Introduction.

There are several different types of sundials. Some sundials use a shadow or the edge of a shadow while others use a line or spot of light to indicate the time.  The shadow-casting object, known as a "gnomon", may be a long thin rod or other object with a sharp tip or a straight edge. Sundials employ many types of gnomon. The gnomon may be fixed or moved according to the season. It may be oriented vertically, horizontally, aligned with the Earth's axis, or oriented in an altogether different direction determined by mathematics.  Given that sundials use light to indicate time, a line of light may be formed by allowing the Sun's rays through a thin slit or focusing them through a cylindrical

Apparent motion of the Sun.

The principles of sundials are understood most easily from the Sun's apparent motion. The Earth rotates on its axis, and revolves in an elliptical orbit around the Sun. An excellent approximation assumes that the Sun revolves around a stationary Earth on the celestial sphere, which rotates every 24 hours about its celestial axis. The celestial axis is the line connecting the celestial poles. Since the celestial axis is aligned with the axis about which the Earth rotates, the angle of the axis with the local horizontal is the local geographical latitude.  Unlike the fixed stars, the Sun changes its position on the celestial sphere, being - on north hemisphere - at a positive declination in spring and summer, and at a negative declination in autumn and winter, and having exactly zero declination (i.e., being on the celestial equator) at the equinoxes. The Sun's celestial longitude also varies, changing by one complete revolution per year. The path of the Sun on the celestial sphere is called the ecliptic. The ecliptic passes through the twelve constellations of the zodiac in the course of a year.  This model of

History.

The earliest sundials known from the archaeological record are shadow clocks (1500 BC or BCE) from ancient Egyptian astronomy and Babylonian astronomy. Presumably, humans were telling time from shadow-lengths at an even earlier date, but this is hard to verify. In roughly 700 BC, the Old Testament describes a sundial—the "dial of Ahaz" mentioned in and. The Roman writer Vitruvius lists dials and

Terminology.

In general, sundials indicate the time by casting a shadow or throwing light onto a surface known as a "dial face" or "dial plate". Although usually a flat plane, the dial face may also be the inner or outer surface of a sphere, cylinder, cone, helix, and various other shapes.  The time is indicated where a shadow or light falls on the dial face, which is usually inscribed with hour lines. Although usually straight, these hour lines may also be curved, depending on the design of the sundial (see below). In some designs, it is possible to determine the date of the year, or it may be required to know the date to find the correct time. In such cases, there may be multiple sets of hour lines for different months, or there may be mechanisms for setting/calculating the month. In addition to the hour lines, the dial face may offer other data—such as the horizon, the equator and the tropics—which are referred to collectively as the dial furniture.  The entire object that casts a shadow or light onto the dial face is known as the sundial's "gnomon". However, it is usually only an edge of the gnomon (or another linear feature) that casts the shadow used to determine the time; this linear feature is known as the sundial's "style". The style

In the Southern Hemisphere.

A sundial at a particular latitude in one hemisphere must be reversed for use at the opposite latitude in the other hemisphere. A vertical direct south sundial in the Northern Hemisphere becomes a vertical direct north sundial in the Southern Hemisphere. To position a horizontal sundial correctly, one has to find true North or South. The same process can be used to do both. The gnomon, set to the correct latitude, has to point to the true South in the Southern hemisphere as in the Northern Hemisphere it has to point to the true North. The hour numbers also run in opposite directions, so on a horizontal dial

Adjustments to calculate clock time from a sundial reading.

The most common reason for a sundial to differ greatly from clock time is that the sundial has not been oriented correctly or its hour lines have not been drawn correctly. For example, most commercial sundials are designed as "horizontal sundials" as described above. To be accurate, such a sundial must have been designed for the local geographical latitude and its style must be parallel to the Earth's rotational axis; the style must be aligned with true North and its "height" (its angle with the horizontal) must equal the local latitude. To adjust the style height, the sundial can often be tilted slightly "up" or "down" while maintaining the style's north-south alignment.

Summer (daylight saving) time correction.

Some areas of the world practice daylight saving time, which changes the official time,

Time-zone (longitude) correction.

A standard time zone covers roughly 15° of longitude, so any point within that zone which is not on the reference longitude (generally a multiple of 15°) will experience a difference from standard time equal to 4 minutes of time per degree. For illustration, sunsets and sunrises are at a much later "official" time at the western edge of a time-zone, compared to sunrise and sunset times at the eastern edge. If a sundial is located at, say, a longitude 5° west of the reference longitude, its time will read 20

Equation of time correction.

Although the Sun appears to rotate uniformly about the Earth, in reality this motion is not perfectly uniform. This is due to the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit (the fact that the Earth's orbit about the Sun is not perfectly circular, but slightly elliptical) and the tilt (obliquity) of the Earth's rotational axis relative to the plane of its orbit. Therefore, sundial time varies from standard clock time. On four days of the year, the correction is effectively zero. However, on others, it can be as much as a quarter-hour early or late. The amount of correction is described by the equation of time.

With fixed axial gnomon.

The most commonly observed sundials are those in which the shadow-casting style is fixed in position and aligned with the Earth's rotational axis, being oriented with true North and South, and making an angle with the horizontal equal to the geographical latitude. This axis is aligned with the celestial poles, which is closely, but not perfectly, aligned with the pole star Polaris. For illustration, the celestial axis points vertically at the true North Pole, where it points horizontally on the equator. At Jaipur, home of the world's largest sundial, gnomons are raised 26°55" above horizontal, reflecting the local latitude.  On any given day, the Sun appears to rotate uniformly about this axis, at about 15° per hour, making a full circuit (360°) in 24 hours. A linear gnomon aligned with this axis will cast a sheet of shadow (a half-plane) that, falling opposite to the Sun, likewise rotates about the celestial axis at 15° per hour. The shadow is seen by falling on a receiving surface that is usually flat, but which may be spherical, cylindrical, conical or of other shapes. If the shadow falls on a surface that is symmetrical about the celestial axis (as in an armillary sphere, or an equatorial dial), the surface-shadow likewise moves uniformly; the hour-lines on the sundial are equally spaced. However, if the receiving surface is not symmetrical (as in most horizontal sundials), the surface shadow generally moves non-uniformly and the hour-lines are not equally spaced; one exception is the Lambert dial described below.  Some types of sundials are designed with a fixed gnomon that is not aligned with the celestial poles like a vertical obelisk. Such sundials are covered below under the section, "Nodus-based sundials".

Empirical hour-line marking.

The formulas shown in the paragraphs below allow the positions of the hour-lines to be calculated for various types of sundial. In some cases, the calculations are simple; in others they are extremely complicated. There is an alternative, simple method of finding the positions of the hour-lines which can be used for many types of sundial, and saves a lot of work in cases where the calculations are complex. This is an empirical procedure in which the position of the shadow of the gnomon of a real sundial is marked at hourly intervals. The equation of

Equatorial sundials.

The distinguishing characteristic of the "equatorial dial" (also called the "equinoctial dial") is the planar surface that receives the shadow, which is exactly perpendicular to the gnomon's style. This plane is called equatorial, because it is parallel to the equator of the Earth and of the celestial sphere. If the gnomon is fixed and aligned with the Earth's rotational axis, the sun's apparent rotation about the Earth casts a uniformly rotating sheet of shadow from the gnomon; this produces a uniformly rotating line of shadow on the equatorial plane. Since the sun rotates 360° in 24 hours, the hour-lines on an equatorial dial are all spaced 15° apart (360/24).  The uniformity of their spacing makes this type of sundial easy to construct. If the dial plate material is opaque, both sides of the equatorial dial must be marked, since the shadow will be cast from below in winter and from above in summer. With translucent dial plates (e.g. glass) the hour angles need only be marked

Horizontal sundials.

