B10 (1966–1969).

The first Datsun Sunny, exported as the Datsun 1000, was launched in September 1966 with two body styles, a two-door sedan (B10) and a van/station wagon (VB10). The Sunny was an all-new product built on a dedicated platform called the "B" series that benefited from Nissan's production of small cars since before the war and combined engineering efforts from newly acquired Aichi Manufacturing that met the goals set by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry "national car" program. These were available in both a "Standard" and "Deluxe" version, featuring drum brakes, conventional leaf springs at the rear and wishbone type independent front end. The front end used a single transverse leaf spring. In Japan the car was sold at a dealership sales channel established just for the Sunny, called "Nissan Satio Store" The Sunny was introduced in the same year that the Toyota Corolla and Subaru 1000 were introduced.  In December 1965, Nissan held a national campaign in Japan to name its newest product in a mail-in ballot, and after receiving over eight million submissions, the name Sunny was chosen after having been suggested 3,105 times and was announced on 19 February 1966 by Yoshisuke Ayukawa, Nissan Motors founder.  The car featured a four-cylinder in-line engine, the A10, with a total displacement of 988 cc and a four-speed gearbox. The 1968 model, introduced in October 1967, added to the lineup the four-door sedan (B10) in both DeLuxe and Standard form. February 1968 saw the release of the new coupé (KB10). Marketed as the "Sunny Coupé" in Japan, it was available in a wide variety of levels from "Standard", to "GL" ("Grand Luxe"). The range of factory options and accessories was by this time vast. Total horsepower in the 1968 model was claimed to be at 6,000 rpm. The engine displacement was kept below 1.0-litre to keep it in the lowest Japanese road tax bracket and encourage sales.  It introduced a new approach for Nissan in the 1960s where all mainstream products shared a similar appearance, as demonstrated in the larger Nissan President and Nissan Bluebird  The only other country that seems to have received the coupé is Australia, where it was marketed as the "Datsun 1000 Coupé". It was well equipped, and was available only in the Deluxe level of trim. The Australian Deluxe model came standard with many inclusions that were available only as options in the Japanese model. The engine in the coupé had higher compression, a different Hitachi carburettor, and a dual outlet exhaust manifold. These changes increased its power output to ; a, or a 6.5% increase over the lesser models. Unlike the sedans and wagons, the coupé was only ever made in right drive.  July 1969 saw the release of the slightly different (cosmetically) 1970 model year, which left the 1969 model year run at only nine months. No additional models were added, and production ceased in December 1969, cutting the 1970 model year run at only six months.

B110 (1970–1973).

The second-generation Sunny was launched in 1970 and was also known as the Datsun 1200. This new model was slightly larger in all dimensions to match its market rival, the equally popular Toyota Corolla.  The Datsun 1200 featured MacPherson strut front suspension with optional disc brakes and an economical 1.2-litre A12-series engine. A five-door station wagon was added to the Sunny range in addition to the three-door wagon. In April 1970 a GX Grand Luxury trim with twin-carburetor engine was added for the Japanese market. In January 1972 a minor facelift occurred in the Japanese market with a new hood, grille and other small modifications and equipment fitting. In August 1972 the GX-5 model was added in Japan, which improved on the GX by fitting a direct-fifth (non-overdrive) five-speed manual transmission. The Sunny Coupé 1200GX was offered as an alternative to the Toyota Corolla Levin and Toyota Sprinter Trueno, which were performance package trim levels on the more economical Corolla and Sprinter models. For the 1973 model year, US models were re-specified with energy-absorbing bumpers, fire-resistant interiors and other government-mandated safety items.  The B110 made its racing debut at the Fuji 200-mile race on 23 November 1970 in the TS1300 class, a class dominated by the Toyota Corolla; only one works Nissan challenged Toyota yielding a victory for driver Makoto Suzuki.  In Australia and New Zealand, the Datsun 1200 was highly regarded for its effective conversion to a 2WD rally car. The Datsun 1600 generally rated highest among entry-level Datsuns, and the 1200 a close second.  The Datsun 1200 was the most fuel-efficient vehicle in the United States in 1973, as rated by the government at in overall driving pattern. It achieved in highway driving.<ref name="datsun1200.com/modules"></ref> At its United States introduction, it was the lowest price car at $1866. ("Road & Track" magazine, November 1970)  In South Africa, the B110 was sold through 1976. A pick up (bakkie) derivative, featuring a 1400 cc engine, was sold until 2008 when emissions laws forced the end of its production. Over 275,000 were sold to customers who appreciated the rugged rear-wheel-drive design.  In New Zealand, a special edition Datsun 1200 SSS four-door sedan with twin side-draft Dell'Orto 40 mm carburetors and other sport features was developed, assembled locally and marketed. The 1200 was popular in New Zealand, where it was contract-assembled at a two factories (sedans at Campbell Industries in Thames; three-door wagons at Motor Holdings, Waitara). A small number of Deluxe sedans and more numerous coupes were imported from Japan. The car remained in NZ production well into 1974 as Nissan NZ was unsure how the public would react to the oddly styled 120Y successor.  In the UK the Datsun 1200 was the first Japanese car to sell in large numbers, being the company's best seller there when its sales soared from just over 6,000 cars in 1971 to more than 30,000 a year later. The 120Y model, launched there in the autumn of 1973, helped take the brand from strength to strength, as did the smaller Cherry models.  It was well equipped for its price with disc brakes and reclining front seats. This model established Datsun as the top Japanese exporter of cars to the UK.  In Portugal, a special Datsun 1200 S1 two-door sedan was marketed.  In North America (US and Canada), there were an average of 44,000 Datsun 1200s sold each year for three model years, 1971–1973.  The New York Yankees used a Datsun 1200 as a bullpen car in the 1970s.  In North America, Coupé total sales were 89,541 and two-door sedan total sales were 43,761.

B210 (1973–1977).

Exported as the Datsun 120Y and Datsun B210 (in North America), the third generation (1973–1978) Sunny was extremely popular as it debuted during the 1973 oil crisis. It was first shown on 1 May 1973 in Japan, as the 1.2 or the 1.4-litre Excellent. Both engines were offered in two different levels of output, from the lowest powered 1.2 to the Excellent GX Coupe. Six body styles were offered: the four-door sedan, two-door sedan, two-door fastback, three-door wagon, five-door wagon, and a three-door van. The coupé retained its fastback styling, but now featured a full hatchback door rather than the small trunk lid of the previous generation Sunny. The wagon and van were not offered in North America. In 1975, Japan models were fitted with emission control technology, called Nissan NAPS to be in compliance with Japanese Government emission control regulations enforced that year.  The related Sunny Excellents continued until 1976 as PB210 models, at first fitted with a 1.4-litre L14 engine. American market B210s were the first Sunnys to have the larger collision bumpers, due to the USA's safety standards at the time. Other markets continued with the more tightly-fitted chrome bumpers. In most markets, the B210 line featured as the only engine option a re-designed A12 engine. As usual for Japan, the wagon (three- and five-door models alike) was marketed as a van for commercial use, where it was only available with the lowest-powered 1.2 engine (VB210). The van, in its lowest standard equipment level, came equipped with a three-speed manual gearbox with a column-mounted shift lever.  This chassis formed the basis for the S10 underpinning the Nissan Silvia coupé, which allowed Nissan to sell the Sunny Coupé at two Nissan Japanese dealership networks. The Sunny was exclusive to "Nissan Satio Store", while the Silvia was exclusive to "Nissan Prince Store", alongside the Nissan Skyline.

Facelift (B211).

B211 is the chassis code for the minor facelift of the B210, introduced in February 1976. It included a changed grille and other minor changes, such as new wing mirrors and hubcaps. The most important differences were under the hood, where the engines had been upgraded to meet Japan's 1976 emissions standards. The Sunny Excellent now only came fitted with

Export markets.

North America.

The Datsun B210 continued to be the fuel-economy leader in North America and it was one of the least expensive cars available. This was in part due to the light metal; small A13 or A14 engine with OHV technology and a very basic vinyl interior used in its construction. Introduced for 1974 with a 1.3-litre four, this was replaced by a larger and more powerful 1.4-litre version for 1975. This engine remained in use, continuing to be installed in the next generation B210. At the time, their body styles were popular with buyers – mainly the hatchback coupé as the sedans were considered by

Oceania.

Despite earlier misgivings, the 120Y, when finally launched in New Zealand in 1974, proved popular with Nissan NZ. It eventually assembled some cars in a temporary CKD plant in the Auckland suburb of Mount Roskill, before the new plant in Wiri was completed later in the decade. Four-door sedans and three-and five-door wagons were built locally and were supplemented by some coupés imported built-up from Japan.  The 120Y was assembled from kits in Melbourne, Australia and boasted disc

South Africa.

In the South African market the B210 was assembled locally from December 1975 until 1983, replacing the previous "Datsun 1200". South African "Y-series" cars, as they were called locally, also featured "L14" and "L16" engine options, as well as two special editions of B210 coupé, badged as the 140Z and 160Z. The 140Z featured a high performance camshaft, freeflow exhaust and twin 40 mm Dell'orto carburettors, while the 160Z featured twin Hitachi (SU type) carburetors. Both had four-speed transmissions. The standard 120Y has the 1171 cc "A12" engine as already used in the 1200, with at 6000 rpm. The well-equipped

Europe.

When introduced in the UK, the 120Y quickly gained popularity, further strengthening Datsun's position, helping it to gain second place amongst foreign imports. The car's popularity was helped by high equipment levels for a car of this size, while also being competitively priced as well as Datsun cars have a reputation for being reliable, while at the same time UK-manufactured cars were in short supply due to the regular strikes and stoppages affecting British car plants. British Leyland was particularly hard hit by these crises, while at the same time several of its model ranges were gaining a reputation for being unreliable and badly-built.

B310 (1977–1981).

