Development.

Origins.

In 1964, the Royal Air Force specified a requirement (Air Staff Target, AST, 362) for a new fast jet trainer to replace the Folland Gnat. The SEPECAT Jaguar was originally intended for this role, but it was soon realised that it would be too complex an aircraft for fast jet training and only a small number of two-seat versions were purchased. Accordingly, in 1968, Hawker Siddeley Aviation (HSA) began studies for a simpler aircraft, initially as special project (SP) 117. The design team was led by Ralph Hooper. This project was funded by the company as a private venture, in anticipation of possible RAF interest. The design was conceived of as having tandem seating and a combat capability in addition to training, as it was felt the latter would improve export sales potential. By the end of the year HSA had submitted a proposal to the Ministry of Defence based on the design concept, and in early 1970 the RAF issued Air Staff Target (AST) 397 which formalised the requirement for new trainers of this type. The RAF selected the HS.1182 for their requirement on 1 October 1971 and the principal contract, for 175 aircraft, was signed in March 1972.  The prototype aircraft XX154 first flew on 21 August 1974 from Dunsfold piloted by Duncan Simpson, Chief Test Pilot of HSA (Kingston), reaching 20,000 ft in a flight lasting 53 minutes. All development aircraft were built on production jigs; the program remained on time and to budget throughout. The Hawk T1 entered RAF service in late 1976. The first export Hawk 50 flew on 17 May 1976. This variant had been specifically designed for the dual role of lightweight fighter and advanced trainer; it had a greater weapons capacity than the T.1. More variants of the Hawk followed, and common improvements to the base design typically included increased range, more powerful engines, redesigned wing and undercarriage, the addition of radar and forward-looking infrared, GPS navigation, and night-vision compatibility. Later models were manufactured with a great variety in terms of avionics fittings and system compatibility to suit the individual customer nation; cockpit functionality was often rearranged and programmed to be common to an operator's main fighter fleet to increase the Hawk's training value.  In 1981, a derivative of the Hawk was selected by the United States Navy as their new trainer aircraft. Designated the McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk, the design was adapted to naval service and strengthened to withstand operating directly from the decks of carriers, in addition to typical land-based duties. This T-45 entered service in 1994; initial aircraft had analogue cockpits, while later deliveries featured a digital glass cockpit. All airframes were planned to undergo avionics upgrades to a common standard.

Further development.

A major competitor to the Hawk for export sales has been the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet; aviation expert John W. R. Taylor commented: "What Europe must avoid is the kind of wasteful competition that has the Hawker Siddeley Hawk and Dassault-Breguet/Dornier Alpha Jet battling against each other in the world market." By early 1998, a total of 734 Hawks had been sold, more than 550 of which had been sold to export customers. Military customers often procured the Hawk as a replacement for older aircraft such as the BAC Strikemaster, Hawker Hunter, and Douglas A-4 Skyhawk.  During the 1980s and 1990s, British Aerospace, the successor company to Hawker Siddeley, was trying to gain export sales of the variable-wing Panavia Tornado strike aircraft; however, countries such as Thailand and Indonesia, which had shown initial interest in the Tornado, concluded that the Hawk is a more suitable and preferable aircraft for their requirements. Malaysia and Oman cancelled their arranged Tornado orders in the early 1990s, both choosing to procure the Hawk, instead. Aviation authors Norman Polmar and Dana Bell stated of the Hawk: "Of the many similar designs competing for a share of the world market, the Hawk has been without equal in performance as well as sales". On 22 December 2004, the Ministry of Defence awarded a contract to BAE Systems to develop an advanced model of the Hawk for the RAF and Royal Navy. The Hawk Mk. 128, otherwise designated as Hawk T2, replaces conventional instrumentation with a glass cockpit, to better resemble modern fighter aircraft such as the new mainstay of the RAF, the Eurofighter Typhoon. In October 2006, a contract was signed for the production of 28 Hawk 128s. The aircraft's maiden flight occurred on 27 July 2005 from BAE Systems' Warton Aerodrome.  According to BAE Systems, as of July 2012, they had sold nearly 1000 Hawks, with sales continuing. In July 2012, Australian Defence Minister Stephen Smith confirmed that Australia's fleet of Hawk Mk 127s would be upgraded to a similar configuration to the RAF's Hawk T2 as part of a major mid-life upgrade. The Hawk T2 was considered to be a competitor for the United States Air Force's T-X program to acquire a new trainer fleet, but in February 2015, Northrop Grumman determined the Hawk's shortfalls made it ill-suited for the program requirements and dropped it as their offering.  In May 2015, Indian aerospace manufacturer Hindustan Aeronautics (HAL) revealed that it was examining the prospects of performing its own Hawk upgrades, including armed light attack variants. The Indian Air Force, which were in the process of receiving trainer Hawks built under licence by HAL, were reportedly interested in the upgrade proposals, which would also include avionics and cockpit modifications; HAL has stated that it also aims to export combat Hawks to other countries in partnership with BAE. Missile developer and manufacturer MBDA may provide their ASRAAM and Brimstone missiles to arm the new attack type.

Design.

The Hawk is an advanced trainer with a two-man tandem cockpit, a low-mounted cantilever wing and is powered by a single turbofan engine. Unlike many of the previous trainers in RAF service, the Hawk was specifically designed for training. Hawker had developed the aircraft to have a high level of serviceability, as well as lower purchasing and operating costs than previous trainers like the Jet Provost. The Hawk has been praised by pilots for its agility, in particular its roll and turn handling.  The design of the fuselage included a height differential between the two seats of the cockpit; this provided generous levels of visibility for the instructor in the rear seat. Each cockpit is fitted with a Martin-Baker Mk 10B zero-zero rocket-assisted ejection seat. Air is fed to the aircraft's rear-mounted Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour engine via intakes on each of the forward wing roots. During the aircraft's development, Hawker had worked closely with Rolls-Royce to reduce the engine's fuel consumption and to ensure a high level of reliability.  Even within the development stages, a Hawk variant was intended to also serve as a single-seat ground-attack fighter; both the trainer and fighter models were developed with the export market in mind. On single seat models, the forward cockpit area which normally houses a pilot is replaced by an electronics bay for avionics and onboard systems, including a fire control computer, multi-mode radar, laser rangefinder and forward-looking infrared (FLIR). Some export customers, such as Malaysia, have extensive modifications to their aircraft, including the addition of wingtip hardpoint stations and a fittable inflight refuelling probe. The Hawk was designed to be manoeuvrable and can reach Mach 0.88 in level flight and Mach 1.15 in a dive, thus allowing trainees to experience transonic flight before advancing to a supersonic trainer. The airframe is very durable and strong, stressed for +9 g; the normal limit in RAF service is +7.5/-4 g. A dual hydraulic system supplies power to operate systems such as the aircraft's flaps, airbrakes and landing gear, together with the flight controls. A ram air turbine is fitted in front of the single tail fin to provide backup hydraulic power for the flight controls in the event of an engine failure; additionally, a gas turbine auxiliary power unit is housed directly above the engine.  The Hawk is designed to carry a centreline gun pod, such as the 30 mm ADEN cannon, two under-wing pylons, and up to four hardpoints for fitting armaments and equipment. In RAF service, Hawks have been equipped to operate the Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. In the early 1990s, British Aerospace investigated the possibility of arming the Hawk with the Sea Eagle anti-ship missile for export customers. In 2016, BAE Systems was developing the so-called 'Advanced Hawk' with a new wing using leading-edge slats, and potentially additional sensors and weapons, a head-mounted display, and a single large-screen display in the forward cockpit.

Operational history.

United Kingdom.

The Hawk entered RAF service in April 1976, replacing the Folland Gnat and Hawker Hunter for advanced training and weapons training. The "Hawk T1" was the original version used by the RAF, deliveries commencing in November 1976. The most famous users of the Hawk are the Red Arrows aerobatic team, who adopted the plane in 1979.  From 1983 to 1986, some Hawks were equipped as short-range interceptor aircraft. 88 T1s were modified to carry two AIM-9L Sidewinder air-to-air missiles in addition to a 30 mm ADEN cannon gun pod; these aircraft were redesignated as "Hawk T1A". In a wartime scenario, they would have worked in collaboration with the RAF's Tornado F3 interceptors, which would use their Foxhunter search radars and more sophisticated navigation systems to vector the Hawks against enemy targets.  The Hawk subsequently replaced the English Electric Canberra for target towing duties. The Royal Navy acquired a dozen Hawk T1/1As from the RAF; these are typically operated in a support role, often to conduct simulated combat training onboard ships.  During the 1990s and 2000s, 80 Hawk T1/1A aircraft were upgraded under the Fuselage Replacement Programme (FRP) to extend their operational lifespan; sections of the centre and rear fuselage sections were entirely replaced. In 2009, the RAF began receiving the first Hawk T2, in the long term, T2 aircraft will replace the ageing T1s. Training operations on the Hawk T2 began in April 2012.  In August 2011, a Red Arrows pilot was killed when his Hawk T1 crashed following a display at the Bournemouth Air Festival;, the inquest found "G-force impairment" may have caused the pilot to lose control. The Hawk T1 fleet was grounded as a precautionary measure and returned to flight status a few days later. In November 2011, the Red Arrows suffered another pilot fatality when the Martin-Baker Mk.10 ejection seat fitted to the Hawk T1 activated while the aircraft was stationary; the veteran combat pilot died on ground impact when the ejector seat parachute also failed to deploy. This resulted in the UK Ministry of Defence implementing a ban on non-essential flying in aircraft fitted with ejector seats similar to those fitted in the Hawk T1 after the death. The ban was lifted for Tornado attack jets but remained on Hawk T1, Hawk T2 and Tucano flights while the RAF reviewed evidence on those aircraft.  In October 2017, the RAF and Royal Navy operated 75 Hawk T1 and 28 Hawk T2. According to the Ministry of Defence, the planned out-of-service date for the Hawk T1 is 2030, with the aircraft selected to meet the requirements of the Air Support to Defence Operational Training (ASDOT) programme beginning to replace the Hawk from 2027.

