Biography and works.

His father Anselme Jarry (1837-1895) was a salesman who descended into alcoholism; his mother Caroline, née Quernest (1842-1893), was interested in music and literature, but her family had a streak of insanity, and her mother and brother were institutionalized. The couple had two surviving children, a daughter Caroline-Marie, called Charlotte (1865-1925), and Alfred. In 1879 Caroline left Anselme and took the children to Saint-Brieuc in Brittany.  In 1888 the family moved to Rennes, where Jarry entered the lycée at 15. There he led a group of boys who enjoyed poking fun at their well-meaning, but obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and his classmate, Henri Morin, wrote a play they called "Les Polonais" and performed it with marionettes in the home of one of their friends. The main character, "Père Heb", was a blunderer with a huge belly, three teeth (one of stone, one of iron and one of wood), a single, retractable ear and a misshapen body. In Jarry's later work "Ubu Roi", Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous and astonishing characters in French literature.  At 17 Jarry passed his baccalauréat and moved to Paris to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he soon gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, "Les minutes de sable mémorial", was published in 1893.  That same year, Jarry contracted influenza. His mother and sister tended him, but once he recovered his mother fell ill of the disease and died; two years later his father perished from influenza as well, leaving Jarry a small inheritance which he quickly spent.  Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called "my sacred herb" or, when referring to absinthe, the "green goddess." A story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour (and possibly under its influence).  When he was drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline. The sight of the small man in a uniform much too large for his less than 5-foot frame—the army did not issue uniforms small enough—was so disruptively funny that he was excused from parades and marching drills. Eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience eventually inspired his novel "Days and Nights". Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to writing, drinking and the company of friends who appreciated his witty, sweet-tempered and unpredictable conversation. This period is marked by his intense involvement with Remy de Gourmont in the publication of "L'Ymagier," a luxuriously produced "art" magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints. Symbolism as an art movement was in full swing at this time, and "L'Ymagier" provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarry's play "Caesar Antichrist" (1895) drew on this movement for material. This is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. Using the biblical Book of Revelation as a point of departure, "Caesar Antichrist" presents a parallel world of extreme formal symbolism in which Christ is resurrected not as an agent of spirituality but as an agent of the Roman Empire that seeks to dominate spirituality. It is a unique narrative that effectively links the domination of the soul to contemporaneous advances in the field of Egyptology such as the 1894 excavation of the Narmer Palette, an ancient artifact used for situating the rebus within hermeneutics. The character Ubu Roi first appears in this play. The spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Fort's review "Le Livre d'art", of Jarry's 5-act play "Ubu Roi," the rewritten and expanded "Les Polonais" of his school days. "Ubu Roi"s savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, seemed unlikely to ever actually be performed on stage. However, impetuous theater director Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de l'Œuvre.  On opening night (10 December 1896), with traditionalists and the avant-garde in the audience, King Ubu (played by Firmin Gémier) stepped forward and intoned the opening word, "Merdre!" (often translated as "Pshit" or "Shittr!" in English). A quarter of an hour of pandemonium ensued: outraged cries, booing, and whistling by the offended parties, countered by cheers and applause by the more degenerate contingent. Such interruptions continued through the evening. At the time, only the dress rehearsal and opening night performance were held, and the play was not revived until after Jarry's death.  The play brought fame to the 23-year-old Jarry, and he immersed himself in the fiction he had created. Gémier had modeled his portrayal of Ubu on Jarry's own staccato, nasal vocal delivery, which emphasized each syllable (even the silent ones). From then on, Jarry would always speak in this style. He adopted Ubu's ridiculous and pedantic figures of speech; for example, he referred to himself using the royal "we", and called the wind "that which blows" and the bicycle he rode everywhere "that which rolls."  Jarry moved into a flat which the landlord had created through the unusual expedient of subdividing a larger flat by means of a horizontal rather than a vertical partition. The diminutive Jarry could just manage to stand up in the place, but guests had to bend or crouch. Jarry also took to carrying a loaded revolver. In response to a neighbor's complaint that his target shooting endangered her children, he replied, "If that should ever happen, ma-da-me, we should ourselves be happy to get new ones with you."  With Franc-Nohain and Claude Terrasse he co-founded the Théatre des Pantins, which in 1898 was the site of marionette performances of "Ubu Roi".  Living in worsening poverty, neglecting his health and drinking excessively, Jarry went on to write the novel "Le Surmâle" ("The Supermale"), which is partly a satire on the Symbolist ideal of self-transcendence.  Unpublished until after his death, his fiction "Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician" ("Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien") describes the exploits and teachings of a sort of antiphilosopher who, born at age 63, travels through a hallucinatory Paris in a sieve and subscribes to the tenets of "'pataphysics". 'Pataphysics deals with "the laws which govern exceptions and will explain the universe supplementary to this one." In 'pataphysics, every event in the universe is accepted as an extraordinary event.  Jarry once wrote, expressing some of the bizarre logic of 'pataphysics, "If you let a coin fall and it falls, the next time it is just by an infinite coincidence that it will fall again the same way; hundreds of other coins on other hands will follow this pattern in an infinitely unimaginable fashion."  In his final years, he was a legendary and heroic figure to some of the young writers and artists in Paris. Guillaume Apollinaire, André Salmon and Max Jacob sought him out in his truncated apartment. Pablo Picasso was fascinated with Jarry. After Jarry's death Picasso acquired his revolver and wore it on his nocturnal expeditions in Paris. He later bought many of his manuscripts as well as executing a fine drawing of him.  Jarry died in Paris on 1 November 1907 of tuberculosis, aggravated by drug and alcohol use. When he could not afford alcohol, he drank ether. It is recorded that his last request was for a toothpick. He was interred in the Cimetière de Bagneux, near Paris.  The complete works of Alfred Jarry are published in three volumes by Gallimard in the collection "Bibliothèque de la Pléiade".

Alfred Jarry (; 8 September 1873 – 1 November 1907) was a French symbolist writer who is best known for his play "Ubu Roi" (1896), a pataphysical work which depicts the bourgeoisie as the super-mediocre. He coined the term and philosophical concept of pataphysics, which uses absurd irony to portray symbolic truths (and playfully vice versa).

Alfred Jarry (8. září 1873 Laval, Mayenne – 1. listopadu 1907 Paříž) byl francouzský básník, romanopisec a dramatik. Jeho nejznámějším dílem je "Král Ubu", které bývá chápáno jako předchůdce absurdního dramatu. Jarry je rovněž autorem vědecké parodie známé pod jménem 'patafyzika (Jarry požadoval psaní s apostrofem).


History.

It was founded in 1737 as a fortress called Stavropol () by the Russian statesman Vasily Tatishchev. Informally it was often referred as Stavropol-on-Volga (, "Stavropol-na-Volge") to distinguish from Stavropol, a large city in southwest Russia, although Stavropol-on-Volga was never its official name.  The construction of the Kuybyshev Dam and Hydroelectric Station on the Volga River in the 1950s created the Kuybyshev Reservoir, which covered the existing location of the city, and it was completely rebuilt on a new site. In 1964, the city was chosen as the location of the new VAZ automobile plant - a joint venture between Fiat and the Soviet government. It was thus renamed Tolyatti (after Palmiro Togliatti, the longest-serving secretary of the Italian Communist Party, who had been instrumental in setting up the venture with Fiat). Much of the modern city was constructed in the 1960s to house the workers of the factory, and today, AvtoVAZ dominates the economy of the city.

Administrative and municipal status.

Within the framework of administrative divisions, Tolyatti serves as the administrative center of Stavropolsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Tolyatti—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Tolyatti is incorporated as Tolyatti Urban Okrug.

City divisions.

For the administrative purposes, the city is divided into three districts:

Economy.

The city's main claim to fame has been automobiles Lada (Zhiguli) manufactured by AvtoVAZ car plant employing some 110,000 people: in cooperation with Italy's Fiat since 1970, with General Motors since 2001 and with the Renault-Nissan Alliance since 2012.  Other industries have moved into Tolyatti because it is close to abundant supplies of electricity and water. Petrochemicals are well represented in the city. Among the significant enterprises based there are "TogliattiAzot" (Russia's biggest ammonia manufacturer headed by Sergei Makhlai) and "KuibyshevAzot" (a nitrogen fertilizer manufacturer and Russia's biggest caprolactam and polyamide producer). Other industries include building materials production, ship repair and electrical equipment and electronics.  In 2011 the Togliatti Special Economic Zone was launched in order to develop the region further and diversify the economy of the city. Several auto-component producers (German Mubea and Japanese Sanoh among them) have since been registered, as well as large industrial manufacturers (Praxair and Edscha). By November 2012 the value of project investment totalled 10 billion Rubles and around 3000 jobs were being created.

Transportation.

The transport system is well developed in the city. Public transport includes municipal buses and trolley-buses, and so-called "alternative" (commercial) transport or marshrutkas.  External transport routes are provided by two bus stations, two railway stations and a city harbour. Tolyatti has its airport as well, but it is used by personal aircraft only (the nearest international airport, Kurumoch, is located 40 km away, towards Samara). The city is linked to the federal road network by the M5 "Ural" highway.  As one of Russia's "motor cities", Tolyatti's car population has been greatly expanded, and traffic jams are common during morning and evening rush hours — Samara Oblast was one of the first regions to receive an additional licence plate code because its existing code did not have enough numbers for all its residents' cars.

Culture, education, and sports.

