Definition and terminology.

The precise definition of economic development has been contested: while economists in the 20th century viewed development primarily in terms of economic growth, sociologists instead emphasized broader processes of change and modernization. Development and urban studies scholar Karl Seidman summarizes economic development as "a process of creating and utilizing physical, human, financial, and social assets to generate improved and broadly shared economic well-being and quality of life for a community or region". Daphne Greenwood and Richard Holt distinguish economic development from economic growth on the basis that economic development is a "broadly based and sustainable increase in the overall "standard of living" for individuals within a community", and measures of growth such as per capita income do not necessarily correlate with improvements in quality of life. Economic development is a wider concept and has qualitative dimensions. Economic development implies economic growth plus progressive changes in certain important variables which determine well-being of the people,e.g: health, education. The University of Iowa's Center for International Finance and Development states that:  Though the concept's origin is uncertain, some scholars argue that development is closely bound up with the evolution of capitalism and the demise of feudalism. Others link it to the postcolonial state.  Mansell and Wehn also state that economic development has been understood by non-practitioners since the World War II to involve economic growth, namely the increases in per capita income, and (if currently absent) the attainment of a standard of living equivalent to that of industrialized countries. Economic development can also be considered as a static theory that documents the state of an economy at a certain time. According to Schumpeter and Backhaus (2003), the changes in this equilibrium state to document in economic theory can only be caused by intervening factors coming from the outside.

History.

Economic development originated in the post-war period of reconstruction initiated by the United States. In 1949, during his inaugural speech, President Harry Truman identified the development of undeveloped areas as a priority for the west:  There have been several major phases of development theory since 1945. Alexander Gerschenkron argued that the less developed the country is at the outset of economic development (relative to others), the more likely certain conditions are to occur. Hence, all countries do not progress similarly. From the 1940s to the 1960s the state played a large role in promoting industrialization in developing countries, following the idea of modernization theory. This period was followed by a brief period of basic needs development focusing on human capital development and redistribution in the 1970s. Neoliberalism emerged in the 1980s pushing an agenda of free trade and removal of import substitution industrialization policies.  In economics, the study of economic development was borne out of an extension to traditional economics that focused entirely on national product, or the aggregate output of goods and services. Economic development was concerned with the expansion of people's entitlements and their corresponding capabilities, morbidity, nourishment, literacy, education, and other socio-economic indicators. Borne out of the backdrop of Keynesian economics (advocating government intervention), and neoclassical economics (stressing reduced intervention), with the rise of high-growth countries (Singapore, South Korea, Hong Kong) and planned governments (Argentina, Chile, Sudan, Uganda), economic development and more generally development economics emerged amidst these mid-20th century theoretical interpretations of how economies prosper. Also, economist Albert O. Hirschman, a major contributor to development economics, asserted that economic development grew to concentrate on the poor regions of the world, primarily in Africa, Asia and Latin America yet on the outpouring of fundamental ideas and models.  It has also been argued, notably by Asian and European proponents of infrastructure-based development, that systematic, long-term government investments in transportation, housing, education, and healthcare are necessary to ensure sustainable economic growth in emerging countries.

Growth and development.

Economic growth deals with an increase in the level of output, but economic development is related to an increase in output coupled with improvement in the social and political welfare of people within a country. Therefore, economic development encompasses both growth and welfare values.  Dependency theorists argue that poor countries have sometimes experienced economic growth with little or no economic development initiatives; for instance, in cases where they have functioned mainly as resource-providers to wealthy industrialized countries. There is an opposing argument, however, that growth causes development because some of the increase in income gets spent on human development factors such as education and health.  According to Ranis et al., economic growth and development is a two-way relationship. According to them, the first chain consists of economic growth benefiting human development, since economic growth is likely to lead families and individuals to use their heightened incomes to increase expenditures, which in turn furthers human development. At the same time, the increased consumption and spending, health, education, and infrastructure systems grow and contribute to economic growth.  In addition to increasing private incomes, economic growth also generates additional resources that can be used to improve social services (such as healthcare, safe drinking water, etc.). By generating additional resources for social services, unequal income distribution will be mitigated as such social services are distributed equally across each community, thereby benefiting each individual. Concisely, the relationship between human development and economic development can be explained in three ways. First, an increase in average income leads to improvement in health and nutrition (known as Capability Expansion through Economic Growth). Second, it is believed that social outcomes can only be improved by reducing income poverty (known as Capability Expansion through Poverty Reduction). Lastly, social outcomes can also be improved with essential services such as education, healthcare, and clean drinking water (known as Capability Expansion through Social Services). John Joseph Puthenkalam's research aims at the process of economic growth theories that lead to economic development. After analyzing the existing capitalistic growth-development theoretical apparatus, he introduces the new model which integrates the variables of freedom, democracy, and human rights into the existing models and argue that any future economic growth-development of any nation depends on this emerging model as we witness the third wave of unfolding demand for democracy in the Middle East. He develops the knowledge sector in growth theories with two new concepts of'micro knowledge' and'macro knowledge'. Micro knowledge is what an individual learns from school or various existing knowledge and macro knowledge is the core philosophical thinking of a nation that all individuals inherently receive. How to combine both these pieces of knowledge would determine further growth that leads to the economic development of developing nations.  Yet others believe that several basic building blocks need to be in place for growth and development to take place. For instance, some economists believe that a fundamental first step toward development and growth is to address property rights issues, otherwise, only a small part of the economic sector will be able to participate in growth. That is, without inclusive property rights in the equation, the informal sector will remain outside the mainstream economy, excluded and without the same opportunities for study. The economic development of countries can also be implicated or contributed by the multinational corporations' companies.

Economic development goals.

The development of a country has been associated with different concepts but generally encompasses economic growth through higher productivity, political systems that represent as accurately as possible the preferences of its citizens, the extension of rights to all social groups and the opportunities to get them and the proper functionality of institutions and organizations that are able to attend more technically and logistically complex tasks (i.e. raise taxes and deliver public services). These processes describe the State's capabilities to manage its economy, polity, society and public administration. Generally, economic development policies attempt to solve issues in these topics.  With this in mind, economic development is typically associated with improvements in a variety of areas or indicators (such as literacy rates, life expectancy, and poverty rates), that may be causes of economic development rather than consequences of specific economic development programs. For example, health and education improvements have been closely related to economic growth, but the causality with economic development may not be obvious. In any case, it is important to not expect that particular economic development programs be able to fix many problems at once as that would be establishing unsurmountable goals for them that are highly unlikely they can achieve. Any development policy should set limited goals and a gradual approach to avoid falling victim to something Prittchet, Woolcock and Andrews call ‘premature load bearing’.  Many times the economic development goals of specific countries cannot be reached because they lack the State's capabilities to do so. For example, if a nation has little capacity to carry out basic functions like security and policing or core service delivery it is unlikely that a program that wants to foster a free-trade zone (special economic zones) or distribute vaccinations to vulnerable populations can accomplish their goals. This has been something overlooked by multiple international organizations, aid programs and even participating governments who attempt to carry out ‘best practices’ from other places in a carbon-copy manner with little success. This isomorphic mimicry –adopting organizational forms that have been successful elsewhere but that only hide institutional dysfunction without solving it on the home country –can contribute to getting countries stuck in ‘capability traps’ where the country does not advance in its development goals. An example of this can be seen through some of the criticisms of foreign aid and its success rate at helping countries develop.  Beyond the incentive compatibility problems that can happen to foreign aid donations –that foreign aid granting countries continue to give it to countries with little results of economic growth but with corrupt leaders that are aligned with the granting countries’ geopolitical interests and agenda –there are problems of fiscal fragility associated to receiving an important amount of government revenues through foreign aid. Governments that can raise a significant amount of revenue from this source are less accountable to their citizens (they are more autonomous) as they have less pressure to legitimately use those resources. Just as it has been documented for countries with an abundant supply of natural resources such as oil, countries whose government budget consists largely of foreign aid donations and not regular taxes are less likely to have incentives to develop effective public institutions. This in turn can undermine the country's efforts to develop.

Economic development policies.

In its broadest sense, policies of economic development encompass two major areas:  Contractionary monetary policy is a tool used by central banks to slow down a country’s economic growth. An example would be raising interest rates to decrease lending. In the United States, the use of contractionary monetary policy has increased women’s unemployment. Seguino and Heintz uses a panel dataset for each 50 states with unemployment, labor force participation by race, and annual labor market statistics. In addition, for contractionary monetary policy they utilize the federal funds rate, the short-term interest rates charged to banks. Seguino and Heintz Seguino concludes that the impact of a one percentage point increase in the federal funds rate relative to white and black women’s unemployment is 0.015 and 0.043, respectively  One growing understanding in economic development is the promotion of regional clusters and a thriving metropolitan economy. In today's global landscape, location is vitally important and becomes a key in competitive advantage.  International trade and exchange rates are a key issue in economic development. Currencies are often either under-valued or over-valued, resulting in trade surpluses or deficits. Furthermore, the growth of globalization has linked economic development with trends on international trade and participation in global value chains (GVCs) and international financial markets. The last financial crisis had a huge effect on economies in developing countries. Economist Jayati Ghosh states that it is necessary to make financial markets in developing countries more resilient by providing a variety of financial institutions. This could also add to financial security for small-scale producers.

Organization.

Economic development has evolved into a professional industry of highly specialized practitioners. The practitioners have two key roles: one is to provide leadership in policy-making, and the other is to administer policy, programs, and projects. Economic development practitioners generally work in public offices on the state, regional, or municipal level, or in public–private partnerships organizations that may be partially funded by local, regional, state, or federal tax money. These economic development organizations function as individual entities and in some cases as departments of local governments. Their role is to seek out new economic opportunities and retain their existing business wealth.  There are numerous other organizations whose primary function is not economic development that work in partnership with economic developers. They include the news media, foundations, utilities, schools, health care providers, faith-based organizations, and colleges, universities, and other education or research institutions.

