Context.

After the liberation of Belgrade and Vojvodina, the 57th Army, under the command of General Mikhail Sharokhin, supported by the 51st Vojvodina Division under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Sreten Savić, reached to the left bank of the Danube river and took over its defense from Baja to Bačka Palanka. In order to facilitate further operations of the Red Army towards Vienna and Budapest, the 51st Partisan division crossed the left bank of the Drava river. These units had the task to take over bridges and provide the transfer of other units across the Danube river. In the headquarters of the 57th Army in Srbobran, Yugoslav National Liberation Army's general Kosta Nađ and the 3rd Ukrainian Front commander Marshal Fyodor Tolbukhin, agreed to choose the village of Batina as the point for crossing the Danube river. As a backup area, they selected the area to the west of Apatin. Both commanders thought that, due to the extremely unfavorable and inaccessible terrain near Batina (wide and flooded rivers, wetlands and almost perpendicular cliffs), the enemy wouldn't expect an attack on this part of the river.

German forces.

In early November 1944, the right bank of the Danube river was defended by a number of German strongholds, stretching between the villages of Duboševica and Čarne. They were managed by forces of the 68th Army Corps (General of Aviation Hellmuth Felmy) from Army Group F, under the command of Marshal Maximilian von Weichs.
 It was composed of parts of the German 31st SS and Brandenburg divisions, four Hungarian and three battalions, one Ustaše and Home Guard regiment, several police battalions, 25 artillery batteries and 30 tanks.
 Stronger reserves were located south of Osijek and at Pécs. In anticipation of new attacks, the German command was constantly bringing new units into the area. At the beginning of the Battle of Batina, German forces had about 30,000 troops, a number which increased to more than 60,000 at the end of the battle.

Red Army and the People's Liberation Army forces.

Forces of the Soviet Army that participated in the Battle of Batina was the 57th Army, composed of the Forces of the People's Liberation Army that participated in the Battle of Batina were: the

Objectives and results.

The Allied plan envisioned that the 73rd Guards and 233rd Red Army divisions and the 51st People's Liberation Army's division (without the 8th Brigade) would attack Batina and take it over. They would later extend the bridgehead up to the villages Draža and Zmajevac. The 236th Red Army Division and the 8th Brigade of the 51st Division would attack and take over Zlatna Greda and expand the bridgehead towards the village of Zmajevac and Kneževi Vinogradi.  The battle of Batina lasted from 11 to 29 November 1944, when the Allies took the bridgeheads near Batina and Apatin. In the decisive fight, the German forces tried to force the Red Army and the NLA back to the Danube with several counterattacks, in particular from 12 to 15 November. All the counterattacks, however, were rejected, and the Germans forces in the territory between the Danube and Drava rivers were substantially destroyed. Baranja was liberated as well. These actions created favorable conditions for the subsequent Red Army's offensive towards Vienna and Budapest, while the whole German front on the Syrmian Front was weakened.

Course of the battle.

The First Recon Group of the 12th Vojvodina brigade and the 233rd divisions of the Red Army (commanded by Colonel Sidorenko) managed to cross the Danube on the night of 9-10 November 1944 unnoticed. They approached the enemy positions to a few meters and waited there for the main units to arrive, helping them by sending signals. On 11 November, just before dawn, two battalions of the Red Army's 233rd Division and one battalion of the 12th Brigade, with the strong support of Soviet artillery, transferred across the Danube with the fishing boats to an area near Batina, and then launched an attack on the German positions. They first attacked Draž, trig 205 and Zmajevac, in front of which they were stopped.
 In the afternoon of 11 November, and on the night of 11–12 November, other battalions of the 12th Brigade were transferred across the Danube and joined those units that had been transferred in the morning. On 12 November, around noon, the 35th SS Division, supported by tanks and 20 airplanes, started a counter-attack and managed to push the 12th brigade and 233rd battalion division to the western edge of Batina by nightfall. The fighting continued on 13 November, when the 2nd Battalion of the 7th Brigade was transferred across the Danube in order to help the Red Army and NLA forces there.
 On the next day, the Germans continued to attack in a very tough fight and managed to push troops to the eastern part of Batina. In the next two days, heavy street fighting took place in the streets of Batina. The Soviet troops and the 51st division were suppressed on 15 November. In this critical moment, the whole Red Army's 73rd Guards Division, and, on the night of 15–16 November, other battalions of the 7th Brigade were also transferred across the river, replacing the exhausted 12th Brigade's battalions.
 The bloodiest battles were fought at the Batina train station and Hill 169, known as the "Bloody Hill" (). On 16 November the Red Army and NLA attacked the Nazis with everything they had, eventually pushing the 35th SS Division to Draž and Zmajevac. Along with the development of the struggle in the direction of Zmajevac and Draž, on 18 November, they crossed the Danube, north of Apatin. The 236th Red Army division and a battalion of the 51st division's 8th brigade headed towards Monjoroš and Tikveš Castle. By 22 November the other troops of the 236th Soviet Division and the 8th Brigade were transferred across the Danube. Next day, in a general strike, the 73rd Guards Division took Zmajevac in conjunction with the 51st Division, while the 8th Brigade, Monjoroš, and the 233rd Division took Draž.

The Battle of Batina or Batina Operation () is one of the battles of the Second World War which took place from 11 to 29 November 1944 at the Croatian village of Batina in Baranja, on the right bank of the Danube River, between the units of the Red Army and the People's Liberation Army against the Wehrmacht and their allies. According to some estimates, the Battle of Batina is the biggest battle by the number of participants, the intensity of fighting, and the strategic importance that occurred during the World War II in Yugoslavia.

Batinská operace byla jednou z vojenských operací Východní fronty během druhé světové války. Uskutečnila se na území dnešního Chorvatska v blízkosti vesnice Batina. V bojích, které trvaly od 11. do 29. listopadu 1944 proti sobě stály na pravém břehu řeky Dunaje jednotky Rudá armáda a jugoslávských partyzánů (NOVJ) na straně jedné a Wehrmacht se svými spojenci na straně druhé. Operace skončila vítězstvím Spojenců.


Recognition of same-sex unions in Croatia

Unregistered cohabitation.

In 2003, one year after the first gay pride in Croatia, the then ruling coalition, consisting of mostly centre-left parties, passed a law on same-sex unions. Initially, the law recognized registered partnerships with most of the rights enjoyed by heterosexual couples, but the right-wing Croatian Peasant Party, which was the only right-wing party of the coalition, threatened to leave the coalition should they insist on this version of the law. The law grants same-sex partners who have been cohabiting for at least 3 years similar rights enjoyed by unmarried cohabiting opposite-sex partners in terms of inheritance and financial support, but not the right to adopt or any other right included in family law. Registering those relationship is not allowed, nor are rights in terms of tax, joint properties, health insurance, pensions, etc., included.

Registered partnership.

In early 2005, the Croatian Parliament rejected a registered partnership bill proposed by Šime Lučin (SDP) and Independent Ivo Banac. MP Lucija Čikeš, a member of the then ruling HDZ, called for the proposal to be dropped because "all universe is heterosexual, from an atom and the smallest particle, from a fly to an elephant". Another HDZ MP objected on grounds that "85% of the population considers itself Catholic and the Church is against heterosexual and homosexual equality". Medical and psychological professionals did not support these statements, arguing that all members of Parliament have a duty to vote according to the Constitution of Croatia, which bans discrimination.

Life Partnership Act.