The creation of the Kuybyshev Reservoir in the 1950s destroyed much of the city's history, so almost all the city's cultural points of interest date from the Soviet period, but the city administration has continued to build new monuments and cathedrals. A recent notable event was the 1998 opening of the large Tatishchev Monument near the Volga. The Transfiguration Cathedral was completed in 2002.

Education.

Education is represented by over one hundred public and ten private schools, as well as several higher education institutions. Most notable ones include:

Sports.

In the eyes of the Soviet leaders, Tolyatti was a perfect Soviet city (since most population migrated here during the construction of AvtoVAZ factories) – many sports facilities appeared so that the "perfect Soviet person" could be healthy. The city has high-quality sports facilities: gymnasiums, swimming pools, ice arenas, association football and racing stadiums — as a result, many athletes, including Olympic Champion Alexei Nemov, Stanley Cup winners Alexei Kovalev and Ilya Bryzgalov had moved to Tolyatti. Former Montreal Canadiens defenseman Alexei Emelin, and former Washington Capitals winger Viktor Kozlov and defenseman Alexei Tezikov were born there. in addition, Daria Kasatkina,a professional tennis player, was born there. Tolyatti is represented in almost every kind of team sports. Tolyatti's Lada-sponsored Ice Hockey Club broke the Moscow teams' domination of the game. The Lada women's football team has won the Russian championship several times — and the Lada women's handball team, who are the Russian and European Champions, is the core for Russian national women's handball. Men's football (FC Lada Togliatti and FC Togliatti), basketball, speedway and handball teams also take part in national championships. As for the traditional national sport of Russia, bandy, there is a team founded in 2013, TOAZ, which however only takes part in a recreational league.

Parks and monuments.

Tolyatti has many parks, and many of these contain monuments of cultural, historical, and aesthetic interest. Examples include Victory Park with its Victory Monument and other monuments, Liberty Square with its Obelisk of Glory and other monuments, Central Park with its "Mourning Angel" (a memorial to victims of Soviet repression), large statue of Lenin, and other monuments, and other parks.  And there are other monuments outside the parks. The City Duma has been energetic in creating or designating historical and cultural monuments, ranging from the colossal equestrian Tatishchev Monument to the tumbledown Repin House and a monument to a faithful dog, and many other types.

Media.

There are a number of local newspapers published in Tolyatti: "Ploshchad Svobody", "Tolyattinskoye Obozreniye" ("Tolyatti Observer"), business newspaper "Monday" ("Ponedelnik"), "Volny Gorod", "Gorodskiye Vedomosti", and a few others. In the end of the 1990s, "Tolyattinskoye Obozreniye" published a series of articles on a local crime group. The stories drew attention to the group's connections with the local police. Subsequently, Togliatti Review saw two of its editors (Valery Ivanov and Alexei Sidorov) killed in 2002–2003.  The only local-born FM-band radio station is Radio August () at 70.64 and 102.3 MHz.

Religion.

Tolyatti is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious city. Most of all in the city of Orthodox Christians. Muslims are the second largest group of believers.

Crime.

October 2007 bomb attack.

During the morning rush hour of 31 October 2007, a bomb exploded on a passenger bus in the city, killing at least eight people and injuring about 50 in what Irina Doroshenko, a spokeswoman for the investigative wing of the local prosecutor's office, said could be a terrorist attack. At the beginning of the investigation, it was believed to be the work of terrorists from the North Caucasus. Early reports indicated possible involvement of Chechen terrorist Doku Umarov. However, the officials later named a 21-year-old Evgeny Vakhrushev, who also died in the blast, as the only person to be responsible for the tragedy.

Organized crime.

The city also has a reputation for gang violence.

Violent crimes.

The city has witnessed a mafia killing spree: there have been 550 commissioned killings in Tolyatti over 1998–2004, five of those murdered were journalists.  Three chief architects of Tolyatti were victims of violent crimes: Valery Lopatin was shot to death on July 7, 2004, Mikhail Syardin and Aleksander Kiryakov were also injured in violent attacks.  A former city mayor (1994–2000), Sergey Zhilkin (), was murdered on November 15, 2008.  On December 13, 2008, Anatoly Stepanov, a vice-speaker of Duma of Samara Oblast, a former head of administration of Tsentralny City District of Tolyatti in 1991-1997 and Tolyatti mayor candidate in 2004, was attacked on a street and left with serious head injuries. He died in hospital on February 24, 2009.

Corruption.

The city's mayor in 2000–2007, Nikolay Utkin (), was sentenced to seven years in prison on corruption charges.

Local government.

Mayor Antashev Sergey Alexandrovich was born on December 16, 1959 in the city of Saransk, Mordovia. In 1994 he moved to Tolyatti, was accepted to the post of director of the heating network enterprise of TEVIS. In 2000 he graduated from the International Market Institute with a degree in Management. From 2000 to April 9, 2012 - Marketing Director - Energy Sales Director of TEVIS. Deputy of the Duma of the city district of Togliatti IV (from 2005 to 2009) and V (from 2008 to 2012) convocations. From April 2012 to February 2015, he served as deputy mayor of the city of Tolyatti on urban economy. On April 12, 2017, the Tolyatti City Council appointed Sergey Antashev as the mayor of the city.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Tolyatti is twinned with:

Tolyatti (), also known in Italian as Togliattigrad and English as Togliatti in honor of Palmiro Togliatti, is a city in Samara Oblast, Russia. Population: It is the largest city in Russia which does not serve as the administrative center of a federal subject. Internationally, the city is best known as the home of Russia's largest car manufacturer AvtoVAZ (Lada), which was founded in 1966. It was previously known as "Stavropol-on-Volga" (until 1964).

Toljatti (rusky "Толья́тти" s výslovností ) je město v Rusku, asi 810 km východně od Moskvy na levém břehu Volhy naproti místu, kde pahorkatina Žiguli odklání tok řeky k východu. S 705 462 obyvateli (stav 2008) se jedná o druhé největší město Samarské oblasti a o hlavní středisko ruského automobilového průmyslu.


History.

Earliest Record.

Historical records indicate that Khabarovsk was founded in the eighth century. The Tungusic peoples are indigenous to the city's vicinity. The city was named "Boli" under Chinese occupation. During the Tang Dynasty, Boli was the capital of Heishui, called Heishuiduhufu.

17th-century Russian explorers.

In the mid-17th century, the Amur Valley became the scene of hostilities between the Russian Cossacks, who tried to expand into the region and collect tribute from the natives, and the rising Manchu Qing Dynasty, who were intent on securing the region for themselves.

Khabarov's Achansk.

The Russian explorers and raiders of the 1650s set up a number of more or less fortified camps ("ostrogs") on the Amur. Most of them were in use for only a few months, and later destroyed. It is usually thought that the first such camp in the general area of today's Khabarovsk was the fortified winter camp named Achansk () or Achansky gorodok (), built by the Cossacks of Yerofey Khabarov in September 1651 after they had sailed to the area from the upper Amur. The fort was named after the local tribe whom Khabarov's people called "Achans". Already on October 8 the fort was unsuccessfully attacked by joint forces of Achans and Duchers (who had good reasons to hate the Cossacks, due to their rather heavy-handed tribute-extraction tactics), while many Russians were away fishing. In late November, Khabarov's people undertook a three-day campaign against the local chief Zhakshur (Жакшур) (whose name is also known in a more Russian version, Zaksor (Заксор)), collecting a large amount of tribute and announcing that the locals were now subjects of the Russian Czar. Similar campaign was waged later in winter against the Ducher chief Nechiga (Нечига), farther away from Achansk.  On March 24 (or 26), 1652, Fort Achansk was attacked by Manchu cavalry, led by Ninguta's commander Haise, reinforced by Ducher auxiliaries, but the Cossacks stood their ground in a day-long battle and even managed to seize the attackers' supply train. Once the ice on the Amur broke in the spring of 1652, Khabarov's people destroyed their fort and sailed away.  The exact location of Khabarov's Achansk has long been a subject for the debate among Russian historians and geographers. A number of locations, both upstream and downstream of today's Khabarovsk, have been proposed since Richard Maack, one of the first Russian scholars to visit the region, identified Achansk in 1859 with the ruins on Cape Kyrma, which is located on the southern (Chinese) shore of the Amur, upstream of Khabarovsk. The most widely accepted point of view is probably that of Boris Polevoy, who believed that Khabarov's Achansk was located in the Nanai village later known as Odzhal-Bolon (), located on the left bank of the Amur, closer to Amursk than to Khabarovsk. One of his arguments was that both Khabarov's Achan (sometimes also spelled by the explorer as Otshchan, Отщан), and Wuzhala (乌扎拉) of the Chinese records of the 1652 engagement are based on the name of the Nanai clan "Odzhal" (Оджал), corresponding to the 20th-century name of the village as well. (The name of the clan was also written as "Uzala", as in the name of its best-known member, Dersu Uzala).  Polevoy's view appeared to gain wide support among the Russian geographer community; petitioned by the Amur Branch of the Russian Geographical Society, the Russian Government renamed the village of Odzhal to Achan in 1977, to celebrate its connection with Khabarov's raid.  As to the Cape Kyrma ruins, thought by Maack to be the remains of Achansk, B.P. Polevoy identified them as the remains of another "ostrog" - namely, Kosogorsky Ostrog, where Onufriy Stepanov stayed a few years later.

Qing Empire.