International Economic Development Council.

With more than 20,000 professional economic developers employed worldwide in this highly specialized industry, the International Economic Development Council (IEDC) headquartered in Washington, D.C. is a non-profit organization dedicated to helping economic developers do their job more effectively and raising the profile of the profession. With over 4,500 members across the US and internationally, serving exclusively the economic development community, IEDC membership represents the entire range of the profession ranging from regional, state, local, rural, urban, and international economic development organizations, as well as chambers of commerce, technology development agencies, utility companies, educational institutions, consultants and redevelopment authorities. Many individual states also have associations comprising economic development professionals, who work closely with IEDC.

Development indicators and indices.

There are various types of macroeconomic and sociocultural indicators or "metrics" used by economists and geographers to assess the relative economic advancement of a given region or nation. The World Bank's "World Development Indicators" are compiled annually from officially recognized international sources and include national, regional and global estimates.

GDP per capita – growing development population.

GDP per capita is gross domestic product divided by mid year population. GDP is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidizes not included in the value of the products. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources.

Modern transportation.

European development economists have argued that the existence of modern transportation networks- such as high-speed rail infrastructure constitutes a significant indicator of a country's economic advancement: this perspective is illustrated notably through the Basic Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (known as BRTI Index) and related models such as the (Modified) Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (RTI).

Introduction of The GDI and GEM.

In an effort to create an indicator that would help measure gender equality, the UN has created two measures: the Gender-related Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). These indicators were first introduced in the 1995 UNDP Human Development Report.

Gender Empowerment Measure.

The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) focuses on aggregating various indicators that focus on capturing the economic, political, and professional gains made by women. The GEM is composed of just three variables: income earning power, share in professional and managerial jobs, and share of parliamentary seats.

Gender Development Index.

The Gender Development (GDI) measures the gender gap in human development achievements. It takes disparity between men and women into account in through three variables, health, knowledge, and living standards.

Community competition.

One unintended consequence of economic development is the intense competition between communities, states, and nations for new economic development projects in today's globalized world. With the struggle to attract and retain business, competition is further intensified by the use of many variations of economic incentives to the potential business such as: tax incentives, investment capital, donated land, utility rate discounts, and many others. IEDC places significant attention on the various activities undertaken by economic development organizations to help them compete and sustain vibrant communities.  Additionally, the use of community profiling tools and database templates to measure community assets versus other communities is also an important aspect of economic development. Job creation, economic output, and increase in taxable basis are the most common measurement tools. When considering measurement, too much emphasis has been placed on economic developers for "not creating jobs". However, the reality is that economic developers do not typically create jobs, but facilitate the process for existing businesses and start-ups to do so. Therefore, the economic developer must make sure that there are sufficient economic development programs in place to assist the businesses achieve their goals. Those types of programs are usually policy-created and can be local, regional, statewide and national in nature.

In the economic study of the public sector, economic and social development is the process by which the economic well-being and quality of life of a nation, region, or local community are improved according to targeted goals and objectives.

Hospodářský rozvoj je proces, při kterém se jednoduché a nízkopříjmové národní ekonomiky transformují na moderní průmyslové ekonomiky. Ačkoli je tento termín někdy používán jako synonymum pro hospodářský růst, obecně se používá spíše k popisu změny v ekonomice země zahrnující jak kvalitativní, tak i kvantitativní zlepšení. Teorie hospodářského rozvoje – jak se primitivní a chudé ekonomiky mohou vyvíjet do sofistikovaných a poměrně prosperujících – má zásadní význam pro nedostatečně rozvinuté země a v tomto kontextu se obvykle diskutuje o otázkách hospodářského rozvoje. Hospodářský rozvoj se také týká procesu, kterým si populace zlepšuje celkovou zdravotní, životní a akademickou úroveň.


Etymology.

Lajat's ancient name "Trachonitis" signifies the land associated with the "trachon", "a rugged stony tract." There are two volcanic districts south and east of Damascus, to which the Greeks applied this name: that to the northwest of the mountain of Bashan (Jabal Hauran) is called in Arabic, "el-Leja", which means "the refuge" or "asylum". Lajat is roughly triangular in shape, with its apex to the north. The sides are about 25 miles in length, and the base about 20. Lajat lies in the midst of an arable and pastoral country; and although it could never have supported a large population, it has probably always been inhabited.

Geography.

The Lajat is situated in southeastern Syria, spanning a triangle-shaped area between the 45-kilometer Izra'-Shahba line in the south 48 kilometers northward to the vicinity of Burraq. It is about 50 kilometers south of Damascus. Its northern border is roughly marked by the Wadi al-Ajam gorge, which separates it from the Ghouta countryside of Damascus. It is bordered to the east by the Ard al-Bathaniyya region, to the southeast by Jabal al-Druze (also called Jabal Hauran), to the south by the Nuqrah (southern Hauran plain) and to the northwest by Jaydur (northern Hauran plain).

Topography.

The Lajat's average elevation is between 600 and 700 meters above sea level, and it is higher than the surrounding plains. Many of its volcanic cones are higher than 1,000 meters above sea level, with the highest, just west of Shahba, at 1,159 meters. In general the volcanic cones and mounds rise 20 to 30 meters above the lava fields.  Much of the Lajat is covered by gray, disintegrated lava fields that form jagged basalt boulders, though there are some areas of smoother, rocky ground punctured with holes. The holes were formed from gas bubbles caused by cooling lava that flowed over the uneven landscape. Among the mostly barren landscape are depressions with far less rocky ground than the rest of the Lajat. The depressions are called "ka′" in Arabic and have average diameters of 100 meters. The depressions are likely the result of earlier volcanic eruptions. The depressions represented scattered patches of arable land among lava and fewer larger areas of fertile ground. The few wadis (dried up streams) of the Lajat are generally shallow and broad. Even fewer than the wadis are deep fissures that form caves or reservoirs.

Water sources.

Springs and underground water sources in the Lajat are scarce and most water is supplied by cisterns. Shortages of water are particularly severe during the summer months. While during the Lajat's ancient history, its inhabitants stored water from winter rainfall in reservoirs built near homes, by the early 20th century, these reservoirs had long fallen into disrepair. Thus, by the modern era, every village contained rectangular cisterns to store rainwater, which serves as the main source of water.

History.

Antiquity.

Early history.

In ancient times, Trachonitis included the regions of Lajat and the Tulul as-Safa to its east. For much of the 1st and 2nd millenniums BCE, the region lacked political significance and was influenced by the Damascus-based Arameans and the Israelites. Trachonitis was annexed by the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE. During this period, the region was a frontier zone between the southern Nabataeans and northwestern Itureans, both Arab groupings.

Roman period.

The Roman Empire conquered Syria and in 24 BCE put Trachonitis, then inhabited by nomadic marauders and cattle herders who lived its caves and depressions, under the authority of Herod the Great. To keep watch over the people of Trachonitis, Herod built the town of Bathyra (modern location unknown, but possibly in the vicinity of as-Sanamayn). During the Roman era, Trachonitis' inhabitants gradually became settled and gained exemption from taxation.  The Romans built a road that passed through the center of Trachonitis and connected with the Roman road system in Syria. Several towns and villages sprang up in Trachonitis between the 1st and 4th centuries CE. Many of these settlements had theaters, colonnades and temples. There are almost twenty sites in the Lajat that contain ruins and inscriptions from the Roman period, including Phillipopolis (modern-day Shahba) and Sha'ara (ancient name unknown). The town of Zorava (modern-day Izra') was the political center of Trachonitis and its earliest inhabitants were Nabatean Arabs. The main Nabatean tribes of the town were the Sammenoi and the Migdalenoi (migrants from nearby al-Mujaydil). The inhabitants practiced a Roman pagan cult as early as 161 CE. In the 3rd century, they built numerous houses and baths from basaltic stone, and the town had a relatively urban character.

Byzantine period.

The Romans were succeeded by the Byzantine Empire in Syria during the mid-4th century CE. For the following three centuries, Trachonitis saw a huge uptick in settlement and building activity. Among the major Byzantine-era settlements were Bosor (modern Busra al-Harir), Zorava, Jirrin, Sur, Deir al-Juwani, Rimea, Umm al-Zaytun, Shaqra and Harran. There are at least thirty sites in the Lajat with ruins tracing back to the Byzantine era. The Byzantine era saw the expansion of Christianity in the regions surrounding the Lajat, but there archaeological evidence indicates that Christianity only affected a few Lajat villages, particularly those along its southwestern edges, until the mid 6th century. One of the earliest known Christian communities in Trachonitis was Sur (ancient name unknown), which had a Christian edifice dated to 458.  Zorava was the cosmopolitan capital of Byzantine Trachonitis. Its pagan temple was replaced by the martyrium of Saint George in 515 and the town became a bishopric in 542. There are no earlier indications of a Christian presence in Zorava. In addition to its Arab inhabitants, the town had a Greek-speaking community (Greek was the "lingua franca" of Byzantine Syria), made up mostly of army veterans, who themselves were likely ethnic Arabs recruited from the province. By the mid-6th century, the Arabs of Trachonitis had largely become Christians with the cult of Saint Elijah being predominant; the cult of Saint Sergius was dominant in Trachonitis' neighboring regions. In Harran, a bilingual Arabic-Greek inscription dated from 568 describes the construction of a martyrium built by a local Arab phylarch.

Middle Ages.

The region's modern name "Lajah" was first recorded during the Middle Ages, and the region was only mentioned by later Arab geographers, indicating that it had likely been abandoned prior to the 13th century. In the early 13th century, during Ayyubid rule, the Lajat was said to contain a "large population" and numerous villages and fields, according to Syrian geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi. According to historian H. Gaube, the Lajat was likely settled by refugees from other parts of Syria due to the pressures of the Mongol invasions. There are at least thirteen sites in the Lajat that contain Islamic-era ruins, most of which date to the 13th century.

