Geology.

El Capitan is composed almost entirely of a pale, coarse-grained granite emplaced approximately 100 MYA (million years ago). In addition to El Capitan, this granite forms most of the rock features of the western portions of Yosemite Valley. A separate intrusion of igneous rock, the Taft Granite, forms the uppermost portions of the cliff face.  A third igneous rock, diorite, is present as dark-veined intrusions through both kinds of granite, especially prominent in the area known as the North America Wall.  Along with most of the other rock formations of Yosemite Valley, El Capitan was carved by glacial action. Several periods of glaciation have occurred in the Sierra Nevada, but the Sherwin Glaciation, which lasted from approximately 1.3 MYA to 1 MYA, is considered to be responsible for the majority of the sculpting. The El Capitan Granite is relatively free of joints, and as a result the glacial ice did not erode the rock face as much as other, more jointed, rocks nearby. Nonetheless, as with most of the rock forming Yosemite's features, El Capitan's granite is under enormous internal tension brought on by the compression experienced prior to the erosion that brought it to the surface. These forces contribute to the creation of features such as the "Texas Flake", a large block of granite slowly detaching from the main rock face about halfway up the side of the cliff.

Climbing history.

Between the two main faces, the Southwest (on the left when looking directly at the wall) and the Southeast, is a prow. While today there are numerous established routes on both faces, the most popular and historically famous route is "The Nose", which follows the south buttress.

Pioneering "The Nose".

"The Nose" was climbed in 1958 by Warren Harding, Wayne Merry and George Whitmore in 47 days using "siege" tactics: climbing in an expedition style using fixed ropes along the length of the route, linking established camps along the way. The fixed manila ropes allowed the climbers to ascend and descend from the ground up throughout the 18-month project, although they presented unique levels of danger as well, sometimes breaking due to the long exposure to cold temperatures. The climbing team relied heavily on aid climbing, using rope, pitons and expansion bolts to make it to the summit. The second ascent of "The Nose" was in 1960 by Royal Robbins, Joe Fitschen, Chuck Pratt and Tom Frost, who took seven days in the first continuous climb of the route without siege tactics. The first solo climb of "The Nose" was done by Tom Bauman in 1969. The first ascent of "The Nose" in one day was accomplished in 1975 by John Long, Jim Bridwell and Billy Westbay.

Expansion of routes.

Efforts during the 1960s and 1970s explored the other faces of El Capitan, and many of the early routes are still popular today. Among the early classics are "Salathé Wall" (1961, Royal Robbins, Chuck Pratt and Tom Frost) on the southwest face, and the "North America Wall" (1964, Royal Robbins, Yvon Chouinard, Chuck Pratt and Tom Frost) on the southeast face. Also climbed in the 1960s are routes such as: "Dihedral Wall" (1962, Ed Cooper, Jim Baldwin and Glen Denny); "West Buttress" (1963, Layton Kor and Steve Roper); and "Muir Wall" (1965, Yvon Chouinard and TM Herbert). "Zodiac" (1972, Charlie Porter (solo)); "The Shield" (1972, Porter and Gary Bocarde); "Mescalito" (1973, Porter, Steve Sutton, Hugh Burton and C. Nelson); "Pacific Ocean Wall" (1975, Jim Bridwell, Billy Westbay, Jay Fiske and Fred East); "Sea of Dreams" (1978, Bridwell, Dale Bard and Dave Diegelman); and "Jolly Roger" (1979, Charles Cole and Steve Grossman). Today there are over 70 routes on "El Cap" of various difficulties and danger levels. New routes continue to be established, usually consisting of additions to, or links between, existing routes.

Solo climbing.

After his successful solo ascent of the Leaning Tower, Royal Robbins turned his attention to the Yvon Chouinard-T.M. Herbert "Muir Wall" route, completing the first solo ascent of El Capitan during a 10-day push in 1968. The first solo ascents of El Capitan's four classic "siege" routes were accomplished by Thomas Bauman on "The Nose" in 1969; Peter Hann on the "Salathé Wall" in 1972; Robert Kayen on the Layton Kor-Steve Roper "West Buttress" route in 1982; and Beverly Johnson on the Cooper-Baldwin-Denny "Dihedral Wall" route in 1978. Other noteworthy early solo ascents were the solo first ascent of "Cosmos" by Jim Dunn in 1972, "Zodiac" by Charlie Porter in 1972; "Tangerine Trip" by David Mittel in 1985; and "The Pacific Ocean Wall" by Robert Slater in 1982. These ascents were long 7- to 14-day ordeals that required the solo climber lead each pitch, and then rappel, clean the climbing gear, reascend the lead rope, and haul equipment, food, and water using a second haul rope.

Ascents by women.

Beverly Johnson successfully ascended El Capitan, via the Nose route, with Dan Asay in June 1973. In September 1973, Beverly Johnson and Sibylle Hechtel were the first team of women to ascend El Capitan via the Triple Direct route, which takes the first ten pitches of the Salathe Wall, then continues up the middle portion of El Capitan via the Muir Wall, and finishes on the upper pitches of the Nose route. In 1977, Molly Higgins and Barb Eastman climbed the Nose, to become the second party of women to climb El Capitan and the first to climb it via the Nose. In 1978, Bev Johnson was the first woman to solo El Capitan by climbing the Dihedral Wall. In 1993, Lynn Hill established the first free Ascent of The Nose (IV 5.14a/b). Hazel Findlay has made three free ascents of El Capitan, including the first female ascent of "Golden Gate" in 2011, the first female ascent of "Pre-Muir Wall" in 2012, and a three-day ascent of "Freerider" in 2013. On June 12, 2019, 10-year-old Selah Schneiter became the then-youngest person to scale El Capitan, via The Nose route.

Free climbing.

As it became clear that any non-crumbling face could be conquered with sufficient perseverance and bolt-hole drilling, some climbers began searching for El Cap routes that could be climbed either free or with minimal aid. The "West Face" route was free climbed in 1979 by Ray Jardine and Bill Price; but despite numerous efforts by Jardine and others, "The Nose" resisted free attempts for another fourteen years. The first free ascent of a main El Cap route, though, was not "The Nose", but "Salathé Wall". Todd Skinner and Paul Piana made the first free ascent over 9 days in 1988, after 30 days of working the route (graded 5.13b on the Yosemite Decimal System). "The Nose" was the second major route to be freeclimbed. Two pitches on "The Nose" blocked efforts to free the route: the ""Great Roof"" graded 5.13c and ""Changing Corners"" graded 5.14a/b. In 1993, Lynn Hill came close to freeing "The Nose", making it past the "Great Roof" and up to Camp VI without falling, stopped only on "Changing Corners" by a piton jammed in a critical finger hold. After removing the piton she re-climbed the route from the ground. After 4 days of climbing, Hill reached the summit, making her the first person to free climb "The Nose". A year later, Hill returned to free climb "The Nose" in a day, this time reaching the summit in just 23 hours and setting a new standard for free climbing on "El Cap."  "The Nose" saw a second free ascent in 1998, when Scott Burke summitted after 261 days of effort. On October 14, 2005, Tommy Caldwell and Beth Rodden, then husband and wife, became the third and fourth people (and the first couple) to free climb "The Nose". They took four days on the ascent, swapping leads with each climber free climbing each pitch, either leading or following. Two days later, Caldwell returned to free climb "The Nose" in less than 12 hours. Caldwell returned two weeks later to free climb El Cap twice in a day, completing "The Nose" with Rodden, then descending and leading "Freerider" in a combined time of 23 hours 23 minutes.  On January 14, 2015, Tommy Caldwell and Kevin Jorgeson completed the first free climb of the "Dawn Wall" after 19 days, one of the hardest climbs in the world. In November 2016, Czech climber Adam Ondra free climbed the "Dawn Wall" in 8 days.  On June 3, 2017, Alex Honnold completed the first free solo climb of El Capitan, without protective equipment. He ascended the Freerider line in 3 hours and 56 minutes, beginning at 5:32 am PDT and reaching the peak at 9:28 am PDT. The climb was filmed for the 2018 documentary "Free Solo."

Speed climbing.

The speed climbing record for the Nose has changed hands several times in the past few years. The sub two hour and current record of 1:58:07 was set on June 6, 2018, by Alex Honnold and Tommy Caldwell after two other record breaking climbs in the days before.  Mayan Smith-Gobat and Libby Sauter broke the speed record for an all-women team, with a time of 4:43, on October 23, 2014.

Climb photography.

Climbers Tommy Caldwell, Lynn Hill, and Alex Honnold photographed their El Capitan climbs using 360 degree spherical VR photography. The photographs were taken by them or by other photographers during the climbs.  In January 2015, climbers Kevin Jorgeson and Tommy Caldwell photographed their free climb of the Dawn Wall.

Climb fatalities.

Over thirty fatalities have been recorded between 1905 and 2018 while climbing El Capitan, including seasoned climbers. Critics blame a recent increase of fatalities (five deaths from 2013 to 2018) in part on increased competition around timed ascents, social media fame, and "competing for deals with equipment manufacturers or advertisers".

BASE jumping.