After the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), the area became an uncontested part of the Qing Empire for the next century and a half. Modern historical maps of the Qing period published in China mark the site of future Khabarovsk as Bólì (). All of the middle and lower Amur region was nominally part of the Jilin Province, run first out of Ninguta and later out of Jilin City.  French Jesuits who sailed along the Ussury and the Amur in 1709 prepared the first more or less precise map of the region. According to them, the indigenous Nanai people were living on the Ussury and on the Amur down to the mouth of the Dondon River (i.e., in the region including the site of the future Khabarovsk). These people were known to the Chinese as "Yupi Dazi" ("Fish skin Tartars").

From Khabarovka to Khabarovsk.

In 1858, the area was ceded to Russia under the Treaty of Aigun. The Russians founded the military outpost of Khabarovka (), named after Yerofey Khabarov. The post later became an important industrial center for the region. Town status was granted in 1880; in 1893, it was given its present name.  In 1894, a department of Russian Geographical Society was formed in Khabarovsk and to found libraries, theatres and museums in the city. Since then, Khabarovsk's cultural life has flourished. Much of the local indigenous history has been well preserved in the Regional Lore Museum and Natural History Museum and in places like near the Nanai settlement of Sikachi-Alyan, where cliff drawings from more than 13,000 years ago can be found. The Khabarovsk Art Museum exhibits a rare collection of old Russian icons.  In 1916, the Khabarovsk Bridge across the Amur was completed, allowing Trans-Siberian trains to cross the river without using ferries (or temporary rail tracks over the frozen river in winter).

Soviet era.

After the defeat of Japan in World War II, Khabarovsk was the site of the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials, in which twelve former members of the Japanese Kwantung Army and Unit 731 were put on trial for the manufacture and use of biological weapons during World War II.  Chinese Emperor Puyi, captured by Soviet troops in Manchuria, was relocated to Khabarovsk and lived there from 1945 up to 1950, when he was returned to China.  When Japan fell in September 1945 the United States reached an agreement with Stalin to build two U.S. Naval Advance Bases (Fleet Weather Centrals) in the USSR. The U.S built one outside Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on the Kamchatka Peninsula with the code name TAMA. The other was outside Khabarovsk in buildings provided by the Soviets, code-named MOKO. For mail Khabarovsk was assigned U.S.Navy number 1168, FPO San Francisco. The American use of these two bases was short-lived.  On 5 November 1956, the first phase of the city tram was commissioned. The Khabarovsk television studio began broadcasting in 1960. On 1 September 1967, the Khabarovsk Institute of Physical Education, now the Far Eastern State Academy of Physical Culture, opened. On 14 January 1971 Khabarovsk was awarded the Order of October Revolution. In 1975 the first stage of the urban trolley opened. In 1976 the city hosted an international ice hockey tournament with the ball for the prize of the newspaper "Sovietskaya Rossia". In 1981 the Bandy World Championship was played in the city.

Russian Federation.

In 1996, Khabarovsk held its first mayoral elections. Paul D. Filippov, whose candidacy was supported by Governor Viktor Ishayev, was defeated. In 1998, reconstruction of the central square of Khabarovsk was completed. In May 2000, President of Russia, Vladimir Putin, decreed that new federal districts be formed, and Khabarovsk became the center of the Far Eastern Federal District.  In 2006, the Center for Cardiovascular Surgery, a high-tech medical center, was constructed according to a Russian national health project. In 2008, the train station was completely renovated, and the adjacent square was reconstructed to include fountains and an underground passage. In 2009, Khabarovsk hosted the EU-Russia summit. In 2010, the city hosted a meeting of the Great Circle of Ussuri Cossacks. On 3 November 2012, Khabarovsk was awarded the honorary title of "City of Military Glory".

Administrative and municipal status.

Khabarovsk is the administrative center of the krai and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Khabarovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of krai significance of Khabarovsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of krai significance of Khabarovsk is incorporated as Khabarovsk Urban Okrug.

Geography.

Climate.

Khabarovsk experiences a monsoonal dry-winter humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dwb" borders on "Dwa").  The average annual precipitation is, mainly concentrated in the summer. In a few years, November to March hardly receive any precipitation. The driest year was 2001 with only of precipitation and the wettest was 1981 when of precipitation fell. The wettest month was August 1981 with a total precipitation of. Snowfall is common, though light, with an average maximum snow height of.  The city's extreme climate sees daily average high and low temperatures vary by around over the course of the year. The average temperature in January is and the average for July is. Extremes have ranged from in January 2011 to in June 2010.

Economy and infrastructure.

Primary industries include iron processing, steel milling, Khabarovsk shipyard, Daldizel, machinery, petroleum refining, flour milling, pharmaceutical industry, meat packing and manufacturing of various types of heavy and light machinery.  A high-speed international fiber-optic cable connects the city of Khabarovsk with the city of Fuyuan in China.

Transportation.

The city is principal railway center and is located along the Trans-Siberian Railway; the rail distance of Khabarovsk railway station from Moscow is.  Khabarovsk is served by the Khabarovsk Novy Airport with international flights to East Asia, Southeast Asia, European Russia, and Central Asia.  Road links include the Trans-Siberian Highway (M58 and M60 Highways), and water transport links are provided by the Amur River and Ussuri River.  Public transport includes: tram (8 routes); trolleybus (4 routes); bus and fixed-route taxi (marshrutka, approximately 100 routes).

Education.

There are the following institutions of higher education in Khabarovsk:

Tourism.

A key street in Khabarovsk is the broad Amursky Boulevard with its many shops and a local market. The city's five districts stretch for along the Amur River. The similar boulevard - Ussuryisky is located between the two main streets Muravyov-Amursky and Lenin street and runs to the city's artificial lakes (Gorodskie Prudi) with the sport complex Platinum Arena. The lakes are famous for their fountains with the light show. The Military History Museum of the Far Eastern Military District is located in the city, the only such museum in the Russian Far East.  Recently, there have been renovations in the city's central part, rebuilding with historical perspective. There is a walking tour from the Lenin Square to Utyos on Amur via Muravyov-Amursky Street, where visitors find traditional Russian cuisine restaurants and shops with souvenirs. There are a number of night clubs and pubs in this area. In Wintertime ice sculptures are on display on the cities squares and parks. Artists come from as far as Harbin in China.  Unlike Vladivostok, the city has never been closed to foreigners, despite it being the headquarters of the Far East Military District, and retains its historically international flavor. Once the capital of the Soviet Far East (from 1926 to 1938), since the demise of the Soviet Union, it has experienced an increased Asian presence. It is estimated that over one million Chinese travel to and through Khabarovsk yearly, and foreign investment by Japanese and Korean corporations has grown in recent years. The city has a multi-story shopping mall and about a dozen hotels.  Aleksandr Fedosov, the Khabarovsk Krai Minister of Culture, estimates that the city became more attractive to tourists following the 2015 Bandy World Championship.  Khabarovsk is the closest major city to Birobidzhan, which is the administrative center of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russia, located on the Trans-Siberian Railway, close to the border with China. The Jewish Autonomous Oblast is a federal subject of Russia in the Russian Far East, bordering Khabarovsk Krai and Amur Oblast in Russia and Heilongjiang province in China. Its administrative center is the town of Birobidzhan, and it is the only region in the world in that Yiddish is the official language. Khabarovsk provides the closest major airport to Birobidzhan, which is Khabarovsk Novy Airport (KHV / UHHH), 198 km from the center of Birobidzhan.

Military.

The headquarters of the Russian Ground Forces's Eastern Military District is located at 15 Serysheva Street. The district was preceded by the Far Eastern Military District, which was located in the same location. The following component units of the district are stationed in the city:  All 5 of these units make up the Khabarovsk Garrison. The Russian Navy's Pacific Fleet maintains a presence in the city as well. There is also an air base located to the east of the city. The main public relations asset for the military in the city is the Military History Museum of the Far Eastern Military District and the district military band.

Sports.

International events.

The city was a host to the 1981 Bandy World Championship. It also hosted the 2015 Bandy World Championship, which was visited by Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev. 21 teams were expected, which would have been 4 more than the then record-making 17 (now it's 18) from the 2014 tournament. In the end, China was the only newcomer, while Canada and Ukraine withdrew, the latter for political reasons. Khabarovsk organised the 2018 tournament as well, but not Division B that time around, which was held in Chinese Harbin. The event was named by the Federal Agency for Tourism as one of the best 200 events of the year.

Important visits.

A delegation from the 2022 Winter Olympics organising committee will visit Khabarovsk to watch matches in the bandy league, since they are considering letting bandy be a part of the programme in 2022.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Khabarovsk is twinned with:

Khabarovsk () is the largest city and the administrative center of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, located from the Chinese border, at the confluence of the Amur and Ussuri Rivers, about north of Vladivostok. The city was the administrative center of the Far Eastern Federal District of Russia from 2002 until December 2018, when Vladivostok took over that role. It is the largest city in the Russian Far East, having overtaken Vladivostok in 2015. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 577,441. It was previously known as "Khabarovka" (until 1893).

Chabarovsk (rusky Хабаровск) je město v Rusku, hlavní a největší město Chabarovského kraje. Je největším městem na ruském Dálném východě. Žije zde obyvatel.


Etymology.

