Name and origin.

The Radziwiłł family is a directly descended branch of the extinct Lithuanian noble Astikai family line. Its first notable member, Kristinas Astikas (born 1363), a close associate of the Lithuanian ruler Vytautas, became Castellan of Vilnius. The patronym Radvila arose following its use by his son Radvila Astikas and grandson Mikalojus Radvila. A legendary version of the patronym's etymology associates it with a child raised by wolves ("rado vilko"). The name has been primarily written in, and recognized by, the polonized version and spelling for several centuries.  The family descends from Lithuanian "bajorai-ducal courtiers" who advanced considerably in the 15th century politics of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Along with possessions of land near Kernavė, the family's traced place of origin, the Radziwiłł family also inherited the Trąby coat of arms.  Three of Mikalojus' sons, Mikołaj, Jan, and Jerzy, went on to become the progenitors of the three known Radziwiłł family lines.  The Radziwiłł family divided by branch:  The Goniądz-Meteliai line became extinct by the next generation as Mikołaj's descendants consisted of one male heir, Mikołaj III, who entered the priesthood and became the Bishop of Samogitia, thus bearing no known offspring to extend the line.  The Biržai-Dubingiai line was moderately more successful and produced some very notable state officials and politicians, but also became extinct after the death of Ludwika Karolina Radziwiłł in 1695. The Nesvizh-Kletsk-Olyka line was the most successful and was further divided into smaller family lines in order to maintain clarity and specificity of descent and the passing of titles. Since the 18th century, all Radziwiłł family members have been descendants of this line. Three sons of Mikołaj "the Black", Mikołaj Krzysztof "Sierotka", Albrycht, and Stanisław "the Pious", are said to be the progenitors of the three smaller branches. The branches are as follows:  Possibly both the Olyka and older Kletsk lines became extinct, the former in 1656 and the latter in 1690. The direct descendant of the Nesvizh line, Dominik Hieronim's son, Aleksander Dominik, was born before the marriage of his parents and formed the so-called Galician branch, which became extinct in 1938.  The younger Kletsk line descends from Michał Hieronim, continued through his son Ludwik Mikolaj. The descendants of his other son, Antoni Henryk, formed the beginning of the so-called Ordynant branch. Other than the Ordynant branch, from the younger Kletsk line also descends the lesser titled branches of Szydłowiec and Połoneczka, as well as Dziatłava, Berdychiv, and Żyrmunów. The younger Kletsk line has continued into the present day.

Coat of arms and motto.

Kristinas Astikas, ancestor of the Radziwiłł family, was among these who were granted and adopted the emblem known as "Trąby" after the Union of Horodło in 1413. This emblem later became the hereditary coat of arms of the Radziwiłłs.  In 1518, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I created Mikalojus Radvila's son, Mikołaj, "Reichsfürst" ("Imperial Prince") of Goniądz and Meteliai after the Jagiellonian-Habsburg congress at Vienna. Mikołaj Radziwiłł also received an expanded, more solemn coat of arms: as princes of the Holy Roman Empire, the Radziwiłłs bore a black eagle, on whose breast is a shield with "Trąby" and other emblems. The family motto is "God advises us" (Polish: "Bóg nam radzi", Belarusian: "Бог нам раіць", "Boh nam rajić").  In 1547, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, created Mikołaj "the Black" and his brother, Jan, hereditary "Reichsfürsten" of Nesvizh and Olyka; their cousin Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł was created "Reichsfürst" of Biržai and Dubingiai. The same year King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland married Barbara Radziwiłł and confirmed these titles in 1549. So high a title was rare among the "szlachta" (the Polish nobility): just five Polish families, including the Radziwiłłs, received the title of imperial prince from the Holy Roman emperor.

Religion.

The Radziwiłł family also divided on religious grounds. Following the Protestant and Polish Reformation, two branches converted to Calvinism. One branch, the Nesvizh–Kletsk-Olyka line, remained as Calvinists for two generations until the children of Mikołaj "the Black" converted to Catholicism before the end of the century. The Biržai-Dubingiai line remained in the Protestant faith until the extinction of their line one century later.  Both Mikołaj "the Black" and Mikołaj "the Red" were zealous promoters and active participants of the Protestant religion within the GDL. Mikołaj "the Black" funded the printing of a second version, and first completed, Polish translation of a Protestant bible, titled the "Radziwiłł Bible" (also known as ""Biblia Brzeska""), which was published in the town of Brest in 1564. His death in 1565 was seen as a severe loss to the Protestant cause in Lithuania. However, Mikołaj "the Red" continued his cousin's work by founding and endowing land to several churches and schools.

Politics.

Several prominent family members have been involved in domestic and foreign political arenas. They took an active part in the political life of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and its importance is manifested by family relations with such famous nobility dynasties in Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, the Great Duchy of Lithuania, Samogitia, and Rus like Zaslawski, Rohatinski, Lukomski, and Olshanski-Dobrowicki. The Radziwiłł family joined the rest of the nobility as the elite of the state after the signing the Union of Krewo in 1385.  The significance of the Radziwiłł family is proved by the marriage of Anna to Konrad III Rudy, duke of Masovia, who owned the largest Polish principality. In 1547 Barbara Radziwiłł was married to Sigismund II Augustus, thus becoming the Queen of Poland and setting also in motion a closer relationship to the Papal Curia. Later the Radziwiłłs established family relations not only with the most important families of the Polish, Belarusian and Lithuanian magnate families like Sanguszko, Sapieha or Chodkiewicz, but also with members of royal families like Wiśniowiecki, Sobieski, and Leszczyński.  The political position of the Radziwiłłs enhanced in the 16th century. In 1515, Mikołaj, as a member of a delegation, headed by King Sigismund I the Old took part in the First Congress of Vienna in Pressburg and Vienna where Emperor Maximilian I met kings of Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. Additionally, Mikolaj "the Black" was the deputy to the Grand Prince when the latter was abroad. From that time on, the Radziwiłłs were also granted the privilege of keeping legal acts and other state documents in Nesvizh.  In 1583 bishop Jerzy Radziwiłł was elevated to the cardinalate by Pope Gregory XIII, established a closer relationship with the influential noble banking families Altoviti and Strozzi. Later prince Aleksander Ludwik Radziwiłł married Lucrezia Maria Strozzi, great-granddaughter of Bindo Altoviti and Filippo Strozzi.  During this time until the first half of the 17th century, the Radziwiłłs were the most influential and richest family among the magnate dynasties of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This status enabled them, along with very few other families, to have their own army. In 1528, the Radziwiłłs owned 18,240 houses thus being able to have cavalry of 760 horsemen. In 1567, 28,170 houses provided for an expanded 939 horsemen and 1586 infantrymen. In the 18th century, the army of Hieronim Florian, for instance, had 6,000 men, and was equal to the entire armed forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.  Members of the Radziwiłł family held important state posts in the "Rzeczpospolita" and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 8 chancellors, 7 "hetmans", 15 "castellans", 19 "marszałeks", and 19 "voivodes", almost exclusively representing the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, rather than the Crown, belonged to the dynasty. Radziwiłłs were members of the parliament and of the Tribunal of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They also held high military posts and took part in the Livonian War, Russo-Polish War of 1647–1667, Northern Wars, participated in the Napoleonic campaign, and the Kościuszko Uprising. The Radziwiłłs also gained international importance manifested in family relations with German princely dynasties, first established by Albrecht Radziwiłł from Olyka who married Anna, princess of Courland. Such conjugal unions continued in 17th and 18th centuries.  Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł (1734–1790) of the Nieśwież line was the wealthiest magnate in Poland, in the second half of the 18th century, and one of the richest men in Europe. As a patriot he fought for a free nation, that soon after his death would be partitioned between Austria, Prussia and the Russian Empire. During the Great Sejm from 1788 until his death in 1790 he was a leading opponent of reform and of King Stanisław II Augustus and his allies, the members of the so-called "Familia" political party headed by the Czartoryski family.  After the three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century, towns and estates owned by the Radziwiłłs became parts of territories which belonged to Russia, Prussia and Austria. However, all three states recognized the title of princes of the Radziwiłł dynasty and the rights of its members at the family properties. Many members of the Radziwiłł family held high civil and military posts. They had family ties with the Dukes of Castellane, the Clary-Aldringen and Sayn-Wittgenstein princes and most importantly with Frederick William II, King of Prussia and his son Frederick William III. Prince Antoni Radziwiłł of the Kletsk line married Princess Louise of Prussia, a daughter of Prince Augustus Ferdinand of Prussia and hence a first cousin of King Frederick William II. This relation helped Antoni to release the vast properties Nieśwież and Olyka from Russian seizure in 1815, after his cousin Dominik of the Nieśwież line had fought and died on Napoleons' side in the Polish Legion, and Alexander I of Russia had therefore confiscated his whole property. After the Congress of Vienna the inheritance was partially given to Antoni.  The couple were prominent patrons of the arts in Berlin during the early 19th century. At their Berlin residence, the Radziwiłł Palace, they hosted well-known personalities, artists and academics, playing a major role in promoting Prussian-Polish relationship in Berlin. These included Polish politicians in the Prussian Parliament or such famous people as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Frédéric Chopin, Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt, Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy and Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Indeed, the “Salons” held by the Radziwiłłs were so popular that they became a symbol of ”Polish Berlin“. Although most of their largest estates were located in Russian Poland, the close relation with the Royal House of Prussia caused the family to preferably live at the Berlin court, using their influence, than in Warsaw or St. Petersburg, given their experience with the Czar's seizure of most of the family's property in 1813. Michał Gedeon Radziwiłł was the commander-in-chief of the November Uprising of 1830-31.  Elisa Radziwill, a daughter of Antoni and Louise, became the first love of the later Prussian King and German Emperor Wilhelm I. Her brothers Wilhelm (1797-1870) and Bogusław (1809-1873) became Prussian generals and politicians, the latter being an influential opponent of Prussian minister-president (and, from 1871, German chancellor) Otto von Bismarck in his anti-Catholic politics, later called the Kulturkampf. Bogusław's son Ferdynand (1834-1926) also became an important leader of the Polish minority and opponent of the Germanization and Kulturkampf policies. After Poland regained independence in 1918, he became a Polish citizen and a member of the Polish parliament (Sejm), and so did his son Janusz (1880–1967). Their cousin Stanislaw Radziwiłł was the "aide-de-camp" to the Commander-in-chief Józef Piłsudski. In German-occupied Poland, Janusz tried to use his prestige to improve Nazi treatment of the Poles - unlike his brother Michał who sided with the Nazis, at least at the beginning of the occupation. After the Second World War in 1945, Janusz was arrested by NKVD and his wife would die in a communist prison in 1947. Janusz died in his two-room apartment in Warsaw, with all of his possessions confiscated and nationalized by the communist government.  In 1959, Janusz's third son prince Stanisław Albrecht Radziwiłł married Caroline Bouvier, the younger sister of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy.