Ottoman era.

The Lajat contained some populated places during early Ottoman rule, which began in 1517, but other than a few Christian-populated villages along its western periphery, the region was abandoned by at least the 17th century.  The Lajat was settled by Druze migrants, mostly from Wadi al-Taym and Mount Lebanon, in the late 18th century and throughout the 19th century. Prior to that, the Lajat was dominated by the Sulut, a Bedouin tribe. Two Druze villages, Umm al-Zaytun and Lahithah, existed in the interior of the Lajat in the early 19th century. Major Druze settlement began in the aftermath of the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war. By 1862, Dama, Salakhid, Ahira, al-Kharsa, Sumayd and Harran, all in the heart of the Lajat, were settled by Druze from the Azzam, Shalghin and Hamada families, who were newcomers to the Hauran region. The increasing Druze presence in Lajat led to confrontations with the Sulut tribesmen, their erstwhile allies against the Ottoman authorities, in June 1868. Ismail al-Atrash led the Druze in their battles with the Sulut, while the prominent Druze clans of al-Hamdan and Bani Amer aligned with the Sulut against their chief rival, the Bani al-Atrash. The Ottoman governor of Syria, Rashid Pasha, resolved to end the war, and mediated an agreement stipulating a total Druze withdrawal from Lajat.  Nonetheless, Druze habitation continued and was principally concentrated on the Lajat's eastern edge and its southern interior, which bordered the Druze heartland of Jabal Hauran. In 1867, the Azzam and Halabi families established the villages al-Zabayer and al-Surah al-Saghirah, both situated at the eastern edge of Lajat, respectively. Between then and 1883, the Murshid family settled Lubayn, the Abu Hassun settled Jurayn and the Shalghin settled al-Majadil. Along the Lajat's eastern edge, the Halabi and Bani Amer families settled Jadaya, al-Matunah, Dhakir, Khalkhalah, Umm Haratayn, Hazim and al-Surah al-Kabirah. Druze activity in the Lajat's northeastern slopes regressed because of the scarcity of water and arable land, but the villages of al-Salmiyah, Huqf, Buthaynah, Burk, Arraja, Umm Dabib, al-Tayyibah and al-Ramah were established there mostly by the Bani Amer, but also by the Bani al-Atrash, al-Ghanim and al-Qal'ani clans between 1862 and 1883.

Modern era.

In the early 20th century, the cultivated areas of the Lajat were mostly located in its western and southwestern parts, where soil was cleared of stone and nutrient rich. Wheat and barley were grown in small quantities, and in the vicinity of some villages were olive, apricot and pear trees; other than that, the region was treeless. Other vegetation included several patches of wild flowers throughout narrow cracks between the rocks of the Lajat. Lajat was designated a World Biosphere reserve by UNESCO in 2009.

Biblical references.

An extremely rugged region, sixty walled cities were on the island, which was ruled over by Og at the time of the Israelite conquest (; ). Later, Lajat, in Bashan, was one of Solomon's commissariat districts. In Luke's Gospel, the region was called "Trachonitis" ("the rugged region") (Luke 3:1). This region formed part of Herod Philip's tetrarchy - it is only referred to once, in the phrase "tes Itouraias kai Trachbnitidos choras", literally, "of the Iturean and Trachonian region".

Population.

Most of the inhabited areas of the Lajat are along its fringes, with only a few scattered villages in the interior. The interior villages lay in relatively stone-less depressions. Most villages were built among the Lajat's ancient ruins. Historically, the population of the Lajat consisted of nomadic and semi-nomadic Bedouin tribesmen, peasants from the Hauran plain who occasionally used it as a refuge, and beginning in the 19th century, Druze from Jabal al-Druze who settled it and/or occasionally used it for refuge or to exploit resources. The Lajat was also used as a grazing area for sheep, goats and camels.  By the early 20th century, about 5,000 semi-nomadic Bedouin from the Sulut tribe and a smaller population of Bedouin from the Fahsa tribe inhabited the Lajat. Alongside them were about 10,000 Druze peasants who lived along the eastern and southeastern edges and to a lesser extent in the interior.

The Lajat (/ALA-LC: "al-Lajāʾ"), also spelled "Lejat", "Lajah", "el-Leja" or "Laja", is the largest lava field in southern Syria, spanning some 900 square kilometers. Located about southeast of Damascus, the Lajat borders the Hauran plain to the west and the foothills of Jabal al-Druze to the south. The average elevation is between 600 and 700 meters above sea level, with the highest volcanic cone being 1,159 meters above sea level. Receiving little annual rainfall, the Lajat is largely barren, though there are scattered patches of arable land in some of its depressions.

Lajat ["ladžat"] (také Leja, al-Lajat) je rozsáhlé lávové pole o rozloze asi 900 km2 v jižní Sýrii, asi 50 km jižně od Damašku.


Range and habitat.

The native range extends from Tibet and Afghanistan through Pakistan, across northern India in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh), Nepal and Bhutan, to Myanmar. It generally occurs at lower altitudes than other pines in the Himalaya, from, occasionally up to. The other Himalayan pines are "Pinus wallichiana" (blue pine), "Pinus bhutanica" (Bhutan white pine), "Pinus armandii" (Chinese white pine), "Pinus gerardiana" (chilgoza pine) and "Pinus densata" (Sikang pine), "Pinus kesiya" (Khasi Pine).

Description.

"Pinus roxburghii" is a large tree reaching with a trunk diameter of up to, exceptionally. The bark is red-brown, thick and deeply fissured at the base of the trunk, thinner and flaky in the upper crown. The leaves are needle-like, in fascicles of three, very slender, long, and distinctly yellowish green.  The cones are ovoid conic, long and broad at the base when closed, green at first, ripening glossy chestnut-brown when 24 months old. They open slowly over the next year or so, or after being heated by a forest fire, to release the seeds, opening to broad. The seeds are long, with a wing, and are wind-dispersed.

Relationships.

"Pinus roxburghii" is closely related to "Pinus canariensis" (Canary Island pine), "Pinus brutia" (Turkish pine) and "Pinus pinaster" (maritime pine), which all share many features with it. It is a relatively non-variable species, with constant morphology over the entire range.

Ecology.

Usually, the accumulating carpet of needles on the forest floor under these trees makes conditions unfavourable for many common plants and trees to grow. The most common trees which are able to grow in this environment are "Rhododendron", banj oak ("Quercus leucotrichophora") and trees from the family Ericaceae (known locally as "eonr" and "lodar"). This could possibly be due to the relative immunity from fire that the thick bark of these species gives them. The Himalayan stinging nettle is another plant which seems to thrive well under this tree.  The caterpillars of the moth "Batrachedra silvatica" are not known from foodplants other than chir pine. The white-bellied heron, a large heron is known to roost in chir pine.

Uses.

Chir pine is widely planted for timber in its native area, being one of the most important trees in forestry in northern Pakistan, India and Nepal. For local building purposes, the wood of this tree is the least preferred, as it is the weakest and most prone to decay when compared with other conifers. However, in most low altitude regions, there is no other choice, except for the fact that these being tropical latitudes there are other trees at lower altitudes.  When this species of pine tree reaches a large girth, the bark forms flat patches which can be broken off in chunks. It has a layered structure like plywood, but the individual layers have no grain. The locals use this easily carvable bark to make useful items like lids for vessels. Blacksmiths of that region also use this bark exclusively as the fuel for their furnaces.  Old trees which die from fire or drought, undergo some metamorphosis in their wood due to the crystallization of the resin inside the heart wood. This makes the wood become brightly coloured (various shades from translucent yellow to dark red) and very aromatic with a brittle, glassy feel. This form of wood known as "jhukti" by the locals is very easy to ignite. (It never gets wet or waterlogged.) They use it for starting fires and even for lighting, as a small piece of this burns for a long time (owing to the high resin content). Of all the conifer species in the area, only this one seems to be ideal for that purpose.  Every autumn, the dried needles of this tree forms a dense carpet on the forest floor, which the locals gather in large bundles to serve as bedding for their cattle, for the year round. The green needles are also used to make tiny hand brooms.  The locals of the Jaunsar-Bawar region of Uttarakhand have several uses for this tree which is known in the local dialect as "salli".  It is also occasionally used as an ornamental tree, planted in parks and gardens in hot dry areas, where its heat and drought tolerance is valued.

Chemistry.

"Pinus roxburghii" contains large amounts of taxifolin.

Resin.

It is also tapped commercially for resin. On distillation, the resin yields an essential oil, commonly known as turpentine, and non-volatile rosin. The proportion of rosin and turpentine oil in chir pine is 75% and 22% respectively with 3% losses, etc.  The turpentine is chiefly used as a solvent in pharmaceutical preparations, perfume industry, in manufacture of synthetic pine oil, disinfectants, insecticides and denaturants. It is one of the most important basic raw materials for the synthesis of terpene chemicals which are used in a wide variety of industries such as adhesives, paper and rubber, etc.  Chir pine rosin is principally used in paper, soap, cosmetics, paint, varnish, rubber and polish industries. Besides these, other uses include manufacture of linoleum, explosives, insecticides and disinfectants, as a flux in soldering, in brewing and in mineral beneficiation as a frothing agent.  Presently, India imports resin which is far superior in quality as well as cheaper than the indigenous one. Quality of resin depends on the pinene content. Imported resin contains 75–95% pinenes, whereas chir pine resin contains only about 25% pinenes.

Pinus roxburghii, commonly known as chir pine or longleaf Indian pine, is a species of pine, native to the Himalayas. It was named after William Roxburgh.

