Technology.

The satellites used for broadcasting television are usually in a geostationary orbit above the earth's equator. The advantage of this orbit is that the satellite's orbital period equals the rotation rate of the Earth, so the satellite appears at a fixed position in the sky. Thus the satellite dish antenna which receives the signal can be aimed permanently at the location of the satellite, and does not have to track a moving satellite. A few systems instead use a highly elliptical orbit with inclination of +/−63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours, known as a Molniya orbit.  Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting antenna located at an uplink facility. Uplink satellite dishes are very large, as much as 9 to 12 meters (30 to 40 feet) in diameter. The increased diameter results in more accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite. The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received by one of the transponders tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite. The transponder re-transmits the signals back to Earth at a different frequency (a process known as translation, used to avoid interference with the uplink signal), typically in the 10.7-12.7 GHz band, but some still transmit in the C-band (4–8 GHz), K-band (12–18 GHz), or both. The leg of the signal path from the satellite to the receiving Earth station is called the downlink.  A typical satellite has up to 32 K-band or 24 C-band transponders, or more for K/C hybrid satellites. Typical transponders each have a bandwidth between 27 and 50 MHz. Each geostationary C-band satellite needs to be spaced 2° longitude from the next satellite to avoid interference; for K the spacing can be 1°. This means that there is an upper limit of 360/2 = 180 geostationary C-band satellites or 360/1 = 360 geostationary K-band satellites. C-band transmission is susceptible to terrestrial interference while K-band transmission is affected by rain (as water is an excellent absorber of microwaves at this particular frequency). The latter is even more adversely affected by ice crystals in thunder clouds. On occasion, sun outage will occur when the sun lines up directly behind the geostationary satellite to which the receiving antenna is pointed.  The downlink satellite signal, quite weak after traveling the great distance (see inverse-square law), is collected with a parabolic receiving dish, which reflects the weak signal to the dish's focal point. Mounted on brackets at the dish's focal point is a device called a feedhorn or collector. The feedhorn is a section of waveguide with a flared front-end that gathers the signals at or near the focal point and conducts them to a probe or pickup connected to a low-noise block downconverter (LNB). The LNB amplifies the signals and downconverts them to a lower block of intermediate frequencies (IF), usually in the L-band.  The original C-band satellite television systems used a low-noise amplifier (LNA) connected to the feedhorn at the focal point of the dish. The amplified signal, still at the higher microwave frequencies, had to be fed via very expensive low-loss 50-ohm impedance gas filled hardline coaxial cable with relatively complex N-connectors to an indoor receiver or, in other designs, a downconverter (a mixer and a voltage-tuned oscillator with some filter circuitry) for downconversion to an intermediate frequency. The channel selection was controlled typically by a voltage tuned oscillator with the tuning voltage being fed via a separate cable to the headend, but this design evolved.  Designs for microstrip-based converters for amateur radio frequencies were adapted for the 4 GHz C-band. Central to these designs was concept of block downconversion of a range of frequencies to a lower, more easily handled IF. The advantages of using an LNB are that cheaper cable can be used to connect the indoor receiver to the satellite television dish and LNB, and that the technology for handling the signal at L-band and UHF was far cheaper than that for handling the signal at C-band frequencies. The shift to cheaper technology from the hardline and N-connectors of the early C-band systems to the cheaper and simpler 75-ohm cable and F-connectors allowed the early satellite television receivers to use, what were in reality, modified UHF television tuners which selected the satellite television channel for down conversion to a lower intermediate frequency centered on 70 MHz, where it was demodulated. This shift allowed the satellite television DTH industry to change from being a largely hobbyist one where only small numbers of systems costing thousands of US dollars were built, to a far more commercial one of mass production.  In the United States, service providers use the intermediate frequency ranges of 950–2150 MHz to carry the signal from the LNBF at the dish down to the receiver. This allows for transmission of UHF signals along the same span of coaxial wire at the same time. In some applications (DirecTV AU9-S and AT-9), ranges of the lower B-band and 2250–3000 MHz, are used. Newer LNBFs in use by DirecTV, called SWM (Single Wire Multiswitch), are used to implement single cable distribution and use a wider frequency range of 2–2150 MHz.  The satellite receiver or set-top box demodulates and converts the signals to the desired form (outputs for television, audio, data, etc.). Often, the receiver includes the capability to selectively unscramble or decrypt the received signal to provide premium services to some subscribers; the receiver is then called an integrated receiver/decoder or IRD. Low-loss cable (e.g. RG-6, RG-11, etc.) is used to connect the receiver to the LNBF or LNB. RG-59 is not recommended for this application as it is not technically designed to carry frequencies above 950 MHz, but may work in some circumstances, depending on the quality of the coaxial wire, signal levels, cable length, etc.  A practical problem relating to home satellite reception is that an LNB can basically only handle a single receiver. This is because the LNB is translating two different circular polarizations (right-hand and left-hand) and, in the case of K-band, two different frequency bands (lower and upper) to the same frequency range on the cable. Depending on which frequency and polarization a transponder is using, the satellite receiver has to switch the LNB into one of four different modes in order to receive a specific "channel". This is handled by the receiver using the DiSEqC protocol to control the LNB mode. If several satellite receivers are to be attached to a single dish, a so-called multiswitch will have to be used in conjunction with a special type of LNB. There are also LNBs available with a multiswitch already integrated. This problem becomes more complicated when several receivers are to use several dishes (or several LNBs mounted in a single dish) pointing to different satellites.  A common solution for consumers wanting to access multiple satellites is to deploy a single dish with a single LNB and to rotate the dish using an electric motor. The axis of rotation has to be set up in the north-south direction and, depending on the geographical location of the dish, have a specific vertical tilt. Set up properly the motorized dish when turned will sweep across all possible positions for satellites lined up along the geostationary orbit directly above the equator. The dish will then be capable of receiving any geostationary satellite that is visible at the specific location, i.e. that is above the horizon. The DiSEqC protocol has been extended to encompass commands for steering dish rotors. There are five major components in a satellite system: the programming source, the broadcast center, the satellite, the satellite dish, and the receiver. "Direct broadcast" satellites used for transmission of satellite television signals are generally in geostationary orbit above the earth's equator. The reason for using this orbit is that the satellite circles the Earth at the same rate as the Earth rotates, so the satellite appears at a fixed point in the sky. Thus satellite dishes can be aimed permanently at that point, and do not need a tracking system to turn to follow a moving satellite. A few satellite TV systems use satellites in a Molniya orbit, a highly elliptical orbit with inclination of +/-63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours.  Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting antenna located at an uplink facility. Uplink facilities transmit the signal to the satellite over a narrow beam of microwaves, typically in the C-band frequency range due to its resistance to rain fade. Uplink satellite dishes are very large, often as much as 9 to 12 metres (30 to 40 feet) in diameter to achieve accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite, to improve reliability. The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received by one of the transponders tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite. The transponder then converts the signals to K band, a process known as "translation," and transmits them back to earth to be received by home satellite stations.  The downlinked satellite signal, weaker after traveling the great distance (see inverse-square law), is collected by using a rooftop parabolic receiving dish ("satellite dish"), which reflects the weak signal to the dish's focal point. Mounted on brackets at the dish's focal point is a feedhorn which passes the signals through a waveguide to a device called a low-noise block converter (LNB) or low noise converter (LNC) attached to the horn. The LNB amplifies the weak signals, filters the block of frequencies in which the satellite television signals are transmitted, and converts the block of frequencies to a lower frequency range in the L-band range. The signal is then passed through a coaxial cable into the residence to the satellite television receiver, a set-top box next to the television.  The reason for using the LNB to do the frequency translation at the dish is so that the signal can be carried into the residence using cheap coaxial cable. To transport the signal into the house at its original K band microwave frequency would require an expensive waveguide, a metal pipe to carry the radio waves. The cable connecting the receiver to the LNB are of the low loss type RG-6, quad shield RG-6, or RG-11. RG-59 is not recommended for this application as it is not technically designed to carry frequencies above 950 MHz, but will work in many circumstances, depending on the quality of the coaxial wire. The shift to more affordable technology from the 50ohm impedance cable and N-connectors of the early C-band systems to the cheaper 75ohm technology and F-connectors allowed the early satellite television receivers to use, what were in reality, modified UHF television tuners which selected the satellite television channel for down conversion to another lower intermediate frequency centered on 70 MHz where it was demodulated.  An LNB can only handle a single receiver. This is due to the fact that the LNB is mapping two different circular polarisations – right hand and left hand – and in the case of the K-band two different reception bands – lower and upper – to one and the same frequency band on the cable, and is a practical problem for home satellite reception. Depending on which frequency a transponder is transmitting at and on what polarisation it is using, the satellite receiver has to switch the LNB into one of four different modes in order to receive a specific desired program on a specific transponder. The receiver uses the DiSEqC protocol to control the LNB mode, which handles this. If several satellite receivers are to be attached to a single dish a so-called multiswitch must be used in conjunction with a special type of LNB. There are also LNBs available with a multiswitch already integrated. This problem becomes more complicated when several receivers use several dishes or several LNBs mounted in a single dish are aimed at different satellites.  The set-top box selects the channel desired by the user by filtering that channel from the multiple channels received from the satellite, converts the signal to a lower intermediate frequency, decrypts the encrypted signal, demodulates the radio signal and sends the resulting video signal to the television through a cable. To decrypt the signal the receiver box must be "activated" by the satellite company. If the customer fails to pay his monthly bill the box is "deactivated" by a signal from the company, and the system will not work until the company reactivates it. Some receivers are capable of decrypting the received signal itself. These receivers are called integrated receiver/decoders or IRDs.  Analog television which was distributed via satellite was usually sent scrambled or unscrambled in NTSC, PAL, or SECAM television broadcast standards. The analog signal is frequency modulated and is converted from an FM signal to what is referred to as baseband. This baseband comprises the video signal and the audio subcarrier(s). The audio subcarrier is further demodulated to provide a raw audio signal.  Later signals were digitized television signal or multiplex of signals, typically QPSK. In general, digital television, including that transmitted via satellites, is based on open standards such as MPEG and DVB-S/DVB-S2 or ISDB-S.  The conditional access encryption/scrambling methods include NDS, BISS, Conax, Digicipher, Irdeto, Cryptoworks, DG Crypt, Beta digital, SECA Mediaguard, Logiways, Nagravision, PowerVu, Viaccess, Videocipher, and VideoGuard. Many conditional access systems have been compromised.