This was the last Sunny sold under the "Datsun" brand in Japan. The final rear-wheel-drive Sunny from model year 1978 to 1982 featured numerous variants, including a fastback station wagon as well as more squared-off, utilitarian models with three and five doors, a coupé, and two- and four-door sedans. They were first introduced in October 1977, going on sale on 21 November in Japan. The design received a certain amount of criticism, with "Car Styling Quarterly" calling it old-fashioned and dumpy at the rear, while the plastic detailing was referred to as overworked. It was, however, recognizable as a Nissan house design. This generation was also the last Sunny to utilize the front engine and rear-wheel drive layout.  At home they only received the new A12A engine and the slightly larger A14, although the Van continued to receive the earlier, smaller, A12 engine. The "Excellent" trim package was discontinued as the top level model, and the B211 van continued to be built for a little while longer. In Japan on February 1978 the Sunny Coupé 1400SGX-E and the 1400GX-E appeared, as a replacement for the previous Sunny Excellent Coupé. The "E" denotes multiport fuel injection, an option offered only in Japan.  These models appeared with Datsun 120Y, 130Y", "140Y and 150Y badges in some markets (reflecting the engine size) though Sunny was increasingly used for export, too. The North American version was marketed as the Datsun 210. The B310 was known for its high equipment levels and build quality at the time. It was available with the same A-series engines as its predecessor although the B210's optional 63-series five-speed transmission was replaced with the more compact and lighter 60-series unit, with a standard gear pattern. On all body variants except the Van and "squareback" wagon, the leaf spring rear suspension was replaced by a more advanced coil spring four-link configuration, while the front had struts with coilover springs. Other than that, the chassis was very similar to that of the B210, albeit with a beefier front suspension and a relocated fuel tank in the sedans. It was now beneath the floor of the trunk, freeing up more space for luggage. The body was designed to provide fewer moisture traps, helping protect the car against rust, while added width meant additional space, particularly for the rear seat passengers.  In October 1979, the B310 was given a mild facelift, with a smoothed off front end, a grille with square headlamps, and a redesigned dashboard. The vans retained the old design, but their chassis codes (unlike the passenger models) changed from 310 to 311 to reflect that they met new emissions standards in place for light commercials. At the end of November 1980 the A12A and A14 engines were replaced by the marginally larger A13 and A15 versions in the Japanese markets (with available fuel injection for the A15). The slow-selling two-door sedan was reduced to the low-cost 1300 CT and DX models. At the end of 1981 passenger car versions of the B310 were replaced by the front-wheel drive B11 Sunny, although the Vans continued to be built for a few more years. With the end of passenger car production in October 1981, the Van models chassis codes was changed and they became the VB312 series.  In North America, the only wagon offered was the fastback version. In Japan, this fastback wagon was a special model called the "Sunny California", aimed at private buyers unlike the square-backed 3-and 5-door Sunny Van (although for the Japanese market these vans were always fully glazed and usually had a back seat) meant for the long-standing Japanese commercial wagon market. In most other markets the more traditional two-box wagon was offered, either alone or alongside the fastback, and some countries where "no rear side glass" was part of a legal definition of a "light truck" got panelled-in versions of the three-door. The van versions also differed in that they retained the leaf spring suspension from the B210, and in most markets had a more spartan interior trim with vinyl covered seats. The five-door van was discontinued in November 1982 when the new and even boxier Nissan AD range was introduced. In July 1983 the AD appeared in a three-door version, meaning that the VB310 was finally retired.  This model marked the first and only time the "Sunny" name was used in Australia. It was assembled there by AMI. This chassis, along with the A10 chassis on the 160J/Violet/Stanza formed the basis for the S110 chassis on the Nissan Silvia.  In most markets, the A12 engine was the only, or most common engine offered. However B310s in various markets were fitted with the following A-series engines (JIS outputs are for the Japanese market, others indicated):

B11 (1981–1985).

Introduced in late 1981 (at the Tokyo Motor Show), the B11s were the first front-wheel-drive Sunnys, predating by a year and a half the switch to front-wheel drive by their main Toyota Corolla rival, and were exported to the United States as the Nissan Sentra from the 1982 model year onwards. European sales began in May 1982, with this version of the Sunny going on sale at a time when front-wheel drive was quickly becoming the most popular layout on family cars in Europe. The B11 series shared its engines and much of its underpinnings with the Nissan Pulsar (N12) which launched around the same time, effectively providing the hatchback body style in this size class which in the European market was becoming the widely preferred configuration. Because the Sunny and Cherry/Pulsar had grown substantially to fill this market need, the supermini size class was filled by the Nissan Micra/March that also launched the same year. Ultimately, the Sunny and Cherry/Pulsar lines converged in the European market for the N13 generation in 1986.  The chassis code returned to the original "B" designation, then added "11" to signify a new start. The B11 was the first Sunny to be available with a diesel engine, the CD17 of 1.7 litres. Most markets received 1.3 or 1.5-litre four-cylinder engines, although for some markets with strict taxation (such as Greece), the 1-litre E10 engine was also available. The 1.3 and 1.5 as sold in Europe have respectively.  The fuel injected 1.5 L turbo was introduced to Japan only September 1982, offered only in the 3-door hatchback body style, and was called the "Sunny Turbo Leprix", and was rarely exported. The installation of a turbo on the top level model enabled Nissan to offer a performance version without unduly increasing emission tax liability for Japanese buyers, while offering higher fuel efficiency and lower emissions than a larger, conventionally tuned engine. The turbo and the diesel were both later additions to the lineup, having been presented in September 1982. The Sunny Turbo Leprix was sold in the United Kingdom as the "Sunny Maxima Coupe", alongside the "Sunny Maxima" sedan.  A further spin-off from the Sunny line was the (in Japanese), which was essentially a rebadged and better equipped Sunny sedan designed to capitalize on the premium image of the larger Nissan Laurel. The Laurel Spirit was exclusive to "Nissan Motor Store" which sold the Laurel, while the Sunny remained exclusive to "Nissan Satio Store". The Laurel Spirit was offered in four trim packages, starting with the LT, LT-G, LF, XJ, and the XJ-E denoting a fuel injected "E15E" engine. In 1983 the top level XJ was installed with a turbocharger, designated as the Laurel Spirit Turbo XJ.  The Laurel Spirit was exported as the "Nissan Sunny Maxima SGL", which was sold in limited numbers in the United Kingdom. This was not in any way related to the much larger "Bluebird Maxima" (which was simply just sold as the "Maxima" in the United States). The "Sunny Maxima" line consisted only of upgrades such as a sunroof, enhanced exterior trim, only available with a five-speed manual, chrome tailpipe, dual waveband radio meeting United Kingdom radio authority specifications, and deluxe carpeted floor mats. The B11 Sunny was originally sold in the United Kingdom in 1.3 DX, 1.3 GL, 1.5 DX, 1.5 GL, 1.5 GL Auto, 1.5 SGL and 1.5 SGL Spirit variants.  In 1982, the Sunny platform was used to introduce a new MPV body style in Japan, called the Nissan Prairie. It was introduced at "Nissan Bluebird Store" locations and went on to be sold globally, although this concept did not take off in Europe until the huge success of the Renault Scénic in the late 1990s.  The B11 series was regarded as one of Nissan's most modern ranges at the time, and was the first to abandon the Datsun name formally (though a small 'Datsun' still appeared on boot lids for the first two years). The wagon was known in its home market as the "Nissan Sunny California", and Nissan installed the turbocharged engine in October 1983 for Japanese customers only. It was launched in late 1981 and continued into 1985. After the succeeding B12 had been presented, the B11 Sunny soldiered on as the "Sunny 130Y" as a lower-cost alternative in certain export markets, including Malaysia; production there continued well into the nineties. While a hatchback version was available for a little while in Japan (and very briefly in North America), this body style was built in comparably small numbers as the Pulsar generally replaced the hatchback in most markets. The two-door sedan was only sold in North America, with Sentra badges.  The station wagon model remained in production until 1990, as no estate version of the next generation Sunny was produced.

B12 (1985–1990).

Introduced in September 1985 at the Tokyo Motor Show, the B12 was not as widely exported, apart from the station wagon model and to some extent the RZ-1 coupé. This line is characterized by its squared-off styling, which was rather unfashionable by the mid-1980s. The angular styling was insisted upon by Nissan's design chief at the time and contributed to the automaker's increasingly poor sales of the period. A four-wheel-drive variant was introduced during this generation.  In October 1986, European markets saw the B11 Sunny replaced by a rebadged N13 Pulsar in hatchback and saloon form (the hatchback replacing the previous N12 Pulsar, which had been sold as the Cherry in this market). These were sold alongside the B12 Sunny estate and coupé. In some markets, such as Greece, the N13 Pulsar retained the "Cherry" nameplate. In the UK the B12 was sold as the Nissan Sunny Estate with a 1.6L engine. The B12 Coupé (RZ-1) was also imported, with either 1.6 L or 1.8 L 16v engines.  When first introduced, Japanese-market Sunnys received 1.3 or 1.5-litre E-series petrol inline-four engines, or the 1.7-litre CD17 diesel unit. In mid-September 1987, the E15 was replaced by the new GA generation, cleaner and with more power. This was also the first Sunny to become available with optional anti-lock brakes. A twin-cam 1.6 was also added, at first only to the sporting 306 hatchback but later also in the four-door sedans. Abroad, a few other engine variations were also available, up to a 1.8-litre twin cam in Europe.  In Kenya (East Africa), the B12 was imported and marketed as Sunny and came with a 1.3- or a 1.5-litre petrol engine. The 1.3-litre version is assembled locally (1.3 SLX). In Mexico the B12 Sunny was known as a Nissan Tsuru II (as the first generation was simply called Tsuru), this model was later also exported to Canada where it carried "Sentra" badges.  The "Sunny California"-style fastback was the only B12 wagon; the more upright B11 "Sunny Van" continued in those markets where it was previously offered. The station wagon continued in its second generation as the Nissan Wingroad and the commercial AD Van.

Sentra.

The B12 series Sentra remained the mainstream C-segment Nissan in North America throughout its run, although the models available dwindled over the years. At launch, sedans were available in two-door base or XE or 4-door XE or GXE models, along with two trim levels each of the coupé and FWD wagon, a short-overhang three-door hatchback and an AWD wagon; by

Laurel Spirit.