In the "horizontal sundial" (also called a "garden sundial"), the plane that receives the shadow is aligned horizontally, rather than being perpendicular to the style as in the equatorial dial. Hence, the line of shadow does not rotate uniformly on the dial face; rather, the hour lines are spaced according to the rule.  Or in other terms:  where L is the sundial's geographical latitude (and the angle the gnomon makes with the dial plate), formula_5 is the angle between a given hour-line

Vertical sundials.

In the common "vertical dial", the shadow-receiving plane is aligned vertically; as usual, the gnomon's style is aligned with the Earth's axis of rotation. As in the horizontal dial, the line of shadow does not move uniformly on the face; the sundial is not "equiangular". If the face of the vertical dial points directly south, the angle of the hour-lines is instead described by the formula  where L is the sundial's geographical latitude, formula_9 is the angle between a given hour-line and the noon hour-line (which always points due north) on the plane, and "t"

Polar dials.

In "polar dials", the shadow-receiving plane is aligned "parallel" to the gnomon-style. Thus, the shadow slides sideways over the surface, moving perpendicularly to itself as the Sun rotates about the style. As with the gnomon, the hour-lines are all aligned with the Earth's rotational axis. When the Sun's rays are nearly parallel to the plane, the shadow moves very quickly and the hour lines are spaced far apart. The direct East- and West-facing dials are examples of a polar dial. However, the face of a polar dial need not be vertical; it need only

Vertical declining dials.

A "declining dial" is any non-horizontal, planar dial that does not face in a cardinal direction, such as (true) North, South, East or West. As usual, the gnomon's style is aligned with the Earth's rotational axis, but the hour-lines are not symmetrical about the noon hour-line. For a vertical dial, the angle formula_12 between the noon hour-line and another hour-line is given by the formula below. Note that formula_12 is defined positive in the clockwise sense w.r.t. the upper vertical hour angle; and that its conversion to the equivalent solar hour requires careful consideration of which quadrant of the sundial that it belongs in.  where formula_15 is

Reclining dials.

The sundials described above have gnomons that are aligned with the Earth's rotational axis and cast their shadow onto a plane. If the plane is neither vertical nor horizontal nor equatorial, the sundial is said to be "reclining" or "inclining". Such a sundial might be located on a South-facing roof, for example. The hour-lines for such a sundial can be calculated by slightly correcting the horizontal formula above  where formula_29 is the desired angle of reclining relative to the local vertical, L is the sundial's geographical latitude, formula_30 is the angle between a given hour-line and the noon hour-line (which always points due north) on the plane, and "t" is the number of hours before or after

Declining-reclining dials/ Declining-inclining dials.

Some sundials both decline and recline, in that their shadow-receiving plane is not oriented with a cardinal direction (such as true North or true South) and is neither horizontal nor vertical nor equatorial. For example, such a sundial might be found on a roof that was not oriented in a cardinal direction.  The formulae describing the spacing of the hour-lines on such dials are rather more complicated than those for simpler dials.  There are various solution approaches, including some using the methods of rotation matrices, and some making a 3D model of the reclined-declined plane and its vertical declined counterpart plane, extracting the geometrical relationships between the hour angle components on both these planes and then reducing the trigonometric algebra.  One system of formulas for Reclining-Declining sundials: (as stated by Fennewick) The angle formula_35 between the noon hour-line and another hour-line is given by the formula below. Note that formula_35 advances counterclockwise with respect to the zero hour angle for those dials that are partly south-facing and clockwise for those that are north-facing.  within the parameter ranges : formula_38 and formula_39.  Or, if preferring to use inclination angle, formula_40, rather than the reclination, formula_29, where formula_42 :  within the parameter ranges : formula_38 and formula_45.  Here formula_46 is the sundial's geographical latitude; formula_17 is the orientation switch integer; "t" is the time in hours before or

Spherical sundials.

The surface receiving the shadow need not be a plane, but can have any shape, provided that the sundial maker is willing to mark the hour-lines. If the style is aligned with the Earth's rotational axis, a spherical shape is convenient since the hour-lines are equally spaced, as they are on the equatorial dial above; the sundial is "equiangular". This is the principle behind the armillary sphere and the equatorial bow sundial. However, some equiangular sundials—such as the Lambert dial described below—are based on other principles.  In the "equatorial bow sundial",

Cylindrical, conical, and other non-planar sundials.

Other non-planar surfaces may be used to receive the shadow of the gnomon.  As an elegant alternative, the style (which could be created by a hole or slit in the circumference) may be located on the circumference of a cylinder or sphere, rather than at its central axis

Movable-gnomon sundials.

Sundials can be designed with a gnomon that is placed in a different position each day throughout the year. In other words, the position of the gnomon relative to the centre of the hour lines varies. The gnomon need not be aligned with the celestial poles and may even be perfectly vertical (the analemmatic dial). These dials, when combined with fixed-gnomon sundials, allow the user to determine true North with no other aid; the two sundials are correctly aligned if and only if they both show the same time.

Universal equinoctial ring dial.

A "universal equinoctial ring dial" (sometimes called a "ring dial" for brevity, although the term is ambiguous), is a portable version of an armillary sundial, or was inspired by the mariner's astrolabe. It was likely invented by William Oughtred around 1600 and became common throughout Europe.  In its simplest form, the style is a thin slit that allows the Sun's rays to fall on the hour-lines of an equatorial ring. As usual, the style is aligned with the Earth's axis; to do this, the user may orient the dial towards true North and suspend the ring dial vertically from the appropriate point on the meridian

Analemmatic sundials.

Analemmatic sundials are a type of horizontal sundial that has a vertical gnomon and hour markers positioned in an elliptical pattern. There are no hour lines on the dial and the time of day is read on the ellipse. The gnomon is

Foster-Lambert dials.

The Foster-Lambert dial is another movable-gnomon sundial. In contrast to the elliptical analemmatic dial, the Lambert dial is circular with evenly spaced hour lines, making it an "equiangular sundial", similar to the equatorial, spherical, cylindrical and conical dials described above. The gnomon of a Foster-Lambert dial is neither vertical nor aligned with the Earth's

Altitude-based sundials.

Altitude dials measure the height of the Sun in the sky, rather than directly measuring its hour-angle about the Earth's axis. They are not oriented towards true North, but rather towards the Sun and generally held vertically. The Sun's elevation is indicated by the position of a nodus, either the shadow-tip of a gnomon, or a spot of light.  In altitude dials, the time is read from where the nodus falls on a set of hour-curves that vary with the time of year. Many such altitude-dials' construction is calculation-intensive, as also the case with many azimuth dials. But the capuchin dials (described below) are constructed and used graphically.  Altitude dials' disadvantages:  Since the Sun's altitude is the same at times equally spaced about noon (e.g., 9am and 3pm), the user had to know whether it was morning or afternoon. At, say, 3:00 pm, that isn't a problem. But when the dial indicates a time 15 minutes from noon, the user likely won't have a way of distinguishing 11:45 from 12:15.  Additionally, altitude dials are less accurate near noon, because the sun's altitude isn't changing rapidly then.  Many of these dials are portable and simple to use. As is often the case with other sundials, many altitude dials are designed for only one latitude. But the capuchin dial (described below) has a version that's adjustable for latitude.  The book on sundials by Mayall & Mayall describes the Universal Capuchin sundial.

Human shadows.

The length of a human shadow (or of any vertical object) can be used to measure the sun's elevation and, thence, the time. The Venerable Bede gave a table for estimating the time from the length of one's shadow in feet, on the assumption that a monk's height is six

Shepherd's dial – timesticks.