Art patronage.

Prince Antoni Radziwiłł was a music and art aficionado and he transformed his properties in Berlin to serve as artistic salons, where aristocrats mingled among artists, painters and composers. Radziwiłł’s Berlin properties hosted frequent amateur theatre play productions.  Another property Antoni Radziwiłł owned in Prussian-Poland was Antonin, a hunting lodge he had built between 1822-24 by the German architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, named after him. Later in his life, Antoni Radziwiłł moved permanently to Antonin with his wife, Louise of Prussia, and two daughters Wanda and Eliza. Antoni Radziwiłł was a well-connected composer among European musical circles and with time transformed the Antonin property into a popular musical salon among greatest talents of the area such as Niccolò Paganini, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Frédéric Chopin and Ludwig van Beethoven. Chopin gave music lessons to Antoni Radziwiłł’s daughter Wanda during his stays at the property. During his stays with Radziłłiw family, Chopin also had composed the Polonaise op.3 and Piano Trio Op. 8 and dedicated the latter to Radziwiłł. Antoni Radziwiłł also supported some of the artists financially, among them Fryderyk Chopin. Chopin’s visits to Antonin property were documented by Henryk Siemiradzki in a photogravure titled "Chopin u księcia Radziwiłła" (eng: Chopin’s visit to Prince Radziwill ).

Wealth.

The family acquired and maintained great wealth and influence from the 15th-16th century until the beginning of the Second World War in 1939. The Radziwiłł family reached the heights of its importance and power during the Polish Golden Age. However, due to the activities of Janusz Radziwiłł during The Deluge, a series of mid-17th-century campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the family lost much of its wealth and power.  Regarding their wealth, the Radziwiłłs were not inferior to a royal family. In total, the Radziwiłł family has, over the centuries, had in its possession 23 palaces, 426 large and small towns, 2032 estates, and 10,053 villages. In present-day Belarus they possessed towns and boroughs like Haranyony, Davyd-Haradok, Kletsk, Dzyarzhynsk, Kopys, Dakhva, Mir, Nesvizh, Charnauchitsy, and Shchuchyn; in present-day Ukraine: Olyka with dozens of villages in the Wolyn province (Polish: wojewodztwo); in present-day Poland: Szydłowiec with villages in the Sandomierz province and Nieborów; and in present-day Lithuania: Biržai, Dubingiai, Kėdainiai, and others. The Goniądz-Meteliai line possessed, during the 15th – 16th centuries, estates like Goniądz, Zaigrad and Podlaskie Lowlands in Poland. In 1612 the Principality of Slutsk with some thirty-two villages passed over to the Radziwiłłs, after Janusz Radziwiłł had married the heiress Zofia Olelkowicz Słucka. Their possessions were expanded also with Brest, Ashmyany, Krychau, Lida, Mazyr and other administrative territories (starostwos). The Radziwiłłs were granted a life-time privilege of being governors (starostas) of those territories. However, during Janusz Radziwiłł's lifetime, the interests between his family and the Polish Crown began to drift apart, as the Radziwiłłs sought to increase their wealth and power, safeguard Protestantism and support ethnically Lithuanian culture, which caused him to join the opposition against King Sigismund III Vasa in 1606.  In 1586, the sons of Mikolaj "the Black" arranged for their fortunes to follow an "ordynacja" (fee tail), which was to have individual properties inherited by their male descendants; see "Radziwiłł Family Fee Tail". The ordynats of Nesvizh, Kletsk, and Olyka were thus formed. In the 19th century the Davyd-Haradok and Przygodzice ordynats were also established. Other possessions could be inherited by female heirs or alienated. Depending on the importance and size of owned lands, they were called either principalities (Nesvizh, Olyka, Biržai, Dubingiai, Kapyl, Slutsk, Staryi Chortoryisk, Stary Zbaraz, Goniądz and Medele), counties (Mir, Biała Podlaska, Dzyarzhynsk, Kopys, Zabłudów, Kėdainiai, Zolkow, Pomorzani, Belykamen, Kražiai), or estates (Nevel, Krasnoye, Sebezh, Musninkai, Sereya, Horodok, Sobolew, Slovatichi, Ruchai, Kolki, Vyazyn, Rafałówka, Zhmigrod, Beloozero, Yampol, Shumsk, Sverzhen, Drisvyaty, Naliboki). The family ties to the banking dynasties Altoviti and Strozzi played an important role to secure titles and wealth with the Roman Curia.  After the extinction of the Olyka and older Kletsk lines, their fortunes were passed to those of the Nesvizh line. With the death of the heirless Dominik Hieronim in 1813, the Nesvizh line lost its right to the ordynat. Dominik Heronim's son, Aleksander Dominik, was born before the marriage of his parents and was thus denied the title and inheritance of his forefathers. He and his descendants had their princely title confirmed by the Austrian Empire. Thus, the ordynat of Nesvizh and Olyka fell into the hands of the younger Kletsk line. This however cost the new owner, Antoni Radziwiłł, some diplomatic effort at the Congress of Vienna, as his cousin Dominik had fought in the Polish Legion on Napoleons' side, and Alexander I of Russia had therefore confiscated his whole property. Only because of Prussia's intervention (since Antoni was married to a Prussian princess), he was able to keep the family trust properties, mainly Nesvizh Castle and Olyka Castle with vast lands, while Mir Castle and 18.000 km2 of land passed to Dominik's only legitimate child, Stephania, who had to marry a Russian subject, according to the Czar's order, whom she found in Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg.  In this way, all three Radziwiłł ordynats ended up in the possession of one line, represented by the sons of Michal Hieronim, Ludwik Mikolaj of Kletsk and Antoni Henryk of Nesvizh and Olyka. The descendants of Antoni Henryk formed the beginning of the so-called Ordynant branch, out of the younger Kletsk line, in whose possession, other than the three older ordynats of Nesvizh, Kletsk, and Olyka, they also received the two additional titles of Przygodzice and Davyd-Haradok.  The Radziwiłł family owned 23 castles and palaces. The most fortified of them were in Nesvizh, Olyka, Biržai, Biała, Slutsk, Zolkow, Pomorzany and Zolochiv. The Radziwiłłs possessed palaces in most important cities of the Rzeczpospolita, including those where the Sejm had its sessions (Warsaw, Hrodna), or the Tribunal held its meetings (Vilnius, Lublin, Navahrudak), in province centres where the Radziwiłłs had their estates (Minsk and Lviv), and in the cities where the Radziwiłłs were economically active (Gdańsk, Wrocław). In 19th and 20th centuries the Radziwiłłs also owned property in European capitals like Vienna, Dresden, Berlin and Paris. Residences that emerged in the centres of the possessions of the Radziwiłłs reflected the importance of a town in the history of the family. One of this type of residences was Nesvizh in present-day Belarus which by the 18th century had developed into a most important princely town.

Residences.

Over the generations the family members have resided in some notable historic homes. The Radziwiłł family owned a total of 23 palaces. Some of the more prominent of these are:

Family members.

The Radziwiłł family members include: Since 1515 both Mikolajs and the Radziwiłł family were elevated to Reichsfürsten of the Holy Roman Empire.

The Radziwiłł family (; ; ; ) was a powerful magnate family originating from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.

Šlechtický rod Radziwiłłů (polsky "Radziwiłłowie", litevsky "Radvila") je nejmocnější polsko-litevský šlechtický rod (s vlastním erbem s vyobrazením různých typů trub). V Litvě je první zmínka v listině Polsko-litevské unie z roku 1401.


Characterizations.

For noncommutative rings, it is necessary to distinguish between three very similar concepts:  For commutative rings, all three concepts coincide, but in general they are different. There are rings that are left-Noetherian and not right-Noetherian, and vice versa.  There are other, equivalent, definitions for a ring "R" to be left-Noetherian:  Similar results hold for right-Noetherian rings.  The following condition is also an equivalent condition for a ring "R" to be left-Noetherian and it is Hilbert's original formulation:  For a commutative ring to be Noetherian it suffices that every prime ideal of the ring is finitely generated.

Examples.

