictate the use of adjectives, euphemisms, and idioms. Newspapers with an international audience, for example, tend to use a more formal style of writing.  The specific choices made by a news outlet's editor or editorial board are often collected in a style guide; common style guides include the "AP Stylebook" and the "US News Style Book". The main goals of news writing can be summarized by the ABCs of journalism: accuracy, brevity, and clarity.

Terms and structure.

Journalistic prose is explicit and precise and tries not to rely on jargon. As a rule, journalists will not use a long word when a short one will do. They use subject-verb-object construction and vivid, active prose (see Grammar). They offer anecdotes, examples and metaphors, and they rarely depend on generalizations or abstract ideas. News writers try to avoid using the same word more than once in a paragraph (sometimes called an "echo" or "word mirror").

Headline.

The "headline" (also "heading", "head" or "title", or "hed" in journalism jargon) of a story is typically a complete sentence (e.g., "Pilot Flies Below Bridges to Save Divers"), often with auxiliary verbs and articles removed (e.g., "Remains at Colorado camp linked to missing Chicago man"). However, headlines sometimes omit the subject (e.g., "Jumps From Boat, Catches in Wheel") or verb (e.g., "Cat woman lucky").

Subhead.

A "subhead" (also "sub-headline", "subheading", "subtitle" or "deck") can be either a subordinate title under the main headline, or the heading of a subsection of the article. It is a heading that precedes the main text, or a group of paragraphs of the main text. It helps encapsulate the entire piece, or informs the reader of the topic of part of it. Long or complex articles often have more than one subheading. Subheads are thus one type of entry point that help readers make choices, such as where to begin (or stop) reading.

Billboard.

An article "billboard" is capsule summary text, often just one sentence or fragment, which is put into a sidebar or text box (reminiscent of an outdoor billboard) on the same page to grab the reader's attention as they are flipping through the pages to encourage them to stop and read that article. When it consists of a (sometimes compressed) sample of the text of the article, it is known as a "call-out" or "callout", and when it consists of a quotation (e.g. of an article subject, informant, or interviewee), it is referred to as a "pulled quotation" or "pull quote". Additional billboards of any of these types may appear later in the article (especially on subsequent pages) to entice further reading. Journalistic websites sometimes use animation techniques to swap one billboard for another (e.g. a slide of a call-out may be replaced by a photo with pull quote after some short time has elapsed). Such billboards are also used as pointers to the article in other sections of the publication or site, or as advertisements for the piece in other publication or sites.

Lead.

The most important structural element of a story is the "lead" (also "intro" or "lede" in journalism jargon), including the story's first, or leading, sentence or two, which almost always form its own paragraph. The spelling "lede" (, from Early Modern English) is also used in American English, originally to avoid confusion with the printing press type formerly made from the metal lead or the related typographical term "leading".  Charney states that "an effective lead is a 'brief, sharp statement of the story's essential facts.'" The lead is usually the first sentence, or in some cases the first two sentences, and is ideally 20–25 words in length. A lead must balance the ideal of maximum information conveyed with the constraint of the unreadability of a long sentence. This makes writing a lead an optimization problem, in which the goal is to articulate the most encompassing and interesting statement that a writer can make in one sentence, given the material with which he or she has to work. While a rule of thumb says the lead should answer most or all of the five Ws, few leads can fit all of these.  Article leads are sometimes categorized into hard leads and soft leads. A "hard lead" aims to provide a comprehensive thesis which tells the reader what the article will cover. A "soft lead" introduces the topic in a more creative, attention-seeking fashion, and is usually followed by a nutshell paragraph (or nut graf), a brief summary of facts.  An "off-lead" is the second most important front page news of the day. The off-lead appears either in the top left corner, or directly below the lead on the right.  To "bury the lead" is to begin the article with background information or details of secondary importance to the readers, forcing them to read more deeply into an article than they should have to in order to discover the essential point(s). It is a common mistake in press releases, but a characteristic of an academic writing style.

Nutshell paragraph.

A "nutshell paragraph" (also simply "nutshell", or "nut 'graph", "nut graf", "nutgraf", etc., in journalism jargon) is a brief paragraph (occasionally there can be more than one) that summarizes the news value of the story, sometimes bullet-pointed and/or set off in a box. Nut-shell paragraphs are used particularly in feature stories.

Paragraphs.