On 11 May 2012, Croatian Prime Minister Zoran Milanović announced further expansion of rights for same-sex couples. At that point, it was not known which of the well-known terms such as civil union or registered partnership would be used, but it was certain that Croatian family law would not be modified for this purpose, but rather a new law dealing with the issue would be introduced, thus implying that the term marriage would not be used.  On the International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia in 2012, LGBT rights groups met with Minister of Administration Arsen Bauk, who announced further changes in existing laws to expand LGBT rights, as well as a new law regulating same-sex partnerships. The name of the law at that point was still unknown, but one of the proposed drafts was the "Life Partnership Act" (). Minister Bauk also said that he strongly believes in equality and that no politician should make compromises, referring to several politicians who have expressed support for equality, but are willing to make concessions because society might not be ready for certain changes. Marko Jurčić from Zagreb Pride said that they disliked the idea of these partnerships being called "same-sex" and preferred the term "life partnership", open to all couples, but that was rejected. Zagreb Pride, however, remained a strong supporter of the "Life Partnership Act", co-drafting the bill within the government working group and led a campaign called "It's time for the life partnerships".  The Ministry of Administration and the working group responsible for creating the law met for the first time on 6 September 2012, with expectations for the law to be presented before the Croatian Parliament sometime in 2013. On 16 November 2012, president of the working group Jagoda Botički confirmed that same-sex couples would be able to register their relationships at register offices, the same as for heterosexual couples, but the law would not include heterosexual couples. She said that the group was in the process of creating a list of rights with the help of several government ministries. LGBT associations, Iskorak and Kontra, expressed their satisfaction with the fact that registration at register offices would be possible, but at the same time expressed disappointment with same-sex couples being excluded from family law, thus making it possible for the law to include fewer rights than expected as a result of political trade and concessions. This would especially affect same-sex families with children, as it was the most controversial area for the opponents of the law.  On 2 August 2013, Bauk confirmed that the name of the law would be the "Life Partnership Act", that registration of life partnerships would be identical to marriage, and that the law should make same-sex couples equal to married couples, apart from adoption. However, he did say that stepchild adoption is being considered. HNS MPs support full adoption. Public debate about the law was announced for September that year, and the introduction of the law before the Parliament by the end of it.  On 4 November 2013, the first draft of the law was published. Although it would not allow for jull joint adoption, a parent's life partner may attain partial, in some cases full, parental responsibility over the child. The Act also enables a parent's life partner to become a partner-guardian. Partner-guardianship is equal to stepchild adoption. Even though the draft was not part of Croatian family law, it referred to it, and defined same-sex couples as family. The draft also banned any present and future discrimination, and every future change of family law regarding marriage must include life partnerships as well.  On 12 December 2013, the Croatian Government passed the proposed bill. On 29 January 2014, the Parliamentary Committee on Human and National Minority Rights passed it as well, with 6 members in favor and 2 against (who were both members of HDZ). 5 days before this decision, the Gender Equality Committee also accepted the law. The decision was unanimous, but members of HDZ were absent. The pattern was followed by every other parliamentary committee that had to accept the bill. The bill was introduced before Parliament on 27 February 2014, and during the public debate suggestions were made on how to improve the law, with some of them being accepted. The Government passed the final proposal on 24 June 2014. The bill passed its second reading on 10 July 2014. Parliament approved the "Life Partnership Act" in its final reading on 15 July 2014 with 89 votes for and 16 against. It was published in the official gazette on 28 July 2014, and it took effect 8 days later (i.e. 5 August 2014), except for the part on parental responsibility which came into force on 1 September 2014.  In September 2017, the Croatian Government rejected a draft proposal, which would have changed Croatian family law to give couples access to social welfare benefits, because it only included married couples and not life partners. The draft was eventually withdrawn after protest from organisations and activists. Sanja Baric, a professor at the University of Rijeka, told the "Balkan Insight" that if such a narrow definition of the family had been established in law, a constitutional review would have likely overturned it. She cited multiple European Court of Human Rights rulings which have defined the family as including single people with children, same-sex couples and grandparents with grandchildren, among other types of families. In November 2017, the Ministry of Demographics, Family, Youth and Social Policy included life partners in the draft.

Foreign partners/partnerships.

According to Articles 73, 74 and 75 of the "Life Partnership Act", same-sex marriages and same-sex partnerships performed abroad are recognized as life partnerships in Croatia (EU and non-EU). This also includes unregistered same-sex relationships where couples have been cohabiting for a minimum of 3 years. They are recognized as informal life partnerships. Furthermore, couples where at least one of the partners is an EU-citizen can enter into life partnerships in Croatia, even if their country does not recognize same-sex relationships. Should they decide to move to another EU country that recognizes same-sex partnerships or same-sex marriages, their life partnerships will be recognized according to the legislation of that country, respecting the right of EU citizens and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the member states. Couples where both partners are citizens of a non-EU/EEA country can also enter into life partnerships in Croatia. According to law experts, this makes the "Life Partnership Act" one of the most liberal same-sex partnership acts in Europe.

Statistics.

The first life partnership was registered in Zagreb between two men on 5 September 2014. Minister of Administration Arsen Bauk was also present, and presented the life partners with two neckties as a gift from the Croatian state. The second life partnership took place in Split on 18 September 2014.  In mid-December 2014, released information showed that between 30 and 40 life partnerships had taken place in the country since September 2014. 22 took place in Zagreb, 3 in Rijeka, 2 in Split and 2 in Rovinj, while others occurred in Pazin and Opatija. In most partnerships, both partners were Croatian citizens, but there were some partnerships where one of the partners was a citizen of another country, such as the United Kingdom, Austria, Slovenia, Japan, Italy, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the time this information was released, no partnership had taken place where both partners were foreign citizens. On 20 February 2015, it was reported that the first life partnership where both partners were foreign citizens had taken place in Osijek between two Macedonian women. This was the first life partnership in that city and also the 40th in Croatia.  Other cities which have seen life partnerships include Kastav, Dubrovnik, Pula, Koprivnica, Opatija, Pakrac, Vukovar, Zadar, Ludbreg, Ivanska, Nova Rača, Nova Gradiška, Poreč, Umag and Buje. By May 2015, only one partnership dissolution had occurred.  According to the Ministry of Administration, 72 life partnerships were celebrated in 2015 alone. 38 of those were to male couples and 34 were to female couples. 47 of them were conducted in the city of Zagreb, 7 in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, 4 each in Osijek-Baranja County, Istria County and Split-Dalmatia County, 2 in Varaždin County, and 1 each in Dubrovnik-Neretva County, Vukovar-Srijem County, Šibenik-Knin County and Krapina-Zagorje County. In 44 cases, both partners were Croatian citizens, in 22 one partner was a foreign national, and in 3 cases both partners were foreign nationals.  On 23 September 2016, it was reported that the first life partnership between prison inmates had taken place. The ceremony was held in the city of Gospić.

Same-sex marriage.

Many political parties and politicians have expressed support for same-sex marriage in Croatia. Most notably MPs from the SDP, HNS, HSLS, Green List and the Labour Party, as well as Vesna Pusić and Mirela Holy and former Croatian President Ivo Josipović. In May 2013, a conservative civil initiative group "In the name of the family" collected more than 700,000 signatures for a referendum which would constitutionally define marriage as "a union between a woman and a man". They needed a minimum of 450,000 signatures, representing 10% of registered voters. The Kukuriku Government disapproved of the possible referendum, accusing the Church of being the main force behind the initiative. The Catholic Church had a major role in collecting signatures as many volunteers were based in front of churches. The Government also argued that the referendum question was in fact unconstitutional. The initiative had divided Croatian society and opened many legal questions, such as a reform to the law on referendums. According to the current law, turnout is not a condition for a successful referendum, thus enabling a minority of voters to change the Constitution. Marriage being defined as a union between a woman and a man does not prevent the Government from expanding rights to same-sex couples, and equalizing their relationships with marriage, thus raising questions on the purpose of the referendum. According to a poll that included 1,300 people, 55.3% of them supported the initiative, and 31.1% did not. Croatian President Ivo Josipović condemned the referendum.  Parliament voted in favour of not presenting the referendum proposal before the Constitutional Court. However, after Parliament had set the date for the referendum, every Croatian citizen had the right to do so. As such, 3 NGOs (Zagreb Pride, Centre For Civil Courage, and CroL) presented their case before the Court. The Constitutional Court did not decide in their favour, stating there was no legal basis for banning the referendum. However, the Court was clear in stating that defining marriage as a union between a woman and a man must not have any negative effect on future laws regarding same-sex couples or non-married opposite-sex couples. Conservative ex-Prime Minister, once a member of right-wing HDZ and now an independent MP, Jadranka Kosor voted in favour of presenting the proposal before the Constitutional Court and voted against the proposed constitutional change. This statement was not in line with her previous views on homosexuality and same-sex marriages. She was known for being against the expansion of rights for same-sex couples in the past, and was voted the "homophobe of the year" in 2010 after stating that homosexuality is not natural, and that same-sex marriages should never be legal. She does, however, support the "Life Partnership Act".  There was much resistance to the referendum in Croatia, with some media outlets, such as daily newspaper "Jutarnji list", donating its advertising space to several organisations opposed to the referendum. Aside from well-known public figures who were openly against the referendum, the Jewish Community in Zagreb and a Lutheran church were two religious organisations who also publicly opposed it. Popular Croatian entertainers including Severina, TBF and Let 3 organised a concert gathering thousands of people in support of same-sex marriage on the main Zagreb square. Croatian psychologists and psychology students organised a petition in support of same-sex marriage. On 30 November 2013, one day before the referendum, around a thousand people marched in the city of Zagreb in support of same-sex marriage. Marches of support also took place in Pula, Split and Rijeka gathering hundreds of people.  The referendum took place on 1 December 2013. 65.87% voted in favour of the constitutional change, and 33.51% voted against. Turnout was low, only 37.9% of the people participated. However, not all counties voted in favour of the amendment. Istria and Primorje-Gorski Kotar voted against, with 58.23% and 53.30% respectively. When it came to larger cities, Rijeka voted against with 59.27%, and Pula voted against with 63.64%. Most cities in these two counties voted against, with Labin being the highest at 70.97%. Regarding cities outside these two counties, Varaždin and Čakovec also voted against with 56.94% and 58.95% respectively. Zagreb voted 55.90% in favour and 43.50% against; the remaining votes being invalid.  Article 61 now reads: In the aftermath of the referendum, the Croatian Government, with the support of some opposition parties, started working on changes to the Constitution and the referendum process. The section referring to referendums would clearly define what questions can or cannot be subject to referendums. Furthermore, if citizens want to change the Constitution, turnout must be over 50%. Constitutional changes currently require support from two-thirds of MPs. Croatian President Ivo Josipović suggested that other forms of family life outside marriage should also be protected by the Constitution to balance the injustice created by the referendum on marriage, but his proposal was rejected. In May 2018, the Social Democratic Party launched an initiative to amend the Constitution to prevent referendums designed with "reducing fundamental civil rights and freedoms".  In April 2018, the Croatian Parliament ratified (in a 110-30 vote) the Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (also known as the Istanbul Convention). The treaty aims to safeguard the rights of women against domestic violence, protect victims of domestic violence and prosecute the offenders. Right-wing groups and the Catholic Church opposed the ratification, erroneously believing it would legalise same-sex marriage.