El Capitan has a controversial history regarding BASE jumping, and the National Park Service has enacted criminal regulations which prohibit the practice. Michael Pelkey and Brian Schubert made the first BASE jump from El Capitan on July 24, 1966. Both men sustained broken bones from the jump. During the 1970s, with better equipment and training, many BASE jumpers made successful jumps from El Capitan. In 1980 the National Park Service experimented with issuing BASE-jumping permits. The first permitted BASE jump was performed on August 4, 1980, by Dean Westgaard of Laguna Beach. These legal jumps resulted in no major injuries or fatalities. After a trial lasting only ten weeks, the National Park Service ceased issuing permits and effectively shut down all BASE jumping on El Capitan. On October 22, 1999, BASE jumper and stuntwoman Jan Davis died in a jump conducted as part of a protest event involving five jumpers. The event was intended to protest the death of Frank Gambalie, who had landed safely but drowned while fleeing park rangers, and to demonstrate the assertion that BASE jumping could be performed safely.

Recognition.

El Capitan is featured on a United States quarter dollar coin minted in 2010 as part of the America the Beautiful Quarters series.

El Capitan (; "The Captain" or "The Chief"), also known as El Cap, is a vertical rock formation in Yosemite National Park, located on the north side of Yosemite Valley, near its western end. The granite monolith is about from base to summit along its tallest face, and is a popular objective for rock climbers.

El Capitan je 900 m vysoká skalní stěna v západní části Yosemitského údolí v kalifornském pohoří Sierra Nevada. Představuje jednu z významných oblastí skalního lezení.


Family and early life 1885–1904.

She was born in 1885 into a wealthy Jewish family in Rostov-on-Don, Russian Empire. Her mother Eva (born Khave) Lublinskaya was the daughter and granddaughter of rabbis from Yekaterinoslav. Eva trained as a dentist, but did not practise. Sabina's father Nikolai (born Naftul) Spielrein was an agronomist. After moving from Warsaw to Rostov, he became a successful merchant. On her birth certificate, Sabina appeared as Sheyve Naftulovna, but throughout her life and on official documents she used the name Sabina Nikolayevna. She was the eldest of five children. All three of her brothers later became eminent scientists. One of them, Isaac Spielrein, was a Soviet psychologist, a pioneer of work psychology. From her early childhood, Sabina was highly imaginative and believed that she had a 'higher calling' to achieve greatness, and she communicated about this privately with a 'guardian spirit'. However, her parents' marriage was turbulent and she experienced physical violence from both of them. She suffered from multiple somatic symptoms and obsessions. Some commentators believe she may have been sexually abused by someone in the family. She attended a Froebel school followed by the Yekaterinskaya Gymnasium in Rostov, where she excelled in science, music and languages. She learned to speak three languages fluently. During her teens, she continued to be troubled emotionally and became infatuated first with her history teacher, then with a paternal uncle. While at school, she resolved to go abroad to train as a doctor, with the approval of her rabbinic grandfather. At the end of her schooling she was awarded a gold medal.

Hospital admission 1904–05.

Following the sudden death of her only sister Emilia from typhoid, Spielrein's mental health started to deteriorate, and at the age of 18 she suffered a breakdown with severe hysteria including tics, grimaces, and uncontrollable laughing and crying. After an unsuccessful stay in a Swiss sanatorium, where she developed another infatuation with one of the doctors, she was admitted to the Burghölzli mental hospital near Zurich in August 1904. Its director was Eugen Bleuler, who ran it as a therapeutic community with social activities for the patients including gardening, drama and scientific lectures. One of Bleuler's assistants was Carl Jung, afterwards appointed as deputy director. In the days following her admission, Spielrein disclosed to Jung that her father had often beaten her, and that she was troubled by masochistic fantasies of being beaten. Bleuler ensured that she was separated from her family, later requiring her father and brothers to have no contact with her. She made a rapid recovery, and by October was able to apply for medical school and to start assisting Jung with word association tests in his laboratory. Between October and January, Jung carried out word association tests on her, and also used some rudimentary psychoanalytic techniques. Later, he referred to her twice in letters to Freud as his first analytic case, although in his publications he referred to two later patients in these terms. During her admission, Spielrein fell in love with Jung. By her own choice, she continued as a resident in the hospital from January to June 1905, although she was no longer receiving treatment. She worked as an intern alongside other Russian students there including Max Eitingon, as well as expatriate psychiatrists who were studying with Bleuler, including Karl Abraham.

Medical student 1905–1911.

She attended medical school at the University of Zurich from June 1905 to January 1911, excelling there academically. Her diaries show a very broad range of interests and reading including philosophy, religion, Russian literature and evolutionary biology. She lived in a number of different apartments, mixing in a social circle that included mainly fellow Russian Jewish women medical students. Many of these, together with Spielrein, became fascinated with the emerging movement of psychoanalysis in western Europe, and studied with Bleuler and Jung. Spielrein's main focus while in medical school was on psychiatry. A number of them, like Spielrein, subsequently became psychiatrists, spent time with Freud in Vienna, and published in psychoanalytic journals. These included Esther Aptekman, Fanya Chalevsky, Sheina Grebelskaya and Tatiana Rosenthal. Politically, Spielrein identified with socialism, although some of her Russian student contemporaries were followers of the Socialist Revolutionary Party or of Zionism. Spielrein completed her medical school dissertation, supervised first by Bleuler then by Jung, on a close study of the language of a patient with schizophrenia. It was published in the "Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen", which Jung edited. She was one of the first people to conduct a case study on schizophrenia and have it published in a psychoanalytic journal. Freud referenced it in the same volume in his postscript to the Schreber Case; It was the first doctorate ever to appear in a psychoanalytic journal, and one of the first psychoanalytic case studies of schizophrenia. Her dissertation contributed greatly to the understanding of the language of people with schizophrenia. Because her study was one of the first to focus on schizophrenia, the need for more research began and led to more people focusing on the mental illness. It was also the first dissertation written by a woman that was psychoanalytically oriented. She left Zurich the day after her graduation, having resolved to establish an independent career as a psychoanalyst elsewhere.

Relationship with Carl Jung.

While at medical school, Spielrein continued to assist Jung in the laboratory as she had done as an in-patient. She also attended his ward rounds and met him socially. The strong feelings she had developed towards him as his hospital patient continued during her first three years at medical school, and she developed a fantasy of having a child between them to be called Siegfried. She did not have any further therapy from him, although from around late 1907 he informally tried to analyze her wish for his child. In the summer of 1908, as she entered her fourth year at medical school, she and Jung began to have increasingly intimate encounters, which she described in her diaries as "poetry". There are differing views as to whether or not they had sexual intercourse. John Launer has reviewed the evidence from her diaries and their letters in his 2015 biography of Spielrein, "Sex Versus Survival. The Life and Ideas of Sabina Spielrein". He has concluded that they had consensual and erotic physical contact but stopped short of sexual penetration. This is supported by Spielrein's statement in a letter to her mother: "So far we have stayed at the level of poetry that is not dangerous." Lance Owens has further summarized the documentary evidence in his 2015 study, "Jung in Love: The Mysterium in Liber Novus", Zvi Lothane, a Freudian psychoanalyst and scholar of psychoanalytic history, makes the most robust and well-supported case against a consummated sexual relationship between the pair. Lothane summarizes his conclusions:  People tend to believe as dictated by their own emotions, projections, and transferences.... Our judgment should really be guided by what the protagonists never tired of asserting themselves: that there was no sex. In the final analysis the question is whether we believe their testimony or not. I choose to believe them, and not out of prudery, but because in those days people saw premarital sexual relations, especially as applies to Spielrein, differently than we do today; moreover, because unconsummated sexual desire was even more poignant and more romantic than consummated sex. However, the sexual myth dies hard, providing sensational material for a number of theatrical productions and a plethora of articles in the popular press and professional journals.  During the ensuing months, Jung wrote to Freud about the relationship, at first accusing Spielrein of having tried unsuccessfully to seduce him, and then admitting that he had become romantically involved with her. He sent a series of letters to Spielrein's mother, writing "no one can prevent two friends from doing as they wish...the likelihood is that something more may enter the relationship". Spielrein also wrote to Freud, making it clear that, for a few months, their relationship had been in some fashion physical, it had involved what Spielrein again called "poetry": "In the end the unavoidable happened...it reached the point where he could no longer stand it and wanted 'poetry'. I could not and did not want to resist, for many reasons' Eva Spielrein threatened to report him to Eugen Bleuler and came to Zurich to do so, but in the end decided not to. Meanwhile, Jung had resigned his medical post at the Burghölzli, although he continued his laboratory work and university teaching. A document-based account of these events, including the three-way correspondence among Spielrein, Jung and Freud, appears in Launer's biography.  After a hiatus of several months, caused by the above controversy, Spielrein and Jung resumed their relationship in the summer of 1909, and continued seeing each other privately up through the last months of 1910. Spielrein permanently departed Zurich around January 1911. In Spielrein's private diary entry dated 11 September 1910—just four months before graduating from medical school, and leaving both Jung and Zürich—she mused again upon her fantasy of bearing Jung’s son. Sabina saw in reality how totally impossible it was, how it would ruin her chance of finding another love and destroy her scientific and professional ambitions:  With a baby I would be accepted nowhere. And that would be in the best of cases; what if I did not even get pregnant? Then our pure friendship would be destroyed by the intimate relationship, and our friendship is what is so terribly dear to me. This personal diary entry from late-1910 strongly suggests that Spielrein realized that even if they were to finally have sexual relations, she might not get pregnant. And having taken that step, “our pure friendship would be destroyed by the intimate relationship...” Written shortly before her departure from Zürich, those words seemingly imply that whatever the nature of their physical "poetry", Jung and Spielrein had not engaged in sexual intercourse.  Some commentators have seen Jung's conduct as a professional boundary violation, while others have seen it as an unintended and forgivable consequence of early experimentation with psychoanalytic techniques. The historian and Freudian psychoanalyst Bruno Bettelheim commented on her treatment and the apparently beneficial result, noting that, "However questionable Jung's behaviour was from a moral point of view...somehow it met the prime obligation of the therapist towards his patient: to cure her”. By contrast, Peter Loewenberg (among others) has argued that it was in breach of professional ethics, and that it "jeopardized his position at the Burghölzli and led to his rupture with Bleuler and his departure from the University of Zurich".  At the time, Freud was tolerant of what happened between Jung and Spielrein, and regarded it as an example of countertransference. Later, he confessed to Spielrein that it had played a part in the schism between him and Jung: "His behavior was too bad. My opinion changed a great deal from the time I received that first letter from you". The relationship between Jung and Spielrein demonstrated to Freud that a therapist's emotions and humanity could not be kept out of the psychoanalytic relationship. Jung had come to the same conclusion. Before this episode, Freud apparently believed that a doctor could numb his emotions when analyzing patients. When Jung came to Freud about his relationship with Spielrein, Freud changed his ideas about the relationship between doctor and patient. Spielrein seems to have regarded her experiences with Jung as overall more beneficial than otherwise. She continued to yearn for him for several years afterwards, and wrote to Freud that she found it harder to forgive Jung for leaving the psychoanalytic movement than for "that business with me".  Spielrein sometimes is regarded as having been the inspiration for Jung's conception of the anima, in part due to a reference Jung made 50 years later in "Memories, Dreams, Reflections"—the biographical memoir compiled and edited by Aniela Jaffé—to an imaginatively encountered interior feminine voice that awakened his awareness of the interior anima. He recounted, it was "the voice of a patient... who had a strong transference to me". However, in the unpublished transcript of Jung's comments recorded by Aniela Jaffé in 1957, Jung made it clear this woman was Maria Moltzer and not Spielrein. Nonetheless, Lance Owens has documented that the relationship with Spielrein was indeed crucial to Jung's evolving understanding of what he much later termed the anima.