"Paragraphs" (shortened as "'graphs", "graphs", "grafs" or "pars" in journalistic jargon) form the bulk of an article. Common usage is that one or two sentences each form their own paragraph.

Inverted pyramid structure.

Journalists usually describe the organization or structure of a news story as an inverted pyramid. The essential and most interesting elements of a story are put at the beginning, with supporting information following in order of diminishing importance.  This structure enables readers to stop reading at any point and still come away with the essence of a story. It allows people to explore a topic to only the depth that their curiosity takes them, and without the imposition of details or nuances that they could consider irrelevant, but still making that information available to more interested readers.  The inverted pyramid structure also enables articles to be trimmed to any arbitrary length during layout, to fit in the space available.  Writers are often admonished "Don't bury the lead!" to ensure that they present the most important facts first, rather than requiring the reader to go through several paragraphs to find them.  Some writers start their stories with the "1-2-3 lead", yet there are many kinds of lead available. This format invariably starts with a "Five Ws" opening paragraph (as described above), followed by an indirect quote that serves to support a major element of the first paragraph, and then a direct quote to support the indirect quote.

Kicker.

A kicker can refer to multiple things:

Feature style.

News stories are not the only type of material that appear in newspapers and magazines. Longer articles, such as magazine cover articles and the pieces that lead the inside sections of a newspaper, are known as "features". Feature stories differ from "straight" news in several ways. Foremost is the absence of a straight-news lead, most of the time. Instead of offering the essence of a story up front, feature writers may attempt to lure readers in.  While straight news stories always stay in third person point of view, it is common for a feature article to slip into first person. The journalist often details interactions with interview subjects, making the piece more personal.  A feature's first paragraphs often relate an intriguing moment or event, as in an "anecdotal lead". From the particulars of a person or episode, its view quickly broadens to generalities about the story's subject.  The section that signals what a feature is about is called the "nut graph" or "billboard". Billboards appear as the third or fourth paragraph from the top, and may be up to two paragraphs long. Unlike a lead, a billboard rarely gives everything away. It reflects the fact that feature writers aim to hold their readers' attention to the end, which requires engendering curiosity and offering a "payoff." Feature paragraphs tend to be longer than those of news stories, with smoother transitions between them. Feature writers use the active-verb construction and concrete explanations of straight news but often put more personality in their prose.  Feature stories often close with a "kicker" rather than simply petering out.

Other countries.

There are broadly similar formats in other cultures, with some characteristics particular to individual countries.

Japan.

Written Japanese in general, and news writing in particular, places a strong emphasis on brevity, and features heavy use of Sino-Japanese vocabulary and omission of grammar that would be used in speech. Most frequently, two-character kanji compounds are used to concisely express concepts that would otherwise require a lengthy clause if using spoken language. Nominalization is also common, often compacting a phrase into a string of kanji. Abbreviations are also frequent, reducing a term or kanji compound to just initial characters (as in acronyms in alphabetic writing systems); these abbreviated terms might not be used in spoken language, but are understandable from looking at the characters in context. Furthermore, headlines are written in telegram style, yielding clipped phrases that are not grammatical sentences. Larger articles, especially front-page articles, also often have a one-paragraph summary at the beginning.

News style, journalistic style, or news-writing style is the prose style used for news reporting in media such as newspapers, radio and television.

Publicistický styl je stylem médií. Vyznačuje se spisovným jazykem, je proměnlivý a dynamický. Podává aktuální informace. Má také agitační funkci, tj. chce ovlivnit nebo přesvědčit adresáta.


History.