LGBT parenting.

Full joint adoption for same-sex couples in Croatia is not legal, but a single person regardless of sexual orientation is allowed to adopt. The "Life Partnership Act" also recognizes an institution similar to stepchild adoption called "partner-guardianship" ().  A life partner who is not the biological parent of their partner's child or children can gain parental responsibilities on a temporary or permanent basis. During a life partnership, the parent can temporarily entrust their life partner, who is not the biological parent, with parental rights. Should those rights last over 30 days, the decision must be certified with the solicitor. In this situation, as long as the parental rights last, the parent and the life partner must agree on decisions important for the child's/children's well-being. In case of a dissolution of a life partnership, the partner who is not the biological parent can maintain personal relationships with the child or children, should the court decide it is in their best interest. Partner-guardianship is an institution created within the "Life Partnership Act" that enables a life partner who is not the biological parent to gain permanent parental rights, and is similar to stepchild adoption. Such a relationship between the non-parent life partner and the child may be established under two conditions; if the child's or children's parent is deceased, under condition that a second parent is also deceased, or his/her parental rights have been terminated due to child abuse. Alternately, if a parent is alive, but a second parent is unknown, deceased or his/her parental rights have been terminated, the life partner who is not the biological parent can become a partner-guardian if the court decides in their favour. Both formal and informal life partners are eligible to partner-guardianship. The partner-guardian receives full parental responsibility as is the case with stepchild adoption, and is registered in the child's birth certificate as their partner-guardian. Partner-guardianship is a permanent next-of-kin relationship with all the rights, responsibilities and legal impacts as that of a parent and a child. On 13 July 2015, it was reported that the first case of partner-guardianship had been granted.

History.

In May 2012, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Social Welfare Policy and Youth Milanka Opačić expressed support for LGBT parenting and said that Croatia should progress to the point where it is acceptable and tolerated "but not just yet as the current situation could lead to discrimination of children from those families", arguing for taking a step-by-step approach regarding LGBT rights. However, her statements were not welcomed by some NGOs who stated that there are already children in Croatia living with same-sex families and those families are desperate for legal solutions to their everyday problems; "so she should not be perpetuating discriminatory policies, but rather help to create acceptable solutions and fight against discrimination."  Vesna Pusić has long been a supporter for full LGBT parenting. In July 2012, Minister of War Veterans and member of the SDP Predrag Matić also expressed his support for adoption and said that society should not falter in achieving equal rights due to pressure from right-wing and radical circles. This was seen as a major step considering that war veteran associations are usually associated with right-wing politics. Minister of Economy Ivan Vrdoljak said that adoption should be allowed and expressed his hope that the Kukuriku Government would introduce it by the end of their mandate, which expired in 2015.  In July 2014, the Government passed the "Life Partnership Act" with a majority of MPs in the Croatian Parliament voting in favor. For the first time in Croatia, this made unmarried opposite-sex couples equal to married couples, including in adoption. This was seen by some as the first step towards full adoption rights, even though the "Life Partnership Act" is not part of Croatian family law. Barrister Sanja Bezbradica Jelavić and professor at the University of Rijeka Sanja Barić pointed out that the European Court of Human Rights does not suggest same-sex couples have to be equal to married couples, but it does, however, suggest that they must be equal to unmarried couples. They referred to the "X and Others v. Austria" case in which the court decided that the partner in a same-sex union has the right to adopt his or her partner's biological child as the same was possible for unmarried opposite-sex couples. They pointed out that following this decision and logic it is only a matter of time until same-sex couples are allowed to fully adopt in Croatia. Two options are possible; this question can be introduced before the Constitutional Court, and if that proves to be unsuccessful the next step would be the European Court of Human Rights, which would issue a binding decision on Croatia. Minister of Administration Arsen Bauk has said that the Government has no intentions of changing the "Life Partnership Act" at this point, and it would leave this question for future parliamentary debates.  In May 2017, it was reported that a male couple in a life partnership had filed suit after being denied the ability to foster a child, based on the fact that Croatian law does not provide life partnerships with full adoption rights. Previously, the couple had successfully completed a course preparing potential parents for adoption. Despite Croatia not explicitly providing full adoption rights to couples in life partnerships, the couple, and their lawyer, Sanja Bezbradica Jelavić, argued that the "Life Partnership Act" and the Family Code specifically state that couples in life partnerships must be equal to married couples. Furthermore, the Act states that any issues regarding children that are not defined by the partner-guardian institution will be dealt with by the Family Code. The couple and their lawyer also confirmed that, in the case of an unsatisfactory verdict, they would bring their case before the European Court of Human Rights. The couple brought their case to an administrative court, and on 20 December 2019 the court ruled in their favour. The Zagreb Administrative Court ruled that the couple have the right to be foster parents. Their attorney Sanja Bezbradica Jelavić stated: "The court's decision is binding, and an appeal is not allowed, so this judgment is final. The written ruling has not yet arrived, but as stated during the announcement, the court accepted our argument in the lawsuit, based on Croatian regulations and the European Convention on Human Rights. As a result, the court ordered the relevant government agencies to implement the new decision in accordance with the judgment. We believe that the agencies will respect the court decision." The decision followed the introduction of the "Foster Care Act" () in December 2018, which excluded same-sex couples.

Public opinion.

The 2015 Eurobarometer found that 37% of Croatians thought that same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe. A Pew Research Center poll conducted in 2015-2016 found that 31% of Croatians supported same-sex marriage, with 64% opposed.  The 2019 Eurobarometer found that 39% of Croatians thought same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe, 55% were against.

Croatia recognizes life partnerships () for same-sex couples through the "Life Partnership Act", making same-sex couples equal to married couples in everything except adoption. However, the Act does provide couples with an institution similar to stepchild adoption called partner-guardianship. The Act also recognizes and defines unregistered same-sex relationships as informal life partners, thus making them equal to registered life partnerships after they have been cohabiting for a minimum of 3 years. Croatia first recognized same-sex couples in 2003 through a law on unregistered same-sex unions, which was later replaced by the "Life Partnership Act". The Croatian Parliament passed the new law on 15 July 2014, taking effect in two stages (5 August 2014 and 1 September 2014). Following a 2013 referendum, the Constitution of Croatia has limited marriage to opposite-sex couples.

