Childhood.

He was born in November 1835 in the newly developed Aman-Karagai district within the Kushmurun fort in what is nowadays the Kostanay Province of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Shoqan was a fourth generation descendant of Ablai Khan, a khan of the Middle jüz. Shoqan's family was very respected by the government of the Russian Empire, and Walikhanov's father was awarded, during his life, six appointments as senior Sultan of Kushmurun okrug, a term as chief Kazakh advisor to the frontier board, a promotion to Colonel, and a separate term as senior Sultan in the Kokshetau okrug.  Shoqan spent his youth in his father’s traditional yurt. His father Chingis arranged his son’s early education, enrolling him in 1842 at age six in a small private school, or maktab, which provided a secular education. Here he began his studies of Arabic script, which was widely used as the writing system at that time.  At an early age Shoqan moved from his father’s home to the estate of his paternal grandmother Aiganym, in Syrymbet. Shoqan was enrolled in the Siberian Cadet Corps by his grandmother.  Walikhanov entered the military academy in Omsk in 1847. After graduating from the Omsk Cadet School, where he read not only Russian but also English literature, Walikhanov traveled extensively in Central Asia in the late 1850s. It was during his stay in Omsk that Walikhanov first made the acquaintance of Fyodor Dostoevsky.

Adult life.

His work combined military intelligence and geographic exploration and other things. His first successful expedition was his 1855-56 mission to the region of Issyq Köl. He was afterwards called to the capital in St. Petersburg in 1857 to report, and there he was elected to the Russian Geographical Society.  The expedition ended following increased suspicions, and they left Kashgar in April 1859. Walikhanov returned to St. Petersburg and became a fixture of the intellectual and cultural life during his short stay (1860 - spring of 1861) in the capital. The young Walikhanov was a staunch proponent of Westernization and critical of the influence of Islam in his homeland. In the words of the ethnographer Yadrintsev, for Walikhanov European civilization represented "the new Quran of life."  In the spring of 1861 he became seriously ill with tuberculosis and had to leave St. Petersburg. He returned to his native steppe region in hopes of restoring his health. He never returned to St. Petersburg while frequent relapses in his health prevented advances in his career. In letters to his friend Dostoevsky, Walikhanov mentioned several unsuccessful plans to return to St. Petersburg. Walikhanov also mentioned campaigning for a political position in the West-Siberian Governor Generalship, centered in Tobolsk, like his father. In 1862, he successfully ran for senior Sultan, but Governor-General Alexander Duhamel refused to confirm his position due to Walikhanov's health.  Walikhanov collected materials on Kazakh judicial practices in 1863. This was part of a government-backed project given by Duhamel, and led to the 1864 Memorandum on Judicial Reform. In 1864, Shoqan was assigned to help with Colonel Cherniaev's continued conquest of Central Asia. Cherniaev’s forces marched west from the fortress of Vernoe (modern-day Almaty). Chernaiev advanced towards the Khanate of Kokand, planning to attack the fort at Aulie-Ata (modern-day Taraz). Shoqan unsuccessfully pushed for a negotiated result without violence. Cherniaev won an easy victory and returned to Vernoe. Shoqan left Chernaiev after the events at Aulie-Ata and, after stopping Vernoe, moved to the village of Sultan Tezek on the Ili River north of Vernoe. Colonel Cherniaev, however, was not unhappy with Walikhanov's work, and recommended him for a promotion.  Shoqan spent his last remaining months in the village of Sultan Tezek, eventually marrying Sultan Tezek’s sister, Aisary. During this time, letters of correspondence to General Kolpakovski, military governor of Semipalatinsk oblast, dated between November 1864 through February 1865, addressed Muslim revolts and rebel activity in nearby Qulja. Kolpakovski held such esteem for Shoqan that he offered Shoqan a position in his administration once his health was restored.  Unfortunately, Walikhanov succumbed to his illness on April 10, 1865 at the age of 29. He was buried in the nearby cemetery of Kochen-Togan in present-day Almaty Province. N.I. Veselovskii, who in 1904 edited a collection of Walikhanov’s works, said that the short life of Walikhanov was a “meteor flashing across the field of oriental studies."

Walikhanov and Dostoevsky.

While still in Omsk, Dostoevsky had met Shoqan Walikhanov. In Dostoevsky's opinion, Walikhanov was a brilliant, intrepid person, a scholar and ethnographer, and a talented folklorist. In their correspondence, the two intellectuals admitted their great mutual love and admiration.  When Dostoevsky served in Semipalatinsk, he met Walikhanov once again. The two men were also closely acquainted with renowned geographer Peter Semenov Tian-Shansky and Baron A. E. Wrangel, who came to Semipalatinsk from Petersburg in 1854 to serve as the new district prosecutor.  Dostoevsky wrote from Semipalatinsk on 14 December 1856 one of his most enthusiastic letters ever, addressed to his friend Walikhanov:  There is a statue of Walikhanov and Dostoevsky in the city of Semey, Kazakhstan, near the local Dostoevsky museum.

Major work.

Walikhanov produced many articles and books devoted to the history and culture of Central Asia. A short list: Walikhanov also compiled epic poetry, including "Kozy-Korpesh - Bayan-Sulu", as well as what he called the Iliad of the Steppe, the Epic of Manas.  Walikhanov's report of his trip to Kashgar in 1858-59 remains a valuable account on the situation in Xinjiang in the aftermath of Wali Khan's invasion of the region and on the eve of the Muslim Rebellion of the 1860s.

The Shoqan Walikhanov spring.

The Shoqan Walikhanov spring is a spring in the State National Natural Park Altyn-Emel. It is located in the Kerbulak district of Almaty region, on the road to the singing Dunes, among the tract at the foot of the Maly Kalkan Mountains. Shoqan Walikhanov names the spring. The path of the great scientist and traveler Shoqan Walikhanov ran from Russia to Kashgaria in 1856 year through the territory of the now existing national Park. The expedition stopped to rest just at the site of the tract where the spring is located. Since that time, believed that the water in the spring is healing and can cure many diseases. There is a small stream from which possible to drink water in July and August months, when the spring mostly dries up.

Comments.

Sail Smail, head of the department of publicist programs in the Kazakh language of KTK TV channel: - In ancient history books, Shokan is often described as a mediator of the Kazakh-Russian friendship. In this film, we tried to show Chogan in another aspect. On the left we can say that we have stayed longer. The film about Shokan will help to compress and fill the history. Makpal Mussina, historian, author of the book "Shokan in St. Petersburg": Of course, though he looked in any way, he was more than a man. With knowledge he interfered with everything. He was very clever. He knew a lot. History and practice have shown that such people are usually unnecessary. Previously, to get acquainted with the historical treasures, it was necessary to go abroad and visit museums and libraries. Documents that have been copied to the digital system have reduced such anger. It is also convenient to read and copy information interesting from the multimedia portal sponsored by Kaspi.kz. The Bank is also active in supporting historical values. And a documentary about Shokan will be broadcast on our channel on February 23 at 20:00.  Use of materials from the site ktk.kz The material is allowed in the first or second sentence of the text, if there is a direct hyperlink to the material to be placed in one font as the main text.

Shoqan Shynghysuly Walikhanov (, "Shoqan Shyńǵysuly Ýálıhan"; ), given name Muhammed Qanafiya (, "Muhammed Qanafııa") (November 1835 – April 10, 1865) was a Kazakh scholar, ethnographer, historian and participant in The Great Game. He is regarded as the father of modern Kazakh historiography and ethnography. The Kazakh Academy of Sciences is named after him. His name is written Chokan Valikhanov in English based on the transliteration of the Russian spelling of his name, which he used himself.

Šokan Čingisovič Valichanov či Šokan Šingisuly Valichanuly, rusky Чокан Чингисович Валиханов, kazašsky Шоқан Шыңғысұлы Уәлиханұлы, původním jménem Muhammed Kanafija, kazašsky Мұхаммед Қанафия (listopad 1835, Kušmurun — duben nebo říjen 1865) byl kazašský etnograf, folklorista, historik, cestovatel a geograf, zakladatel moderní kazašské historiografie a etnografie.


Etymology and terminology.

The term "cowpunk" is first attested in 1979, as a blend of "cowboy" and "punk". The term "country punk" has been proposed as an equivalent term. Both terms are sometimes used with a dash, especially in late 1970s or early 1980s sources (e.g., cow-punk or country-punk).  A 1984 "New York Times" article on the emerging aesthetic acknowledged "cowpunk" as one of several catch-all terms critics were using to categorize the country-influenced music of otherwise unrelated punk and new wave bands. The article briefly summarized the music's history, at least in the United States, saying that in the early 1980s, several punk and new wave bands had begun collecting classic country records, and soon thereafter began performing high-tempo cover versions of their favorite songs, and that new bands had also formed around the idea. By 1984, there were dozens of bands in both the U.S. and England "personalizing country music and making it palatable for the MTV Generation."  A "New York Times" writer stated that one issue with the "cowpunk" term was that "...no single term really describes the music of all these bands." Another author called the term "cowpunk" a critic-coined "misnomer" in 1985. A 2018 article looking back at the 1980s trends states that the "...diversity of styles beyond punk proper" in cowpunk, "...for some, made the category...suspect, [or] at least misleading."

History.

Precursors.

The first cowpunk bands in the late 1970s "...were inspired not by mainstream country but classic country, a more authentic-sounding music but also historically distant enough to be non-mainstream by default..." There were precedents for blending country and related genres with rock or other styles. For example, all through the 1970s, country rock and southern rock were popular. However, by the early 1980s, the outlaw country trend had "worn out its welcome". Another factor that made country music unappealing to many youth in the early 1980s was that it was perceived as being on the "wrong side" in the "culture war", as country music was associated with conservative political values and highly-produced commercial music.  Don McLeese said the ways that youth associated country music made them not realize that it had youthful, exuberant "Hillbilly music" roots in earlier eras. Joey Camp says he was turned off country as a teen in the early 1980s because he mistakenly thought that the "...countrypolitan fare" then popular on commercial radio, such as “Islands in the Stream” by "Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton, “Queen of Hearts” by Juice Newton, and “Always On My Mind” by Willie Nelson" was the extent of country music.  Music writer Peter Doggett has stated that there has been a “difficult relationship between punk and country” since musicians from the two genres first encountered each other, but they did manage to meet and blend their styles. As well, some new wave bands "displayed blatant country influences".  Early cowpunk bands were more appealing to alternative, non-mainstream youth from the 1980s, as some cowpunk bands explored "queer" themes in their lyrics, or identified or appeared in an androgynous manner. By the early 1980s, punk audiences did come to appreciate a blend of punk and rockabilly, when the new subgenre of psychobilly emerged, with bands such as The Cramps.