Uses.

Direct broadcast via satellite.

Direct-To-Home (DTHTV) can either refer to the communications satellites themselves that deliver service or the actual television service. Most satellite television customers in developed television markets get their programming through a direct broadcast satellite provider. Signals are transmitted using K band (12 to 18 GHz) and are completely digital which means it has high picture and stereo sound quality.  Programming for satellite television channels comes from multiple sources and may include live studio feeds. The broadcast center assembles and packages programming into channels for transmission and, where necessary, encrypts the channels. The signal is then sent to the uplink where it is transmitted to the satellite. With some broadcast centers, the studios, administration and up-link are all part of the same campus. The satellite then translates and broadcasts the channels.  Most systems use the DVB-S standard for transmission. With pay television services, the datastream is encrypted and requires proprietary reception equipment. While the underlying reception technology is similar, the pay television technology is proprietary, often consisting of a conditional-access module and smart card. This measure assures satellite television providers that only authorized, paying subscribers have access to pay television content but at the same time can allow free-to-air

Television receive-only.

The term Television receive-only, or TVRO, arose during the early days of satellite television reception to differentiate it from commercial satellite television uplink and downlink operations (transmit and receive). This was the primary method of satellite television transmissions before the satellite television industry shifted, with the launch of higher powered DBS satellites in the early 1990s which transmitted their signals on the K band frequencies. Satellite television channels at that time were intended to be used by cable television networks rather than received by home viewers. Early satellite television receiver systems were largely constructed by hobbyists and engineers. These early TVRO systems operated mainly on the C-band frequencies and the dishes required were large; typically over 3 meters

History.

Early history.

In 1945 British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.  The first public satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the Telstar satellite over the Atlantic ocean on 23 July 1962, although a test broadcast had taken place almost two weeks earlier on 11 July. The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million. Launched in 1962, the "Relay 1" satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan. The first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom

Beginning of the satellite TV industry, 1976–1980.

The satellite television industry developed first in the US from the cable television industry as communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote cable television headends. Home Box Office (HBO), Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), and Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN, later The Family Channel) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. Taylor Howard of San Andreas, California became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976.  In the US, PBS, a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television programming by satellite in 1978. In 1979, Soviet engineers developed the Moskva (or Moscow) system of broadcasting and delivering of TV signals via satellites. They launched the Gorizont communication satellites later that same year. These

TVRO/C-band satellite era, 1980–1986.

By 1980, satellite television was well established in the USA and Europe. On 26 April 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, Satellite Television Ltd. (later Sky One), was launched. Its signals were transmitted from the ESA's Orbital Test Satellites. Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of gallium arsenide FET technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. Five hundred thousand systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984. Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper. People in

1990s to present.

By 1987, nine channels were scrambled, but 99 others were available free-to-air. While HBO initially charged a monthly fee of $19.95, soon it became possible to unscramble all channels for $200 a year. Dish sales went down from 600,000 in 1985 to 350,000 in 1986, but pay television services were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result. Scrambling also led to the development of pay-per-view events. On November 1, 1988, NBC began scrambling its C-band signal but left its K band signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who could not see their advertising. Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band. ABC and CBS were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local network affiliates. The piracy on satellite television networks in the US led to

Legal.

The 1963 Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) defined a "broadcasting satellite service" as a "space service in which signals transmitted or retransmitted by space stations, or transmitted by reflection from objects in orbit around the Earth, are intended for direct reception by the general public."  In the 1970s some states grew concerned that external broadcasting could alter the cultural or political identity of a state leading to the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) proposal. However, satellite broadcasts can not be restricted on a per state basis due to limitations of the technology. Around the time the MacBride report was released, satellite broadcasting was being discussed at the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) where most of the members supported prior consent restrictions for broadcasting in their territories, but some argued this would violate freedom of information. The parties were unable to reach a consensus on this and in 1982 submitted UNGA Res 37/92 ("DBS Principles") to the UN General Assembly which was adopted by a majority vote, however most States capable of DBS voted against it. The "DBS Principles" resolution is generally regarded as ineffective.

Satellite television is a service that delivers television programming to viewers by relaying it from a communications satellite orbiting the Earth directly to the viewer's location. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic antenna commonly referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter.

Satelitní televize využívá k přenosu televizního vysílání umělé družice umístěné na oběžné dráze kolem Země. Signál z družice je obvykle přijímán na venkovní parabolickou anténu lidově zvanou satelitní anténa nebo satelitní talíř. Přijímač satelitní televize bývá buď součástí televizoru (televizor s vestavěným satelitním tunerem), nebo jde o samostatné zařízení (set-top-box) připojené k televizoru vhodným kabelem. Existují také satelitní TV karty, které lze připojit k počítači a sledovat pak televizní pořady na jeho obrazovce. Výhodou satelitní televize je možnost pokrytí rozsáhlého území televizním signálem za pomocí jediné družice. V odlehlých oblastech, kam nevedou rozvody kabelové televize a kde nejsou zbudovány vysílače pozemní televize, je satelitní televize jediným možným řešením. Nevýhodou je finanční a technická náročnost přípravy a provozu jak družice tak podpůrného pozemního vysílacího systému.


Background.

Eddie Jordan was an Irishman who had achieved some success in British Formula 3 as a driver until he recognised he had reached the peak of his career and then set up a racing team. His team, Eddie Jordan Racing (EJR), ran initially in Formula Ford and steadily progressed through the motorsport tiers. In 1988 EJR ran a pair of F3000 cars for Johnny Herbert and Martin Donnelly and the following year won the F3000 championship with Jean Alesi.  Jordan then established Jordan Grand Prix with a view to entering Formula One and hired Gary Anderson to design his team's first Formula One chassis. Anderson had previously worked for Reynard and had designed that manufacturer's F3000 car. He would carry out design work on what was eventually designated the 191 in between F3000 racing weekends, during which he would engineer EJR's F3000 race cars.

Design and development.

Anderson was the leader of a team of three that were involved in the design of the 191 car; Andrew Green worked on the suspension, Mark Smith did the gearbox and this left Anderson the task of the bodywork and aerodynamics. The car had a tidy form with a raised nose and a drooping rear diffuser. Originally designed for the Judd V8, the 191 ended up being powered by a Cosworth-Ford HB V8 engine, Jordan having arranged a customer supply after fortuitously making contact with a senior executive at Cosworth.  On the sponsorship front, after failed negotiations with the cigarette brand Camel that had sponsored Jordan's F3000 team, Jordan signed 7 Up, a soft drink company, as the team's major sponsor. The 7 Up corporate colour was green and this tied in with that of the Japanese camera film company Fuji. After Eddie Jordan approached the company, terms were agreed and Fuji also joined as a sponsor.  By November 1990, the 191 was complete and its first test run was conducted by John Watson at the Silverstone circuit. The initial feedback was relatively favourable and further testing was completed at the Paul Ricard circuit in France. The team's drivers had been selected; they were to be the experienced Italian Andrea de Cesaris and Belgian Bertrand Gachot.  A total of seven 191 chassis were built across the year; one was destroyed in an accident at the British Grand Prix.

Racing history.