Career 1912–1920 including "Destruction" paper.

After graduation, Spielrien moved to Munich to study art history, while also working on a paper on the connection between sex and death. In October she moved to Vienna, where she was elected a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. She was the second female member of this society. She delivered her paper to the Society on 27 November as "Destruction as the Cause of Coming into Being", publishing an amended version the following year in the "Jahrbuch". The paper shows evidence of both Jungian and Freudian thought, but appears to mark the point at which she moved from identifying herself with Jung to seeing herself as more of a Freudian. Freud explicitly mentioned her paper in a famous footnote to "Beyond the Pleasure Principle", acknowledging that it started the train of thought which led him to conceptualize the death drive: "A considerable part of this speculation has been anticipated in [her] work". Spielrein's concept, however, was different from Freud's, in that she saw destructiveness as serving the reproductive instinct rather than one in its own right. Spielrein met with Freud on a number of occasions in 1912, and continued to correspond with him until 1923. She attempted in her correspondence with both Freud and Jung to reconcile the two men. In the "Destruction" paper, and throughout her subsequent career, she drew on ideas from many different disciplines and schools of thought. By age 26, Spielrien became the youngest to publish her works.  In 1912 Spielrein married the Russian Jewish physician Pavel Nahumovitch Sheftel. They moved to Berlin, where Spielrein worked alongside Karl Abraham. Spielrein had her first daughter Irma-Renata (known as Renata), in 1913. While in Berlin, Spielrein published nine further papers. One of these was an account of children's beliefs about sex and reproduction, in which she included recollections of her own early fantasies about this. Entitled 'Contribution to the Understanding of a Child's Soul', it shows her in more Freudian mode than her previous papers. In another paper, entitled, ‘The Mother-in-Law’, she gave a sympathetic account of the role of mothers-in-law and the relationship between them, their daughters-in-law. The Dutch psychoanalyst van Waning has commented on this paper: ”Women’s studies – in the year 1913!”. Another paper from the time recounts her treatment of a child with a phobia of animals, and is one of the first known reports of child psychotherapy At the outbreak of World War I, she returned to Switzerland, living briefly in Zurich again before relocating to Lausanne, where she and Renate remained for the rest of the war. Her husband joined his regiment in Kiev, and they were not reunited for more than a decade. The war years were times of privation for Spielrein: she did some work as a surgeon and in an eye clinic, but also received contributions from her parents when they could get these to her. She did however manage to publish two more short papers during the war years. She composed music, and considered becoming a composer. She also began to write a novel in French. She recorded observations of her daughter's development in terms of language and play. She continued her correspondence with Freud and Jung and her development of her own theoretical ideas, particularly in relation to attachment in children.

Career in Geneva 1920–23 and work with Jean Piaget.

In 1920 she attended the sixth congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association in The Hague, where she gave a talk on the origins of language in childhood. The audience included Sigmund Freud, his daughter Anna Freud, Melanie Klein and Sandor Ferenczi. She also announced her intention to join the staff of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva, a pioneering clinical, training and research centre for child development in Geneva. She remained there for three years, working alongside its founder Édouard Claparède, as well as other distinguished psychologists of the time including Pierre Bovet. While she was there, Jean Piaget also joined the staff: they collaborated closely, and in 1921 he went into an eight-month analysis with her. In 1922, she and Piaget both delivered papers at the seventh congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association in Berlin. This was one of the most productive periods of her life, and she published twenty papers between 1920 and 1923. The most important of these was a new version of the paper she had given at the Hague on the origins of language, drawing on her collaboration with the linguist Charles Bally. Entitled "The origins of the words 'Papa' and 'Mama'", she described how language develops on a substrate of genetic readiness, first through interactions between the child and the mother's breast, and then through family and social interactions. Her other papers from the time are mainly devoted to bring psychoanalytic thought together with observational studies of child development. Her papers in the "Zeitschrift" and "Imago" from this time mainly focus on the importance of speech acquisition in early childhood and the sense of time. However, Otto Fenichel singled out for special mention her 1923 article on voyeurism, where “Sabina Spielrein described a peeping perversion in which the patient tried to overcome an early repression of genital and manual erotogeneity, provoked by an intense castration fear”. Overall, her work during this period is thought to have had considerable influence on Piaget's thought, and possibly on Klein's.  In 1923, discouraged by her lack of success in building up a private practice in Geneva, and with Freud's support, she decided to travel to Moscow to support the development of psychoanalysis there. She planned to return to Geneva, and left her personal papers, including all her diaries and correspondence, in the basement of the Rousseau Institute. In the event, she never returned to western Europe, and the papers remained undiscovered until they were identified nearly sixty years later by the Jungian analyst Aldo Carotenuto, who published a selection of them. The archive remains in the possession of the heirs of Édouard Claparède, and although further selections have been published in a number of books and journals, it has never been fully examined or catalogued.

Russian career 1923–1942.

Psychoanalysis in Russia already had a turbulent history but its influence was strongest between 1921 and 1923. On her arrival in Moscow, she found herself the most experienced psychoanalyst there, as well as one of the most closely connected with analysts and psychologists in the west. She was appointed to a chair in child psychology at First Moscow University, and took up work in pedology (children study), an approach to pediatrics that integrated it with developmental and educational psychology. She also joined the Moscow Psychoanalytic Institute, which had been founded in 1922 under the direction of Moise (Moishe) Wulff. She then became involved with an ambitious new project in children's learning known as the "Detski Dom" Psychoanalytic Orphanage–Laboratory (also known as the "White House.")  Founded in 1921 by Vera Schmidt (who had also been one of Freud's students), the "Detski Dom" was intended to teach children based on Freud's theories. The school was only an orphanage in name: along with Schmidt's own son, the school had children from prominent Bolsheviks (including Joseph Stalin, whose son Vasily Stalin was enrolled as well). Use of discipline was avoided and children were allowed maximum freedom of movement. Sexual exploration and curiosity was also permitted. Spielrein's involvement included supervision of the teachers, and she may have supported them in a protest about their poor conditions of work, which led to their dismissal. The school had to close in 1924, in the wake of accusations of experiments to stimulate the children's sexuality prematurely. The accusations were possibly made in response to attempts by Leon Trotsky to proletarianize the school's intake During Spielrein's time in Moscow, both Alexander Luria and Lev Vygotsky came to work at the Psychoanalytic Institute and "Dyetski Dom" and studied with her. Spielrein's characteristic way of combining subjective psychological ideas from psychoanalysis with objective observational research of children is likely to have been an important influence in their early formation as researchers, leading them to become the foremost Russian psychologists of their time.  In late 1924 or 1925, Spielrein left Moscow. She and her daughter rejoined her husband Pavel in Rostov-on-Don. As well as probably being disillusioned by her experience in Moscow, Spielrein may have been impelled to return because her husband by now was in a relationship with a Ukrainian woman, Olga Snetkova (born Aksyuk), and they now had a daughter, Nina. Pavel returned to his wife, and their second daughter Eva was born in 1926. For at least the next decade, Spielrein continued to work actively as a pediatrician, carrying out further research, lecturing on psychoanalysis, and publishing in the west until 1931. In 1929 she presented a vigorous defense of Freud and psychoanalysis at a congress of psychiatry and neuropathology in Rostov, possibly the last person to mount such a defense at a time when psychoanalysis was on the point of being proscribed in Russia. The paper also made it clear that she was up-to-date with developments in the west, and included sympathetic comments on the approach of Sandor Ferenczi, who was advocating a more emotional engaged role on the part of the therapist. She also talked of the importance of clinical supervision for psychological work with children, and described an approach to short term therapy that could be used when resources did not allow for extensive treatment. Her niece Menikha described her from the 1930s as "a very well mannered, friendly and gentle person. At the same time, she was tough as far as her convictions were concerned." Her husband died in 1936. In 1937 her brothers Isaac, Jan and Emil Spielrein were arrested, and executed in 1937 and 1938 during the Great Purge. Spielrein came to an agreement with Pavel's former partner, Olga Snetkova, that if either of them died, the surviving woman would care for their three daughters.