Borovice dlouholistá ("Pinus roxburghii") je jehličnatý strom dorůstající obvykle do výšky okolo 30 m, který vytváří rozsáhlé porosty v jižním podhůří Himálaje. V lesních porostech své domoviny bývá dominující druh a je využívána pro dřevo a pryskyřici. Mimo původní areál je pouze ojediněle pěstována jako okrasný strom s jehlicemi až tři desítky centimetrů dlouhými, hlavní příčinou je malá odolnost vůči chladu. Její druhové jméno "roxburghii" připomíná skotského botanika Williama Roxburgha z přelomu 18. a 19. století, zakladatele indické botaniky.


History.

The Gammelstad Church Town began as a trading settlement, and became the focus of religious observances for farming communities in the region. Gammelstad is an exceptionally well preserved example of a Scandinavian church town. Such settlements are unique, because they were shaped by the religious and social needs of a regions inhabitants, rather than by economic and geographic forces.  The numerous wooden houses constructed around the church were only used on Sundays, and in conjunction with religious festivals as overnight housing for worshippers from the surrounding countryside, whose journeys involved travelling long distances in a harsh natural environment. Gammelstad's development into a church town instead of a mercantile town is a direct result of natural land upheaval which rendered the town harbor unusable by the 17th century, forcing citizens to relocate the community’s commercial centre. The new settlement took the name of Luleå, while the earlier church site was renamed Gammelstad (Old Town). The relocation of the commercial centre preserved the unique settlement of Gammelstad, leaving it untouched by the later 19th-century industrialization of the region.  Gammelstad's layout has been preserved in its entirety. The town plan grew organically over several centuries, consisting of radial approaches to the church, and roads circling the town centre along the sides of the hill. A wall with gates was built around the church, however the wall currently in place is a reconstruction. Development halted after the middle of the 17th century. In the modern day, very few Scandinavian church town settlements remain, and Gammelstad is the best preserved example of this form of settlement, and is therefore protected by UNESCO.

Buildings.

There are a total of 520 buildings within the Gammelstad Church Town UNESCO World Heritage Site. These buildings include 404 church cottages divided into about 552 separate chambers, and 116 other buildings. Church cottages which served as short-term housing for worshippers are juxtaposed with larger, more conventional houses for the officials and merchants who lived permanently in the settlement. Both types of housing surround the late 15th-century church, the district’s only stone building, whose size reflects the prosperity of the region. Other notable buildings include the Chapel of Bethel, the Cottage of the Separatists, the Parish House, the Tithe Barn, the Mayor’s Residence, the Captain’s Residence, and the Guest House.

Gammelstad Church Town () is a UNESCO World Heritage Site situated in Gammelstaden near the city of Luleå, Sweden, at the northern end of the Gulf of Bothnia. It is the best preserved example of a type of town that was once widespread throughout northern Scandinavia. As Church Village of Gammelstad, Luleå, it was listed as a World Heritage Site in 1996.

Gammelstad je název sídelního celku na území švédské obce Luleå. Jedná se o původní „staré město“ dnešní Luley a nachází se přibližně 8 km západně od současného centra města. Počet obyvatel je přibližně 4 800 osob. Luleå byla do současné polohy přesunuta v roce 1649 z důvodu postglaciálního vyzdvižení původního přístavu, který se stal příliš mělkým pro vplouvající lodě.


Birth and early childhood.

Mahmud Namık was born in Dolmabahçe Palace and lived there until the death of his grandfather, Sultan Mehmed V, just before the end of World War I on 4 July 1918. He then moved with his family to a Konak (residence) at Nişantaşı for the winter months and to one in Bağlarbaşı, above Beylerbeyi, for the summer.

Exile.

In March 1924, at the age of 10, Prince Mahmud Namık was sent into exile along with the entire Imperial Ottoman family, following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey and the abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate and the Ottoman Caliphate. Prince Mahmud Namık never returned to Turkey, since he died before the decree of exile was lifted in 1974. He was initially sent to boarding school in Lebanon, but then soon came to live with his family in Nice, France once they had settled there to be close to the former Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI, who had rented a villa in San Remo, and to their cousin, the last Caliph of Islam Abdülmecid II, who lived in Nice. In 1934 he moved to Alexandria, Egypt with his father Ömer Hilmi and grandmother, and was later joined in January by his sister, Emine Mükbile, and his brother-in-law, Ali Vâsib. By the early 1940s Prince Mahmud Namık kept an apartment with his wife Şaharazad (or Shahrazad) in Maadi, a suburb of Cairo.

Marriage and issue.

Prince Mahmud Namık married Şaharazad Ratib on August 1939. Şaharazad was the only daughter of Ismail Ratib Bey, by his wife Princess Emine Bihruz, younger daughter of Prince Ibrahim Rashid Fazil Pasha, of Egypt. She was born in Alexandria in 1922 and died in Cairo, Egypt in 1993. Upon marriage she took the title Şaharazad Hanımefendi. They had one son, Prince Ömer Abdülmecid Osmanoğlu who was born in Alexandria, Egypt on 4 June 1941. The couple were divorced at Alexandria, Egypt in 1947.

Career.

Prince Mahmud Namik worked until the end of World War II for the Alexandria tramline company. In the late 1940s he established himself as a businessman and settled in Geneva, Switzerland where he developed his business interests in places as far apart as Pakistan and the USA.

Arrest, trial and imprisonment.

Prince Mahmud Namik was accused of involvement in a plot to bring down the military regime of Gamal Abdel Nasser in favour of the one time Regent Muhammad Abdel Moneim or his son. The Plot to topple Nasser had been ongoing since before the Suez Crisis of 1956 and was supported at various times by the British M16 and the French.  Tried in absentia on charges of plotting to place a Mohammed-Ali/Osmanoglou descendant on Egypt's throne, Prince Namik was sentenced to 15 years in jail on 29 April 1958. Luckily for him he was in Europe at the time  In 1958 he was asked to help negotiate the marriage of his cousin Princess Sabiha Fazila Hanimsultan, the only daughter of Prince Muhammad 'Ali Ibrahim Beyefendi of Egypt and Princess Zehra Hanzade Sultan, to King Faisal II of Iraq. The engagement was ended by the murder of King Faisal II, following a military coup on 14 July 1958.  For his utter misfortune Prince Namik was in Iraq on 14 July 1958 when a bloody revolution broke out in that country. Mending fences with its republican neighbors, the new military junta offered the captured prince to a pitiless Nasser in exchange for improved relations with Egypt. Namik was thus flown to Cairo on 31 August 1958 to face retrial receiving a 15-year jail sentence. He died five years later aged 50.

Death.

Mahmud died at the age of 49 from a stroke, at Cairo, Egypt on 13 November 1963, was buried at Khedive Tawfik Mausoleum in Cairo, then transferred to Sultan Mahmud II Mausoleum in Istanbul in 1987.

Honours.

He received the Collar of the Hanedan-ı-Ali-Osman. The order was created in 1895 by Abdul Hamid II It was awarded only to members of the Imperial Family and foreign Royalty with the exception of the Grand Vizier Tewfik Pasha. The order was officially awarded on only 50 occasions and is now informally passed down through the family.

Family tree.

Showing the line of descent from the founder of the Ottoman dynasty to present day through Sultan Mehmed V Reşad's youngest son Prince Ömer Hilmi Efendi

Prince Mahmud Namık Efendi (23 December 1913; Dolmabahçe Palace-13 November 1963; Cairo, Egypt ), was the only son of Ömer Hilmi, and his wife Hadice Firdevs Gülnev Başhanımefendi, and grandson of Sultan Mehmed V Reşad. Prince Mahmud Namık was an active member of the "Zohriya Set", a group of exiled members of the Ottoman dynasty who lived in the Cairo suburb of Maadi along with members of the Egyptian Royal family and their entourage. Prince Mahmud Namık was implicated in the "Restoration Plot" to overthrow Gamal Abdel Nasser and replace him on the restored throne with Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim. his trial and subsequent imprisonment made headlines around the world.

Princ Mahmud Namik Efendi (23. prosince 1913 - 13. listopadu 1963) byl jediný syn Şehzade Ömera Hilmiho a jeho manželky "Hadice Firdevs Gülnev Başhanımefendi." Byl vnukem osmanského sultána Mehmeda V. Mahmud byl aktivním členem skupiny "Zohriya Set", která se skládala z členů Osmanské dynastie, kteří se po vyhnání do exilu usadili v Káhiře a žili zde společně s egyptskou vládnoucí dynastií Muhammada Alího. Také byl zapleten do akce, kde bylo účelem sesadit Gamala Abdela Nassera a dosadit na trůn prince Muhammada Abdel Moneima. Jeho pokus a další odnětí svobody se dostalo do zpráv celého světa.


Plot.