Due to the number of teams taking part in the 1991 Formula One season, Jordan had to complete pre-qualifying at the start of each race weekend in order to be allowed entry into qualifying proper. A total of eight cars were entered for pre-qualifying, with the four fastest continuing onto qualifying.  At the opening round of the season in Phoenix, de Cesaris failed to pre-qualify, blighted by engine problems. Gachot however, sailed through and comfortably qualified 14th for the race itself. Engine failure ended Gachot's race on lap 75 and he was classified tenth, having run as high as seventh at one stage of the race. Both drivers made the grid comfortably at the following Brazilian Grand Prix, Gachot in tenth and de Cesaris in 13th. Gachot was again not running at the finish but had completed enough laps to be classified in 13th while de Cesaris retired, having had an accident. Both drivers retired from the San Marino Grand Prix but at the next race, in Montreal, de Cesaris scored the team's best finish of the season, with a fourth place. He was followed home by the fifth-placed Gachot, earning Jordan its first points of the year.  At the following race in Mexico City, de Cesaris again finished fourth, having qualified in 11th place. Gachot started from 20th on the grid but had worked his way up to fifth place when he spun off the circuit. He also retired from the next race, the French Grand Prix, spinning out on the first lap having qualified 19th. De Cesaris, from 13th on the grid, went on to finish sixth in the race, adding another point to Jordan's total. By the German Grand Prix, the number of points scored by de Cesaris and Gachot meant that Jordan were not required to pre-qualify for the remainder of the season.  After the Hungarian race, Gachot's season was curtailed by a two-month prison sentence, for spraying CS gas at a taxi driver in London. Over the final six races, three drivers filled in for Gachot - Michael Schumacher, Roberto Moreno and Alessandro Zanardi. Schumacher was a revelation in his one and only race weekend for Jordan. At the 1991 Belgian Grand Prix, Schumacher qualified a superb seventh on the grid (Jordan's joint-best ever at that time), outqualifying de Cesaris who was eleventh. However, the high did not last, as the clutch failed within the first mile of the race. Having made his way into second place by the final stages of the race, De Cesaris also retired, within a few laps of the finish, and was eventually classified in 13th.  Prior to the next race in Italy, a legal wrangle between Benetton and Jordan developed, with Schumacher signing for Benetton - a team with which he would later win two world championships. This sent Moreno packing from Benetton and Jordan signed him up as a replacement. Moreno did two races, in Italy and Portugal, achieving little, before Jordan handed a novice, Zanardi, his debut in the final three races. He completed a pair of ninth-place finishes intervened with a retirement.

Summary and legacy.

In their first season, Jordan finished fifth in the Constructors' Championship, scoring 13 points with the 191. De Cesaris was ninth in the Drivers' Championship with nine points while Gachot's four points earned him a share of 12th.  The 191 is considered by many to be one of the most beautiful Formula 1 cars of all time. The car won the Autosport Racing Car of the Year award for 1991.

The Jordan 191 was a Formula One car designed by Gary Anderson for use by Jordan Grand Prix in its debut season in 1991. Its best finish was in Canada and Mexico, where Andrea de Cesaris drove it to fourth place at both races. Driving the 191 at the 1991 Hungarian Grand Prix, Bertrand Gachot took the fastest lap of the race.

Jordan 191 je vůz formule 1 týmu Jordan Grand Prix nasazený v roce 1991. Jezdili v něm Bertrand Gachot, Roberto Moreno, Alex Zanardi, Andrea de Cesaris a poprvé se s ním také v královské třídě představil Michael Schumacher.


The cabin.

Instrumentation included a centrally mounted speedometer, the fuel level and the oil pressure. A third dial directly below the driver's sight line was a clock, unusually on this size of car. The three floor pedals followed the pattern still 'conventional' for a manual transmission car (clutch, brake, gas) but to the left of the clutch pedal was a small foot-operated dipper switch for the headlights. Control knobs lined up along the base of the fascia included a hand throttle.  Early Italian images of Ardea interiors confirm that Lancias of the period were still right hand drive, a position elsewhere taken to imply driving on the left side of the road. However, right-hand drive is practical even where drivers drive on the right-hand side of the road as it allows a better view of the edge of the road, which is useful when driving on rough roads in mountainous districts. This did mean that drivers of cars with centrally located floor mounted gear shifts, such as the Ardea, needed to learn how to shift with the left hand. During the 1920s Italian leader Benito Mussolini required all Italian drivers to drive on the right, but Lancia would continue, through the 1950s, to supply right hand drive cars in areas viewed by other automakers as left hand drive markets.

History.

Four versions of the Ardea were built:

Variants.

Alongside the type 250 4-door saloon other body variants of the Ardea were offered.

Chassis.

The Ardea was offered as bare chassis (type 350) between 1939–1941 to be bodied by independent coachbuilders. The chassis had the 2440 mm wheelbase of the saloon.

Ardea furgoncino and camioncino.

The Aurelia chassis type 550 van (furgoncino, literally "small van") was built in 9 examples already in 1941, but regular production begun only in 1945. The Ardea chassis type 650 pick-up (camioncino, literally "small pickup") was introduced in 1948. In 1949 they were upgraded to fourth series specifications (5-speed gearbox and more powerful 101B engine), and continued to be built until they were superseded by equivalent versions of the Appia in 1954. Unlike on the earlier Augusta, whose commercial variants were bodied by third-party coachbuilders, these Ardeas were factory-built by Lancia.

Tassì Roma.

The Tassì Roma, chassis type 450, was an Ardea derivative with special 6-window saloon body, intended for use as a taxicab. It paired the Ardea's running gear with a larger chassis (longer wheelbase and wider tracks) which allowed for better passenger accommodation. From 1939 to 1941 about 500 were made—501 or 511 depending on the source.

The Lancia Ardea was a small family car produced Italian car manufacturer Lancia between 1939 and 1953. Its unusually short bonnet reportedly contained the smallest V4 engine ever commercialized in a small family car

Lancia Ardea je automobil nižší střední třídy, který v letech 1939 až 1953 vyráběla italská automobilka Lancia. Jejím předchůdcem byla Lancia Augusta a jejím nástupcem byla Lancia Appia.


History.

Origins.

The Armenian Orthodox Church believes in apostolic succession through the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus of Edessa. According to tradition, the latter of the two apostles is said to have cured Abgar V of Edessa of leprosy with the Image of Edessa, leading to his conversion in 30 AD. Thaddaeus was then commissioned by Abgar to proselytize throughout Armenia, where he converted the king Sanatruk's daughter, who was eventually martyred alongside Thaddeus when Sanatruk later fell into apostasy. After this, Bartholomew came to Armenia, bringing a portrait of the Virgin Mary, which he placed in a nunnery he founded over a former temple of Anahit. Bartholomew then converted the sister of Sanatruk, who once again martyred a female relative and the apostle who

Independence.

At the First Council of Dvin in 506 the synod of the Armenian, Georgian, and Caucasian Albanian bishops were assembled during the reign of Catholicos Babken I. The participation of the Catholicoi of Georgia and Albania were set to make clear the position of the churches concerning the Council of Chalcedon. The "Book of Epistles" mentions that 20 bishops, 14 laymen, and many nakharars (rulers of Armenia) participated in the council. The involvement in the council discussion of different levels of lay persons

Miaphysitism versus monophysitism.

Like all Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Armenian Church has been referred to as monophysite by both Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox theologians because it rejected the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, which condemned the belief of one incarnate nature of Christ (monophysis). The Armenian Church officially severed ties with Rome and Constantinople in 554, during the Second Council of Dvin where the Chalcedonian dyophysite christological formula was rejected.  However, again like other Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Armenian Orthodox Church argues that the identification as "monophysitism" is an incorrect description of its position.

Structure and leadership.

The Armenian Apostolic Church is the central religious authority for the Armenian Orthodox population in Armenia as well as for Armenian Orthodox communities worldwide.  It is headed by a "Catholicos" (the plural is "Catholicoi"). It is traditional in Eastern churches for the supreme head of the church to be named 'Patriarch', but in the Armenian Apostolic Church hierarchy, the position of the Catholicos is not higher than that of the Patriarch. The Armenian Apostolic Church presently has two catholicoi (Karekin II, Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians, and Aram I, Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia), and two patriarchs, plus primates, archbishops and bishops, lower clergy and laity serving the Church.  Both clergy and laity are involved in the administrative structure of the Church. Led by Karekin II, the spiritual and administrative work of the Armenian Church is carried out in Armenia in the areas of religion, preparation of clergy, Christian education, construction of new churches, social services, and ecumenical activities.  The following sees have their own jurisdiction:  The Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia located in Antelias, Lebanon, is led by Catholicos Aram I and it has dioceses in the countries of the Middle East, in Europe and in North and South America.  The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem which has jurisdiction over all of the Holy Lands and the Diocese of Jordan, is led by Patriarch Archbishop Nourhan Manougian.  The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople and All of Turkey, which has jurisdiction in the modern day Republic of Turkey, is led by Patriarch Archbishop Sahak II Mashalian.  The three aforementioned historic hierarchical sees administer to the dioceses under their jurisdiction as they see fit, while there is only spiritual authority of the Catholicosate of All Armenians. In addition to the responsibilities of overseeing their respective Dioceses, each hierarchical See, and the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, has a Monastic Brotherhood.

Seminaries.

The Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin operates two seminaries, the Gevorkian Theological Seminary at the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, and the Vaskenian Theological Academy at Lake Sevan. Over a 6-year course of simultaneous study, students receive both a bachelor's degree and a master's degree in Theology. The Great House of Cilicia operates one seminary, the Seminary of Antelias at Bikfaya, Lebanon. Upon graduation, students receive the equivalent of a high school diploma

Structure.