One of the first Czech comic artist was the cartoonist Ladislav Vlodek, for example his comic book series "Adolf" (where perhaps a Czech speech bubbles were used for the first time) were imprinted in the children's magazine "Koule" in 1926-1927.  The beginnings of the comics genre in Czechoslovakia are connected with the popular artist Josef Lada, for example in his drawings "Šprýmovné komiksy: Obrázkové seriály" z let 1922-1946 ("Joke Comics: Picture Series" from 1922-1946). Ondřej Sekora, the creator of short newspaper strips, has also followed a similar path, whose greatest success was probably Ferda Mravenec from 1933. However, in children's magazines were also published his strips about chicken Napipi, captain Ani Muk and dog Rek.  Magazine "Mladý hlasatel" ("Young Herald") began publishing in 1938 a popular comic series "Rychlé šípy", written by Jaroslav Foglar and drawn by Jan Fischer. The publishing of "Rychlé šípy" continued up to 1989, with interruptions imposed by the Nazis, and later by the Communist regime of Czechoslovakia.  Comics in Czechoslovakia whilst under communist rule were seen rather as bourgeois. As an alleged part of bourgeois propaganda, the genre was displaced from the public sphere. However, the generation of the 1960s managed to acquire a more tolerant attitude from the communists. Following disputes with the critics of the official communist newspaper "Rudé právo", some comic artists were allowed to publish during that time.  "Čtyřlístek", one of the most popular comic books for children in Czechoslovakia, has been published continuously since 1969. Another important personality in Czech comics, Kája Saudek, began his career in the 1960s. Saudek was the most persecuted comic artist during the Communist era.  In the 1970s, the comics were published in the Czech ABC magazine. There were many interesting authors, such as František Kobík, who specialized in sci-fi comics, which were very popular among young people. Among the most important comics from the ABC magazine are "Vzpoura mozků" ("Revolt of the Brains"), "Pod paprsky Zářícího" ("Under the Rays of the Glowing") or "Druhá výprava" ("The Second Expedition").  After Communist rule ended in 1989, numerous publishing houses began to publish comics across the former communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, including "Thorgal" and "Funky Koval" (which had started already in the early 1980s). Many magazines specializing in comics were published, amongst them "Bublinky" and "Jánošík". However, this quantity flooded the market, leading to small sales for individual titles. This saw the bankruptcy of almost all the magazines. Czech comic scene remains practically under control only by "Čtyřlístek" and Disney journals by Egmont, like "Donald Duck" and "Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles". A new era was launched in 1997 with the release of the first issue of the new Czech magazine Crew. After several years, the magazine renewed interest in comics not only for children. Other publishers were "Mot komiks" and "Aargh!". Magazine "KomiksFEST! Revue" was published in 2007-2015.  The first Czech self-published superhero comics "Dechberující Zázrak" ("Breathtaking Miracle") came out monthly between 2015 and 2017. Since spring 2018, comics about Pérák have been published in the Czech ABC magazine, its authors are artist Petr Kopl and screenwriter Petr Macek. Their portrayal of Pérák follows the character's appearance in their comics magazine "Dechberoucí Zázrak 09". In May 2019, the collected and extended edition of the series, originally published in ABC magazine, was released as a separate book "Pérák: Oko budoucnosti" ("Pérák: Eye of the future").

Notable comics.

In 2009, the Czech comics server Komiksarium organized a poll to determine the most significant Czech comics. Sixty members of the board included comic publishers, creators and collectors. They selected what the believed were the ten most important works in the history of Czech comics:

Czech comics are comics written in the Czech or Slovak language or by Czech-speaking creators, for the comic markets in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (the former Czechoslovakia).

Český komiks je obecně považován za velmi problematickou záležitost. Jelikož čeští komiksoví tvůrci se málokdy specializovali na tvorbu pro dospělé, vzniklo zde povědomí, že komiks je pouze pro děti. V posledních letech se to však mění. Komiksu se v Čechách říká též "kreslený seriál".


Management and conservation.

The Sherwood Forest Trust is a small charity that covers the ancient royal boundary and current national character area of Sherwood Forest. Its aims are based on conservation, heritage and communities, but also include tourism and the economy.  Nottinghamshire County Council and The Forestry Commission manage jointly the ancient remnant of forest north of the village of Edwinstowe, providing walks, trails and a host of other activities.  This central core of ancient Sherwood is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), NNR, and Special Area of Conservation (SAC). It is a very important site for ancient oaks, wood pasture, invertebrates and fungi, as well as being linked to the legends of Robin Hood.  During the second world war parts of Sherwood forest were used extensively by the military for ammunition stores, POW camps and training areas. Oil was produced at Eakring. After the war, large ammunition dumps were abandoned in the forest and were not cleared until 1952, with at least 46,000 tons of ammunition in them.  Part of the forest was opened as a country park to the public in 1969 by Nottinghamshire County Council, which manages a small part of the forest under lease from the Thoresby Estate. In 2002, a portion of Sherwood Forest was designated a National Nature Reserve by English Nature. In 2007, Natural England officially incorporated the Budby South Forest, Nottinghamshire's largest area of dry lowland heath, into the Nature Reserve, nearly doubling its size from.  A new Sherwood Forest Visitor Centre was authorised in 2015. In August 2018, the RSPB opened the new development with a shop and café, after being granted permission to manage the woods in 2015. Part an agreement with Natural England was that the land where the existing 1970s visitor centre was located would be restored to wood pasture.  Some portions of the forest retain many very old oaks, especially in the portion known as the Dukeries, south of the town of Worksop, which was so called because it used to contain five ducal residences.  The River Idle, a tributary of the Trent, is formed in Sherwood Forest from the confluence of several minor streams.