Finland.

In January 1978, Britain and Finland announced a deal in which the Finnish Air Force was to receive 50 Hawk Mk. 51s in 1980; these aircraft were built in Finland under licence by Valmet. The Finnish Air Force was limited to 60 first-line fighter aircraft by the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947; by acquiring Hawks, which counted as trainers rather than fighters, capacity could be increased while continuing treaty compliance. These conditions were nullified during the 1990s by the break-up of the Soviet Union.  Seven additional Mk. 51As were delivered in 1993–94 to make up for losses. In June 2007, Finland arranged to purchase 18 used Hawk Mk. 66s from the Swiss Air Force for 41 million euros; they were delivered in 2009–2010. Finnish Hawks have reportedly been armed with Soviet Molniya R-60/AA-8 as well as with AIM-9J and AIM-9M air-to-air missiles, Matra Type 155 SNEB rocket pods, unspecified British general-purpose bombs of multiple types, VKT 12.7 mm machine gun pods and Royal Small Arms Factory 30 mm ADEN autocannon pods. The Finnish Air Force aerobatics team, the Midnight Hawks, also uses the aircraft.  Due to rising levels of metal fatigue, a major structural reinforcement program was carried out to extend the operational life of Finland's Hawks during the 1990s. Due to lifespan limitations, 41 out of 67 in Finland's total Hawk fleet were taken out of service between 2012–2016; the remaining aircraft are younger and thus are expected to be flying into the 2030s. In 2011, Finnish Mk. 51s and Mk. 66s underwent a series of upgrades performed by Patria, these included the adoption of a new "Cockpit 4000" glass cockpit, new software, and other life-extending modifications. This upgrade program was completed in 2013.

India.

On 23 February 2008, the Hawk Mk. 132 formally entered service with the Indian Air Force (IAF), after one of the most protracted procurements in India's history, two decades having elapsed between the initial interest and the contract signing on 26 March 2004. The IAF received 24 aircraft directly from BAE Systems with deliveries beginning in November 2007, and further 42 Hawks assembled by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited between 2008 and 2011. In February 2008, India planned to order 57 more Hawks, with 40 going to the Indian Air Force and the remaining 17 to the Indian Navy.  In July 2010, it was announced that the IAF and the Navy would receive the additional 57 aircraft. The additional aircraft will be all built in India by Hindustan Aeronautics (HAL), continuing to work under licence from BAE. On 10 February 2011, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and GE Aviation signed a contract under which GE Aviation will conduct the next 30 years of maintenance on the Hawk fleet. In 2011, the IAF was reportedly unhappy with the provision of spare components; In December 2011, BAE received a contract to provide India with spares and ground support.  The first IAF Hawk AJT crashed on 29 April 2008 at 406 Air Force Station Bidar, Karnataka. On 3 June 2015, another Hawk AJT aircraft crashed near Baharagora, close to the West Bengal – Odisha border.  The Hawk fleet is based at IAF's Bidar Air Force Station in north Karnataka, about 700 km from Bangalore. As of 2015, a total of 123 aircraft were on order by the Indian Air Force and 17 by the Indian Navy. An additional order of 20 aircraft is under negotiation.  On 19 February 2019, two Hawk jets of the Indian Air Force's Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team crashed after a mid-air collision over the Yelahanka airbase in north Bengaluru. One of the three pilots died. The two others, who ejected safely, were injured and taken to the Command Hospital. The accident took place at around 11:50 am during a rehearsal session ahead the Aero India 2019.

Indonesia.

In April 1978, Indonesia, seeking to increase its aerial capabilities, placed the first of multiple orders for the Hawk. The Indonesian Air Force received more than 40 Hawks in the 1980s and 1990s; In June 1991, BAe and Indonesian Aerospace (IPTN) signed a major agreement for collaborative production of the Hawk, and more orders of the Hawk were anticipated. Further Hawk exports were eventually blocked due to concerns over Indonesian human rights, particularly in East Timor. During the 1990s protests erupted across England over arming Indonesia and pressure increased after the mass-murder of the Balibo Five journalists and Roger East came to light and allegations of the use of Hawks during the Indonesian occupation of East Timor.  The Hawks have been the backbone of Indonesian Air Force, supplementing more advanced and expensive aircraft such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon. In September 2013, the Indonesian Air Force began receiving the KAI T-50 Golden Eagle, which has been reported as having been set to eventually replace the Hawk in service. In February 2016, it was announced that Indonesia's Hawk fleet was set to receive a new radar warning receiver self-defense system, aiding the type's use in light attack operations.  A BAE Hawk in use with the Indonesian Air Force crashed on 15 June, 2020.

Malaysia.

The Royal Malaysian Air Force has 18 Hawk aircraft, consisting of 4 Hawk 108 export versions as training aircraft and 14 Hawk 208 as combat aircraft. On 5 March 2013, during the 2013 Lahad Datu standoff, five Hawk 208 together with three American-made Boeing F/A-18D Hornets were employed in airstrikes on hideouts of the terrorist group Royal Security Forces of the Sultanate of Sulu and North Borneo in Lahad Datu, Sabah ahead of the ground assault by joint forces of the Malaysian Army and Royal Malaysian Police.

Saudi Arabia.

Saudi Arabia acquired the Hawk under the Al-Yamamah arms deal with Britain, with a total of 50 Hawk Mk. 65/65As ordered in contracts placed in 1985 and 1994 respectively. In August 2012, a deal for 22 Hawk 'Advanced Jet Trainers' worth approximately $800 million was announced. The AJTs would replace older models of Hawks in the Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) inventory. The Hawk is flown by the RSAF demonstration team. In February 2016 it emerged that Saudi Arabia had doubled the number of Hawk AJT aircraft it had ordered from BAE Systems, with an order for a further 22. This was revealed in the company's preliminary annual report for 2015; "We reached agreement with the Saudi customer for the provision of a further 22 Hawk AJT aircraft, associated ground equipment, and training aids for the RSAF which form part of an enhancement to the Kingdom's training capacity." Once in service, the Hawk AJTs will complete the replacement of the earlier Mk 65 and Mk 65A platforms. 22 of these Hawks are to be assembled locally in Saudi Arabia, the first of which was completed in March 2019.

Zimbabwe.

In the 1980s, 12 BAE Hawk T.Mk. 60/60As were purchased for the Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ); the purchase was supported by a loan from the UK to Zimbabwe. The Hawk deal also included the transfer of a number of used Hawker Hunters. In July 1982, at least one Hawk was destroyed on the ground and three more heavily damaged during a dissident attack on Thornhill air base, Gweru.  Zimbabwe's Hawks were used during the Second Congo War. Numerous airstrikes were conducted in support of the Congolese Army against Rwandan, Ugandan and rebel forces in 1998–2000. In 2000, the controversy over Zimbabwe's military intervention in the Congo and poor human rights record led to Britain imposing a total arms embargo on the nation, including spare parts for the Hawk. Due to the embargo, Zimbabwe has purchased six Chinese Hongdu K-8s as a substitute.

Others.

During the 1980s, a prospective sale of 63 Hawk trainers to Iraq was considered by the British government. While the proposal had its proponents, it was controversial as in a ground-attack capacity Iraq might have employed the Hawk against neighbouring Iran and to oppress Iraq's own Kurdish population; there was also concern that the Hawk could be potentially armed with chemical weapons. After considerable deliberation the sale was blocked by then Foreign Secretary John Major. In 2010, Iraq entered talks with BAE for an order of up to 21 Hawks.  In 1993, talks between BAe and South Africa's Denel Aviation began regarding a replacement for the South African Air Force (SAAF)'s ageing Atlas Impala fleet. By 2004, Denel had begun construction of Hawks under licence from BAe; components for other customers have also been produced by Denel. On 13 January 2005, the first locally assembled Hawk conducted its first flight; it belonged to a batch of 24 trainers ordered by the SAAF.

Variants.

Hawk T1.

The Hawk T1 (Trainer Mark 1) was the original version of the Hawk used by the RAF, deliveries commencing in November 1976. The RAF received a total of 175 T1s.

Hawk T1A.

The Hawk T1A is a modified Hawk T1, intended to replace the Hawker Hunter in the RAF's Tactical Weapons Units. A total of 89 aircraft were converted to carry two underwing AIM-9L Sidewinder air-to-air missiles and a centreline Aden gun pod. This is also the variant used by the RAF's Red Arrows display team; the underbody gun pod is replaced by a fairing used to carry diesel fuel and dye for the display smoke system.

Hawk 50.

The Hawk 50 was the original export trainer version, and offered a limited attack capability. Finland, Indonesia and Kenya ordered 90 of this variant.

Hawk 60.

Another export version, replacing the Hawk 50, intended for conversion and weapons training. Weapons carriage is increased. It is a two-seater, has uprated Rolls-Royce Adour 861 engines, and is capable of a level speed at altitude of 555 knots (1028 km/h) or Mach 0.84. The T-45 Goshawk was derived from this version.

Hawk 100.

A two-seat advanced weapons trainer with additional avionics, an optional forward-looking infrared camera, a redesigned wing and hands-on stick-and-throttle controls.

Hawk 120/LIFT.

The Hawk Lead-in Fighter Trainer (LIFT) is the version selected by the South African Air Force in December 1999. This variant is powered by the Adour 951. The LIFT benefits from development carried out for the Australian Mk. 127. The next generation Hawks (120, 127 and 128) feature a new wing, forward and centre fuselage, fin and tailplane. The aircraft have only 10% commonality with the existing first generation aircraft. The new variants also have four times the fatigue life of the original aircraft. 24 aircraft will be delivered.

Hawk 127.