After seeing a commercial about starving children in Africa, Cartman, Stan, Kenny and Kyle send money to Sally Struthers' charity organization, the Christian Children's Fund. They do not care about the cause, but want the free sports watch that comes with the sponsorship. However, due to a miscommunication, an Ethiopian boy is delivered to the boys instead of the watch. Although initially shocked, the four boys befriend him, and Cartman names the boy Starvin' Marvin ("Marvin" being given to him by the apparent pronunciation of his name when he was talking in his native language). Meanwhile, mobs of wild turkeys begin attacking and killing South Park residents. Mad scientist Dr. Mephisto tries to warn Mayor McDaniels that genetically engineered turkeys he had been breeding to feed to the poor have gone crazy and are now attacking humans. Mephisto is instead ignored and ridiculed by McDaniels.  The boys take Marvin to an all-you-can-eat buffet, where he is shocked by how much food the townsfolk consume compared to his home country, and by how wasteful Cartman is with his food. Back at school, Mr. Garrison announces the food drive is a failure because students have brought in only a few cans of creamed corn. The boys present Marvin to the class during show and tell, after which Mr. Garrison and Principal Victoria tell the boys they will have to call Red Cross and send Marvin home. Meanwhile, Dr. Mephisto shows Chef that the turkey DNA is growing so rapidly that the turkeys might take over the world if they are not stopped.  The FBI arrives to take Marvin back to Ethiopia, but Marvin tricks them into taking Cartman instead. Cartman, who had previously cared little for the impoverished in Africa, is unable to bear the lack of food and poor living conditions there; furthermore, he attempts to convince the Red Cross there that he's not one of the Africans, but fails. While praying to God in Addis Ababa, Cartman says he is sorry he made fun of poor people. He eventually finds a Red Cross shack, where Sally Struthers is hoarding all the food meant for charity. After a brief argument, Cartman exposes all of Struthers's hoarding of the food supply to the Ethiopians, who then take control of the food supply.  Back in South Park, Chef rallies the townspeople (in a parody of "Braveheart") to fight the genetically engineered turkeys; in response, one of the turkeys also rallies the other turkeys to fight the townspeople. A massive battle ensues in which Kenny is killed (his eye is poked and gouged out), but eventually the South Park residents kill all the turkeys and claim victory. The FBI returns Cartman to South Park and takes Marvin home, but not before he brings the bodies of the dead turkeys back to Ethiopia for everyone to eat. Marvin is then hailed as a hero by his people while they pass Struthers being bound and gagged over a fire.  In the end, back in South Park, Kenny's family give their Thanksgiving blessings as they prepare to eat a can of green beans, but realize afterward that they do not have a can opener.

Production.

"Starvin' Marvin" was written by Trey Parker, Matt Stone, and Pam Brady. Directed by Parker, it was the first official "South Park" Thanksgiving episode. Parker and Stone said "Starvin' Marvin", like other holiday episodes, proved difficult to make because they felt a responsibility to constantly top other previous holiday shows. Stone provided the voice of Marvin. According to the official "South Park" website, the character was not named after the Starvin' Marvin's brand of American gas stations, and that the similarity between the two names is just a coincidence. Jerry Seinfeld, comedian and star of the popular sitcom "Seinfeld", contacted Parker and Stone and asked if he could record a guest voice performance because he was a fan of the show. Parker and Stone offered Seinfeld the throwaway background part of one of the turkeys, but Seinfeld was "a bit put off" by the offer and did not accept.  The episode was partially inspired by the commercials for the Christian Children's Fund, in which Sally Struthers encourages viewers to donate money to provide food for starving children in Africa. Parker said he did not really believe Struthers was hoarding food from the charity, but he came up with the concept because he found it funny that such an obese woman would make a public plea for food for others. Parker said he had always wondered how a starving African child would react if they were taken to a large buffet dinner at an American restaurant, with "people leaving tons of food on their plates", which served as further inspiration for the episode. Parker and Stone originally planned for Struthers to die at the end of the episode and have the African children eat her and live off her fat; Comedy Central executives told the duo they could not kill Struthers, although celebrities have been killed off in subsequent episodes without any objections from the network.  Parker and Stone were unhappy with the turkey attack subplot, which they felt "never really went anywhere" and ended abruptly without any satisfying conclusion. They nevertheless included it because they felt obligated to include a B story, since every episode in the season so far had included one. Later in the series, they said they realized this was not necessary and made many episodes without a B story. Although the duo liked the "payoff" of the Starvin' Marvin main plot, they did not know how to end the turkey subplot, so they simply had the characters kill all the turkeys and claim that there were none left; they decided this sudden ending was the funniest possible option. Stone said of the subplot, "The turkeys were just an excuse to have the "Braveheart" sequence." The animators enjoyed creating the turkey battle scene, which was designed to be shown in widescreen aspect ratio while the rest of the episode was animated normally. However, the animation proved to be very difficult and took a long time to do because it involved a larger number of characters and animals in one scene than had ever been featured previously in the show. Some of the characters in the far background were animated in a gray and shadowyy style, which Parker said was not so much a visual effect as it was a "lighting effect meaning we didn't want to draw all these people".  In addition to Starvin' Marvin himself, the episode included the first appearances of several regular characters: Kyle's father Gerald Broflovski, as well as Stuart, Carol, and Kevin McCormick, father, mother, and brother (respectively) of Kenny, who were portrayed as incredibly poor and unhygienic. In a continuity error, the couple killed by the turkeys at Stark's Pond can be seen alive and unharmed during the turkey battle scene.

Themes.

Psychologists Gilbert Reyes and Gerard Jacobs have cited "Starvin' Marvin" as one example of popular culture voicing criticisms of humanitarianism "as an overblown industry leeching off others' suffering and harming its purported beneficiaries". The episode also highlights America's consumerist society and American indifference toward impoverished countries. The moral of the episode, explained by Stan in the final scene, encourages viewers to see suffering citizens of impoverished countries as real people, rather than images on television screens, which tend to make the viewers feel detached and alienated from them.  "Starvin' Marvin" explores and satirizes gluttony in the US, particularly through its unflattering portrayal of Sally Struthers, who gorges on donated food meant for starving children. The greed and wastefulness shown in the buffet scene, as well as Cartman's overall greediness and lack of understanding regarding the plight of starving African children, has been said to demonstrate an over-abundance and decadence typically associated with Americans. The destructive rampage of the turkeys provides a commentary on genetic engineering. Scott Calef, a philosophy professor who studies popular culture, said the destruction caused by the turkeys, despite the best of intentions by Dr. Mephisto, are indicative of the unpredictable nature and ethical ambiguity of the use of genetic engineering for the betterment of humankind.

Cultural references and impact.

Starvin' Marvin proved to be a popular minor character, even though he would appear in only one more episode, the third season episode "Starvin' Marvin in Space". The character was later featured in "South Park Rally", a 2000 racing video game from developer Acclaim, in which Marvin races the other characters in a motorized wheat sack. Marvin is also featured in "", a platform mobile game featuring a number of "South Park" characters. Eric Cartman's line, "That's a bad Starvin' Marvin!", became one of the most popular lines from the first season of the show. Starvin' Marvin is from the African nation Ethiopia, which experienced two famines in the mid-1980s. The American authorities who address his parents identify his family's surname as "Click Click Derk".  The scenes in which Chef, and later the lead turkey, don blue and white war paint and speak inspirational words to their armies are a parody of "Braveheart", the 1995 Mel Gibson-directed film about Scottish historical hero William Wallace. Parker said it was the first of many times a film was spoofed in a "South Park" episode, even though both said they enjoyed "Braveheart". During class, Mr. Garrison incorrectly tells the children the internationally known English pop singer Engelbert Humperdinck was the first man to walk on the moon. Also in the classroom, when it is suggested some poor people would rather die than go to a poorhouse, Cartman says, "Well then perhaps they should – and decrease the surplus population!" The line is lifted word-for-word from the Charles Dickens novella "A Christmas Carol", prompting Mr. Garrison to respond, "Okay, kids, that's enough Dickens for one day." Kyle incorrectly tells Stan that Sally Struthers appeared on "Full House", an American sitcom that ran from 1987 to 1995; she actually starred in the 1970s series "All in the Family". When Dr. Mephisto asks Chef to look into his microscope, Chef says he sees "an extreme close-up of Vanessa Redgrave's private parts", a reference to the Academy Award-winning English actress. At the end of the episode, Stan said it is important to remember the images of starving children on television are "just as real as you or I". Kyle says by that logic, MacGyver is a real person too, a reference to the secret agent protagonist from the 1980s television series of the same name.  Tom Vogt, who served as the editor of "South Park" for several years, watched a bootleg copy of "Starvin' Marvin" and several other episodes of "South Park" before driving to Colorado to seek a job with the show. He was hired as the editor after contacting one of the "South Park" animators who used to work for the same company as he had.

Release and reception.