Regionally, each area of the world where the Armenian Church and faithful are located has dioceses, which are led by a primate from the Diocesan headquarters. Each diocese is made up of parishes and smaller communities.  The spiritual and administrative bodies representing the authority of the Armenian Church are the following:  The National Ecclesiastical Assembly is the supreme legislative body presided over by the Catholicos of All Armenians. The members of the National Ecclesiastical Assembly are elected by the individual Diocesan Assemblies. The National Ecclesiastical Assembly elects the Catholicos of All Armenians.  The Council of

Two Catholicosates.

The Armenian Apostolic Church currently has two Sees, with the Catholicos of All Armenians residing in Etchmiadzin, Armenia, at the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, having pre-eminent supremacy in all spiritual matters over the See of Cilicia, located in Antelias, Lebanon, which administers to the dioceses under its jurisdiction as they see fit. The two Sees are as follows:

Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin.

The Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin () is the spiritual and administrative headquarters of the worldwide Armenian Church, the center of the faith of the Armenian nation – the Mother Cathedral of the Armenian Church, and the Pontifical residence of Karekin II.  Preserving the past are the numerous museums, libraries and the Mother Cathedral itself, in which many historically and monetarily precious atems are contained. The Mother See is responsible for the preservation of artifacts, both those created by the Church and those given to the church as gifts over time.  Under the

Great House of Cilicia.

The Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia () located in Antelias, Lebanon, is a regional See of the Armenian Apostolic Church and is an autonomous church with jurisdiction over certain segments of the Armenian diaspora.  The primacy of the Catholicosate of All Armenians (Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin) has always been recognized by the Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia.  The rise of the Great House of Cilicia as an autocephalous church occurred after the fall of Ani and the Armenian Kingdom of the Bagradits in 1045. Masses of Armenians migrated to Cilicia and the Catholicosate was established there. The seat of the church (now known as the Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia) was first established in Sivas (AD 1058) moving to Tavbloor (1062), then to Dzamendav (1066), Dzovk (1116), Hromgla (1149), and finally to

Reasons for the division.

The division of the two Catholicosates stemmed from frequent relocations of Church headquarters due to political and military upheavals.  The division between the two sees intensified during the Soviet period and to some extent reflected the politics of the Cold War. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) Dashnaktsutyun social democratic political party that had dominated the independent Armenia from 1918 to 1920 and was active in the diaspora, saw the Church and clergy, with its worldwide headquarters at the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin in the Soviet Republic of Armenia, as a captive Communist puppet, and accused its clergy in the US as unduly influenced by Communists, particularly as the clergy were reluctant to participate in nationalist events and memorials that could be perceived as anti-Soviet. On December 24, 1933, a group of assassins attacked Eastern Diocese Archbishop Levon Tourian

Two Patriarchates: Constantinople and Jerusalem.

The Armenian Apostolic Church also has two Patriarchates of

Eparchies (dioceses).

List

Comparison to other churches.

Liturgically speaking, the Church has much in common both with the Latin Rite in its externals, especially as it was at the time of separation, as well as with the Eastern Orthodox Church. For example, Armenian bishops wear mitres almost identical to those of Western bishops. They usually do not use a full iconostasis, but rather a sanctuary veil (a curtain usually with a cross or divine image in the center, used also by the Syriac Churches). The liturgical music is Armenian chant. Many of the Armenian churches also have pipe organs to accompany their chant.  Armenian priests below the rank of Very Reverend are allowed to be married before ordination and their descendants' surnames are prefixed with the prefix "Der" (or "Ter" in Eastern Armenian), meaning "Lord", to indicate their lineage. Such a married priest is known as a "kahana".  The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates the Nativity of Jesus in combination with the Feast of the Epiphany,

Women in the Armenian Church.

The Armenian Church does not ordain women to the priesthood. Historically, however, monastic women have been ordained as deacons within a convent environment. Monastic women deacons generally do not minister in traditional parish churches or cathedrals, although the late Mother Hrip'seme did so minister and served during public liturgies, including in the United States.  Women do serve as altar girls and lay readers, especially when a

Armenian genocide victims canonization.

On April 23, 2015, the Armenian Apostolic Church canonized all the victims of the Armenian Genocide; this service is believed to be the largest

Current state.

In Armenia.

The status of the Armenian Apostolic Church within Armenia is defined in the country's constitution. Article 8.1 of the Constitution of Armenia states: "The Republic of Armenia recognizes the exclusive historical mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church as a national church, in the spiritual life, development of the national culture and preservation of the national identity of the people of Armenia." Among others, ethnographer Hranush Kharatyan has questioned the constitutionality of the phrase "national church".  In 2009, further constitutional amendments were drafted that would make it a crime for non-traditional religious groups to proselytize on adherents of the Apostolic Church.

In Artsakh.

After the Bolshevik revolution and the subsequent annexation of Armenia by the U.S.S.R., all functioning religious institutions in NKAO were closed down and clergymen often either exiled or shot.  After a while the Armenian Apostolic Church resumed its activities. There were weddings, baptisms, and every Sunday Church Liturgy at a free will attendance

Armenian diaspora.

Outside of West Asia, today there are notable Armenian Apostolic congregations in various countries in Europe, North America, South America, and South Asia.  Lebanon, home to a large and influential Armenian diaspora community with its own political parties, has more than 17 recognized Armenian Apostolic churches. The Armenian presence in Palestine and Israel is primarily found in the Armenian Quarter of Jerusalem, under the jurisdiction of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Syria has one Armenian church, St Sarkis, in Damascus. There

Historical role and public image.

The Armenian Apostolic Church is "seen by many as the custodian of Armenian national identity". "Beyond its role as a religious institution, the Apostolic Church has traditionally been seen as the foundational core in the development of the Armenian national identity

Controversies and criticisms.

Medieval era.

Early medieval opponents of the Armenian Church in Armenia included the Paulicians (7th-9th centuries) and the Tondrakians (9th-11th centuries).  The power relationship between catholicoi and secular rulers was sometimes a source of conflict. In 1037 king Hovhannes-Smbat of Ani deposed and imprisoned Catholicos Petros, who he suspected of holding pro-Byzantine views, and appointed a replacement catholicos. This

Modern era.

In independent Armenia, the Armenian Apostolic Church has often been criticized for its perceived support of the governments of Robert Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan despite the formal separation of church and state in Armenia. According to former Prime Minister Hrant Bagratyan religion and state management "have completely gotten mixed up". He called the church an "untouchable" organization that is secretive of its income and expenditure. Large-scale construction of new churches in the independence period and the negligence of endangered historic churches by the Apostolic church (and the government) have also been criticized. In recent years, several high-profile leaders of the church have been involved in controversies. In 2013 Navasard Ktchoyan, the Archbishop of the Araratian Diocese and Prime Minister Tigran Sargsyan were alleged to have been partners with a businessman charged with laundering US$10.7 million bank

The Armenian Apostolic Church () is the national church of the Armenian people. Part of Oriental Orthodoxy, it is one of the most ancient Christian institutions. The Kingdom of Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as its official religion under the rule of King Tiridates III in the early 4th century. According to tradition, the church originated in the missions of Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus of Edessa in the 1st century.

Arménská apoštolská církev ( – "Hayastaneayč Aṙak ̔elakan Ekełeči") patří mezi starobylé východní církve a je jedním z nejstarších křesťanských společenství a nejstarší případ státní církve – Arménie přijala křesťanství jako státní náboženství v roce 301. Její hlavou je katolikos všech Arménů, v současnosti (2011) Garegin II.


Glass container production.

Broadly, modern glass container factories are three-part operations: the batch house, the hot end, and the cold end. The "batch house" handles the raw materials; the "hot end" handles the manufacture proper—the forehearth, forming machines, and annealing ovens; and the "cold end" handles the product-inspection and packaging equipment.

Batch processing system (batch house).

Batch processing is one of the initial steps of the glass-making process. The batch house simply houses the raw materials in large silos (fed by truck or railcar) and holds anywhere from 1–5 days of material. Some batch systems include material processing such as raw material screening/sieve, drying, or pre-heating (i.e. cullet). Whether automated or manual, the batch house measures, assembles, mixes, and delivers the glass raw material recipe (batch) via an array of chutes, conveyors, and scales to the furnace. The batch enters the furnace at the 'dog house' or 'batch charger'. Different glass types, colors, desired quality, raw material purity / availability, and furnace design will affect the batch recipe.

Hot end.

The hot end of a glassworks is where the molten glass is manufactured into glass products. The batch enters the furnace, then passes to the forming process, internal treatment, and annealing.  The following table lists common viscosity fixpoints, applicable to large-scale glass production and experimental glass melting in the laboratory:

Furnace.

The batch is fed into the furnace at a slow, controlled rate by the batch processing system. The furnaces are natural gas- or fuel oil-fired, and operate at temperatures up to. The temperature is limited only by the quality of the furnace’s superstructure material and by the glass composition. Types of furnaces used in container glass making include "end-port" (end-fired), "side-port", and "oxy-fuel". Typically, furnace size is classified by metric tons per day (MTPD) production capability.

Forming process.