Death.

Spielrein and her daughters survived the first German invasion of Rostov-on-Don in November 1941, which was repelled by the Red Army. However, in July 1942, the German army reoccupied the city. Spielrein and her two daughters, aged 29 and 16, were shot dead by an SS death squad, "Einsatzgruppe" D, in Zmievskaya Balka, or "Snake Ravine" near Rostov-on-Don, together with 27,000 mostly Jewish victims. Although most of the members of the Spielrein family were killed either during Stalin's purges or in the Holocaust, the wives and children of her brothers all survived, and there are currently around 14 of their descendants living in Russia, Canada, the United States and Israel.

Legacy.

Despite her closeness to the central figures of both psychoanalysis and developmental psychology in the first part of the twentieth century, Spielrein was more or less forgotten in Western Europe after her departure for Moscow in 1923. Her tragic death in the Holocaust compounded this erasure. The publication in 1974, of the correspondence between Freud and Jung, followed by the discovery of her personal papers and publication of some of them in the 1980s onwards, made her name quite widely known. However, it led to her identification in popular culture as an erotic sideshow in the lives of the two men. Within the world of psychoanalysis, Spielrein is usually given no more than a footnote, for her conception of the sexual drive as containing both an instinct of destruction and an instinct of transformation, hence anticipating both Freud's "death drive" and Jung's views on "transformation"; Regardless of the questionable relationship with Jung, something positive and very useful to psychotherapy was born from it. Jung's correspondence to Freud about his relationship with Spielrein inspired Freud's concepts of transference and countertransference.  In recent years, however, Spielrein has been increasingly recognized as a significant thinker in her own right, influencing not only Jung, Freud and Melanie Klein, but also later psychologists including Jean Piaget, Alexander Luria and Lev Vygotsky Spielrein also has influential work in several topics such as: gender roles, love, the importance of intuition in women, the unconscious, dream interpretation, sexuality and sexual urges, libido, sublimation, transference, linguistics and language development in children.  Etkind's research in Russia in the 1990s showed that she did not "disappear" after leaving Western Europe, but continued as an active clinician and researcher. The publication in 2003 of a selection of essays about her under the title "Sabina Spielrein, Forgotten Pioneer of Psychoanalysis" stimulate interest in her as an original thinker. The first scholarly biography of her in German, by Sabine Richebächer placed her relationship with Jung in its proper context of a lifelong career of involvement with psychoanalysis and psychology.  Lance Owens suggests that the importance of Spielrein's relationship with Jung should not be historically discounted, but seen as an additional part of her legacy and broad creative influence. Owens provides evidence that Spielrein played a seminal role in Jung's personal psychological development, his understanding of love, and his subsequent formation of core psychological conceptualizations about "anima" and "transference."  Followers of feminist and relational psychoanalysis are also beginning to claim her as an important progenitor. A milestone in reclaiming Spielrein as an original thinker was reached during the 2015 congress of the American Psychoanalytic Association, when the opening plenary lecture was given by Dr Adrienne Harris, on "The clinical and theoretical contributions of Sabina Spielrein", crediting her with pioneering relational psychoanalysis.  Through the works of Sabina Spielrein's child analysis, she was able to differentiate between autistic languages and social languages. She differentiated between (primary) autistic languages and social languages (like song, words, etc.) and developed an exciting theory in the context of child development explaining the meaning of a mother's breast and sucking/nursing.  The Memorial Museum Sabina Shpilereyn was opened in the house in which she lived in Rostov in November 2015.  John Launer's 2015 biography of Spielrein (in English, and written with the support of the Spielrein family) is based on close readings of her hospital notes, diaries and correspondence. It calls into question many of the received accounts about Spielrein. He challenges the presumption that Jung psychoanalyzed Spielrien in any systematic way, reciprocated her feelings for long, saw her as his 'anima', or regarded her as a more significant figure than his other female partners of the time. Instead, Launer sees her historical importance as someone who made an early attempt to harmonize psychoanalysis and developmental psychology within an overarching biological framework, anticipating modern ideas from attachment theory and evolutionary psychology.  An English language biography of Spielrein by Angela M. Sells, entitled "Sabina Spielrein: The Woman and the Myth", was published by SUNY Press in August 2017.

Sabina Nikolayevna Spielrein (; 25 October 1885 OS – 11 August 1942) was a Russian physician and one of the first female psychoanalysts.

Sabina Naftulovna Spielrein, rusky Сабина Нафтуловна Шпильрейн (7. listopadu 1885, Rostov na Donu, Rusko – 12. srpna 1942, tamtéž) byla ruská lékařka židovského původu, jedna z prvních zakladatelů dětské psychoanalýzy a vůdčí představitelka ruské psychoanalytické školy.


Name.

"Tshwa'i 'Dam" is the Wylie romanization of the Tibetan name, meaning "Salt Marsh"; the Tibetan Pinyin romanization of the same name is "Caidam". "Qaidam" is the GNC romanization of its transcription into Mongolian; "Tsaidam" is a variant romanization of the same name. "Chaidamu" is the pinyin romanization of its transcription into Chinese characters; the same name was formerly romanized as the for the Chinese Postal Map.

Geography.

Orographically, the Qaidam Basin is a comparatively low area in the northeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau. With an elevation of around, Qaidam forms a kind of shelf between Tibet to the south (around ) and Gansu to the north (around ). A low water divide separates the Qaidam Basin proper from that of Qinghai Lake to the east. Despite this lower elevation, Qaidam is still high enough that its mean annual temperature is despite lying on the same latitude as Algeria, Greece, and Virginia in the United States.  The crescent-shaped basin covers an area of approximately. Its substrate is broadly divided into three blocks: the Mangya Depression, a northern fault zone, and the Sanhu Depression. Qaidam is an intermontane basin, surrounded on all sides by mountain ranges. In the south, the Kunlun Mountains separate it from the higher central section of the Tibetan Plateau. In the north, a number of smaller ridges like the Shulenanshan separate it from another higher plateau, which usually referenced by the name of its northern escarpment, the Qilian or Nanshan. In the northwest, the Altyn-Tagh separates it from the Kumtagh Desert of southeastern Xinjiang. Because of this position, Qaidam forms an endorheic basin accumulating lakes with no outlet to the sea. The area is among the most arid non-polar locations on earth, with some places reporting an aridity index of 0.008–0.04. Across the entire basin, the mean annual rainfall is but the mean annual evaporation is. Because of the low rainfall, these lakes have become saline or dried up completely. Presently, there are four main playas in the basin: Qarhan in the southeast and (from north to south) Kunteyi, Chahanshilatu, and Dalangtan in the northwest. These playas and a few other saline lakes occupy over one-fourth of the basin, with the sediments deposited since the Jurassic as deep as 10 to 14 km (6–9mi) in places despite tectonic activity having repeatedly shifted the center of the region's sedimentation. The seasonal nature and commercial exploitation of some of the lakes makes an exact count problematic: one count reckoned there were 27 lakes in the basin, another reckoned 43 with a total area of.  The aridity, salinity, wide diurnal and seasonal temperature swings, and relatively high ultraviolet radiation has led to Qaidam being studied by the China Geological Survey as a Mars analogue for use in testing spectroscopy and equipment for China's 2020 Mars rover program.

Geological history.

Qaidam was part of the North China Craton from at least 1 billion years ago, before breaking off million years ago at the end of the Neoproterozoic. It was an island in a shallow sea until uplift beginning around 400Ma finally rejoined it to the mainland by 200Ma.  Three-dimensional modeling shows that the present basin has been squeezed to an irregular diamond shape since the beginning of the Cenozoic, with the Indian Plate beginning to impact the ancient Tibetan shoreline somewhere between 55–35Ma. At first, Qaidam was at a far lower elevation. Pollen found in core samples shows that the Oligocene (34–23Ma) was relatively humid. A great lake slowly formed in the western basin, which two major tectonic movements raised and cut off from its original sources of sediment. At its greatest extent during the Miocene (23–5Ma), this lake spread at the present elevation contour over and was among the largest lakes in the world. Nutrient-rich inflows contributed to plankton blooms, which supported an ecosystem that built up reserves of organic carbon. The Tibetan plateau's uplift, however, eventually cut it off from the warm and humid Indian monsoon. It went from a forest steppe to a desert. By 12Ma, the climate had dried enough to break Qaidam's single lake into separate basins, which frequently became saline. During the Pliocene (5–2.5Ma), the focus of most sedimentation was at what is now Kunteyi but, during the Pleistocene (after 2.5Ma), tectonic activity shifted the basin's tributaries and floor, moving the focus of sedimentation from the Dalangtan to Qarhan area. During this time, the record's glacial intervals suggest a low-temperature climate and its sandstone yardangs attest to strong winds.  From 770,000 and 30,000 years ago, the enormous lake which filled much of the southeastern basin alternated nine times between being a fresh- and saltwater lake. Pollen studies suggest the bed of Dabusun Lake in the Qarhan Playanearly the lowest point of the basinwas elevated about within the last 500,000 years. At around 30 kya, this greatat the time, freshwaterlake spread over at least with a surface above the present levels of its successors. At the same time, a river from the "Kunlun" paleolake to its south was enriching the Sanhu region with enormous reserves of lithium derived from hot springs near Mount Buka Daban which now feed into the Narin Gol that flows into East Taijinar Lake.  Around 30 kya, the lake in the Kunluns dried up and the Qarhan was cut off from sufficient inflows of fresh water. It became saline again, beginning to precipitate salts about 25,000 years ago. The basin's continuing formation and evolution is controlled by the Altyn Tagh fault constituting the northern basin boundary.