1970s.

In 1978, Rosie Flores led Rosie and the Screamers, a band that one author calls a "cow-punk" group. T. Tex Edwards, the singer for Dallas area punk band The Nervebreakers, which opened for The Ramones in 1977, Sex Pistols on their 1978 US Tour, went on to cowpunk and other country-influenced groups. After The Nerverbreakers, influenced by The Cramps and Gun Club T. Tex started a new group, Tex & The Saddletramps.

1980s.

In the early 1980s, punk groups such as L.A. band X, "...began to lean toward the twangy side, providing a subgenre that became known as cowpunk". The L.A. cowpunk bands like X tended to be as intentionally sloppy, against "slick" production values, and anti-commercial as the punk genre they had "morphed" from, often from "blitzkrieg bands" (for example, The Dils became cowpunk band Rank and File). In the 1980s, Rosie Flores left the Screamers and joined a cowpunk all-female band called Screamin' Sirens.  UK groups include the country-tinged pop band Boothill Foot Tappers and the tongue-in-cheek new wave outfit Yip Yip Coyote.  There are a number of U.S. bands: X, the Blasters, Meat Puppets, The Beat Farmers, Rubber Rodeo (which "juxtaposed countrypolitan elements and more conventional rock postures" in homage to "a pop-culture west rather than a geographic or historic one"), Rank and File (playing "an updated version of 1960s country-rock"), Jason and the Scorchers (with "authentically deep country roots"), Tex & the Horseheads, Blood on the Saddle 1984), Dash Rip Rock, Drivin' n Cryin', Fetchin Bones (from North Carolina), Cabin Flounder, The Rave-Ups, Concrete Blonde, Great Plains (from Ohio), and Violent Femmes (at that time incorporating "mountain banjo, wheezing saxophones, scraping fiddle, twanging jew's harp, and ragged vocal choruses").  The Del-Lords formed in New York City in 1982, founded by The Dictators' guitarist Scott Kempner. The band's cowpunk sound combined elements of 1960s garage rock with country, blues and folk influences. They were one of the early originators of urban roots-rock. The band members were Scott Kempner, Manny Caiati, Eric Ambel and Frank Funaro.  Nine Pound Hammer is an American hardcore-cowpunk band formed in 1985 by vocalist Scott Luallen and guitarist Blaine Cartwright in their hometown of Owensboro, Kentucky. They were one of the first rural hardcore punk bands to incorporate rural blue collar motifs into the hardcore sound. Their lyrics (suggestive of outlaw country) featured themes such as alcoholism, rural poverty, and violence. In contrast, most of the urban, experimental cowpunk bands of 1970s/80s Los Angeles and the UK were roots rock, folk rock or New Wave bands, and they incorporated country music instruments and influences as a secondary (sometimes temporary) aspect of their sound.  In Social Distortion's album "Prison Bound" (1986–1988), the band makes a notable style change, exploring a country/western flavor. This record marks the start of the band's entrance into a cowpunk style. Country legend Johnny Cash and a honky tonk style became more prominent influences and there are references to Cash.  Lone Justice is a Los Angeles cowpunk band. "SPIN" magazine also named Long Ryders, Danny & Dusty, and Mekons as from the genre.  In Canada, prairies singer K.D. Lang was called a "Canadian Cowpunk" in the June 20, 1985 issue of "Rolling Stone". In the late 1980s, Edmonton-based Jr. Gone Wild has been called a "[c]risp, cheerfully honest" example of,"...that “cowpunk” thing, sure — but really it’s just the sugary-yet-direct indie rock of its time, poppy and looking back more than a little at the Gram Parsons side of the Byrds."<ref

Cowpunk (or country punk) is a subgenre of punk rock that began in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s and southern California in the early 1980s. It combines punk rock or new wave with country, folk, and blues in its sound, lyrical subject matter, attitude, and style. Examples include Boothill Foot Tappers, X, the Blasters, Meat Puppets, The Beat Farmers, Rubber Rodeo, Rank and File, Jason and the Scorchers, and Violent Femmes. Many of the musicians in this scene subsequently became associated with alternative country, roots rock or Americana. In the 2000s (decade), Those Darlins have been called a cowpunk band.

Cowpunk nebo Country punk je punk rockový subžánr vzniklý ve Velké Británii a v Kalifornii na konci 70. let a na začátku 80. let. Kombinuje punk rock a new wave s country hudbou, folkem a bluesem, jak v hudbě, tak v postojích a stylu.


History.

The Fourier series is named in honour of Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768–1830), who made important contributions to the study of trigonometric series, after preliminary investigations by Leonhard Euler, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and Daniel Bernoulli. Fourier introduced the series for the purpose of solving the heat equation in a metal plate, publishing his initial results in his 1807 "Mémoire sur la propagation de la chaleur dans les corps solides" ("Treatise on the propagation of heat in solid bodies"), and publishing his "Théorie analytique de la chaleur" ("Analytical theory of heat") in 1822. The "Mémoire" introduced Fourier analysis, specifically Fourier series. Through Fourier's research the fact was established that an arbitrary (continuous) function can be represented by a trigonometric series. The first announcement of this great discovery was made by Fourier in 1807, before the French Academy. Early ideas of decomposing a periodic function into the sum of simple oscillating functions date back to the 3rd century BC, when ancient astronomers proposed an empiric model of planetary motions, based on deferents and epicycles.  The heat equation is a partial differential equation. Prior to Fourier's work, no solution to the heat equation was known in the general case, although particular solutions were known if the heat source behaved in a simple way, in particular, if the heat source was a sine or cosine wave. These simple solutions are now sometimes called eigensolutions. Fourier's idea was to model a complicated heat source as a superposition (or linear combination) of simple sine and cosine waves, and to write the solution as a superposition of the corresponding eigensolutions. This superposition or linear combination is called the Fourier series.  From a modern point of view, Fourier's results are somewhat informal, due to the lack of a precise notion of function and integral in the early nineteenth century. Later, Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet and Bernhard Riemann expressed Fourier's results with greater precision and formality.  Although the original motivation was to solve the heat equation, it later became obvious that the same techniques could be applied to a wide array of mathematical and physical problems, and especially those involving linear differential equations with constant coefficients, for which the eigensolutions are sinusoids. The Fourier series has many such applications in electrical engineering, vibration analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing, quantum mechanics, econometrics, thin-walled shell theory, etc.

Definition.

Consider a real-valued function, formula_1, that is integrable on an interval of length formula_2, which will be the period of the Fourier series. Common examples of analysis intervals are:  The analysis process determines the weights, indexed by integer formula_7, which is also the number of cycles of the formula_8 harmonic in the analysis interval. Therefore, the length of a cycle, in the units of formula_9, is formula_10. And the corresponding harmonic frequency is formula_11. The formula_12 harmonics are formula_13 and formula_14, and their amplitudes (weights) are found by integration over the interval of length formula_2:  The synthesis process (the actual Fourier series) is:  In general, integer formula_23 is theoretically infinite. Even so, the series might not converge or exactly equate to formula_1 at all values of formula_9 (such as a single-point discontinuity) in the analysis interval. For the "well-behaved" functions typical of physical processes, equality is customarily assumed. Using a trigonometric identity:  and definitions formula_27 and formula_28, the sine and cosine pairs can be expressed as a single sinusoid with a phase offset, analogous to the conversion between orthogonal (Cartesian) and polar coordinates:  The customary form for generalizing to complex-valued formula_1 (next section) is obtained using Euler's formula to split the cosine function into complex exponentials. Here, complex conjugation is denoted by an asterisk:  Therefore, with definitions:  the final result is:

Complex-valued functions.

If formula_1 is a complex-valued function of a real variable formula_33 both components (real and imaginary part) are real-valued functions that can be represented by a Fourier series. The two sets of coefficients and the partial sum are given by:  Defining formula_37 yields:  This is identical to except formula_38 and formula_39 are no longer complex conjugates. The formula for formula_38 is also unchanged:

Other common notations.

The notation formula_38 is inadequate for discussing the Fourier coefficients of several different functions. Therefore, it is customarily replaced by a modified form of the function (formula_43, in this case), such as formula_44 or formula_45, and functional notation often replaces subscripting:  In engineering, particularly when the variable formula_9 represents time, the coefficient sequence is called a frequency domain representation. Square brackets are often used to emphasize that the domain of this function is a discrete set of frequencies.  Another commonly used frequency domain representation uses the Fourier series coefficients to modulate a Dirac comb:  where formula_49 represents a continuous frequency domain. When variable formula_9 has units of seconds, formula_49 has units of hertz. The "teeth" of the comb are spaced at multiples (i.e. harmonics) of formula_52, which is called the fundamental frequency. formula_53 can be recovered from this representation by an inverse Fourier transform:  The constructed function formula_55 is therefore commonly referred to as a Fourier transform, even though the Fourier integral of a periodic function is not convergent at the harmonic frequencies.

Convergence.

In engineering applications, the Fourier series is generally presumed to converge almost everywhere (the exceptions being at discrete discontinuities) since the functions encountered in engineering are better-behaved than the functions that mathematicians can provide as counter-examples to this presumption. In particular, if formula_43 is continuous and the derivative of formula_1 (which may not exist everywhere) is square integrable, then the Fourier series of formula_43 converges absolutely and uniformly to formula_1. If a function is square-integrable on the interval formula_60, then the Fourier series converges to the function at almost every point. Convergence of Fourier series also depends on the finite number of maxima and minima in a function which is popularly known as one of the Dirichlet's condition for Fourier series. See Convergence of Fourier series. It is possible to define Fourier coefficients for more general functions or distributions, in such cases convergence in norm or weak convergence is usually of interest.