In Japan, the Nissan Laurel Spirit continued to be offered at "Nissan Motor Store" locations as a Sunny-based companion to the larger, more luxurious Nissan Laurel, with all-wheel-drive added to the Laurel Spirit's option list. The styling of

RZ-1.

In February 1986, Nissan introduced the Sunny RZ-1 coupé, with RZ representing "Runabout Zenith-1", as Nissan was already using the "Z" for its sports car, the Fairlady Z. The Sunny RZ-1 replaced the Sunny Turbo Leprix coupé. The RZ-1 was sold in Mexico as the Nissan Hikari, which is Japanese for "bright" or "sunny". It was marketed as a completely different model from the Tsuru (Sunny sedan) and it was Nissan's sports flagship car as it was even offered with a low-boost Turbo.  As with previous B series Sunny generations, the chassis was common with the wagon and sedan, with specific appearance to the RZ-1, while maintaining the traditional fastback associated with the Sunny Coupé. The Sunny hatchback and sedan were introduced with a square appearance, while the RZ-1 was more angular, with a more sharp appearance. The interior could only accommodate four people, with a black mask between the front headlights, retaining the strong slant angle, adding blistered front and

B13 (1990–1993).

The B13 was introduced in 1990 and retained many of the B12's ideas but in a more rounded, up-to-date body. It was particularly successful in the United States where the sports model two-door Sentra SE-R was marketed by Nissan of America as a latter-day BMW 2002. The car continued in production in Mexico until 2017, where it was sold as "Tsuru", for domestic and export markets, and is quite popular among cab drivers for its reliability and low maintenance costs. It was also part of the image of the former Mexico City mayor Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who was driven around with a white Tsuru. The Mexican-built Tsuru was exported to Chile and Peru, where it was sold as the Nissan V16 to distinguish it from the B11 and B12 which were both still available. In Taiwan, it is known as the Nissan 331. The Nissan Sunny California wagon was discontinued and replaced

B14 (1993–1998).

The B14 Sunny and Sentra appeared in December 1993 and were produced until 1998, and featured four-wheel-drive variants. Other than Japan, this variant was produced in Karachi, Pakistan through a joint venture between Ghandhara Nissan and Nissan Japan till 2001 for the local and export markets.  In this generation, the station wagon was supplied to Mazda under an OEM deal as the Familia Van. The Nissan Wingroad range appeared as a spin-off of the Sunny line in Japan, denoting a highly specified station wagon that replaced the Nissan Sunny California. Both the Familia and the Wingroad had different front and rear ends compared to the wagon that was exported. The luxury version of the Sunny, called the Presea, continued to be offered at "Nissan Motor Store" Japanese dealerships.  Nissan Mexico sold versions of this as the Sentra with a 1.6 engine GA16DE from 1995 to 1997, GA16DNE from 1998 to 2000 and 2.0 engine (SR20DE) in the GSS version (top of the line).  Thailand and other selected Asian countries had this model of B14 from 1994 until 2000 with a few minor changes along the way. First minor change shows when the rear changes to split the red strip into two sides, next the face changes in a few years with a small ridge i the middle of the hood and a chromium decoration on the hood tip, finally the last minor change, the tail light style changes from two layers of white/red to be the three layers red/white/red. The two variants of engines is 1.5L (in the first generation) and 1.6L (available only after some minor changes).  All models were equipped with Multi-link Beam Suspension for the rear.

Nissan Lucino.

In 1995, Nissan reintroduced the 200SX nameplate in United States and Canada to designate a two-door version of the Sentra (B14 chassis, a front wheel drive car), known in Japan and Mexico as Lucino, replacing the Sentra coupé and NX (discontinued in 1993). The 200SX came in base, SE, and

B15 (1998–2006).

The Sunny was produced up to the B15 series, from October 1998 to the end of 2004. A facelifted Sunny was launched in May 2002. In 2005 in Japan, the Nissan Tiida (C11) and Nissan Bluebird Sylphy (G11) took over this market, replacing the Sunny model line. In the United States, the Sentra continued with 1.8- and 2.5-litre engines, and carries on the Sunny lineage with the B16.  In Japan, the Sunny was offered with 1.3, 1.5, and 1.8-litre petrol or 2.2-litre diesel engines.  While earlier North American-market Nissan Sentras were very similar to their Japan-market B-series Nissan Sunny twins, the

Other versions.

Although the Nissan Pulsar and Bluebird Sylphy ranges (N-series family) were a separate model line with different heritage from Sunny (B-series family), for various reasons the Sunny name was—in some markets—applied to various Pulsar/Sylphy vehicles.

N13 (1987–1991).

The Nissan Sunny name was used on the Nissan Pulsar (N13) in Europe

N14 (1991–1995).

The Nissan Pulsar N14 series was introduced in 1990 in Japan and in 1991 for Europe, badged

N16 (2000–2005).

Although the Bluebird Sylphy G10 did not spawn a Sunny range in Japan, it was sold as the Sunny Neo in Thailand and as the Sunny in Hong Kong, Kenya, Singapore, Sri Lanka and the People's Republic of China, where it is produced by the Dongfeng Motor Company, a

N17 (2011–2020).

The Nissan Sunny N17 was unveiled at the 2010 Guangzhou International Motor Show in China. Nissan Sunny is the Chinese market name

N18 (2020–present).

The Nissan Sunny N18 was unveiled in the

The Nissan Sunny is an automobile built by the Japanese automaker Nissan from 1966 to 2006. In the early 1980s, the brand changed from Datsun to Nissan in line with other models by the company. Although production of the Sunny in Japan ended in 2006, the name remains in use in the Chinese market for a rebadged version of the Nissan Latio.

Nissan Sunny je automobil nižší střední třídy s motorem vpředu a pohonem předních kol. Vůz vyráběla japonská automobilka Nissan mezi roky 1966 až 2006. První čtyři generace vozu tohoto typu byly nositeli označení Datsun Sunny. Nejstarší generace se v USA a Kanadě prodávaly pod typový označením Datsun 210. Od roku 1982 pod názvem Nissan Sentra. Kromě jiného byl vyráběn i v Mexiku a z počátku se zde prodával jako Nissan Tsuru. Do Evropy se tento vůz dostával výjimečně a pouze v některých generacích. Pod typovým označením Sunny se zde prodával především Pulsar.


Premise.

During a school trip, students of Ballard High School, attended by the children of Washington, D.C.'s elite, including the President's son, are the victims of an ambush. A national crisis begins and Secret Service agent Marcus Finley finds himself at the center of it on his first day on the job. FBI agent Susie Dunn also discovers her "niece", the daughter of CEO Meg Fitch, is among the kidnapped children'.

Development and production.

NBC bought Rand Ravich's script with a put pilot commitment in August 2012. In January 2013, NBC green-lit the production of a pilot episode. Scenes of Ballard High School were filmed at Northside College Prep in Chicago. On May 12, 2013, the series was placed on the network's 2013–14 schedule. It premiered on March 16, 2014.  On November 1, 2013, after filming was completed for the sixth episode, production of the series was put on an unscheduled, week-long hiatus. The pause in production was attributed to fears that subsequent episodes were veering too far away from the tone of the pilot, which received very positive early reviews. The break was supposed to be used to give writers time to re-work scripts and to re-shoot certain scenes for previously finished episodes. Filming later resumed.

Reception.

Critical reception.

"Crisis" scored 63 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 28 "generally favorable" reviews. On another review aggregation website, Rotten Tomatoes, it was given a score of 61% with an average rating of 6.8 out of 10, based on 31 reviews.

Crisis is an American action thriller drama television series that was aired on NBC from March 16 to June 22, 2014 as part of the 2013–14 United States network television schedule and the mid-season entry. The series was created by Rand Ravich for 20th Century Fox Television. The series stars Dermot Mulroney, Rachael Taylor, Lance Gross, James Lafferty, Max Martini, Michael Beach, Stevie Lynn Jones, Halston Sage, Max Schneider, Joshua Erenberg, and Gillian Anderson. "Crisis" premiered on March 16, 2014.

Stav ohrožení (v anglickém originále Crisis) je americký akční dramatický seriál, jehož tvůrcem je Rand Ravich. Seriál má celkem 13 epizod, které odvysílala stanice NBC v roce 2014 a ještě téhož roku jej v Česku odvysílala stanice Prima Cool. Natáčení seriálu bylo ukončeno.


Overview.

"The use of ""sharpshooters"" (or snipers) can be traced in U.S. military history from the time of the Revolutionary War of 1775–1781. Every U.S. military action since that time has required the special talent of such men. After the war sniping became a lost art." From 1955–1956, the United States Army Marksmanship Training Unit undertook a program to "reiterate the lessons learned" from past wars. However, "this program was short-lived because of the lack of understanding and appreciation for the value of a sniper throughout the United States Army. The prevailing military attitude then envisioned any future conflict as nuclear with defeat or victory decided in hours."  "With the adoption of the M14 service rifle no provision was made for an M14 sniper rifle, [and] the designation of a sniper in the rifle squad was discontinued. "The conflict in Vietnam revived the need for snipers." Snipers became "optional" and no table of organization and equipment (TOE) authorized sniper organizations ["units"]." However, "units" could train and deploy snipers on a limited basis depending upon...requirements." As a result U.S. Army snipers were trained in country in South Vietnam at Division During the Vietnam War, U.S. Marines were issued bolt-action hunting rifles, U.S. Soldiers were issued XM21 rifles. The Rock Island Arsenal converted 1,435 National Match (target grade) M14s by adding a Redfield ART Adjustable Ranging Telescope 3–9× and proving National Match grade (7.62 Lake City Long Range XM-118). The ART scope, designed by 2nd Lieutenant James Leatherwood (U.S. Army), combined rangefinding and bullet drop compensation. The innovation came just in time as the U.S. military found itself losing servicemen to Viet Cong snipers who had the home field advantage in terrain that was, to say the least, difficult.  This version, called the XM21, had a specially selected walnut stock and was first fielded in the second half of 1969. An improved version with a fiberglass stock was designated the M21 in 1975. The M21 remained the Army's primary sniper rifle until 1988, when it was replaced by the M24 Sniper Weapon System; some M21s were later re-issued and used in the Iraq War.  In standard military use, the M21 uses a 20-round box magazine as the other members of the M14 family and weighs 11 pounds (5.27 kg) without the scope. The U.S. military never officially authorized or purchased magazines in any other capacity, although 5- and 10-round magazines are available.  The M21 was criticized for reliability problems, with an internal Fort Benning publication in 1989 warning that "The M21...cannot be maintained under field conditions, and its inflexible design makes it highly susceptible to malfunctions."