Resources.

The basin's large mineral deposits caused a great deal of investment interest from 2005. Qarhan Playa, a salt flat including about ten of the lakes, contains over 50 billion metric tons (55 billion short tons) of salt.  Beneath the salt, Qaidam is one of China's nine most important petroliferous basins and its largest center of onshore production. The Qinghai Oilfield, exploited since 1954, includes the Lenghu, Gasikule, Yuejin-2, and Huatugou oil fields and the Sebei-1, Sebei-2, and Tainan gas fields. All together, it has proven reserves of 347.65 million metric tons (more than 2 billion barrels) of petroleum and 306.6 billion cubic meters (10.83 trillion cubic feet) of natural gas. Annual production capacity is about 2 million metric tons of petroleum and 8.5 billion cubic meters of natural gas. A pipeline connects the Huatugou field with the major refinery at Golmud, and the Sebei gas fields are connected to Xining, Lanzhou, and Yinchuan.  Qaidam has reserves of asbestos, borax, gypsum, and several metals, with the greatest reserves of lithium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium of anywhere in China.

Transportation.

The Xining-Golmud rail line (the first stage of the Qinghai–Tibet Railway), which crossed the eastern part of the Qaidam Basin in the early 1980s, is an essential transportation link for accessing the region's mineral resources. As of 2012, additional rail lines are under construction. The construction of the Golmud–Dunhuang Railway started in October 2012; it is expected to be completed within 5 years. In the early 2012, Zangge Potash Co Ltd started the construction of a 25-km private railway from the Qarhan station on the Qinghai–Tibet Railway (near the eponymous salt lake) to their facilities nearby.  As of the late 2013, preliminary planning is conducted for the Golmud-Korla Railway, which will stretch along the entire western part of the Qaidam Basin as well.

The Qaidam, Tsaidam, or Chaidamu Basin is a hyperarid basin that occupies a large part of Haixi Prefecture in Qinghai Province, China. The basin covers an area of approximately, one-fourth of which is covered by saline lakes and playas. Around one third of the basin, about, is desert.

Cchajdamská pánev nebo Cchädamská pánev (,, ) je pánev v západní Číně, kde patří do provincie Čching-chaj. Zhruba z 35 tisíc čtverečních kilometrů, tedy asi ze třetiny, je tvořena pouští. Nejvýznamnějším městem pánve je Golmud.


Historical perspective.

The concept of using fibers as reinforcement is not new. Fibers have been used as reinforcement since ancient times. Historically, horsehair was used in mortar and straw in mudbricks. In the 1900s, asbestos fibers were used in concrete. In the 1950s, the concept of composite materials came into being and fiber-reinforced concrete was one of the topics of interest. Once the health risks associated with asbestos were discovered, there was a need to find a replacement for the substance in concrete and other building materials. By the 1960s, steel, glass (GFRC), and synthetic (such as polypropylene) fibers were used in concrete. Research into new fiber-reinforced concretes continues today.

Effect of fibers in concrete.

Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to drying shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water. Some types of fibers produce greater impact–, abrasion–, and shatter–resistance in concrete. Larger steel or synthetic fibers can replace rebar or steel completely in certain situations. Fiber reinforced concrete has all but completely replaced bar in underground construction industry such as tunnel segments where almost all tunnel linings are fiber reinforced in lieu of using rebar. Indeed, some fibers actually reduce the compressive strength of concrete.  The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the composite (concrete and fibers), termed "volume fraction" (V). V typically ranges from 0.1 to 3%. The aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber length (l) by its diameter (d). Fibers with a non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for the calculation of aspect ratio. If the fiber's modulus of elasticity is higher than the matrix (concrete or mortar binder), they help to carry the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material. Increasing the aspect ratio of the fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of the matrix. However, fibers that are too long tend to "ball" in the mix and create workability problems.  Some research in the late 2000s indicated that using fibers in concrete has limited effect on the impact resistance of the materials. This finding is very important since traditionally, people think that ductility increases when concrete is reinforced with fibers. The results also indicated that the use of micro fibers offers better impact resistance to that of longer fibers.  The High Speed 1 tunnel linings incorporated concrete containing 1 kg/m3 of polypropylene fibers, of diameter 18 & 32 μm, giving the benefits noted below.

Benefits.

Glass fibers can:  Polypropylene and nylon fibers can:  Steel fibers can:  Blends of both steel and polymeric fibers are often used in construction projects in order to combine the benefits of both products; structural improvements provided by steel fibers and the resistance to explosive spalling and plastic shrinkage improvements provided by polymeric fibers.  In certain specific circumstances, steel fiber or macro synthetic fibers can entirely replace traditional steel reinforcement bar ("rebar") in reinforced concrete. This is most common in industrial flooring but also in some other precasting applications. Typically, these are corroborated with laboratory testing to confirm that performance requirements are met. Care should be taken to ensure that local design code requirements are also met, which may impose minimum quantities of steel reinforcement within the concrete. There are increasing numbers of tunnelling projects using precast lining segments reinforced only with steel fibers.  Micro-Rebar has also been recently tested and approved to replace traditional reinforcement in vertical walls designed in accordance with ACI 318 Chapter 14.

Some developments.

An FRC sub-category named High-Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (HPFRC) claims 500 times more resistance to cracking and 40 percent lighter than traditional concrete. HPFRC claims it can sustain strain-hardening up to several percent strain, resulting in a material ductility of at least two orders of magnitude higher when compared to normal concrete or standard fiber-reinforced concrete. HPFRC also claims a unique cracking behavior. When loaded to beyond the elastic range, HPFRC maintains crack width to below 100 μm, even when deformed to several percent tensile strains. Field results with HPFRC and The Michigan Department of Transportation resulted in early-age cracking.  Recent studies performed on a high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete in a bridge deck found that adding fibers provided residual strength and controlled cracking. There were fewer and narrower cracks in the FRC even though the FRC had more shrinkage than the control. Residual strength is directly proportional to the fiber content.  Some studies were performed using waste carpet fibers in concrete as an environmentally friendly use of recycled carpet waste. A carpet typically consists of two layers of backing (usually fabric from polypropylene tape yarns), joined by CaCO filled styrene-butadiene latex rubber (SBR), and face fibers (majority being nylon 6 and nylon 66 textured yarns). Such nylon and polypropylene fibers can be used for concrete reinforcement. Other ideas are emerging to use recycled materials as fibers: recycled Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fiber, for example.

Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers – each of which lend varying properties to the concrete. In addition, the character of fiber-reinforced concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation, and densities.

Vláknový beton nebo vláknobeton ( "fiber concrete", "Faserbeton") je kompozit z betonu s výztuží z krátkých textilních nebo kovových vláken.


Etymology.

Altyn Tag means "Gold Mountain" in Turkic, and Jin Shan () is Chinese for " " Gold mountain".

Geography.

A series of mountain ranges run along the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. In the west are the Kunlun Mountains. About halfway across the south side of the Tarim Basin, the Altyn-Tagh Range diverges northeast while the Kunluns continue directly east, forming a relatively narrow "V". Inside the "V" are a number of endorheic basins. The eastern end of the Altyn-Shan is near the Dangjin Pass on the Dunhuang-Golmud road in far western Gansu. East of the Altyn-Tagh the border range rises to the Qilian Mountains. The range separates the Tarim Basin, to the north, and Lake Ayakkum, to the south. The range can be divided into three portions. The southwest portion borders the Kunlun Mountains, is very rugged, with peaks reaching more than and many perennial snow fields. The central portion is lower in elevation, around. The eastern portion is higher in elevation, about and consists of a group of smaller ranges oriented in a south-east to north-west trend.  Along the northern side of the mountains ran the main Silk road trade route from China proper to the Tarim Basin and westward. The Altyn-Tagh and Qilians were sometimes called the Nan Shan ('south mountains') because they were south of the main route. Near the east end of the Altyn-Shan, the Gansu or Hexi Corridor ends and the Silk Road splits. One branch follows the Altyn-Tagh along the south side of the Tarim Basin while the other follows the north side.  The southwestern part of the Altyn-Tagh range reaches snowy peaks of up to, although it descends to an average of in the narrow middle and eventually rises up to average as it meets the Qilian Mountains.  There are a dearth of rivers and streams in these mountains, due to the aridity of the region. The western portion has some small streams that either head north into the desert or south into Lake Ayakkum. The remainder of the range is lacking in rivers.