A shepherd's dial – also known as a "shepherd's column dial", "pillar dial", "cylinder dial" or "chilindre" – is a portable cylindrical sundial with a knife-like gnomon that juts out perpendicularly. It is normally dangled from a rope or string so the cylinder is vertical. The gnomon can be twisted to be above a month or day indication on the face of the cylinder. This corrects the sundial for the equation of time. The entire sundial is then twisted on its string so that the gnomon aims toward the Sun, while the cylinder remains vertical. The tip of the shadow indicates the time on the cylinder. The hour curves inscribed on the cylinder permit one to read the time. Shepherd's dials are sometimes hollow, so that the gnomon can fold within when not in use.  The shepherd's dial

Ring dials.

In a ring dial (also known as an "Aquitaine" or a "perforated ring dial"), the ring is hung vertically and oriented sideways towards the sun. A beam of light passes through a

Card dials (Capuchin dials).

Card dials are another form of altitude dial. A card is aligned edge-on with the sun and tilted so that a ray of light passes through an aperture onto a specified spot, thus determining the sun's altitude. A weighted string hangs vertically downwards from a hole in the card, and carries a bead or knot. The position of the bead on the hour-lines of the

Navicula.

A navicula de Venetiis or "little ship of Venice" was an altitude dial used to tell time and which was shaped like a little ship. The cursor (with a

Nodus-based sundials.

Another type of sundial follows the motion of a single point of light or shadow, which may be called the "nodus". For example, the sundial may follow the sharp tip of a gnomon's shadow, e.g., the shadow-tip of a vertical obelisk (e.g., the "Solarium Augusti") or the tip of the horizontal marker in a shepherd's dial. Alternatively, sunlight may be allowed to pass through a small hole or reflected from a small (e.g., coin-sized) circular mirror, forming a small spot of light whose position may be followed. In such cases, the rays of light trace out a cone over the course of a day; when the rays fall on a surface, the path followed is the intersection of the cone with that surface. Most commonly, the receiving surface is a geometrical plane, so that the path of the shadow-tip or light-spot (called "declination line") traces out a conic section such as a hyperbola or an ellipse. The collection of hyperbolae was called a "pelekonon" (axe) by the Greeks, because it resembles a double-bladed ax, narrow in the center (near the noonline) and flaring out at the ends (early morning and late evening hours).  There is a simple verification of hyperbolic declination lines on a sundial: the distance from the origin to the equinox line should be equal to harmonic mean of distances from the origin to summer and winter solstice lines.  Nodus-based sundials may use a small hole or mirror to isolate a single ray of light; the former are sometimes called "aperture dials". The oldest example is perhaps the antiborean sundial ("antiboreum"), a spherical nodus-based sundial that faces true North; a ray of sunlight enters from the South through a small hole located at the sphere's pole and falls on the hour and date lines inscribed within the sphere, which resemble lines of longitude and latitude, respectively, on a globe.

Reflection sundials.

Isaac Newton developed a convenient and inexpensive sundial, in which a small mirror is placed on the sill of a south-facing window. The mirror acts like a nodus, casting a single spot of light on the ceiling. Depending on the geographical latitude

Multiple dials.

Sundials are sometimes combined into multiple dials. If two or more dials that operate on different principles — such as an analemmatic dial and a horizontal or vertical dial — are combined, the resulting multiple dial becomes self-aligning, most of the time. Both dials need to output both time and declination. In other words, the direction of true North need not be determined; the dials are oriented correctly when they read the same time and declination. However, the most common forms combine dials are based on the same principle and the analemmatic does not normally output the declination of the sun, thus are not self-aligning.

Diptych (tablet) sundial.

The diptych consisted of two small flat faces, joined by a hinge. Diptychs usually folded into little flat boxes suitable for a pocket. The gnomon was a string between the two faces. When the string was tight, the two faces formed both a vertical and horizontal sundial. These were made of white ivory, inlaid with black lacquer markings. The gnomons were black braided silk, linen

Multiface dials.

A common type of multiple dial has sundials on every face of a Platonic solid (regular polyhedron), usually a cube.  Extremely ornate sundials can be composed in this way, by applying a sundial to every surface of a solid object.  In some cases, the sundials are formed as hollows in a solid object, e.g., a cylindrical hollow aligned with the

Prismatic dials.

Prismatic dials are a special case of polar dials, in which the sharp edges of a prism of

Unusual sundials.

Benoy dials.

The Benoy Dial was invented by Walter Gordon Benoy of Collingham in Nottinghamshire. Light is used to replace the shadow-edge of a gnomon. Whereas a gnomon casts a sheet of shadow, an equivalent sheet of light can be created

Bifilar sundial.

Invented by the German mathematician Hugo Michnik in 1922, the bifilar sundial has two non-intersecting threads

Digital sundial.

A digital sundial indicates the current time with numerals formed by the sunlight striking it. Sundials of this type are

Globe dial.

The globe dial is a sphere aligned with the Earth's rotational axis, and equipped with a spherical vane. Similar to sundials with a

Noon marks.

The simplest sundials do not give the hours, but rather note the exact moment of 12:00 noon. In centuries past, such dials were used to correct mechanical clocks, which were sometimes so inaccurate as to lose or gain significant time in a single day.  In some U.S. colonial-era houses, a noon-mark can often be found carved into a floor or windowsill. Such marks indicate local noon,

Sundial cannon.

A sundial cannon, sometimes called a'meridian cannon', is a specialized sundial that is designed to create an 'audible noonmark', by automatically igniting a quantity of gunpowder at noon. These were novelties rather than precision sundials, sometimes installed in parks in Europe mainly

Meridian lines.

A horizontal line aligned on a meridian with a gnomon facing the noon-sun is termed a meridian line and does not indicate the time, but instead the day

Sundial mottoes.

The association of sundials with time has inspired their designers over the centuries to display mottoes as part of the design. Often these cast the device in the role of "memento mori", inviting the observer to reflect on the transience

Use as a compass.

If a horizontal-plate sundial is made for the latitude in which it is being used, and if it is mounted with its plate horizontal and its gnomon pointing to the celestial pole that is above the horizon, then it shows the correct time in apparent solar time. Conversely, if the directions of the cardinal points are initially unknown, but the sundial is aligned so it shows the correct apparent solar time as calculated from the reading of a clock, its gnomon shows the direction of True North or South, allowing the sundial to be used as a compass. The sundial can be placed on a horizontal surface, and rotated about a vertical axis until it shows the correct time. The gnomon will then be pointing to the North, in the northern hemisphere, or to the South in the southern hemisphere. This method is much more accurate than using a watch as a compass (see Cardinal direction#Watch face) and can be used in places where the magnetic declination is large, making a magnetic compass unreliable. An alternative method uses two sundials of different designs. (See #Multiple dials, above.) The dials are attached to and aligned with each other, and are oriented so they show the same time. This allows the directions of the cardinal points and the apparent solar time to be determined simultaneously, without requiring a clock.

A sundial is a device that tells the time of day when there is sunlight by the apparent position of the Sun in the sky. In the narrowest sense of the word, it consists of a flat plate (the "dial") and a "gnomon", which casts a shadow onto the dial. As the Sun appears to move across the sky, the shadow aligns with different "hour-lines", which are marked on the dial to indicate the time of day. The "style" is the time-telling edge of the gnomon, though a single point or "nodus" may be used. The gnomon casts a broad shadow; the shadow of the style shows the time. The gnomon may be a rod, wire, or elaborately decorated metal casting. The style must be parallel to the axis of the Earth's rotation for the sundial to be accurate throughout the year. The style's angle from horizontal is equal to the sundial's geographical latitude.