"Starvin' Marvin" first aired in the United States on Comedy Central on November 19, 1997. In its original American broadcast, "Starvin' Marvin" received a Nielsen rating of 4.8, meaning the episode was seen by about 2.2 million households in the US. Television journalists described the rating as "astonishing" by Comedy Central standards; at the time, the network averaged a 0.6 rating (276,000 households) during prime time, and prior to "South Park", the channel's highest rating was a 2.7 (1.24 million households) for the second-season premiere of "Absolutely Fabulous". Several reviewers have described "Starvin' Marvin" as one of "South Park"s "classic episodes". Parker said the emotional moment when Starvin' Marvin returned home with all the turkeys made his mother cry, marking the first time he and Stone heard of an emotional reaction to their show.  After the episode aired, Parker and Stone received feedback that audiences felt "Starvin' Marvin" was especially unkind to Struthers. Although they did not speak to her themselves, the duo received word that Struthers was a fan of the show until "Starvin' Marvin" aired, after which she was very upset and reportedly reacted emotionally over her portrayal. Struthers was particularly saddened by the fact that her character steals food from the same starving children she had been working to help. Parker and Stone were slightly remorseful when they learned of her reaction and have said they did not have anything against Struthers personally. Nevertheless, Struthers was portrayed in an even less flattering way in the third season episode "Starvin' Marvin in Space" as a Jabba the Hutt-like creature. In a DVD commentary track, Parker said of Struthers, "Dude, you're really setting yourself up if you're going to be that fat and go on the air talking about [starving children].... We don't think she's a bad person, she's probably nice to try to do this, but cut down on the Twinkies a little bit before going on the air."  Tom Carson, television critic for "The Village Voice", praised the episode, which he said "featured some amazing sick jokes about American affluence and obliviousness". Dianne Williamson of the "Telegram & Gazette" praised "Starvin' Marvin" for taking a chance with the source material, and said, "Often I'm in awe at the courage of these ["South Park"] creators." "The Advertiser" of Lafayette, Louisiana, called the episode "hysterical" and particularly praised its satire of American consumerism. The "St. Paul Pioneer Press" described the episode as "hilarious" and said, "We know we shouldn't laugh, but we can't help it." Vicki Englund of "The Courier-Mail" complimented the "really bizarre storyline" and the moral of the episode, and especially praised the jokes about Struthers: "It might be a good idea not to eat during the hilarious second episode. Enough said."  Vern Perry, a reviewer with the "Orange County Register", called "Starvin' Marvin" his favorite "South Park" episode. The "Starvin' Marvin" episode was featured in a 1998 "Chicago Tribune" list of the top ten reasons for the popularity of "South Park". The "Chicago Tribune" also included "Starvin' Marvin" in a 2003 list of the top ten funniest episodes. Bill Ward, of the "Star Tribune", described "Starvin Marvin" as Cartman's "finest half-hour". Not all reviews were positive; "Boston Globe" writer Matthew Gilbert, who described "South Park" as immature and low-brow, called "Starvin' Marvin" a particularly "uncuddly episode". Brian Boyd of "The Irish Times" criticized the episode for making jokes at the expense of starving African children.  "Starvin' Marvin" was released, along with eleven other episodes, in a three-DVD set in November 1998. It was included in the third volume, which also included the episodes "Mecha-Streisand", "Mr. Hankey, the Christmas Poo" and "Tom's Rhinoplasty". "Starvin' Marvin" was also one of six episodes included on a 1998 VHS called "South Park Festival Special", which included "Mr. Hankey, the Christmas Poo", "Merry Christmas, Charlie Manson!", "Mr. Hankey's Christmas Classics", "Korn's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery" and "Pinkeye". The episode, along with the other twelve from the first season, was also included in the DVD release "South Park: The Complete First Season", which was released on November 12, 2002. Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode, but they were not included with the DVDs due to "standards" issues with some of the statements; Parker and Stone refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored, so they were released in a CD separate from the DVDs. In 2008, Parker and Stone made "Starvin' Marvin" and all "South Park" episodes available to watch for free on the show's official website, "South Park Studios".

"Starvin' Marvin" is the ninth episode of the first season of the American animated television series "South Park". It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on November 19, 1997. In the episode, Cartman, Kenny, Kyle and Stan send money to an African charity hoping to get a sports watch, but are instead sent an Ethiopian child whom they dub "Starvin' Marvin". Later, Cartman is accidentally sent to Ethiopia, where he learns activist Sally Struthers is hoarding the charity's food for herself. In an accompanying subplot, after genetically engineered turkeys attack South Park residents, Chef rallies the residents to fight back, in a parody of the film "Braveheart".

Hladovej Marvin (v anglickém originále Starvin' Marvin) je osmý díl první řady amerického komediálního animovaného televizního seriálu "Městečko South Park".


Early life.

He was born in Munich, on his father's side to the dynasty of "Freiherren" (Barons) von Firmian descending from Sigmundskron ("Formigar") Castle in Tyrol, by virtue of being the son of Countess Maria Viktoria von Thun and the Imperial envoy, Baron Franz Wilhelm von Firmian. His maternal uncle Count Johann Ernst von Thun was Bishop of Seckau from 1679 until 1687 and Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg from 1687 to 1709.  Leopold Anton von Firmian was the uncle of Cardinal Leopold Ernst von Firmian, also prince-bishop of Passau. His nephew, Karl Joseph von Firmian, the Austrian plenipotentiary minister in Milan, was renowned as a patron of the arts, including poets such as Giuseppe Parini, musicians such as Johann Ernst Eberlin and painters such as Giambettino Cignaroli. While Leopold Anton was an early patron of Leopold Mozart, his nephew, Count Karl von Firmian appears to have been one of the patrons of Amadeus Mozart's opera "Mitridate, Re di Ponto" in Milan "circa" 1770.

Ecclesiastical career.

Firmian had prepared for an ecclesiastical career, received his ordination in Rome in 1707 and became provost of the Salzburg chapter in 1713. Pope Clement XI appointed him Bishop of Lavant in 1718, Pope Benedict XIII also made him Bishop of Seckau in 1724. On 4 October 1727 he was elected Archbishop of Salzburg. He had Schloss Klessheim finished and Schloss Leopoldskron erected as his private residence.  Firmian saw it as his goal to give the Catholic Church its "old power and glory". Accordingly, he tried to convert the Protestant minority living in the archbishopric (especially in Pongau) to the Catholic faith - he had Jesuits preach in the village squares, all villagers had to appear at threat of severe penalties. On 31 October 1731, the 214th anniversary of Martin Luther's nailing of his 95 Theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg, Firmian signed an Edict of Expulsion of Protestants declaring that all Protestants in the archbishopric had to recant their non-Catholic beliefs or be banished within days. To enforce his order Firmian brought over 6000 Austrian soldiers to Salzburg. Surprisingly, over twenty thousand of his subjects professed Protestant beliefs and were exiled. Most of those who survived their flight were received by King Frederick William I of Prussia and settled around Gumbinnen in East Prussia. Others found refuge in Hanover, the Netherlands, and the British colony of Georgia. The expulsion drew vehement protests from the Protestant body in the Reichstag and the Protestant countries of Europe. For Salzburg, the expulsion had catastrophic economic consequences. After the expulsion of the Protestants, Firmian divided the Salzburg territory into four mission areas: Augustinian, Capuchin, Benedictine and Franciscan.  Firmian completed construction on Schloss Klessheim, he had the and Marstallschwemme redesigned, and constructed the Schloss Leopoldskron for his nephew Franz Laktanz Firmian.  Archbishop Firmian is buried at the crypt of Salzburg Cathedral.

Leopold Anton Eleutherius Freiherr von Firmian (11 March 1679 – 22 October 1744) was Bishop of Lavant 1718–24, Bishop of Seckau 1724–27 and Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg from 1727 until his death.

Leopold Antonín Eleuterius říšský svobodný pán z Firmianu (německy "Leopold Anton Eleutherius Reichsfreiherr von Firmian", 27. května 1679, Mnichov - 22. října 1744, Salzburg) byl biskup lavantský, sekavský a lublaňský. Nakonec byl roku 1727 zvolen salcburským knížetem a arcibiskupem "(princeps et archiepiscopus salisburgensis)".


Mathematical form.

The Einstein field equations (EFE) may be written in the form:  where is the Ricci curvature tensor, is the scalar curvature, is the metric tensor, is the cosmological constant, is Newton's gravitational constant, is the speed of light in vacuum, and is the stress–energy tensor.  The EFE is a tensor equation relating a set of symmetric 4 × 4 tensors. Each tensor has 10 independent components. The four Bianchi identities reduce the number of independent equations from 10 to 6, leaving the metric with four gauge fixing degrees of freedom, which correspond to the freedom to choose a coordinate system.  Although the Einstein field equations were initially formulated in the context of a four-dimensional theory, some theorists have explored their consequences in dimensions. The equations in contexts outside of general relativity are still referred to as the Einstein field equations. The vacuum field equations (obtained when is identically zero) define Einstein manifolds.  Despite the simple appearance of the equations they are actually quite complicated. Given a specified distribution of matter and energy in the form of a stress–energy tensor, the EFE are understood to be equations for the metric tensor, as both the Ricci tensor and scalar curvature depend on the metric in a complicated nonlinear manner. In fact, when fully written out, the EFE are a system of ten coupled, nonlinear, hyperbolic-elliptic partial differential equations.  One can write the EFE in a more compact form by defining the Einstein tensor  which is a symmetric second-rank tensor that is a function of the metric. The EFE can then be written as  In standard units, each term on the left has units of 1/length. With this choice of Einstein constant as 8πG/c, then the stress-energy tensor on the right side of the equation must be written with each component in units of energy-density (i.e., energy per volume = pressure).  Using geometrized units where, this can be rewritten as  The expression on the left represents the curvature of spacetime as determined by the metric; the expression on the right represents the matter/energy content of spacetime. The EFE can then be interpreted as a set of equations dictating how matter/energy determines the curvature of spacetime.  These equations, together with the geodesic equation, which dictates how freely-falling matter moves through space-time, form the core of the mathematical formulation of general relativity.

Sign convention.

The above form of the EFE is the standard established by Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler. The authors analyzed all conventions that exist and classified according to the following three signs (S1, S2, S3):  The third sign above is related to the choice of convention for the Ricci tensor:  With these definitions Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler classify themselves as, whereas Weinberg (1972) is, Peebles (1980) and Efstathiou et al. (1990) are, Rindler (1977), Atwater (1974), Collins Martin & Squires (1989) and Peacock (1999) are.  Authors including Einstein have used a different sign in their definition for the Ricci tensor which results in the sign of the constant on the right side being negative  The sign of the (very small) cosmological term would change in both these versions, if the metric sign convention is used rather than the MTW metric sign convention adopted here.

Equivalent formulations.

Taking the trace with respect to the metric of both sides of the EFE one gets  where is the spacetime dimension. This expression can be rewritten as  If one adds times this to the EFE, one gets the following equivalent "trace-reversed" form  For example, in dimensions this reduces to  Reversing the trace again would restore the original EFE. The trace-reversed form may be more convenient in some cases (for example, when one is interested in weak-field limit and can replace in the expression on the right with the Minkowski metric without significant loss of accuracy).

The cosmological constant.