Service.

The XM21 Sniper Weapon System was issued to U.S. Army snipers during the Vietnam War, along with a commercially available sniper scope for day use, and a PVS-2 starlight scope for night operations. These men were trained at Army Division Base Camps; if a unit in country was a Brigade, Battalion, or smaller, and that unit requested snipers for their units, the requesting unit could send their sniper applicant to the next closest Division, such as Camp Eagle, 101st (Airmobile) Airborne Division, if that requesting unit was located in I Corps (Military Region 1), Republic of South Vietnam. The newly designated M21 saw limited actions during military operations after the Vietnam War ended in 1975. It was used by the U.S. Army Rangers during the Invasion of Grenada in 1983. There are limited numbers in some Army National Guard units and in a few specialized active units such as the OPFOR units of the Joint Readiness Training Center. The XM21 served from 1969 to 1975, and the M21 officially served as the main Army sniper rifle from 1975 to 1988 until the introduction of the M24, which had supplanted the M21 in Ranger Battalions by 1990. However, many M14 and M21 variants came back into favor in the Iraq and Afghan wars in the 2000s.

Commercial.

Springfield Armory, Inc. also manufactures variants of its M1A rifle called M21 Tactical Rifle and M25 White Feather Tactical/Carlos Hathcock rifle, which are based upon M21 and M25 Sniper Weapon Systems but are slightly different; most notably they are fitted with a Picatinny rail to mount a scope and a Krieger barrel.

The M21 Sniper Weapon System (SWS) "in the US Army is a national match grade M14 rifle, selected for accuracy, and renamed the M21 rifle." The M21 uses a "commercially procured" 3–9× variable power telescopic sight, modified for use with the sniper rifle. It is chambered for the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge and 7.62×54mmR for a Vietnamese and Chinese modified version, as well as a rare.30-06 version.

M21 Sniper Weapon System (SWS) je samonabíjecí odstřelovačská puška vzniklá úpravou pušky M14. Používá náboj 7,62 × 51 mm NATO.


Biography.

Békésy was born on 3 June 1899 in Budapest, Hungary, as the first of three children (György 1899, Lola 1901 and Miklós 1903) to Alexander von Békésy (1860–1923), an economic diplomat born in Kolozsvár, Austria-Hungary (now Cluj-Napoca, Romania), and to his mother Paula Mazaly.  The Békésy family was originally Reformed but converted to Catholicism. His mother, Paula (1877–1974) was born in Čađavica, Austria-Hungary (now Croatia). His maternal grandfather was from Pécs.  Békésy went to school in Budapest, Munich, and Zürich. He studied chemistry in Bern and received his PhD in physics on the subject: "Fast way of determining molecular weight" from the University of Budapest in 1926.  He then spent one year working in an engineering firm. He published his first paper on the pattern of vibrations of the inner ear in 1928. He was offered a position at Uppsala University by Róbert Bárány, which he declined because of the hard Swedish winters.  Before and during World War II, Békésy worked for the Hungarian Post Office (1923 to 1946), where he did research on telecommunications signal quality. This research led him to become interested in the workings of the ear. In 1946, he left Hungary to follow this line of research at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden.  In 1947, he moved to the United States, working at Harvard University until 1966. In 1962 he was elected a Member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina. After his lab was destroyed by fire in 1965, he was invited to lead a research laboratory of sense organs in Honolulu, Hawaii. He became a professor at the University of Hawaii in 1966 and died in Honolulu.  He became a well-known expert in Asian art. He had a large collection which he donated to the Nobel Foundation in Sweden. His brother, Dr. Miklós Békésy (1903-1980), stayed in Hungary and became a famous agrobiologist who was awarded the Kossuth Prize.

Research.

Békésy contributed most notably to our understanding of the mechanism by which sound frequencies are registered in the inner ear. He developed a method for dissecting the inner ear of human cadavers while leaving the cochlea partly intact. By using strobe photography and silver flakes as a marker, he was able to observe that the basilar membrane moves like a surface wave when stimulated by sound. Because of the structure of the cochlea and the basilar membrane, different frequencies of sound cause the maximum amplitudes of the waves to occur at different places on the basilar membrane along the coil of the cochlea. High frequencies cause more vibration at the base of the cochlea while low frequencies create more vibration at the apex.  Békésy concluded from these observations that by exciting different locations on the basilar membrane different sound wave frequencies excite different nerve fibers that lead from the cochlea to the brain. He theorized that, due to its placement along the cochlea, each sensory cell (hair cell) responds maximally to a specific frequency of sound (the so-called tonotopy). Békésy later developed a mechanical model of the cochlea, which confirmed the concept of frequency dispersion by the basilar membrane in the mammalian cochlea.  In an article published posthumously in 1974, Békésy reviewed progress in the field, remarking "In time, I came to the conclusion that the dehydrated cats and the application of Fourier analysis to hearing problems became more and more a handicap for research in hearing," referring to the difficulties in getting animal preparations to behave as when alive, and the misleading common interpretations of Fourier analysis in hearing research.

Awards.

Békésy's honours include:

Georg von Békésy (, ; born in Budapest, Hungary on 3 June 1899 – 13 June 1972) was a Hungarian biophysicist.

Georg von Békésy (3. června 1899, Budapešť – 13. června 1972, Honolulu, Havaj) byl maďarsko-americký biofyzik. Za své výzkumy mechanismu sluchového vnímání a vnitřního ucha savců byl roku 1961 oceněn Nobelovou cenou za fyziologii a lékařství.


DOS and Windows.

Traditionally, in DOS and Microsoft Windows, files and folders accepted four attributes:  As new versions of Windows came out, Microsoft has added to the inventory of available attributes on the NTFS file system, including but not limited to:  Other attributes that are displayed in the "Attributes" column of Windows Explorer include:  In DOS, OS/2 and Windows, the codice_3 command in cmd.exe and command.com can be used to change and display the four traditional file attributes. File Explorer in Windows can show the seven mentioned attributes but cannot set or clear the System attribute. Windows PowerShell, which has become a component of Windows 7 and later, features two commands that can read and write attributes: codice_4 and codice_5. To change an attribute on a file on Windows NT, the user must have appropriate file system permissions known as "Write Attributes" and "Write Extended Attributes".

Unix and POSIX.

In Unix and Unix-like systems, including POSIX-conforming systems, each file has a'mode' containing 9 bit flags controlling read, write and execute permission for each of the file's owner, group and all other users (see File system permissions §Traditional Unix permissions for more details) plus the "setuid" and "setgid" bit flags and a'sticky' bit flag. The mode also specifies the file type (regular file, directory, or some other special kind).

4.4BSD and derivatives.

In 4.4BSD and 4.4BSD-Lite, files and directories (folders) accepted four attributes that could be set by the owner of the file or the superuser (the "User" attributes) and two attributes that could only be set by the superuser (the "System" attributes):  FreeBSD added some additional attributes, also supported by DragonFly BSD:  FreeBSD also supports:  whereas DragonFly BSD supports:  NetBSD added another attribute, also supported by OpenBSD:  macOS added three attributes:  In these systems, the codice_6 and codice_7 commands can be used to change and display file attributes. To change a "user" attribute on a file in 4.4BSD-derived operating systems, the user must be the owner of the file or the superuser; to change a "system" attribute, the user must be the superuser.

Linux.

The Linux operating system can support a wide range of file attributes that can be listed by the codice_8 command and modified, where possible, by the codice_9 commmand. Programs can examine and alter attributes using ioctl operations.  Many Linux file systems support only a limited set of attributes, and none of them support every attribute that codice_9 can change. File systems that support at least some attributes include ext4, XFS and btrfs.

File attributes are a type of meta-data that describe and may modify how files and/or directories in a filesystem behave. Typical file attributes may, for example, indicate or specify whether a file is visible, modifiable, compressed, or encrypted. The availability of most file attributes depends on support by the underlying filesystem (such as FAT, NTFS, Ext4) where attribute data must be stored along with other control structures. Each attribute can have one of two states: set and cleared. Attributes are considered distinct from other metadata, such as dates and times, filename extensions or file system permissions. In addition to files, folders, volumes and other file system objects may have attributes.

Atributy souborů (anglicky "file attributes") jsou v informatice metadata připojená k souborům v souborovém systému. Každý atribut může mít jeden ze dvou stavů: aktivní nebo neaktivní. Atributy jsou považovány za odlišné od jiných metadat, jako je datum a čas, jméno a přípona názvu souboru nebo oprávnění v systému souborů. Atributy mohou být přiřazeny i adresáře (složky), logické jednotky a další objekty v systému souborů.


Economy.

Paraguana currently contains two large oil refineries, and the third largest oil refinery complex in the world, the Paraguaná Refinery Complex. Most of the oil that PDVSA acquires is processed in this complex. Many engineers that worked in the refineries have moved to the United States to work at Citgo.  Paraguana is a duty-free zone, therefore many international shops, notably Arabian, have opened.  While most of the economy is centered on the oil industry, tourism is growing. While most of the tourists come from other parts of Venezuela, many tourists come from surrounding countries such as Colombia, Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, and even a few tourists from the United States. The beaches serve as a large part of tourist attraction. There is a luxury beachfront hotel called Eurobuilding Villa Caribe. Paraguana also takes advantage of the duty-free shopping for tourism and opened a Paraguana Mall which is used for that. Two shopping malls are in the area. The mall, Las Virtudes, attracts a lot of people, and the mall, Sambil Paraguana, attracts many tourists, and has a luxury hotel, Lidotel, in it. Western news sources point to Paraguaná as being an ongoing construction site for launch purposes in connection with Iranian-manufactured and imported ballistic missiles to the Bolivarian Republic under agreement of the late president, Hugo Chavez.  The peninsula is served by Josefa Camejo International Airport in Punto Fijo, among others.  Supermercado La Franco Italiana used to be headquartered in the peninsula, until it was merged with Supermercados De Candido, which maintains branches there.