Tourism.

Sherwood attracts around 350,000 tourists annually, many from other countries.  Each August the nature reserve hosts an annual, week-long Robin Hood Festival. This event recreates a medieval atmosphere and features the major characters from the Robin Hood legend. The week's entertainment includes jousters and strolling players, dressed in medieval attire, in addition to a medieval encampment complete with jesters, musicians, rat-catchers, alchemists and fire eaters.  Throughout the year, visitors are attracted to the Sherwood Forest Art and Craft Centre, which is situated in the former Coach House and Stables of Edwinstowe Hall in the heart of the Forest. The centre contains art studios and a cafe, and hosts special events, including craft demonstrations and exhibitions.

Major Oak.

Sherwood Forest is home to the famous Major Oak, which, according to local folklore, was Robin Hood's principal hideout. The oak tree is between 800 and 1,000 years old and, since the Victorian era, its massive limbs have been partially supported by an elaborate system of scaffolding. In February 1998, a local company took cuttings from the Major Oak and began cultivating clones of the famous tree with the intention of sending saplings to be planted in major cities around the world.  The Major Oak was featured on the 2005 BBC TV programme "Seven Natural Wonders" as one of the natural wonders of the Midlands.

Thynghowe.

Thynghowe, an important Danelaw meeting place where people came to resolve disputes and settle issues, was lost to history until its rediscovery in 2005–06 by local history enthusiasts amidst the old oaks of an area known as the Birklands. Experts believe it may also yield clues as to the boundary of the ancient Anglo Saxon kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria.  English Heritage had inspected the site, and have confirmed it was known as "Thynghowe" in 1334 and 1609.

Sherwood Forest is a royal forest in Nottinghamshire, England, famous by its historic association with the legend of Robin Hood.

Sherwoodský les je královský les nacházející se v anglickém hrabství Nottinghamshire (Velká Británie), který je spjat s příběhy o Robinu Hoodovi.


Club career.

Chelsea.

Early years.

Born in Barking, Greater London, Terry attended Eastbury Comprehensive School and played for local Sunday league team Senrab. As a boy, he initially was part of West Ham United's youth system, joining them as a midfielder in 1991. He moved to Chelsea at 14, playing for the club's youth and reserve teams. It was due to a shortage of central defenders that he was moved to centre-back, the position he plays today. After finishing school, he joined the club on a YTS at age 16 and signed professional terms a year later.  Terry made his Chelsea debut on 28 October 1998 as a late substitute in a League Cup tie with Aston Villa; his first

First-team breakthrough.

Terry began to establish himself in the Chelsea first team from the 2000–01 season, making 23 starts and was voted the club's Player of the Year. He continued his progress during 2001–02, becoming a regular in the defence alongside club captain and France international Marcel Desailly. On 5 December 2001, he captained Chelsea for the first time, in a Premier League match against Charlton Athletic. Chelsea reached the

Captaincy and successes.

Following Desailly's retirement, new Chelsea manager José Mourinho chose Terry as his club captain, a choice which was vindicated throughout the 2004–05 season as Chelsea won the Premier League title in record-breaking fashion with the best defensive record in Football League history with the most clean sheets and the most points accrued. He was voted Player of the Year by his fellow professionals in England and scored eight goals, including a late winner against Barcelona, in the UEFA Champions League. He was voted the best defender in the Champions League for the season. In September 2005, he was selected as a member of the World XI at the FIFPro awards. The team was chosen by a vote of professional footballers based in 40 countries.  Chelsea defended their Premier League title in 2005–06, earning 91 points, and confirming the title with a 3–0 victory against Manchester United.  In a match on 14 October 2006 against Reading, Terry had to take over in goal for

Double and Champions League.