Rings that are not Noetherian tend to be (in some sense) very large. Here are some examples of non-Noetherian rings:  However, a non-Noetherian ring can be a subring of a Noetherian ring. Since any integral domain is a subring of a field, any integral domain that is not Noetherian provides an example. To give a less trivial example,  Indeed, there are rings that are right Noetherian, but not left Noetherian, so that one must be careful in measuring the "size" of a ring this way. For example, if "L" is a subgroup of Q isomorphic to Z, let "R" be the ring of homomorphisms "f" from Q to itself satisfying "f"("L") ⊂ "L". Choosing a basis, we can describe the same ring "R" as This ring is right Noetherian, but not left Noetherian; the subset "I"⊂"R" consisting of elements with "a"=0 and "γ"=0 is a left ideal that is not finitely generated as a left "R"-module.  If "R" is a commutative subring of a left Noetherian ring "S", and "S" is finitely generated as a left "R"-module, then "R" is Noetherian. (In the special case when "S" is commutative, this is known as Eakin's theorem.) However this is not true if "R" is not commutative: the ring "R" of the previous paragraph is a subring of the left Noetherian ring "S" = Hom(Q,Q), and "S" is finitely generated as a left "R"-module, but "R" is not left Noetherian.  A unique factorization domain is not necessarily a Noetherian ring. It does satisfy a weaker condition: the ascending chain condition on principal ideals. A ring of polynomials in infinitely-many variables is an example of a non-Noetherian unique factorization domain.  A valuation ring is not Noetherian unless it is a principal ideal domain. It gives an example of a ring that arises naturally in algebraic geometry but is not Noetherian.

Key theorems.

Many important theorems in ring theory (especially the theory of commutative rings) rely on the assumptions that the rings are Noetherian.

Implication on injective modules.

Given a ring, there is a close connection between the behaviors of injective modules over the ring and whether the ring is a Noetherian ring or not. Namely, given a ring "R", the following are equivalent: The endomorphism ring of an indecomposable injective module is local and thus Azumaya's theorem says that, over a left Noetherian ring, each indecomposable decomposition of an injective module is equivalent to one another (a variant of the Krull–Schmidt theorem).

In mathematics, more specifically in the area of abstract algebra known as ring theory, a Noetherian ring is a ring that satisfies the ascending chain condition on left and right ideals; that is, given an increasing sequence of left (or right) ideals:

Noetherovský okruh je pojem z algebry, z teorie okruhů, pojmenovaný po Emmy Noetherové. Jedná se o takový okruh, který neobsahuje shora neomezený řetězec do sebe vnořených ideálů, tedy pro každý řetězec ideálů


Etymology.

Historians do not agree on the origins of the name of the city. Some suggest it is derived from the Arabic verb () which means "a purification of guilt".

History.

Ibra predates the Prophet Muhammed's calling. The city contains many castles and old mosques.  Ibra has become a more modern city since 1970 under the reign of Sultan Qaboos. Improvements include connections to Muscat via a two-lane highway, which has increased tourism. Communications have been improved to include broadband access, and there is now a substantial hospital. Ibra provides three choices of higher education: Ibra College of Technology, Ibra Nursing Institute, and beginning in the fall of 2010, A’Sharqiyah University. There are now two hotels in Ibra, and tourism is promoted in the area.

Geography and climate.

Ibra has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification: "BWh"). Mountains surround Ibra on every side, and there is some outstanding mountain scenery close by. From November to March, the climate is relatively cool, with temperatures dropping as low as in December. In the summer, the climate is hot and dry, with temperatures reaching in July. Precipitation is very low and occurs mostly in the winter, when masses of low pressure air cause rain to fall.

Ibra College of Technology.

Ibra College of Technology (ICT) is one of the seven Colleges of Technology under the Ministry of Manpower (MoMP). The college is fully funded by the government to cater to the higher educational needs of Omani nationals as full-time students. It has been established to provide technological education for post secondary students leading to Certificate, Diploma and Higher Diploma in the fields of Business, Information Technology, and Engineering. To date, ICT plays a leading role in the educational, cultural and social development of the region.

Attractions.

The main tourist attractions in the city are its many beautiful watchtowers, the traditional Souq, and Falaj AlAfrit. The design of the souq complements the fort in every way. The Bait al Kabir was built in 1650 during the Ya'riba Dynasty. It once stood as a centre of Government in Ibra.

Ibra Souq.

The city, famous for its handicrafts and agricultural products, has an expansive souq showcasing an array of products. It is one of the most important in the country besides Muttrah. The souq bustles with vendors selling everything from meat, fish, fruits and vegetables to spices, dates, gold and silverware. Ibra is renowned for its silver jewelry which is considered to be the best in the country. Halwa (a traditional Omani dessert) is also sold in the souq. Halwa is a sticky dessert made from sugar and spices and flavoured with sesame seeds or almonds. Ibra souq is the only souq in the country to have a whole day just for women.

Ibra () is the second largest city in the Ash Sharqiyah Region of Oman. It is located about 170 km (2 hours) from Muscat and has a population estimated at 55,000 people.

Ibra (: ) je město v Ománu, správní středisko guvernorátu Severní aš-Šarkíja. Od hlavního města, Maskatu, je vzdálen 140 km. Počet obyvatel byl při sčítání lidu v roce 2003 24 619 lidí, v současnosti je odhadován na 35 000. Ibra je jedním z nejstarších ománských měst, v jisté době dokonce byla centrem obchodu, náboženství, vzdělání a umění. Město nabylo na významu díky své poloze.


Geography.

Izki lies at the end of a route from Muscat to Nizwa. The route goes through Sama'il Valley, which divides Al Hajar Mountains into the Eastern and Western Hajar subranges.

History.

Legendarily, Izki is Oman's oldest city. Popularly revered 'oldest cities' are claimed the world over, the historicity of which usually rests on local pride. Its ancient "aflaj" (water canals) probably nourished such beliefs. The twin walled towns, Izki/al-Yemen and al-Nizar, differ from each other in size and appearance. The former presently has half of the surface area as the latter. In 1908 the estimated number of houses in al-Nizar at 450, and in al-Yemen at 350, which contradicts this. Al-Nizar is still inhabited; al-Yemen has been deserted since prior to 1980, but the owners still care for their own houses. The present appearance, especially the regular streets, results from the 18th century destruction and rebuilding of al-Yemen.  Early Iron Age Izki appears to find mention in cuneiform texts. According to Neoassyrian sources, in 640 BCE, "Pade, king of Qade, who lives in Izke...sent envoys to cultivate good relations [and a state contract] burdened with gifts. They travelled six months, came to me [Aššurbanipal], asked of my condition and beseeched my rule." Some believe that Izki was mentioned in Neoassyrian cuneiform texts from Nineveh.  Serious archaeological fieldwork began in Izki with J. Schreiber (2007). He strove to contextualise this centre amongst other large oases in Oman by means of archaeological survey. In order to reach this goal, he studied the different contexts of key sites in Central Oman first hand as a pottery specialist. The poor preservation of such continuously occupied sites scared off most archaeologists. In his survey J. Schreiber tallied in and immediately around the old twin towns 1045 sites (2007: 124) ranging from the Hafit to Islamic periods.  In 2011 excavation and survey partly confirmed Schreiber's results. The town contains the remains of the entire pre-Islamic period. Numerous were the finds of the Early Iron Age and Late Iron Age. Particularly eroded and disturbed was al-Nizar. Excavation of the highest part of Al-Yemen revealed an older mosque, presumably that destroyed during the civil war (886-970 AD). On the other side of the Wadi Khalfayn lies a large cemetery which contains pottery sherds of the Samad Late Iron Age, but of other periods as well. The graves are mostly of this period.  URL: http://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/7548/

Izki () is a town in the region Ad Dakhiliyah, northeastern Oman. It is located at c. altitude, and has a population of 35,173 (2003 census).

Izki (: "" ) je město a zároveň vilájet v ománském regionu ad-Dáchílija vzdálené 130 kilometry od Maskatského guvernorátu. Leží pod svahy horského masívu al-Hadžar, který tvoří jeho západní hranici. Vilájet zahrnuje 26 vesnic, k těm známějším patří Habl al-Hadíd, Karút, Mukazá, Umtaj a Zakét. Při sčítání lidu v roce 2003 obývalo město a přilehlé okolí 35 387 lidí.


History.

Royal Academy of Åbo 1640–1828.

The first predecessor of the university, The Cathedral School of Åbo, was presumably founded in 1276 for education of boys to become servants of the Church. As the university was founded in 1640 by Queen Christina of Sweden (1626–1689) in Turku (Sw. Åbo), as the Åbo Kungliga Akademi (), the senior part of the school formed the core of the new university, while the junior year courses formed a grammar school. It was the third university founded in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University and the Academia Gustaviana in Dorpat (predecessor to the University of Tartu in Estonia).

Imperial Alexander University in Finland 1828–1919.

The second period of the university's history covers the period when Finland was a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire, from 1809 to 1917. As Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, Emperor Alexander I expanded the university and allocated substantial funds to it. Following the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, higher education within the country was moved to Helsinki, the new administrative heart of the Grand Duchy, in 1828, and renamed the "Imperial Alexander University in Finland" in honour of the late benefactor of the university. In the capital the primary task of the university was to educate the Grand Duchy’s civil servants.  The university became a community subscribing to the new Humboldtian ideals of science and culture, studying humanity and its living environment by means of scientific methods. The new statutes of the university enacted in 1828 defined the task of the university as promoting the development of "the Sciences and Humanities within Finland and, furthermore, educating the youth for the service of the Emperor and the Fatherland".  The Alexander University was a centre of national life that promoted the birth of an independent Finnish State and the development of Finnish identity. The great men of 19th century Finland, Johan Vilhelm Snellman, Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Elias Lönnrot and Zachris Topelius, were all involved in the activities of the university. The university became a major center of Finnish cultural, political, and legal life in 19th century Finland, and became a remarkable "primum mobile" of the nationalist and liberal cultural movements, political parties, and student organisations.  In the 19th century university research changed from being collection-centred to being experimental, empirical, and analytical. The more scientific approach of the university led to specialisation and created new disciplines. As the scientific disciplines developed, Finland received ever more scholarly knowledge and highly educated people, some of whom entered rapidly evolving industry or the government.