The Paraguaná Peninsula () is a peninsula in Venezuela, situated in the north of Falcón State, and comprises the municipalities of Carirubana, Los Taques and Falcón. The island of Aruba lies 27 km to the north. Bonaire and Curaçao are slightly further away. The Paraguaná Peninsula is connected to the rest of the state by a natural isthmus of Médanos. The Peninsula contains two oil refineries, in the West city of Punto Fijo. The output of these refineries is shipped internationally through the ports of Amuay and Cardón. The Peninsula of Paraguana lies in the Caribbean.

Paraguaná je poloostrov Jižní Ameriky v Karibském moři, který má rozlohu 3405 km2 a žije na něm okolo 350 000 obyvatel. Leží ve státě Falcón na severozápadě Venezuely, s pevninou ho spojuje šíje Médanos, dlouhá 25 km a široká okolo 6 km, po níž vede silnice do města Coro. Největším městem poloostrova je Punto Fijo. Mys Cabo San Román na severu poloostrova je nejsevernějším bodem Venezuely kromě ostrova Isla de Aves. Jako první Evropan zde přistál 9. srpna 1499 Alonso de Ojeda.


Background.

Infanticide only came to be seen as a significant occurrence in nature quite recently. At the time it was first seriously treated by, infanticide was attributed to stress causing factors like overcrowding and captivity, and was considered pathological and maladaptive. Classical ethology held that conspecifics (members of the same species) rarely killed each other. By the 1980s it had gained much greater acceptance. Possible reasons it was not treated as a prevalent natural phenomenon include its abhorrence to people, the popular group and species selectionist notions of the time (the idea that individuals behave for the good of the group or species; compare with gene-centered view of evolution), and the fact that it is very difficult to observe in the field.

Infanticide involving sexual conflict.

This form of infanticide represents a struggle between the sexes, where one sex exploits the other, much to the latter's disadvantage. It is usually the male who benefits from this behavior, though in cases where males play similar roles to females in parental care the victim and perpetrator may be reversed (see Bateman's principle for discussion of this asymmetry).

By males.

Hanuman langurs (or gray langurs) are Old World monkeys found in India. They are a social animal, living in groups that consist of a single dominant male and multiple females. The dominant male has a reproductive monopoly within the group, which causes sub-ordinate males to have a much lower fitness value in comparison. To gain the opportunity to reproduce, sub-ordinate males try to take over the dominant role within a group, usually resulting in an aggressive struggle with the existing dominant male. If successful in overthrowing the previous male, unrelated infants of the females are then killed. This infanticidal period is limited to the window just after the group is taken over. Cannibalism, however, has not been observed in this species.  Infanticide not only reduces intraspecific competition between the incumbent's offspring and those of other males but also increases the parental investment afforded to their own young, and allows females to become fertile faster. This is because females of this species, as well as many other mammals, do not ovulate during lactation. It then becomes easier to understand how infanticide evolved. If a male kills a female's young, she stops lactating and is able to become pregnant again. Because of this, the newly dominant male is able to reproduce at a faster rate than without the act of infanticide. As males are in a constant struggle to protect their group, those that express infanticidal behavior will contribute a larger portion to future gene pools (see natural selection).  Similar behavior is also seen in male lions, among other species, who also kill young cubs, thereby enabling them to impregnate the females. Unlike langurs, male lions live in small groups, which cooperate to take control of a pride from an existing group. They will attempt to kill any cubs that are roughly nine months old or younger, though as in other species, the female will attempt to defend her cubs viciously. Males have, on average, only a two-year window in which to pass on their genes, and lionesses only give birth once every two years, so the selective pressure on them to conform to this behavior is strong. In fact it is estimated that a quarter of cubs dying in the first year of life are victims of infanticide.  Male mice show great variation in behavior over time. After fertilizing a female, they become aggressive towards mouse pups for three weeks, killing any they come across. After this period however, their behavior changes dramatically, and they become paternal, caring for their own offspring. This lasts for almost two months, but afterwards they become infanticidal once more. It is no coincidence here that the female gestation period is three weeks as well, or that it takes roughly two months for pups to become fully weaned and leave their nest. The proximate mechanism that allows for the correct timing of these periods involves circadian rhythms (see chronobiology), each day and night cycle affecting the mouse's internal neural physiology, and disturbances in the duration of these cycles results in different periods of time between behaviors. The adaptive value of this behavior switching is twofold; infanticide removes competitors for when the mouse does have offspring, and allows the female victims to be impregnated earlier than if they continued to care for their young, as mentioned above.  Gerbils, on the other hand, no longer commit infanticide once they have paired with a female, but actively kill and eat other offspring when young. The females of this species behave much like male mice, hunting down other litters except when rearing their own.

Prospective infanticide.

Prospective infanticide is a subset of sexual competition infanticide in which young born "after" the arrival of the new male are killed. This is less common than infanticide of existing young, but can still increase fitness in cases where the offspring could not possibly have been fathered by the new mate, i.e. one gestation or fertility period. This is known to occur in lions and langurs, and has also been observed in other species such as house wrens. In birds, however, the situation is more complex, as female eggs are fertilized one at a time, with a 24-hour delay between each. Males may destroy clutches laid 12 days or more after their arrival, though their investment of around 60 days of parental care is large, so a high level of parental certainty is needed.

By females.

Females are also known to display infanticidal behavior. This may appear unexpected, as the conditions described above do not apply. Males are not always an unlimited resource though—in some species, males provide parental care to their offspring, and females may compete indirectly with others by killing their offspring, freeing up the limiting resource that the males represent. This has been documented in research by Stephen Emlen and Natalie Demong on wattled jacanas ("Jacana jacana"), a tropical wading bird. In the wattled jacana, it is exclusively the male sex that broods, while females defend their territory. In this experiment Demong and Emlen found that removing females from a territory resulted in nearby females attacking the chicks of the male in most cases, evicting them from their nest. The males then fertilized the offending females and cared for their young. Emlen describes how he "shot a female one night, and... by first light a new female was already on the turf. I saw terrible things—pecking and picking up and throwing down chicks until they were dead. Within hours she was soliciting the male, and he was mounting her the same day. The next night I shot the other female, then came out the next morning and saw the whole thing again."  Infanticide is also seen in giant water bugs. "Lethocerus deyrollei" is a large and nocturnal predatory insect found in still waters near vegetation. In this species the males take care of masses of eggs by keeping them hydrated with water from their bodies. Without a male caring for the eggs like this, they become desiccated and will not hatch. In this species, males are a scarce resource that females must sometimes compete for. Those that cannot find a free male often stab the eggs of a brooding one. As in the above case, males then fertilize this female and care for her eggs. Noritaka Ichikawa has found that males only moisten their eggs during the first 90 seconds or so, after which all of the moisture on their bodies has evaporated. However, they guard the egg masses for as long as several hours at a time, when they could be hunting prey. They do not seem to prevent further evaporation by staying guard, as males that only guarded the nest for short periods were seen to have similar hatching rates in a controlled experiment where there were no females present. It seems rather that males are more successful in avoiding infanticidal females when they are out of the water with their eggs, which might well explain the ultimate cause of this behavior.  Female rats will eat the kits of strange females for a source of nutrition, and to take over the nest for her own litter.

Resource competition.

Black-tailed prairie dogs are colonially-living, harem-polygynous squirrels found mainly in the United States. Their living arrangement involves one male living with four or so females in a territory defended by all individuals, and underground nesting. Black-tails only have one litter per year, and are in estrous for only a single day around the beginning of spring.  A seven-year natural experiment by John Hoogland and others from Princeton University revealed that infanticide is widespread in this species, including infanticide from invading males and immigrant females, as well as occasional cannibalism of an individual's own offspring. The surprising finding of the study was that by far the most common type of infanticide involved the killing of close kin's offspring. This seems illogical, as kin selection favors behaviors that promote the well-being of closely related individuals. It was postulated that this form of infanticide is more successful than trying to kill young in nearby groups, as the whole group must be bypassed in this case, while within a group only the mother need be evaded. Marauding behavior is evidently adaptive, as infanticidal females had more and healthier young than others, and were heavier themselves as well. This behavior appears to reduce competition with other females for food, and future competition among offspring.  Similar behavior has been reported in the meerkat ("Suricata suricatta"), including cases of females killing their mother's, sister's, and daughter's offspring. Infanticidal raids from neighboring groups also occurred.

Other.

Bottlenose dolphins have been reported to kill their young through impact injuries. Dominant male langurs tend to kill the existing young upon taking control of a harem. There have been sightings of infanticide in the leopard population. The males of the Stegodyphus lineatus species of spider have been known to exhibit infanticide as a way to encourage females to mate again.  In mammals, male infanticide is most often observed in non-seasonal breeders. There is less fitness advantage for a conspecific to carry out infanticide if the interbirth period of the mother will not be decreased and the female will not return to estrous. In Felidae, birthing periods can happen anytime during the year, as long as there is not an unweaned offspring of that female. This is a contributor to the frequency of infanticide in carnivorous felids. Some species of seasonal breeders have been observed to commit infanticide. Cases in the snub-nosed monkey, a seasonal breeding primate, have shown that infanticide does lessen the interbirth period of the females and can allow them to breed with the next breeding group. Other cases of seasonal breeding species where the infanticidal characteristic is observed has been explained as a way of preserving the mother's resources and energy in turn increasing the reproductive success of upcoming breeding periods.