Intermontane endorheic basins.

Inside the "V" shaped area between the Altyn-Tagh and the main Kunlun range (which in this area is called Arka-Tagh) a number of endorheic basins are located.  Within southeastern Xinjiang, the main of these basins is the Kumkol Basin ()  The two main lakes in this basin are the saline Lake Aqqikkol (also Ajig Kum Kul, Achak-kum; ; 37°05′N, 88°25′E, elevation) and Lake Ayakum (; 37°30′N, 89°30′E; elevation ). These lakes are two of the few noticeable bodies of water in this extremely arid area; the area around them is officially protected as the Altun Shan Nature Reserve.  Farther east, in northwestern Qinghai, the much larger Qaidam Basin starts between the Altyn-Tagh and the Kunlun and extends almost to the east side of the plateau; the Altyn-Tagh separates the west side of this basin from the Kumtagh Desert.

Major Peaks.

The four highest peaks are Sulamutag Feng (), Yusupu Aleketag Shan (), Altun Shan () and Kogantag ().

Economic development.

China National Highway 315 crosses the Altyn-Tagh on its way between Qinghai and Xinjiang.  The Golmud-Korla Railway (under construction) will cross the Altyn-Tagh as well. The project involves the construction of the 13.195 km-long Altyn-Tagh Tunnel ().

Further reading.

Altyn-Tagh (also Altun Mountains, Altun Shan;, Pinyin: "A'erjin Shan", Wade–Giles: "A-erh-chin Shan") is a mountain range in Northwestern China that separates the Eastern Tarim Basin from the Tibetan Plateau. The western third is in Xinjiang while the eastern part forms the border between Qinghai to the south and Xinjiang and Gansu to the north.

Altyn-tag (česky "Zlaté hory",, ) je pohoří v severozápadní Číně, které odděluje Tarimskou pánev od Tibetské náhorní plošiny a také tvoří severozápadní okraj Cchajdamské pánve. Západní třetinou spadá do Sin-ťiangu, zatímco východní část tvoří hranici mezi Čching-chajem na jihu a Sin-ťiangem a Kan-su na severu.


History.

Blower door technology was first used to measure building airtightness in Sweden around 1977. This earliest implementation used a fan mounted in a window, rather than a door. Similar window-mounted measurement techniques were being pursued by Caffey in Texas, and door-mounted test fans were being developed by Harrje, Blomsterberg and Persily at Princeton University to help them find and fix air leaks in homes in a Twin Rivers, New Jersey housing development. Harold Orr has also been identified as a member of a group in Saskatchewan, Canada who was pursuing similar testing methods.  These early research efforts demonstrated the potential power of blower door testing in revealing otherwise unaccounted for energy losses in homes. Previously, air leakage around doors, windows and electrical outlets was considered to be the primary leakage pathway in homes, but Harrje, Dutt and Beya used blower doors to identify “thermal bypasses”. These bypasses were air leakage sites, such as attic utility chases, that accounted for the vast percentage of air leakage energy losses in most homes. Use of blower doors in home energy retrofitting and weatherization efforts became known as “house doctoring” by researchers on the East and West coasts.  The blower door first became commercially available in the United States in 1980 under the name Gadsco. Harmax started to sell units in 1981, followed closely by The Energy Conservatory in 1982.  While these blower door-testing efforts were useful in identifying leakage pathways and in accounting for otherwise inexplicable energy losses, the results could not be used to determine real-time air exchange in buildings under natural conditions, or even to determine average annual air exchange levels. Sherman attributes the first attempt at doing this to Persily and Kronvall, who estimated annual average air exchange by:  formula_1 Further physical modeling efforts allowed for the development and validation of an infiltration model by researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL). This model combined data derived from blower door tests with annual weather data to generate time-resolved ventilation rates for a given home in a specific location. This model has been incorporated into the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (1989), and it has been used in the development of ASHRAE Standards 119 and 136. Other infiltration models have been developed elsewhere, including one by Deru and Burns at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), for use in whole-building performance simulation.

How blower door tests work.

A basic blower door system includes three components: a calibrated fan, a door panel system, and a pressure measurement device (manometer).

Test setup.

The blower door fan is temporarily sealed into an exterior doorway using the door panel system. All interior doors are opened, and all exterior doors and windows are closed. HVAC balancing dampers and registers are not to be adjusted, and fireplaces and other operable dampers should be closed. All mechanical exhaust devices in the home, such as bathroom exhaust, kitchen range hood or dryer, should be turned off. Pressure tubing is used to measure the fan pressure, and it is also run to the exterior of the building, so that the indoor/outdoor pressure differential can be measured. The exterior pressure sensor should be shielded from wind and direct sunlight. The test begins by sealing the face of the fan and measuring the baseline indoor/outdoor pressure differential. The average value is to be subtracted from all indoor/outdoor pressure differential measurements during the test.

Test procedure.

The blower door fan is used to blow air into or out of the building, creating either a positive or negative pressure differential between inside and outside. This pressure difference forces air through all holes and penetrations in the building enclosure. The tighter the building (e.g. fewer holes), the less air is needed from the blower door fan to create a change in building pressure. Typically, only depressurization testing is performed, but both depressurization and pressurization are preferable. Different values for blower door metrics are to be expected for pressurizing and depressurizing, due to the building envelope's response to directional airflow. The smallest fan ring that allows the fan to reach the maximum target indoor/outdoor pressure differential should be used. A multi-point test can be performed either manually or using data acquisition and fan control software products. The manual test consists of adjusting the fan to maintain a series of indoor/outdoor pressure differentials and recording the resulting average fan and indoor/outdoor pressures. Alternatively, a single-point test can be performed, where the blower door fan is ramped up to a reference indoor/outdoor pressure differential and the fan pressure is recorded. Often the blower door hardware converts fan pressure measurements directly to fan airflow values.

Power law model of airflow.

Building leakage is described by a power law equation of flow through an orifice. The orifice flow equation is typically expressed as  formula_4  The C parameter reflects the size of the orifice, the ∆P is the pressure differential across the orifice, and the n parameter represents the characteristic shape of the orifice, with values ranging from 0.5 to 1, representing a perfect orifice and a very long, thin crack, respectively.  There are two airflows to be determined in blower door testing, airflow through the fan (Q) and airflow through the building envelope (Q).  formula_9  formula_10  It is assumed in blower door analysis that mass is conserved, resulting in:  formula_11  Which results in:  formula_12  Fan airflow is determined using C and n values that are provided by the blower door manufacturer, and they are used to calculate Q. The multi-point blower door test procedure results in a series of known values of Q and ∆P. Typical ∆P values are ±5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 pascal. Ordinary least squares regression analysis is then used to calculate the leakage characteristics of the building envelope: C and n. These leakage characteristics of the building envelope can then be used to calculate how much airflow will be induced through the building envelope for a given pressure difference caused by wind, temperature difference or mechanical forces. 50 Pa can be plugged into the orifice-flow equation, along with the derived building C and n values to calculate airflow at 50 pascal. This same method can be used to calculate airflow at a variety of pressures, for use in creation of other blower door metrics.  An alternative approach to the multi-point procedure is to only measure fan airflow and building pressure differential at a single test point, such as 50 Pa, and then use an assumed pressure exponent, n in the analysis and generation of blower door metrics. This method is preferred by some for two main reasons: (1) measuring and recording one data point is easier than recording multiple test points, and (2) the measurements are least reliable at very low building pressure differentials, due both to fan calibration and to wind effects.

Air density corrections.

In order to increase the accuracy of blower door test results, air density corrections should be applied to all airflow data. This must be done prior to the derivation of building air leakage coefficients (formula_13) and pressure exponents (formula_14). The following methods are used to correct blower door data to standard conditions.  For depressurization testing, the following equation should be used:  formula_15  For pressurization testing, the following equation should be used:  formula_22  The values formula_23 and formula_24 are referred to as air density correction factors in product literature. They are often tabulated in easy to use tables in product literature, where a factor can be determined from outside and inside temperatures. If such tables are not used, the following equations will be required to calculate air densities.  formula_20 can be calculated in IP units using the following equation:  formula_26  formula_21 can be calculated in IP units using the following equation:  formula_31  In order to translate the airflow values derived using formula_18 and formula_19 from the blower door manufacturer to the actual volumetric airflow through the fan, use the following:  formula_37

Blower door metrics.

Depending on how a blower door test is performed, a wide variety of airtightness and building airflow metrics can be derived from the gathered data. Some of the most common metrics and their variations are discussed below. The examples below use the SI pressure measurement unit Pascal (pa). Imperial measurement units are commonly water column inches (WC Inch or IWC). The conversion rate is 1 WC inch = 249 Pa. Examples below use the commonly accepted pressure of 50pa which is 20% of 1 IWC.

Airflow at a specified building pressure.

This is the first metric that results from a Blower Door Test. The airflow, (Imperial in Cubic Feet / minute; SI in liters / second) at a given building-to-outside pressure differential, 50 pascal (Q). This standardized single-point test allows for comparison between homes measured at the same reference pressure. This is a raw number reflecting only the flow of air through the fan. Homes of different sizes and similar envelope quality will have different results in this test.

Airflow per unit surface area or floor area.