Chorvatsko přiznává párům stejného pohlaví status životního partnerství podle "zákona o životním partnerství", který jim garantuje rovná práva a povinnosti vycházející z manželství, vyjma adopcí. Nicméně pamatuje na vztah mezi partnerem rodiče a jeho nevlastním dítětem prostřednictvím poručenství. Zákon dále uznává a definuje neregistrovaná soužití párů stejného pohlaví jako neformální životní partnerství a staví je na stejnou úroveň jako registrovaná životní partnerství, pokud spolu žijí minimálně 3 roky. Zpočátku bylo stejnopohlavní soužití právně ošetřené podle zákona o neregistrovaném soužití z r. 2003, který byl pak nahrazen "zákonem o životním partnerství". Chorvatský parlament přijal nový zákon 15. července 2014. Účinnosti nabyl ve dvou fázích (5. srpna 2014 a 1. září 2014). Po referendu v r. 2013 je v chorvatské ústavě manželství definované pouze jako heterosexuální svazek.


Historical usage.

Repeated symbols used for ranking date to Mariana Starke's 1820 guidebook, which used exclamation points to indicate works of art of special value: ...I have endeavoured... to furnish Travellers with correct lists of the objects best worth notice...; at the same time marking, with one or more exclamation points (according to their merit), those works which are deemed peculiarly excellent.  Murray's Handbooks for Travellers and then the Baedeker Guides (starting in 1844) borrowed this system, using stars instead of exclamation points, first for points of interest, and later for hotels.  The Michelin restaurant guide introduced a star as a restaurant rating in 1926, and expanded to a system of one to three stars in 1931.

Media.

Books.

In 1915, Edward O'Brien began editing The Best American Short Stories. This annual compiled O'Brien's personal selection of the previous year's best short stories. O'Brien was known to work indefatigably: he claimed to read as many as 8,000 stories a year, and his editions contained lengthy tabulations of stories and magazines, ranked on a scale of zero to three stars (representing O'Brien's notion of their "literary permanence.") At the end of each book, O'Brien listed all the stories published during the preceding year. O'Brien awarded no stars to those stories which failed "to survive either the test of substance or the test of form." O'Brien listed these stories without comment or a qualifying asterisk. O'Brien awarded one star to "those stories which may fairly claim to survive either the test of substance or the test of form. Each of these stories may claim to possess either distinction of technique alone, or more frequently, I am glad to say, a persuasive sense of life in them to which a reader responds with some part of his own experience." O'Brien awarded two stars to stories "of still greater distinction" that warranted a second reading "because each of them has survived both tests, the test of substance and the test of form." O'Brien awarded three stars – the highest rating – to "a small group of stories" which had "an even finer distinction—the distinction of uniting genuine substance and artistic form in a closely woven pattern with a spiritual sincerity so earnest, and a creative belief so strong, that each of these stories may fairly claim, in my opinion, a position of some permanence in our literature as a criticism of life. O'Brien further listed these stories "in a special 'Roll of Honor.'" In this special list O'Brien further attached an additional asterisk to those stories that O'Brien personally enjoyed. "Stories indicated by this asterisk seem to me not only distinctive, but so highly distinguished as to necessitate their ultimate preservation between book covers. It is from this final short list that the stories reprinted in this volume have been selected."  Oliver Herford's essay "Say it with Asterisks", quips "Never, I think, were a mob of overworked employees so pitifully huddled together in an ill-ventilated factory as are the Asterisks in this Sweatshop of Twaddle." Literary editor Katrina Kenison dismisses O'Brien's grading systems as "excessive at best, fussy and arbitrary at worst."  Book reviewers generally do not use a star-rating system though there are exceptions. The "West Coast Review of Books" rates books on a scale of one ("poor") to five ("superior") stars. According to editor D. David Dreis, readers love the ratings but publishers don't.

Films.

In the 31 July 1928 issue of the "New York Daily News", the newspaper's film critic Irene Thirer began grading movies on a scale of zero to three stars. Three stars meant 'excellent,' two 'good,' and one star meant'mediocre.' And no stars at all'means the picture's right bad,'" wrote Thirer. Carl Bialik speculates that this may have been the first time a film critic used a star-rating system to grade movies. "The one-star review of "The Port of Missing Girls" launched the star system, which the newspaper promised would be 'a permanent thing.'  According to film scholar Gerald Peary, few newspapers adopted this practice until the French film magazine "Cahiers du cinéma" "started polling critics in the 1950s and boiling their judgment down to a star rating, with a bullet reserved for movies that the magazine didn't like." The highest rating any film earned was five stars. The British film magazine "Sight and Sound" also rated films on a scale of one to four stars. Some critics use a "half-star" option in between basic star ratings. Leonard Maltin goes one further and gives "" a 21⁄3 star rating.  Critics do not agree what the cutoff is for a recommendation, even when they use the same scale. Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert "both consider[ed] a three-star rating to be the cutoff for a "thumbs up" on their scales of zero to four stars. Film critic Dave Kehr – who also uses a 0–4 star scale – believes "two stars is a borderline recommendation". On a five-star scale, regardless of the bottom rating, 3 stars is often the lowest positive rating, though judging on a purely mathematical basis, 2 1/2 stars would be the dividing line between good and bad on a 0-5 scale. Common Sense Media uses a scale of one to five, where 3 stars is "Just fine; solid" and anything lower is "Disappointing" at best.  There is no agreement on what the lowest rating should be. Some critics make "one star" or a "half-star" their lowest rating. Dave Kehr believes that "one star" indicates the film has redeeming facets, and instead uses zero stars as his lowest rating.  Examples of rating scales:  Critics have different ways of denoting the lowest rating when this is a "zero". Some such as Peter Travers display empty stars. Jonathan Rosenbaum and Dave Kehr use a round black dot. Leslie Halliwell uses a blank space. "The Globe and Mail" uses a "0", or as their former film critic dubbed it, the "death doughnut". Roger Ebert used a thumbs-down symbol. Other critics use a black dot.  Critics also do not agree on what the lower ratings signify, let alone the lowest rating. While Maltin's and Scheuer's guides respectively explain that lowest rated films are "BOMB(s)" and "abysmal", British film critic Leslie Halliwell instead writes that no star "indicates a totally routine production or worse; such films may be watchable but are at least equally missable." Like Halliwell and Dave Kehr, film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum believes one-star films have some merit, however unlike Halliwell, Rosenbaum believes that no stars indicate a "worthless" movie. Roger Ebert occasionally gave zero stars to films he deemed "artistically inept and morally repugnant." Scheuer's guide calls "one and a half star" films "poor", and "one star" films "bad".  Not all film critics have approved of star ratings. Film scholar Robin Wood wondered if "Sight and Sound" readers accepted "such blackening of their characters." Jay Scott of Canada's "The Globe and Mail" was an opponent of using symbols to summarize a review and wrote in 1992 that "When Globe editors first proposed the four-star system of rating movies about a year ago, the response from Globe critics was, to put it mildly, underwhelming." More recently, Mark Kermode has expressed a dislike of star ratings (assigned to his online reviews but not his print or radio reviews) on the grounds that his verdicts are sometimes too complex to be expressed as a rating.

Comedy and theatre.

Star ratings are also given out at stand-up comedy performances and theatre productions. Star ratings are given at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the largest arts festival in the world. Since 2010, the British Comedy Guide has collected over 4,300 reviews of around 1,110 different acts, across 83 different publications in the form of a star rating.  The use of star ratings is controversial because the public may ignore the reviews and concentrate more the star ratings alone.

Video games.

Star ratings are not often used to rate the quality of a video game, but are rather used within certain games for varying purposes. One notable use of the star system is to grade a player's performance in completing a level with up to three stars, used in many modern multi-level games like "Angry Birds". This three-star rating system challenges the player to repeat and fully master previously beaten levels in order to receive a perfect 3-star rating, which may confer other benefits or bonus content. Another use of star ratings is to denote the rarity of characters in video games where players are tasked in collecting numerous characters, such as "" and "", in which stronger and rarer characters are marked with more stars to make them appear more valuable. Stars are also used to rank a game or stage's difficulty (such as in the SNES version of "Street Fighter II" and its updates), or to rate the attributes of a selectable character or, in sports games, a team.

Restaurant ratings.