Sluneční hodiny jsou zařízení pro určování času v závislosti na zdánlivém pohybu Slunce. Sluncem ozařovaný předmět vrhá stín a podle aktuální pozice stínu lze určit čas. Určování času je matematicky odvozeno z kombinace dvou základních pohybů Země a Slunce. Z pravidelné rotace Země kolem své osy (čas v rozmezí dne) a z rotace země kolem slunce (rozmezí roku). Představují pravděpodobně nejstarší a zároveň i nejvíce rozšířené hodiny z elementárních (tedy přírodních živlů využívajících) časoměrných přístrojů, k nimž dále řadíme hodiny přesýpací, vodní, olejové i jiné. Většina typů slunečních hodin má číselník od 6:00 až po 18:00. Čísla jsou většinou římská. První sluneční hodiny byly sestaveny pravděpodobně již před sedmi tisíci lety.


Drafting and development.

The Twelve Tables of Roman society were said by the Romans to have come about as a result of the long social struggle between patricians and plebeians. After the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, the Republic was governed by a hierarchy of magistrates. Initially, only patricians were eligible to become magistrates and this, among other plebeian complaints, was a source of discontent for plebeians. In the context of this unequal status, plebeians would take action to secure concessions for themselves using the threat of secession. They would threaten to leave the city with the consequence that it would grind to a halt, as the plebeians were Rome's labor force. Tradition held that one of the most important concessions won in this class struggle was the establishment of the "Twelve Tables", establishing basic procedural rights for all Roman citizens in relation to each other. The drafting of the Twelve Tables may have been fomented by a desire for self-regulation by the patricians, or for other reasons.  Around 450 BC, the first "decemviri" (decemvirate, board of "Ten Men") were appointed to draw up the first ten tables. According to Livy, they sent an embassy to Greece to study the legislative system of Athens, known as the Solonian Constitution, but also to find out about the legislation of other Greek cities. Some scholars deny that the Romans imitated the Greeks in this respect or suggest that they visited only the Greek cities of Southern Italy, and did not travel all the way to Greece. In 450 BC, the second "decemviri" started to work on the last two tables.  The first decemvirate completed the first ten codes in 450 BC. Here is how Livy describes their creation: "...every citizen should quietly consider each point, then talk it over with his friends, and, finally, bring forward for public discussion any additions or subtractions which seemed desirable." (cf. Liv. ) In 449 BC, the second decemvirate completed the last two codes, and after a "secessio plebis" to force the Senate to consider them, the Law of the Twelve Tables was formally promulgated. According to Livy (AUC ) the Twelve Tables were inscribed on bronze (Pomponius (Dig. 1 tit. 2 s2 §4) alone says on ivory), and posted publicly, so all Romans could read and know them.  Some of the provisions are procedural to ensure fairness among all Romans in the courts, while other established legal terms dictating the legality of capital crimes, intentional homicide, treason, perjury, judicial corruption, and writing slanderous poems. The Romans valued keeping peace in the city and the Twelve Tables were a mechanism of establishing and continuing peace and equality.

Laws of the Twelve Tables.

Table III: Execution of Judgment.

The laws the Twelve Tables covered were a way to publicly display rights that each citizen had in the public and private sphere. These Twelve Tables displayed what was previously understood in Roman society as the unwritten laws. The public display of the copper tablets allowed for a more balanced society between the Roman patricians who were educated and understood the laws of legal transactions, and the Roman plebeians who had little education or experience in understanding law. By revealing the unwritten rules of society to the public, the Twelve Tables provided a means of safeguard for Plebeians allowing them the opportunity to avoid financial exploitation and added balance to the Roman economy  Featured within the Twelve Tables are five rules about how to execute judgments, in terms of debtors and creditors. These rules show how the ancient Romans maintained peace with financial policy. In his article "Development of the Roman Law of Debt Security," Donald E. Phillipson states the Twelve Tables were, “A set of statutes known as the Twelve Tables that was passed by an early assembly served as the foundation of the Roman private law. The Twelve Tables were enacted in the mid-fifth century B.C. as the result of a conflict among social classes in ancient Rome.” (pp. 1231–1232).  In the book, "The Twelve Tables," written by an anonymous source due to its origins being collaborated through a series of translations of tablets and ancient references, P.R. Coleman-Norton arranged and translated many of the significant features of debt that the Twelve Tables enacted into law during the 5th century. The translation of the legal features surrounding debt and derived from the known sources of the Twelve Tables are stated as such  “1. Of debt acknowledged and for matters judged in court (in iure) thirty days shall be allowed by law [for payment or for satisfaction].  2. After that [elapse of thirty days without payment] hand shall be laid on (manus infection) [the debtor]. He shall be brought into court (in ius).  3. Unless he (the debtor) discharge the debtor unless someone appear in court (in iure) to guarantee payment for him, he (the creditor) shall take [the debtor] with him. He shall bind [him] either with thong or with fetters, of which the weight shall be not less than fifteen pounds or shall be more if he (the creditor) choose.  4. If he (the debtor) chooses, he shall live on his own [means]. If he lives not on his own [means], [the creditor,] who shall hold him in bonds, shall give [him] a pound of bread daily; if he (the creditor) shall so desire, he shall give [him] more.  5. Unless they (the debtors) make a compromise, they (the debtors) shall be held in bonds for sixty days. During those days they shall be brought to [the magistrate] into the comitia (meeting-place) on three successive markets [...]”  The five mandates of the Twelve Tables encompassing debt created a new understanding within social classes in ancient Rome that insured financial exploitation would be limited within legal business transactions.

Women: Tables V, VI & X.

The Twelve Tables have three sections that pertain to women as they concern estates and guardianship, ownership and possession, and religion, which give a basic understanding as to the legal rights of females. One of the aspects highlighted in the Twelve Tables is a woman's legal status and standing in society. Women were considered to be a form of guardianship similar to that of minors, and sections on ownership and possession give off the impression that women were considered to be akin to a piece of real estate or property due to the use of terms such as "ownership" and "possession".

Influence and significance.

The Twelve Tables are often cited as the foundation for ancient Roman law. Although faced with many issues, the Twelve Tables provided a premature understanding of some key concepts such as justice, equality, and punishment. While these ideas were not fully understood, the Twelve Tables play a significant role in the basis of the early American legal system. Political theorists, such as James Madison have highlighted the importance of the Twelve Tables in crafting the United States Bill of Rights. The idea of property was also perpetuated in the Twelve Tables, including the different forms of money, land, and slaves.  Although legal reform occurred soon after the implementation of the Twelve Tables, these ancient laws provided social protection and civil rights for both the patricians and plebeians. At this time, there was extreme tension between the privileged class and the common people resulting in the need for some form of social order. While the existing laws had major flaws that were in need of reform, the Twelve Tables eased the civil tension and violence between the plebeians and patricians.  The influence of the Twelve Tables is still evident in the modern day. For example, the Twelve Tables are tied into the notion of Jus Commune, which translates as "common law", but is commonly referred to as "civil law" in English-speaking countries. Some countries including South Africa and San Marino still base their current legal system on aspects of jus commune. In addition, law school students throughout the world are still required to study the Twelve Tables as well as other facets of Roman Law in order to better understand the current legal system in place.

Sources.