Costs and defenses.

Costs of the behavior.

While it may be beneficial for some species to behave this way, infanticide is not without risks to the perpetrator. Having already expended energy and perhaps sustained serious wounds in a fight with another male, attacks from females who vigorously defend their offspring may be telling for harem-polygynous males, with a risk of infection. It is also energetically costly to pursue a mother's young, which may try to escape.  Costs of the behavior described in prairie dogs include the risk to an individual of losing their own young while killing another's, not to mention the fact that they are killing their own relatives. In a species where infanticide is common, perpetrators may well be victims themselves in the future, such that they come out no better off; but as long as an infanticidal individual gains in reproductive output by its behavior, it will tend to become common. Further costs of the behavior in general may be induced by counter-strategies evolved in the other sex, as described below.

As a cost of social behavior.

Taking a broader view of the black-tailed prairie dog situation, infanticide can be seen as a cost of social living. If each female were to have her own private nest away from others, she would be much less likely to have her infants killed when absent. This, and other costs such as increased spread of parasites, must be made up for by other benefits, such as group territory defense and increased awareness of predators.  An avian example published in "Nature" is acorn woodpeckers. Females nest together, possibly because those nesting alone have their eggs constantly destroyed by rivals. Even so, eggs are consistently removed at first by nest partners themselves, until the entire group lays on the same day. They then cooperate and incubate the eggs as a group, but by this time a significant proportion of their eggs have been lost because of this ovicidal behavior.

Counter-strategies.

Because this form of infanticide reduces the fitness of killed individuals' parents, animals have evolved a range of counter-strategies against this behavior. These may be divided into two very different classes - those that tend to prevent infanticide, and those that minimize losses.

Loss minimization.

Some females abort or resorb their own young while they are still in development after a new male takes over; this is known as the Bruce effect. This may prevent their young from being killed after birth, saving the mother wasted time and energy. However, this strategy also benefits the new male. In mice this can occur by the proximate mechanism of the female smelling the odor of the new male's urine.

Preventive adaptations.

Infanticide in burying beetles may have led to male parental care. In this species males often cooperate with the female in preparing a piece of carrion, which is buried with the eggs and eaten by the larvae when they hatch. Males may also guard the site alongside the female. It is apparent from experiments that this behavior does not provide their young with any better nourishment, nor is it of any use in defending against predators. However, other burying bugs may try to take their nesting space. When this occurs, a male-female pair is over twice as successful in nest defense, preventing the ovicide of their offspring.  Female langurs may leave the group with their young alongside the outgoing male, and others may develop a "false estrous" and allow the male to copulate, deceiving him into thinking she is actually sexually receptive. Females may also have sexual liaisons with other males. This promiscuous behavior is adaptive, because males will not know whether it is their own offspring they are killing or not, and may be more reluctant or invest less effort in infanticide attempts. Lionesses cooperatively guard against scouting males, and a pair were seen to violently attack a male after it killed one of their young. Resistance to infanticide is also costly, though: for instance, a female may sustain serious injuries in defending her young. At times it is simply more advantageous to submit than to fight.  Infanticide, the destruction of offspring characteristic to many species, has posed so great a threat that there have been observable changes of behavior in respective female mothers; more specifically, these changes exist as preventive measures. A common behavioral mechanism by females to reduce the risk of infanticide of future offspring is through the process of paternity confusion or dilution. In theory, this implies that a female that mates with multiple males will widely spread the assumption of paternity across many males, and therefore make them less likely to kill or attack offspring that could potentially carry their genes. This theory operates under the assumption that the specific males keep a memory of past mates, under a desire to perpetuate their own genes In the Japanese macaque ("macaca fuscata"), female mating with multiple males, or dilution of paternity, was found to inhibit male-to-infant aggression and infanticide eight times less towards infants of females with which they had previously mated. Multi-male mating, or MMM, is recorded as a measure to prevent infanticide in species where young is altricial, or heavily dependent, and where there is a high turnover rate for dominant males, which leads to infanticide of the previous dominant male's young. Examples include, but are not limited to; white-footed mice, hamsters, lions, langurs, baboons, and macaques. Along with mating with multiple males, the mating of females throughout the entirety of a reproductive cycle also serves a purpose for inhibiting the chance of infanticide. This theory assumes that males use information on past matings to make decisions on committing infanticide, and that females subsequently manipulate that knowledge. Females which are able to appear sexually active or receptive at all stages of their cycle, even during pregnancy with another male's offspring, can confuse the males into believing that the subsequent children are theirs. This “pseudo-estrus” theory applies to females within species that do not exhibit obvious clues to each stage of their cycle, such as langurs, rhesus macaques, and gelada baboons. An alternative to paternity confusion as a method of infanticide prevention is paternity concentration. This is the behavior of females to concentrate paternity to one specific dominant male as a means of protection from infanticide at the hands of less-dominant males. This particularly applies to species in which a male has a very long tenure as the dominant male, and faces little instability in this hierarchy. Females choose these dominant males as the best available form of protection, and therefore mate exclusively with this male. This is especially common within small rodents. An additional behavioural strategy to prevent infanticide by males may be aggressive protection of the nest along with female presence. This strategy is commonly used in species such as European rabbits.

Infanticide by parents and caregivers.

Filial infanticide occurs when a parent kills its own offspring. Both male and female parents have been observed to do this, as well as sterile worker castes in some eusocial animals. Filial infanticide is also observed as a form of brood reduction in some birds species, such as the white stork. This may be due to a lack of siblicide in this species.

Maternal.

Maternal infanticide occurs when newborn offspring are killed by their mother. This is sometimes seen in pigs, a behavior known as savaging, which affects up to 5% of gilts. Similar behavior has been observed in various animals such as rabbits and burying beetles.

Paternal.

Paternal infanticide—where fathers eat their own offspring—may also occur. When young bass hatch from the spawn, the father guards the area, circling around them and keeping them together, as well as providing protection from would-be predators. After a few days, most of the fish will swim away. At this point the male's behavior changes: instead of defending the stragglers, he treats them as any other small prey, and eats them.

Worker caste killing young.

Honey bees may become infected with a bacterial disease called foul brood, which attacks the developing bee larva while still living in the cell. Some hives however have evolved a behavioral adaptation that resists this disease: the worker bees selectively kill the infected individuals by removing them from their cells and tossing them out of the hive, preventing it from spreading. The genetics of this behavior are quite complex. Experiments by Rothenbuhler showed that the 'hygienic' behavior of the queen was lost by crossing with a non-hygienic drone. This means that the trait must be recessive, only being expressed when both alleles contain the gene for hygienic behavior. Furthermore, the behavior is dependent on two separate loci. A backcross produced a mixed result. The hives of some offspring were hygienic, while others were not. There was also a third type of hive where workers removed the wax cap of the infected cells, but did nothing more. What was not apparent was the presence of a fourth group who threw diseased larvae out of the hive, but did not have the uncapping gene. This was suspected by Rothenbuhler however, who manually removed the caps, and found some hives proceeded to clear out infected cells.

Humans and infanticide.

Family structure is the most important risk factor in child abuse and infanticide. Children who live with both their natural (biological) parents are at low risk for abuse. The risk increases greatly when children live with step-parents or with a single parent. Children living without either parent (foster children) are 10 times more likely to be abused than children who live with both biological parents.  Children who live with a single parent that has a live-in partner are at the highest risk: they are 20 times more likely to be victims of child abuse than children living with both biological parents.  Infanticide is a subject that some humans may find discomforting. Cornell University ethologist Glenn Hausfater states that "infanticide has not received much study because it's a repulsive subject [...] Many people regard it as reprehensible to even think about it." Research into infanticide in animals is in part motivated by the desire to understand human behaviors, such as child abuse. Hausfater explains that researchers are "trying to see if there's any connection between animal infanticide and child abuse, neglect and killing by humans [...] We just don't know yet what the connections are."  Infanticide has been, and still is, practiced by some human cultures, groups, or individuals. In many past societies, certain forms of infanticide were considered permissible, whereas in most modern societies the practice is considered immoral and criminal. It still takes place in the Western world usually because of the parent's mental illness or violent behavior, in addition to some poor countries as a form of population control — sometimes with tacit societal acceptance. Female infanticide, a form of sex-selective infanticide, is more common than the killing of male offspring, especially in cultures where male children are more desirable.

In animals, infanticide involves the killing of young offspring by a mature animal of the same species, and is studied in zoology, specifically in the field of ethology. Ovicide is the analogous destruction of eggs. The practice has been observed in many species throughout the animal kingdom, especially primates (primate infanticide) but including microscopic rotifers, insects, fish, amphibians, birds and mammals. Infanticide can be practiced by both males and females.

Infanticida je biologický jev, který nastává tehdy, když živočichové zabíjejí mláďata svého vlastního druhu. Její zvláštní formou je ovicida, při níž dospělí likvidují vejce svého druhu. Infanticidu praktikují rozliční živočichové počínaje drobnými vířníky a konče velkými savci. Není závislá na pohlaví, mohou se jí dopouštět jak samci, tak samice. Infanticidu praktikovali a stále praktikují i mnohé lidské kultury (viz Infanticida (lidé)).


Aims of the GE model.

This model aims to evaluate the existing portfolios of strategic business units and to develop strategies to achieve growth by addition of new products and businesses to this portfolio and further, to analyze which business units to invest in and which ones to sell off.

Construction of the GE matrix.

The GE matrix is constructed in a 3x3 grid with Market Attractiveness plotted on the Y-axis and business strength on the X-axis, both being measured on a high, medium, or low score. Five steps must be considered in order to formulate the matrix;

Market attractiveness.

The attractiveness of a market is demonstrated by how beneficial it is for a company to enter and compete within this market. It is based on various factors; the size of the market and the rate at which it is growing, the possibility of profit, the number of competitors within the industry and their weaknesses.

Business/competitive strength.