Restaurant guides and reviewers often use stars in restaurant ratings. The Michelin system reserves stars for exceptional restaurants, and gives up to three; the vast majority of recommended restaurants have no star at all. Other guides now use up to four or five stars, with one-star being the lowest rating. The stars are sometimes replaced by symbols such as a fork or spoon. Some guides use separate scales for food, service, ambiance, and even noise level.  The Michelin system remains the best known star system. A single star denotes "a very good restaurant in its category", two stars "excellent cooking, worth a detour", and three stars, "exceptional cuisine, worth a special journey".  Michelin stars are awarded only for the quality of food and wine; the luxury level of the restaurant is rated separately, using a scale of one ("quite comfortable") to five ("luxury in the traditional style") crossed fork and spoon symbols.

Hotel ratings.

Hotel luxury is often denoted by stars.  Other classifiers, such as the AAA Five Diamond Award, use diamonds instead of stars to express hotel ratings levels.  Hotels are assessed in traditional systems and rest heavily on the facilities provided. Some consider this disadvantageous to smaller hotels whose quality of accommodation could fall into one class but the lack of an item such as an elevator would prevent it from reaching a higher categorization.  In recent years hotel rating systems have also been criticized by some who argue that the rating criteria for such systems are overly complex and difficult for laymen to understand. It has been suggested that the lack of a unified global system for rating hotels may also undermine the usability of such schemes.

Financial product ratings.

In the UK, providers and comparison websites often use Stars to indicate how feature-rich financial products are.  Defaqto is an organisation that independently assess every financial product in the UK. Each of these products is awarded a rating from 1 to 5 Stars, allowing consumers to see where it sits in the market. The higher the Star Rating, the more comprehensive a product. The scores for each product are totalled and all products ranked. Industry experts determine the scores necessary to achieve 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Star Ratings.

Military ranks.

The most senior military ranks in all services are classified by a star system in many countries, ranging from one-star rank which typically corresponds to brigadier, brigadier general, Commodore or air commodore, to the most senior five-star ranks which include Admiral of the Fleet, Grand Admiral, Field Marshal, General of the Army and Marshal of the Air Force which typically only exist during large-scale conflicts. The North Korean rank of Taewonsu has been compared to a seven-star rank.  In the army of the Republic of Ireland, the most junior ranks are classified by stars. A three-star private/gunner/trooper is one who is considered a fully trained soldier. Two-star privates/gunners/troopers are those who have completed basic training but have not yet completed other specialised training necessary for their roles. One-star privates do not exist: the lowest rank is recruit. Senior officers are classified as Brigadiers, Majors General and Lts General.

Other.

Manufactured home park rating.

There is no official star rating system for manufactured home parks because there is no rating organization. For such an organization to exist would require agreement between the owners of approximately 50,000 parks in the United States.  A residual belief in such a system probably originated in a directory of mobile home parks printed in the 1970s, in which each park was assessed with a five star rating system.

American college football.

Recruits entering American college football are commonly ranked on a five-star scale, with five representing what scouts think will be the best college players.

Transport safety.

International organisations use a star rating to rank the safety of transportation. EuroRAP have developed a Road Protection Score which is a scale for Star Rating roads for how well they protect the user from death or disabling injury when a crash occurs. The assessment evaluates the safety that is 'built into' the road through its design, in combination with the way traffic is managed on it. The RPS protocol has also been adapted and used by AusRAP, usRAP and iRAP.  EuroNCAP awards'star ratings' based on the performance of vehicles in crash tests, including front, side and pole impacts, and impacts with pedestrians.  The United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) also uses a star ranking to rank the safety of vehicles in crash tests, including front, side, pole impacts, and rollovers, with 5 stars being the most secure.

Voting and preferences.

Some Web content voting systems use five-star grades. This allows users to distinguish content more precisely than with binary "like buttons".  Many recommender systems, such as MovieLens or Amazon.com, ask people to express preferences using star ratings, then predict what other items those people are likely to enjoy. Predictions are often expressed in terms of the number of predicted stars.

Unicode.

The Unicode Standard encodes several characters used for star ratings:  The STAR WITH LEFT HALF BLACK and LEFT HALF BLACK STAR are intended for use in left-to-right contexts where the half star is positioned to the right of one or more whole stars, whereas the STAR WITH RIGHT HALF BLACK and RIGHT HALF BLACK STAR are intended for use in right-to-left contexts (such as Arabic or Hebrew) where the half star is positioned to the left of one or more whole stars.

Stars are often used as symbols for ratings. They are used by reviewers for ranking things such as films, TV shows, restaurants, and hotels. For example, a system of one to five stars is commonly employed to rate hotels, with five stars being the highest quality.

Symbol hvězdičky bývá používán jako označení stupně hodnocení. Je možné se s tímto typem klasifikace setkat například při hodnocení oblíbenosti filmů, a zejména častý bývá u hodnocení restaurantů, nebo hotelů, kde je používán pětihvězdičkový systém, přičemž pět hvězdiček je nejvyšší možné, tj. nejlepší hodnocení.


Biography.

Gabroyan felt a vocation for the priesthood and studied at Bzommar Patriarchal Monastery continuing at the Collège des frères maristes de Jounieh (Lebanon). He was sent to Italy to continue his higher studies at the Armenian Leonine Pontifical College in Rome and graduate studies in Philosophy and Theology at the Pontifical Gregorian University. Upon successful graduation, he returned to Lebanon and was ordained priest on 28 March 1959.  Gabroyan became an instructor in Bzommar Monastery School in 1960 and from 1962 to 1996 served as principal of the Armenian Catholic Mesrobian Secondary School in Bourj Hammoud and from 1969 to 1975 as head of the Bzommar Convent School and secretary to the Convent's executive council.  In 1976, he was appointed for serving the Armenian Catholics in France and was ordained as bishop on 13 February 1977 on the hand of Armenian Catholic Catholicos-Patriarch Hemaiag Bedros XVII Ghedighian serving as Apostolic Exarch in France from 1977 to 1986 and as Primate and Armenian Catholic Eparch and Bishop of France at the Éparchie Sainte-Croix-de-Paris des Arméniens, from 1986 to April 2013 date of his retirement from his duties. Upon the death of Armenian Catholic Patriarch Catholicos of Cilicia Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni on 25 June 2015, he served as administrator of the Church until election of a new Patriarch. The Armenian Catholic Holy Synod of Bishops convened starting 14 July 2015 and elected Gabroyan as Catholicos-Patriarch on 24 July 2015 under the name of Krikor Bedros XX Gabroyan.  He was officially enthroned on 9 August 2015 in Bzommar, Lebanon.

Krikor Bedros XX Gabroyan, I.P.C.B. ( also known in English as Gregory Peter XX Gabroyan and in French as Grégoire Pierre XX Ghabroyan born in Aleppo, Syria on 14 November 1934) is the Catholicos-Patriarch of Cilicia of the Armenian Catholic Church after his election on 24 July 2015 and the necessary concession of the ecclesiastical full communion by Pope Francis one day later. He was officially enthroned on 9 August 2015.

Krikor (Řehoř) Bedros (Petr) XX. Ghabroyan, I.C.P.B. (* 15. listopadu 1934 Aleppo) je duchovní arménské katolické církve, který je od roku 2015 jejím patriarchou s oficiálním titulem Arménský patriarcha kilikijský.


Origins.

Oceania, the fictional superstate in George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-Four", appears to have emerged from a formal political union of the United States and the countries of the British Commonwealth, which later annexed the remainder of the Americas. Big Brother and Emmanuel Goldstein led the Party to power in Oceania after a revolution. After the Party achieved control of Oceania, Ingsoc became the official governing ideology and other political beliefs were increasingly marginalized. Goldstein and Big Brother later became enemies and differed in their interpretation of Ingsoc. Big Brother and the Party would eventually brand Goldstein a criminal and use him as a symbol of treachery and sedition.

As political philosophy.

Emmanuel Goldstein's "The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism" describes the Party's ideology as an oligarchical collective which "rejects and vilifies every principle for which the Socialist movement originally stood, and it does so in the name of Socialism". It is noteworthy that in the terms of the book this ideology would be a form of doublethink.  Big Brother personifies the Inner Party as the ubiquitous face constantly depicted in posters and telescreens. Big Brother is constantly watching Oceania's citizens and Ingsoc demands the complete submission (mental, moral and physical) of the people, with the Party willing to torture people to achieve it (see Room 101). Ingsoc is a masterfully complex system of psychological control that compels confession to imagined crimes and the forgetting of rebellious thought in order to love Big Brother and the Party over oneself. The purpose of Ingsoc is political control and power "per se". Glibly, O'Brien explains to Smith:  The German Nazis and the Russian Communists came very close to us in their methods, but they never had the courage to recognize their own motives. They pretended, perhaps they even believed, that they had seized power unwillingly and for a limited time, and that just round the corner there lay a paradise where human beings would be free and equal. We are not like that. We know that no one ever seizes power with the intention of relinquishing it. Power is not a means, it is an end. One does not establish a dictatorship in order to safeguard a revolution; one makes the revolution in order to establish the dictatorship. The object of persecution is persecution. The object of torture is torture. The object of power is power.