Examples.

Example 1: a simple Fourier series.

We now use the formula above to give a Fourier series expansion of a very simple function. Consider a sawtooth wave In this case, the Fourier coefficients are given by It can be proven that Fourier series converges to formula_1 at every point formula_9 where formula_43 is differentiable, and therefore: \end{align}</math> When formula_67, the Fourier series converges to 0, which is the half-sum of the left- and right-limit of "s" at formula_67. This is a particular instance of the Dirichlet theorem for Fourier series. This example leads us to a solution to the Basel problem.

Example 2: Fourier's motivation.

The Fourier series expansion of our function in Example 1 looks more complicated than the simple formula formula_69, so it is not immediately apparent why one would need the Fourier series. While there are many applications, Fourier's motivation was in solving the heat equation. For example, consider a metal plate in the shape of a square whose side measures formula_70 meters, with coordinates formula_71. If there is no heat source within the plate, and if three of the four sides are held at 0 degrees Celsius, while the fourth side, given by formula_72, is maintained at the temperature gradient formula_73 degrees Celsius, for formula_9 in formula_75, then one can show that the stationary heat distribution (or the heat distribution after a long period of time has elapsed) is given by Here, sinh is the hyperbolic sine function. This solution of the heat equation is obtained by multiplying each term of by formula_77. While our example function formula_1 seems to have a needlessly complicated Fourier series, the heat distribution formula_79 is nontrivial. The function formula_80 cannot be written as a closed-form expression. This method of solving the heat problem was made possible by Fourier's work.

Other applications.

Another application of this Fourier series is to solve the Basel problem by using Parseval's theorem. The example generalizes and one may compute ζ(2"n"), for any positive integer "n".

Beginnings.

Joseph Fourier wrote: This immediately gives any coefficient "a" of the trigonometrical series for φ("y") for any function which has such an expansion. It works because if φ has such an expansion, then (under suitable convergence assumptions) the integral  can be carried out term-by-term. But all terms involving formula_82 for vanish when integrated from −1 to 1, leaving only the "k"th term.  In these few lines, which are close to the modern formalism used in Fourier series, Fourier revolutionized both mathematics and physics. Although similar trigonometric series were previously used by Euler, d'Alembert, Daniel Bernoulli and Gauss, Fourier believed that such trigonometric series could represent any arbitrary function. In what sense that is actually true is a somewhat subtle issue and the attempts over many years to clarify this idea have led to important discoveries in the theories of convergence, function spaces, and harmonic analysis.  When Fourier submitted a later competition essay in 1811, the committee (which included Lagrange, Laplace, Malus and Legendre, among others) concluded: "...the manner in which the author arrives at these equations is not exempt of difficulties and...his analysis to integrate them still leaves something to be desired on the score of generality and even rigour".

Birth of harmonic analysis.

Since Fourier's time, many different approaches to defining and understanding the concept of Fourier series have been discovered, all of which are consistent with one another, but each of which emphasizes different aspects of the topic. Some of the more powerful and elegant approaches are based on mathematical ideas and tools that were not available at the time Fourier completed his original work. Fourier originally defined the Fourier series for real-valued functions of real arguments, and using the sine and cosine functions as the basis set for the decomposition.  Many other Fourier-related transforms have since been defined, extending the initial idea to other applications. This general area of inquiry is now sometimes called harmonic analysis. A Fourier series, however, can be used only for periodic functions, or for functions on a bounded (compact) interval.

Extensions.

Fourier series on a square.

We can also define the Fourier series for functions of two variables formula_9 and formula_84 in the square formula_85:  Aside from being useful for solving partial differential equations such as the heat equation, one notable application of Fourier series on the square is in image compression. In particular, the jpeg image compression standard uses the two-dimensional discrete cosine transform, which is a Fourier transform using the cosine basis functions.

Fourier series of Bravais-lattice-periodic-function.

The three-dimensional Bravais lattice is defined as the set of vectors of the form: where formula_88 are integers and formula_89 are three linearly independent vectors. Assuming we have some function, formula_90, such that it obeys the following condition for any Bravais lattice vector formula_91, we could make a Fourier series of it. This kind of function can be, for example, the effective potential that one electron "feels" inside a periodic crystal. It is useful to make a Fourier series of the potential then when applying Bloch's theorem. First, we may write any arbitrary vector formula_92 in the coordinate-system of the lattice:  where formula_94  Thus we can define a new function,  This new function, formula_96, is now a function of three-variables, each of which has periodicity "a", "a", "a" respectively:  If we write a series for "g" on the interval [0, "a"] for "x", we can define the following:  And then we can write:  Further defining:  We can write formula_101 once again as:  Finally applying the same for the third coordinate, we define:  We write formula_101 as:  Re-arranging:  Now, every "reciprocal" lattice vector can be written as formula_107, where formula_108 are integers and formula_109 are the reciprocal lattice vectors, we can use the fact that formula_110 to calculate that for any arbitrary reciprocal lattice vector formula_111 and arbitrary vector in space formula_92, their scalar product is:  And so it is clear that in our expansion, the sum is actually over reciprocal lattice vectors:  where  Assuming  we can solve this system of three linear equations for formula_9, formula_84, and formula_119 in terms of formula_120, formula_121 and formula_122 in order to calculate the volume element in the original cartesian coordinate system. Once we have formula_9, formula_84, and formula_119 in terms of formula_120, formula_121 and formula_122, we can calculate the Jacobian determinant:  which after some calculation and applying some non-trivial cross-product identities can be shown to be equal to:  (it may be advantageous for the sake of simplifying calculations, to work in such a cartesian coordinate system, in which it just so happens that formula_131 is parallel to the x axis, formula_132 lies in the "x"-"y" plane, and formula_133 has components of all three axes). The denominator is exactly the volume of the primitive unit cell which is enclosed by the three primitive-vectors formula_131, formula_132 and formula_133. In particular, we now know that  We can write now formula_138 as an integral with the traditional coordinate system over the volume of the primitive cell, instead of with the formula_120, formula_121 and formula_122 variables:  And formula_143 is the primitive unit cell, thus, formula_144 is the volume of the primitive unit cell.

Hilbert space interpretation.

In the language of Hilbert spaces, the set of functions formula_145 is an orthonormal basis for the space formula_146 of square-integrable functions on formula_147. This space is actually a Hilbert space with an inner product given for any two elements formula_49 and formula_101 by The basic Fourier series result for Hilbert spaces can be written as  This corresponds exactly to the complex exponential formulation given above. The version with sines and cosines is also justified with the Hilbert space interpretation. Indeed, the sines and cosines form an orthogonal set: (where δ is the Kronecker delta), and furthermore, the sines and cosines are orthogonal to the constant function formula_155. An "orthonormal basis" for formula_146 consisting of real functions is formed by the functions formula_155 and formula_158, formula_159 with "n" = 1, 2... The density of their span is a consequence of the Stone–Weierstrass theorem, but follows also from the properties of classical kernels like the Fejér kernel.

Properties.

Table of basic properties.

This table shows some mathematical operations in the time domain and the corresponding effect in the Fourier series coefficients. Notation:

Symmetry properties.

When the real and imaginary parts of a complex function are decomposed into their even and odd parts, there are four components, denoted below by the subscripts RE, RO, IE, and IO. And there is a one-to-one mapping between the four components of a complex time function and the four components of its complex frequency transform:  From this, various relationships are apparent, for example:

Riemann–Lebesgue lemma.

If formula_49 is integrable, formula_170 by a finite one,  This is called a "partial sum". We would like to know, in which sense does formula_172 converge to formula_173 as formula_174.

Least squares property.

We say that formula_175 is a trigonometric polynomial of degree formula_23 when it is of the form  Note that formula_178 is a trigonometric polynomial of degree formula_23. Parseval's theorem implies that  Theorem. The trigonometric polynomial formula_178 is the unique best trigonometric polynomial of degree formula_23 approximating formula_173, in the sense that, for any trigonometric polynomial formula_183 of degree formula_23, we have where the Hilbert space norm is defined as:

In mathematics, a Fourier series () is a periodic function composed of harmonically related sinusoids, combined by a weighted summation. With appropriate weights, one cycle (or "period") of the summation can be made to approximate an arbitrary function in that interval (or the entire function if it too is periodic). As such, the summation is a synthesis of another function. The discrete-time Fourier transform is an example of Fourier series. The process of deriving the weights that describe a given function is a form of Fourier analysis. For functions on unbounded intervals, the analysis and synthesis analogies are Fourier transform and inverse transform.

Fourierova řada je pojmenována po francouzském fyzikovi a matematikovi Josephu Fourierovi. Slouží k zápisu periodického průběhu pomocí funkcí sinus a kosinus. Základní myšlenka zápisu funkce ve formě řady z funkcí sinus a kosinus je rozklad vektoru do ortogonální báze. Lineárním prostorem je v tomto případě prostor (jistých) funkcí definovaných na intervalu formula_1 a skalárním součinem je integrál:


Plot.