University of Helsinki 1919–present.

The third period of the university's history began with the creation of the independent Republic of Finland in 1917, and with the renaming of the university as the "University of Helsinki". Once Finland gained her independence in 1917 the university was given a crucial role in building the nation state and, after World War II, the welfare state. Members of the academic community promoted the international relations of the new state and the development of its economic life. Furthermore, they were actively involved in national politics and the struggle for equality.  In the interwar period the university was the scene of a conflict between those who wanted to advance the usage of Finnish language in the university, to the detriment of Swedish and those who opposed such move. Geographer Väinö Tanner was one of the most vocal defenders of Swedish language usage. Swedish People's Party of Finland initiated a campaign collecting 153 914 signatures in defense of the Swedish language that were handed to the parliament and government in October 1934. On an international front academics from Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland sent letters to the diplomatic representations of Finland in their respective countries warning about a weakening of the Nordic unity that would result from diminishing the role of Swedish in the University of Helsinki.  In the 20th century, scholarly research at the University of Helsinki reached the level of the European elite in many disciplines. This was manifested, among other things, by international recognitions granted to its professors, such as the Fields Medal received by the mathematician Lars Ahlfors (1936), the Nobel Prize in Chemistry granted to Professor A.I. Virtanen (1945) and the Nobel Prize in Medicine shared by Professor Ragnar Granit (1967). In the Continuation War the University was heavily damaged by bombs during a soviet air raid on 27 February 1944.  After World War II, University research focused on improving Finnish living conditions and supporting major changes in the structure of society and business. The university also contributed to the breakthrough of modern technology.  The progress of scientific development created many new disciplines and faculties at the University of Helsinki. At present the university comprises 11 faculties, 500 professors and almost 40,000 students. The university has established as its goal to further its position as one of Europe’s top multidisciplinary research universities.  In March 2014, two people were arrested and in June 2014 sentenced to prison for three years for plotting a mass murder at the university.

Organization.

Faculties.

The university is divided into eleven faculties. They are listed below in the official order used by the university, reflecting both the history of the university and the hierarchy of disciplines at the time when the university was established:  The university also has several independent institutes, such as research centres and libraries, the most notable of which are perhaps the National Library of Finland and Helsinki University Library. Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies is another independent institute within the University of Helsinki, an Institute for Advanced Study, which is modeled upon the Institute for Advanced Studies at Princeton. Previous directors include Raimo Väyrynen (2002–2004) and Juha Sihvola (2004–2009).

Academics.

University rankings.

University of Helsinki is ranked at 56th in the world by the 2016 Academic Ranking of World Universities published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University. According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2016, the University of Helsinki is ranked at 76th overall in the world. In 2014 THE–QS World University Rankings list, the University of Helsinki was ranked 67th.

International Master’s Degree Programmes.

The University of Helsinki offers a wide range of master’s degree programmes, taught entirely in English. The scope of the programmes is 120 ECTS credits, completed with two years of full-time study. Some programmes are organised by the University of Helsinki along with other Finnish and foreign universities. All programmes comply with the national legislation governing university education and are, therefore, recognised globally.

Research.

Research institutes within the university include the following:

Campuses.

The university is located on four main campuses. Originally, the entire university was located in the very centre of Helsinki, but due to the rapid growth of the university since the 1930s, premises have been built and acquired in other areas.

City Centre Campus.

The historical City Centre Campus has been the hub of activity ever since the university moved from Turku to Helsinki in the early 19th century. The campus has a central location and reflects the architectural style of this part of the city. The university buildings in the city center house the Faculties of Theology, Law, Arts, Behavioural Sciences and Social Sciences plus administrative functions. Most of the buildings on the campus have a major architectural significance ranging from the dominating Neo-Classical, through the Jugendstil, to 20th century Modernism.  The City Centre Campus, extending around the historical centre of Helsinki, Senate Square, and Kruununhaka city district, is the administrative heart of the University of Helsinki and has the largest concentration of faculties in Helsinki.  After the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, Emperor Nicholas I ordered the Royal Academy of Turku be moved to the new capital city of the Grand Duchy of Finland, Helsinki, where the Imperial Alexander University in Finland began to operate the next year. Helsinki was to become Finland's window to the world; a European city to which the university belonged as an integral part. Carl Ludvig Engel, architect, was given the assignment of designing an Empire-style main building next to Senate Square, facing the Imperial Senate. The main building was completed in 1832. Thanks to the lessons learnt from the fire of Turku, the library was built separate from other premises. The library and several faculty buildings in the campus were also designed by Engel. The main building as well as other buildings of the campus were badly damaged during the Soviet bombings in World War II but rebuilt after the war.  The plan concerning the concentration of university facilities dating back to the 1980s, aimed to achieve a closer unity between facilities. The City Centre Campus does not stand out from the rest of the urban environment but is a part of the city, in line with the old university tradition. The university facilities still form a functional and coherent whole, consisting not only of historically valuable buildings, but also of facilities for 20,000 students and 3,000 teachers and other staff.

Kumpula Campus.

The Kumpula Campus, housing the Faculty of Science, is located four kilometers north from the centre of Helsinki near tram lines 6 and 8. The campus houses the Departments of Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and Statistics, Computer Science, and Geosciences and Geography.  The university departments were located in Kumpula for the first time in 1978 when the City of Helsinki leased the area for the university. A planning competition for the city plan for the area was held a year earlier. In the 1980s, the Accelerator Laboratory of the Department of Physics was quarried into Kumpula rock and the construction of Kumpula Botanical Garden began in 1987. It was not, however, until the 1990s when the construction work proper began, transforming the area into a significant campus.  The Chemicum, the building housing the Department of Chemistry and VERIFIN (Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention), and the Physicum, which provides facilities for physics, geology and geography are located on Kumpula campus surrounding a square named after the Finnish Nobel prize winner, A. I. Virtanen. Kumpula Campus Library is also located in the Physicum. The Kumpula Sports Centre is planned for the recreational use of both university staff and students and citizens of Helsinki alike. Completed in 2004, the Exactum provides facilities for seismology, computer science and mathematical subjects, as well as administrative services.  The campus comprises two main parts: the Botanical Garden, surrounding the old building stock of Kumpula manor and the modern new building stock located a couple of hundred metres north of the manor. The greenness of the area makes the dynamic campus stand out as a unique, distinctive complex. The campus offers study and research facilities for 6,000 students and 1,000 teachers. The Finnish Meteorological Institute moved to the area in 2005. That building is known as Dynamicum.

Meilahti Campus.

The Meilahti Campus, with the Faculty of Medicine, is a part of the Meilahti Hospital District on the edge of the city centre. Just a few kilometres from the City Centre Campus, the Meilahti area has been transformed into a cradle of top research on medicine, 'Medilahti'. Established in the 1930s, the Women's Clinic was accompanied by Finland's leading hospital, Helsinki University Central Hospital (HUCH) in 1966. The same year saw the completion of facilities for theoretical subject departments on Haartmaninkatu street. The building is now being renovated and extended. The latest completed facilities in the campus include the National Library of Health Sciences Terkko and the research and teaching centre Biomedicum, which accommodates 1,200 researchers.  The Ruskeasuo premises, including the Department of Dentistry, Institute for Oral Health, Department of Public Health and Department of Forensic Medicine, also belong to the Meilahti campus. The Meilahti and Ruskeasuo areas form a close-knit complex providing a meeting place for medical education, international top-level research and nursing. The campus is a workplace for 2,000 students and 1,500 teachers.  Thanks to the years-long project to combine the teaching facilities of the Faculty of Medicine, Meilahti is now a functional unity of medicine and health care. The atmosphere in the campus inspires people in their studies, research and international co-operation.  Although the Meilahti campus is intertwined with the rest of Meilahti district, it succeeds in forming a clear-cut campus area with its hospital-type building stock.

Viikki Campus.

The Viikki Campus is located in the semi-suburban greenspace of the Viikki area, some 8 kilometres north-east of the city centre. It houses the Faculties of Agriculture and Forestry, Biosciences, Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy. It is an important concentration in the field of biosciences, even by European standards. Indeed, it is often called the bioscience campus or the "green campus".  In addition to biosciences, the campus is home to a wide range of other life science researchers and students in such fields as environmental science, veterinary medicine, food research and economics. Numerous international research groups also work on the Viikki Campus. The Viikki Campus is the location of four faculties, two independent institutes and the Viikki Science Library.  It also attracts an increasing number of businesses to the Helsinki Business and Science Park. The Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute and the Finnish Food Safety Authority, Evira, have also moved to Viikki and negotiations are under way to relocate MTT Agrifood Research Finland to Viikki to complement the Department of Economics and Management.  The Viikki Campus unites a multidisciplinary science community of more than 6,500 students and 1,600 teachers, a residential area emphasising ecological values and the natural surroundings, including recreational areas and nature reserves, and forms a unique whole. The campus also has the Viikinlahti conservation area, which is particularly popular among bird watchers.

Libraries and museums.

The National Library of Finland.

The National Library of Finland is the foremost research library in Finland and the main branch of the University of Helsinki's library system. The National Library of Finland is the oldest and largest scholarly library in Finland as well as one of the largest independent institutes at the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the collection, description, preservation and accessibility of Finland’s printed national heritage and the unique collections under its care. The National Library also serves as a national service and development centre for the library sector and promotes national and international cooperation in the field.

The Helsinki University Main Library.