Ingsoc's social class system.

In the year 1984, Ingsoc divides Oceanian society into three social classes, the Inner Party, the Outer Party and the Proles.  Although these classes interact little, the protagonist Winston Smith attends an evening at the cinema, where people from all three classes view the same film program. He visits a Prole's pub without attracting notice (or so he thinks), as well as the flat of Inner Party member O'Brien on the pretext of borrowing the newest edition of the Newspeak dictionary. Ingsoc's propaganda proclaims egalitarianism, yet the Proles and (some) middle-class citizens are hideously exploited and live in poverty while the upper class work little and live well and comfortably with food and consumer goods being more scarce and expensive than even under capitalism. It is suggested that this is not a result of a deficit of actual produce, but rather a surplus: this surplus is more than the amount taken up by constant warfare between Oceania, Eurasia and Eastasia. If the Party chose, all its people could live in luxury, but they instead choose to make the standard of living as low as possible as it is important that the lower classes remain stupefied by poverty (with the middle class having to struggle for mere survival) since if the Party believe that if they were to become comfortable, they might learn to think for themselves and start a rebellion.

The upper class (Inner Party).

The upper class make up less than 2% of Oceania's population. Among their privileges is the ability to completely turn off their telescreens. They live in spacious, comfortable homes, have good food and drink, personal servants, and speedy transportation such as personal helicopters and automobiles (while the middle and lower classes are not allowed to privately own any vehicles) and no middle-class citizen or Prole may enter an upper-class neighbourhood without permission from an upper-class citizen. According to Goldstein's book, middle-class citizens ambitious or loyal enough may be promoted to join the upper class starting from a certain age. Within the upper class are the Inner Party, whose members make policy, influence decisions, and govern.  Despite their insulation and overt privileges, the upper class are still not exempt from the government's brutal restriction of thought and behaviour, even while lies and propaganda apparently originate from their own ranks. Instead, the luxuries and rich lifestyles that they have access to are offered in exchange for them maintaining their loyalty to the state; non-conformant upper-class citizens can be condemned, tortured, and potentially executed just like any other individual. Also, all people in both the upper and middle classes are expected to abstain completely from any kind of sexual activity other than normal intercourse strictly for reproduction within marriage, since to allow sex in any less restrictive forms would permit self-actualization, individual intimacy, and intellectual freedom which all go against the Party's agenda.

The middle class (Outer Party).

The middle class is home to the Outer Party, whose members work the State's administrative jobs and directly implement the Party's policies, while having absolutely no voice in their formulation whatsoever. They are essential to the Party's success, but the Party only tolerate them in hostile conditions. The middle class, including the Outer Party, are allowed "no vices other than cigarettes and Victory Gin", and they are the citizens under the heaviest surveillance. This is because according to history the middle class' combination of intellectual ability and lack of power means they are the ones that are most likely to rebel against the government. They are therefore expected to sustain a continuous, patriotic frenzy for the Party, with the Outer Party also required to blindly accept every order from their superiors, all while simultaneously being condemned to live in rundown neighbourhoods, use bicycles and public transportation, and to persist in an ongoing state of near starvation with meager rations of poor food and drink.

The working class (Proles).

The Proles (proletariat) are the lower class of workers, performing the bulk of manual labour required in Oceania. They live in the poorest conditions, but they may be considered more fortunate than the middle class as they are under little surveillance. The Party keep them happy and sedate them with pleasures like alcohol, gambling, sport, sexual promiscuity, and prolefeed (fabricated entertainment, including pornography). They are kept largely uneducated and considered incapable of gaining any sophisticated view of their own lives or of society (although they are actually capable), and are therefore considered harmless, lacking any greater will or consciousness than would be typically ascribed to animals. The Proles live in poor yet relatively free conditions. They are not required to install telescreens in their homes (since most cannot even afford one), and no Prole who has a telescreen ever uses it for surveillance purposes as the government do not require them to do so. Despite these freedoms, a few Thought Police officers are deployed among the Proles to mark down and attempt to eliminate any individuals deemed capable of rebellion. Proles make up 85% of Oceania's population.  In the novel, Winston Smith notes that "if there is hope, it lies in the Proles" (i.e. among the three classes, the Proles have the highest chance of successfully rebelling against the Party).

Other political ideologies in "Nineteen Eighty-Four".

Eurasia and Eastasia are the other two ideologically-formed and ruled superstates that resemble Oceania. Neo-Bolshevism is the ideology of Eurasia, Soviet-conquered Europe. Death Worship, or Obliteration of the Self, is described as the translation of the Chinese name for the ideology of Eastasia. The ruling oligarchies of the three superstates are aware that their ideologies are philosophically indistinguishable, a fact kept from and denied by their populaces via doublethink. Said denial is practised in each state and the mutual vilification of the enemy state permits perpetual war among them. Without said war, the lower classes would have no focus for the hatred of and triumph over the enemy with which their Inner parties dominate them and find excuses for their atrocities. The fact that all that Oceania's citizens are allowed to know about the world is whatever the Party want them to know has led some to hypothesise that the other superstates do not really exist, with some even arguing that Oceania does not exist as a superstate, but are rather fabrications of the Party (part of a storyline that the Party invented to advance social control).  How Ingsoc gained control of the British Empire and the Americas in a historically short period is unknown. In his book, Goldstein says that Oceania was created "with the absorption of [...] the British Empire by the United States" and may have occurred in the aftermath of the nuclear war of the 1950s also referred to in the book. Some have claimed that Goldstein's book itself may have been written by the Party, and therefore it may have been subjected to the same historical negation as the Party's other propaganda, resulting in it being potentially unreliable as a source of information. When Winston is being tortured by O'Brien in the Ministry of Love, he asks if "the book" is true. O'Brien replies: "As description, yes. The program it sets forth [...] is nonsense".

The English Socialist Party, also known as English Socialism and most famously as Ingsoc, is the fictional political party of the totalitarian government of Oceania in George Orwell's dystopian novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four", published in 1949. Orwell himself, a self-avowed democratic socialist, feared that socialism in his native Britain would turn into a totalitarian society governed by an ideology resembling that of Ingsoc.

Ingsoc je politická ideologie totalitní vlády Oceánie v dystopickém románu George Orwella 1984. V překladu z originální knižní podoby je Ingsoc synonymum pro Anglický socialismus - "Angsoc".


History.

Thame United were formed in 1883, making them one of Oxfordshire's oldest clubs. They spent their early years playing in local Oxfordshire leagues. In 1959 they stepped up to the Hellenic League, where they were league champions in 1961–62 and 1969–70 and runners-up on three other occasions.  In 1988 the decision was taken to switch to the South Midlands League. In three seasons in this league United finished runners-up twice and then claimed the league title in 1990–91, which saw them promoted to the Isthmian League Division Three. Two promotions followed in quick succession, putting the club in Division One in 1995. Although United were relegated in 1998, they bounced straight back the following season under manager Andy Sinnott, who also led them to the semi-finals of the FA Vase and to within two points of achieving promotion to the Premier Division.  In October 2003 the club reached the fourth qualifying round of the FA Cup for the first time in their history, going down 2–1 to Conference side Farnborough Town. Since then they have reached this point in the competition twice, losing 1–0 to Hornchurch and 5–0 to Forest Green. In 2004, due to non-league reorganisation, United switched to the Southern League Division One West.  In 2005 severe financial difficulties hit the club, with bailiffs seizing assets to offset unpaid VAT bills, and the landlord of their Windmill Road stadium serving them with notice of eviction. The club managed to limp to the end of the season playing at the ground of neighbours Aylesbury United and a rock-bottom finish saw them relegated back to the Hellenic League after 18 years away.  During the summer of 2006, Aylesbury were also evicted from their ground, leaving Thame homeless once again, leading to a new groundshare arrangement with AFC Wallingford. The results on the playing field continued to be poor, and they completed the 2006–07 season in a relegation position despite the improvement of results following the return of successful manager Mark West. Because of this, they were relegated to the Hellenic Football League Division 1 East for the 2007–08 season. Jack Collinge took over as chairman of the club.  In October 2007 it was announced that the club planned to move to a multi-million pound venue at Church Farm in the North of Thame. They hoped to begin playing in their new stadium by the 2009–10 season, but as of October 2010 the stadium was still being built. After the stadium was completed, a game to celebrate the club's new stadium was played against Football League Two side Oxford United in January 2011. Thame lost 3–1 with the new ASM Stadium's first record attendance of 1,382. At the end of the 2016-17 season, the club was promoted to the Southern League in Step 4 of the National League System under manager Mark West after a final day on which the "Red Kites" beat Henley Town 9-0. In their first Southern League game in decades, Thame came from behind to beat Chalfont St. Peter 2-1.