The Royal Australian Air Force ordered 33 Hawk 127 Lead-in Fighters (LIFs) in June 1997, 12 of which were produced in the UK and 21 in Australia. This variant is also powered by the Adour 871. The Hawk 127 is operated by the RAAF's No. 76 Squadron and No. 79 Squadron which are based at RAAF Base Williamtown and RAAF Base Pearce respectively. Work to upgrade the RAAF's Hawks to a standard similar to the Hawk 128 standard began in 2014, and it is planned that the two squadrons will begin operations with these aircraft in 2017.

Hawk 128 (Hawk T2).

The Hawk 128 is the new Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) for the RAF and Royal Navy. The 128 includes modern LCD displays instead of conventional instrumentation and is powered by the Rolls-Royce Adour 951 engine. The Ministry of Defence awarded a Design and Development Contract to BAE Systems on 22 December 2004. The T2 builds on the design of the Australian Mk. 127 and the South African Mk. 120s.  In 2012 orders were placed for the AJT version by the Royal Saudi Air Force and the Royal Omani Air Force.

Hawk 132.

The Hawk Mk. 132 is an export variant of the Hawk and was previously known as the Mk. 115Y. BAE Systems delivered the final of 24 UK-built Hawks to the IAF in November 2009. HAL handed over the first locally-built Hawk 132 on 14 August 2008. These aircraft are powered by the Rolls-Royce Adour Mk 871 engine.

Hawk 165.

The Mk. 165 is an export variant of the AJT currently flown by the Royal Saudi Air Force. 22 aircraft were originally built in the UK by BAE with delivery completed in 2017, whilst another 22 aircraft are currently being built locally in Saudi Arabia with the first "locally built" aircraft delivered to the RSAF in June 2019 and a further 7 by October 2019.

Hawk 200.

The Hawk 200 is a single-seat, lightweight multi-role combat aircraft for air defence, air-denial, anti-shipping, interdiction, close air support, and ground attack.

T-45 Goshawk.

The T-45 Goshawk is a carrier-capable aircraft developed from the Hawk 60 for the United States Navy for use in aircraft carrier training.

Advanced Hawk.

The Advanced Hawk is a joint venture by BAE Systems and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited; a single example of the aircraft was unveiled at the Aero India 2017 on 14 February 2017. It made its first flight in June 2017.

References.

Citations Bibliography

The BAE Systems Hawk is a British single-engine, jet-powered advanced trainer aircraft. It was first flown at Dunsfold, Surrey, in 1974 as the Hawker Siddeley Hawk, and subsequently produced by its successor companies, British Aerospace and BAE Systems, respectively. It has been used in a training capacity and as a low-cost combat aircraft.

BAE Hawk (BAe Hawk) je britský jednomotorový proudový cvičný letoun působící z pozemních základen. Letoun vyrábí společnost British Aerospace (v současnosti BAE Systems), předtím jej jako Hawker Siddeley Hawk vyráběla společnost Hawker Siddeley.


Background and development.

After the release of her second studio album, "Here We Go Again" (2009), Lovato was dedicated to her acting career, appearing on the Disney Channel television series "Sonny with a Chance" and television film "". In July 2010, Lovato began working on her third album and recorded the first track with producer Dapo Torimiro. The same month, Lovato said the album was "creating a new sound", it would be "fun. A little more R&B/pop." Later, in conversation with AHN, she quoted Rihanna and Keri Hilson as influences. At the time, Lovato revealed she had not rushed the album, stating: "Every other album I haven’t had time to really take my time and craft it like I really wanted to do because I was finding spare time between a television show, and movies, and touring, and then all over again. I've worked on [the album] for the past year and really gone hard over the past few months, but you can definitely tell that I took my time with this record."  In August 2010, Lovato began touring with the Jonas Brothers on their Jonas Brothers Live in Concert Tour with the cast of "Camp Rock 2". That November, Lovato left the tour in order to enter a treatment facility for "emotional and physical issues". She completed inpatient treatment in January 2011 and returned to the recording studio for her third studio album until February. In April 2011, Lovato announced that she would not return to "Sonny with a Chance", stating that she was choosing to focus on music and would return to acting when she felt confident doing so. In July, Lovato described the album as "more mature" than their previous sound and more fun and light than her first single, "Skyscraper", while other tracks are more intense. Lovato announced the title of the album as "Unbroken" in August and explained: "I thought that the title really matched how I am today; I'm unbroken and I'm standing strong."

Production and recording.

Lovato recorded "Unbroken" in sessions at Westlake Recording Studios, Dreamlab Studios, Chalice Studios, Strawberrybee Studios, Dining Room Studios and Kite Studios all located in Los Angeles, California; She also recorded at Patriot Studios in Denver, Colorado, Rock Mafia Studios in Santa Monica, California, The Hit Factory in Miami, Florida, and Sunset Sound Studio in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. Discussing the album's recording in interview with "Seventeen" magazine, Lovato stated: "I love being back in the studio! It's been very therapeutic to be able to express my feelings and talk about who I really am, through my music. It also helps that I've been lucky enough to work with such talented people on the record so far! With my new album, I'm hoping to provide inspiration for girls everywhere who are going through the same issues I've faced. I think this will come through in a lot of the material." Around 20 tracks were recorded and speaking about the album to "E!" in July 2011, Lovato said people can expect to hear her sing "about some issues that she's never even spoken about before" and also revealed: "There are some [topics] on there that are very deep and it's really out there. For the rest of it, there are a lot of songs that are dancier and a lot more R&B vocals," one of she confirmed as a duet with an R&B singer. She also worked with Dreamlab, who produced the title track, "Hold Up" and "Mistake". The songs were recorded at Dreamlab Studios in Los Angeles, California and mixed by Serban Ghenea, with assistance from Phil Seaford, in Virginia Beach, Virginia at MixStar Studios. John Hanes was attributed with engineering for the songs. Lovato also worked with Rock Mafia, Ryan Tedder, and Kara DioGuardi on several tracks. About working with Lovato, Tedder commented: "Demi blew me out of the water vocally! I had no idea how good her voice is. She's one of the best singers I've ever worked with. Literally, that good... I mean, she's a Kelly Clarkson-level vocalist. And Kelly has a set of pipes." He also explained that the song they co-wrote together is much more upbeat than "Skyscraper", stating: "I think everybody wanted to hear her talk about that, and this is basically flipping it 180, saying, 'Oh, by the way, I'm still also just young and want to have fun.' There's even like a little rap feature on it." In sessions with Tedder, Lovato recorded various songs but only one was included on "Unbroken", "Who's That Boy". Commenting about the song, Lovato described it as "flirty, it's sexy, it's exciting and I love it." Record producer Timbaland wanted to record with Lovato after he heard her voice; he felt impressed and curious to work with the singer and began to write songs in an acoustic guitar. Lovato then met Timbaland at his camp where they discussed the album's direction, Lovato stated she wanted created a more "urban" sound. They met each other again at Westlake Recording Studios, where they developed several songs, including "Lightweight" and "All Night Long". The R&B singer Missy Elliott was introduced in the production after listened the sessions for "All Night Long", Elliott asked if she could rap on the song. Lovato agreed saying "Of course, that's not even a question." The singer Jason Derulo was invited to record "Together" while he was in Miami, Florida. In interview with "MTV" he explained how the collaboration came: "I'm very rarely in Miami and I live in Miami, but before the time I was there, I was there like six months prior and then I haven't been there for a long, long time. But I guess they knew that I lived in Miami. A mutual friend called me and was like, 'Hey, we're at the studio, Demi wanted to get in with you if you were around." Derulo recorded her verses during the middle of the night at The Hit Factory.  Toby Gad and Lindy Robbins also contributed to the album's co-writing "Skyscraper" with Estonian singer Kerli Kõiv. Initially, Lovato recorded "Skyscraper" in Studio City, Los Angeles in 2010. During recording sessions, Lovato was "doubled over, just in pain." After completing her treatment on January 28, 2011, Lovato re-recorded the song, but decided to keep the original recording because she felt that her voice had changed, although noting about her voice was "weaker" when Lovato originally recorded. Gad also produced "My Love Is Like a Star" and "For the Love of a Daughter", the second song was originally recorded as a pop rock song and intended to appear in Lovato's second album, "Here We Go Again", released in 2009. Although not planning to write a personal song, a "really long talk" with Beckett resulted in the song being written. However, Lovato and her management felt that the song's subject would be too much for her young audience. After completed the album's recording, Lovato said: "Making the album was a personal journey for me; it was kind of like a roller coaster, I was going through so much over the past year, but at the end of it I just wanted to inspire people and just give them music to have fun dancing to and listening to, and hopefully I accomplished that."

Composition.