Theophanes the Confessor first mentioned the name "Varna", as the city came to be known, with the Slavic conquest of the Balkans in the 6th to 7th centuries. The name could be of Varangian origin, as Varangians had been crossing the Black Sea for many years, reaching Constantinople in the early Middle Ages. In Swedish, the meaning of "värn" is "shield, defense" – hence Varna could mean "defended, fortified place". The name may be older than that; perhaps it derives from the Proto-Indo-European root "*u̯er-" "to flow, wet, water, river" (cf. Varuna), or from the Proto-Slavic root "varn" "black", or from Iranian "bar" or "var" "camp, fortress" (see also Etymological list of provinces of Bulgaria).  According to Theophanes, in 680 Asparukh, the founder of the First Bulgarian Empire, routed an army of Constantine IV near the Danube delta and, pursuing it, reached "the so-called Varna near Odyssos and the midlands thereof" (τὴν λεγομένην Βάρναν, πλησίον Ὀδυσσοῦ). Perhaps the new name applied initially to an adjacent river or lake, a Roman military camp, or an inland area, and only later to the city itself. By the late 10th century, the name "Varna" was established so firmly that when Byzantines wrestled back control of the area from the Bulgarians around 975, they kept it rather than restoring the ancient name "Odessos". The latter is often said to be of Carian origin, though no modern scholarship supports this.

Other places named Varna.

Varna Peninsula on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Varna.  Varna, Illinois, a small town of 400 people, was named in this city's honour. The War of Varna was going on at the time.  Varnensky District and its administrative centre in the Chelyabinsk Oblast,

History.

Prehistory.

Prehistoric settlements best known for the Chalcolithic necropolis (mid-5th millennium BC radiocarbon dating), a key archaeological site in world prehistory, eponymous Varna culture and internationally considered the world's oldest large find of

Thracians.

Since late Bronze Age (13th–12th c. BC) the area around Odessos had been populated with Thracians. During 8th–9th c. BC local Thracians had active commercial and cultural contacts with people from Anatolia, Thessaly, Caucasus and the Mediterranean Sea. These links were reflected in some local productions, for example, forms of bronze fibula of the age, either imported or locally made. There is no doubt that interactions occurred mostly by sea and the bay of Odessos is one of the places where the exchanges took place. Some scholars consider that during the 1st millennium BC, the region was also settled by the half-mythical Cimmerians. An example of their, probably accidental, presence, is the tumulus dated 8th–7th c. BC

Antiquity.

Odessos or Odessus () is one of the oldest ancient settlements in Bulgaria. Its name appears as Odesopolis (Ὀδησόπολις) in the "Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax"; and as Odyssos or Odyssus (Ὀδυσσός) in the Synecdemus and in Procopius. It was established in the second quarter of the sixth century BC (585–550 BC) by Miletian Greeks at a present at that time Thracian settlement. The Miletian founded an "apoikia" (trading post) of Odessos towards the end of the 7th c. BC (the earliest Greek archaeological material is dated 600–575 BC), or, according to Pseudo-Scymnus", "in the time of Astyages (here, usually 572–570 BC is suggested), within an earlier Thracian settlement. The name "Odessos" could have been pre-Greek,

Bulgarian conquest.

It has been suggested that the 681 AD peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire that established the new Bulgarian state was concluded at Varna and the first Bulgarian capital south of the Danube may have been provisionally located in its vicinity—possibly in an ancient city near Lake Varna's north shore named Theodorias (Θεοδωριάς) by Justinian I—before it moved to Pliska to the

Middle Ages.

Control changed from Byzantine to Bulgarian hands several times during the Middle Ages. In the late 9th and the first half of the 10th century, Varna was the site of a principal scriptorium of the Preslav Literary School at a monastery endowed by Boris I who may have also used it as his monastic retreat. The scriptorium may have played a key role in the development of Cyrillic script by Bulgarian scholars under the guidance of one of Saints Cyril and Methodius' disciples. Karel Škorpil suggested that Boris I may have been interred there. The synthetic culture with Hellenistic Thracian, Roman, as well as eastern—Armenian, Syrian, Persian—traits that developed around Odessos in the 6th century under Justinian I, may have influenced the Pliska-Preslav culture of the First Bulgarian Empire, ostensibly in architecture and plastic decorative arts, but possibly also in literature, including Cyrillic scholarship. In 1201, Kaloyan took over the Varna fortress, then in Byzantine hands, on Holy Saturday using a siege tower, and secured it for the Second Bulgarian Empire.  By the late 13th century, with the Treaty of Nymphaeum of

Battle of Varna.

On 10 November 1444, one of the last major battles of the Crusades in European history was fought outside the city walls. Muslims routed an army of 20,000–30,000 crusaders led by Ladislaus III of Poland (also Ulászló I of Hungary), which had assembled at the port to set sail to Constantinople. The Christian army was attacked by a superior force

Late Ottoman rule.

A major port, agricultural, trade and shipbuilding centre for the Ottoman Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries, preserving a significant and economically active Bulgarian population, Varna was later made one of the "Quadrilateral Fortresses" (along with Rousse, Shumen, and Silistra) severing Dobruja from the rest of Bulgaria and containing Russia in the Russo-Turkish wars. The Russians temporarily took over in 1773 and again in 1828, following the prolonged Siege of Varna, returning it to the Ottomans two years later after the medieval fortress was razed.  In the early 19th century, many local Greeks joined the patriotic organisation Filiki Eteria. Αt the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence (1821) revolutionary

Third Bulgarian State.

In 1878, the city, which had 26,000 inhabitants, was given to Bulgaria by Russian troops, who entered on 27 July. Varna became a front city in the First Balkan War and the First World War; its economy was badly affected by the temporary loss of its agrarian hinterland of Southern Dobruja to Romania (1913–16 and 1919–40). In the Second World War, the Red Army occupied the city in September 1944, helping cement communist rule in Bulgaria.  One of the early centres of industrial development and the Bulgarian labor movement, Varna established itself as the nation's principal port of export, a major grain producing and viticulture centre, seat of the nation's oldest institution of

Geography.

The city occupies on verdant terraces (Varna monocline of the Moesian platform) descending from the calcareous Franga Plateau (height ) on the north and Avren Plateau on the south, along the horseshoe-shaped Varna Bay of the Black Sea, the elongated Lake Varna, and two artificial waterways connecting the bay and the lake and bridged by the Asparuhov most. It is the centre of a growing conurbation stretching along the seaboard north and south (mostly residential and recreational sprawl) and along the lake west (mostly transportation and industrial facilities). Since antiquity, the city has been surrounded by vineyards, orchards, and forests. Commercial shipping facilities are being relocated inland into the lakes and canals, while the bay remains a recreation area; almost all the waterfront is parkland.  The urban area has in excess of 20 km of sand beaches and abounds in thermal mineral water sources (temperature ). It enjoys a mild climate influenced by the sea with long, mild, akin to Mediterranean, autumns, and sunny and hot, yet considerably cooler than Mediterranean summers moderated by breezes and regular rainfall. Although Varna receives about two thirds of the average rainfall for Bulgaria, abundant groundwater keeps its wooded hills lush throughout summer. The city is cut off from north and northeast winds by hills along the north arm of the bay, yet January and February still can be bitterly cold at times, with blizzards. Black Sea water has become cleaner after 1989 due to decreased chemical fertiliser in farming; it has low salinity, lacks large predators or poisonous species, and the tidal range is virtually imperceptible.  The city lies north-east of Sofia; the nearest major cities are Dobrich ( to the north), Shumen ( to the west), and Burgas ( to the south-west).

Climate.

Varna has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfb"), with mediterranean influences in summer but specially continental influences in autumn-winter. The specific Black sea climate is milder than the inland parts of the country and the sea influence lowers the effect of the occasional cold air masses from north-east. Average precipitation is the lowest

Governance.

Varna is the administrative centre for Varna county (област, "oblast", area). On the other hand, Varna municipality (община, "obshtina", borough) comprises the city and five suburbs: Kamenar, Kazashko, Konstantinovo, Topoli, and Zvezditsa, served by the city public transport system.

Local government.

The municipal chief executive is the Mayor (кмет, "kmet": the word is cognate with count). Since the end of the "de facto" one-party communist rule in 1990, there have been four mayors: Voyno Voynov, SDS (Union of Democratic Forces), "ad interim", 1990–91; Hristo Kirchev, SDS, 1991–99; Kiril Yordanov, independent, 1999–2013; Ivan Portnih, GERB, 2013–present.  The City council (общински съвет, "obshtinski savet", the 51-member legislature)

Boroughs and urban planning.

The city is divided by law into five boroughs (райони, "rayoni"), each with its mayor and council: Asparuhovo, Mladost, Odessos (the historic centre), Primorski (the largest one with

Policing and crime.

Varna was rumoured to be the hub of. Some sectors of the economy, including gambling, corporate security, tourism, real estate, and professional sports, were believed to be controlled in part by business groups with links to Communist-era secret services or the military.  However, it

Consulates.

There are consulates of the following countries: Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland,

Twin towns – sister cities.

Varna is

Demography.