The Twelve Tables are no longer extant: although they remained an important source through the Republic, they gradually became obsolete, eventually being only of historical interest. The original tablets may have been destroyed when the Gauls under Brennus burned Rome in 387 BC. Cicero claimed that he learned them by heart as a boy in school, but that no one did so any longer. What we have of them today are brief excerpts and quotations from these laws in other authors, often in clearly updated language. They are written in an archaic, laconic Latin (described as Saturnian verse). As such, though it cannot be determined whether the quoted fragments accurately preserve the original form, what is present gives some insight into the grammar of early Latin. Some claim that the text was written as such so plebeians could more easily memorize the laws, as literacy was not commonplace during early Rome. Roman Republican scholars wrote commentaries upon the Twelve Tables, such as L. Aelius Stilo, teacher of both Varro and Cicero.  Like most other early codes of law, they were largely procedural, combining strict and rigorous penalties with equally strict and rigorous procedural forms. In most of the surviving quotations from these texts, the original table that held them is not given. Scholars have guessed at where surviving fragments belong by comparing them with the few known attributions and records, many of which do not include the original lines, but paraphrases. It cannot be known with any certainty from what survives that the originals ever were organized this way, or even if they ever were organized by subject at all.

The Law of the Twelve Tables ( or "Duodecim Tabulae") was the legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. The Tables consolidated earlier traditions into an enduring set of laws.

Zákon nebo Zákoník dvanácti desek (latinsky "Lex" nebo "Lex duodecim tabularum") je nejstarší kodifikace římského práva z poloviny 5. století př. n. l. Jednalo se o dvanáct bronzových desek, které byly vystaveny na Foru Romanu.


Theory.

Tomography is solved as an inverse problem. Seismic travel time data are compared to an initial Earth model and the model is modified until the best possible fit between the model predictions and observed data is found. Seismic waves would travel in straight lines if Earth was of uniform composition, but the compositional layering, tectonic structure, and thermal variations reflect and refract seismic waves. The location and magnitude of these variations can be calculated by the inversion process, although solutions to tomographic inversions are non-unique.  Seismic tomography is similar to medical x-ray computed tomography (CT scan) in that a computer processes receiver data to produce a 3D image, although CT scans use attenuation instead of traveltime difference. Seismic tomography has to deal with the analysis of curved ray paths which are reflected and refracted within the earth and potential uncertainty in the location of the earthquake hypocenter. CT scans use linear x-rays and a known source.

History.

Seismic tomography requires large datasets of seismograms and well-located earthquake or explosion sources. These became more widely available in the 1960s with the expansion of global seismic networks and in the 1970s when digital seismograph data archives were established. These developments occurred concurrently with advancements in computing power that were required to solve inverse problems and generate theoretical seismograms for model testing.  In 1977, P-wave delay times were used to create the first seismic array-scale 2D map of seismic velocity. In the same year, P-wave data were used to determine 150 spherical harmonic coefficients for velocity anomalies in the mantle. The first model using iterative techniques, required when there are a large numbers of unknowns, was done in 1984. This built upon the first radially anisotropic model of the Earth, which provided the required initial reference frame to compare tomographic models to for iteration. Initial models had resolution of ~3000 to 5000 km, as compared to the few hundred kilometer resolution of current models.  Seismic tomographic models improve with advancements in computing and expansion of seismic networks. Recent models of global body waves used over 10 traveltimes to model 10 to 10 unknowns.

Process.

Seismic tomography uses seismic records to create 2D and 3D images of subsurface anomalies by solving large inverse problems such that generate models consistent with observed data. Various methods are used to resolve anomalies in the crust and lithosphere, shallow mantle, whole mantle, and core based on the availability of data and types of seismic waves that penetrate the region at a suitable wavelength for feature resolution. The accuracy of the model is limited by availability and accuracy of seismic data, wave type utilized, and assumptions made in the model.  P-wave data are used in most local models and global models in areas with sufficient earthquake and seismograph density. S- and surface wave data are used in global models when this coverage is not sufficient, such as in ocean basins and away from subduction zones. First-arrival times are the most widely used, but models utilizing reflected and refracted phases are used in more complex models, such as those imaging the core. Differential traveltimes between wave phases or types are also used.

Local tomography.

Local tomographic models are often based on a temporary seismic array targeting specific areas, unless in a seismically active region with extensive permanent network coverage. These allow for the imaging of the crust and upper mantle.

Regional or global tomography.

Regional to global scale tomographic models are generally based on long wavelengths. Various models have better agreement with each other than local models due to the large feature size they image, such as subducted slabs and superplumes. The trade off from whole mantle to whole earth coverage is the coarse resolution (hundreds of kilometers) and difficulty imaging small features (e.g. narrow plumes). Although often used to image different parts of the subsurface, P- and S-wave derived models broadly agree where there is image overlap. These models use data from both permanent seismic stations and supplementary temporary arrays.

Applications.

Seismic tomography can resolve anisotropy, anelasticity, density, and bulk sound velocity. Variations in these parameters may be a result of thermal or chemical differences, which are attributed to processes such as mantle plumes, subducting slabs, and mineral phase changes. Larger scale features that can be imaged with tomography include the high velocities beneath continental shields and low velocities under ocean spreading centers.

Hotspots.

The mantle plume hypothesis proposes that areas of volcanism not readily explained by plate tectonics, called hotspots, are a result of thermal upwelling from as deep as the core-mantle boundary that become diapirs in the crust. This is an actively contested theory, although tomographic images suggest there are anomalies beneath some hotspots. The best imaged of these are large low-shear-velocity provinces, or superplumes, visible on S-wave models of the lower mantle and believed to reflect both thermal and compositional differences.  The Yellowstone hotspot is responsible for volcanism at the Yellowstone Caldera and a series of extinct calderas along the Snake River Plain. The Yellowstone Geodynamic Project sought to image the plume beneath the hotspot. They found a strong low-velocity body from ~30 to 250 km depth beneath Yellowstone and a weaker anomaly from 250 to 650 km depth which dipped 60° west-northwest. The authors attribute these features to the mantle plume beneath the hotspot being deflected eastward by flow in the upper mantle seen in S-wave models.  The Hawaii hotspot produced the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. Tomographic images show it to be 500 to 600 km wide and up to 2,000 km deep.

Subduction zones.

Subducting plates are colder than the mantle into which they are moving. This creates a fast anomaly that is visible in tomographic images. Both the Farallon plate that subducted beneath the west coast of North America and the northern portion of the Indian plate that has subducted beneath Asia have been imaged with tomography.

Limitations.

Global seismic networks have expanded steadily since the 1960s, but are still concentrated on continents and in seismically active regions. Oceans, particularly in the southern hemisphere, are under-covered. Tomographic models in these areas will improve when more data becomes available. The uneven distribution of earthquakes naturally biases models to better resolution in seismically active regions.  The type of wave used in a model limits the resolution it can achieve. Longer wavelengths are able to penetrate deeper into the earth, but can only be used to resolve large features. Finer resolution can be achieved with surface waves, with the trade off that they cannot be used in models of the deep mantle. The disparity between wavelength and feature scale causes anomalies to appear of reduced magnitude and size in images. P- and S-wave models respond differently to the types of anomalies depending on the driving material property. First arrival time based models naturally prefer faster pathways, causing models based on these data to have lower resolution of slow (often hot) features. Shallow models must also consider the significant lateral velocity variations in continental crust.  Seismic tomography provides only the current velocity anomalies. Any prior structures are unknown and the slow rates of movement in the subsurface (mm to cm per year) prohibit resolution of changes over modern timescales.  Tomographic solutions are non-unique. Although statistical methods can be used to analyze the validity of a model, unresolvable uncertainty remains. This contributes to difficulty comparing the validity of different model results.  Computing power limits the amount of seismic data, number of unknowns, mesh size, and iterations in tomographic models. This is of particular importance in ocean basins, which due to limited network coverage and earthquake density require more complex processing of distant data. Shallow oceanic models also require smaller model mesh size due to the thinner crust.  Tomographic images are typically presented with a color ramp representing the strength of the anomalies. This has the consequence of making equal changes appear of differing magnitude based on visual perceptions of color, such as the change from orange to red being more subtle than blue to yellow. The degree of color saturation can also visually skew interpretations. These factors should be considered when analyzing images.