There are currently two primary methods of making glass containers: the "blow and blow" method for narrow-neck containers only, and the "press and blow" method used for jars and tapered narrow-neck containers.  In both methods, a stream of molten glass at its plastic temperature () is cut with a shearing blade to form a solid cylinder of glass, called a "gob". The gob is of predetermined weight just sufficient to make a bottle. Both processes start with the gob falling, by gravity, and guided, through troughs and chutes, into the blank moulds, two halves of which are clamped shut and then sealed by the "baffle" from above.  In the "blow and blow" process, the glass is first blown through a valve in the baffle, forcing it down into the three-piece "ring mould" which is held in the "neckring arm" below the blanks, to form the "finish". The term "finish" describes the details (such as cap sealing surface, screw threads, retaining rib for a tamper-proof cap, etc.) at the open end of the container. Then compressed air is blown through the glass, which results in a hollow and partly formed container. Compressed air is then blown again at the second stage to give final shape.  Containers are made in two major stages. The first stage moulds all the details ("finish") around the opening, but the body of the container is initially made much smaller than its final size. These partly manufactured containers are called "parisons", and quite quickly, they are blow-molded into final shape.  The "rings" are sealed from below by a short plunger. After the "settleblow" finishes, the plunger retracts slightly, to allow the skin that's formed to soften. "Counterblow" air then comes up through the plunger, to create the parison. The baffle rises and the blanks open. The parison is inverted in an arc to the "mould side" by the "neckring arm", which holds the parison by the "finish".  As the neckring arm reaches the end of its arc, two mould halves close around the parison. The neckring arm opens slightly to release its grip on the "finish", then reverts to the blank side. "Final blow", applied through the "blowhead", blows the glass out, expanding into the mould, to make the final container shape.  In the "press and blow" process, the parison is formed by a long metal plunger which rises up and presses the glass out, in order to fill the ring and blank moulds. The process then continues as before, with the parison being transferred to the final-shape mould, and the glass being blown out into the mould.  The container is then picked up from the mould by the "take-out" mechanism, and held over the "deadplate", where air cooling helps cool down the still-soft glass. Finally, the bottles are swept onto a conveyor by the "push out paddles" that have air pockets to keep the bottles standing after landing on the "deadplate"; they're now ready for annealing.

Forming machines.

The forming machines hold and move the parts that form the container. The machine consists of 19 basic mechanisms in operation to form a bottle and generally powered by compressed air (high pressure – 3.2 bar and low pressure – 2.8 bar), the mechanisms are electronically timed to coordinate all movements of the mechanisms. The most widely used forming machine arrangement is the "individual section" machine (or IS machine). This machine has a bank of 5–20 identical sections, each of which contains one complete set of mechanisms to make containers. The sections are in a row, and the gobs feed into each section via a moving chute, called the "gob distributor". Sections make either one, two, three or four containers simultaneously (referred to as "single", "double", "triple" and "quad" gob). In the case of multiple gobs, the "shears" cut the "gobs" simultaneously, and they fall into the blank moulds in parallel.  Forming machines are largely powered by compressed air and a typical glass works will have several large compressors (totaling 30k–60k cfm) to provide the neecessary compressed air. Furnaces, compressors, and forming machines generate large quantities of waste heat which are generally cooled by water. Hot glass which is not used in the forming machine is diverted and this diverted glass (called "cullet") is generally cooled by water, and sometimes even processed and crushed in a water bath arrangement. Often cooling requirements are shared over banks of cooling towers arranged to allow for backup during maintenance.

Internal treatment.

After the forming process, some containers—particularly those intended for alcoholic spirits—undergo a treatment to improve the chemical resistance of the inside, called "internal treatment" or dealkalization. This is usually accomplished through the injection of a sulfur- or fluorine-containing gas mixture into bottles at high temperatures. The gas is typically delivered to the container either in the air used in the forming process (that is, during the final blow of the container), or through a nozzle directing a stream of the gas into the mouth of the bottle after forming. The treatment renders the container more resistant to alkali extraction, which can cause increases in product pH, and in some cases container degradation.

Annealing.

As glass cools, it shrinks and solidifies. Uneven cooling causes weak glass due to stress. Even cooling is achieved by annealing. An annealing oven (known in the industry as a lehr) heats the container to about, then cools it, depending on the glass thickness, over a 20 – 60 minute period.

Cold end.

The role of the cold end of glass container production is to complete the final tasks in the manufacturing process: spray on a polyethylene coating for abrasion resistance and increased lubricity, inspect the containers for defects, label the containers, and package the containers for shipment.

Coatings.

Glass containers typically receive two surface coatings, one at the "hot end", just before annealing and one at the "cold end" just after annealing. At the "hot end" a very thin layer of tin(IV) oxide is applied either using a safe organic compound or inorganic stannic chloride. Tin based systems are not the only ones used, although the most popular. Titanium tetrachloride or organo titanates can also be used. In all cases the coating renders the surface of the glass more adhesive to the "cold end" coating. At the "cold end" a layer of typically, polyethylene wax, is applied via a water based emulsion. This makes the glass slippery, protecting it from scratching and stopping containers from sticking together when they are moved on a conveyor. The resultant invisible combined coating gives a virtually unscratchable surface to the glass. Due to reduction of in-service surface damage, the coatings often are described as strengtheners, however a more correct definition might be strength-retaining coatings.

Inspection equipment.

Glass containers are 100% inspected; automatic machines, or sometimes persons, inspect every container for a variety of faults. Typical faults include small cracks in the glass called "checks" and foreign inclusions called "stones" which are pieces of the refractory brick lining of the melting furnace that break off and fall into the pool of molten glass, or more commonly oversized silica granules (sand) that have failed to melt and which subsequently are included in the final product. These are especially important to select out due to the fact that they can impart a destructive element to the final glass product. For example, since these materials can withstand large amounts of thermal energy, they can cause the glass product to sustain thermal shock resulting in explosive destruction when heated. Other defects include bubbles in the glass called "blisters" and excessively thin walls. Another defect common in glass manufacturing is referred to as a "tear". In the "press and blow" forming, if a plunger and mould are out of alignment, or heated to an incorrect temperature, the glass will stick to either item and become torn. In addition to rejecting faulty containers, inspection equipment gathers statistical information and relays it to the forming machine operators in the hot end. Computer systems collect fault information and trace it to the mould that produced the container. This is done by reading the mould number on the container, which is encoded (as a numeral, or a binary code of dots) on the container by the mould that made it. Operators carry out a range of checks manually on samples of containers, usually visual and dimensional checks.

Secondary processing.

Sometimes container factories will offer services such as labelling. Several labelling technologies are available. Unique to glass is the "Applied Ceramic Labelling" process (ACL). This is screen-printing of the decoration onto the container with a vitreous enamel paint, which is then baked on. An example of this is the original Coca-Cola bottle.

Packaging.

Glass containers are packaged in various ways. Popular in Europe are bulk pallets with between 1000 and 4000 containers each. This is carried out by automatic machines (palletisers) which arrange and stack containers separated by layer sheets. Other possibilities include boxes and even hand-sewn sacks. Once packed, the new "stock units" are labelled, warehoused, and ultimately shipped.

Marketing.

Glass container manufacture in the developed world is a mature market business. World demand for flat glass was approximately 52 million tonnes in 2009. The United States, Europe and China account for 75% of demand, with China's consumption having increased from 20% in the early 1990s to 50%. Glass container manufacture is also a geographical business; the product is heavy and large in volume, and the major raw materials (sand, soda ash and limestone) are generally readily available. Therefore production facilities need to be located close to their markets. A typical glass furnace holds hundreds of tonnes of molten glass, and so it is simply not practical to shut it down every night, or in fact in any period short of a month. Factories therefore run 24 hours a day 7 days a week. This means that there is little opportunity to either increase or decrease production rates by more than a few percent. New furnaces and forming machines cost tens of millions of dollars and require at least 18 months of planning. Given this fact, and the fact that there are usually more products than machine lines, products are sold from stock. The marketing/production challenge is therefore to predict demand both in the short 4- to 12-week term and over the 24- to 48-month-long term. Factories are generally sized to service the requirements of a city; in developed countries there is usually a factory per 1–2 million people. A typical factory will produce 1–3 million containers a day. Despite its positioning as a mature market product, glass does enjoy a high level of consumer acceptance and is perceived as a "premium" quality packaging format.

Lifecycle impact.

Glass containers are wholly recyclable and the glass industries in many countries have a policy, sometimes required by government regulations, of maintaining a high price on cullet to ensure high return rates. Return rates of 95% are not uncommon in the Nordic countries (Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland). Return rates of less than 50% are usual in other countries. Of course glass containers can also be reused, and in developing countries this is common, however the environmental impact of washing containers as against remelting them is uncertain. Factors to consider here are the chemicals and fresh water used in the washing, and the fact that a single-use container can be made much lighter, using less than half the glass (and therefore energy content) of a multiuse container. Also, a significant factor in the developed world's consideration of reuse are producer concerns over the risk and consequential product liability of using a component (the reused container) of unknown and unqualified safety. How glass containers compare to other packaging types (plastic, cardboard, aluminium) is hard to say; conclusive lifecycle studies are yet to be produced.