The first population data date back to the mid-17th century when the town was thought to have about 4,000 inhabitants, while the first population census in 1881 counted 24,555. According to the 1883 census, it was the second-largest in Bulgaria after Ruse. Thereafter Varna became Bulgaria's third-largest city and kept this position steadily for the next 120 years, while different cities took turns in the first, second, and fourth places.  In January 2012, the city of Varna has a population of 334,781, which makes it the third-largest city in Bulgaria, while the Varna Municipality along with the legally affiliated adjacent villages had 343,643 inhabitants. The unofficial metro area (including Varna municipality and adjacent parts of Aksakovo, Avren, Beloslav, and Devnya municipalities, and excluding adjacent parts of Dobrich Province) has an estimated population of 475,000. Here, the "Varna-Devnya-Provadiya agglomeration" is not considered identical to the "Varna metro area".  Varna is one of the few cities in Bulgaria with a positive natural growth (6300 births vs. 3600 deaths in 2009) and new children's day care centers opening (6 expected in 2009).  Since December 2006, various sources, including the Bulgarian National Television, national newspapers, research agencies, the mayor's office, and local police, claim that Varna has a population by present address of over 500,000, making it the nation's second-largest city. Official statistics according to GRAO and NSI, however, have not supported their claims. In 2008, Deputy Mayor Venelin Zhechev estimated the actual population at 650,000. In December 2008, Mayor Kiril Yordanov claimed the actual number of permanent residents was 970,000, or that there were 60% unregistered people. In January 2009, the "Financial Times" said that "Varna now draws about 30,000 new residents a year." The census, carried out in February 2011, enumerated 334,870 inhabitants. If unregistered population plus the commuters from the adjacent municipalities are taken into consideration, the real population of the city during a work day reaches 400,000. Varna attracts 2 to 3 million tourists a year, as the holidaymakers may reach as many as 200,000 daily during the high season. Thus, there are about 600,000 people in the city in July and August.

Ethnic, linguistic and religious composition.

Most Varnians (варненци, "varnentsi") are ethnic Bulgarians (94%). Ethnic Turks rank second with 3%; however by 2009, Russians and other Russian-speaking recent immigrants with no Bulgarian citizenship, estimated at over 20,000, perhaps have outnumbered them, additionally there is a growing number of new Asian and African immigrants and corporate expatriates. These are mostly students of the medical university of Varna. There is a comparable number of Romani (1% of the population) mostly in three distinctive and largely impoverished neighbourhoods: Maksuda; Rozova Dolina in the Asparuhovo district; and Chengene Kula in the Vladislavovo district, while Varna is spearheading several programs on Romani integration. Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and other long-standing ethnic groups are also present although in much smaller numbers. With the departure of most Turks and Greeks and the arrival of Bulgarian refugees and

Economy.

Economically, Varna is among the best-performing and fastest-growing Bulgarian cities. In 2016 the unemployment rate is 3.5% and the average salary is nearly 900lv (450€) per month. The economy is service-based, with 61% of net revenue generated in trade and tourism, 16% in manufacturing, 14% in transportation and communications, and 6% in construction. Financial services, particularly banking, insurance, investment management, and real-estate finance are booming. As of December 2008, the fallout of the global financial crisis has not yet been hard. The city is the easternmost destination of Pan-European transport corridor 8 and is connected to corridors 7 and 9 via Rousse. Major industries traditionally include transportation (Navibulgar, Port of Varna, Varna Airport), distribution (Logistics Park Varna), shipbuilding (see also Oceanic-Creations), ship repair, and other marine industries.  In June 2007, Eni and Gazprom disclosed the South Stream project whereby a offshore natural gas pipeline from Russia's Dzhubga with annual capacity of was planned to come ashore at Varna, possibly near the Galata offshore gas field, en route to Italy and Austria. Nevertheless, the project was stopped due to the EU-Russia conflict.  With the nearby towns of Beloslav and Devnya, Varna forms the Varna-Devnya Industrial Complex, home to some of the largest chemical, thermal power, and manufacturing facilities in Bulgaria, including Varna Thermal Power Plant and "Sodi Devnya", the two largest cash privatisation deals in the country's recent history.

Transport.

Varna is accessible by air (Varna International Airport), sea (Port of Varna Cruise Terminal), railway (Central railway station), bus, and road.  Major roads include European roads Varna – Bucharest E70, Varna – Istanbul E87 and Varna – Constanta, Romania; national motorways Varna – Sofia A2 (Hemus motorway) and Varna – Burgas A5 (Cherno More motorway).

Landmarks.

City landmarks include the Varna Archaeological Museum, exhibiting the "Gold of Varna", the Roman Baths, the Battle of Varna Park Museum, the Naval Museum in the Italianate "Villa Assareto" displaying the museum ship "Drazki torpedo boat", the Museum of Ethnography in an Ottoman-period compound featuring the life of local urban dwellers, fisherfolk, and peasants in the late 19th and early 20th century.  You can see the highlight landmarks using Varna City Card – it combines all essential cultural locations, gives many discounts to tourists in restaurants and bars, and overall saves money.  The 'Sea Garden' is the oldest and perhaps largest park in town containing an open-air theatre (venue of the International Ballet Competition, opera performances and concerts), Varna Aquarium (opened 1932), the Festa Dolphinarium (opened 1984), the Nicolaus Copernicus Observatory and Planetarium, the Museum of Natural History, a terrarium, a zoo, an alpineum, a children's amusement park with a pond, boat house and ice-skating rink, and other attractions. The National Revival Alley is decorated with bronze monuments to prominent Bulgarians, and the Cosmonauts' Alley contains trees planted by Yuri Gagarin and other Soviet and Bulgarian cosmonauts. The Garden is a national monument of landscape architecture and is said to be the largest landscaped park in the Balkans.  The waterfront promenade is lined by a string of beach clubs offering a vibrant scene of rock, hip-hop, Bulgarian and American-style pop, techno, and chalga. In October 2006, "The Independent" dubbed Varna "Europe's new funky-town, the good-time capital of Bulgaria". The city enjoys a nationwide reputation for its rock, hip-hop, world music, and other artists, clubs, and related events such as July Morning and international rock and hip-hop (including graffiti) venues.  The city beaches, also known as "sea baths" (морски бани, "morski bani"), are dotted with hot (up to 55°С/131 °F) sulphuric mineral water sources (used for spas, swimming pools and public showers) and punctured by small sheltered marinas. Additionally, the long, high Asparuhov most bridge is a popular spot for bungee jumping. Outside the city are the Euxinograd palace, park and winery, the University of Sofia Botanical Garden (Ecopark Varna), the Pobiti Kamani rock phenomenon, and the medieval cave monastery, Aladzha.  Tourist shopping areas include the boutique rows along Prince Boris Blvd (with retail rents rivalling Vitosha Blvd in Sofia) and adjacent pedestrian streets, as well as the large mall and big-box cluster in the Mladost district, suitable for motorists. Two other shopping plazas, Piccadilly Park and Central Plaza, are conveniently located to serve tourists in the resorts north of the city centre, both driving and riding the public transit. ATMs and 24/7 gas stations with convenience stores abound.  Food markets, among others, include supermarket chains Billa, Kaufland and Metro. In stores and restaurants, credit cards are normally accepted. There is a number of farmers markets offering fresh local produce; the Kolkhozen Pazar, the largest one, also has a fresh fish market but is located in a crowded area virtually inaccessible for cars.  Like other cities in the region, Varna has its share of stray dogs, for the most part calm and friendly, flashing orange clips on the ears showing they have been castrated and vaccinated. However, urban wildlife is dominated by the ubiquitous seagulls, while brown squirrels inhabit the Sea Garden. In January and February, migrating swans winter on the sheltered beaches.

Education.

In 2016, Varna was home to over 37,000 students.

Institutes and colleges.

There are four BAS research institutes: Oceanology, Fisheries, Aero and Hydrodynamics, Metallography. The Institute of Oceanology (IO-BAS) has

Secondary education.

Some of the

Culture.

Varna has some of the finest and oldest museums, professional arts companies, and arts festivals in the nation and is known for its century-old traditions in visual arts, music, and book publishing, as well as for its bustling current hip hop and

Media.

As early as the 1880s, numerous daily and weekly newspapers were published in Bulgarian and several minority languages. Local newspapers include: "Cherno More", "Chernomorie", "Narodno Delo", "Pozvanete", "Varna" (weekly), "Vlastta" (e-newspaper), "Varna Utre". The national newspapers' local editions are "24 Chasa More", "Morski Dnevnik", "Morski Trud". "Morski Sviat" and "Prostori" are the two major magazines published in Varna  Local radio stations are Radio Varna opened in 1934, DarikNews (Varna), FM+ Varna,

Sports.

Football.

In the late 19th century, Varna was considered the birthplace of Bulgarian football with a Swiss gym teacher, Georges de Regibus, coaching the first varsity team at the men's high school. Football is the biggest spectator sport with two rival clubs in the nation's top professional

Swimming.

Modern Bulgarian swimming dates to 18 May 1923 when the Bulgarian Public Marine Union was established in Varna. The organisation was the first to manage and administer swimming as a sport in Bulgaria. Famous Bulgarian swimmers from Varna are Aleksi Aleksiev (aka the Pope), Milko Rachev (aka Brother Milko), Maria Nikolova, Julian Rusev. Some of the leading swimming clubs are PSK Cherno More, KPS Asteri, KPS Torpedo, SKPS Albatros and KPS Cherno More.  "Julian Rusev" pool is the second oldest 50 m Olympic-size pool in the country,

Other sports.

Men's basketball (Euroins Cherno More), women's volleyball, gymnastics, boxing, martial arts, sailing and tennis are also vibrant. A karting racing and a go kart track and a hippodrome with a horseback riding school is located in the Vinitsa neighborhood. Varna karting track is biggest track in Bulgaria.It has more than 30pcs rental go kart and 10 buggies. Another horse club is located just 10 minutes' drive away from Varna in the nearby village of Kichevo. Asparuhov bridge is a major Bulgarian bungee jumping site managed by "Club Adrenalin". Cricket has been most recently introduced by ex-pats from cricket playing nations to the city's sport scene.  In August 2007 a new public leisure centre was opened in Mladost district. The track-field stadium consists

Varna (, ) is the third-largest city in Bulgaria and the largest city and seaside resort on the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast. Situated strategically in the Gulf of Varna, the city has been a major economic, social and cultural centre for almost three millennia. Varna, historically known as "Odessos" (), grew from a Thracian seaside settlement to a major seaport on the Black Sea.