In July 2009, Manchester City made a third bid for Terry, but Chelsea coach Carlo Ancelotti insisted Terry would remain at Chelsea. He made his debut for the new season against Premier League team Hull City, a match Chelsea won. On 8 November 2009, Terry scored the decisive goal in Chelsea's match against Manchester United at Stamford Bridge to preserve their perfect home record for the season.  On 9 May 2010, Terry captained Chelsea as they won their fourth Premier League title after an 8–0 win against Wigan Athletic at Stamford Bridge. A week later, on 15 May 2010, Terry captained Chelsea as he won his fourth FA Cup medal, defeating Portsmouth in the final by 1–0 at Wembley Stadium.  On 31 December 2011, in a home match against Aston Villa, Terry captained the Chelsea team for the 400th time

Later career.

Terry was snubbed by Queens Park Rangers defender Anton Ferdinand in the pre-match handshake against QPR. Terry was banned for four matches when he was found guilty of racially abusing Ferdinand.  On 11 November 2012, in his first match back from the four-match ban, Terry scored his 50th goal for Chelsea against Liverpool. He went off injured in the 39th minute of the same match and was suspected to have ligament damage on his right knee, but a scan the next day showed that there was "no significant damage". On 7 December 2012, new Chelsea manager Rafael Benítez confirmed Terry would not be back from injury in time to play in the 2012 FIFA Club World Cup. Terry's knee injury kept him out of action for 16 first-team matches in total, including the Club World Cup defeat. He made a 45-minute comeback for Chelsea's under-21 team on 10 January, before returning to the first team in a 2–2 draw away to Brentford in the FA Cup fourth round on 24 January.  On 17 April 2013, Terry scored twice in the derby match against Fulham that ended 3–0. On 13 May 2014, Terry signed a new one-year deal with the Blues.  On 18 October 2014, Terry captained Chelsea for the 500th time against Crystal Palace. In the next match, on 21 October, Terry scored in Chelsea's record Champions League win against Slovenian team Maribor. Later, he scored Chelsea's fastest-ever goal in the Champions League by heading in a goal after 90 seconds against Schalke 04.  In the League Cup final on 1 March 2015, Terry opened the scoring was named Man of the Match in Chelsea's 2–0 victory over Tottenham. On 26 March, Terry signed one-year extension

Aston Villa.

On 3 July 2017, Terry signed a one-year contract with Championship club Aston Villa on a free transfer. He was appointed as the captain for the 2017–18 season. He made his debut for Aston Villa on 5 August 2017 in a 1–1 home draw with Hull City in the Championship. Terry scored his

International career.

Terry made his England debut in June 2003 against Serbia and Montenegro, and started his first match for England on 20 August 2003 at Portman Road, Ipswich, in a friendly against Croatia. England won 3–1. His main central defensive partner had been Rio Ferdinand. He played for his country at Euro 2004, and England Manager Sven-Göran Eriksson stated that Terry was the first-choice centre-back, ahead of Sol Campbell.  In 2005 during a FIFA World Cup qualifying match against Poland, Terry wore England's captain armband, replacing Michael Owen as captain after the latter was substituted.  He has cemented his place in the England squad by being selected for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. In a warm-up match for that tournament against Hungary on 30 May 2006, Terry scored his first goal for England, the team's second in a 3–1 victory. Despite an injury scare in a friendly against Jamaica, he recovered to play in England's opening fixture against Paraguay, a 1–0 victory. In the next match against Trinidad and Tobago, Carlos Edwards beat England's Paul Robinson to a cross and as Stern John bundled a header towards the goal, Terry cleared the ball off the line with an overhead kick. In the quarter-final match against Portugal, Terry played the entire match, but England lost on penalties and he was left in tears with his fellow players. Six days later, he was the only English player to be named in the tournament's all-star squad.  On 10 August 2006, Steve McClaren named John Terry as the England captain, succeeding David Beckham. McClaren said, "Choosing a captain is one of the most important decisions a coach has to make. I'm certain I've got the right man in John Terry. I'm convinced he will prove to be one of the best captains England has ever had." Terry scored a goal on his debut as the England captain, in a friendly international against Greece. This was the first goal of the match and also the first goal during McClaren's reign as manager. However, with Terry as captain, England did not

Style of play.