In terms of music, "Unbroken" explores uptempo R&B songs and electronic genres in contrast with emotional and personal ballads. Lyrically, the album presents more "mature" themes about relationship in comparison to her predecessors "Don't Forget" and "Here We Go Again", being described as an "evolution" and next chapter in Lovato's career. In interview with "Billboard", Lovato explained the variety of sounds present in its production: "Ultimately it's pop, but I have songs that are really dance-like, songs that are more R&B, and songs like 'Skyscraper' that are not really R&B at all. And so it just depends on the song." A great part of the album is set in a time signature, however, "Lightweight" and "Fix a Heart" are composed in compound time. The album opens with R&B tracks, each song features appearance from an artist. The opening track "All Night Long" features rapped verses from Missy Elliot. The song incorporates Timbaland's characteristic beats, Lovato sings over a pumping beat, beatbox vocals and guitar riff. Describing the song, Lovato stated: "It's about staying up all night long and singing it to the boy that you like, and it's flirty and fun and it's not too grown-up, but it's grown-up enough." "Who's That Boy" features syncopated groove and synths, the song featuring guest appearance from Dev. "You're My Only Shorty" contain a repetitive chorus sung by Iyaz, the song is backed by synths. The fourth track "Together" is a duet with the singer Jason Derulo, its midtempo R&B song backed by guitar chords, Lyrically, the song delivers an inspirational message about how we can change the world if we come "together".  The fifth track "Lightweight" is a doo-wop-inspired ballad with a minimal orchestral arrangement. Lyrically, it is the first track to express Lovato's fragility and sensitivity, it can be noted during the chorus where Lovato sings: "I'm a lightweight, easy to fall, easy to break, with every move my world shakes." "Lightweight" has a tempo of 64 beats per minute in compound quadruple () time. The title track "Unbroken" is an uptempo dance song that runs through a "brittle" beat influenced by electro-industrial music. The composition of the song incorporates influences of disco music from the 1980s. Lovato vocals are accompanied with a synthesized echo in the song’s background. After the second chorus, the song features a breakdown influenced by dubstep. The beat structure has also been compared to Britney Spears’ 2011 single, "Hold It Against Me". It combines heavy electronic beats with numerous synthesizer keyboard effects. Lyrically, "Unbroken" is about letting go and not holding anything back when it comes to love. It was interpreted by Jocelyn Vena of "MTV" that the lyrics were written about "being saved by love." "Fix a Heart" is a piano-driven ballad that also express an emotional side from the singer. "Hold Up" has an uptempo dance beat and synths effects in its production, the song share similar production to title track, as noted by an editor from "Sputnikmusic" who described both songs as "fun" and wrote that they "give a new twist (a progress) to her signature pop roots, being a bit edgier." "Mistake" is the album's third ballad. The song is backed by an electric guitar during its chorus and mainly in the bridge. Lovato considered the song was "a different take on a breakup." And said she was "really intrigued by the fact that the girl had just been broken up with and it was the other person’s fault and it was the other person’s greatest mistake."  The tenth track "Give Your Heart a Break" features strings, violins and piano accompanied by an dance beat. Describing the song, Lovato said: "It's a song about showing someone you love that you're the one right in front of them. This is a song about faith." The written Joe DeAndrea of AbsolutePunk praised "Mistake" and "Give Your Heart a Break" as ballads going "far and beyond anything in Lovato's prior arsenal. It sets a mark as to what should be expected from similar artists such as her, but in the process, distancing herself from being grouped with them becoming a solo entity." "Skyscraper" was described the most emotional song in the album, According to Lovato, the song's lyrics symbolize her personal journey from where she used to be to "the happy healthy person [she is] today." The song deals with the difficulties Lovato had been through the past year and overcoming the obstacles she faced. With the song, Lovato hopes that "people are able to relate to it and realize that they are able to rise above and overcome any obstacle, no matter the circumstances and shine like a skyscraper". "In Real Life" uses keyboard effects and guitar during the chorus. "My Love Is Like a Star" is a downtempo ballad, "John Camaranica" from "The New York Times" wrote that in the song "Lovato appeared to be channeling the soul-excavation of Mary J. Blige." The album concludes with "For the Love of a Daughter", in the song, she pleads with her father to "put the bottle down" and questions him: "How could you push me out of your world, lie to your flesh and your blood, put your hands on the ones that you swore you loved?" Indicative in the lyrics "It's been five years since we've spoken last / And you can't take back what we never had." The song received extreme critical acclaim from music critics, praising heavily on its lyrical content and Lovato's sincerity and vulnerability in her vocals.

Critical reception.

"Unbroken" received mixed reviews from music critics. On review aggregator Metacritic, the album has a score of 59 out of 100 based on seven reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". While some music critics praised Lovato's vocals and growth in musicianship compared to her previous two albums, as well as some of the album's ballad tracks, others dismissed it as "immature" and "confusing", referring to the album's amount of "party songs". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic scored the album two and a half out of five stars, criticizing it as full of party songs that "act like nothing is wrong in her world at all", writing: "It's hard to party knowing Lovato couldn't quite handle the clubs, while it's not easy to trust the melancholy flowing through the ballads knowing she's ready to cut loose." Erlewine indicated "All Night Long", "Who's That Boy", "Fix a Heart", and "Skyscraper" as the AMG track picks. Monica Herrera of "Rolling Stone" also gave the album a mixed review, scoring it 2 out of 5 stars, saying: "She's grown into her voice. Now, if only her music would grow up too." Mike Schiller writer of PopMatters gave to the album 5 out of possible 10, writing: ""Unbroken" is a strange beast, an abomination of sorts, a realized album with an extra head and shoulders sticking out of the midsection." He also criticized the first four songs, writing that the album "would be a far better album without them, but like it or not they’re there, sitting right out in front. It’d seem tragic if such a descriptor wasn’t being used to describe an album so laced with actual, genuine tragedy."  Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" gave the album a positive review, saying that it "represents the opportunity for Demi Lovato to wipe clean several slates, something she is well suited for." Melissa Maerz of "Entertainment Weekly" also gave a positive review, scoring it a B+ and writing: "Clearly it's been a tough year for Lovato. But as Rihanna could tell her, sometimes bad years make great songs." Becky Brain of Idolator wrote Lovato has a "killer voice and the A-list material to put it to good use", adding, "It's difficult for many young female pop stars to transition successfully from squeaky-clean Disney kid to respected adult recording artist. But so far, Demi's doing a spectacular job, and she's doing it without having to show some skin or sing about hooking up in a club." Absolute Punk scored the album 81 out of 100, summarizing it by saying: "Nothing, and nobody, is broken beyond repair, and "Unbroken" showcases that beautifully." "Entertainment Weekly" listed "Unbroken" as the seventh best album of 2011.  In a May 2013 interview with "Billboard" promoting her fourth studio album "Demi" (2013), Lovato herself has expressed mixed feelings about the album, stating:  "I don't know! I got sick of the songs. When I would play them onstage, I was just like, 'Oh my gosh, I can't play these anymore.' And I have to wonder, was that album really who I was? Was I just experimenting with sounds? I think I wanted to try something more R&B, but when I tried that, it wasn't really me. And so with this album ["Demi"], I'm so excited to play new music rather than getting tired of the songs".

Commercial performance.

"Unbroken" debuted at number four on the "Billboard" 200 chart in the United States, with sales exceeding 97,000. It also peaked at number one on the digital albums chart. Elsewhere, the album debuted at number 90 on the Mexican Albums Chart and on its second week on the chart, jumped to its peak of number 9 and spent a total of 8 weeks on the chart. On the Australian Albums Chart, it debuted at number 20, her highest debut and peaking album there. Its highest entry was number 3 in the New Zealand Albums Chart, making it her first top 3 album there. It spent a total of five weeks on the chart all in the top 40.  The album was also Lovato's first to chart on the Belgian Albums Chart (Flanders) chart, debuting at number 59, and jumped to number 25 the following week. "Unbroken" did not find much success on the Belgian Albums Chart (Wallonia) chart, peaking at number 99. On the Swiss Albums Chart it debuted at number 29, an improvement compared to her last album, however, just managed to make it into the top 50 on the Austrian Albums Chart, debuting and peaking at number 50. On the Spanish Albums Chart, the album debuted at number 24, her second highest peak there, and in her second week fell to number 42, while on the Argentinian Albums Chart granted Lovato another top 10 debut as scored the number 8 spot only to fall off and reappear two weeks later. "Unbroken" debuted at number 271 on the Japanese Albums Chart, with sales of 444 units in its opening week, also her lowest debut and peaking album there. As of 2017, the album has sold 527,000 copies in the United States.

Promotion.

The track "All Night Long" was released on September 14, 2011, and "Who's That Boy" was released in the month following the album. In August 2011, Lovato announced a trio of shows to promote the album, marking her first return to the concert stage since entering treatment the previous year. She performed a pair of shows New York's Manhattan Center Hammerstein Ballroom on September 17 and 18, and at Club Nokia in Los Angeles on September 23. Following the shows and the album's released, Lovato teased tour plans before officially announcing A Special Night with Demi Lovato, her second headlining concert tour. The first North American leg of the tour began on November 16 in Detroit and ended in Tampa, Florida on December 11, 2011.  A Latin American leg began in San Juan, Puerto Rico on December 16, 2011 and concluded in Monterrey, Mexico on May 3, 2012. She performed three shows in Florida and Texas in March 2012 before launching a second North American leg of the tour in June, commencing in Del Mar, California on June 12 and concluding in Salem, Oregon on September 1, 2012. Lovato returned to Latin America for two shows in Brazil on September 29 and 30, 2012 before launching short-lived Asian and European legs of the tour in March 2013, performing five shows that month across the continents. Her journey through going on tour for the first time since she withdrew from her last tour to seek treatment was chronicled on the MTV television documentary special "", which aired in March 2012 and showed exclusive behind-the-scenes footage from the tour and dealt with Lovato's treatment and recovery (she admitted years later to being dishonest about her recovery in the film, revealing she was in fact under the influence of cocaine while being interviewed about her sobriety).  With the tour announcement, Lovato expressed excitement to launch the project and commented about the difference between tour and her promotional shows: "We're gonna do the same show, but a little bit different... better and bigger, and my fans just have to come check it out." She said in conversation with "MTV News", "We were just experimenting with the show and trying to see how it all played out and give my fans something that will bait them in for the tour." Lovato also appeared on Z100's annual Jingle Ball with various artists.

Singles.

"Skyscraper" was released as the lead single from "Unbroken" on July 12, 2011. The song was written by Toby Gad, Lindy Robbins and Estonian singer Kerli Kõiv and produced by Gad. The song peaked at number ten on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in the United States. Elsewhere, the song peaked at number 18 in Canada, number 9 in New Zealand, number 45 in Australia and at number 7 in the United Kingdom. The song was critically acclaimed by music critics, some of them praising Lovato's vocals and the inspirational lyrics. Lovato performed the song several times, including on the television series "America's Got Talent", "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" and "Dancing with the Stars". The song was officially certified platinum in the United States in April 2012.  "Give Your Heart a Break" was released as the album's second and final single on January 23, 2012. It was originally announced that the album's second single would be "Who's That Boy" featuring Dev, but it was later scrapped due to Dev's pregnancy. "Give Your Heart a Break" was written and produced by Josh Alexander and Billy Steinberg. Lovato performed the song at MTV's New Year's Eve on December 31, 2011 and the People's Choice Awards on January 12, 2012. The song received critical acclaim by music critics, praising the production of the song as well as Lovato's vocals. Lovato also performed the single on "American Idol" on March 15, 2012. The song peaked at number 16 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and reached number one on Billboard's Pop chart in September 2012. It was also certified triple platinum in the United States.