Einstein modified his original field equations to include a cosmological constant term proportional to the metric  Since is constant, the energy conservation law is unaffected.  The cosmological constant term was originally introduced by Einstein to allow for a universe that is not expanding or contracting. This effort was unsuccessful because:  So, Einstein abandoned, calling it the "biggest blunder [he] ever made".  Despite Einstein's motivation for introducing the cosmological constant term, there is nothing inconsistent with the presence of such a term in the equations. For many years the cosmological constant was almost universally considered to be 0. However, recent improved astronomical techniques have found that a positive value of is needed to explain the accelerating universe. However, the cosmological constant is negligible at the scale of a galaxy or smaller.  Einstein thought of the cosmological constant as an independent parameter, but its term in the field equation can also be moved algebraically to the other side, written as part of the stress–energy tensor:  The resulting vacuum energy density is constant and given by  The existence of a cosmological constant is thus equivalent to the existence of a non-zero vacuum energy. Thus, the terms "cosmological constant" and "vacuum energy" are now used interchangeably in general relativity.

Features.

Conservation of energy and momentum.

General relativity is consistent with the local conservation of energy and momentum expressed as  which expresses the local conservation of stress–energy. This conservation law is a physical requirement. With his field equations Einstein ensured that general relativity is consistent with this conservation condition.

Nonlinearity.

The nonlinearity of the EFE distinguishes general relativity from many other fundamental physical theories. For example, Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism are linear in the electric and magnetic fields, and charge and current distributions (i.e. the sum of two solutions is also a solution); another example is Schrödinger's equation of quantum mechanics which is linear in the wavefunction.

The correspondence principle.

The EFE reduce to Newton's law of gravity by using both the weak-field approximation and the slow-motion approximation. In fact, the constant appearing in the EFE is determined by making these two approximations.

Vacuum field equations.

If the energy-momentum tensor is zero in the region under consideration, then the field equations are also referred to as the vacuum field equations. By setting in the trace-reversed field equations, the vacuum equations can be written as  In the case of nonzero cosmological constant, the equations are  The solutions to the vacuum field equations are called vacuum solutions. Flat Minkowski space is the simplest example of a vacuum solution. Nontrivial examples include the Schwarzschild solution and the Kerr solution.  Manifolds with a vanishing Ricci tensor,, are referred to as Ricci-flat manifolds and manifolds with a Ricci tensor proportional to the metric as Einstein manifolds.

Einstein–Maxwell equations.

If the energy-momentum tensor is that of an electromagnetic field in free space, i.e. if the electromagnetic stress–energy tensor  is used, then the Einstein field equations are called the "Einstein–Maxwell equations" (with cosmological constant, taken to be zero in conventional relativity theory):  Additionally, the covariant Maxwell equations are also applicable in free space:  where the semicolon represents a covariant derivative, and the brackets denote anti-symmetrization. The first equation asserts that the 4-divergence of the two-form is zero, and the second that its exterior derivative is zero. From the latter, it follows by the Poincaré lemma that in a coordinate chart it is possible to introduce an electromagnetic field potential such that  in which the comma denotes a partial derivative. This is often taken as equivalent to the covariant Maxwell equation from which it is derived. However, there are global solutions of the equation which may lack a globally defined potential.

Solutions.

The solutions of the Einstein field equations are metrics of spacetime. These metrics describe the structure of the spacetime including the inertial motion of objects in the spacetime. As the field equations are non-linear, they cannot always be completely solved (i.e. without making approximations). For example, there is no known complete solution for a spacetime with two massive bodies in it (which is a theoretical model of a binary star system, for example). However, approximations are usually made in these cases. These are commonly referred to as post-Newtonian approximations. Even so, there are several cases where the field equations have been solved completely, and those are called exact solutions.  The study of exact solutions of Einstein's field equations is one of the activities of cosmology. It leads to the prediction of black holes and to different models of evolution of the universe.  One can also discover new solutions of the Einstein field equations via the method of orthonormal frames as pioneered by Ellis and MacCallum. In this approach, the Einstein field equations are reduced to a set of coupled, nonlinear, ordinary differential equations. As discussed by Hsu and Wainwright, self-similar solutions to the Einstein field equations are fixed points of the resulting dynamical system. New solutions have been discovered using these methods by LeBlanc and Kohli and Haslam.

The linearized EFE.

The nonlinearity of the EFE makes finding exact solutions difficult. One way of solving the field equations is to make an approximation, namely, that far from the source(s) of gravitating matter, the gravitational field is very weak and the spacetime approximates that of Minkowski space. The metric is then written as the sum of the Minkowski metric and a term representing the deviation of the true metric from the Minkowski metric, ignoring higher power terms. This linearization procedure can be used to investigate the phenomena of gravitational radiation.

Polynomial form.

One might think that EFE are non-polynomial since they contain the inverse of the metric tensor. However, the equations can be arranged so that they contain only the metric tensor and not its inverse. First, the determinant of the metric in 4 dimensions can be written:  using the Levi-Civita symbol; and the inverse of the metric in 4 dimensions can be written as:  Substituting this definition of the inverse of the metric into the equations then multiplying both sides by until there are none left in the denominator results in polynomial equations in the metric tensor and its first and second derivatives. The action from which the equations are derived can also be written in polynomial form by suitable redefinitions of the fields.

References.

See General relativity resources.

In general theory of relativity the Einstein field equations (EFE; also known as Einstein's equations) relate the geometry of space-time with the distribution of matter within it.

Einsteinovy rovnice gravitačního pole (ERGP, také známy jako Einsteinovy rovnice) zahrnují soubor 10 rovnic v obecné teorii relativity Alberta Einsteina, které popisují základní interakci gravitace jako výsledek zakřivení časoprostoru hmotou a energií. Poprvé je Einstein publikoval v roce 1915 jako tenzorové rovnice, ERGP týkající se místa "časoprostorového" "zakřivení" (vyjádřeno Einsteinovým tenzorem) s lokální energií a hybností v rámci tohoto časoprostoru (vyjádřeno tenzorem energie a hybnosti).


History.

Early history.

The Cathedral was founded in 680, with a Northumbrian priest, Tatwine, appointed as its first bishop. Tatwine died before he could be consecrated, however, so his successor Bishop Bosel may be regarded as Worcester's first serving bishop. The first cathedral church, dedicated to Ss. Peter and Paul, was built in this period, but no remains of its architecture survive. The crypt of the present-day cathedral dates from the 11th century and the time of Wulfstan 'Bishop of Worcester.  The community associated with the cathedral the early eighth century included members of various clerical orders. The cathedral community was regulated along formal monastic lines as a consequence of the Benedictine reforms in the second half of the tenth century (one author gives the time range 974-977, another considers 969 more likely). There is an important connection with Fleury Abbey in France, as Oswald, bishop of Worcester from 961 to 992, was professed at Fleury and introduced the monastic rule of Fleury to the monastery that he established at Worcester around the year 966, which was dedicated — as the present cathedral church is — to St. Mary.

Medieval.

The last Anglo-Saxon bishop of Worcester, Wulstan, unusually remained bishop after the Norman Conquest until his death in 1095. He was later made a saint.  It is the burial place of John, King of England, who succeeded his brother Richard I of England.  The Cathedral Priory was a major landowner and economic force, both in Worcester and the county. Its properties for instance included the priory manor of Bromsgrove. It was a centre of learning and provided schooling. It was associated with hospitals. The Church received a portion of local taxations and ecclesiastical law applied to Christian morals and could result in punishments. It had close political associations with leading gentry and aristocracy. As such, Worcester's Cathedral had a central role in the medieval life of the city and county.  The Cathedral was one of a number of religious institutions in the city.

Relations with the Jewish community of Worcester.

The Diocese was notably hostile to the small Jewish community which was established in Worcester. Peter of Blois was commissioned by a Bishop of Worcester, probably John of Coutances, to write a significant anti-Judaic treatise "Against the Perfidy of Jews" around 1190.  William de Blois, as Bishop of Worcester, imposed particularly strict rules on Jews within the diocese in 1219. As elsewhere in England, Jews were officially compelled to wear rectangular white badges, supposedly representing tabulae. In most places, this requirement was relinquished as long as fines were paid. In addition to enforcing the church laws on wearing badges, Blois tried to impose additional restrictions on usury, and wrote to Pope Gregory in 1229 to ask for better enforcement and further, harsher measures. In response, the Papacy demanded that Christians be prevented from working in Jewish homes, "lest temporal profit be preferred to the zeal of Christ", and enforcement of the wearing of badges.

Dissolution and Reformation.

The priory came to an end with King Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries. Shortly beforehand, in 1535, the prior William More resigned, and was replaced by Henry Holbeach. More had a reputation for fine living, although his standards seem in line with other senior ecclesiasts of the time. However, there certainly were problems with the administration of the priory, including divisions within the community.  The Protestant Hugh Latimer was bishop from 1535, and preached for reform and iconoclasm. He resigned as bishop in 1539, as a result of a theological turn by Henry VIII towards Roman Catholicism, in the Six Articles. John Bell, a moderate reformer, was bishop from 1539 to 1543, during the period of the priory's dissolution.  In the early 16th century, Worcester had around 40 monks. This declined slightly in the years immediately before 1540, as recruitment seems to have halted. There were 35 Benedictine monks plus the Prior Holbeach at the time of dissolution, probably 16 January 1540; eleven were immediately given pensions, while the remainder became secular canons in the new Royal College. Holbeach was re-appointed as the first Dean. A further five former monks were pensioned from the college in July 1540.  The former monastic library of Worcester contained a considerable number of manuscripts which are, among other libraries, now scattered over Cambridge, London (British Library), Oxford Bodleian, and the Cathedral library at Worcester of today. Remains of the priory dating from the 12th and 13th centuries can still be seen.  John Bell's successor as Bishop, Nicholas Heath, was religiously much more conservative and Catholic.

Civil War.

During the Civil War, the Cathedral was used to store arms, possibly as early as September 1642. Worcester declared itself for the Crown and was quickly occupied by extra Royalist forces,who were using the building to store munitions when Essex briefly retook the city after a skirmish on its outskirts. The Parliamentary troops then ransacked the Cathedral building. Stained glass was smashed and the organ destroyed, along with library books and monuments.  The See was abolished during the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, approximately 1646–60. The belltower was demolished in 1647 and the building used as a prison in the aftermath of the 1651 battle.