Varna (bulharsky Варна, v období antiky nazývaná Odessos) je s obyvateli po Sofii a Plovdivu třetím největší městem Bulharska. Město se rozkládá na březích Černého moře a je to největší bulharský přístav. Přezdívá se jí i „mořská metropole Bulharska“. Nalézá se tam i vrchní velení bulharského námořnictva.


Etymology.

'Wrench' is derived from Middle English "wrench", from Old English "wrenċ", from Proto-Germanic "*wrankiz" ("a turning, twisting"). First used in 1790.  'Spanner' came into use in the 1630s, referring to the tool for winding the spring of a wheel-lock firearm. From German "Spanner" (n.), from "spannen" (v.) ("to join, fasten, extend, connect"), from Proto-Germanic "*spannan", from PIE root "*(s)pen-" ("to draw, stretch, spin").

History.

Wrenches and applications using wrenches or devices that needed wrenches, such as pipe clamps and suits of armor, have been noted by historians as far back as the 15th century. Adjustable coach wrenches for the odd-sized nuts of wagon wheels were manufactured in England and exported to North America in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The mid 19th century began to see patented wrenches which used a screw for narrowing and widening the jaws, including patented monkey wrenches.  Most box end wrenches are sold as 12-point because 12-point wrenches fit over both 12-point and 6-point bolts. 12-point wrenches also offer a higher number of engagement points over 6-point. However, 12-point wrenches have been known to round off 6-point bolts as they provide less contact space.

Other types of keys.

These types of keys are not emically classified as wrenches by English speakers, but they are etically similar in function to wrenches.

Size designations.

Size is usually designated by dimensions such as across-flats distance (inscribed-hexagon size). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it had been common to define the nominal size of the wrench according to the nominal size of the "screw thread" that it was meant to be used with. Modern practice uses a size designation based on across-flats distance, whether measured in metric or in inch units.

A wrench or spanner is a tool used to provide grip and mechanical advantage in applying torque to turn objects—usually rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts—or keep them from turning.

Montážní klíč je nástroj určený pro utahování či povolování šroubových rozebiratelných spojů. Podle konstrukce rozeznáváme několik druhů klíčů: Podle konstrukce rozeznáváme několik druhů klíčů:


Prelude.

As soon as the German-Soviet war broke out in June 1941, Churchill offered assistance to the Soviets, and an agreement to this effect was signed on 12 July 1941. However, Churchill in a spoken radio transmission announcing the alliance with the USSR, reminded listeners that this alliance would not change his stance against communism. Delegations had traveled between London and Moscow to arrange the implementation of this support and when the United States joined the war in December 1941, the delegations met in Washington as well. A Combined Chiefs of Staff committee was created to coordinate British and American operations as well as their support to the Soviet Union. The consequences of a global war, the absence of a unified Allied strategy and the complexity of allocating resources between Europe and Asia had not yet been sorted out, and soon gave rise to mutual suspicions between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. There was the question of opening a second front to alleviate the German pressure on the Soviet Red Army on the Eastern Front, the question of mutual assistance (where both Britain and the Soviet Union were looking towards the United States for credit and material support and there was tension between the United States and Britain since Washington had no desire to prop up the British Empire in the event of an Allied victory). Also, neither the United States nor Britain were prepared to give Stalin a free hand in Eastern Europe and, lastly, there was no common policy on how to deal with Germany after Hitler. Communications regarding these matters between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin took place by telegrams and via emissaries—but it was evident that direct negotiations were urgently needed.  Stalin was reluctant to leave Moscow and was unwilling to risk journeys by air, while Roosevelt was physically disabled and found travel difficult. Churchill was an avid traveller and, as part of an ongoing series of wartime conferences, had already met with Roosevelt five times in North America and twice in Africa and had also held two prior meetings with Stalin in Moscow. In order to arrange this urgently needed meeting, Roosevelt tried to persuade Stalin to travel to Cairo. Stalin turned down this offer and also offers to meet in Baghdad or Basra, finally agreeing to meet in Tehran in November 1943.

Proceedings.

The conference was to convene at 16:00 on 28 November 1943. Stalin arrived well before, followed by Roosevelt, brought in his wheelchair from his accommodation adjacent to the venue. Roosevelt, who had traveled to attend and whose health was already deteriorating, was met by Stalin. This was the first time that they had met. Churchill, walking with his general staff from their accommodations nearby, arrived half an hour later. According to Charles Bohlen, translator for FDR, FDR was accompanied by Averell Harriman and Harry Hopkins. Stalin was accompanied by Vyacheslav Molotov and Kliment Voroshilov. Churchill brought Anthony Eden and Lord Ismay, and his translator was Major Arthur Birse.  As Stalin had been advocating for a second front since 1941, he was very pleased and felt that he had accomplished his principal goal for the meeting. Moving on, Stalin agreed to enter the war against Japan once Germany was defeated.  The leaders then turned to the conditions under which the Western Allies would open a new front by invading northern France (Operation Overlord), as Stalin had pressed them to do since 1941. Up to this point Churchill had advocated the expansion of joint operations of British, American, and Commonwealth forces in the Mediterranean, as opening a new western front had been physically impossible due to a lack of existing shipping routes, leaving the Mediterranean and Italy as viable goals for 1943. It was agreed Operation Overlord would be launched by American and British forces by May 1944 and that Stalin would support the Allies with a concurrent major offensive on Germany's eastern front (Operation Bagration) to divert German forces from northern France.  Additional offensives were also discussed to complement the undertaking of Operation Overlord, including the possible allied invasion of southern France prior to the landings at Normandy with the goal of drawing German forces away from the northern beaches and even a possible strike at the northern tip of the Adriatic to circumvent the Alps and drive towards Vienna. Either plan would have relied on Allied divisions engaged against the German army in Italy at the time of the conference.  Iran and Turkey were discussed in detail. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin all agreed to support Iran's government, as addressed in the following declaration:  In addition, the Soviet Union was required to pledge support to Turkey if that country entered the war. Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin agreed that it would also be most desirable if Turkey entered on the Allies' side before the year was out.  Despite accepting the above arrangements, Stalin dominated the conference. He used the prestige of the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad to get his way. Roosevelt attempted to cope with Stalin's onslaught of demands, but was able to do little except appease Stalin. Churchill argued for the invasion of Italy in 1943, then Overlord in 1944, on the basis that Overlord was physically impossible in 1943 due to lack of shipping and it would be unthinkable to do anything major until it could be launched.  Churchill proposed to Stalin a moving westwards of Poland, which Stalin accepted, which gave the Poles industrialized German land to the west and gave up marshlands to the east, while providing a territorial buffer to the Soviet Union against invasion. Churchill's plan involved a border along the Oder and the Eastern Neisse, giving Poland a fair compensation for the Eastern Borderlands in Churchill's view.

Dinner meeting.

Before the Tripartite Dinner Meeting of 29 November 1943 at the Conference, Churchill presented Stalin with a specially commissioned ceremonial sword (the "Sword of Stalingrad", made in Sheffield), as a gift from King George VI to the citizens of Stalingrad and the Soviet people, commemorating the Soviet victory at Stalingrad. When Stalin received the sheathed sword, he took it with both hands and kissed the scabbard. (He then handed it to Marshal Kliment Voroshilov, who mishandled it, causing the sword to fall to the ground.)  Stalin proposed executing 50,000–100,000 German officers so that Germany could not plan another war. Roosevelt, believing Stalin was not serious, joked that "maybe 49,000 would be enough". Churchill, however, was outraged and denounced "the cold blooded execution of soldiers who fought for their country". He said that only war criminals should be put on trial in accordance with the Moscow Document, which he himself had written. He stormed out of the room, but was brought back in by Stalin who said he was joking. Churchill was glad Stalin had relented, but thought Stalin was testing the waters.

Three powers come together.

On 1 December 1943, the three leaders came together and made declarations and negotiated the following military conclusions at the conference.  The declaration of the three powers regarding Iran:  Iran was going to war with Germany, a common enemy to the three powers. Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt addressed the issue of Iran's special financial needs during the war, and the possibility of needing aid after the war. The three powers declared to continue to render aid to Iran. The Government of Iran and the three powers reach an accord within all the disagreements to maintain the independence, sovereignty and integrity of Iran. The United States, USSR, and the United Kingdom expect Iran to follow along with the other allied nations to establish peace once the war is over, this is what was agreed upon once the declaration was made.  Conclusions:  Political decisions:  Stalin and Churchill discussed the future borders of Poland and settled on the Curzon line in the east and the Oder-Eastern Neisse line in the west. FDR had asked to be excused from any discussion of Poland out of consideration for the effects of any decision on Polish voters in the US and the upcoming 1944 election. This decision was not ratified until the Potsdam Conference of 1945.  During the negotiations at the Tehran Conference, Roosevelt secured the reincorporation of the Republics of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia into the Soviet Union only after the citizens voted on these actions. Stalin would not consent to any international control over the elections, and that all issues would have to be resolved in accordance with the Soviet Constitution.

Results.

The Yugoslav Partisans were given full Allied support, and Allied support to the Yugoslav Chetniks was halted (they were believed to be cooperating with the occupying Germans rather than fighting them); see Yugoslavia and the Allies.  The Communist Partisans under Tito took power in Yugoslavia as the Germans gradually retreated from the Balkans in 1944–45.  Turkey's president conferred with Roosevelt and Churchill at the Cairo Conference in November 1943, and promised to enter the war when his country was fully armed. By August 1944 Turkey broke off relations with Germany. In February 1945, Turkey declared war on Germany and Japan, which may have been a symbolic move that allowed Turkey to join the future United Nations.