Often, an effort is made to control for building size and layout by normalizing the airflow at a specified building pressure to either the building’s floor area or to its total surface area. These values are generated by taking the airflow rate through the fan and dividing by the area. These metrics are most used to assess construction and building envelope quality, because they normalize the total building leakage area to the total amount of area through which that leakage could occur. In other words, how much leakage occurs per unit area of wall, floor, ceiling, etc.

Air changes per hour at a specified building pressure.

Another common metric is the air changes per hour at a specified building pressure, again, typically at 50 Pa (ACH).  formula_44  This normalizes the airflow at a specified building pressure by the building’s volume, which allows for more direct comparison of homes of different sizes and layouts. This metric indicates the rate at which the air in a building is replaced with outside air, and as a result, is an important metric in determinations of indoor air quality.

Effective leakage area.

In order to take values generated by fan pressurization and to use them in determining natural air exchange, the effective leakage area of a building must be calculated. Each gap and crack in the building envelope contributes a certain amount of area to the total leakage area of the building. The Effective Leakage Area assumes that all of the individual leakage areas in the building are combined into a single idealized orifice or hole. This value is typically described to building owners as the area of a window that is open 24/7, 365 in their building. The ELA will change depending on the reference pressure used to calculate it. 4 Pa is typically used in the US, whereas a reference pressure of 10 Pa is used in Canada. It is calculated as follows:  formula_48  It is essential that units are carefully conserved in these calculations. C and n should be calculated using SI units, and ρ and ∆P should be kg/m and pascal, respectively. Alternatively, C and n can be calculated using Imperial units, with ρ and ∆P being lb/ft and lb/in, respectively.  The ELA can be used, along with the Specific Infiltration Rate (s) derived using the LBNL infiltration model, to determine airflow rate through the building envelope throughout the year.

Leakage area per unit floor or surface area.

Leakage area estimates can also be normalized for the size of the enclosure being tested, For example, the LEED Green Building Rating System has set an airtightness standard for multifamily dwelling units of of leakage area per of enclosure area, to control tobacco smoke between units. This is equal to 0.868 cm2/m2.

Normalized leakage.

Normalized leakage is a measure of the tightness of a building envelope relative to the building size and number of stories. Normalized Leakage is defined in ASHRAE Standard 119 as:  formula_54

Applications.

Blower doors can be used in a variety of types of testing. These include (but are not limited to):

NFPA enclosure integrity testing.

NFPA enclosure integrity testing is a specialized type of enclosure testing that typically measures the airtightness of rooms within buildings that are protected by clean agent fire suppression systems. This test is normally done during the installation and commissioning of the system and is mandatory under NFPA, ISO, EN and FIA Standards that also require the test is repeated annually if any doubt exists about the airtightness from the previous test. These types of enclosures are typically server rooms containing large amounts of computer and electronic hardware that would be damaged by the more typical water based sprinkler system. The word "clean" refers to the fact that after the suppression system discharges, there is nothing to be cleaned up. The agent merely disperses into the atmosphere.  NFPA-2001 (2015 Edition) is used throughout North America, many Asian countries and the Middle East. A hold Time analysis has been required since 1985. ISO-14520-2015 version or EN-15004 Standards are used throughout Europe while FIA Standards are used in the UK. Results from all these standards are very similar.  NFPA standards for equipment calibration are about the same as they are for other types of testing, so any modern blower door equipment is sufficiently accurate to perform NFPA enclosure integrity testing. Specialized software or a tedious calculation must be provided to arrive at the hold time which is generally ten minutes.  The NFPA standard requires that the blower door operator be trained, but does not specify the nature or source of this training. There is no official NFPA training available for enclosure integrity testing methodology at this time.  An NFPA enclosure integrity test result is typically reported in the form of an "agent hold time" which represents the duration for which the room will retain at least 85% of the design concentration in order to suppress a fire and to ensure it does not reignite. This retention time inversely proportion to the leakage area of the room which is the major factor. Location of leaks, height being protected, the presence of continual mixing and clean agent being used will affect the hold time also. The 2008 Edition of NFPA-2001 required a peak pressure evaluation in addition but the industry in the USA in particular has been slow to institute this important requirement since excessive pressure during discharge has damaged many enclosures. This requirement was designed to prevent that.

A blower door is a machine used to measure the airtightness of buildings. It can also be used to measure airflow between building zones, to test ductwork airtightness and to help physically locate air leakage sites in the building envelope.

Blower-door test (test vzduchotěsnosti stavby) je detekční metoda na zjišťování vzduchotěsnosti obálky budovy a tím i k zjištění energetické náročnosti domu. Při vadách vzduchotěsnosti oken, stěn či střechy totiž dochází k významným únikům tepla a tím i větší náročnosti na vytápění.


Plot overview.

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Series 1: 2010.

The first series, comprising seven episodes, explores the lives of the fictional Crawley family, the hereditary Earls of Grantham, and their domestic servants. The storyline centres on the fee tail or "entail" governing the titled elite, which endows title and estate exclusively to male heirs. As part of the backstory, the main character, Robert Crawley, Earl of Grantham, had resolved his father's past financial difficulties by marrying Cora Levinson, an American heiress. Her considerable dowry is now contractually incorporated into the comital entail in perpetuity; however, Robert and Cora have three daughters and no son.  As the eldest daughter, Lady Mary Crawley had agreed to marry her second cousin Patrick, the son of the then-heir presumptive James Crawley. The series begins the day after the sinking of the RMS "Titanic" on 14/15 April 1912. The first episode starts as news reaches Downton Abbey that both James and Patrick have perished in the sinking of the ocean liner. Soon it is discovered that a

Series 2: 2011.

The second series comprises eight episodes and runs from the Battle of the Somme in 1916 to the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic. During the war, Downton Abbey is temporarily converted into an officers' convalescent hospital.  Matthew, having left Downton is now a British Army officer and has become engaged. His fiancée is Lavinia Swire, the daughter of a Liberal minister. William Mason, the 2nd footman, is drafted, even after attempts by the Dowager Countess of Grantham to save him from conscription. William

Series 3: 2012.

In the third series, covering 1920 to 1921, Mary ends her engagement to Richard Carlisle, despite his vindictive threats to expose her past indiscretion. Mary and Matthew are married in the series premiere, but Robert (Lord Grantham) learns that the bulk of the family's fortune (including Cora's dowry) has been lost, due to his well-intentioned but bad investment in the Grand Trunk Railway. In the meantime, Edith has fallen hard for Sir Anthony Strallen, whom Robert discourages from marrying Edith due to his age and infirm condition. At Edith's insistence, Robert gives in and welcomes Sir Anthony, but the latter cannot accept the fact that there is no reservation from the Grantham family, and at the altar on their wedding day announces that he cannot go through with the marriage, devastating Edith.  Meanwhile, Bates' cellmate tries to plant drugs in his bedding, but Bates is informed by a fellow prisoner allowing him time to find the hidden drug package before a search and hide it. Back at Downton, Mrs Hughes finds out she may have breast cancer, which only

Series 4: 2013.

In series four, covering 1922 to 1923, Cora's maid Miss O'Brien leaves to serve Lady Flintshire in British India. Cora hires Edna Braithwaite, who had previously been fired for her interest in Tom. Eventually the situation blows up, and Edna is replaced by Miss Baxter.  Lady Mary deeply mourns Matthew's death. Matthew's newly-found will states Mary is to be his sole heir and thus gives her management over his share of the estate until their son, George, comes of age. With Tom's encouragement, Mary assumes a more active role in running Downton. Two new suitors—Lord Gillingham and Charles Blake—arrive at Downton, though Mary, still grieving, is not interested. Middle daughter Lady Edith, who has begun writing a weekly newspaper column, and Michael Gregson, her editor, fall in love. Due to British law, he is unable to

Series 5: 2014.

In series five, covering the year 1924, a Russian exile, Prince Kuragin, wishes to renew his past affections for the Dowager Countess (Violet). Violet instead locates his wife in British Hong Kong and reunites the Prince and his estranged wife. Scotland Yard and the local police investigate Green's death. Violet learns that Marigold is Edith's daughter. Meanwhile, Mrs Drewe, not knowing Marigold's true parentage, resents Edith's constant visits. To increase his chances with Mary, Charles Blake plots to reunite Gillingham and his ex-fiancée, Mabel. After Edith inherits Michael Gregson's publishing company, she removes Marigold from the Drewes and relocates to London. Simon Bricker, an art expert interested in one of Downton's paintings, shows his true intentions toward Cora and is thrown out by Robert, causing a temporary rift between the couple.  Mrs Patmore's decision to invest her inheritance in real estate inspires Mr Carson, Downton's butler, to do likewise. He suggests that head housekeeper Mrs Hughes invest with him; she confesses she has no money due to supporting a mentally incapacitated sister. The Crawleys' cousin, Lady Rose, daughter of Lord and Lady Flintshire, becomes engaged to Atticus Aldridge, son

Series 6: 2015.

In series six, covering the year 1925, changes are once again afoot at Downton Abbey as the middle class rises and more bankrupted aristocrats are forced to sell off their large estates. Downton must do more to ensure its future survival; reductions in staff are considered, forcing Barrow to look for a job elsewhere. Lady Mary defies a blackmailer, who is thwarted by Lord Grantham. Lady Mary becomes the estate agent. Edith is more hands-on in running her magazine and hires a female editor. Lady Violet and Isobel once again draw battle lines as a government take-over of the local hospital is considered.  Meanwhile, Anna suffers repeated miscarriages. Lady Mary takes her to a specialist,

Film: 2019.