Track listing.

Notes

Personnel.

Credits adapted from the liner notes of "Unbroken".

Unbroken is the third studio album by American singer Demi Lovato. It was released on September 20, 2011, by Hollywood Records. Primarily a pop record, Lovato described the album as "more mature" and with more R&B elements than her previous material, citing Rihanna as the major influence. While some of the album's lyrical content was heavily influenced by Lovato's personal struggles, it also deals with lighter subjects, such as love, self empowerment, and having fun. Contributions to the album's production came from a wide range of producers, including Toby Gad, Ryan Tedder, Timbaland, Jim Beanz and Rock Mafia.

Unbroken je třetí studiové album americké zpěvačky a skladatelky Demi Lovato. Album vyšlo 20. září 2011 od Hollywood Records. Demi spolupracovala s různými producenty a autory jako je Toby Gad, Rock Mafia, Timbaland, Dreamlab, a další. Lyrický obsah alba byl těžce ovlivněn citovými problémy zpěvačky, které byly zveřejněny na konci roku 2010, kdy byla poslána na léčení. To přišlo po hádce s tanečnicí na turné s Jonas Brothers, kdy ji Demi napadla. Album je zvukově ovlivněno popovou muzikou a urbanovými zpěvačkami jako je Rihanna a Nelly Furtado.


History.

PEOPLE, 1972–1975.

The Green Party's origins go back to the PEOPLE Party, founded in February 1972. An interview with overpopulation expert Paul R. Ehrlich in "Playboy" magazine inspired a small group of professional and business people to form the 'Club of Thirteen', so named because it first met on 13 October 1972 in Daventry. This included surveyors and property agents Freda Sanders and Michael Benfield, Jitendrakumar Patel (1950-2016) and husband-and-wife solicitors Lesley and Tony Whittaker (a former Kenilworth councillor for the Conservative Party), all with practices in Coventry. Many in this 'club' were wary of forming a political party; so, after a few weeks, in November 1972 these five agreed to form 'PEOPLE' as a new political party to challenge the UK political establishment. Its policy concerns published in 1973 included economics, employment, defence, energy and fuel supplies, land tenure, pollution and social security, all set within an ecological perspective. "Zero growth" (or "steady state") economics were a strong feature in the party's philosophical basis.  Later recognised as perhaps the world's earliest Green party, the party created the first edition of the Manifesto for a Sustainable Society as a background statement of policies. The manifesto was inspired by "A Blueprint for Survival" published by "The Ecologist" magazine. The editor of "The Ecologist", Edward 'Teddy' Goldsmith, merged his 'Movement for Survival' with PEOPLE. Goldsmith became one of the leading members of the new party during the 1970s.  With "Steady State" economics featured in the party's philosophical basis, the all-UK party became a persistent and growing presence in general elections and European elections, often fielding enough candidates to qualify for television and radio election broadcasts.  Derek Wall, in his history of the Green Party, contends that the new political movement focused initially on the theme of survival, which shaped the "bleak evolution" of the nascent ecological party during the 1970s. In Wall's eyes, the party suffered from a lack of media attention and "opposition from many environmentalists", which contrasted with the experience of other emerging Green parties, such as Germany's Die Grünen. Nonetheless, PEOPLE invested many of its resources in engaging with the indifferent environmental movement, which Wall calls a "tactical mistake".  Membership rose and the party contested both 1974 general elections. In the February 1974 general election, PEOPLE received 4,576 votes in 7 seats. Following the election, an influx of left-wing activists took PEOPLE in a more left-wing direction, causing something of a split. This affected preparations for the October 1974 general election, where PEOPLE's average vote fell to just 0.7%. After much internal debate the party's 1975 Conference adopted a proposal to change its name to 'The Ecology Party' in order to gain more recognition as the party of environmental concern.  Party co-founder Tony Whittaker noted in an interview with Derek Wall "... voters did not connect PEOPLE with ecology. What I wanted was something that the media could look up in their files so that, when they wanted a spokesman of the issue of ecology, they could find the Ecology Party and pick up the phone. It was as brutal and basic as that. PEOPLE didn’t communicate what we had hoped it would communicate".

The Ecology Party, 1975–1985.

The party won its first representation in 1976, when John Luck took a seat on Rother District Council in East Sussex, and party Campaign Secretary John Davenport won a parish council seat in Kempsey.  Jonathan Tyler was elected Chairman of the party in 1976, and Jonathon Porritt became a prominent member. At the 1977 Party Conference in Birmingham, the party's first constitution was ratified and Jonathon Porritt was elected to the Ecology Party National Executive Committee (NEC). Porritt would become the party's most significant public figure, working, with David Fleming, "to provide the Party with an attractive image and effective organisation".  With Porritt gaining increasing prominence and an election manifesto called "The Real Alternative", the Ecology Party fielded 53 candidates in the 1979 general election, entitling them to radio and television election broadcasts. Though many considered this a gamble, the plan, encouraged by Porritt, worked, as the party received 39,918 votes (an average of 1.5%) and membership jumped tenfold from around 500 to 5,000 or more. This, Derek Wall notes, meant that the Ecology Party "became the fourth party in UK politics, ahead of the National Front and Socialist Unity".  Following this electoral success, the party introduced Annual Spring Conferences to accompany Autumn Conferences, and a process of building up a large compendium of policies began, culminated in today's "Policies for a Sustainable Society" (which encompasses around 124 520 words). At the same time, according to Wall, "the Post-1968 generation" began to join the party, advocating non-violent direct action as an important element of the Ecology Party vision outside of electoral politics. This manifested itself in an apparent "decentralist faction" who gained ground within the party, leading to the Party Conference stripping the Executive of powers and rejecting the election of a single leader. The new generation was in evidence in the first 'Summer Green Gathering' in July 1980, the action of the Ecology Party CND (later Green CND), and the Greenham Common camp. The party also became increasingly feminist.  Due to the recession causing the marginalisation of Green issues, Roy Jenkins leaving the Labour Party to form the Social Democratic Party (SDP), and the inability of the party to absorb the rapid increase in membership, the early 1980s were extremely tough for the Ecology Party. Nonetheless, the party prepared for the 1983 General Election, spurred on by the success of Die Grünen in Germany. In the 1983 election, the Ecology Party stood over 100 candidates and gained 54,299 votes.

Name change and internal strife, 1985–1986.

1985 was a time of political change in the UK. After the formation of the Social Democratic Party (SDP), there were noises being made that the UK needed a "green" party. In response to the rumours that a group of Liberal Party activists were about to launch a UK 'Green Party', HELP (the Hackney Local Ecology Party) registered the name "The Green Party," with a green circle, designed by Steve O’Brien, as its logo. The first public meeting, chaired by David Fitzpatrick (then an Ecology Party speaker), was 13 June 1985 in Hackney Town Hall. Paul Ekins (then co-chair of the Ecology Party) spoke on the subject of Green politics and the inner city. Hackney Green Party put a formal proposal to the Ecology Party Autumn Conference in Dover that year to change to the Green Party, which was supported by the majority of attendees, including John Abineri, formerly an actor in the BBC series "Survivors" who supported adding "Green" to the name to fall in line with other environmental parties in Europe.  The next year, an internal dispute arose within the party. A faction calling itself the "Party Organisation Working Group (POWG)" proposed constitutional amendments designed to create a streamlined, two-tier structure to govern the internal workings of the party. Decentralists voted these proposals down. Paul Ekins and Jonathan Tyler, prominent party activists and leading members of POWG, then formed a semi-covert group called "Maingreen," whose private comments, upon becoming public knowledge, suggested to many that they wished to take control of the party. Tyler and Ekins resigned and left the party but Derek Wall describes how the "wounds" left by the 'Maingreen Affair' lingered on in the heated internal debates of the late 1980s.

1987 general election.

Meanwhile, the party gained ground electorally. The 1987 general election saw the 133 Greens standing for office take 89,753 votes (1.3% on average), an improvement on 1983. The next two years would see growing membership and increasing media attention. This coincided with greater concern over the environment following the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and concern over CFCs.

Campaign success, 1989.

The party enjoyed further success. Its Campaign for Real Democracy' launched by the party allowed it to play a part in the Anti-Poll Tax Campaign. The party's biggest success came at the 1989 European elections, where the Green Party won 2,292,695 votes and received 15% of the overall vote. European elections in Great Britain were then run on a first-past-the-post basis, whilst the three seats in Northern Ireland were elected by single transferable vote, and the party failed to gain any seats.  According to Derek Wall, the party would have gained 12 seats if they had been running in other European countries who employed Proportional Representation. Wall explains this "breakthrough" as a combination of the declining popularity of Margaret Thatcher, the reaction to the Poll Tax, Conservative opposition to the European Union, ineffective Labour Party and Liberal Democrat campaigns and a well-prepared Green Party campaign. That environmental issues were very prominent in UK politics at the time should also be added to this list. At no time before or since have Green issues been so high on the minds of UK voters as a voting issue.  As a result of this success, Sara Parkin and David Icke rose to prominence in the UK media, soon becoming two of the four Principal Speakers, a position created in lieu of a leader. Parkin especially was in demand as a Green spokesperson. However, the new media attention was not always handled well by the party as a whole. In the run up to the 1989 party conference, it attracted criticism for advocating policies aiming to reduce the total population, proposals which were subsequently rejected. Further controversies included Derek Wall's intervention as a maverick 'Green fundamentalist' and rejection of possible alliances to establish PR. Icke too attracted criticism soon after writing his second book in 1989, an outline of his views on the environment; "The Observer" called him "the Greens' Tony Blair."  Mainstream political parties were, however, alarmed by the Greens' electoral performance and adopted some 'Green policies' in an attempt to counter the threat. In this period, the Green Party had representation in the House of Lords in the person of George MacLeod, Baron MacLeod of Fuinary, who died in 1991. He was the first British Green parliamentarian.