Operation Overlord.

Roosevelt and Stalin spent much of the conference trying to convince Churchill to commit to an invasion of France, finally succeeding on 30 November when Roosevelt announced at lunch that they would be launching the invasion in May 1944. This pleased Stalin, who had been pressing his allies to open a new front in the west to alleviate some pressure on his troops. This decision may be the most critical to come out of this conference, as the desired effect of the relief of Soviet troops was achieved, leading to a Soviet rally and advance toward Germany, a tide Hitler could not stem.

United Nations.

The Tehran Conference also served as one of the first conversations surrounding the formation of the United Nations. President Roosevelt first introduced Stalin to the idea of an international organization comprising all nation states, a venue for the resolution of common issues, and a check against international aggressors. With Germany having thrust the world into chaos for the second time in as many generations, the three world leaders all agreed that something must be done to prevent a similar occurrence.

Division of Germany.

There was a shared view among the participants that Germany would need to be divided post war, with the sides differing on the number of divisions needed to neutralize her ability to wage war. While the numbers that were proposed varied widely and never came to fruition, the powers would effectively divide modern Germany into two parts until the end of the Cold War. During one dinner, Churchill questioned Stalin on his postwar territorial ambitions, to which Stalin replied "There is no need to speak at this present time about any Soviet Desires, but when the time comes we will speak".

Soviet entry into the Pacific War.

On 29 November, Roosevelt asked Stalin five questions about data and intelligence relating to Japanese and Siberian ports, and about air bases in the Maritime Provinces for up to 1,000 heavy bombers. On 2 February, Stalin told the American ambassador that America could operate 1,000 bombers from Siberia after the Soviet Union had declared war on Japan (Vladivostok is in the Russian Far East, not Siberia).

Alleged assassination plot.

According to Soviet reports, German agents planned to kill the Big Three leaders at the Tehran Conference, but called off the assassination while it was still in the planning stage. The NKVD, the USSR's counterintelligence unit, first notified Mike Reilly, Roosevelt's chief of security, of the suspected assassination plot several days prior to Roosevelt's arrival in Tehran. Reilly had gone to Tehran several days early to evaluate security concerns and explore potential routes from Cairo to Tehran. Just before Reilly returned to Cairo, the NKVD informed him that dozens of Germans had been dropped into Tehran by parachute the day before. The NKVD suspected German agents were planning to kill the Big Three leaders at the Tehran Conference.  When housing accommodations for the meeting were originally discussed, both Stalin and Churchill had extended invitations to Roosevelt, asking him to stay with them during the meeting. However, Roosevelt wanted to avoid the appearance of choosing one ally over another and decided it was important to stay at the American legation to remain independent. Roosevelt arrived in Tehran on 27 November 1943 and settled into the American legation. Close to midnight, Vyacheslav Molotov, Stalin's top aide, summoned Archibald Clark-Kerr (the British ambassador in the Soviet Union) and Averell Harriman (the American ambassador in the Soviet Union) to the Soviet embassy, warning them of an assassination plot against Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin. Molotov informed them several assassins had been apprehended, but reported additional assassins were at large and expressed concerns for President Roosevelt's safety. Molotov advised Roosevelt should be moved to the safety of the British or Soviet embassy.  Americans suspected Stalin had fabricated the assassination plot as an excuse to have Roosevelt moved to the Soviet embassy. Mike Reilly, Roosevelt's chief of Secret Service, advised him to move to either the Soviet or British embassies for his safety. One of the underlying factors influencing their decision was the distance Churchill and Stalin would need to travel for meetings at the American legation. Harriman reminded the President that the Americans would be held responsible if Stalin or Churchill were assassinated while traveling to visit Roosevelt all the way across the city. Earlier that day, Molotov had agreed to hold all meetings at the American legation because traveling was difficult for Roosevelt. The timing of Molotov announcing an assassination plot later that night aroused suspicion that his motives were to keep Stalin safely within the guarded walls of the Soviet embassy. Harriman doubted the existence of an assassination plot, but urged the President to relocate to avoid the perception of putting Churchill and Stalin in danger. Roosevelt did not believe there was a credible threat of assassination, but agreed to the move so he could be closer to Stalin and Churchill. Living in the Soviet embassy also allowed Roosevelt to gain more direct access to Stalin and build his trust. Stalin liked having Roosevelt in the embassy because it eliminated the need to travel outside the compound and it allowed him to spy on Roosevelt more easily. The Soviet embassy was guarded by thousands of secret police and located adjacent to the British embassy, which allowed the Big Three to meet securely.  After the Tehran Conference ended, Harriman asked Molotov whether there was really ever an assassination threat in Tehran. Molotov said that they knew about German agents in Tehran, but did not know of a specific assassination plot. Molotov's response minimized their assertions of an assassination plot, instead emphasizing that Stalin thought President Roosevelt would be safer at the Soviet embassy. American and British intelligence reports generally dismissed the existence of this plot and Otto Skorzeny, the alleged leader of the operation, later claimed that Hitler had dismissed the idea as unworkable before planning had even begun. The topic continues to be a theme of certain Russian historians.

The Tehran Conference (codenamed Eureka) was a strategy meeting of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill from 28 November to 1 December 1943, after the Anglo-Soviet Invasion of Iran. It was held in the Soviet Union's embassy in Tehran, Iran (Persia). It was the first of the World War II conferences of the "Big Three" Allied leaders (the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom). It closely followed the Cairo Conference which had taken place on 22–26 November 1943, and preceded the 1945 Yalta and Potsdam conferences. Although the three leaders arrived with differing objectives, the main outcome of the Tehran Conference was the Western Allies' commitment to open a second front against Nazi Germany. The conference also addressed the 'Big Three' Allies' relations with Turkey and Iran, operations in Yugoslavia and against Japan, and the envisaged post-war settlement. A separate protocol signed at the conference pledged the Big Three to recognize Iran's independence.

Teheránská konference (s kódovým názvem Eureka) byla vůbec prvním osobním setkáním hlavních představitelů SSSR, USA a Velké Británie během druhé světové války. Setkání Stalina, Roosevelta a Churchilla (tzv. Velké trojky) se konalo 28. listopadu – 1. prosince 1943 v íránském hlavním městě Teheránu. Na tomto setkání byly projednávány otázky, které do značné míry rozhodly o poválečném osudu střední a východní Evropy, hlavním výsledkem byl závazek západních spojenců otevřít druhou frontu proti nacistickému Německu.


Early History.

Between 1990 and 1992, Spiral Tribe organised or were involved in excess of thirty free parties, raves, and festivals in indoor and outdoor locations in the UK. From then on, the group travelled across Europe and had a huge influence on the emerging free tekno scene.  On New Year's Eve 1991, a rave was held at the then empty Roundhouse venue in Camden, London, which was to last for a week.  In May 1992, the free party circuit moved up a gear and attendances increased heavily. At the beginning of the month, Spiral Tribe joined DiY Sound System and Circus Warp at Lechlade, Gloucestershire. This would reach its peak by the end of May with what would become the most well known and largest party the group had involvement in, and also its most controversial.  The Castlemorton Common Festival would turn out to be an unintended consequence of Police preventing travellers heading for the annual Avon Free Festival. Thirteen members of Spiral Tribe were arrested immediately after the Castlemorton event and subsequently charged with public order offences. Their trial became one of the longest-running and most expensive cases in British legal history, lasting four months and costing the UK £4 million. Spiral Tribe first use the slogan "Make some fucking noise" on T-shirts which they wore in the court room. The judge ordered them to remove these garments. However, when the female defendants revealed that they wore nothing underneath their T-shirts, the judge reversed his instructions, something quite rare in UK courts. Regarding Castlemorton, Nigel South states that "the adverse publicity attending the event laid the groundwork for the Criminal Justice Act 1994". Low and Barnett opine in "Spaces of Democracy" that "Spiral Tribe, with their free and inclusive parties, succeeded in constituting an alternative public space, rather than just a secret one.".  After being acquitted of all charges relating to Castlemorton in March 1993, the group moved to Europe shortly after, doing parties in cities such as Rotterdam, Paris, and Berlin. Over the next few years, the collective organised parties and teknivals throughout Europe, then it slowly dispersed with some members taking up residence in Germany and the Netherlands and releasing work on Labworks and many other techno labels. Individual members of the collective joined other sound systems, did squat art events or pursued other interests.  Spiral Tribe also toured the United States towards the late 1990s.  According to Spiral Tribe founding member Mark Stormcore, the name came to him when he was at work, staring at a poster of the interconnecting spirals in an ammonite shell.  The number 23, which is ubiquitously associated with Spiral Tribe, was introduced by Mark Harrison. Despite allusions to the number having been used by Psychic TV and Robert Anton Wilson, Harrison has stated that it "had nothing to do with any pre-existing individual, group or subculture".

Members.

The three founding members of Spiral Tribe/SP23 are Mark Harrison, Debbie Griffith and Simone Feeney. As the notion of being a member of the collective has always been a largely informal one, it has regularly changed throughout time and place.

Current SP23 members.

Members of SP23 are: Mark (a.k.a Stray Wayward), Debbie (a.k.a Feenix13), Simone (a.k.a Sim Simmer), Meltdown Mickey, Simon (a.k.a Crystal Distortion), Sebastian (a.k.a 69db), Ixindamix, Jeff 23, Max Volume and Charlie Kane.