On 13 July 2018, the producers confirmed that a feature-length film would be made, with production commencing mid-2018. The film, which was theatrically released on 13 September 2019 in the United Kingdom, revolves around a visit by King George V and Queen Mary to Downton Abbey in 1927, causing a stir among the Crawleys and servants

Crawley family.

The series is set in fictional Downton Abbey, a Yorkshire country house, which is the home and seat of the Earl and

Cast.

The main cast of the Crawley family is led by Hugh Bonneville as Robert Crawley, the Earl of Grantham, and Elizabeth McGovern as his wife Cora Crawley, the Countess of Grantham. Their three daughters are depicted by Michelle Dockery as Lady Mary Crawley, Laura Carmichael as Lady Edith Crawley (Pelham) and Jessica Brown Findlay as Lady Sybil Crawley (Branson). Maggie Smith is Robert Crawley's mother Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham. Samantha Bond portrays Lady Rosamund Painswick, Robert's sister who resides in Belgrave Square, London. Dan Stevens portrays Matthew Crawley, the new heir, along with Penelope Wilton as his mother, Isobel Crawley, who are brought to Downton. Allen Leech begins the series as Tom Branson the chauffeur but falls in love with Lady Sybil, marries her and becomes the agent for the estate. Joining the cast in series three is Lily James as the Lady Rose MacClare (Aldridge), a second cousin through Violet's family, who is sent to live with the Crawleys because her parents are serving the empire in India and, later, remains there because of family problems. David Robb portrays Dr. Richard Clarkson, the local town doctor. Suitors for Lady Mary's affections during the series include Tom Cullen as Lord Gillingham, Julian Ovenden as Charles Blake, and Matthew Goode

Production.

Gareth Neame of Carnival Films conceived the idea of an Edwardian-era TV drama set in a country house and approached Fellowes, who had won an Academy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay) for "Gosford Park". The TV series "Downton Abbey" – written and created by Fellowes – was originally planned as a spin-off of "Gosford Park", but instead was developed as a stand-alone property inspired by the film, set decades earlier. Although Fellowes was reluctant to work on another project resembling "Gosford Park", within a few weeks he returned to Neame with an outline of the first series. Influenced by Edith Wharton's "The Custom of the Country", Fellowes writes the scripts and his wife Emma is an informal story editor.

Filming locations.

Highclere Castle in north Hampshire is used for exterior shots of Downton Abbey and most of the interior filming. The kitchen, servants' quarters and working areas, and some of the "upstairs" bedrooms were constructed and filmed at Ealing Studios. Bridgewater House in the St James area of London served as the family's London home.  <mapframe text="Map of "Downton Abbey" filming locations" latitude="53.383333" longitude="-1.466667" zoom="6" width="300" height="400" align="right">  }</mapframe> Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village of Bampton in Oxfordshire. Notable locations include St Mary's the Virgin Church and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital. The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed at Hall Place near Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire.  The Downton Abbey of the

Opening.

The opening music of "Downton Abbey", titled "Did I Make the Most of Loving You?", was composed by John Lunn.  A suite version was released

Broadcasts.

The rights to broadcast "Downton Abbey" have been acquired in over 220 countries and territories, and the series is viewed by a global audience of an estimated 120 million people.

United Kingdom.

The series first aired on the ITV network in the United Kingdom beginning on 26 September 2010, and received its first Britain-wide broadcast when shown on ITV3 beginning in February 2011.  STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northern Scotland (including the Orkney and Shetland islands), originally opted out of showing "Downton Abbey", choosing instead to screen a brand-new six-part series of "Taggart", following a long practice

United States.

In the United States, "Downton Abbey" was first broadcast in January 2011 on PBS, as part of the 40th season of "Masterpiece". The programme was aired in four 90-minute episodes, controversially requiring PBS to alter the beginning and endpoints of each episode and make other small changes, slightly

Canada.

In Canada, VisionTV began airing the programme on 7 September 2011. Canadian

Australia and New Zealand.

In Australia, the first series was broadcast on the Seven Network beginning on 29 May 2011; the second series was broadcast beginning on 20 May

Ireland.

In Ireland, independent television channel TV3

Reception.

Critical response.

At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the first series received an average score of 91, based on 16 reviews, which indicates "universal acclaim". This result earned the show a Guinness World Record in 2011 for "Highest critical review ratings for a TV show", making "Downton Abbey" the critically best received TV show in the world. Season 4 of "Breaking Bad" surpassed "Downton Abbey"'s record later in the year, with a score of 96, making the first series of "Downton Abbey" the second highest rated show of 2011.  The series has been noted for its relatively sympathetic portrayal of the aristocratic family and the class-based society of early 20th century Britain. This has led to criticism from the political left and praise from the right. James Fenton wrote in "The New York Review of Books", "it

Ratings.

The first episode of "Downton Abbey" had a consolidated British audience of 9.2 million viewers, a 32% audience share—making it the most successful new drama on any channel since "Whitechapel" was launched on ITV in February 2009. The total audience for the first episode, including repeats and ITV Player viewings, exceeded 11.6 million viewers. This was beaten by the next episode, with a total audience of 11.8 million viewers—including repeats and ITV Player views. "Downton Abbey" broke the record for a single episode viewing on ITV Player.  The second series premiered in Britain on 18 September 2011 in the same 9 pm slot as the first series, with the first episode attracting an average audience of 9 million viewers on ITV1, a 34.6% share. The second episode attracted a similar following with an average of 9.3 million viewers. In January 2012, the PBS premiere attracted 4.2 million viewers, over double the network's average primetime audience of 2 million. The premiere audience was 18% higher than the first series premiere.  The second series of "Downton Abbey" gave PBS its highest ratings since 2009. The second series averaged 5.4 million

Cultural reaction.

While Julian Fellowes supports a united Ireland, there has been criticism of the stereotypical Irish characters used in the show, specifically the character of Tom Branson's brother, Kieran, portrayed as a rude and boorish drunk. Allen Leech, who plays Tom Branson defended the series stating that the show did not portray Irish characters in a pejorative fashion. Branson's character took some criticism in Ireland from "The Irish Times", which described the character as "an Irish republican turned

Authenticity.

Fellowes tries to be as authentic in his depiction of the period as he can. Despite this, the show features many linguistic anachronisms. The accents of characters have also been questioned, with the Received Pronunciation of the actors who play the wealthy characters described as "slightly more contemporary" than would be expected among early-20th-century aristocrats; however, this "elicited more natural and unaffected performances from the cast".  In 2010, Fellowes hired Alastair Bruce, an expert on state and court ritual, as historical adviser. Bruce explains his role as being "here to guide the production and particularly the director as they bring Julian's words to life. That also involves getting the social conduct right, and giving actors a sense of surety in the way they deliver a performance." Actor Jim Carter, who plays butler Carson, describes Bruce as the series "etiquette watchdog", and the UK's "Daily Telegraph" finished its 2011 profile of Bruce's role stating "Downton's authenticity, it seems, is in safe hands." However, historian Simon Schama criticised the

Home media.

Streaming.

Previously available on Netflix, since 2013 the series has been available on

Blu-ray and DVD.

On 16 September 2011, two days before the UK premiere of the second series, it was reported by Amazon.com that the

Soundtracks.

A soundtrack, featuring music from the series and also new songs, was released by Decca in September 2011. Music by John Lunn and Don Black features, with vocals from Mary-Jess Leaverland and Alfie Boe. A

Cultural impact.

Some of the fashion items worn by characters on the show have seen a strong revival of interest in the UK and elsewhere during the show's run, including starched collars, midi skirts, beaded gowns, and hunting plaids.  The Equality (Titles) Bill was an unsuccessful piece of legislation introduced in the UK Parliament in 2013 that would have allowed equal

Other media.

"The World of Downton Abbey", a book featuring a behind-the-scenes look at "Downton Abbey" and the era in which it is set, was released on 15 September 2011. It was written by Jessica Fellowes (the niece of Julian Fellowes) and published by HarperCollins.  A second book also written by Jessica Fellowes and published by HarperCollins, "The Chronicles of Downton Abbey", was released on 13 September 2012. It is a guide to the show's characters through the early part of the third series.  Due to the show's popularity, there have been a number of references and spoofs on it, such as "Family Guy" episode "Chap Stewie", which has Stewie Griffin reborn in a household similar to Downton Abbey, and "How I Met Your Mother" episode "The Fortress", where the gang watch a television show called "Woodworthy Manor", which is remarkably similar to "Downton Abbey".

"The Gilded Age".

Julian Fellowes's "The Gilded Age" is set to debut on HBO before the end of 2020, portraying New York in the 1880s

Film adaptation.

On 13 July 2018, a feature-length film was confirmed, with production to commence mid-2018. The film is written by Julian Fellowes and is a continuation of

Downton Abbey is a British historical drama television series set in the early 20th century, created and co-written by Julian Fellowes. The series first aired on ITV in the United Kingdom on 26 September 2010, and in the United States on PBS, which supported production of the series as part of its "Masterpiece Classic" anthology, on 9 January 2011.

Panství Downton (v anglickém originále Downton Abbey) je britský televizní seriál z produkce společnosti ITV. Dramatický výpravný seriál se odehrává ve smyšleném panství Downton za vlády krále Jiřího V. Děj začíná v roce 1912 zprávou o potopení Titaniku a pokračuje až do roku 1925, kde končí poslední, šestá řada.