Seismic tomography is a technique for imaging the subsurface of the Earth with seismic waves produced by earthquakes or explosions. P-, S-, and surface waves can be used for tomographic models of different resolutions based on seismic wavelength, wave source distance, and the seismograph array coverage. The data received at seismometers are used to solve an inverse problem, wherein the locations of reflection and refraction of the wave paths are determined. This solution can be used to create 3D images of velocity anomalies which may be interpreted as structural, thermal, or compositional variations. Geoscientists use these images to better understand core, mantle, and plate tectonic processes.

Seismická tomografie je obdobou lékařské počítačové tomografie, která používá digitální seismogramy k rekonstrukci stavby Země (v budoucnosti snad také jiných planet). Využívá se principu tomografické rekonstrukce, který bere v úvahu nestejné časy šíření seismických vln přicházejících z různých směrů skrze zkoumané prostředí. Výsledkem je potom 3D model variací rychlostí v zemském nitru od svrchní kůry až po spodní plášť. Pro zemský plášť, ve kterém je dominantním jevem termální konvekce, je se znalostí minerálového složení prostředí možno tyto výsledky převést na teplotní odchylky – díky tomu se daří zobrazit např. vzestupné horké plumy či zanořující se studené tektonické desky.


Early life.

Charles Robert "Charlie" Watts was born to Charles Richard Watts, a lorry driver for the London Midland & Scottish Railway, and his wife Lillian Charlotte ("née" Eaves), at University College Hospital, London, and raised (along with his sister Linda) in Kingsbury. He attended Tylers Croft Secondary Modern School from 1952 to 1956; as a schoolboy, he displayed a talent for art, music, cricket and football (soccer).  As a child, Watts lived in Wembley, at 23 Pilgrims Way. Many of Wembley's houses had been destroyed by German bombs during World War II; Watts and his family lived in a prefabricated home, as did many in the community. Watts's neighbour Dave Green, who lived next door at 22 Pilgrims Way, was a childhood friend, and they remain friends today; Green went on to become a jazz bass player. Green recalls that as boys, "we discovered 78rpm records. Charlie had more records than I did... We used to go to Charlie's bedroom and just get these records out." Watts' earliest records were jazz recordings; he remembers owning 78 RPM records of Jelly Roll Morton, and Charlie Parker. Green recalls that Watts also "had the one with Monk and the Johnny Dodge Trio. Charlie was ahead of me in listening and acquisitions." When Watts and Green were both about thirteen, Watts became interested in drumming:  Green and Watts began their musical careers together from 1958 to 1959, playing in a jazz band in Middlesex called the Jo Jones All Stars.  Watts initially found his transition to rhythm and blues puzzling; commenting, "I went into rhythm and blues. When they asked me to play, I didn't know what it was. I thought it meant Charlie Parker, played slow.  Watts' parents gave him his first drum kit in 1955; he was interested in jazz, and would practice drumming along with jazz records he collected. After completing secondary school, he enrolled at Harrow Art School (subsequently absorbed by the University of Westminster), which he attended until 1960. After leaving school, Watts worked as a graphic designer for an advertising company called Charlie Daniels Studios, and also played drums occasionally with local bands in coffee shops and clubs. In 1961 he met Alexis Korner, who invited him to join his band, Blues Incorporated. At that time Watts was on his way to a sojourn working as a graphic designer in Denmark, but he accepted Korner's offer when he returned to London in February 1962.  Watts played regularly with Blues Incorporated and maintained a job with another advertising firm of Charles, Hobson and Grey. It was in mid-1962 that Watts first met Brian Jones, Ian "Stu" Stewart, Mick Jagger, and Keith Richards, who also frequented the London rhythm and blues clubs, but it was not until January 1963 that Watts finally agreed to join the Rolling Stones.

Musical career.

Besides his music, Watts contributed graphic art to early Rolling Stones records such as the "Between the Buttons" record sleeve and was responsible for the 1975 tour announcement press conference in New York City. The band surprised the throng of waiting reporters by driving and playing "Brown Sugar" on the back of a flatbed truck in the middle of Manhattan traffic. Watts remembered this was a common way for New Orleans jazz bands to promote upcoming dates. Moreover, with Jagger, he designed the elaborate stages for tours, first contributing to the lotus-shaped design of that 1975 Tour of the Americas, as well as the 1989–1990 Steel Wheels/Urban Jungle Tour, the 1997 Bridges to Babylon Tour, the 2002–2003 Licks Tour, and the 2005–2007 A Bigger Bang Tour.  Watts has been involved in many activities outside his life as a member of The Rolling Stones. In 1964, he published a cartoon tribute to Charlie Parker entitled "Ode to a High Flying Bird". Although he has made his name in rock, his personal tastes lie principally in jazz. In the late 1970s, he joined Ian Stewart in the back-to-the-roots boogie-woogie band Rocket 88, which featured many of the UK's top jazz, rock and R&B musicians. In the 1980s, he toured worldwide with a big band that included such names as Evan Parker, Courtney Pine and Jack Bruce, who was also a member of Rocket 88. In 1991, he organised a jazz quintet as another tribute to Charlie Parker. 1993 saw the release of "Warm And Tender", by the Charlie Watts Quintet, which included vocalist Bernard Fowler. This same group then released "Long Ago And Far Away" in 1996. Both records included a collection of Great American Songbook standards. After a successful collaboration with Jim Keltner on The Rolling Stones' "Bridges to Babylon", Watts and Keltner released a techno/instrumental album simply titled, "Charlie Watts/Jim Keltner Project". Watts stated that even though the tracks bore such names as the "Elvin Suite" in honour of the late Elvin Jones, Max Roach and Roy Haynes, they were not copying their style of drumming, but rather capturing a feeling by those artists. "Watts at Scott's" was recorded with his group, "the Charlie Watts Tentet", at the famous jazz club in London, Ronnie Scott's. In April 2009 he started to perform concerts with the ABC&D of Boogie Woogie together with pianists Axel Zwingenberger and Ben Waters plus his childhood friend Dave Green on bass.  In 1989, The Rolling Stones were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In the July 2006 issue of "Modern Drummer" magazine, Watts was voted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame, joining Ringo Starr, Keith Moon, Steve Gadd, Buddy Rich and other highly esteemed and influential drummers from the history of rock and jazz. In the estimation of noted music critic Robert Christgau, Watts is "rock's greatest drummer."

Private life and public image.