The Main Library of the university is used by students for research and studying. Located a few blocks down the street from the university's main building in the city center, the new Main Library was opened in 2012 in the Kaisa House. The new library merged the undergraduate library and four dispersed faculty libraries of the city center campus to a collection of approximately 1.5 million books. The architecture of the new building, designed by Anttinen Oiva Architects, has been praised and received several awards.

The Helsinki University Museum.

The Helsinki University Museum is the museum of the University of Helsinki and was located until June 2014 on "Snellmanninkatu" off the north-east corner of Senate Square. Museums main exhibition moved to the University Main Building in 2015.  Helsinki University Museum was established in 2003 by merging the former University Museum specialising in the history of the University of Helsinki, the Museum of Medical History, the Museum of the History of Veterinary Medicine, the Museum of the History of Dentistry and the Collections of Craft Science. To complement the new conglomeration of museums, the Mineral Cabinet, which today belongs to the Finnish Museum of Natural History, returned to its original location in the Arppeanum building. Each year the museum also holds one or two temporary exhibitions in a specially designed area. Museums exhibition in Arppeanum Building was closed in June 2014. New main exhibition was opened in the Main Building in March 2015.  The University Museum is in charge of the preservation and conservation of the university’s valuable museum collections and property: old tuition and research equipment, furniture and works of art. The museum maintains an index register of all valuables that are kept in the facilities of the university. The museum also provides library, archive and photographic services pertaining to the history of the university and the history of medical science.

Finnish Museum of Natural History.

The Finnish Museum of Natural History is a research institution under the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the national botanical, zoological, geological and paleontological collections consisting of samples from around the world. The collections serve scientific, public informational and educational purposes.

Student life.

Student Union.

The Student Union of the University of Helsinki ("Helsingin yliopiston ylioppilaskunta", HYY) was founded in 1868. It currently has 32,000 members and is one of the world's wealthiest student organizations, with assets of several hundred million euros. Among other things, it owns a good deal of property in the city centre of Helsinki. The union has been at the centre of student politics from the 19th Century nationalist movements, through the actions of the New Left in the 1960s, up to the present. Its governing assembly consists of parties which are connected to faculty organisations, the Student Nations, and the mainstream political parties.

Student nations.

The student nations are student organisations that provide extra-curricular activities to students. Along with the faculty-based organisations, the nations provide one of the main nodes of student social life. The nations at University of Helsinki have a special legal status in the Universities Act. There are 15 nations at the university, each one representing a historic region or province of Finland, with four of these representing Swedish-speaking regions. Membership is optional.

Chancellors.

The Chancellor is the highest representative of the University of Helsinki. He is elected by the College, the highest body of staff representation at the University. According to the University Act, the Chancellor's task is to promote the sciences and monitor the interests of the University. The Chancellor has the right to attend meetings of the Government of Finland on matters concerning the University of Helsinki.

The University of Helsinki (,,, abbreviated UH) is a university located in Helsinki, Finland since 1829, but founded in the city of Turku (in Swedish "Åbo") in 1640 as the "Royal Academy of Åbo", at that time part of the Swedish Empire. It is the oldest and largest university in Finland with the widest range of disciplines available. In 2018, around 31,200 students were enrolled in the degree programs of the university spread across 11 faculties and 11 research institutes.

Helsinská univerzita (: "Universitas Helsingiensis") je největší a nejstarší univerzita ve Finsku. Byla založena v Turku v roce 1640 jako součást Královské akademie v Turku v době švédské nadvlády. Od roku 1829 je umístěna v Helsinkách. V roce 2009 měla 35 000 studentů. Dle Academic Ranking of World Universities se v celosvětovém žebříčku univerzit umístila k roku 2010 na 72. místě a v evropském na 22. místě.


Synopsis.

The pious Queen of Spain, accompanied by her husband, is on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. They stop for the night along the way at the cottage of Ginès, a miller, whose wedding day it is. He is to be the bridegroom of Giralda, who however regrets her impending marriage as she has fallen in love with a knight whose name she does not know but who she has seen many times in the vicinity. This is Don Manoël, who bribes Ginès, who really only wants to marry Giralda for her dowry, with twice the sum he is expecting, to take his place at the marriage altar. When he learns that the royal couple has arrived however, Don Manoël, who has committed a political crime and must stay incognito, runs away. While he is gone, Giralda believes herself married in turn to Ginès and an elderly gentleman, Don Japhet. Eventually Don Manoël returns, the Queen pardons his political offence, and he can pronounce himself the happy husband of Giralda.

Music.

The overture contains a lively fandango and there is a chorus in the first act accompanied by castanets, giving local Spanish colour. The music throughout the piece is notable for its verve and charm.

Performance history.

The title role was performed at the premiere by Marie Caroline Miolan-Carvalho. The work was a great success at its first performance and remained in the repertoire of European theatres for many years. It was presented in English adaptations in London as "Giralda, or The Invisible Husband" in 1850,in the same year in London as "Giralda, or the Miller's Wife" and as "Giralda, or, Which Is My Husband?" also in 1850.

Giralda ou La nouvelle psyché is an opéra comique with music by Adolphe Adam and a text by Eugène Scribe. It had its first performance at the Opéra-Comique theatre, Paris, on 20 July 1850.

Giralda aneb Nová Psyché (ve francouzském originále Giralda, ou La Nouvelle Psyché) je komická opera (opéra comique) o třech dějstvích francouzského skladatele Adolpha-Charlese Adama na libreto Eugèna Scriba (1791-1861). Poprvé byla uvedena v pařížském Théâtre de l'Opéra-Comique dne 20. července 1850.


Early life.

Philip Andre Rourke Jr. was born in Schenectady, New York, the son of Annette (née Cameron) and Philip Andre Rourke. His father was of Irish descent and his mother had Scottish ancestry. He was raised Catholic and still practices his faith. His father, an amateur body builder, left the family when Mickey was six years old. After his parents divorced, his mother married Eugene Addis, a Miami Beach police officer with five sons, and moved Rourke, his younger brother (Joey), and their sister (Patricia) to South Florida. There, he graduated from Miami Beach Senior High School in 1971.

Career.

Amateur boxing.

During his teenage years, Rourke focused his attention mainly on sports. He took up self-defense training at the Boys Club of Miami. It was there that he learned boxing skills and decided on an amateur career.  At age 12, Rourke won his first boxing match as a flyweight, fighting some of his early matches under the name Phil Rourke. He continued his boxing training at the famed 5th Street Gym, in Miami Beach, Florida. In 1969, Rourke, then weighing 140 pounds (63.5 kg), sparred with former World Welterweight Champion Luis Rodríguez. Rodriguez was the number one–rated middleweight boxer in the world and was training for his match with world champion Nino Benvenuti. Rourke claims to have received a concussion from his sparring match with Rodriguez.  At the 1971 Florida Golden Gloves, Rourke suffered another concussion in a boxing match. After being told by doctors to take a year off and rest, Rourke temporarily retired from the ring. From 1964 to 1973, Rourke compiled an amateur boxing record of 27 wins (including 12 straight knockouts) and 3 defeats, which included a first-round knockout win over John Carver and decision victories over Ronnie Carter and Javier Villanueva.

Amateur boxing record.

Rourke's amateur boxing record was 27 wins and 3 losses.

Early acting roles.

In 1971, as a senior at Miami Beach Senior High School, Rourke had a small acting role in the Jay W. Jensen–directed school play "The Serpent". However, Rourke's interests were geared to boxing, and he never appeared in any other school productions. Soon after he temporarily gave up boxing, a friend at the University of Miami told Rourke about a play he was directing, "Deathwatch", and how the man playing the role of Green Eyes had quit. Rourke got the part and immediately became enamored with acting. Borrowing $400 from his sister, he moved to New York, working an assortment of odd jobs while studying with Actors Studio alumni Walter Lott and Sandra Seacat. It was under the latter's tutelage, Rourke later recalled, that "everything started to click."  Seacat motivated Rourke to find his father, from whom he had been separated for more than twenty years. During his appearance on "Inside the Actors Studio", after the release of "The Wrestler", host James Lipton disclosed that Rourke had been selected to the Actors Studio in his first audition, which Elia Kazan is reported to have said was the "best audition in thirty years".  Appearing primarily in television films during the late 1970s, Rourke made his feature film debut with a small role in Steven Spielberg's "1941". He played Ritchie, Dennis Christopher's bullying and ill-fated co-worker in the 1980 slasher film "Fade to Black". However, it was in 1981, with his portrayal of an arsonist in "Body Heat", that Rourke first received significant attention, despite his modest time on screen. The following year, he drew further critical accolades for his portrayal as the suave compulsive gambler "Boogie" Sheftell in Barry Levinson's "Diner", in which Rourke co-starred, alongside Paul Reiser, Daniel Stern, Steve Guttenberg, Tim Daly and Kevin Bacon; the National Society of Film Critics named him Best Supporting Actor that year. Soon thereafter, Rourke starred in "Rumble Fish", Francis Ford Coppola's follow-up to "The Outsiders".  Rourke's performance in the film "The Pope of Greenwich Village" alongside Daryl Hannah and Eric Roberts also caught the attention of critics, although the film was not financially successful. In the mid-1980s, Rourke earned himself additional leading roles. His role alongside Kim Basinger in the erotic drama "91⁄2 Weeks" helped him gain sex symbol status. He received critical praise for his work in "Barfly" as the alcoholic writer Henry Chinaski (the literary alter ego of Charles Bukowski) and in "Year of the Dragon".  In 1987, Rourke appeared in "Angel Heart". The film was nominated for several awards. It was seen as controversial by some, owing to a sex scene involving "Cosby Show" cast member Lisa Bonet, who won an award for her part in the film. Although some of Rourke's work was viewed as controversial in the US, he was well received by European, and especially French, audiences, who loved the "rumpled, slightly dirty, sordid... rebel persona" that he projected in "Year of the Dragon", "91⁄2 Weeks", "Angel Heart", and "Desperate Hours". Director Adrian Lyne said that had Rourke died after the release of "Angel Heart", he would have become a bigger phenomenon than James Dean.  In the late 1980s, Rourke performed with David Bowie on the "Never Let Me Down" album. Around the same time he also wrote his first screenplay, "Homeboy", a boxing tale in which he starred. In 1989 Rourke starred in the docudrama "Francesco", portraying St. Francis of Assisi. This was followed by "Wild Orchid", another critically panned film, which gained him a nomination for a Razzie award (also for "Desperate Hours"). In 1991 he starred in the box office bomb "Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man" as Harley Davidson, a biker whose best friend, Marlboro, was played by Don Johnson. In his last role before departing for the boxing ring, Rourke played an arms dealer chased by Willem Dafoe and Samuel L. Jackson in "White Sands", a film noir that reviewers found stylish but incoherent.  Rourke's acting career eventually became overshadowed by his personal life and career decisions. Directors such as Alan Parker found it difficult to work with him. Parker stated that "working with Mickey is a nightmare. He is very dangerous on the set because you never know what he is going to do." In a documentary on the special edition DVD of "Tombstone", actor Michael Biehn, who plays the part of Johnny Ringo, mentions that his role was first offered to Rourke. Rourke has allegedly turned down several roles in high-profile films, including "48 Hrs.", "Platoon", "Top Gun", "Beverly Hills Cop", "Rain Man", "The Silence of the Lambs", and "Pulp Fiction".