Float glass process.

Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating molten glass on a bed of molten metal, typically tin, although lead and various low melting point alloys were used in the past. This method gives the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern windows are made from float glass. Most float glass is soda-lime glass, but relatively minor quantities of special borosilicate and flat panel display glass are also produced using the float glass process. The float glass process is also known as the Pilkington process, named after the British glass manufacturer Pilkington, who pioneered the technique (invented by Sir Alastair Pilkington) in the 1950s.

Environmental impacts.

Local impacts.

As with all highly concentrated industries, glassworks suffer from moderately high local environmental impacts. Compounding this is that because they are mature market businesses, they often have been located on the same site for a long time and this has resulted in residential encroachment. The main impacts on residential housing and cities are noise, fresh water use, water pollution, NOx and SOx air pollution, and dust.  Noise is created by the forming machines. Operated by compressed air, they can produce noise levels of up to 106dBA. How this noise is carried into the local neighborhood depends heavily on the layout of the factory. Another factor in noise production is truck movements. A typical factory will process 600 T of material a day. This means that some 600 T of raw material has to come onto the site and the same off the site again as finished product.  Water is used to cool the furnace, compressor and unused molten glass. Water use in factories varies widely; it can be as little as one tonne water used per melted tonne of glass. Of the one tonne, roughly half is evaporated to provide cooling, the rest forms a wastewater stream.  Most factories use water containing an emulsified oil to cool and lubricate the "gob" cutting "shear blades". This oil-laden water mixes with the water outflow stream, thus polluting it. Factories usually have some kind of water processing equipment that removes this emulsified oil to various degrees of effectiveness.  Nitrogen oxides are a natural product of the burning of gas in air and are produced in large quantities by gas-fired furnaces. Some factories in cities with particular air pollution problems will mitigate this by using liquid oxygen, however the logic of this given the cost in carbon of (1) not using regenerators and (2) having to liquefy and transport oxygen is highly questionable. Sulfur oxides are produced as a result of the glass melting process. Manipulating the batch formula can effect some limited mitigation of this; alternatively exhaust plume scrubbing can be used.  The raw materials for glass-making are all dusty material and are delivered either as a powder or as a fine-grained material. Systems for controlling dusty materials tend to be difficult to maintain, and given the large amounts of material moved each day, only a small amount has to escape for there to be a dust problem. "Cullet" (broken or waste glass) is also moved about in a glass factory and tends to produce fine glass particles when shovelled or broken.

Glass production involves two main methods – the float glass process that produces sheet glass, and glassblowing that produces bottles and other containers. It has been done in a variety of ways during the history of glass.

Výroba skla je proces, při kterém se z výchozích surovin (tavením křemičitého písku) získává materiál pro výrobu skleněných předmětů. Vznikají tak dva hlavní druhy skla, a sice ploché sklo, které se většinou vyrábí technologií "floating" neboli kontinuálním litím na povrch roztaveného cínu, a duté či obalové sklo, které se vyrábí foukáním do forem, případně lisováním.


Early life.

Jiri Helekal grew up in the centre of Prague, near today’s Praha hlavní nádraží. He has been focused on music since he was 22, when he started to play the violin. But he was soon also fascinated by playing the cello and switched over to it. He was taught by Professor Sadl and afterwards successfully graduated from Jezek’s Conservatory; he became even more interested in music.  He had to postpone his artistic work due to compulsory military service. Eventually the break took longer – he worked as a furniture remover and also unloaded wood and coal.

Significance.

When he achieved his first musical successes, Jiri Helekal was already able to play the guitar, violin, cello, piano, flute, banjo, contrabass, accordion and others. One of his first greater successes was in a band called "Shut Up" (beat and country). Then he defected to a band called “Comets” (rock'n'roll, twist, rhythm & blues, soul, big beat, pop), at that time composed of Hladik (guitar), Žižka (saxophone), Vladimír Mišík and Jan Hrůza (both sang with Helekal).  Later he established his own, mainly country, path. Supported by his two daughters (Katerina and Aneta) he found ‘Hele-kaly family’ and released five albums: "Rambler oasis 1", "Rambler oasis 2", "Rambler oasis 3", "Ringlet in the grass" and "At the time".  At the turn of the 60’s and 70’s his acting career took off. Between 1969 and 1973 he performed in the "Semafor" theatre (a very prestigious theatre in Prague) and then went on to the Broadway Theatre (also a popular Prague theatre specializing mainly in musicals), where he is still acting in musicals, for instance Cleopatra (his biggest success), Angelica and The Three Musketeers.

Jiří Helekal (born 13 February 1947, in Prague) is a multi-talented Czech singer and performer who has maintained his fame through forty years of his career in his native land. He is capable of playing many musical instruments, as well being a professional actor, appearing in many successful musicals.

Jiří Helekal (* 13. února 1947 Praha) je český zpěvák, skladatel a hudebník. Začínal jako bigbeatový muzikant se skupinou Komety, umí hrát na řadu nástrojů (na kytaru, housle, violoncello, klavír, flétnu, banjo, basu, akordeon a další). Studoval na konzervatoři Jaroslava Ježka, mnoho písní si složil sám, jiné skládal i pro další zpěváky (např. Věru Martinovou, Evu Pilarovou nebo Ivetu Bartošovou). Od roku 1969 působil v divadle Semafor, kde spolupracoval např. s Jiřím Suchým, Jiřím Šlitrem, Jiřím Grossmannem a Miloslavem Šimkem.


Biography.

Oxenstierna was the son of Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna the Elder, councillor to Duke Charles of Södermanland, Närke and Värmland (later King Charles IX), and his first wife Sigrid Gustafsdotter (Tre Rosor). He was orphaned at an early age.  Like other contemporary members of the influential Oxenstierna family, he was educated abroad and entered the service of King Charles IX upon his return in 1606. He retained royal favour during the rule of King Gustavus Adolphus and was made Governor-General of Reval and Swedish Estonia in 1611, subsequently being appointed Privy Councillor and Master of the Ordnance in 1617. Alongside his more famous cousins, Lord Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna and Gabriel Gustafsson Oxenstierna, he was made responsible for arming the Swedish army during the Polish–Swedish War and was part of the governing council in the King's absence. He was made "Hovrättsråd" and Lawspeaker of Värmland in 1627 and was part of the Swedish diplomatic delegation to the Holy Roman Emperor during the 1630 peace negotiations in Danzig.  In 1631, he was appointed Governor-General of Finland, continuing the work of his predecessor Nils Turesson Bielke to improve the central administration and legal system. He returned to Stockholm after the death of King Gustavus Adolphus to become part of the regency council for Queen Christina in 1633, becoming Lord High Treasurer of Sweden in 1634. However, the Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna and Steward Gabriel Gustafsson Oxenstierna thought him less suited for the post, as he was inexperienced on state economics and unable to stop the embezzlement of state funds during the regency. In 1645, the Oxenstierna administration was removed by Queen Christina upon reaching maturity.  The Queen appointed Oxenstierna Governor-General of Swedish Livonia in 1645, a post which he resigned from in 1647. He was created 1st Count of Korsholma and Vaasa by the Queen in 1651, one of the largest fiefdoms in Sweden, and was appointed supreme naval administrator as Lord High Admiral of Sweden in 1652, without previous naval experience.  He improved the finances of his county, but received numerous complaints from the peasantry of Ostrobothnia due to tax increases and labour requirements.  Oxenstierna died in 1656 at Edsberg Manor in present-day Sollentuna and was buried in Fasterna Church.

Family.

Oxenstierna married Anna Gustafsdotter Banér (1585–1656) in Stockholm on 7 October 1610. He fathered eleven children, among them Gabriel, Bengt and Gustaf Gabrielsson Oxenstierna.  He was older half-brother to Bengt Bengtsson Oxenstierna and cousin to Axel and Gabriel Gustafsson Oxenstierna.  Oxenstierna founded the comital af Korsholm and Wasa branch of the Oxenstierna family, the only male-line branch still in existence today.

Gabriel Bengtsson Oxenstierna af Korsholm och Wasa, 1st Count of Korsholma and Vaasa, Finnish: "Gabriel Pentinpoika Oxenstierna", (18 March 1586 at Lindholmen Castle, Västergötland – 12 December 1656 at Edsberg Manor, Sollentuna) was a Swedish statesman, jurist and diplomat.

Gabriel Bengtsson Oxenstierna af Korsholm och Wasa (18. června 1586 – 12. prosince 1656) byl švédský hrabě a státník, říšský admirál a správce daní. Byl bratrancem známého švédského kancléře Axela Oxenstierny.


Geography.

Amphitrite group.

The Amphitrite group was named after the French frigate "Amphitrite", which observed the islands while carrying a Jesuit mission to Canton in 1698–1700.  Lying in the northeast of the Paracel Islands at, the group consists of low narrow islands with sand cays, enclosed shallow lagoons connected by reefs of rock, and is about northwest of Lincoln Island. The group approximately forms an ellipse with a north–south axis of.  The northern section of the group comprises West Sand, Tree Island and the Qilian Yu sub-group (The "Seven Sisters": North Island, Middle Island, South Island, North Sand, Middle Sand, South Sand and two small "sands".) The centre of the group consists of Woody Island and Rocky Island, approximately south of the southern tip of the eastern extremity of the northern section. The southwest corner of the group is occupied by the Iltis Bank.  The largest island of the Paracels, Woody Island (which has an area of ), has over 1,000 residents including fishermen and their families, military personnel and civilian administrators.