Described by ESPN as a "commanding, no-nonsense style of player," Terry was a strong, tenacious, and physical defender, who was known for his tough and uncompromising style of play. He usually played as a centre-back, although he initially started out playing as a midfielder in his youth. A tall defender, he excelled in the air, which enabled him to defend crosses and high balls effectively, and also made him a goal threat for his team in the opposing penalty area, despite his defensive playing role. Although he was primarily known for his aggressive tackling, he was also an intelligent player, who was recognised by pundits for his positioning and anticipation, as well as his ability to read the game, which compensated for his lack of pace or athleticism, in particular in his later career; he also stood out for his leadership throughout his career, as well as his ability organise the back–line. Despite not being a particularly fast player, however, in particular over short distances, Samuel Eto'o once described Terry as being "surprisingly quick," while in his youth, a 2003 match report from an international friendly against Croatia described "speed and tackling ability" as his strengths, while instead citing his reading of the game and ability to defend set pieces in the air as areas in need of improvement. Regarded as one of he best defenders in the world at his peak, he is considered to be one of the greatest central defenders of his generation, as well as one of the best English and Premier League defenders ever.  Despite the praise he received in the media for his defensive skills, critical opinion on Terry's technical ability was frequently divided; throughout his career, he was often paired with an intelligent, more technical and more mobile ball–playing centre-back, such as Ricardo Carvalho at Chelsea or Rio Ferdinand with England, which complemented Terry's more physical playing style as a "stopper," and also

Coaching career.

On 10 October 2018, Terry was appointed assistant

Sponsorship.

On the UK version of "Pro Evolution Soccer

Family and personal life.

Terry is married to Toni (née Poole). In 2009, he was named "Dad of the Year" after he came top of a poll of UK adults in a Daddies Sauce survey.  Terry's older brother, Paul (born 1979), is a former professional footballer, having notably played for Dagenham & Redbridge and Yeovil Town.  Terry was a Manchester United supporter growing up.  Terry is one of a very small group of footballers to have been paid more than £1 million for their autobiography. His deal with publisher HarperCollins was negotiated in 2004 by Chris Nathaniel of NVA Management.  In 2016, Terry paid the £1,600 funeral costs for an eight-year-old Chelsea fan with leukaemia who died from an unsuccessful bone marrow transplantation.  Terry co-owns custom swimwear company Thomas Royall with fellow footballers Sam Saunders and Liam Ridgewell.

Legal issues.

In September 2001, Terry and three teammates were fined two weeks' wages by Chelsea for an incident involving players and American tourists at a Heathrow airport bar in the immediate aftermath of the 11 September attacks. In January 2002, Terry, Chelsea teammate Jody Morris and Des Byrne of Wimbledon were charged with assault and affray after a confrontation with a nightclub bouncer. Terry was banned from selection for the England team for the duration of the case, though he was ultimately cleared of all charges. In 2009, Terry was investigated by Chelsea and the FA for allegedly taking money from an undercover reporter for a private tour of Chelsea's training ground. The club responded that it was "confident that at no time did Terry ask for or accept money in relation to visits to the training ground."

Extramarital affair allegations.

In January 2010, a super-injunction was imposed by a High Court judge preventing the media from reporting allegations that Terry had had a four-month affair in late 2009 with Vanessa Perroncel, the former girlfriend of Wayne Bridge, his former Chelsea and England teammate. The injunction was lifted a week later, and the British media – especially the tabloid press – covered the rumours in great detail in the

Racial abuse allegations.

On 2 November 2011, Terry was placed under police investigation following an allegation of racist abuse made at Anton Ferdinand during a match versus Queens Park Rangers. Video footage circulated on the internet led to accusations that Terry called Ferdinand a "fucking black cunt." In response to the video footage, Terry claimed that he was actually asking Ferdinand, "Oi, Anton, do you think I called you a black cunt?" On 25 November 2011, Terry was interviewed under caution by the police. On 21 December 2011, he was charged with using racist language by the Crown Prosecution Service. On 3 February 2012, the Football Association stripped Terry of his England captaincy for the second time, stating that Terry would not captain the national team until the racial abuse allegations against him were resolved.  When the trial began in July 2012, Terry entered a not guilty plea and was acquitted of the charge on 13 July 2012. The court established that neither Ferdinand nor anyone else had heard Terry's words, but Terry himself admitted that he had directed the words "fucking black cunt" and "fucking knobhead" at Ferdinand, which was affirmed by two expert lip readers from video evidence. Terry maintained that he used the words as a form of sarcasm and that he was questioning what he thought had been an allegation of racism from Ferdinand; neither lip reader was able to "identify whether the statement was made as a question or in what type of voice it was said." Justice Riddle concluded that while there was no doubt Terry had uttered those words in anger, "it is impossible to be sure exactly what were the words spoken by [Terry] at the relevant time" and that there was a lack of evidence to prove beyond a doubt that Terry had used them as an insult instead of "a challenge to what he believed had been said to him." The court therefore found Terry not guilty.  On 27 July 2012, the FA charged Terry for using "abusive and/or insulting words and/or behaviour" which "included a reference to the ethnic origin and/or colour and/or race of Ferdinand." The FA had delayed the charge until after the conclusion of Terry's criminal trial. Terry denied the charge. On the eve of the FA's hearing, Terry announced his retirement from the English national football team, saying his position had become "untenable" due to the disciplinary charge. On 27 September 2012, the hearing concluded with Terry being found guilty; he was punished with a four-match ban and a £220,000 fine.  The FA published a 63-page report regarding the disciplinary proceedings conducted by an Independent Regulatory