The breakup of the party, 1990.

In 1990, the Scottish and Northern Ireland wings of the Green Party in the United Kingdom decided to separate amicably from the party in England and Wales, to form the Scottish Green Party and the Green Party in Northern Ireland. The Wales Green Party became an autonomous regional party and remained within the new Green Party of England and Wales.

The Green Party, also known as the Green Party UK, was a Green political party in the United Kingdom. Prior to 1985 it was called the Ecology Party, and before that PEOPLE. In 1990, it separated into three political parties:

Zelená strana (ang. Green Party) je bývalá politická strana ze Spojeného království, která prosazovala zelenou politiku. V roce 1990 zanikla rozdělením na Zelenou stranu Anglie a Walesu, Zelenou stranu Severního Irska a Skotskou zelenou stranu.


Etymology.

From racemic acid found in grapes; from Latin "racemus", meaning a bunch of grapes. This acid, when naturally produced in grapes, is only the right-handed version of the molecule, better known as tartaric acid.

Nomenclature.

A racemic mixture is denoted by the prefix (±)- or dl- (for sugars the prefix - may be used), indicating an equal (1:1) mixture of dextro and levo isomers. Also the prefix rac- (or racem-) or the symbols RS and SR (all in "italic" letters) are used.  If the ratio is not 1:1 (or is not known), the prefix (+)/(−), - or d/l- (with a slash) is used instead.  The usage of d and l is strongly discouraged by IUPAC.

Properties.

A racemate is optically inactive, meaning that there is no net rotation of plane-polarized light. Although the two enantiomers rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions, the rotations cancel because they are present in equal amounts.  In contrast to the two pure enantiomers, which have identical physical properties except for the direction of rotation of plane-polarized light, a racemate sometimes has different properties from either of the pure enantiomers. Different melting points are most common, but different solubilities and boiling points are also possible.  Pharmaceuticals may be available as a racemate or as the pure enantiomer, which might have different potencies. Because biological systems have many chiral asymmetries, pure enantiomers frequently have very different biological effects; examples include glucose and methamphetamine.

Crystallization.

There are four ways in which a racemate can be crystallized, depending on the substance; three of which H. W. B. Roozeboom had distinguished by 1899:

Resolution.

The separation of a racemate into its components, the pure enantiomers, is called a chiral resolution. There are various methods, including crystallization, chromatography, and the use of enzymes. The first successful resolution of a racemate was performed by Louis Pasteur, who manually separated the crystals of a conglomerate.

Synthesis.

Without a chiral influence (for example a chiral catalyst, solvent or starting material), a chemical reaction that makes a chiral product will always yield a racemate. That can make the synthesis of a racemate cheaper and easier than making the pure enantiomer, because it does not require special conditions. This fact also leads to the question of how biological homochirality evolved on what is presumed to be a racemic primordial earth.  The reagents of, and the reactions that produce, racemic mixtures are said to be "not stereospecific" or "not stereoselective", for their indecision in a particular stereoisomerism. A frequent scenario is that of a planar species (such as an sp carbon atom or a carbocation intermediate) acting as an electrophile. The nucleophile will have a 50% probability of 'hitting' either of the two sides of the planar grouping, thus producing a racemic mixture:

Racemic pharmaceuticals.

Some drug molecules are chiral, and the enantiomers have different effects on biological entities. They can be sold as one enantiomer or as a racemic mixture. Examples include thalidomide, ibuprofen, cetirizine and salbutamol. Adderall is an unequal mixture of both amphetamine enantiomers. A single amphetamine dose combines the neutral sulfate salts of dextroamphetamine and amphetamine, with the dextro isomer of amphetamine saccharate and D/L-amphetamine aspartate monohydrate. The prescription analgesic tramadol is also a racemate.  In some cases (e.g., ibuprofen and thalidomide), the enantiomers interconvert or racemize "in vivo". This means that preparing a pure enantiomer for medication is largely pointless. However, sometimes samples containing pure enantiomers may be made and sold at a higher cost in cases where the use requires specifically one isomer (e.g., for a stereospecific reagent); compare omeprazole and esomeprazole.  While often only one enantiomer of the drug may be active, there are cases in which the other enantiomer is harmful, like salbutamol and thalidomide. The (R) enantiomer of thalidomide is effective against morning sickness, while the (S) enantiomer is teratogenic, causing birth defects. Since the drug racemizes, the drug cannot be considered safe for use by women of child-bearing age, and its use is tightly controlled when used for treating other illness.  Methamphetamine is available by prescription under the brand name Desoxyn. The active component of Desoxyn is dextromethamphetamine hydrochloride. This is the right-handed isomer of methamphetamine. The left-handed isomer of methamphetamine, levomethamphetamine, is an OTC drug that is less centrally-acting and more peripherally-acting.

Wallach's rule.

Wallach's rule (first proposed by Otto Wallach) states that racemic crystals tend to be denser than their chiral counterparts. This rule has been substantiated by crystallographic database analysis.

In chemistry, a racemic mixture, or racemate (), is one that has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule. The first known racemic mixture was racemic acid, which Louis Pasteur found to be a mixture of the two enantiomeric isomers of tartaric acid. A sample with only a single enantiomer is an "enantiomerically pure" or "enantiopure" compound.

Jako racemická směs (IUPAC nedoporučuje tento termín používat) neboli racemát se označuje chemická látka, která obsahuje jak levotočivý, tak pravotočivý enantiomer chirální sloučeniny. Změna opticky aktivní látky v racemát se označuje jako racemizace, přičemž při stejném zastoupení obou enantiomerů se jejich vliv na stáčení roviny polarizace světla vyruší a výsledkem je směs, která rovinu polarizace procházejícího světla nestáčí. První známou racemickou směsí byla „racemická kyselina“, kterou objevil Louis Pasteur jako směs dvou enantiomerních izomerů kyseliny vinné.


Live at Max's Kansas City (Johnny Thunders album)

Live at Max's Kansas City (album, Johnny Thunders)

History.

The Heartbreakers had broken up in late 1977, after the failure of the "L.A.M.F." album. Co-lead singer/co-lead guitarist Johnny Thunders remained in England and recorded his first solo album, "So Alone", during the summer of 1978. His fellow ex-Heartbreakers Walter Lure and Billy Rath had participated in some of the sessions for the album, and after finishing the album, all three decided to play some gigs in New York "for old time's sake" and some "chump change." With drummer Jerry Nolan reluctant to backtrack his steps after quitting the band over "L.A.M.F."<nowiki>'</nowiki>s poor sound, the Thunders/Lure/Rath triumvirate recruited other local drummers to fill in. The band's first reunion gigs, billed as farewell shows, were at Max's on August 18 and 19 with drummer Lee Crystal. These shows went poorly - the Village Voice described them as a "depressing debacle" and said that Thunders had "given up the ghost." Nevertheless, the band returned to Max's on September 15th (Friday) and September 16th (Saturday) with Ty Styx on drums, playing sets that included most of "L.A.M.F." along with a few songs from "So Alone" and occasional covers. Both sets on the 16th were recorded; fortunately, the performances were up to the band's usual standard.  The band had continued to play occasional shows in New York throughout late 1978 and early 1979, and Jerry Nolan eventually returned to the drum throne. Released on Max's Kansas City Records and in England on Beggars Banquet Records through a logo deal with Max's Kansas City, the album was an immediate success upon its release in July 1979. As Robert Christgau put it, "This captures the boys in all their rowdy, rabble-rousing abandon, and I know that when I feel like hearing them I'll be pulling it off the shelf."  The success of the album was enough to warrant a second live recording done at the same venue. By that time, however, the band were all struggling with their various addictions, with Thunders' own heroin habit escalating. The first two nights of the three-night stand resulted in very little if any usable material, but by the last night, the band were in rare form, with Thunders and Lure delivering their usual witty introductions between songs. After playing five songs, Thunders suddenly left the stage, claiming he had to "tune up" — never to return that evening. Ironically, two songs earlier, the band had played their semi-autobiographical "Too Much Junkie Business".  Several years later, the five songs from the second recordings were remixed, along with the original album, in preparation for a long-awaited reissue of the original "Live at Max's" album with the "new" recordings appended to it. Walter Lure and Billy Rath participated in the mixing. Thunders was unable to participate due to other commitments, but was played the results, and gave them his full endorsement, requesting only that the 1979 recordings were released "just the way it is, including the talk." The reissue would not be released until 1995, a few years after Thunders' death. Both the original album and the later recordings were rereleased in 2015 on vinyl as "Live at Max's Volumes 1 and 2."

Live at Max's Kansas City is a live album by The Heartbreakers. Recorded at a "reunion"/"farewell" show on September 16, 1978 at the famous Max's Kansas City nightclub, the album's performance — loud, sloppy, and laden with bawdy introductions and/or lyric changes to many of the familiar songs from their only studio album, "L.A.M.F." — further cemented the band's live reputation. A classic of early punk rock, the album has been called "probably the best official document of any New York band of the era."

Live at Max's Kansas City je koncertní album americké punk rockové skupiny The Heartbreakers. Album bylo nahrané v roce 1978 při několika koncertech v klubu Max's Kansas City v New York City. Poprvé album vyšlo v roce 1979.


Etymology.

The mosque is also known as the Huajue Mosque (), for its location on 30 Huajue Lane. It is sometimes called the Great Eastern Mosque (), as well, because it sits east of another of Xi’an's oldest mosques, Daxuexi Alley Mosque ().

History.