Music.

In 1992, some members of the collective signed to the major label Big Life, as a result of the publicity generated from their involvement in the organisation of the Castlemorton Common Festival. Three EPs were released with them enjoying short crossover success with "Forward the Revolution" and "Breach the Peace", an album "Tekno Terra", as well as a compilation.  Members of Spiral Tribe also released records on their own label Network 23, as well as Rabbit City, Music Inc, and LabWorks.  In 1997, Techno Import, a French commercial distributor, compiled a CD entitled "Spiral Tribe: The Sound of Teknival". The CD consisted of previously licensed material via Big Life, Rabbit City, and Force Inc. It was released without any consent from members of Spiral Tribe, was advertised on television and sold at least 30,000 copies. Spiral Tribe issued a statement against its release which began, "F**k Techno Import, Spiral Tribe Is Not for Sale", and had to take quick action to ensure the name Spiral Tribe was not copyrighted by Techno Import.

Spiral Tribe, also known as SP23, are a musical and arts collective and free party sound system heavily active throughout the UK and Europe during the 1990s organising parties, festivals and raves. They are best known for their involvement in the Castlemorton Common Festival.

Spiral Tribe byl freetekno soundsystém z Velké Británie, existující v první polovině 90. let 20. století. V letech 1990 - 1992 uspořádal mnoho free parties v Británii.


History.

As originally envisioned by the constitution in 1992, the president had little more than a ceremonial role with respect to state decorations. Article 63 promulgated an order or an award on the recommendation of the government, as expressed by the signature of the Prime Minister. The constitution did not clearly give the president a way to refuse such a referral, unless it came to him by way of a law to be enacted, thus subject to his veto. Nothing in the constitution suggests that a recommendation for decoration be voted on by parliament.  Article 63 allows for the president to be granted powers by a lesser law to "exercise powers not explicitly defined in the Constitutional Act". Such a law came into effect in 1994, which allowed for the president to award state decorations on his own authority. It also seemed to multiply the legislative routes by which a person could be recommended for an award. As a consequence of this 1994 change, the Senate, the Chamber of Deputies, the Government, or the President can all recommend a person to receive a decorations. In any of these cases, however, it is still the responsibility of the president, or his designee, to actually present the award.  The Act on the State Decorations of the Czech Republic 1994 codifies what are the orders and medals capable of being conferred or awarded. Annexes (or amendments) to the Act instructed that the designs for the insignia associated with the state decorations should be chosen following a public competition.  By law, insignia for all state decorations are individually numbered, and accompanied by a matching numbered certificate.

Bestowal rules.

The Order is conferred upon citizens of the Czech Republic and awarded to persons who are not citizens of the Czech Republic.  After the demise of a holder of an order who was a Czech citizen his/her numbered insignia of the order is returned to the Office of the President of the Republic. After the demise of a person who has been decorated with a medal or the demise of a holder of an order who was not a citizen of the Czech Republic the survivors will keep both the insignia and the certificate on the award. If there are no survivors the insignia and the certificate will be returned to the Office of the President.  By law, President of the Czech Republic is entitled to the class I insignia of this order; after leaving the office, the order may be conferred upon him for life by a joint resolution of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.  The days designated for the bestowal of decorations is January 1 and October 28. By tradition the president presents the honors and awards in the evening of October 28 during a ceremony held at the Prague Castle.

State decorations of the Czech Republic recognize outstanding acts of service to the Czech Republic. They are awarded by the President of the Czech Republic, usually, but not necessarily, on the recommendation of the Chamber of Deputies, the Senate or the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic. They may also be promulgated solely on the president's authority. They come in two varieties: "orders" being the higher honor and "medals" the lower.

Státní vyznamenání České republiky je vyznamenání udělené státem. Propůjčením nebo udělením státních vyznamenání České republiky jednotlivcům oceňuje stát jejich vynikající občanské zásluhy o budování svobodné demokratické společnosti, výsledky práce, úsilí o obranu vlasti, hrdinské a jiné výjimečné činy.


Overview.

Although accidental derailment is damaging to equipment and track, and requires considerable time and expense to remedy, derails are used in situations where there is a risk of greater damage to equipment, injury or death if equipment is allowed to proceed past the derail point.

Applications.

Derails may be applied:

Design.

There are four basic forms of derail.

Wedge.

The most common form is a wedge-shaped piece of steel which fits over the top of the rail. If a car or locomotive attempts to roll over it, the wheel flange is lifted over the rail to the outside, derailing it. When not in use, the derail folds away, leaving the rail unobstructed. It can be manually or remotely operated; in the former case it will have a lock applied to prevent it from being moved by unauthorized personnel. This type is common on North American railroads.

Split rail.

The second type of derail is the "split rail" type. These are basically a complete or partial railroad switch which directs the errant rolling stock away from the main line. This form is common throughout the UK, where it is called trap points or catch points.

Portable.

The third type of derail is the portable derail, and is used by railroad mechanical forces, as well as some industries. This is often used in conjunction with Blue Flag rules and is temporary in nature. They are placed onto one side of the rail with the derail pointed to the outside of the track. Then there is a part of the derail that is able to be tightened down to the rail and then secured with a locking mechanism. If the derail is left unlocked for any reason or does not have a locking mechanism deployed then the owner of the derail can face substantial fines if found by an FRA inspector.

Powered.

The fourth type of derailer is the powered or motorized derailer, electronically powered through an actuator. This type of derailer can be controlled remotely from an external control panel or manually. It is commonly installed as a part of Depot Personnel Protection Systems, to ensure personnel safety in maintenance workshops and depots.

Failures.

Derails have failed on occasion, such as on April 1, 1987, at Burnham, Illinois, when an unsecured car in a siding defeated a derail and fouled the mainline. Due to rusty rails, the car then failed to shunt the track circuit that should have put block signals to "stop". On May 15, 2001, CSX 8888 was pulling a train of 47 cars including some loaded with hazardous chemicals, ran uncontrolled for two hours at up to. A portable derail was used but failed, the train simply did not stop. On April 20, 2017, three workers were killed in an accident on the Englewood Railway in Woss, British Columbia when 11 runaway railcars full of logs crashed into them and their equipment while they were working on the line. The railcars had become decoupled at the top of the hill and as they rolled out-of-control down the hill they overpowered the derails which had been installed incorrectly and into rotting rail ties..

A derail or derailer is a device used to prevent fouling (blocking or compromising) of a rail track (or collision with anything present on the track, such as a person, or a train) by unauthorized movements of trains or unattended rolling stock. The device works by derailing the equipment as it rolls over or through it.

Výkolejka slouží k zastavení nežádoucího pohybu kolejových vozidel, pokud selžou standardní prostředky. Jedná se o ocelovou šikmou patku s nálitkem po straně. Pokud vozidlo najede na výkolejku, jeho kolo po patce vyjede a nálitkem na boku výkolejky je odsunuto stranou. Tak dojde k vykolejení a následně zastavení vozidla. Předpokládá se, že vykolejením vozidla vznikne menší škoda, než případnou kolizí s jinými vozidly nebo objekty.


History.

Archaeological excavations have suggested that the Lombards built the first siedlung here on the river banks. The name of the city comes in fact from a Lombard word, meaning river".  Lucca occupied and destroyed Pescia during the 13th century, but the town was quickly rebuilt. During the entire Middle Ages Florence and Lucca contended for the city, as the latter was located on the border between the two republics. In 1339, after almost ten years of war, Florence occupied it.  The economy of the town was founded on mulberry cultivation and silkworm breeding. Heavily struck by the Black Death, Pescia overcame the demographic and economical depression which had ensued only at the end of that century (15th century).  At the end of the 17th century the Grand-duke of Tuscany declared Pescia "City of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany". In the 19th century the silk production was so important that Pescia was called "the little Manchester of Tuscany". The economy of the town dropped after a commercial conflict between France and Italy (1888). The passage of Napoleon highly damaged the economy of the city, because he substituted silk with sugar beet.  Since 1925 Pesciatins found an alternative economic source in cultivating and trading flowers and olive plants (since the end of the 19th century). Bombardments during World War II caused much damage to Pescia.

Economy.

Economic activities in and around the city include flower growing (carnations, for which it is an international market center) and paper production.  The village of Sorana is known for its namesake sorana bean.

Education.

The city is home of three professional (economics, agrarian and graphic-touristic) high schools and four cultural (classical, scientific, linguistic and psycho-pedagogic) high schools.

External links.

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Pescia () is an Italian city in the province of Pistoia, Tuscany, central Italy. It is located in a central zone between the cities Lucca and Florence, on the banks of the homonymous river.

Pescia // je italské město na stejnojmenné řece v toskánské provincii Pistoia, 50 km severozápadně od Florencie. Město má rozlohu 79 km2 a zhruba 18 000 obyvatel. Pescia je vyhlášeným střediskem květinářství – každý sudý rok se na přelomu srpna a září v Pescii koná květinové bienále. Jedna z nejstarších papíren v Itálii se nachází v místní části Pietrabuona (4 km severně). Ve vesnici Collodi (3 km západně), která je dnes také částí Pescie, prožil část dětství spisovatel Carlo Lorenzini, autor "Pinocchiových dobrodružství", dnes je v Collodi velký zábavní park Pinocchio, věnovaný slavnému dřevěnému panáčkovi. "Pescijský" se italsky řekne "pesciatino".