Victorian to present.

In the 1860s, the cathedral was subject to major restoration work planned by Sir George Gilbert Scott and A. E. Perkins.  An image of the cathedral's west facade appeared on the reverse of the Series E British £20 note commemorating Sir Edward Elgar, issued between 1999 and 2007.

Architecture.

Worcester Cathedral embodies many features that are highly typical of an English medieval cathedral. Like the cathedrals of Salisbury and Lincoln, it has two transepts crossing the nave, rather than the single transept usual on the Continent. This feature of English Cathedrals was to facilitate the private saying of the Holy Office by many clergy or monks. Worcester is also typical of English cathedrals in having a chapter house and cloister. To the north side of the cathedral is an entrance porch, a feature designed to eliminate the draught which, prior to the installation of modern swing doors, would blow through cathedrals whenever the western doors were open.  Worcester Cathedral has important parts of the building dating from every century from the 11th to the 16th. Its tower in the perpendicular style is described by Alec Clifton-Taylor as "exquisite" and is seen best across the River Severn.  The earliest part of the building at Worcester is the multi-columned Norman crypt with cushion capitals remaining from the original monastic church begun by bishop Saint Wulfstan of Worcester in 1084. Also from the Norman period is the circular chapter house of 1120, made octagonal on the outside when the walls were reinforced in the 14th century. The nave was built and rebuilt piecemeal and in different styles by several different architects over a period of 200 years, from 1170 to 1374, some bays being a unique and decorative transition between Norman and Gothic. The oldest parts show alternate layers of green sandstone from Highley in Shropshire and yellow Cotswold limestone. The east end was rebuilt over the Norman crypt by Alexander Mason between 1224 and 1269, coinciding with, and in a very similar Early English style to, Salisbury Cathedral. From 1360, John Clyve finished off the nave, built its vault, the west front, the north porch and the eastern range of the cloister. He also strengthened the Norman chapter house, added buttresses and changed its vault. His masterpiece is the central tower of 1374, originally supporting a timber, lead-covered spire, now gone. Between 1404 and 1432, an unknown architect added the north and south ranges to the cloister, which was eventually closed by the western range by John Chapman, 1435–38. The last important addition is Prince Arthur’s Chantry Chapel to the right of the south choir aisle, 1502–04.  Worcester Cathedral was extensively restored from 1857 to 1874 by W. A. Perkins and Sir George Gilbert Scott. Most of the fittings and the stained glass date from this time. Some early 17th century screens and panelling, removed from the choir and organ casing in 1864, are now at Holy Trinity Church, Sutton Coldfield.

Dean and chapter.

As of 8 February 2019:

Burials and memorials.

The Cathedral contains the tomb of King John in its chancel. Before his death in Newark in 1216, John had requested to be buried at Worcester. He is buried between the shrines of St Wulstan and St Oswald (now destroyed).  The cathedral has a memorial, Prince Arthur's Chantry, to the young prince Arthur Tudor, who is buried here. Arthur's younger brother and next in line for the throne was Henry VIII. Worcester Cathedral suffered badly from Iconoclasm but was spared total destruction by Henry VIII during the English Reformation because of his brother's chantry in the cathedral.  An epitaph in Latin to Henry Bright, headmaster of the King's School, Worcester, can be found near the north porch. Other notable burials include:

Library.

The Cathedral Library at Worcester, located since the 19th century in the loft above the South Nave, contains nearly 300 medieval manuscripts, 55 incunabula, and 5500 post-medieval printed books. Of particular note are the Worcester Antiphoner (the only book of its kind to survive the Reformation), the will of King John and a 1225 copy of Magna Carta. The large scriptorium at Worcester produced many manuscripts and was a place of work for many famous scribes, such as the chronicler John of Worcester and the unnamed monk identified by his distinctive handwriting as The Tremulous Hand of Worcester.

Misericords.

Thirty nine of the misericords date from 1379 and include a complete set of the Labours of the Months. The subject matter includes biblical stories, mythology and folklore including N-07, "The Clever Daughter" which shows a naked woman draped in a net, riding a goat and carrying a rabbit under her arm. Three of the misericords are Victorian replacements such as N-02, "Judas in the jaws of Satan".

Bells.

The tower has a ring of twelve bells plus three semitone bells and a non-swinging bourdon. The current peal of 15 ringing bells were cast in 1928 by John Taylor & Co., of Loughborough, from the metal of the original ring cast in 1869. The ring is the sixth heaviest ring of twelve in the world, only the bells in the cathedrals of Liverpool, Exeter, York and St Paul's, London & St Mary Redcliffe church in Bristol are heavier. The bells are also considered to be one of the finest toned rings ever cast. The bells hang in a wooden frame that was constructed in 1869 for the previous ring. Worcester Cathedral is unique in having a purpose-built teaching centre equipped with eight special training bells, linked to computers.

Music.

Worcester Cathedral has three choirs: Worcester Cathedral Choir (the principal choir which has both boys' and girls' sections, normally working independently), Worcester Cathedral Voluntary Choir, and Worcester Cathedral Chamber Choir. All three were involved in the BBC broadcast of the midnight and Christmas morning services in 2007, with the boys and the girls of the Cathedral Choir, respectively, taking the lead in the two services. Since the 18th century, Worcester Cathedral Choir has taken part in the Three Choirs Festival, the oldest music festival in the world.  The composer Edward Elgar spent most of his life in Worcestershire. The first performance of the revised version of his Enigma Variations – the version usually performed – took place at the cathedral during the 1899 Three Choirs Festival. He is commemorated in a stained glass window which contains his portrait.  Worcester Cathedral has a long history of organs dating back to at least 1417. There have been many re-builds and new organs in the intervening period, including work by Thomas Dallam, William Hill and most famously Robert Hope-Jones in 1896. The Hope-Jones organ was heavily re-built in 1925 by Harrison & Harrison, and then regular minor works kept it in working order until Wood Wordsworth and Co. were called in 1978. It was a large four-manual organ with 61 speaking stops. It had a large Gothic Revival case with heavily decorated front pipes as well as two smaller cases either side of the quire.  This organ (apart from the large transept case and pedal pipes) was removed in 2006 in order to make way for a new instrument by Kenneth Tickell, which was completed in the summer of 2008. The nave has a separate three-manual Rodgers organ.  Notable organists at Worcester have included Thomas Tomkins (from 1596), Hugh Blair (from 1895), Ivor Atkins (from 1897) and David Willcocks (from 1950). From 2012-2018 the Director of Music and Organist was Peter Nardone.

Events.

Worcester Cathedral is the host of the annual graduation ceremonies for the University of Worcester. These ceremonies are presided over by the vice chancellor of the university, and take place over four days in November.  Since 2018 Worcester Cathedral became the host to the annual Honours celebration of the Royal Life Saving Society UK, celebrating the long service and meritous achievements of their lifesaving members.

Worcester Cathedral, is an Anglican cathedral in Worcester, England, situated on a bank overlooking the River Severn. It is the seat of the Bishop of Worcester. Its official name is the Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Mary the Virgin, of Worcester. The present cathedral church was built between 1084 and 1504, and represents every style of English architecture from Norman to Perpendicular Gothic. It is famous for its Norman crypt and unique chapter house, its unusual Transitional Gothic bays, its fine woodwork and its "exquisite" central tower, which is of particularly fine proportions.

Katedrála ve Worcesteru je gotická katedrála, kolem které se rozkládá centrum města Worcester. V katedrále je pohřben anglický král Jan Bezzemek. Katedrála byla postavena v 10. století. Katedrála je považována za dominantu města.


History.

From the Roman period to the present day major roads were cutting through the Šekovići region. These roads connected regions East of Drina River with Central Bosnia. Šekovići got its name by one portion of its inhabitants from Šekovina in Herzegovina, who immigrated to this region at the end of the 17th century. Until the end of the 17th century Sekovici was a well-inhabited area, till army invasions and different diseases decreased the population of Šekovići and almost wiped out the first people living there. Soon after that the new inhabitants from Herzegovina settled in Šekovići and they make up most of today’s populations. One of the first settlers beginning XVII left Šekovići, Ilija Birčanin, Hadži Milentije and Prote Matije Nenadović. Because of the family and other ties through the monastery this region had strong military cooperation with Serbia during the First Serbian Uprising. Ivan Groznog's mother Jelica Jakšić Glinska is from Šekovići and because of the Monastery Papraća and Russian Czar Palace had a good relationship. Monastery Lovnica and Papraca in the past were significant cultural and freedom centers. From the 16th century these two monasteries had ties with Russia, and monasteries in Serbia, Poland and Vlachs. Šekovići have special places in NOB (Serbian: Narodno Oslobodilacka Borba, English:Peoples Freedom Fight), they belong to one of the first uprising regions in Yugoslavia. In Šekovići were formed the Prva Bircanslka Brigada (First Birac Brigate), Sesta Istocnobosanska Brigada (Sixst Estern Bosnian Brigate) and Prva Pionirska Divizija ( First Pionir Division). In 1943, Sekovici was the military, political and cultural center for eastern Bosnia, according to author Rudi Petovara. Inside of it was the highest military and political leadership for Eastern Bosnia.

Economy.

The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

Šekovići () is a town and municipality located in northeastern Republika Srpska, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of 2013, it has a population of 6,761 inhabitants, while the town of Šekovići has a population of 1,519 inhabitants.

Šekovići (v srbské cyrilici Шековићи) jsou město a sídlo opštiny v Republice srbské, v Bosně a Hercegovině. Nachází se v východní části země, v blízkosti regionu Podriní. Mají 1519 obyvatel.