Crescent group.

Lying about southwest of the Amphitrite group, at, the Crescent group consists of islands and reefs that form a crescent-like structure from west to east, enclosing a deep central lagoon. The group measures east-west and north–south. All of the islands in the group support vegetation except on their small cays.  The islands are named after former senior figures in the British East India Company (EIC). Three were members of the EIC's 'Select Committee' in Canton: James Drummond, Thomas Pattle and John William Roberts. Jonathan Duncan was Governor in Council of Bombay, and William Taylor Money was Superintendent of the Bombay Marine.  Money Island lies at the southwest extremity of the group, and has some small cays on the southern side. The Chinese name for Money Island, Jin Yin Dao, is simply the translation of the English name. Antelope Reef, submerged at high tide and containing a central lagoon, lies east of Money Island. Northeast of this are Robert Island (also named Round Island) and Pattle Island, separated from each other by a wide deep channel. A weather station was built on Pattle Island (by the French) in 1932, and a lighthouse and radio station in 1937. Northeast of this is Quanfu Dao ("All Wealth Island"). Observation Bank, also named Silver Islet, and the Lesser Silver Islet, are the northernmost of the group and contain a small cay. Just south of them are Yagong Dao (He Duck) and Xianshe Yu (Salty Hut).  At the eastern side of the group lies a long boomerang shaped reef with Stone Islet at its north end and Drummond Island at its south end.  The Duncan Islands (), consisting of Duncan Island and Palm Island, lie approximately west of Drummond Island and about east of Antelope Reef. Kuangzai Shazhou (Little Basket) lies about halfway between Palm Island and Antelope Reef.

Other features.

Taking as the centre of the Paracel Islands, then the Amphitrite Group is ENE, and the Crescent Group is West.

Etymology.

Hoàng Sa.

The Vietnamese call the islands Hoang Sa, (黃沙 or Yellow Sands), and this name is found in historic Vietnamese documents dating back to 1483, included "An Nam quốc họa đồ" which was published in 1490. In the modern language system it is written as Hoàng Sa or Cát Vàng. They all have the same meaning — the Yellow Sands or the Yellow Sandbank. Before the early 19th century, the present-day Spratly Islands were treated as features of Hoàng Sa. It was not until the reign of Emperor Minh Mạng (1820–1841) that the Spratlys were distinctly delineated and officially named Vạn Lý Trường Sa (萬里長沙), the Ten-thousand League-long Sandbank.

Xisha and other Chinese names.

The Chinese name Xisha (), literally "western sands" or "shoals", is a name adopted in the 20th century to distinguish it from the "eastern sands" (the Dongsha or Pratas), the "southern sands" (the Nansha or Spratlys), and the "central sands" (the Zhongsha or Macclesfield Bank). Prior to that, there had been no consistent designation of these islands in early Chinese sources, with names such as "Changsha", "Shitang", "Shichuang" and others being used for Paracel and Spratly inconsistently. In the 14th century Song Dynasty work "Zhu fan zhi" by Zhao Rugua, the names "Qianli Changsha" (, "Thousand mile-Long Sands") and "Wanli Shichuang" ( "Ten-thousand mile-Rock Bed") were given, interpreted by some to refer to Paracel and Spratly respectively, but opinions differed. The Yuan dynasty work "Daoyi Zhilüe" by Wang Dayuan considers that "Shitang" (石塘) to be the same as "Wanli Shitang" (, "Ten-thousand mile-Rock Embankment"), which starts from Chaozhou and extends to Borneo, west to Côn Sơn Island off Vietnam and down as far as Java. The "History of Yuan" uses the terms "Qizhouyang" (七洲洋, "The Ocean of Seven Islands") and "Wanli Shitang", which are taken to mean Paracel and Spratly respectively. In the Mao Kun map from the Zheng He's voyage of the early 15th century, groups of islands were named as "Shitang" (石塘), "Wansheng Shitangyu" (萬生石塘嶼), and "Shixing Shitang" (石星石塘), with "Shitang" (sometimes including "Wansheng Shitangyu") being taken by some to mean Paracel. Another Ming text, "Haiyu" (On the Sea), uses "Wanli Shitang" to refer to Paracel and "Wanli Changsha" for Spratly.  During the Qing dynasty, a set of maps refer to Paracel as "Qizhouyang" ("Shitang" became Spratly, and "Changsha" became Zhongsha), while a book "Hai Lu" (Illustrations of the Sea) refers to Paracel as "Changsha" and Spratly as "Shitang". A sea chart prepared in the Daoguang era, "Yiban Lu" (Particular Illustrations) by Zheng Guangzu, uses Xisha to refer to Paracel. Xisha became the standard name used in China in the 20th century, and was used in 20th century maps published by the Republic of China, for example in 1935, and the 1947 11-dash line map which claimed Paracel and Spratly as its territories.

Pracel and Paracel.

The name 'Paracel' is found in the first Portuguese maps of the region. The Portuguese, whose vessels frequented the South China Sea as early as at the beginning of the 16th century, were the first to refer to these islands as 'Ilhas do Pracel' in the 16th century. Regarding the likely origin of the term "Paracel", the word is a variant of the more common form "pracel" or "parcel", from the, which was used by the Portuguese and Spanish navigators to designate shallow sandy seas or submerged banks, such as "Placer de los Roques". The Portuguese were later followed by the Dutch, the English, the Spanish, and the French in the waters of the island group. On the "Map of the coast of Tonquin and Cochinchina", made in 1747 by Pierre d'Hondt, the dangerous band of rugged rocks was labeled "Le Paracel", a French phonetic notation. Because of their location on an important seaborne route the Paracel Islands drew much attention from navigators and hydrographers in the Age of Exploration. Disputes in the area since the Second World War have again drawn attention to the islands.  On the "Map of Europe, Africa and Asia" published in 1598 by Cornelis Claesz, an unnamed band of rocks and sandbanks are shown near the present-day location of the Paracel and Spratly Islands. About two decades later, the names Pracel and Costa de Pracel (Coast of Pracel) appeared on the "Chart of Asia and eight city maps" published in 1617 by Willem Jansz Blaeu, a Dutch map maker. The coast belonged to the Kingdom of Cauchi China.

East India Company.

The islands were first scientifically surveyed by Daniel Ross of the British East India Company in 1808. The names of Duncan, Drummond, Money, Pattle and Roberts islands were all chosen in honour of senior figures in the East India Company.

Infrastructure and natural resources.

Infrastructure.

The PRC is investing millions in infrastructure and development to support its territorial claims over the archipelago, and as a result there has been, and continues to be, a lot of construction activity. In recent years Woody Island has acquired an upgraded airport, an upgraded sea port, and a city hall. A primary school for children of construction workers and troops stationed there is planned.

Fresh water.

There is limited supply of fresh water on the islands. In 2012, it was reported that China (PRC) planned to build a solar-energy-powered desalination plant on the islands. In 2016, it was reported that the first desalination plant was activated. On most of the islands controlled by China in the South China Sea, drinking water comes in barrels together with other supplies from small boats, making it as scarce as fuel.  With the activation of a desalination plant on China's most militarized South China Sea outpost, Beijing improves its troops ability to endure longer during conditions that may have otherwise deprived them of important supplies at sea, including drinking water. In due time, desalination facilities may make their way to China's artificial islands in the Spratly group.

Electricity.

Both wind and solar powered facilities exist to supply electricity on the islands.

Communication.

There is a post office, hospital, bank and hostel on Woody Island. The Chinese postal zip code of the island is 572000, and the telephone area code is +86 (898).

Transport.

There is an airport on Woody Island with a long runway, which can handle take-offs and landings of Boeing-737s or planes of similar size. Flight services operate on the Haikou – Xisha route. There are three main roads on Woody Island as well as an long cement causeway that connects Woody Island and Rocky Island. Extensive port facilities have been constructed on Duncan Island.

Ecology and tourism.

Paracel Islands' geographical and ecological traits are often likened as "China’s Maldives", however, controversial conflicts between environment conservation and human activities including military operations, developments, and tourism on Paracel Islands have become public concerns in recent years. Local ecosystem include endangered fish such as whale sharks, oceanic birds, marine mammals (at least historically) such as blue whales, fin whales, and Chinese white dolphins, and marine reptile species such as critically endangered green sea turtles, hawksbill sea turtles, and Leatherback sea turtles; however, direct damaging of the ecosystem by military group and tourists has been documented. Governmental actions to cease illegal tourism are ongoing.  The islands have been open for tourists since 1997. Chinese tourists can take a 20-hour ferry to the Islands, paying up to US$2,000 for a 5-day cruise, and are placed on a long waitlist before being accepted. The BBC article states that "Chinese tourism has strong political implications, as the Chinese tourists are being used as 'foot soldiers of China' by Beijing to further China's territorial claims there". The video also states "Vietnam is considered unlikely to send military vessels to stop them".  There are two museums on Woody Island; a Naval Museum and a Maritime Museum. In April 2012, the Vice-Mayor and officials from the Haikou Municipal Government made several announcements about developing new docking facilities and hotels within the Crescent Group - on Duncan and Drummond Islands specifically. Promotion of the naturally unspoilt reef system was cited as the driver for new tourism potential with other such reefs, such as the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, now placed under threat of extinction due to human activities. However, according to "The China Post", this was denied by a PRC Government official in April 2012, due to sensitivities surrounding the islands.