This helps decide whether a company is competent enough to compete in the given market(s). It can be determined by factors within the company itself such as its assets and holdings, the share it holds in the market and the development of this share, the position in the market of its brand and the loyalty of customers to this brand, its creativeness in coming up with new and improved products and in dealing with the fluctuating situations of the market, as well as keeping in mind environmental/government concerns such as energy consumption, waste disposal etc.

Measuring market attractiveness and business strength.

Once the factors that determine the two are identified and rated, each factor is then given a certain magnitude and a calculation is made as follows; factor 1 rating x factor 1 magnitude + factor 2 rating x factor 2 magnitude +... factor n rating x factor n magnitude.

Plotting.

SBU's in the matrix can be represented as a circle; the radius exhibits the size of the market, the SBU's holdings in the market are equated through a pie chart within the circle and an arrow outside the circle shows the standing of the SBU expected in the future. In the image attached for example, an SBU holds 45% of the market's shares. The arrow is outwards thus showing that the SBU is expected to grow and gain strength and then its tip indicates the future position of the SBU.

Investment strategies.

When considering investment, it must first be seen which box of the matrix an SBU falls in ; grow, selectivity, or harvest.

Grow.

SBUs that are classified into this category attract various company's investment as they are expected to yield high returns in the future. These investments should be split into categories such as research and development, acquisition of other SBU's, extensive advertisements and expanding production capacity.

Selectivity.

SBUs that hold a lot of ambiguity fall into this category. They are usually only invested in if there is any prospect of competencies in managerial and corporate capabilities and if companies have any money left after investments in 'grow' business units.

Harvest.

SBU' performing poorly in unattractive industries are classified into this category. Companies only invest in them if they generate enough cash to equal the investment amount, otherwise, they may be liquidated.

Comparison with the BCG matrix.

When compared to the BCG matrix consisting of four cells, the GE matrix is more complex with its nine cells. This means it not only takes longer to construct, but also to implement. The BCG matrix is much simpler and the factors needed to construct it are accessed more easily and quickly.It takes into account a wide range of factors when determining market attractiveness and business strengths, which is replaced by market share and market growth in the BCG matrix. Also, where factors are classified in the GE matrix as high, medium and low, those in the BCG matrix are divided between high and low. Moreover, the G.E matrix overcomes many of the limitations and constraints of the BCG matrix.

GE multifactoral analysis is a technique used in brand marketing and product management to help a company decide what product(s) to add to its product portfolio and which opportunities in the market they should continue to invest in. It is conceptually similar to BCG analysis, but somewhat more complicated. Like in BCG analysis, a two-dimensional portfolio matrix is created. However, with the GE model the dimensions are multi factorial. One dimension comprises nine industry attractiveness measures; the other comprises twelve internal business strength measures. The GE matrix helps a strategic business unit evaluate its overall strength.

GE matice, známá také pod názvy multifaktorová analýza nebo matice McKinsey, je nástrojem využívaným ve strategickém managementu i marketingu pro vnitřní analýzu. Byla vyvinuta v 70. letech 20. století společností McKinsey & Company pro General Electric. Hlavním důvodem pro vznik byla nedostatečnost matice BCG. Oproti této matici má GE matice nespornou výhodu vícefaktorové portfoliové matice. Pro komplexní posouzení situace ve společnosti je totiž třeba širší pohled.


Statement.

For any prime number "p" and any positive integer "n", let formula_1 be the exponent of the largest power of "p" that divides "n" (that is, the "p"-adic valuation of "n"). Then where formula_3 is the floor function. While the formula on the right side is an infinite sum, for any particular values of "n" and "p" it has only finitely many nonzero terms: for every "i" large enough that formula_4, one has formula_5.

Example.

For "n" = 6, one has formula_6. The exponents formula_7 and formula_8 can be computed by Legendre's formula as follows:

Proof.

Since formula_10 is the product of the integers 1 through "n", we obtain at least one factor of "p" in formula_10 for each multiple of "p" in formula_12, of which there are formula_13. Each multiple of formula_14 contributes an additional factor of "p", each multiple of formula_15 contributes yet another factor of "p", etc. Adding up the number of these factors gives the infinite sum for formula_16.

Alternate form.

One may also reformulate Legendre's formula in terms of the base-"p" expansion of "n". Let formula_17 denote the sum of the digits in the base-"p" expansion of "n"; then  For example, writing "n" = 6 in binary as 6 = 110, we have that formula_19 and so Similarly, writing 6 in ternary as 6 = 20, we have that formula_21 and so

Proof.

Write formula_23 in base "p". Then formula_24, and therefore

Applications.

Legendre's formula can be used to prove Kummer's theorem. As one special case, it can be used to prove that if "n" is a positive integer then 4 divides formula_26 if and only if "n" is not a power of 2.  It follows from Legendre's formula that the "p"-adic exponential function has radius of convergence formula_27.

In mathematics, Legendre's formula gives an expression for the exponent of the largest power of a prime "p" that divides the factorial "n"!. It is named after Adrien-Marie Legendre. It is also sometimes known as de Polignac's formula, after Alphonse de Polignac.

Legendreův vzorec (také De Polignacův vzorec) dovoluje vypočítat nejvyšší exponent u prvočísla formula_1, kde formula_1 umocněné na tento exponent ještě dělí číslo formula_3 (faktoriál přirozeného čísla formula_4). Jedná se v podstatě o výpočet p-adické valuace čísla formula_3.


History.

Dawson and Osborne, after playing together in the group Him, Her and Them, formed Coven with Ross in Chicago in the late 1960s. In 1967 and 1968 they toured, playing concerts with artists including Jimmy Page's Yardbirds, the Alice Cooper band, and Vanilla Fudge. Dawson began and ended each Coven concert with the sign of the horns. Coven signed with Mercury Records and released their debut album, "Witchcraft Destroys Minds & Reaps Souls" in 1969.  The music on the album was considered underground rock; what made it distinctive was the heavy emphasis on diabolical subject matter, including songs such as "The White Witch of Rose Hall" (based on the story of Annie Palmer), "For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge", "Black Sabbath" and "Dignitaries of Hell". The album concluded with a 13-minute track of chanting and Satanic prayers called "Satanic Mass" (written by their producer, Bill Traut, of Dunwich Productions, and described as ""the first Black Mass to be recorded, either in written words or in audio""). This Satanic Mass was also the first time Latin phrases such as "Ave Satanas" were used in occult rock music, and later Satanic and Black metal bands continued this innovation (see List of songs with Latin lyrics for some examples). Also included inside the album was Coven's infamous Black Mass poster, showing members of the group displaying the sign of the horns as they prepared for a Satanic ritual over a nude Dawson lying on an altar.  Unwanted publicity came to the band in the form of a sensationalistic "Esquire" magazine issue entitled "Evil Lurks in California" (Esquire, March 1970), which linked counterculture interest in the occult to Charles Manson and the Tate-La Bianca murders, while also mentioning the "Witchcraft" album and its Black Mass material. As a result of this unwanted publicity, Mercury withdrew the album from circulation.  Dawson recorded the vocals for "One Tin Soldier", the title theme for the 1971 film "Billy Jack", which was credited as "sung by Coven". The song, which went on to reach number 26 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, was written by Dennis Lambert and Brian Potter and was originally released by The Original Caste in 1969. Coven's version also reached the top 10 in "Cash Box" and was named the Number 1 Most Requested Song in 1971 and 1973 by American Radio Broadcasters. In 1971, the band released a self-titled album that included a full band re-recording of "One Tin Soldier". By this point, the occult posturing was toned down to just one spooky black cat and a band member surreptitiously flashing the sign of the horns on the album cover. Their third album, "Blood on the Snow", was produced by Shel Talmy and released by Buddah Records in 1974. It featured a harder-eged and more overtly occultic sound akin to Coven's early work. A music video was filmed for the title track.  After multiple unlicensed CD releases of the "Witchcraft" album over the years, it was officially released on the band's own Nevoc label in 2007. The following year, Coven released "Metal Goth Queen: Out of the Vault 1976–2007" on Nevoc, an album composed of previously unreleased recordings. Guest musicians on the album include Michael Monarch, Glenn Cornick (an original member of Jethro Tull), and Tommy Bolin, in some of his last recordings. "Jinx", an album of new recordings, was self-released on Nevoc in 2013. Jinx Dawson recruited a new line up of musicians in late 2016 - early 2017 in order to perform at Roadburn Festival in Tilburg, The Netherlands on April 20, 2017. This was Coven's first performance in Europe.

Coven is an American rock band with occult lyrics formed in the late 1960s. They had a top 40 hit in 1971 with the song "One Tin Soldier", the theme song of the movie "Billy Jack."

Coven byla americká rocková skupina, která vznikla roku 1967 v Chicagu. Založili ji zpěvačka s operním vzděláním Esther Dawsonová zvaná „Jinx“, kytarista Steve Ross a baskytarista Mike „Oz“ Osborne (není příbuzný s Ozzy Osbournem). Největším hitem v existenci skupiny byla cover verze protiválečné písně kanadské skupiny Original Caste „One Tin Soldier“, použitá roku 1971 ve filmu Toma Laughlina "Billy Jack", která se umístila na 40. místě singlové hitparády Billboard Hot 100. Skupina se pojmenovala podle výrazu coven, označujícího v novopohanství společenství vyznavačů. Image skupiny využívala prvky čarodějnictví a satanismu, její první album obsahovalo nahrávku černé mše. Hudební projev Coven zahrnoval psychedelický rock, progresivní rock a folk rock, jejich stylizace využívající okultní prvky však ovlivnila, podobně jako Arthur Brown, i heavy metal a gothic rock. Coven například při svých vystoupeních jako první použili gesto známé jako metalový paroháč. Skupina ukončila činnost v roce 1975, v roce 2007 se část členů znovu sešla, vydala desku sestavenou z dosud nevydaných archivních nahrávek a odehrála několik koncertů.


Background and history.