In popular culture.

Terry has been part of a popular meme picturing him taking part in great moments in history and fiction following his decision to come on to the pitch to lift the European Cup in full kit despite being suspended for the 2012 UEFA Champions

Honours.

Chelsea  Individual

John George Terry (born 7 December 1980) is an English professional football coach and former player who played as a centre-back. He was previously captain of Chelsea, the England national team and Aston Villa; he is the assistant head coach at the latter.

John George Terry (* 7. prosince 1980 Barking, Londýn) je bývalý anglický profesionální fotbalový obránce a reprezentant. Dlouhou dobu byl kapitánem londýnského klubu Chelsea FC.


History of Las Segovias.

Las Segovias is a region encompassed by the five departments of northern Nicaragua: Estelí, Jinotega, Madriz, Matagalpa, and Nueva Segovia. The natural boundaries, are bordered on the north by the mountains around Dipilto, Jalapa and Mozonte, which extend to the Coco River. On the southern border, the area is bounded by the mountains around the towns of La Trinidad and San Nicolás, which sweep downward to the valleys between Sébaco and El Sauce. Towards the east the river valleys bordering La Concordia, Jinotega, San Sebastián de Yalí and Wiwilí de Jinotega form the demarcations of the natural boundary. Finally, on the west the boundary extends from the slope of a mountainous triangle which extends to the coastal plain adjacent to the Pacific Ocean encompassing Estelí, San José de Cusmapa, and San Juan de Limay.  In pre-Columbian times the region was inhabited by Native American people known as Mayangnas and Matagalpas. Later arrivals include the Nahua from Mexico and the Chorotega peoples from Cholula. One of the first regions of Nicaragua to be colonized by the Spaniards, the conquistadors established the city of "Vieja" and later "Antigua", to implement the "Corregimiento" system over the indigenous inhabitants. The "corregidor" served as a type of mayor to administrate a district, exploiting the local populations to mine gold and other minerals for Spain. The Spanish period decimated the indigenous population reducing its numbers from estimates of 75,000 people to 4,500 at the end of their occupation. After gaining its independence, Nicaragua drafted the Constitution of 1858, which established seven departments: Chinandega, Chontales, Granada, León, Matagalpa, Nueva Segovia, and Rivas. The Department of Jinotega was created from Matagalpa in 1892. Simultaneously, the Estelí Department was created from Nueva Segovia. Nueva Segovia was further divided in 1936 with the creation of the Madriz Department.  In 1926, during the United States occupation of Nicaragua "Las Segovias" became the center of the guerrilla warfare led by Augusto César Sandino, who established a network of espionage agents and collaborators from the local population. In 1933, during the negotiations for peace in the region, Sandino asked newly elected president Juan Bautista Sacasa to create a large autonomous department covering the area of "Las Segovias". Sandino's plan would have allowed him to administer the department and manage the civilian and military authorities. The government rejected the plan, giving the rebels only a small colony on the banks of the Coco River, where the former troops were allowed to farm.

Nueva Segovia () is a department in Nicaragua. It covers an area of 3,123 km2 and has a population of 211,200 (2005 census). The capital is Ocotal.

Nueva Segovia je jedním z 15 departementů Nikaraguy. Leží na severu země na hranici s Hondurasem. Horské vlhké klima departementu je příhodné pro pěstování kávovníku. Nacházejí se zde zachovalé horské tropické pralesy.