George (Freddie Highmore) is a loner high school student with a penchant for drawing and skipping class. He has a nihilistic view of the world which is why he never does homework and skips school frequently. His academic delinquency puts him on academic probation. One day while on the school roof he encounters another classmate, Sally (Emma Roberts), smoking. When a teacher appears, George pulls out a cigarette and takes the fall for Sally. The two become friends. On career day, George meets a young artist, Dustin (Michael Angarano), and finds him inspiring. He brings Sally with him to visit Dustin at his studio in Brooklyn and it becomes apparent that Dustin finds Sally attractive. Sally invites George to a New Year's Eve party. At the party, she dances with an ex-boyfriend and George gets drunk, goes outside, throws up, and falls asleep in an alley. Sally finds him there and takes him to her place, putting him to bed on a pull-out next to her bed. They grow close and George gets more involved in school.  On Valentine's Day, the two go out to dinner and Sally starts asking questions about what he thinks of her. George is evasive, and she asks him if he'll have sex with her. George freezes. Sally backtracks and claims she was kidding. He remains withdrawn and begs off early. He refuses to take Sally's calls and avoids her. One day Sally runs into Dustin in the street and after a while the two of them start a relationship. George who is troubled by this stops doing homework and is again sent to the principal's (Blair Underwood) office. The principal gives George two choices: he can be expelled, or he can make up all of the homework he has missed all year. George is confronted by his mother and stepfather (Rita Wilson and Sam Robards) at home, and he responds by telling his mother that his stepfather has been lying about work. The stepfather attacks him and George knocks him down before taking off. He goes to Sally's place and, in the hallway, he kisses her. Sally kisses back but breaks away as Dustin is there in her apartment. Angry and hurt, George leaves.  The next morning, George finds his mother in the park. She tells him she's divorcing George's stepfather. George consoles her and begins to rethink his situation with Sally. At school he decides to make up for his assignments and collects them. His art teacher tells him he wants only one project, but that it must be honest and real. George works on his assignments and takes his final exams. Meanwhile Sally continues seeing Dustin. One day George gets a message from Sally. They meet in a bar and Sally tells him she's going backpacking with Dustin through Europe and skipping graduation. George tells her that he’s in love with her and they go back to her apartment, where they kiss. Sally tells him that she loves him too and promises they'll be together one day. George turns in all his assignments and the principal tells him he'll know he's passed if his name is called at graduation. George's art teacher applauds him on his project. George sits at the graduation ceremony with Sally's friends with his mother in the audience. Sally is at the airport with Dustin. George's name is called and his mother applauds. Afterwards George is in the art classroom looking at his art project. It is a portrait of Sally. Sally walks in and joins him looking at the painting as the film closes.

Production.

The film finished shooting in New York City on April 23, 2010.

Soundtrack.

The music from the film was released by Rhino Records on June 14 as a CD soundtrack with 12 tracks.

Release.

The film had its world premiere at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2011. The movie was released on Blu-ray Disc on November 29, 2011.

Reception.

Box office.

"The Art of Getting By" grossed $1.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $0.6 million in other territories, for a total of $2 million, against a production budget of $4 million.

Critical response.

, the film holds a 20% approval rating on film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 112 reviews with an average rating of 4.27/10. The site's consensus states: "A sitcom-level twee mess that bakes in the typical manic pixie dream girl and boring, withdrawn boy hero."<ref

The Art of Getting By is a 2011 American romantic comedy-drama film starring Freddie Highmore, Emma Roberts, Michael Angarano, Elizabeth Reaser, Sam Robards, Rita Wilson and Blair Underwood. It is the first feature by writer-director Gavin Wiesen. The film premiered under the title Homework at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival.

Umění zapadnout (v anglickém originále "The Art of Getting By") je americký romantický komediálně-dramatický film z roku 2011, autorský počin scenáristy i režiséra Gavina Wiesena. Do amerických kin byl uveden 17. června 2011 distribuční společností Fox Searchlight. Na festivalu Sundance byl už předtím uveden pod alternativním názvem "Homework" (v překladu „domácí úkol“). Freddie Highmore, známý z dětských rolí v "Karlíkovi a továrně na čokoládu" nebo "Arthurovi a Minimojích", tentokrát hraje newyorského středoškoláka George, který moc nezapadá a nevidí ani mnoho důvodů k optimismu, dokud se nesblíží se spolužačkou Sally.


Nomenclature.

"ι Orionis" (Latinised to "Iota Orionis") is the system's Bayer designation. The designations of the three constituents as "Iota Orionis A", "B" and "C", and those of "A's" components - "Iota Orionis Aa" and "Ab" - derive from the convention used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC) for multiple star systems, and adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).  The system has the traditional name "Nair al Saif", from the Arabic نير السيف "nayyir as-sayf" "the Bright One of the Sword", though this is little used. Since Bečvář's 1951 "Atlas Coeli", it has borne the proper name "Hatysa". Kunitzsch was unable to find an older source for the latter name.  In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN decided to attribute proper names to individual stars rather than entire multiple systems. It approved the name "Hatysa" for the component Iota Orionis Aa on 5 September 2017 and it is now so included in the List of IAU-approved Star Names.  Iota Orionis B is a variable star and in 2011 it was given the variable star designation V2451 Orionis.

Distance.

Iota Orionis has a parallax of in the Hipparcos new reduction, indicating a distance around. The previous published Hipparcos parallax was, suggesting a closer distance. Gaia Data Release 2 has individual parallaxes for the two fainter components of the Iota Orionis star system of and, indicating distances of and respectively, with margins of error of just a few parsecs. There is little doubt that all three stars are at the same distance.  Iota Orionis is generally assumed to be associated with the open cluster NGC 1980, which is at a distance of around. However, they may not lie at exactly the same distance and Iota Orionis may have a complex history involving stellar encounters and runaway stars. NGC 1980 contains few bright stars other than Iota Orionis. Only eighteen other stars are considered members in a survey down to 14th magnitude, most of them around 9th magnitude but including the 5th magnitude stars HR 1886 and 1887.

Properties.

Iota Orionis is dominated by Iota Orionis A whose two components are a stellar class O9 III star (blue giant) and a class B0.8 III/IV star about 2 magnitudes fainter. The combined spectral type has long been accepted as O9 III and it was listed as a standard star for that type. The collision of the stellar winds from this pair makes the system a strong X-ray source. Oddly, the two objects of this system appear to have different ages, with the secondary being about double the age of the primary. In combination with the high eccentricity (e=0.764) of their 29-day orbit, this suggests that the binary system was created through a capture, rather than by being formed together and undergoing a mass transfer. This capture may have occurred, for example, through an encounter between two binary systems, with one star being donated from each binary and two runaway stars being ejected.  The primary component of Iota Orionis A is a class O giant star with a mass of about. It has a surface temperature of and radius of, resulting in a bolometric luminosity of. It is calculated to be around nine million years old. The secondary star of the spectroscopic binary pair is a class B giant or subgiant with a mass of about. It has a temperature of and radius of, resulting in it radiating over 8,000 times as much energy as the sun.  Iota Orionis B is a B8 giant at 11" (approximately 5,000 AU) which has been shown to be variable, and likely to be a young stellar object. It is also a helium-weak chemically peculiar star. The fainter Iota Orionis C is an A0 star at 49".

Iota Orionis (ι Orionis, abbreviated ι Ori) is a multiple star system in the equatorial constellation of Orion the hunter. It is the eighth-brightest member of Orion with an apparent visual magnitude of 2.77 and also the brightest member of the asterism known as Orion's Sword. It is a member of the NGC 1980 open cluster. From parallax measurements, it is located at a distance of roughly from the Sun.

Hatysa (též Hatsya) je hvězda v souhvězdí Orionu. Se zdánlivou hvězdnou velikostí 2,77 je osmou nejjasnější hvězdou tohoto souhvězdí a nejjasnější součástí asterismu Orionův meč. Arabský název Na'ir al Saif znamená „jasná (hvězda) meče“.


Early life.

Tervel Pulev was born on 10 January 1983 in Sofia, Bulgaria, the youngest son of Hristina and Venko Pulev. He grew up in a big family, one of five children – 3 sisters and his brother, Kubrat Pulev, who is also a professional boxer that competes in the heavyweight division. As children, the two brothers were trained by their father, who was convinced his sons would succeed in boxing. As a role model their father not only involved them in boxing, but he also influenced them about loving history, reading books and being patriots.

Amateur career.

Pulev’s first club was CSKA, he won many times the national championship for junior, youth and men. Pulev joins the Bulgarian national representative team and in 1998 participates for the first time in the Youth European Championship in Jurmala, Latvia. During the years he had to defend his presence in the representative team, remaining undefeated from another Bulgarian boxer for the period from 2004 to 2016.  In 2010 Pulev wins the silver medal at the European Championship in Moscow, Russia. Same year he participated in the European Cup Tournament in Kharkov, Ukraine. At the final of the tournament he lost to Oleksandr Usyk. In 2011 Pulev wins again the silver medal at the European Championship in Ankara, Turkey. In 2015 Pulev wins the bronze medal at the European Championship in Samokov, Bulgaria after he lost to Evgeny Tishchenko at the semi-finals.  During his career we won many golden medals and cups at international tournaments held in: Mostar (2004), Spain (2006), Serbia (2008, 2010, 2011), Dagestan (2009), Bulgaria – Strandja Cup (2011, 2014), Albania (2012), Turkey (2012).  The Tournament in Trabzon, Turkey has been from significant importance for Pulev as it was the last Olympic qualification for Europe zone, by winning Pulev caught the last chance to take the only left quota for the 2012 Summer Olympics  At this Olympic games Pulev won the bronze medal, one of the two Bulgarian olympic medals. Pulev defeated Wang Xuanxuan and Yamil Peralta which secured him a medal. At the semi-finals Pulev lost to Oleksandr Usyk, who won the gold medal.  Pulev was awarded Boxer of the Year in Bulgaria for three consequent years 2010, 2011 and 2012. He has also been nominated three times for Sportsman of the year.

Professional career.

Pulev made his professional debut on 3 December 2016 at Arena Armeec in Sofia, in the Main-Event of a card featuring Kubrat Pulev’s win of the World Boxing Association Inter-Continental Heavyweight Title against Samuel Peter, beating Tomislav Rudan by a TKO. Pulev won the following seven fights by KO/TKO in the early rounds. His ninth fight took place in Germany against Valery Brudov and this was the first time for Pulev not to break down the opponent in the very first rounds, but to win by points (Unanimous decision) after the last round. The next three fights took place in Austria, USA and Bulgaria – all three won by KO/TKO. The bout in Bulgaria took place in Arena Armeec on 27 October 2018 and this was Pulev’s first title fight – he won the vacant EBU European Union Cruiserweight Title defeating Leonardo Bruzzese by KO. March 2019 was the second time for Pulev to win by points and Unanimous decision against Mitch Williams in USA at the Hangar, Costa Mesa. December 14, 2019 as the main event holder Pulev, outworked and outboxed American cruiserweight Deshon Webster to unanimous decision in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In this 12 rounds fight Pulev won the WBA International cruiserweight title.

Personal life.