Professional boxing career.

In 1991, Rourke decided that he "had to go back to boxing" because he felt that he "was self-destructing... [and] had no respect for [himself as] an actor". Rourke was undefeated in eight fights, with six wins (four by knockout) and two draws. He fought internationally in countries including Spain, Japan, and Germany. During his boxing career, Rourke suffered a number of injuries, including a broken nose, toe, and ribs, a split tongue, and a compressed cheekbone. He also suffered from short term memory loss.  His trainer during most of his boxing career was Hells Angels member, actor, and celebrity bodyguard Chuck Zito. Freddie Roach also trained Rourke for seven fights. Rourke's entrance song into the ring was often Guns N' Roses' "Sweet Child o' Mine" (to which reference is made in his film "The Wrestler", in which Rourke's character enters his final match of the film to the song playing over the loudspeakers). Boxing promoters said that Rourke was too old to succeed against top-level fighters. Indeed, Rourke himself admits that entering the ring was a sort of personal test: "[I] just wanted to give it a shot, test myself that way physically, while I still had time." Rourke's boxing career resulted in a notable physical change in the 1990s, as his face needed reconstructive surgery to mend his injuries. His face was later called "appallingly disfigured".

Return to boxing in 2014.

On November 28, 2014, Rourke briefly returned to the boxing ring and fought 29-year-old Elliot Seymour in Moscow, Russia. It was Rourke's first boxing match in over 20 years. Talks of him being involved in four more matches were released by Rourke himself after the match. He won the exhibition fight in the second round by TKO. The fight is not counted in his professional record since it was an exhibition match. The opponent later stated that he threw the fight, having been promised payment to take a dive in the second round.

1990s: Return to acting.

In the early 1990s, Rourke was offered and declined the role of Butch Coolidge, which later became Bruce Willis's role in "Pulp Fiction". After his retirement from boxing, Rourke did accept supporting roles in several 1990s films, including Francis Ford Coppola's adaptation of John Grisham's "The Rainmaker", Vincent Gallo's "Buffalo '66", Steve Buscemi's "Animal Factory", Sean Penn's "The Pledge", and Sylvester Stallone's remake of "Get Carter". Rourke also has written several films under the name Sir Eddie Cook, including "Bullet", in which he co-starred with Tupac Shakur.  While Rourke was also selected for a significant role in Terrence Malick's "The Thin Red Line", his part ended up on the cutting room floor. Rourke also played a small part in the film "Thursday", in which he plays a crooked cop. He also had a lead role in 1997's "Double Team", which co-starred martial arts actor Jean-Claude Van Damme and former NBA player Dennis Rodman. It was Rourke's first over-the-top action film role, in which he played the lead villain. During that same year, he filmed "Another 91⁄2 Weeks", a sequel to "91⁄2 Weeks", which received only limited distribution. He ended the 1990s with the direct-to-video films "Out in Fifty", "Shades" and television film "Shergar", about the kidnapping of Epsom Derby-winning thoroughbred racehorse Shergar. Rourke has expressed his bitterness over that period of his career, stating that he came to consider himself a "has-been" and lived for a time in "a state of shame".

2000–2009.

In 2001, Rourke appeared as the villain in Enrique Iglesias's music video for "Hero", which also featured Jennifer Love Hewitt. In 2002 he took the role of The Cook in Jonas Åkerlund's "Spun", teaming up once again with Eric Roberts. His first collaborations with directors Robert Rodriguez and Tony Scott, in "Once Upon a Time in Mexico" and "Man on Fire", respectively, were in smaller roles. Nonetheless, these directors subsequently decided to cast Rourke in lead roles in their next films. In 2005, Rourke made his comeback in mainstream Hollywood circles with a lead role in Robert Rodriguez's adaptation of Frank Miller's "Sin City". Rourke received awards from the Chicago Film Critics Association, the IFTA, and the Online Film Critics Society, as well as Man of the Year from "Total Film" magazine that year. Rourke followed "Sin City" with a supporting role in Tony Scott's "Domino" alongside Keira Knightley, in which he played a bounty hunter. Rourke played the role of "The Blackbird" in an adaptation of Elmore Leonard's "Killshot", and appeared as Darrius Sayle in the adaptation of the Alex Rider novel "Stormbreaker". In addition, in 2004, Rourke provided the voice for "Jericho" in the third installment of the Driver video game series. Rourke also appeared in a 40-page story by photographer Bryan Adams for Berlin's "Zoo Magazine". In an article about Rourke's return to steady acting roles, entitled "Mickey Rourke Rising", Christopher Heard stated that actors/musicians Johnny Depp, Sean Penn, and Brad Pitt have "animated praise for Rourke and his work". During a roundtable session of Oscar-nominated actors held by "Newsweek", Brad Pitt cited Rourke as one of his early acting heroes along with Sean Penn and Gary Oldman.  Despite having withdrawn from acting at various points, and having made films that he now sees as a creative "sellout" (the action film "Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man"), Rourke has stated that "all that I have been through...[has] made me a better, more interesting actor". Rourke's renewed interest in pursuing acting can be seen in his statement that "my best work is still ahead of me".  Rourke had a role in the film version of "The Informers", playing Peter, an amoral former studio security guard who plots to kidnap a small child. In 2008, Rourke played the lead in Darren Aronofsky's "The Wrestler", winner of the Golden Lion Award for Best Film at the Venice Film Festival, about washed-up professional wrestler Randy "The Ram" Robinson. Regarding first reading the screenplay, he stated that he originally "didn't care for it".  He also spoke on personal concern and hesitance of being in a film about wrestling, for he perceived it as being "pre-arranged and pre-choreographed". As he trained for the film, he developed an appreciation and respect for what real-life pro wrestlers do to prepare for the ring:  He trained under former WWE wrestler Afa the Wild Samoan for the part, and has received a BAFTA award, a Golden Globe award, an Independent Spirit Award, and an Oscar nomination as Best Actor. Rourke lost the Oscar to Sean Penn, while Penn did acknowledge Rourke in his acceptance speech.  Rourke has written or co-written six scripts: "Homeboy", "The Last Ride", "Bullet", "Killer Moon", "Penance" and the latest, "Pain". Of these, the first three were produced as films between 1988 and 1996.

2010–present.

In 2010, Rourke played the role of the main villain Whiplash in the film "Iron Man 2". In an interview with "Rip It Up" magazine he revealed that he prepared for the role by visiting Russian jail inmates. In 2011, he portrayed the villainous King Hyperion in "Immortals" and received praise for his performance, while the film received mixed-to-positive reviews and became a box office success. He also had a minor role as Tool in Sylvester Stallone's "The Expendables". Though he had little screen time, his performance was met with rave reviews and cited as one of the film's highlights.  Just before the end of the year, he confirmed on a British TV talk show that he would play Gareth Thomas in an upcoming film about the Welsh rugby star who came out as gay the previous year. As of February 2011, he had begun research on the film, but noted, "We're not going to make this movie until we've done all the proper research. We need to do our homework and I need to train for from nine to eleven months." In 2011, Rourke was cast in the film "Java Heat" as an American citizen shadowing terrorist groups in Java, Indonesia. The film was released in 2013.

Personal life.

Rourke has dated several celebrities, including Terry Farrell and Sasha Volkova. He has been married twice and has no children. In 1981 he married Debra Feuer, whom he met on the set of "Hardcase" (1981) and who co-starred with him in "Homeboy" (1988) as his love interest. The marriage ended in 1989, with Rourke subsequently commenting that making the film "91⁄2 Weeks" "was not particularly considerate to my wife's needs." The two have remained good friends, according to an interview Feuer gave in 2009. "Wild Orchid" co-star Carré Otis was briefly a "cause célèbre" following the release of the film owing to rumors that she and then-lover Rourke filmed an unsimulated sex scene. Otis married Rourke on June 26, 1992. In 1994, Rourke was arrested on suspicion of spousal abuse. The charges were later dropped. The couple reconciled and also starred together in "Exit in Red", but their marriage ended in December 1998. Otis and writer Hugo Schwyzer co-wrote "", an autobiography that detailed Otis' marriage to Rourke that was published in October 2011 by HarperCollins. In November 2007, Rourke was arrested again, this time on DUI charges in Miami Beach.  In numerous TV and print interviews, he attributes his comeback after 14 years to his agent David A. Unger, weekly meetings with a psychiatrist, "Steve", and a Catholic priest, Father Peter Colapietro. Rourke has been described as a "real good Catholic" by friend Tom Sizemore.  From 2009 to 2015, Rourke was in a relationship with Russian model Anastassija Makarenko.