Stadium.

Thame United play their home games at The ASM Stadium located at Meadow View Park, Thame. From the 2015–16 season, Aylesbury United signed a two-year deal to groundshare with Thame United. The ASM Stadium now hosts Thame United FC and the reserve team Thame Rangers who play in the Hellenic League Division One East.  The 20 acre site is also home to a number of local youth and community teams, 7 pitches including multiple artificial turf training pitches, club bar and function rooms.

Thame United Football Club are a football club based in Thame, Oxfordshire, England. They were established in 1883 and joined the Hellenic League in 1959. The club currently competes in the.

Thame United FC (celým názvem: Thame United Football Club) je anglický fotbalový klub, který sídlí ve městě Thame v nemetropolitním hrabství Oxfordshire. Založen byl v roce 1883. Od sezóny 2018/19 hraje v Southern Football League Division One Central (8. nejvyšší soutěž). Klubové barvy jsou červená, černá a bílá.


Discovery.

"Rarahu" was discovered on 5 July 1929, by Soviet astronomer Alexander Deutsch at the Simeiz Observatory on the Crimean peninsula. On July 28, it was independently discovered by Cyril Jackson and Harry Wood at Johannesburg Observatory in South Africa. The Minor Planet Center only recognizes the first discoverer.

Orbit and classification.

"Rarahu" is a member the Eos family (), the largest asteroid family of the outer main belt, named after its parent body, the asteroid 221 Eos. The family consists of nearly 10,000 asteroids.  It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7–3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months (1,916 days; semi-major axis of 3.02 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 11° with respect to the ecliptic. The asteroid was first observed as at Simeiz Observatory on July 1924. The body's observation arc begins at Johannesburg in July 1929, one week after its official discovery observation at Simeiz.

Physical characteristics.

In the Tholen classification, "Rarahu" is a stony S-type asteroid. In the SMASS classification it is a K-type asteroid, which is a refined spectral type to which most members of the Eos family, including the parent body, belong to.

Rotation period.

Between 2002 and 2011, three rotational lightcurves of "Rarahu" were obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomers René Roy, Laurent Brunetto and Pierre Antonini. Lightcurve analysis gave a consolidated rotation period of 6.5447 hours with a brightness amplitude between 0.05 and 0.94 magnitude ().

Spin axis.

The asteroid's lightcurve has also been modeled several times and gave a concurring period of 6.54448 and 6.54449 hours, respectively. The body's spin axis has also been determined to be at (146.0°, −2.0°) and (326.0°, −2.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β).

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Rarahu" measures between 26.311 and 49.11 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.064 and 0.2205.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.1393 and a diameter of 33.23 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.15.

Naming.

This minor planet's name was taken from the novel "" ("Loti's Marriage"; 1880) by French novelist and naval officer Pierre Loti (1850–1923). The Polynesian idyll was originally titled "Rarahu", which is the Tahitian name for a girl. The official naming citation that already correctly spelled the asteroid's name "(see below)" was mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().

Wrong spelling.

In the original publication, the German journal "Astronomische Nachrichten" incorrectly spelled this minor planet's name as "Raraju" rather than "Rarahu", which is the original French spelling, due to an error in the transliteration process from French to Russian and then to German. The officially corrected name was published by the Minor Planet Center on 27 December 1985 ().

1148 Rarahu, provisional designation and previously also known as, is an Eoan asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 32 kilometers in diameter. Discovered by Alexander Deutsch at the Simeiz Observatory in 1929, the asteroid's name was taken from a French novel by Pierre Loti.

(1148) Rarahu je planetka s průměrem 31 km, kterou objevil Alexandr Dejč 5. července 1929. Planetka je pojmenována po postavě románu Pierra Lotiho.


History.

The SOIUSA is an interpretation by Marazzi of the terrain of the Alps aiming to replace the traditional way the Alps were partitioned in Italy, the "Partizione delle Alpi", which was adopted in 1926 by the Italian National Geographic Committee ("Comitato Geografico Nazionale ") after the IX Italian Geographic Congress ("Congresso Geografico Italiano"). SOIUSA takes into account the European geographic literature normalizing and standardizing the different national classification systems in use. It was publicly presented in a lecture organized by the Italian Alpine Club's Milan conference of 6 April 2006, following the publication of Marazzi's book.

Structure.

The SOIUSA introduces the bipartition of the Alpine System (Western Alps and Eastern Alps) replacing the old tripartite division (Western Alps, Central Alps and Eastern Alps) by a multilevel pyramidal hierarchy according to identical scales and rules.  Mountain groups higher level: fractionated with morphological and altimetric benchmark taking into account the historical and geographical regions in the Alps.  Mountain groups lower level: divided with a benchmark mountaineering.  To any alpine mountain can be assigned a SOIUSA code, which shows to what part, sector, section, subsection, supergroup, group and subgroup the mountain belongs.  Example:

Naming.

Names of higher level groups are given in the four main languages spoken in the Alps (German, French, Italian, Slovene) and in English, while lower level groups are just named in the language/languages of the concerned country/countries.  Examples:

Western Alps.

From the line Savona - Bocchetta di Altare - Montezemolo - Mondovì to the line Rhine - Splügen Pass - Lake Como - Lake Lecco; they are divided in 14 sections (in brackets their highest summit).

Eastern Alps.

From the line Rhine - Splügen Pass - Lake Como - Lake Lecco to the line Vienna-Sopron-Köszeg-Graz-Maribor and Godovič Pass; they are divided in 22 sections (in brackets their highest summit).

SOIUSA (an acronym for "Suddivisione Orografica Internazionale Unificata del Sistema Alpino" - English: "International Standardized Mountain Subdivision of the Alps-ISMSA") is a proposal for a new classification system of the Alps from the geographic and toponomastic point of view. It was designed by, Italian researcher and author of the Orographic Atlas of the Alps "SOIUSA". His book was presented with the patronage of the Italian Alpine Club on 23 Jan 2006, but has yet to receive any formal acceptance.

SOIUSA (je zkratka pro, ) je návrh na nové, mezinárodně přijímané, geografické a toponymické členění Alp. Pochází od italského orografa a autora Orografického atlasu Alp, Sergio Marazziho. Jeho kniha byla představena pod záštitou Italského alpského klubu ("Club Alpino Italiano") v roce 2006.


History.