Tervel Pulev has two sons Kaloyan (born in 2008) and Asparuh (born in 2016) with Diana Nenova, Bulgarian volleyball player and member of the national team. Pulev enjoys reading books, playing chess, riding his horse Nedko, walks and training in the mountains, but most of all he loves spending time with his family.  Beside succeeding in boxing, Pulev pays extra attention to his academic education, Мaster’s degree graduate of the National Sports Academy (NSA), in 2019 he decided to enroll in the PhD program of the Academy. In 2018 Pulev became Master of Laws, graduating from Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski ". Pulev owns a sport center called "Sport Center Pulev" located in Sofia, which offers perfect conditions for professionals’ preparation, as well as recreation sport activities and the opportunity to kids to involve in boxing, trained by qualified trainers. Pulev established a brand for sport equipment –”Pulev Sport”.

Tervel Venkov Pulev () is a Bulgarian professional boxer. He has held the WBA International cruiserweight title since December 2019 and previously the European Union cruiserweight title in 2018. He is the younger brother of heavyweight boxer Kubrat Pulev.

Tervel Venkov Pulev (bulharsky Тервел Венков Пулев, * 10. ledna 1983 v Sofii, Bulharsko) je bulharský profesionální boxer, který nastupuje v křížové váze a získal jako amatér v těžké váze na olympijských hrách 2012 v Londýně bronzovou medaili. Je rovněž dvojnásobným stříbrným medailistou z mistrovství Evropy. V prosinci 2016 vstoupil mezi profesionály.


Background.

The concept of the oceanic anoxic event (OAE) was first proposed in 1976 by Seymour Schlanger (1927–1990) and geologist Hugh Jenkyns and arose from discoveries made by the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) in the Pacific Ocean. It was the finding of black carbon-rich shales in Cretaceous sediments that had accumulated on submarine volcanic plateaus (Shatsky Rise, Manihiki Plateau), coupled with the fact that they were identical in age with similar deposits cored from the Atlantic Ocean and known from outcrops in Europe – particularly in the geological record of the otherwise limestone-dominated Apennines chain in Italy – that led to the realization that these widespread similar strata recorded highly unusual oxygen-depleted conditions in the world ocean during several discrete periods of geological time.  Sedimentological investigations of these organic-rich sediments, which have continued to this day, typically reveal the presence of fine laminations undisturbed by bottom-dwelling fauna, indicating anoxic conditions on the sea floor, believed to be coincident with a low lying poisonous layer of hydrogen sulfide. Furthermore, detailed organic geochemical studies have recently revealed the presence of molecules (so-called biomarkers) that derive from both purple sulfur bacteria and green sulfur bacteria: organisms that required both light and free hydrogen sulfide (HS), illustrating that anoxic conditions extended high into the illuminated upper water column.  There are currently several places on earth that are exhibiting the features of anoxic events on a localized scale such as algal/bacterial blooms and localized "dead zones". Dead zones exist off the East Coast of the United States in the Chesapeake Bay, in the Scandinavian strait Kattegat, the Black Sea (which may have been anoxic in its deepest levels for millennia, however), in the northern Adriatic as well as a dead zone off the coast of Louisiana. The current surge of jellyfish worldwide is sometimes regarded as the first stirrings of an anoxic event. Other marine dead zones have appeared in coastal waters of South America, China, Japan, and New Zealand. A 2008 study counted 405 dead zones worldwide.  This is a recent understanding. This picture was only pieced together during the last three decades. The handful of known and suspected anoxic events have been tied geologically to large-scale production of the world's oil reserves in worldwide bands of black shale in the geologic record. Likewise the high relative temperatures believed linked to so called "super-greenhouse events".

Euxinia.

Oceanic anoxic events with euxinic (i.e. sulfidic) conditions have been linked to extreme episodes of volcanic outgassing. Thus, volcanism contributed to the buildup of CO in the atmosphere, increased global temperatures, causing an accelerated hydrological cycle that introduced nutrients to the oceans to stimulate planktonic productivity. These processes potentially acted as a trigger for euxinia in restricted basins where water-column stratification could develop. Under anoxic to euxinic conditions, oceanic phosphate is not retained in sediment and could hence be released and recycled, aiding continued high productivity.

Mechanism.

Temperatures throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous are generally thought to have been relatively warm, and consequently dissolved oxygen levels in the ocean were lower than today – making anoxia easier to achieve. However, more specific conditions are required to explain the short-period (less than a million years) oceanic anoxic events. Two hypotheses, and variations upon them, have proved most durable.  One hypothesis suggests that the anomalous accumulation of organic matter relates to its enhanced preservation under restricted and poorly oxygenated conditions, which themselves were a function of the particular geometry of the ocean basin: such a hypothesis, although readily applicable to the young and relatively narrow Cretaceous Atlantic (which could be likened to a large-scale Black Sea, only poorly connected to the World Ocean), fails to explain the occurrence of coeval black shales on open-ocean Pacific plateaus and shelf seas around the world. There are suggestions, again from the Atlantic, that a shift in oceanic circulation was responsible, where warm, salty waters at low latitudes became hypersaline and sank to form an intermediate layer, at depth, with a temperature of to.  The second hypothesis suggests that oceanic anoxic events record a major change in the fertility of the oceans that resulted in an increase in organic-walled plankton (including bacteria) at the expense of calcareous plankton such as coccoliths and foraminifera. Such an accelerated flux of organic matter would have expanded and intensified the oxygen minimum zone, further enhancing the amount of organic carbon entering the sedimentary record. Essentially this mechanism assumes a major increase in the availability of dissolved nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate and possibly iron to the phytoplankton population living in the illuminated layers of the oceans.  For such an increase to occur would have required an accelerated influx of land-derived nutrients coupled with vigorous upwelling, requiring major climate change on a global scale. Geochemical data from oxygen-isotope ratios in carbonate sediments and fossils, and magnesium/calcium ratios in fossils, indicate that all major oceanic anoxic events were associated with thermal maxima, making it likely that global weathering rates, and nutrient flux to the oceans, were increased during these intervals. Indeed, the reduced solubility of oxygen would lead to phosphate release, further nourishing the ocean and fuelling high productivity, hence a high oxygen demand – sustaining the event through a positive feedback.  Here is another way of looking at oceanic anoxic events. Assume that the earth releases a huge volume of carbon dioxide during an interval of intense volcanism; global temperatures rise due to the greenhouse effect; global weathering rates and fluvial nutrient flux increase; organic productivity in the oceans increases; organic-carbon burial in the oceans increases (OAE begins); carbon dioxide is drawn down due to both burial of organic matter and weathering of silicate rocks (inverse greenhouse effect); global temperatures fall, and the ocean–atmosphere system returns to equilibrium (OAE ends).  In this way, an oceanic anoxic event can be viewed as the Earth's response to the injection of excess carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and hydrosphere. One test of this notion is to look at the age of large igneous provinces (LIPs), the extrusion of which would presumably have been accompanied by rapid effusion of vast quantities of volcanogenic gases such as carbon dioxide. Intriguingly, the age of three LIPs (Karoo-Ferrar flood basalt, Caribbean large igneous province, Ontong Java Plateau) correlates uncannily well with that of the major Jurassic (early Toarcian) and Cretaceous (early Aptian and Cenomanian–Turonian) oceanic anoxic events, indicating that a causal link is feasible.

Occurrence.

Oceanic anoxic events most commonly occurred during periods of very warm climate characterized by high levels of carbon dioxide (CO) and mean surface temperatures probably in excess of. The Quaternary levels, the current period, are just in comparison. Such rises in carbon dioxide may have been in response to a great outgassing of the highly flammable natural gas (methane) that some call an "oceanic burp". Vast quantities of methane are normally locked into the Earth's crust on the continental plateaus in one of the many deposits consisting of compounds of methane hydrate, a solid precipitated combination of methane and water much like ice. Because the methane hydrates are unstable, except at cool temperatures and high (deep) pressures, scientists have observed smaller "burps" due to tectonic events. Studies suggest the huge release of natural gas could be a major climatological trigger, methane itself being a greenhouse gas many times more powerful than carbon dioxide. However, anoxia was also rife during the Hirnantian (late Ordovician) ice age.  Oceanic anoxic events have been recognized primarily from the already warm Cretaceous and Jurassic Periods, when numerous examples have been documented, but earlier examples have been suggested to have occurred in the late Triassic, Permian, Devonian (Kellwasser event), Ordovician and Cambrian.  The Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), which was characterized by a global rise in temperature and deposition of organic-rich shales in some shelf seas, shows many similarities to oceanic anoxic events.  Typically, oceanic anoxic events lasted for less than a million years, before a full recovery.

Consequences.

Oceanic anoxic events have had many important consequences. It is believed that they have been responsible for mass extinctions of marine organisms both in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. The early Toarcian and Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic events correlate with the Toarcian and Cenomanian-Turonian extinction events of mostly marine life forms. Apart from possible atmospheric effects, many deeper-dwelling marine organisms could not adapt to an ocean where oxygen penetrated only the surface layers.  An economically significant consequence of oceanic anoxic events is the fact that the prevailing conditions in so many Mesozoic oceans has helped produce most of the world's petroleum and natural gas reserves. During an oceanic anoxic event, the accumulation and preservation of organic matter was much greater than normal, allowing the generation of potential petroleum source rocks in many environments across the globe. Consequently, some 70 percent of oil source rocks are Mesozoic in age, and another 15 percent date from the warm Paleogene: only rarely in colder periods were conditions favorable for the production of source rocks on anything other than a local scale.

Atmospheric effects.

A model put forward by Lee Kump, Alexander Pavlov and Michael Arthur in 2005 suggests that oceanic anoxic events may have been characterized by upwelling of water rich in highly toxic hydrogen sulfide gas, which was then released into the atmosphere. This phenomenon would probably have poisoned plants and animals and caused mass extinctions. Furthermore, it has been proposed that the hydrogen sulfide rose to the upper atmosphere and attacked the ozone layer, which normally blocks the deadly ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. The increased UV radiation caused by this ozone depletion would have amplified the destruction of plant and animal life. Fossil spores from strata recording the Permian-Triassic extinction event show deformities consistent with UV radiation. This evidence, combined with fossil biomarkers of green sulfur bacteria, indicates that this process could have played a role in that mass extinction event, and possibly other extinction events. The trigger for these mass extinctions appears to be a warming of the ocean caused by a rise of carbon dioxide levels to about 1000 parts per million.