Political views.

In May 1989, Rourke revealed that he had donated most of his £1.5 million earnings from the film "Francesco" to support Joe Doherty in his campaign for political asylum in the United States. Doherty, a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) member, was wanted by UK authorities for his part in an ambush using an M60 machine gun which killed a member of Britain's elite Special Air Service in Belfast, Northern Ireland in 1980. Doherty was later arrested and charged for his part in the attack but escaped with seven other prisoners after holding a prison officer hostage and engaging in a shoot-out with members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary. Doherty was eventually imprisoned in the UK, but was later released under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement.  In June 2006, Rourke publicly gave his support to US President George W. Bush and the Iraq War. In January 2009, Rourke expressed admiration for Bush in an interview with "GQ" magazine. He also expressed his astonishment that Islamic fundamentalists were allowed to continue their activities in the UK after the 7 July 2005 London bombings.  In August 2014, Rourke came under scrutiny for purchasing and wearing a T-shirt bearing the likeness of Russian President Vladimir Putin at a time when most of the Western world was criticizing and sanctioning Russia for its violations of Ukrainian sovereignty. When questioned by the press, Rourke explained: "If I didn't like him, I wouldn't buy the T-shirt, believe me. I met him a couple of times and he was a real gentleman. A very cool, regular guy. Looked me right in the eye. Good guy." In an appearance on the August 12, 2014, episode of "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon", Rourke said he had purchased the T-shirt because the proceeds were going to benefit an ill Ukrainian boy in need of an operation.  In 2015, Rourke expressed his support for Ben Carson for the Republican presidential nomination. He also denounced Republican frontrunner Donald Trump as a "bully".

Dogs.

In addition to his faith, Rourke has publicly attributed his comeback to his dogs. He is well known as a pet lover, particularly fond of small-breed dogs. A spay/neuter advocate, Rourke participated in a protest outside a pet shop in 2007 and has done a public service announcement for PETA.  His first little dog was reportedly a gift from his second wife. Though Rourke's dogs are generally referred to as "chihuahuas", some are not purebred. Loki, his most-publicized dog whom he described as "the love of my life", was a chihuahua-terrier mix. So reliant was Rourke on Loki's companionship, he spent US$5,400 to have her flown to England while he was on the set of the film "Stormbreaker".  Rourke gave his dogs credit during his Golden Globe Best Actor acceptance speech January 11, 2009: "I'd like to thank all my dogs. The ones that are here, the ones that aren't here anymore because sometimes when a man's alone, that's all you got is your dog. And they've meant the world to me." The day of the 2009 Golden Globes show, he told Barbara Walters that "I sort of self-destructed and everything came out about 14 years ago or so... the wife had left, the career was over, the money was not an ounce. The dogs were there when no one else was there." Asked by Walters if he had considered suicide, he responded:  Beau Jack sired two of Rourke's later pets, Loki and her littermate Chocolate. Beau Jack died in 2002, although Rourke reportedly gave him 45 minutes of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Chocolate was the subject of a children's book, "Chocolate at the Four Seasons", about his temporary stay with producer Bonnie Timmerman. Chocolate returned to Rourke and died in 2006. In addition to those dogs and several other past pets, Rourke currently owns a chihuahua named Jaws who appeared with him in his 2009 PETA ad, as well as in the film "Once Upon a Time in Mexico". He has had as many as seven dogs at one time, back in 2005. Jaws originally was named "Little Mickey" and was originally slated to be euthanized. Rourke also believed Jaws had been previously abused. At the time of his Golden Globes tribute to his pets, Rourke owned five chihuahuas: Loki, Jaws, Ruby Baby, La Negra and Bella Loca. About a month later, on February 16, 2009, Loki died in Rourke's arms at the age of 18.

Other works.

Rourke made his stage debut in a revival of Arthur Miller's "A View from the Bridge". He lent his voice to the video games "Driv3r" (2004) as Charles Jericho and "" (2005) as Terrence "Terry" Higgins, which was his fifth and last work with actor Christopher Walken. He also appeared in a Japanese TV commercial for Suntory Reserve (early '90s) and a commercial for Daihatsu and Lark cigarettes. In 2009, Rourke voiced the character of Dick Marcinko for the biographical video game "Rogue Warrior", which was released on December 1, 2009. Rourke's portrayal of Marcinko was a source of humorous praise from a few critics (although many others criticized Rourke's role to the same degree that they did every other aspect of the game).  In 2010, he appeared in a Dutch TV commercial for Bavaria Beer.  Rourke appeared as a gangster in the music video for "Hero" by Enrique Iglesias. Actress Jennifer Love Hewitt also made an appearance in the clip. Rourke also provided the mid-song rap on the David Bowie song "Shining Star (Makin' My Love)" on his album "Never Let Me Down" (1987).  Rourke has been the subject of two extensive biographies on his life and career "Stand Alone: The Films of Mickey Rourke" and "Hollywood Outlaw: The Life of Mickey Rourke" both were written by British author Saurav Dutt. In 2014 Dutt announced he was producing and writing a novelization inspired by an undeveloped script for a movie that Rourke wrote titled "Wild Horses" which was eventually released in Fall 2015.

Philip Andre "Mickey" Rourke Jr. (; born September 16, 1952) is an American actor, screenwriter, and former boxer, who has appeared primarily as a leading man in drama, action, and thriller films.

Mickey Rourke, vlastním jménem Philip Andre Rourke, Jr. (* 16. září 1952 Schenectady New York) je americký herec, scenárista a bývalý profesionální boxer.


Habitat and occurrence.

White campion grows in most open habitats, particularly wasteland and fields, most commonly on neutral to alkaline soils. Despite the wide array of conditions in which campion can thrive, it prefers sunny areas that have rich and well-drained soil. An example ecoregion of occurrence is in the Sarmatic mixed forests.  It is also named the Grave Flower or Flower of the Dead in parts of England as they are seen often growing on gravesites and around tombstones.  It is naturalised in North America, being found in most of the United States, the greatest concentrations of the plant can be found in the north-central and northeastern sections of the country. "S. latifolia" is thought to have arrived in North America as a component of ship ballast.

Inbreeding avoidance.

In "S. latifolia", outbred male offspring were found to sire significantly more progeny than inbred male offspring. This study indicated the occurrence of inbreeding depression in male plants under natural conditions. In female plants, inbreeding depression significantly affects vegetative growth, age at first flowering and total fitness.  Post-pollination selection occurs in "S. latifolia". After multiple-donor pollination, it was found that pollen or embryo selection likely reduces the occurrence of inbred progeny.

Use among Native Americans.

The Ojibwa use an infusion of the "alba" subspecies as a physic.

Susceptibility to disease.

"Silene latifolia" is afflicted by the fungal pathogen "Microbotryum violaceum", which acts as a sterilizing sexually transmitted infection in this species.

Silene latifolia subsp. alba (formerly "Melandrium album"), the white campion is a dioecious flowering plant in the family Caryophyllaceae, native to most of Europe, Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is a herbaceous annual, occasionally biennial or a short-lived perennial plant, growing to between 40–80 centimetres tall. It is also known in the US as bladder campion but should not be confused with "Silene vulgaris", which is more generally called bladder campion.

Silenka širolistá bílá ("Silene latifolia" subsp. "alba", syn. "Melandrium album"), též knotovka bílá, je jednoletá až vytrvalá vyšší bylina (40 -100 cm), velmi častá na mezích, loukách a u cest od nížin až do hor.


Early life.

Cook was born on October 9, 1895, in Brantford, Ontario. He was a middle child of a large family, and the eldest of three sons, preceding his brothers Frederick ("Bun") and Alexander ("Bud"). The family moved to Kingston, Ontario, where he learned to skate on the Rideau Canal. He joined the Kingston Frontenacs' junior hockey team in 1913 and played for two seasons before his career was interrupted by the First World War.  He volunteered to join the Canadian Expeditionary Force in 1915, and served with the Canadian Field Artillery for nearly two years in France and another at the Belgian front. Cook participated in several engagements, including at Ypres, the Somme, Vimy Ridge and Hill 70. He then fought into 1919 in Siberia as part of the allied intervention in the Russian Civil War.  Upon his return from the war, Cook rejoined the Frontenacs for one season before joining the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds in 1920. He led the Northern Ontario Hockey Association (NOHA) in both goals, 12, and points, 19, while the Greyhounds won the NOHA championship. He won the scoring title again in 1921–22 with 20 goals and 28 points.

Playing career.

Saskatoon Crescents.

Spurning offers from National Hockey League (NHL) teams to turn professional in the eastern league, Cook moved to Saskatchewan, where he had been granted land for his service in the war. The Calgary Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL) attempted to recruit him for the 1922–23 season but failed to sign him. Instead, he joined the Saskatoon Crescents. He recorded 25 points in 30 games in his first professional season.  Returning to Saskatoon in 1923–24, Cook led the WCHL with 26 goals and 40 points. He was named the all-star right wing for the first of three consecutive seasons. He scored 22 goals in 1924–25. The WCHL rebranded itself the Western Hockey League (WHL) and the Crescents became the Sheiks in 1925–26. Cook again led in both goals and points with 31 and 44 respectively, and had become known as the best right wing in hockey.

New York Rangers.