Territorial disputes and their historical background.

After the 1884–1885 Sino-French War, in an international context, France officially gained control of Annam and Tonkin as protectorates and fully established French colonial rule in Vietnam by signing a number of treaties with Chinese and Vietnamese governments including Tientsin Accord, Treaty of Huế (1884) and Treaty of Tientsin (1885). Article 2 of the Treaty of Tientsin (1885) forced China to stop any claims to suzerainty all over Vietnam. Therefore, the French also took over the control of the Paracel Islands which were under the Nguyễn dynasty's administration, still nominally ruled Annam at the time. Between 1881 and 1883 the German navy surveyed the islands continuously for three months each year without seeking the permission of either France or China. No protest was issued by either government and the German government published the results of the survey in 1885. In 1932, France nonetheless formally claimed both the Paracel and Spratly Islands. China and Japan both protested. In 1933, France seized the Paracels and Spratlys, announced their annexation, formally included them in French Indochina, and built a couple of weather stations on them, but did not disturb the numerous Chinese fishermen it found there. In 1941, the Japanese Empire made the Paracel and Spratly islands part of Taiwan, then under its rule.  After the communists gained control of China in 1949, they occupied Woody Island, the main island of the Amphitrite group and the only island that was occupied at the time. Pattle Island in the Crescent group, on the other hand, was taken by French Indochina and then controlled by South Vietnam following independence in 1956. Tensions over the islands have continued to rise unceasingly since then.

UNCLOS EEZ.

The Paracel islands are claimed by both China and Vietnam and the majority of those islands lie within 200 NM of China's and Vietnam's geographic baseline.

Military engagement.

In 1974, the political and diplomatic dispute over the islands became an armed conflict between China and South Vietnam. On January 16, South Vietnamese naval officers and an American observer reported to Saigon some suspected military activities of the Chinese navy on the Drummond and Duncan islands. After receiving the report, the government of South Vietnam decided to counter the Chinese forces, to defend the South Vietnamese-controlled section (the western half of the Paracels) from Chinese occupation, and sent a unit of frigates to the area. On January 19, there were sea and land battles between the Chinese and Vietnamese forces with casualties on both sides. At the end, the Chinese fleet defeated the naval force of South Vietnam. With the ongoing civil war with the Viet Cong embroiling South Vietnam's attention and the absence of the USA's support, no military attempt was made to re-engage the PRC over the islands. After the military engagement and the subsequent victory, the PRC gained the entire archipelago and has taken control of Paracel Islands ever since. It was a significant turning point for the PRC but the sovereignty dispute on the islands remains unresolved with Vietnam.

Historical perspectives.

China.

618–1279.

There are some Chinese cultural relics in the Paracel islands dating from the Tang and Song eras, and there is some evidence of Chinese habitation on the islands during these periods. According to the "Wujing Zongyao", a book published in the Northern Song dynasty in 1044, the Song government then included the Islands in the patrol areas of the Navy of the Court.

1279–1368.

In 1279, the Yuan dynasty emperor sent the high-level official and astronomer, Guo Shoujing, to the South China Sea to survey and measure the islands and the surrounding sea area. Guo's base of survey was located in the Paracel Islands. His activities were recorded in the "Yuan Shi", or History of Yuan. According to the "Yuan Shi", the South China Sea islands were within the boundary of the Yuan dynasty. Maps published in the Yuan era invariably included the "Changsha" (the Paracels) and the "Shitang" (the Spratlys) within the domain of Yuan.

1368–1912.

Relevant local annals and other historic materials of the Ming (1368–1644) and the Qing (1644–1912) dynasties continued to make reference to the South China Sea islands as China's territory. The Qiongzhou Prefecture (the highest administrative authority in Hainan), exercised jurisdiction over the Paracel and Spratly Islands in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.  In the 19th century, Europeans found that Chinese fishermen from Hainan annually sojourned on the Paracel and Spratly Islands for part of the year. For three months each year between 1881 and 1884, the German Imperial Navy sent two boats (the ship "Freya" and the warship "Iltis") to study and map the Paracel Islands without either seeking the permission of or incurring protest by the Chinese government. This mission was finished without any problems and the German Admiralty published the results in 1885 in a document called “Die Paracel-Inseln” (The Paracel Islands).  In 1909, Zhang Renjun (), the Viceroy of Liangguang, ordered Guangdong Fleet Admiral Li Zhun () to sail to the Paracel Islands. In June, with over 170 sailors in three warships named "Fubo" (), "Guangjin" () and "Shenhang" (), he inspected 15 islands, erected stone tablets engraved with each island's name, raised China's flag and fired cannons to declare the islands "sacred territory of China", which France did not protest. In 1910, the Qing government decided to invite Chinese merchants to contract for the administration of the development affairs of the South China Sea islands, and demanded that officials shall provide protection and maintenance in order to highlight Chinese territory and protect its titles and interests.

1912–1950s.

After the fall of the Qing dynasty, the new Government of Guangdong Province decided to place the Paracel Islands under the jurisdiction of the Ya Xian County of Hainan Prefecture in 1911. The Southern Military Government in 1921 reaffirmed the 1911 decision. China continued to exercise authority over the South China Sea islands by such means as granting licenses or contracts to private Chinese merchants for the development and exploitation of guano and other resources on those islands and protesting against foreign nations' claims, occupations, and other activities. For example, in May 1928, the Guangdong provincial government sent a naval vessel, the "Hai-jui" (), with an investigation team organized by the provincial government and Sun Yat-Sen University to investigate and survey the islets, after which the investigation team produced a detailed Report of Surveys on the Paracel Islands.  On July27, 1932, the Chinese Foreign Ministry instructed the Chinese Envoy to France to lodge a diplomatic protest to the French Foreign Ministry and to deny France's claims to the Paracel Islands. On November 30 of the same year, Zhu Zhaoshen, a high-level inspection official of the Chinese Foreign Ministry, issued public correspondence Number 66 to the French Consul in Guangzhou, reiterating that "it is absolutely beyond doubt that the Xisha [Paracel] Islands fall within the boundary of China". Despite repeated Chinese protests, French troops, who had colonized French Indochina in the 19th century, invaded and occupied the Paracel Islands on July 3, 1938. This took place shortly after the breakout of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when the armed forces of China and Japan were busy elsewhere. Three days later, on July 6, the Japanese Foreign Ministry also issued a declaration in protest of the French occupation: During the Second World War, the Japanese expelled the French troops and took over the islands in spite of the 1938 declarations. The Spratlys and the Paracels were conquered by Japan in 1939. Japan administered the Spratlys via Taiwan's jurisdiction and the Paracels via Hainan's jurisdiction. The Paracels and Spratlys were handed over to Republic of China control after the 1945 surrender of Japan, since the Allied powers had assigned the Republic of China to receive Japanese surrenders in that area. At the end of the war (Asian-Pacific Region), Nationalist China formally retook the Paracels, Spratlys and other islands in the South China Sea in October and November 1946. In the Geneva accord of 1954 Japan formally renounced all of its claims to, "inter alia", the South China Sea islands which it had occupied during the World War II. After WW2 ended, the Republic of China was the "most active claimant". The Republic of China then garrisoned Woody Island in the Paracels in 1946 and posted Chinese flags and markers on it; France tried, but failed, to make them leave Woody island. The aim of the Republic of China was to block the French claims. In December 1947, the Republic of China drew up a map showing its eleven-dotted line U shaped claim to the entire South China Sea, including the Spratly and Paracel Islands as Chinese territory.

United States FIPS country code.

The United States FIPS 10-4 country code for the Paracel Islands is PF.

The Paracel Islands, also known as Xisha Islands () and Hoang Sa Archipelago (), are a disputed archipelago in the South China Sea.

Paracelské ostrovy (čínsky "Xisha", 西沙群岛, vietnamsky "Quần Đảo Hoàng Sa") je souostroví v Jihočínském moři. Jde o skupinu asi 130 malých korálových ostrovů. Nárok na Paracelské ostrovy vznáší Čínská lidová republika, Čínská republika (na Tchaj-wanu) a Vietnam, ale skutečnou kontrolu nad souostrovím má ČLR. Po roce 1945 ČLR okupovala největší ostrov (Yongxing Dao (永兴岛), Đảo Phú Lâm), od roku 1974 (po objevení ložisek ropy) i zbytek souostroví, který byl do té doby v držení Vietnamu. V roce 1974 také proběhla čínsko-vietnamská bitva o Paracelské ostrovy.