The mosque was constructed during the Hongwu reign of the Ming dynasty, with further additions during the Qing dynasty. Previous religious complexes (Tanmingsi and Huihui Wanshansi) are known to have stood on the same site, dating to as early as the Tang dynasty.  Islam was introduced to China during the Ming Dynasty in the seventeenth century, but went into full effect during the Qing Dynasty in 1644. When trying to integrate the different groups of people, people would gravitate more towards Chinese tradition due to feelings of superiority. During the 1700s, Muslim freedom of worship was limited, the ritual slaughtering of animals were forbidden, new mosques and the pilgrimage to Mecca was prohibited in the year 1731.  After the Chinese Communist Party won the Chinese Civil War the Mosque was shut down and converted into a steel factory.  In 1956, the mosque was declared a Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the Shaanxi Province Level, and was later promoted to a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level in 1988.  The mosque is still used as a place of worship by Chinese Muslims, primarily Hui people. Just the main hall of the Great Mosque of Xi’an can accommodate 1,000 people yet today a typical service only attracts around 100.

Architecture.

The mosque is a walled complex of five courtyards, with the prayer hall located in the fourth courtyard. Each courtyard contains a central monument, such as a gate, and is lined with greenery as well as subsidiary buildings. The first courtyard, for instance, contains a Qing dynasty monumental gate, while the fourth courtyard houses the Phoenix Pavilion, a hexagonal gazebo. Many walls throughout the complex are filled with inscriptions of birds, plants, objects, and text, both in Chinese and Arabic. Stone steles record repairs to the mosque and feature calligraphic works. In the second courtyard, two steles feature scripts of the calligrapher Mi Fu of the Song dynasty and Dong Qichang, a calligrapher of the Ming dynasty.  The Xingxin Tower is located in the third courtyard, which contains many steles form ancient times. This courtyard is for visitors to attend prayer services. The fourth courtyard has a bigger prayer hall which can seat more than a thousand people.  Overall, the mosque's architecture, like the majority of Hui Chinese mosques, combines a traditional Chinese architectural form with Islamic functionality. For example, whereas traditional Chinese buildings align along a north–south axis in accordance with "feng shui", the mosque is directed west towards Mecca, while still conforming to the axes of the imperial city. Furthermore, calligraphy in both Chinese and Arabic writing appears throughout the complex, sometimes exhibiting a fusion of styles called Sini, referring to Arabic text written in Chinese-influenced script. Some scholars also speculate that the three-story, octagonal pagoda in the third courtyard, called the "Shengxinlou" or “Examining the Heart Tower,” originally served as the mosque's minaret, used for the call to prayer.  The prayer hall is a monumentally sized timber building with a turquoise hip roof, painted "dougong" (wooden brackets), a six-pillared portico, and five doors. It is raised upon a large stone platform lined with balustrades. The expansive prayer hall consists of three conjoined buildings, set one behind the other. Interior ornamentation is centered on the rear "qibla" wall, which has wooden carvings of floral and calligraphic designs.

The Great Mosque of Xi'an () is the largest mosque in China. An active place of worship within Xi'an Muslim Quarter, this courtyard complex is also a popular tourist site. The majority of the mosque was built during the early Ming dynasty. It now houses more than twenty buildings in its five courtyards, and covers.

Velká mešita v Si-anu (: český přepis Si-an čching-čen ta-s’, pchin-jin Xī 'ān qīng zhēn dàsì, znaky 西安清真大寺) je nejstarší mešita ve vnitřní Číně, postavená roku 742 v Si-anu (tehdy Čchang-anu, hlavním městě Číny) příchozími Araby za vlády císaře Süan-cunga.


Life and work.

William Hart was born in Paisley, Scotland and in 1831 emigrated to the United States with his family, settling in Albany, New York. He was apprenticed to a decorative painter in Albany, New York and Troy, New York, and his first artistic experience was in decorating the panels of coaches with landscapes. He also spent time as a portrait painter, likely after 1834. He toured the mid-western States, predominantly Michigan, during the late 1830s seeking portrait commissions, and was unsuccessful. He exhibited his first work at the National Academy of Design in 1848, and returned to Albany permanently in 1849. In late 1849, he was underwritten by a Dr. Ormsby to travel to Europe to study landscape painting. He painted primarily in Scotland until 1852, after which he returned to Albany, New York, and then in 1853, moved to New York City. By the time he returned to America, Hart had shifted his energy to landscape painting. Like most of the major American landscape artists of the time, Hart settled in New York City, where he opened a studio in the Tenth Street Studio Building in 1858. In 1865, he was elected President of the Brooklyn Academy of Design.  Hart was a full member of the National Academy in 1858, and continued to show his paintings there regularly through the mid-1870s. He also exhibited at the Brooklyn Art Association and at major exhibitions around the country. Hart was a member of the American Watercolor Society, and was its president from 1870 to 1873.  His mature landscape style embraced the mannerism of the late Hudson River School by emphasizing light and atmosphere. He became particularly adept at depicting angled sunlight and foreground shadow; the best examples of this are: "Seashore Morning" (1866) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; "After the Storm" (1860s) in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; "The Last Gleam" (1865) in the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia; "Sunset in the Valley" (1870) in a private collection, featured on pp. 82–83 of "All That is Glorious Around Us: Paintings from the Hudson River School" by John Driscoll.  Later works are indicative of Hart's prolific and occasionally formulaic paintings of cows. Cattle were a popular motif in Hudson River School art, and nearly every artist included them in at least some of their landscapes as diminutive symbols of man's harmonious relationship with nature. Some artists, including William and James Hart along with Thomas Bigelow Craig, made a specialty of cow portraits. These paintings, which were very popular with late-19th-century American collectors, typically featured several cattle grazing or watering in the foreground or middle distance with the landscape playing a supporting role as a bucolic backdrop. G.W. Sheldon wrote in 1879 that Hart's later landscapes "may be found in almost all the auction-rooms where pictures are sold, and in almost all the principal private collections in the Atlantic cities."  Hart was also known for his exceptional etchings. In 1883 the Art Department of the New England Manufacturers' and Mechanics' Institute, Boston, held an important exhibition of contemporary American art. Concentrating largely upon American drawings and etchings the exhibition catalogue listed 731 important works of original art. William Hart's iconic etching, "Naponock (Naponoch) Scenery, Ulster County, New York", was first exhibited at this exposition and is listed in the catalogue under number 362. An oil on canvas work from 1883, also of Naponock (Naponoch) scenery, is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art - a direct bequest from Hart's daughter, Jessie Hart White. In 1885, Hart painted "A Quiet Nook" which is now in the Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington D.C.  The Albany Institute of History & Art has in its collection over 400 sketches, water colors, and sketch books which were retained en masse from the artist's studio after his death, by the family of the subsequent donor. Since each piece is signed, dated, and annotated with the location of its subject, many previously unsigned and unattributed paintings are now being associated with the artist. The museum is preparing an exhibition of this material.  Hart died in Mount Vernon, New York, on June 17, 1894. His daughter Jessie Hart White was the mother of E. B. White. He is interred at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York.

William Hart (March 31, 1823June 17, 1894), was a Scottish-born American landscape and cattle painter, and Hudson River School artist. His younger brother, James McDougal Hart, and his younger sister, Julie Hart Beers, were also Hudson River School artists. He studied under Jules-Joseph Lefebvre.

Wiliam Hart (31. března 1823, Paisley, Skotsko – 17. června 1894, New York) – americký krajinář skotského původu, představitel Hudson River School, bratr Jamese Harta.


Background.

The treaty was signed in Washington, D.C. on 4 April 1949 by a committee which was chaired by US diplomat Theodore Achilles. Earlier secret talks had been held at the Pentagon between 22 March and 1 April 1948, of which Achilles said:  The talks lasted about two weeks and by the time they finished, it had been secretly agreed that there would be a treaty, and I had a draft of one in the bottom drawer of my safe. It was never shown to anyone except Jack [Hickerson]. I wish I had kept it, but when I left the Department in 1950, I dutifully left it in the safe and I have never been able to trace it in the archives. It drew heavily on the Rio Treaty, and a bit of the Brussels Treaty, which had not yet been signed, but of which we were being kept heavily supplied with drafts. The eventual North Atlantic Treaty had the general form, and a good bit of the language of my first draft, but with a number of important differences.  According to Achilles, another important author of the treaty was John D. Hickerson:  More than any human being Jack was responsible for the nature, content, and form of the Treaty...It was a one-man Hickerson treaty.  As a fundamental component of NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty is a product of the US' desire to avoid overextension at the end of World War II, and consequently pursue multilateralism in Europe. It is part of the US' collective defense arrangement with Western European powers, following a long and deliberative process. The treaty was created with an armed attack by the Soviet Union against Western Europe in mind, but the mutual self-defense clause was never invoked during the Cold War. Rather, it was invoked for the first and only time in 2001 during Operation Eagle Assist in response to the September 11 attacks.  By signing the North Atlantic Treaty, parties are "determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilization of the peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law."

Members.

Founding members.

The following twelve states signed the treaty and thus became the founding members of NATO. The following leaders signed the agreement as plenipotentiaries of their countries in Washington, D.C. on 4 April 1949:

Later members.

The following 18 states joined the treaty after the 12 founding states:

Article 1.

Article 1 of the treaty states that member parties "settle any international disputes in which they may be involved by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered, and to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations."  Members seek to promote stability and well-being in the North Atlantic area through preservation of peace and security in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.

Article 4.