On 14 October 1964, Watts married Shirley Ann Shepherd (born 11 September 1938), whom he had met before the band became successful. The couple have one daughter, Serafina, born in March 1968, who in turn has given birth to Watts' only grandchild, a girl named Charlotte.  Watts has expressed a love–hate attitude toward touring. When he appeared on the BBC's Radio 4 "Desert Island Discs", in February 2001, he said that he has had a compulsive habit for decades of sketching every new hotel room he occupies – and its furnishings. He stated that he keeps every sketch, but still doesn't know why he feels the compulsion to do this.  Watts' personal life has outwardly appeared to be substantially quieter than those of his bandmates and many of his rock-and-roll colleagues; onstage, he seems to furnish a calm and amused counterpoint to his flamboyant bandmates. Ever faithful to his wife Shirley, Watts consistently refused sexual favours from groupies on the road; in Robert Greenfield's "STP: A Journey Through America with The Rolling Stones", a documentary of the 1972 American Tour, it is noted that when the group was invited to the Playboy Mansion during that tour, Watts took advantage of Hugh Hefner's game room instead of frolicking with the women. "I've never filled the stereotype of the rock star," he remarked. "Back in the '70s, Bill Wyman and I decided to grow beards, and the effort left us exhausted."  Watts has spoken openly about a period in the mid-1980s when his previously moderate use of alcohol and drugs became problematic: "[My drug and alcohol problems were] my way of dealing with [family problems]... Looking back on it, I think it was a mid-life crisis. All I know is that I became totally another person around 1983 and came out of it about 1986. I nearly lost my wife and everything over my behaviour".  One anecdote relates that in the mid-1980s, an intoxicated Jagger phoned Watts' hotel room in the middle of the night asking "Where's my drummer?". Watts reportedly got up, shaved, dressed in a suit, put on a tie and freshly shined shoes, descended the stairs, and punched Jagger in the face, saying: "Don't ever call me your drummer again. You're my fucking singer!"  Watts is noted for his personal wardrobe: the British newspaper "The Daily Telegraph" has named him one of the "World's Best Dressed Men". In 2006, "Vanity Fair" elected Watts into the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame.  In June 2004, Watts was diagnosed with throat cancer, despite having quit smoking in the late 1980s, and underwent a course of radiotherapy. The cancer has since gone into remission, and he returned to recording and touring with The Rolling Stones.  Watts now lives in Dolton, a rural village in west Devon, where he and wife Shirley own an Arabian horse stud farm. He also owns a percentage of The Rolling Stones' various corporate entities.

Discography.

In addition to his work with The Rolling Stones, Watts has released the following albums:

Charles Robert Watts (born 2 June 1941) is an English drummer, best known as a member of the Rolling Stones since 1963. Originally trained as a graphic artist, he started playing drums in London's rhythm and blues clubs, where he met Brian Jones, Mick Jagger, and Keith Richards. In January 1963, he joined their fledgling group, the Rolling Stones, as drummer, while doubling as designer of their record sleeves and tour stages. Watts cites jazz as a major influence on his drumming style. He has toured with his own group, the Charlie Watts Quintet, and appeared in London at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club with the Charlie Watts Tentet.

Charlie Watts (* 2. června 1941) je britský rockový bubeník, který je více než padesát let členem kapely The Rolling Stones. Watts je také leader jazzového ansámblu, pod svým jménem vydal několik jazzových desek. Mimoto se také podílel na produkci některých desek Rolling Stones a navrhoval některá pódia, která si sebou Stones na svých turné vozili. Mezi jeho koníčky patří chov koní.


Geography.

The town lies on the border between Czech Republic and Austria (WGS-84 coordinates N49°01'11", E15°06'02"), close to Austria's northernmost point near Haugschlag. A road border crossing leads to the village of Grametten. Nová Bystřice has about 3,400 inhabitants.  The villages and hamlets of Albeř, Artolec, Blato, Hradiště, Hůrky, Klášter, Klenová, Nový Vojířov, Ovčárna, Senotín, Skalka and Smrčná are administrative parts of Nová Bystřice.

History.

The first written mention of Nová Bystřice was in 1175 when the area was colonized by Knights Hospitaller of the Mailberg commandry, at the behest of the Nuremberg burgrave Conrad II of Raabs. The first settlers came from the adjacent Duchy of Austria; before that, there was a Slavic population (as evidenced by a Slavic burial ground). With Konrad's death in 1191, the Raabs dynasty became extinct and in 1260 the estates were finally enfeoffed to the Rosenberg family by Margaret of Babenberg, consort of King Ottokar II of Bohemia.  When Ottokar was disseized by King Rudolf I of Germany in 1276, the estates became the personal dominion of Rudolf's daughter Judith of Habsburg ("Jitka"), who later became Bohemian Queen. In 1341 Bystřice was promoted to city status. During the reign of John the Blind it became a market town. Around the same time it suffered from great famine. The town was burned down by Jan Žižka in 1420. It was rebuilt and since then it has been called Nová ("New") Bystřice. In July 1533 a group of religious reformers killed 40 Catholic monks, along with other Catholics, and destroyed the monastery. About one-third of the population emigrated to America after 1870.In 1945 the German population was expelled according to the Beneš decrets  During the cold war, the Iron Curtain garrison was located in the town. The neighbouring village of Mnich was abandoned and destroyed due to its vicinity to the border.

Present.

The nature park informally called "Bohemian Canada" is attractive and the number of inhabitants, as well as seasonal visitors, is growing. Major accommodation development projects are under way.  The presence of a border checkpoint is another important feature of the town, although heavy traffic is usually routed through other major checkpoints in Southern Bohemia.

Industry.

Textile industry is the traditional business activity, however the recent years saw a drop in the demand. "Alma Nová Bystřice" and "Otavan" factory finished its operations.  A substantial number of residents work in the agricultural industry. People working in technical and administrative sector usually commute to Jindřichův Hradec. Increasing tourism is leading to the expansion of services (hotels, restaurants) in the town and is an important source of income, especially during summer months.

Tourist attractions.

Nová Bystřice is the endpoint of a privately operated narrow gauge railroad to Jindřichův Hradec. During the tourist season, the trains are powered by historic steam engines and offer various entertainment.  The Monachus golf resort, situated on the town's southwestern edge, is a major attraction for golfers. It consists of 18-hole championship course and nine-hole public golf academy. The characteristic landscape of Bohemian Canada — hilly with many forests and meadows — is regarded as almost perfect for this game. The golf resort of Haugschlag (located in the neighbouring Austrian region of Waldviertel) is a few hundreds meters away, over the national border.  Nová Bystřice is a frequent destination of cyclists; many biking routes pass through the town, offering almost all degrees of difficulty.

Nová Bystřice (, ) is a town in Jindřichův Hradec District, in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic

Nová Bystřice () je město v okrese Jindřichův Hradec při hranici s Rakouskem. Nová Bystřice má i s připojenými vesnicemi obyvatel.


Recording.

In an effort to capitalise on the recent UK chart success of their eponymous debut album, Black Sabbath returned to the studio with producer Rodger Bain in June 1970, just four months after the album was released. "Paranoid" was recorded at Regent Sound Studios and Island Studios in London, England.  The album's title track was written as an afterthought. As drummer Bill Ward explains: "We didn't have enough songs for the album, and Tony (Iommi) just played the guitar lick and that was it. It took twenty, twenty-five minutes from top to bottom." In the liner notes to the 1998 live album "Reunion", bassist Geezer Butler recounts to Phil Alexander that they wrote the song "in five minutes, then I sat down and wrote the lyrics as quickly as I could. It was all done in about two hours." According to Alexander, "Paranoid" "crystallized the band's writing process, with Iommi initiating the ideas with his charred riffs, Ozzy (Osbourne) working on a melody, Geezer providing drive and the majority of the lyrics, and Bill Ward locking into a set of often pounding rhythms beneath Butler's bass rumble." The single was released in September 1970 and reached number four on the UK charts, remaining Black Sabbath's only top ten hit.  Most of the songs on "Paranoid" evolved during onstage improvisational jams. In the "Classic Albums" documentary on the making of "Paranoid", guitarist Tony Iommi recalls that "War Pigs" came from "one of the clubs" with Butler adding, "During the song "Warning" we used to jam that out and that particular night when we were jamming it out Tony just went "da-dum!"" In the same documentary, Iommi demonstrates his approach to the guitar solo in the song, explaining that "I always tried to keep the bottom string ringing so it fills it out nicely." On "Planet Caravan", Osbourne sings through a Leslie speaker, with the singer telling "Mojo" in 2010, "Then Rodger Bain used an oscillator on it – whatever that is. It looks like a fridge with a knob on."

Composition.