Ocean chemistry effects.

Reduced oxygen levels are expected to lead to increased seawater concentrations of redox-sensitive metals. The reductive dissolution of iron–manganese oxyhydroxides in seafloor sediments under low-oxygen conditions would release those metals and associated trace metals. Sulfate reduction in such sediments could release other metals such as barium. When heavy-metal-rich anoxic deep water entered continental shelves and encountered increased O levels, precipitation of some of the metals, as well as poisoning of the local biota, would have occurred. In the late Silurian mid-Pridoli event, increases are seen in the Fe, Cu, As, Al, Pb, Ba, Mo and Mn levels in shallow-water sediment and microplankton; this is associated with a marked increase in the malformation rate in chitinozoans and other microplankton types, likely due to metal toxicity. Similar metal enrichment has been reported in sediments from the mid-Silurian Ireviken event.

Anoxic events in Earth's history.

Cretaceous.

Sulfidic (or euxinic) conditions, which exist today in many water bodies from ponds to various land-surrounded mediterranean seas such as the Black Sea, were particularly prevalent in the Cretaceous Atlantic but also characterized other parts of the world ocean. In an ice-free sea of these supposed super-greenhouse worlds, oceanic waters were as much as 200 meters higher, in some eras. During the time spans in question, the continental plates are believed to have been well separated, and the mountains we know today were (mostly) future tectonic events—meaning the overall landscapes were generally much lower— and even the half super-greenhouse climates would have been eras of highly expedited water erosion carrying massive amounts of nutrients into the world oceans fueling an overall explosive population of microorganisms and their predator species in the oxygenated upper layers.  Detailed stratigraphic studies of Cretaceous black shales from many parts of the world have indicated that two oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) were particularly significant in terms of their impact on the chemistry of the oceans, one in the early Aptian (~120 Ma), sometimes called the Selli Event (or OAE 1a) after the Italian geologist Raimondo Selli (1916–1983), and another at the Cenomanian–Turonian boundary (~93 Ma), sometimes called the Bonarelli Event (or OAE 2) after the Italian geologist Guido Bonarelli (1871–1951). OAE1a lasted for ~1.0 to 1.3 Myr. The duration of OAE2 is estimated to be ~820 kyr based on a high-resolution study of the significantly expanded OAE2 interval in southern Tibet, China.  More minor oceanic anoxic events have been proposed for other intervals in the Cretaceous (in the Valanginian, Hauterivian, Albian and Coniacian–Santonian stages), but their sedimentary record, as represented by organic-rich black shales, appears more parochial, being dominantly represented in the Atlantic and neighboring areas, and some researchers relate them to particular local conditions rather than being forced by global change.

Jurassic.

The only oceanic anoxic event documented from the Jurassic took place during the early Toarcian (~183 Ma). Since no DSDP (Deep Sea Drilling Project) or ODP (Ocean Drilling Program) cores have recovered black shales of this age – there being little or no Toarcian ocean crust remaining – the samples of black shale primarily come from outcrops on land. These outcrops, together with material from some commercial oil wells, are found on all major continents and this event seems similar in kind to the two major Cretaceous examples.

Paleozoic.

The boundary between the Ordovician and Silurian periods is marked by repetitive periods of anoxia, interspersed with normal, oxic conditions. In addition, anoxic periods are found during the Silurian. These anoxic periods occurred at a time of low global temperatures (although levels were high), in the midst of a glaciation.  Jeppsson (1990) proposes a mechanism whereby the temperature of polar waters determines the site of formation of downwelling water. If the high latitude waters are below, they will be dense enough to sink; as they are cool, oxygen is highly soluble in their waters, and the deep ocean will be oxygenated. If high latitude waters are warmer than, their density is too low for them to sink below the cooler deep waters. Therefore, thermohaline circulation can only be driven by salt-increased density, which tends to form in warm waters where evaporation is high. This warm water can dissolve less oxygen, and is produced in smaller quantities, producing a sluggish circulation with little deep water oxygen. The effect of this warm water propagates through the ocean, and reduces the amount of that the oceans can hold in solution, which makes the oceans release large quantities of into the atmosphere in a geologically short time (tens or thousands of years). The warm waters also initiate the release of clathrates, which further increases atmospheric temperature and basin anoxia. Similar positive feedbacks operate during cold-pole episodes, amplifying their cooling effects.  The periods with cold poles are termed "P-episodes" (short for "primo"), and are characterised by bioturbated deep oceans, a humid equator and higher weathering rates, and terminated by extinction events – for example, the Ireviken and Lau events. The inverse is true for the warmer, oxic "S-episodes" ("secundo"), where deep ocean sediments are typically graptolitic black shales. A typical cycle of "secundo-primo" episodes and ensuing "event" typically lasts around 3 Ma.  The duration of events is so long compared to their onset because the positive feedbacks must be overwhelmed. Carbon content in the ocean-atmosphere system is affected by changes in weathering rates, which in turn is dominantly controlled by rainfall. Because this is inversely related to temperature in Silurian times, carbon is gradually drawn down during warm (high ) S-episodes, while the reverse is true during P-episodes. On top of this gradual trend is overprinted the signal of Milankovic cycles, which ultimately trigger the switch between P- and S- episodes.  These events become longer during the Devonian; the enlarging land plant biota probably acted as a large buffer to carbon dioxide concentrations.  The end-Ordovician Hirnantian event may alternatively be a result of algal blooms, caused by sudden supply of nutrients through wind-driven upwelling or an influx of nutrient-rich meltwater from melting glaciers, which by virtue of its fresh nature would also slow down oceanic circulation.

Archean and Proterozoic.

It has been thought that through most of Earth's history, oceans were largely oxygen-deficient. During the Archean, euxinia was largely absent because of low availability of sulfate in the oceans, but during the Proterozoic, it would become more common.

Oceanic anoxic events or anoxic events (anoxia conditions) were intervals in the Earth's past where portions of oceans became depleted in oxygen (O) over a large geographic areas. During some of these events, euxinia, waters that contain hydrogen sulfide,, developed. Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years, the geological record shows that they happened many times in the past. Anoxic events coincided with several mass extinctions and may have contributed to them. These mass extinctions include some that geobiologists use as time markers in biostratigraphic dating. Many geologists believe oceanic anoxic events are strongly linked to slowing of ocean circulation, climatic warming, and elevated levels of greenhouse gases. Researchers have proposed enhanced volcanism (the release of CO) as the "central external trigger for euxinia".

Anoxická událost (nebo "anoxické podmínky" či "oceánská anoxická událost") je stav či událost, kdy v hloubi oceánu kompletně vymizí kyslík. Podobný termín "euxinický" podmiňuje anoxické podmínky i přítomností sirovodíku.


Career.

Early days.

Their first gig was as a three piece at the 1980 Chaos Show at St Mark's Hall, Royal Tunbridge Wells on 31 March 1980. They later managed to get a slot in Discharge and The Exploited's Apocalypse tour, along with Chron Gen and Anti-Pasti. Chris Elvy was replaced by Clive Blake (Winston) and Bones (Tony Shaw) was replaced by PJ.. Persian John as they moved towards going pro. This led to them signing to John Curd's record label WXYZ Records, with Curd and Chris Gabrin co-managing the band. Later that year they opened for The Damned on a short tour round the north of England and Scotland plus a hastily arranged one-off gig at the Lyceum Ballroom where The Damned stepped in for Stiff Little Fingers.  November 1981 saw the release of their first single, a cover version of Ralph McTell's "Streets of London". The single peaked at No. 48 in the UK Singles Chart and spent five weeks in the listings. The profanity-laden B-side of the single, "So What" later became the group's anthem. Copies of this single were seized from indie distributor Pinnacle by the Metropolitan Police's Obscene Publication Squad shortly after release. "So What?" was covered by Metallica, being released as a B-side to the "Sad But True" single, and later included on the "Garage Inc." album; "So What?" would go on to become an in-concert standard for Metallica.  In 1982, ANL took part in the 'So What Tour' alongside groups such as Chelsea, The Meteors, Chron Gen and The Defects. This year also saw the release of their debut album, "We Are...The League". It reached No. 24 in the UK Albums Chart, and spent eleven weeks in the chart. The UK Subs and Anti-Nowhere League toured the US and hit the West Coast of California in March 1982 and down to Reseda Country Club outside of Los Angeles and on down to San Diego.  Gilly (real name Mark Gilham) joined the band in 1982 as an extra guitarist. The band went to Yugoslavia to record a live album, called "Live In Yugoslavia", but this was dogged by problems with the authorities insisting that references that Animal had made about the recently deceased president Josip Broz Tito be removed from the master tapes. The live album spent one week at No. 88 in the UK Albums Chart.

1984 to 1989.

In 1984, PJ left the band, and they became musically inactive. 1985 saw Michael Bettell join on drums, followed in 1986 by JB (Jonathan Birch). During this time they signed for GWR Records, and recorded "The Perfect Crime" album.  In 1987, Anti-Nowhere League disbanded. However, there was a belated 'farewell' show at the Victoria Hall in Tunbridge Wells, in 1989, which was recorded and can be heard on their live album, "Live Animals".

Comeback.

In 1992, Animal was told by JB that Metallica wanted him to guest at Wembley Arena, when they did their cover version of "So What". Animal put it thus on ANL's website. "As I waited on the edge of the stage waiting to go on it suddenly dawned on me I was just about to stand in front of 10,000 punters who didn’t know me from Adam and sing a song that I couldn’t fucking remember; all that kept running through my head was RUN you silly old fucker!". However, after the 25 October show, Mark joined that year on lead guitar, and 1993–1995 was spent playing gigs in the small venues the band had started out in.  Michael Bettell died in September 2003, aged 41, from a brain tumour.  In 1996, they signed up with Impact Records and recorded their next EP "Pig Iron". Beef also joined the band. Further personnel changes occurred in 1997 when Winston left the band to be replaced by Jon Jon, and the recording of the album "Scum". Winston Blake returned to his former occupation of a roofer and leadworker and lives in East Sussex. Danny joined on drums in 1998, and the album "Out of Control" was released a year later in 1999.  In 2001, Magoo quit playing because the band had become an over the top parody of its self and was going nowhere.