The WHL had run into financial difficulty in its final seasons, and after 1926, ceased operations. The Montreal Maroons intended to sign both Cook and his brother Bun to join their team for the 1926–27 NHL season. While the team's manager waited in Montreal to meet the brothers, Conn Smythe, manager of the newly formed New York Rangers, travelled to Winnipeg to reach the pair first. Smythe signed both Cook brothers for $12,000. Bill Cook was officially the first player signed by the Rangers, and was named the team's first captain. The Cook brothers joined Frank Boucher to form the "Bread Line", one of the early NHL's most prolific scoring lines.  The Rangers made their NHL debut on November 16, 1926, against the Maroons. Cook scored the franchise's first goal, which also stood up as the winner, in a 1–0 victory. Appearing in 44 games, he led the league in both goals, 33, and points, 37. He finished as the runner-up to Herb Gardiner of the Montreal Canadiens for the Hart Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player. The Rangers finished first in the American Division, but were eliminated by the Boston Bruins in the playoffs. Cook recorded 24 points in 1927–28, the seventh highest total in the league. The Rangers again qualified for the playoffs, where they defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates, Boston Bruins and Montreal Maroons to win the franchise's first Stanley Cup championship. The Bread Line scored every Rangers goal in the 1928 Stanley Cup Finals.  Twenty-three points in 1928–29 again placed Cook seventh in the league. The Rangers defeated the New York Americans to reach the 1929 Stanley Cup Finals, but were defeated by the Montreal Canadiens. Cook led the Rangers and finished fourth in league scoring in 1929–30 and 1930–31 with 59 and 42 points respectively. In 1931, he was named to the NHL's inaugural All-Star Team at right wing. It was the first of four consecutive appearances; he was placed on the first team in 1931, 1932 and 1933, and on the second team in 1934. Cook's 34 goals in 1931–32 tied Charlie Conacher for the league lead. The Rangers won the American Division title, and after defeating the Canadians, faced Conacher's Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1932 Stanley Cup Final. Toronto swept the series with three consecutive victories.  Cook was again the top scorer in 1932–33, leading the NHL in both goals, 28, and points, 50. At 36 years, 5 months old, Cook was the oldest player in NHL history to win a scoring title until 2013 when Martin St. Louis of the Tampa Bay Lightning led the NHL in scoring at the age of 39. The Rangers reached the 1933 Stanley Cup Finals against the Toronto Maple Leafs. Cook scored the winning goal in the second game, then scored the championship winning goal, in overtime, in the fourth game. It was the first overtime power play goal in NHL playoff history. The trophy was not available on the night the Rangers won, leading the series to become known as the "Forgotten Cup". Cook accepted the Stanley Cup on behalf of his team in November of that year, seven months after the Rangers victory.  After scoring only 13 goals in 1933–34, Cook improved to 20 goals in 1934–35. In a 7–5 victory over the Maple Leafs on January 29, 1935, the Bread line scored four goals and five assists to reach a combined 1,000 points as a unit over their nine seasons together. The Bread Line was broken up in 1935–36 when Bun was forced out of the Rangers lineup by illness. Bill Cook scored just seven goals that season, and at the age of 40, scored one goal in 21 games before retiring as a player during the 1936–37 season.

Coaching career.

Turning to coaching, Cook took over as the manager of the Cleveland Barons in the International-American Hockey League (IAHL) in the 1937–38 season. He inherited a team that had struggled the season before and led it to a respectable season, winning 34 of 50 games played combined between the regular season and playoffs. Cook was pressed into service as a player as a result of injuries. His team was able to dress only 10 of 17 players in the deciding game of the Barons' playoff series against the Syracuse Stars. Cook played a regular shift in the game, but the Barons lost, 3–2, in the fourth overtime period.  The Barons finished fifth overall in the IAHL standings in 1938–39, but defeated the Springfield Indians and Providence Reds to reach the league championship series against the Philadelphia Ramblers. They won the best-of-five championship three games to one to claim the Calder Cup. Cook coached the Barons to a second Calder Cup in 1940–41, defeating the Hershey Bears in the final. Cook remained behind the Barons' bench until the conclusion of the 1942–43 American Hockey League (AHL) season. He then turned coaching duties over to his brother Bun, but remained the team's general manager.  Cook left the Barons to join the Minneapolis Millers of the United States Hockey League (USHL) in 1947. He coached the team for three seasons, leading the team to the Paul W. Loudon Trophy as league champions in 1949–50. He moved on to coach the Denver Falcons, also of the USHL, in 1950–51 then the Saskatoon Quakers of the Pacific Coast Hockey League (PHCL) the following season. Cook left the Quakers midway through the season when asked by Frank Boucher, general manager of the New York Rangers, to return to the NHL club as its head coach. He coached the final 47 games of the Rangers' 1951–52 season, winning 17, losing 22 and tying 8. He remained behind the Rangers bench in 1952–53, but the Rangers missed the playoffs after winning only 17 of 70 games. Cook was replaced as coach following the season as Boucher named himself head coach. Cook then retired from hockey.

Legacy.

A prolific scorer, Cook scored 317 goals and 508 points in 591 games in his 15-year professional career. Known as "The Original Ranger", he led the team in goals six times. He was regarded as being the greatest right wing in the game's history when he retired, an opinion former teammate Frank Boucher retained many years later: "Bill was the finest all-round player in Ranger history. And he's my choice as the best right winger hockey ever knew – despite the fact that others disagree and give their votes to Rocket Richard or Gordie Howe. I say Cook topped them both." Cook was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1952, and Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 1975.  A popular former Ranger, Cook participated in the closing of the old Madison Square Garden and the opening of the new facility in 1968. In recognition of his scoring the first Rangers goal in the old Garden, he was asked to "score" the first goal in the new facility as part of the opening ceremony for the new. In 1986, he was presented with the Rangers' Alumni Association award, the first former Ranger to receive the award through a vote of alumni membership. "The Hockey News" ranked Cook as the 44th greatest player in NHL history, and highest Ranger on the list, in its 1998 book "The Top 100 NHL Players of All Time".

Personal life.

Accepting a land grant from the federal government, Cook settled in Saskatchewan following the First World War, taking a half section of land adjacent to a similar holding of his brother Bun's. He established his farm near Lac Vert, hunted and played baseball during hockey off-seasons. He later returned to Kingston, Ontario, where he continued to farm and was nearly killed when one of his bulls gored him. Cook was married and had three children. He died of cancer in Kingston on May 5, 1986.

William Osser Xavier Cook (October 8, 1895 – May 5, 1986) was a Canadian professional ice hockey right winger who played for the Saskatoon Crescents of the Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL) and the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League (NHL). A prolific scorer, Cook led the WCHL in goals twice and the NHL three times. He was named an all-star seven times between the two leagues. Known as "The Original Ranger", Cook was the first captain of the New York Rangers, scored the first goal in franchise history and led the team to two Stanley Cup championships.

William Osser Xavier Cook (9. října 1896, Brantford, Ontario – 6. dubna 1986) byl kanadský profesionální hokejista. Od roku 1952 je členem hokejové síně slávy.


Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (soundtrack)

Věčný svit neposkvrněné mysli (soundtrack)

Details.

Jon Brion provided much of the music for the film. Although only one track ("Strings That Tie to You") features his singing (similar to the soundtrack for "Punch-Drunk Love"), his next soundtrack (for "I Heart Huckabees") would feature seven vocal songs.  The garage rock band The Willowz contributed two songs to the soundtrack, and would later contribute songs to director Michel Gondry's next film "The Science of Sleep".  "Mr. Blue Sky" isn't featured in the film, but plays in the theatrical trailer and most advertising spots for the film.  Brion's song "Showtime" on this soundtrack should not be confused with the song "Showtime" he wrote for the film "Magnolia".  Three "filmi" songs from old Hindi movies can be heard playing in the background (when Clementine invites Joel to her apartment for a drink). These are "Mera Man Tera Pyasa" ("My mind yearns for you") from the movie "Gambler" (1971) performed by Mohammed Rafi, "Tere Sang Pyar Main" from the movie "Nagin" (1976) performed by Lata Mangeshkar, and "Wada Na Tod" ("Break not the promise") also by Lata Mangeshkar from the movie "Dil Tujhko Diya" ("Gave my heart to you", 1987). All three songs are listed in the original soundtrack credits.

Albums appearing in the movie.

Several albums were mentioned in the shooting script and appeared in the final cut of the film. Among these are Brian Eno's "Music for Airports" (1978), the instrumental live version of the same by Bang on a Can (1998), Björk's "Homogenic" (1997) and Tom Waits's "Rain Dogs" (1985).

Track listing.

All tracks by Jon Brion, except where noted.

Adaptation.

Roc Nation artist Jay Electronica sampled five Jon Brion compositions from the mixtape for his debut mixtape "". The tracks first appeared in 2007 on Jay Electronica's Myspace page.

The soundtrack album for "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind" was released by Hollywood Records on March 16, 2004. It features the score, composed by Los Angeles musician Jon Brion, as well as songs from artists E.L.O., The Polyphonic Spree, The Willowz, and Don Nelson. Beck, in a collaboration with Jon Brion, provides a cover version of the Korgis' "Everybody's Got to Learn Sometime". Many of the vocal songs either revolve around memories or the sun.

Soundtrack k filmu Věčný svit neposkvrněné mysli byl vydán Hollywood Records 16. března 2004. Základ byl zkomponován losangeleským hudebníkem Jonem Brionem. Ostatní písně nahráli: Jeff Lynne - E.L.O. ("Mr. Blue Sky" byl použit v trailerech a televizních spotech, ale nikoliv ve filmu), The Polyphonic Spree, The Willowz a Don Nelson.