Yuneec was originally a manufacturer of radio-controlled model aircraft. The company built the first successful electric powered paraglider that was manufactured in series production, the EPac. Former company owner Tian Yu then turned his attention to an electric ultralight trike, the Yuneec International ETrike. From there he designed a series of electric motors, the Yuneec Power Drive series, the all-composite E430 and the EViva motorglider. Collaboration with Flightstar Sportplanes of the US brought the Yuneec International e-Spyder design to completion, using an existing airframe with new electric power components.  In July 2010, Yuneec's E430 electric aircraft, won the Lindbergh Electric Airplane Prize at the World Electric Aircraft symposium. Yuneec's e-Spyder was the world's first certified electric aircraft, having received the DULV Type Certification in February 2013.  In 2014 the company became a founding member of Dronecode, a non-profit hosted by the Linux Foundation with the aim of providing Linux kernel-based common free software for drone manufacturers.  In August 2015, Intel Corporation invested $60 million in Yuneec. Intel and Yuneec agreed to work together on development of future projects. That same month, Yuneec launched Breeze, a drone capable of capturing UltraHD 4K photos and videos. Yuneec announced a retail partnership with Best Buy covering the Typhoon drone series and the Typhoon Wizard controller.  The Typhoon G featuring its GB203 3-axis gimbal designed for use with the GoPro camera was released in September 2015 to smooth and stabilize aerial footage. In October 2015, Yuneec released the Typhoon Wizard, an ultra-lightweight remote control compatible with the Typhoon drone series designed to be used with one hand. Yuneec partnered with Ocean Alliance, a whale conservation organization, in 2015 to create a safer way of collecting health data from whales. Rather than using biopsy darts, Ocean Alliance began using Yuneec drones outfitted with petri dishes to retrieve samples.  One of Yuneec's drones, the Typhoon Q500+, was seized by the police in June 2016 when its operator was flying it near the White House. The operator crashed a drone on The Ellipse near the White House in October 2015.  Yuneec released the Typhoon H in July 2016. The drone used the Intel RealSense 3D depth camera technology which tracks depth and human motion. The SkyView FPV headset was released in August 2016. The headset connects to a drone's onboard camera allowing the user to control the drone from the first person view.  In late 2016 the company established a new a research and development center, "Yuneec Advanced Technology Labs AG", near Zurich, Switzerland to work on computer vision, obstacle avoidance and flight control software development.  At the beginning of 2017 the company introduced the Yuneec H520, a modular hexacopter drone intended for the commercial market, including fire department, police, construction, surveying, inspection and mapping. The H520 can carry various cameras as payloads and can operate in an encrypted mode. A version, the Yuneec 3DR H520-G, was developed in conjunction with drone software company 3D Robotics and intended for the American government and military market.  In May 2017, suppliers reported that the company was arrears, but the company said that it was mainly due to the two sides had different opinions on product delivery quality and payment details. On the other hand, nearly half of Yuneec's suppliers had not been paid for more than a year. Yuneec has not made supplier payments on time since the second quarter of 2017.  In September a 2019 Yuneec announced the Mantis G, a foldable drone with gimballed and stabilized camera. The same month the company and Leica Camera AG announced a strategic partnership and presented the Typhoon H3 drone, which incorporates camera software and hardware co-engineered with Leica.

Yuneec International is a Chinese aircraft manufacturer based in Jinxi, Kunshan, a town in Jiangsu owned through an off-shore Cayman Islands holding company, Yuneec Holding Limited. Yuneec was originally a manufacturer of radio-controlled model aircraft and marketed its man-carrying aircraft in the United States through GreenWing International. Yuneec produced the Yuneec International E430, the first electric aircraft designed to be commercially produced, although only prototypes were ever built. In the late 2010s, the company moved to specialize in the development and production of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), for the aerial photography role.

Yuneec International je čínský výrobce letadel ve vlastnictví Tian Yu a se sídlem v Jinxi, Kunshan, které je městem v Jiangsu. Yuneec prodává své modely letadel ve Spojených státech přes společnost GreenWing International. FIrma Yuneec měla na svědomí i výrobu Yuneec International E430, které bylo prvním komerčně vyráběným elektrickým letadlem, i když to byly pouhé prototypy.


Spanish creole languages.

Chavacano.

Chavacano (also Chabacano) refers to a number of Spanish-based creole language varieties spoken in the Philippines. Linguists have identified a number of different varieties including: Zamboangueño, Caviteño, Ternateño (where their variety is locally known as Bahra), and Ermitaño. The variety found in Zamboanga City has the most number of speakers and is considered to be the most stable while the other varieties are considered to be either endangered or extinct (i.e. Ermitaño).  Creole varieties are spoken in Cavite City and Ternate (both on Luzon); Zamboanga, Cotabato and Davao (on Mindanao), Isabela City and other parts of province of Basilan and elsewhere. According to a 2007 census, there are 2,502,185 speakers in the Philippines. It is the major language of Zamboanga City.  The different varieties of Chavacano are mostly intelligible to one another but differ slightly in certain aspects such as in the usage of certain words and certain grammatical syntax. Most of the vocabulary comes from Spanish, while the grammar is mostly based on the Austronesian structure. In Zamboanga, its variant is used in primary education, television, and radio. Recently English and Filipino words have been infiltrating the language and code-switching between these three languages is common among younger speakers.  The name of the language stems from the Spanish word "Chabacano" which roughly means "tasteless", "common", or "vulgar", this Spanish word, however, has lost its original meaning and carries no negative connotation among contemporary speakers.  For more information see the article on Chavacano, or the Ethnologue Report on Chavacano.

Palenquero.

Palenquero (also Palenque) is a Spanish-based creole spoken in Colombia.  The ethnic group which speaks this creole consisted only of 2,500 people in 1989.  It is spoken in Colombia, in the village of San Basilio de Palenque which is south and east of Cartagena, and in some neighborhoods of Barranquilla.  The village was founded by fugitive slaves (Maroons) and Native Americans. Since many slaves had been only slightly exposed to contact with white people, the "palenqueros" spoke creole languages derived from Spanish and from their ancestral African languages.  Spanish speakers are unable to understand Palenquero. There is some influence from the Kongo of the Democratic Republic of Congo. In 1998, only 10% of the population younger than 25 spoke Palenquero. It is most commonly spoken by the elderly.  For more information see the Ethnologue Report on Palenquero.

Bozal Spanish.

Bozal Spanish is a possibly extinct Spanish-based creole language that may have been a mixture of Spanish and Congolese, with Portuguese influences. Attestation is insufficient to indicate whether Bozal Spanish was ever a single, coherent or stable language, or if the term merely referred to any idiolect of Spanish that included African elements.  Bozal Spanish was spoken by African slaves in the Spanish Caribbean and other areas of South and Central America from the 17th century up until its possible extinction at around 1850.

Spanish-influenced creole languages.

Annobonese.

The Annobonese language, locally called Fa d'Ambö (Fa d'Ambu or even Fá d'Ambô) is a Portuguese-based creole, similar to Forro, with some borrowings from Spanish. It is spoken by 9,000 people on the islands of Ano Bom and Bioko, in Equatorial Guinea. In fact, Fa d'Ambu shares the same structure of Forro (82% of lexicon).  In the 15th century, the island was uninhabited and discovered by Portugal but, by the 18th century, Portugal exchanged it and some other territories in Africa for Uruguay with Spain. Spain wanted to get territory in Africa, and Portugal wanted to enlarge even more the territory that they saw as the "New Portugal" (Brazil). Nevertheless, the populace of Ano Bom was against the shift and was hostile toward the Spaniards. This hostility, combined with their isolation from mainland Equatorial Guinea and their proximity to São Tomé and Príncipe—just 400 km from the island—has assured the maintenance of its identity.  Fa d'Ambu has gained some words of Spanish origin (10% of lexicon), but some words are dubious in origin because Spanish and Portuguese are closely related languages.

Papiamento.

Papiamento is a Portuguese-based creole language spoken in the Dutch Caribbean, with a large influence from Spanish, some influence from Dutch and a little from Indigenous American languages, English and African languages. Spoken in Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, and the SSS islands by 341,300 people in 2019.. Today, Spanish influence on the language is strong, but, due to the similarities between the languages, it is difficult to ascertain whether a certain feature is derived from Portuguese or Spanish.

Pichinglis.

Pichinglis is spoken on Bioko island, Equatorial Guinea. It originated with the arrival of Krio speakers from the mainland. Krio is a creole that derives most of its vocabulary from English, but the Spanish colonization of Guinea exerted Spanish influence on its lexicon and grammar.

San Andrés–Providencia Creole.

San Andrés–Providencia Creole is one of the main languages of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, Colombia (alongside Spanish and English) which uses expression and words from English (73%), Spanish (17%) and African languages.

See also.

Spanish-based interlanguages:

A Spanish creole, or Spanish-based creole language, is a creole language (contact language with native speakers) for which Spanish serves as its substantial "lexifier".

Kreolské jazyky na bázi španělštiny jsou kreolské jazyky odvozené z španělštiny. Ve většině případech má v těchto jazycích převahu slovník a gramatika z španělštiny. Vznikaly na území bývalých španělských kolonií. Španělština také ovlivnila dva kreolské jazyky na bázi portugalštiny (Fa d'Ambu v Rovníkové Guiney a papaiamento na Nizozemských Antilách) a dva kreolské jazyky na bázi angličtiny (Pichinglish na ostrově Bioko v Rovníkové Guiney a sanandréskou kreolštinu na ostrovech San Andrés a Providencia, Kolumbie).