2002–present.

Jon Jon, Beef and Danny left the band, to be replaced by PJ (original drummer), Jez on guitar and Shady on bass. This line-up released the band's fifth studio album, "Kings and Queens" in 2005, which was released on the Captain Oi! record label. However, there were arguments over the omission of two songs from that album, "The Day The World Turned Gay" and "The Adventures Of Peter Vile". Lawyers for Captain Oi! refused to sanction the release of these two songs because of fear of litigation, so Nick (Animal) eventually relented and let the album be released with the two disputed songs omitted.  In 2006, the band set up their own independent record label, Nowhere Records; with "Pig Iron - The Album" being the first release in August 2006. The album included the two songs omitted from the "Kings and Queens" album, as well as "Landlord", taken from the "Out Of Control" album. The same year, the Anti-Nowhere League undertook a twenty nine date UK tour, and PJ left the band after the Glasgow gig in October 2006. His replacement was Dave Hazlewood (Nato), from the small Kent town of Cranbrook, who had filled in before on tours. On 8 November 2006, the ANL began a three-week tour of Australia and New Zealand. On 26 October, the band joined Angelic Upstarts, Sham 69 and The Damned for the Academy in the UK 2006: 30th Anniversary of Punk gig at London's Shepherd's Bush Empire.  The Anti-Nowhere League supported Rancid at their Leeds gig on 8 November 2008. In December 2008, Jez was replaced on lead guitar by Johhny Skullknuckles. The League continued to tour and record, and now promote their new songs with videos. After a mini European tour in late spring 2009, they embarked on an American tour in June and July 2009, before appearing at the Punk Rebellion festival in Blackpool. After touring Germany and the Netherlands in early May 2010, the band and Johhny Skullknuckles parted company and Tommy H (Tom Hunt) was drafted in on guitar.  In 2011, the band recorded the "This Is War" single, and accompanying video, which was followed by a tour with the UK Subs supporting Motörhead on a number of UK dates. At the 2012 Download Festival, the band appeared on the Pepsi Max stage hours before Metallica filled the main stage as headliners.  During the later months of 2015 writing began for the album "The Cage", the first fresh studio album since "Rampton". During this time, drummer Dave 'Nato' Hazlewood left the band. "'The Cage" album saw another slight change in direction, with a heavier, and more direct sound. It was released by Cleopatra Records in 2016.  2017 saw the band record and release a collection of classic reggae covers under the title "League Style, Loosen Up Vol I".

Anti-Nowhere League are an English punk rock band, formed in 1979 by lead singer Animal (Nick Culmer), guitarist Magoo (Chris Exall), Bones (Tony Shaw) on drums and Chris Elvy on bass.

Anti-Nowhere League je anglická hardcore punková kapela zformovaná v roce 1980 zpěvákem Nickem Culmerem (Animal), kytaristou Chrisem Exallem (Magoo), bubeníkem Tonym Shawem (Bones) a basistou Clivem Blakem (Winston the Grass).


Lithologies.

The Austroalpine nappes are fragments of the former continental shelf and continental slope of the Apulian or Adriatic plate. These fragments contain rocks from the continental basement as well as from sedimentary rocks deposited in these environments.  The basement rocks have experienced metamorphism related to their original depth in the Earth's crust, but in the Austroalpine nappes Alpine metamorphism (i.e. metamorphism related to the formation of the Alps) is fairly low grade to non-existent. The basement rocks can be greenschist facies to amphibolite facies, depending on their original depth. They are Paleozoic schists and (para-)gneisses intruded by granites of Variscan and Tertiary age.  On top of this basement rock, Permian and Mesozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks were deposited. Shallow marine limestones are abundant, these limestones now form the mountain chains of the northern part of the Eastern Alps, which are therefore together called the "Northern Calcareous Alps". Sometimes, the limestone has been turned into dolomite, as in the Austrian region Salzkammergut and the German region Allgäu.  A special unit is the greywacke zone, a band of Paleozoic metamorphosed sedimentary rocks that forms an east-west band through the Austrian Alps. The greywacke zone crops out between the Mesozoic rocks of the Northern Calcareous Alps and the Austroalpine and Penninic basement rocks of the Central Eastern Alps. Stratigraphically, the greywacke zone can be up to thick.  All of these lithologies were folded and thrusted, so that the basement rock can be found on top of the sediments and vice versa.

Geographic position.

In Switzerland, the Austroalpine nappes have been eroded away except for a few isolated outcrops called the Sesia unit and the Dent Blanche klippe (the Matterhorn is the most outstanding example of an Austroalpine klippe). These remaining Swiss nappes have a different tectonic and metamorphic history than their counterparts in Austria, which is why they are not always considered a part of the Austroalpine nappes.  On the other hand, in Austria, the Austroalpine nappes cover the largest part of that country, except for a few windows like the Hohe Tauern window and the Engadin window.

Traces of the Eo-Alpine orogenic phase.

Before the formation of the Alps in the lower and middle Tertiary period, the Austroalpine rocks experienced another deformation phase: the Eo-Alpine phase of mountain building that took place in the Cretaceous. The metamorphic grade increases to the east-south-east, so in a west-north-western direction, the traces become less severe. In the west of Switzerland, the event cannot be recognized. In Austria, however, Eo-Alpine eclogite lenses occur close to the Hohe Tauern window.  The Eo-Alpine phase is sometimes seen as the earliest phase of the Alpine orogeny. However, after the initial mountain-building, the tectonic plates moved away from each other. The next phase was more than 50 Ma later, so the events are often seen as unrelated.

The Austroalpine nappes are a geological nappe stack in the European Alps. The Alps contain three such stacks, of which the Austroalpine nappes are structurally on top of the other two (meaning they were thrusted over the other two). The name Austroalpine means "Southern Alpine", because these nappes crop out mainly in the Eastern Alps (the Alps east of the line Lake Constance - Chur – Lake Como).

Austroalpinské příkrovy, austroalpinikum nebo austroalpinská jednotka/zóna je nejvyšší tektonická příkrovová jednotka Alp. Příkrovy vystupují na povrch hlavně ve Východních Alpách, východně od linie Bodamské jezero - Chur – Comské jezero, s výjimkou tektonických oken Vysokých Taur a Engadinu. Jedinými troskami austroalpinika v Západních Alpách jsou příkrov Dent Blanche a jednotka Sesia ve Švýcarsko. Austroalpinské příkrovy zde byly odstraněny erozí. Tyto pozůstatky se od zbytku austroalpinika v Rakousku liší jiným metamorfním a tektonickým postihem, pročež podle některých názorů nemusí být součástí austroalpinika.


Biography.

Early years.

Peter Krešimir was born as one of two children to king Stephen I ("Stjepan I") and his wife Hicela, daughter of the Venetian Doge Pietro II Orseolo.  Krešimir succeeded his father Stephen I upon his death in 1058 and was crowned the next year. It is not known where his coronation took place, but some historians suggest Biograd as a possibility.  From the outset, he continued the policies of his father, but was immediately requested in letter by Pope Nicholas II first in 1059. and then in 1060 to reform the Croatian church in accordance with the Roman rite. This was especially significant to the papacy in the aftermath of the Great Schism of 1054, when a papal ally in the Balkans was a necessity. This was in accordance with the visit of the papal legate Mainardius in 1060, Kresimir and the upper nobility lent their support to the pope and the church of Rome.  The lower nobility and the peasantry, however, were far less well-disposed to reforms. The Croatian priesthood was aligned towards Byzantine orientalism, including having long beards and marrying. More so, the ecclesiastical service was likely practiced in the native Slavonic (Glagolitic), whereas the pope demanded practice in Latin. This caused a rebellion of the clergy led by a certain priest named Vuk ("Ulfus"), who was referenced as newcomer to the kingdom in sources. Vuk had presented the demands and gifts of the Croats to the Pope during his stay in Rome, but was told nothing could be accomplished without the consent of the Split see and the king. They protested against celibacy and the Roman Rite in 1063, but they were proclaimed heretical at a synod of 1064 and excommunicated, a decision which Krešimir supported. Krešimir harshly quelled all opposition and sustained a firm alignment towards western Romanism, with the intent of more fully integrating the Dalmatian populace into his realm. In turn, he could then use them to balance the power caused by the growing feudal class. By the end of Krešimir's reign, feudalism had made permanent inroads into Croatian society and Dalmatia had been permanently associated with the Croatian state.  The income from the cities further strengthened Krešimir's power, and he subsequently fostered the development of more cities, such as Biograd, Nin, Šibenik, Karin, and Skradin. He also had several monasteries constructed, like the Benedictine monasteries of (1060) and "St Thomas" (c. 1066) in Biograd, and donated much land to the Church. In 1066, he granted a charter to the new monastery of St.Mary in Zadar, where the founder and first nun was his cousin, the Abbess "Čika". This remains the oldest Croatian monument in the city of Zadar, and became a spearhead for the reform movement. During the same year, he gave his nephew Stephen Trpimirović the office of Duke of Croatia, which designated him as his co-ruler and successor.  In 1067, the northern part of the kingdom was invaded by Ulric I, Margrave of Carniola, who occupied a part of Kvarner and the eastern coast of Istria, the "March of Dalmatia". As the king was at that time preoccupied with the liturgical issues and reforms in Dalmatia, these parts were eventually liberated by his ban Demetrius Zvonimir.

Territorial policy.

It was for the first time that the high ranking office of ban started to branch during his rule, as multiple bans were for the first time mentioned in 1067. It is known that, apart from the ban of Croatia, the banate of Slavonia existed during this period, which was at this time likely held by Krešimir's successor Demetrius Zvonimir. The city of Šibenik is for the first time mentioned during his rule in 1066, which was his seat for some time and is for these reasons referred as "Krešimir's city" in modern times.  In 1069, he gave the island of Maun, near Nin, to the monastery of "St. Krševan" in Zadar, in thanks for the "expansion of the kingdom on land and on sea, by the grace of the omnipotent God" ("quia Deus omnipotens terra marique nostrum prolungavit regnum"). In his surviving document, Krešimir nevertheless did not fail to point out that it was "our own island that lies on our Dalmatian sea" ("nostram propriam insulam in nostro Dalmatico mari sitam, que vocatur Mauni").  Around 1070, Krešimir was rumored to have murdered his brother Gojslav, who had served as the ban of Croatia until 1070. Eventually, when the rumors reached abroad, Pope Alexander II sent one of his delegates to inquire about the death of Gojslav. Only after the monarch and 12 Croatian župans had taken oath that he did not kill his brother, the Pope symbolically restored the royal power to Krešimir. He made Dmitar Zvonimir, the new Ban of Croatia, and subsequently elevated him as his principal adviser with the title Duke of Croatia.