After the Fall of France and the subsequent expansion of the Axis Powers, the Soviet Union wished to mend its diplomatic relations in the Far East in order to safeguard its eastern border and concentrate on the European theatre of war. On the other hand, Japan, bogged down in a seemingly interminable war with China and with diplomatic relations with the United States rapidly deteriorating, sought an accommodation with the Soviet Union that would improve its international standing and secure the northern frontier of Manchukuo against possible Soviet invasion.  Stalin was initially unaware of Hitler's briefing to his generals that an attack on the Soviet Union by the European Axis Powers would enable Japan to challenge the United States overtly. This briefing was based on the belief that if such an attack occurred, the Soviet Union would be too preoccupied with fighting Germany, thus making Japan feel less threatened by any possible Soviet invasion of Manchukuo, allowing Japan to have enough provisions and capabilities to start a war with the United States. This treaty would allow both Japan and the Soviet Union to avoid fighting on multiple fronts. Stalin believed that his "problems can be solved in a natural way if the Soviets and the Japanese cooperate". After concluding the nonaggression treaty, Stalin, in an unprecedented gesture, saw Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka off at the train station. This was symbolic of the importance Stalin attached to the treaty; it also provided him with the occasion – in the presence of the entire diplomatic corps – to invite negotiations with Germany while flaunting his increased bargaining power.  The treaty was signed in Moscow on April 13, 1941, by Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka and Ambassador Yoshitsugu Tatekawa for Japan and Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov for the Soviet Union.  On the same day, the same people also signed a declaration regarding Mongolia and Manchukuo. The Soviet Union pledged to respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of Manchukuo, while Japan did the same for Mongolia.  Later in 1941, Japan, as a signatory of the Tripartite Pact, considered denouncing the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact, especially after Germany invaded the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), but made the crucial decision to keep it and to expand southwards invading the European colonies in Southeast Asia instead. This had a direct bearing on the Battle of Moscow, where the absence of a Japanese threat enabled the Soviets to move large forces from Siberia and send them to the front lines against the Germans.  It is possible that had Stalingrad fallen, Japan would have invaded Siberia. General Tomoyuki Yamashita, known for his achievements in the Battle of Singapore, was sent to Manchuria in July 1942, and he may have been tasked with organizing the troops for the invasion.  At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Stalin agreed to enter the war against Japan in exchange for American and British recognition of certain Soviet territorial claims in Asia. The deadline for this promised action was three months after the end of World War II in Europe. The deal was kept secret.  On April 5, 1945, the Soviet Union denounced the pact with Japan, informing the Japanese government that "in accordance with Article Three of the above mentioned pact, which envisaged the right of denunciation one year before the lapse of the five-year period of operation of the pact, the Soviet Government hereby makes known to the Government of Japan its wish to denounce the pact of April 13, 1941." The wording of the denunciation suggested that the Soviet Union wished to see the treaty go out of effect immediately, and "Time" magazine reported that the Soviet Foreign Commissar's tone indicated that the Soviet Union might go to war with Japan soon. However, the text of the treaty stated that the pact remained in force until one year after declaration of denunciation by one party, that is April 1946. When pressed by the Japanese Ambassador Naotake Sato, Molotov confirmed that the treaty did remain in force until April 1946.  On May 8/9, 1945 (the date depending on the time zone), Nazi Germany surrendered, ending the war in Europe and starting the secret three-month countdown for Soviet commencement of hostilities against Japan. On August 9, 1945, just after midnight Manchurian time, the Soviets invaded Manchuria. The declaration of war against Japan followed nearly six hours later. Because of the time zone difference of 7 hours, the declaration of war could be still dated August 8, 1945, being presented to the Japanese ambassador in Moscow at 11 p.m. Moscow time. In this last campaign of the war, Soviet territorial gains on the continent were Manchukuo, Mengjiang (Inner Mongolia) and northern Korea.

The, also known as the, was a neutrality pact (non-aggression pact) between the Soviet Union and Japan signed on April 13, 1941, two years after the conclusion of the Soviet-Japanese Border War. The agreement meant that for most of World War II, the two nations fought against each other's allies but not each other. In 1945, late in the war, the Soviets scrapped the pact and joined the war against Japan.

Sovětsko-japonský pakt o neútočení byl podepsán na pět let v Moskvě 13. dubna 1941, SSSR jej vypovědělo Japonsku 5. dubna 1945.


Discovery.

From 1944 onwards, tyrannosauroid fossil material consisting of single bones has been described from the Bissekty Formation by Soviet or Russian researchers. In 2004 a team discovered a braincase, which would have anchored the dinosaur's neck muscles and protected its brain and ear canals. The braincase was stored in a cardboard box in the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, until tyrannosaur expert Steve Brusatte identified it as a distinctive new species in 2014.  In 2016, Stephen Louis Brusatte, Alexander Averianov, Hans-Dieter Sues, Amy Muir, and Ian B. Butler named and described the type species "Timurlengia euotica". The genus is named after Timurleng, founder of the Timurid Empire in Central Asia. The specific name "euotica" is Greek for “well-eared”, because detailed CAT-scans showed that "Timurlengia" had long inner ear canals, for hearing low-frequency sounds.  The species was based on the holotype, specimen ZIN PH 1146/16, consisting of the braincase. Other bones, not belonging to a single individual, and described in 2012, were referred to the species. These included the specimens ZIN PH 854/16: the right half of a braincase; ZIN PH 676/16: a right maxilla; ZIN PH 2330/16: a left frontal bone; ZIN PH 2296/16: a left quadrate; ZIN PH 15/16: a piece of a right dentary; ZIN PH 1239/16: a right articular with angular; ZIN PH 671/16: a front neck vertebra; USNM 538131: a rear neck vertebra; USNM 538132: the neural arch of front back vertebra; CCMGE 432/12457: a middle back vertebra; ZIN PH 951/16: a front tail vertebra; ZIN PH 120/16: a middle tail vertebra; ZIN PH 120/16: a rear tail vertebra; ZINPH 619/16; and USNM 538167: a toe claw. These fossils were referred under the assumption that but a single tyrannosauroid taxon is present in the Bissekty Formation.

Description.

Most of the fossils indicate that "Timurlengia" was a horse-sized theropod dinosaur, about in length, with a weight of about. However, they are of subadult individuals, that were not yet fully grown. ZIN PH 1239/16 represents a larger, adult, animal.  In 2016, several distinguishing traits were established, all pertaining to the holotype braincase. The supraoccipital bone, the central upper bone of the rear of the skull, has a diamond-shaped process pointing to below and not reaching the upper rim of the foramen magnum. The basioccipital has extremely short basal tubers, only attaining a third of the height of the occipital condyle. The oval window and the ear vestibule form a funnel-shaped recess penetrating deep into the ear zone and having a wide exit on the side wall of the braincase. The inner ear is large with robust semicircular canals.

Phylogeny.

"Timurlengia" was placed in the Tyrannosauroidea, in a basal position, as a possible sister species of "Xiongguanlong". Together they may represent a clade of long-snouted forms that might have been the sister group of the Tyrannosauridae.  The genus is important in showing how earlier small tyrannosauroids evolved into the large Tyrannosauridae like "Tyrannosaurus", typical of the Late Cretaceous period of Asia and North America. The species is not believed to be a direct ancestor of "Tyrannosaurus". "Timurlengia" lived ninety million years ago, in the middle-late Turonian age of the early Late Cretaceous, right before the rise of the advanced tyrannosaurids. There had been a twenty million year "tyrannosaur gap" in the fossil records of the tyrannosauroid timeline, between the small "marginal hunters" and the "apex predators" of the tyrannosaurid group. The discovery of "Timurlengia" has filled that gap. "Timurlengia" reveals that tyrannosaurs had yet to achieve huge size at this time but had already evolved key brain and sensory features of the gigantic latest Cretaceous species. These features were originally thought to be unique to big tyrannosaurs, as they evolved into large animals. Tyrannosaurs apparently developed huge size rapidly during the late Cretaceous, and their success in the top predator role may have been enabled by their brain and keen senses which first evolved at a smaller body size. "Timurlengia"'s small size indicates that tyrannosaurs only evolved their large size in the last twenty million years of their evolution. It is unknown what precisely triggered the size increase.  The braincase of "Timurlengia" shows that tyrannosaurs likely developed their advanced head first, as hypothesised by Hans-Dieter Sues, one of the fossil's describers. "Timurlengia’s" skull, though much smaller than that of "Tyrannosaurus", shows a sophisticated brain that would have led to keen eyesight, smell and hearing. At the time tyrannosaurs were developing acute senses and cognitive abilities, other large meat-eating dinosaurs such as the Carnosauria were disappearing from the environment or dying out, creating a vacant niche, allowing tyrannosaurs to become apex predators. The head of "Timurlengia" is far less pneumatised than that of the larger tyrannosaurids; the increased airspaces with the later forms might have been an adaptation to lighten the skull or to keep a good hearing ability despite the larger size.

Paleobiology.

"Timurlengia" was likely a pursuit hunter with blade-like teeth for slicing through meat, based on its skeletal remains. The robustness of the semicircular inner ear canals might be related to a greater agility. "Timurlengia" has a long cochlear duct, with the same height as the labyrinth, an adaptation to hearing low-frequency sounds. This might be an indication that the animal used low calls to communicate within the species.

Timurlengia is an extinct genus of tyrannosauroid theropod dinosaur found in Uzbekistan, in the Bissekty Formation in the Kyzylkum Desert, hailing from the Turonian age of the early Late Cretaceous. The type species is Timurlengia euotica.

Timurlengia (podle středověkého dobyvatele Tamerlána) byl rod teropodního (dravého dinosaura), žijícího v období rané svrchní křídy (stupně turon – koňak, asi před 92 až 85 miliony let) na území dnešní pouště Kyzylkum v Uzbekistánu (souvrství Bissekty). V roce 2004 byly objeveny fosilie jeho mozkovny, v roce 2012 pak byly k tomuto rodu přiřazeny i další zkameněliny. Typový druh "T. euotica" byl popsán mezinárodním týmem paleontologů v roce 2016. Fylogenetickou analýzou bylo zjištěno, že se jedná o vývojově pokročilého tyranosauroida, který mohl být předkem čeledi Tyrannosauridae.