The treaty includes Article 4, which calls for consultation over military matters when "the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the parties is threatened."  It has been invoked four times by Turkey: in 2003 over the Iraq War, in June 2012 after the shooting down of a Turkish military jet by Syria, in October 2012 after Syrian attacks on Turkey and their counterattacks, and in February 2020 amid increasing tensions as part of the Northwestern Syria offensive.  An Article 4 meeting was invoked by Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland in March 2014 as a response to the extraterritorial Crimean crisis.  Turkey announced plans to convoke under Article 4 an extraordinary meeting on 28 July 2015, ostensibly in response to the 2015 Suruç bombing, which it attributed to ISIS, and other security issues along its southern border. A press statement released by the Alliance declared that "Turkey requested the meeting in view of the seriousness of the situation after the heinous terrorist attacks in recent days, and also to inform allies of the measures it is taking." The US announced through "The New York Times" on 27 July that it had already agreed "in general terms on a plan that envisions American warplanes, Syrian insurgents and Turkish forces working together to sweep Islamic State militants from a 60-mile-long strip of northern Syria along the Turkish border... long-range artillery could be used across the border." Concerns were expressed that the plan would put allied warplanes closer than ever to areas that Syrian aircraft regularly bomb; the plan did not determine the reaction if Syrian warplanes attack allied personnel on the ground in what is Syrian territory. Turkish Prime minister Ahmet Davutoglu said the operations will continue as long as Turkey faces a threat, and discussed the situation with UN secretary-general Ban Ki-moon in a telephone call over the weekend of 26 July. The US said that Turkey "has a right to take action" against the PKK, a Kurdish insurrectionary group that has sought since 1984 autonomy from Turkey. A news report also disclosed prior to the 28 July meeting that Turkey had violated Iraqi airspace in its pursuit of the PKK.

Article 5.

The key section of the treaty is Article 5. Its commitment clause defines the "casus foederis". It commits each member state to consider an armed attack against "one" member state, in Europe or North America, to be an armed attack against "them all".  It has been invoked only once in NATO history: by the United States after the September 11 attacks in 2001. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001, when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty. The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the 9/11 attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour, a naval operation in the Mediterranean which was designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, as well as enhancing the security of shipping in general. Active Endeavour began on 4 October 2001. It is a common misconception that NATO involvement in Afghanistan was a result of Article 5's invocation.  In April 2012, Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdoğan considered invoking Article 5 of the NATO treaty to protect Turkish national security in a dispute over the Syrian Civil War. The alliance responded quickly and a spokesperson said the alliance was "monitoring the situation very closely and will continue to do so" and "takes it very seriously protecting its members." On April 17, Turkey said it would raise the issue quietly in the next NATO ministerial meeting. On April 29, the Syrian foreign ministry wrote that it had received Erdoğan's message, which he had repeated a few days before, loud and clear. On 25 June, the Turkish Deputy Prime Minister said that he intended to raise Article 5 at a specially-convened NATO meeting because of the downing of an "unarmed" Turkish military jet which was "13 sea miles" from Syria over "international waters" on a "solo mission to test domestic radar systems". A Syrian Foreign Ministry spokesman insisted that the plane "flying at an altitude of 100 meters inside the Syrian airspace in a clear breach of Syrian sovereignty" and that the "jet was shot down by anti-aircraft fire," the bullets of which "only have a range of 2.5 kilometers (1.5 miles)" rather than by radar-guided missile. On 5 August, Erdoğan stated, "The tomb of Suleyman Shah [in Syria] and the land surrounding it is our territory. We cannot ignore any unfavorable act against that monument, as it would be an attack on our territory, as well as an attack on NATO land... Everyone knows his duty, and will continue to do what is necessary." NATO Secretary-General Rasmussen later said in advance of the October 2012 ministerial meeting that the alliance was prepared to defend Turkey, and acknowledged that this border dispute concerned the alliance, but underlined the alliance's hesitancy over a possible intervention: "A military intervention can have unpredicted repercussions. Let me be very clear. We have no intention to interfere militarily [at present with Syria]." On 27 March 2014, recordings were released on YouTube of a conversation purportedly involving then Turkish foreign minister Ahmet Davutoğlu, Foreign Ministry Undersecretary Feridun Sinirlioğlu, then National Intelligence Organization (MİT) head Hakan Fidan, and Deputy Chief of General Staff General Yaşar Güler. The recording has been reported as being probably recorded at Davutoğlu's office at the Foreign Ministry on 13 March. Transcripts of the conversation reveal that as well as exploring the options for Turkish forces engaging in false flag operations inside Syria, the meeting involved a discussion about using the threat to the tomb as an excuse for Turkey to intervene militarily inside Syria. Davutoğlu stated that Erdoğan told him that he saw the threat to the tomb as an "opportunity".  Prior to the meeting of Defence Ministers and recently appointed Secretary-General Jens Stoltenberg at Brussels in late June 2015, it was stated by a journalist, who referenced an off-the-record interview with an official source, that "Entirely legal activities, such as running a pro-Moscow TV station, could become a broader assault on a country that would require a NATO response under Article Five of the Treaty... A final strategy is expected in October 2015." In another report, the journalist reported that "as part of the hardened stance, the UK has committed £750,000 of its money to support a counter-propaganda unit at NATO's headquarters in Brussels."

Article 6.

Article 6 states that the treaty covers only member states' territories in Europe and North America, and islands in the North Atlantic north of the Tropic of Cancer, plus French Algeria. It was the opinion in August 1965 of the US State Department, the US Defense Department and the legal division of NATO that an attack on the U.S. state of Hawaii would not trigger the treaty, but an attack on the other 49 would.  On 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan, which includes troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two states leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area.

Changes since signing.

Three official footnotes are have been released to reflect the changes made since the treaty was written:  Regarding Article 6:  Regarding Article 11:

The North Atlantic Treaty, also referred to as the Washington Treaty, is the treaty that forms the legal basis of, and is implemented by, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The treaty was signed in Washington, D.C. on 4 April 1949.

Severoatlantická smlouva je mezinárodní smlouva, jejímž podpisem vznikla Severoatlantická aliance (NATO). 4. dubna 1949 ji ve Washingtonu podepsalo 12 států, které se tak staly zakládajícími státy NATO: Později se přidaly následující státy: Severoatlantickou smlouvu tak podepsalo 29 států.


Biography.

Jacob Bekenstein was born in Mexico City to Joseph and Esther ("née" Vladaslavotsky), Polish Jews who immigrated to Mexico. He moved to the United States during his early life, gaining U.S. citizenship in 1968. He was also a citizen of Israel.  Bekenstein attended the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, now known as the New York University Polytechnic School of Engineering, obtaining both an undergraduate degree and a Master of Science degree in 1969. He went on to receive a Doctor of Philosophy degree from Princeton University, working under the direction of John Archibald Wheeler, in 1972.  Bekenstein had three children with his wife, Bilha. All three children, Yehonadav, Uriya and Rivka Bekenstein, became scientists. In 2018, Yehonadav joined the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the Technion as an assistant professor. Bekenstein was known as a religious man and a believer, being quoted as saying: "I look at the world as a product of God, He set very specific laws and we delight in discovering them through scientific work."

Scientific career.

By 1972, Bekenstein had published three influential papers about the black hole stellar phenomenon, postulating the no-hair theorem and presenting a theory on black hole thermodynamics. In the years to come, Bekenstein continued his exploration of black holes, publishing papers on their entropy and quantum mass.  Bekenstein was a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Texas at Austin from 1972 to 1974. He then immigrated to Israel to lecture and teach at Ben-Gurion University in Beersheba. In 1978, he became a full professor and in 1983, head of the astrophysics department.  In 1990, he became a professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and was appointed head of its theoretical physics department three years later. He was elected to the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities in 1997. He was a visiting scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study in 2009 and 2010.  In addition to lectures and residencies around the world, Bekenstein continued to serve as Polak professor of theoretical physics at the Hebrew University until his death at the age of 68, in Helsinki, Finland. He died unexpectedly on August 16, 2015, just months after receiving the American Physical Society's Einstein Prize "for his ground-breaking work on black hole entropy, which launched the field of black hole thermodynamics and transformed the long effort to unify quantum mechanics and gravitation".

Contributions to physics.

In 1972, Bekenstein was the first to suggest that black holes should have a well-defined entropy. He wrote that a black hole's entropy was proportional to the area of its (the black hole's) event horizon. Bekenstein also formulated the generalized second law of thermodynamics, black hole thermodynamics, for systems including black holes. Both contributions were affirmed when Stephen Hawking (and, independently, Zeldovich and others) proposed the existence of Hawking radiation two years later. Hawking had initially opposed Bekenstein's idea on the grounds that a black hole could not radiate energy and therefore could not have entropy. However, in 1974, Hawking performed a lengthy calculation that convinced him that particles can indeed be emitted from black holes. Today this is known as Hawking radiation. Bekenstein's doctoral adviser, John Archibald Wheeler, also worked with him to develop the no-hair theorem, a reference to Wheeler's saying that "black holes have no hair," in the early 1970s. Bekenstein's suggestion was proven unstable, but it was influential in the development of the field.  Based on his black-hole thermodynamics work, Bekenstein also demonstrated the Bekenstein bound: there is a maximum to the amount of information that can potentially be stored in a given finite region of space which has a finite amount of energy (which is similar to the holographic principle).  In 1982, Bekenstein developed a rigorous framework to generalize the laws of electromagnetism to handle inconstant physical constants. His framework replaces the fine-structure constant by a scalar field. However, this framework for changing constants did not incorporate gravity.  In 2004, Bekenstein boosted Mordehai Milgrom's theory of Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) by developing a relativistic version. It is known as TeVeS for Tensor/Vector/Scalar and it introduces three different fields in space time to replace the one gravitational field.

Jacob David Bekenstein (; May 1, 1947 – August 16, 2015) was a Mexican-born Israeli-American theoretical physicist who made fundamental contributions to the foundation of black hole thermodynamics and to other aspects of the connections between information and gravitation.

Ja'akov David Bekenstein (: יעקב בקנשטיין, : "Jacob Bekenstein"; 1. května 1947 – 16. srpna 2015) byl izraelský teoretický fyzik, který přispěl k základům termodynamiky černých děr a ostatním aspektům spojitostí mezi informací a gravitací.