Relations with Byzantium and the Normans.

In 1069, he had the Byzantine Empire recognize him as supreme ruler of the parts of Dalmatia Byzantium had controlled since the Croatian dynastic struggle of 997. At the time, the empire was at war both with the Seljuk Turks in Asia and the Normans in southern Italy, so Krešimir took the opportunity and, avoiding an imperial nomination as proconsul or eparch, consolidated his holdings as the "regnum Dalmatiae et Chroatia". This was not a formal title, but it designated a unified political-administrative territory, which had been the chief desire of the Croatian kings.  During Krešimir's reign, the Normans from southern Italy first became involved in Balkan politics and Krešimir soon came in contact with them. After the 1071 Battle of Manzikert, where the Seljuk Turks routed the Eastern Imperial army, the Diocleans, Serbs and other Slavs instigated a rebellion of boyars in Macedonia and in 1072, Krešimir is alleged to have lent his aid to this uprising. In 1075, the Normans under Peter II of Trani invaded the Dalmatian possessions of Croatia from southern Italy, most likely at the command of the Pope, who had been in a quarrel with the king of Croatia over papal politics towards his kingdom. During the invasion, the Norman count Amico of Giovinazzo besieged the island of Rab for almost a month (14 April to early May). He failed in his siege of Rab, but he managed to take the island of Cres on 9 May. It was during these clashes that the Croatian king himself was captured by Amico at an unidentified location. In return for liberation, he was forced to relinquish many cities, including both his capitals, as well as Zadar, Split, and Trogir. His followers, such as the Bishop of Cres, also collected a large ransom. However, he was not liberated. Over the next two years, the Republic of Venice expelled the Normans and secured the cities for themselves.

Death and succession.

Near the end of his reign, having no sons, Peter Krešimir designated Demetrius Zvonimir as his heir. It is uncertain whether Peter died in a Norman prison during the first half of 1075. According to Johannes Lucius, an usurper, Slavac, succeeded to the throne sometime in 1074 and reigned only for a year before Zvonimir succeeded.  Krešimir was buried in the church of St. Stephen in Solin, together with the other dukes and kings of Croatia. Several centuries later the Ottoman Turks destroyed the church, banished the monks who had preserved it, and destroyed the graves.

Legacy.

Krešimir is, by some historians, regarded as one of the greatest Croatian rulers. Thomas the Archdeacon named him "the Great" in his work "Historia Salonitana" during the 13th century for his significance in unifying the Dalmatian coastal cities with the Croatian state and accomplishing a peak in Croatia's territorial extent. The RTOP-11 of the Croatian navy was named after Krešimir. The city of Šibenik holds a statue of him and some schools in the vicinity are named after Krešimir.

Peter Krešimir IV, called the Great () was King of Croatia and Dalmatia from 1059 until his death in 1074 or 1075. He was the last great ruler of the Krešimirović branch of the Trpimirović dynasty.

Petr Krešimír IV. Veliký, (chorvatsky "Petar Krešimir", latinsky "Petrus Cresimiri",? - 1075) byl chorvatský král z dynastie Trpimírovců, první slovanské dynastie, která získala titul krále. Vládl v letech 1059-1075. Chorvatsko sjednotil, připojil k němu dalmatské ostrovy a chorvatský středověký stát se pod jeho vládou ocitl na vrcholu moci – odtud přízvisko Veliký. Sídlil ve městech Nin a Biograd na Moru. Tradice praví, že založil město Šibenik, byť spíše asi rozšířil starší osadu.


Background.

The Cenomanian and Turonian stages were first noted by D'Orbigny between 1843 and 1852. The global type section for this boundary is located in the Bridge Creek Limestone Member of the Greenhorn Formation near Pueblo, Colorado, which are bedded with the Milankovitch orbital signature. Here, a positive carbon-isotope event is clearly shown, although none of the characteristic, organic-rich black shale is present. It has been estimated that the isotope shift lasted approximately 850,000 years longer than the black shale event, which may be the cause of this anomaly in the Colorado type section. A significantly expanded OAE2 interval from southern Tibet documents a complete, more detailed, and finer-scale structures of the positive carbon isotope excursion that contains multiple shorter-term carbon isotope stages amounting to a total duration of 820 ±25 ka.  The boundary is also known as the Bonarelli event because of layer of thick, black shale that marks the boundary and was first studied by in 1891. It is characterized by interbedded black shales, chert and radiolarian sands and is estimated to span a 400,000-year interval. Planktonic foraminifera do not exist in this Bonarelli level, and the presence of radiolarians in this section indicates relatively high productivity and an availability of nutrients.

Cenomanian-Turonian event.

Causes.

One possible cause of this event is sub-oceanic volcanism, possibly the Caribbean large igneous province, with increased activity approximately 500,000 years earlier. During that period, the rate of crustal production reached its highest level for 100 million years. This was largely caused by the widespread melting of hot mantle plumes under the ocean crust, at the base of the lithosphere. This may have resulted in the thickening of the oceanic crust in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The resulting volcanism would have sent large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, leading to an increase in global temperatures. Within the oceans, the emission of SO, HS, CO, and halogens would have increased the acidity of the water, causing the dissolution of carbonate, and a further release of carbon dioxide. When the volcanic activity declined, this run-away greenhouse effect would have likely been put into reverse. The increased CO content of the oceans could have increased organic productivity in the ocean surface waters. The consumption of this newly abundant organic life by aerobic bacteria would produce anoxia and mass extinction. The resulting elevated levels of carbon burial would account for the black shale deposition in the ocean basins.

Large igneous provinces and their possible contribution.

Several independent events related to large igneous provinces (LIP) occurred around the time of OAE2. Within the time period from about 95 to 90 million years ago, two separate LIP events occurred; the Madagascar and the Caribbean-Colombian. Trace metals such as chromium (Cr), scandium (Sc), copper (Cu) and cobalt (Co) have been found at the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary, which suggests that an LIP could have been one of the main basic causes involved in the contribution of the event.  The timing of the peak in trace metal concentration coincides with the middle of the anoxic event, suggesting that the effects of the LIPs may have occurred during the event, but may not have initiated the event. Other studies linked the lead (Pb) isotopes of OAE-2 to the Caribbean-Colombian and the Madagascar LIPs.  A modeling study performed in 2011 confirmed that it is possible that a LIP may have initiated the event, as the model revealed that the peak amount of carbon dioxide degassing from volcanic LIP degassing could have resulted in more than 90 percent global deep-ocean anoxia.

Effects.

The event brought about the extinction of the pliosaurs, and most ichthyosaurs. Coracoids of Maastrichtian age were once interpreted by some authors as belonging to ichthyosaurs, but these have since been interpreted as plesiosaur elements instead. Although the cause is still uncertain, the result starved the Earth's oceans of oxygen for nearly half a million years, causing the extinction of approximately 27 percent of marine invertebrates, including certain planktic and benthic foraminifera, mollusks, bivalves, dinoflagellates and calcareous nannofossils. The global environmental disturbance that resulted in these conditions increased atmospheric and oceanic temperatures. Boundary sediments show an enrichment of trace elements, and contain elevated δ13C values.

The δC isotope excursion.

The positive δ13C isotope excursion found at the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary is one of the main carbon isotope events of the Mesozoic. It represents one of the largest disturbances in the global carbon cycle from the past 110 million years. This δ13C isotope excursion indicates a significant increase in the burial rate of organic carbon, indicating the widespread deposition and preservation of organic carbon-rich sediments and that the ocean was depleted of oxygen at the time. Within the positive carbon isotope excursion, short eccentricity scale carbon isotope variability is documented in a significantly expanded OAE2 interval from southern Tibet.

Changes in oceanic biodiversity and its implications.

The alterations in diversity of various marine invertebrate species such as calcareous nannofossils indicate a time when the oceans were warm and oligotrophic, in an environment with short spikes of productivity followed by long periods of low fertility. A study performed in the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary of Wunstorf, Germany, reveal the uncharacteristic dominance of a calcareous nannofossil species, "Watznaueria", present during the event. Unlike the "Biscutum" species, which prefer mesotrophic conditions and were generally the dominant species before and after the C/T boundary event; "Watznaueria" species prefer warm, oligotrophic conditions.  At the time, there were also peak abundances of green algal groups "Botryococcus" and "prasinophytes", coincident with pelagic sedimentation. The abundances of these algal groups are strongly related to the increase of both the oxygen deficiency in the water column and the total organic carbon content. The evidence from these algal groups suggest that there were episodes of halocline stratification of the water column during the time. A species of freshwater dinocyst—the Bosedinia was also found in the rocks dated to the time and these suggest that the oceans had reduced salinity.

The Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event, or the Cenomanian-Turonian extinction event, the Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event (OAE 2), and referred also as the Bonarelli event, was one of two anoxic extinction events in the Cretaceous period. (The other being the earlier Selli event, or OAE 1a, in the Aptian.) Selby et al. in 2009 concluded the OAE 2 occurred approximately 91.5 ± 8.6 Ma, though estimates published by Leckie et al. (2002) are given as 93–94 Ma. The Cenomanian-Turonian boundary has been refined in 2012 to 93.9 ± 0.15 Ma There was a large carbon disturbance during this time period. However, apart from the carbon cycle disturbance, there were also large disturbances in the oxygen and sulfur cycles of the ocean.

Událost cenomansko-turonského rozhraní, také známa jako "cenomansko-turonské vymírání", "cenomansko-turonská anoxická událost", "vymírání ve svrchní křídě", v Evropě uváděná jako "Bonarelliho událost", byla pozdější ze dvou anoxických vymírání v periodě křída, na rozhraní stupňů cenoman a turon.