The album's opening track "War Pigs" was originally intended to be called "Walpurgis". It was then changed to "War Pigs", which the band intended to name the album until it was changed to "Paranoid" after the record company became convinced that the song of the same name had potential as a single. Butler explained his intentions to "Classic Albums": "I wanted to write a song called 'Walpurgis' – you know, the Satanic version of Christmas – write it about that Satan isn't a spiritual thing, it's warmongers. That's who the real Satanists are, all these people who are running the banks and the world and trying to get the working class to fight the wars for them. We sent it off to the record company and they said, 'No, we're not going to call it that. Too Satanic!' So I changed it to 'War Pigs'." In his autobiography "I Am Ozzy", vocalist Ozzy Osbourne recalls, "It was originally going to be called 'Walpurgis'... which was a term for a black magic wedding or something. Then we changed it to 'War Pigs', and Geezer came up with these heavy duty lyrics about death and destruction. No wonder we never got any chicks at our gigs. Geezer just wasn't interested in your average 'I love you' pop song... Geezer also liked to put a lot of topical stuff, like Vietnam references, into our songs. He had his ear to the ground, Geezer did."  The song "Iron Man" was originally entitled "Iron Bloke". Upon hearing Iommi play the main guitar riff for the first time, Osbourne remarked in awe that it sounded "like a big iron bloke walking around". The title was later changed to "Iron Man" as bassist and lyricist Geezer Butler composed the lyrics. The riff to "Iron Man" is iconic among heavy metal guitarists, with Osbourne declaring in his memoir that "...Tony Iommi turned out to be one of the greatest heavy rock riff-makers of all time. Whenever we went into the studio we'd challenge him to beat his last riff – and he'd come up with something like 'Iron Man' and blow everyone away." Butler wrote the lyrics as the story of a man who time travels into the future and sees the apocalypse. In the process of returning to the present, he is turned into steel by a magnetic field. His attempts to warn the populace are ignored and mocked. This causes Iron Man to become angry and vengeful, causing the destruction seen in his vision. "Electric Funeral" also contains apocalyptic imagery dealing with nuclear warfare. In "The Last Supper" concert film, Iommi remembers that at the time with most bands "it was all the 'flowers in your hair' and we wanted to sing and play about the other side of life." In the 1992 documentary "Don't Blame Me" Osbourne concurs: "It was me and five kids living in a two bedroom house. My father worked nights, my mother worked days, we had no money, we never had a car, we very rarely went on holiday... And suddenly, you know, we hear about 'If you're going to San Francisco be sure to wear a flower in your hair'. And we're thinking, (contemptuously) 'What the fuck is San Francisco? Where is this? "What's all this flower shit?" I've got no shoes on my feet. "You could just see that a lot of things were going wrong in the world," Butler recalled to "Classic Albums" in 2010, "and no one was saying anything about it. Bob Dylan had long since faded from the present memory and there was nobody talkin' about the things that I wanted to talk about – political stuff – so that's what inspired me."  In 2013, Butler told "Mojo" magazine that the song "Paranoid" was "about depression, because I didn't really know the difference between depression and paranoia. It's a drug thing; when you're smoking a joint you get totally paranoid about people, you can't relate to people. There's that crossover between the paranoia you get when you're smoking dope and the depression afterwards." In 2015 Butler elaborated further to Dave Everly of "Classic Rock": "I used to be a cutter. I'd cut my arms, stick pins through my fingers, that kind of thing. I used to get really depressed and it was the only thing that could bring me out of it. If Sabbath hadn't made it, I'd have been long dead. I'd have killed myself." According to Mick Wall's book "Black Sabbath: Symptom of the Universe", Butler was dead set against the song because he thought it too closely resembled Led Zeppelin's "Communication Breakdown", with the bassist admitting, "I thought it was so much like that we couldn't possibly get away with it... They were our favorite band by that time." "Planet Caravan" was an unusually quiet song which showcased that the band was capable of more than bone crushing guitar riffs. Iommi admitted that the band had doubts about the mellow number, telling "Classic Albums", "It was almost one of those 'Should we do this? with Butler adding, "We just came up with that in the studio and it was really laid back so and we didn't want to come out with the usual love crap. So it was about floating through the universe with your loved one, instead of 'Let's go down to the pub and have some chips', or whatever... Just taking a spaceship out into the stars and having the ultimate romantic weekend." Django Reinhardt's jazz influence is apparent on Iommi's guitar playing. "Hand of Doom" dealt with the problem of soldiers returning from the Vietnam War strung out on heroin, which the band witnessed first-hand when they played two American Army bases but, as Butler observed to Matthew Longfellow in 2010, there was "nothing on the news about this. There was no programs telling you that the US troops in Vietnam, to get through that horrible war, were like fixing up and all this kinda thing. It just stuck in me head and when we got to "Hand of Doom", that's what I wrote it about."  According to Butler, Ward's drum solo "Rat Salad" resulted from the band having to play eight and three quarter hour spots a night in Europe early in their career. "Bill used to fill out a whole 45 minutes doing a drum solo just to get rid of that 45 minutes," he revealed to "Classic Albums". "I have no idea where the title came from, though." While Butler may have now forgotten where the title of "Rat Salad" came from, in 1971 he was on record stating it came from a joke about Ward's hair having not been combed. In 2013, Sabbath biographer Mick Wall described the closing track on the album, "Fairies Wear Boots", as a "hard-driving riff sweetened by a beautifully baleful melody" with a lyric written by Osbourne about a nasty encounter with a group of skinheads.

Title and artwork.

"Paranoid" was originally titled "War Pigs", but the record company allegedly changed it out of fear of a backlash from supporters of the ongoing Vietnam War. Additionally, the band's label felt the title track was more marketable as a single. Ozzy Osbourne states in "I Am Ozzy" that the name change had nothing to do with the Vietnam War, and was entirely due to the record company deciding the album would be easier to sell if it was named after the single, which had already had significant success by the time the album was released, reaching number 4 on the UK Singles Chart. It was too late, however, to alter the artwork. Joe Smith, who was executive vice-president at Warner Bros. from 1970 to 1972, told "Classic Albums" that the rest of Warner Bros. didn't want anything to do with them: "We were in the midst of the war ourselves in this country and what their reasoning was not that important to me. I knew we weren't going to call it 'War Pigs'." Regarding the song "Paranoid", Smith recalls, "It was on an acetate. I remember playing it and turning the sound way up and shaking the whole building... I said 'I think that's the breakthrough album. I don't understand it but that 'Paranoid' sounds like a great title for an album and a great title for a single. "That album title had nothing to do with the sleeve," Osbourne explained to Phil Alexander in 1998. "What the fuck does a bloke dressed as a pig with a sword in his hand got to do with being paranoid, I don't know, but they decided to change the album title without changing the artwork."  The cover, with the original "War Pigs" title in mind, was designed and shot by Keith Macmillan (credited as Keef) in Black Park. His assistant, Roger Brown, was the model. The original UK vinyl release was in a gatefold sleeve featuring a black-and-white photo of the band, posed outdoors on a grassy hill. Also shot by Macmillan, it was the band's first appearance on album artwork. To spread the original picture over the gatefold, Ozzy Osbourne was separated from the other members of the band and a section of the grass was copied and dropped into the gap.

Release, reception and legacy.

The album was issued in the United Kingdom in October 1970, where its sales were enhanced by the success of the "Paranoid" single. "That single attracted screaming kids", Iommi recalled in the liner notes to "Reunion" in 1998. "We saw people dancing when we played it and we decided that we shouldn't do singles for a long while after that to stay true to the fans who'd liked us before we'd become popular." "Paranoid" US release was delayed until January 1971, as the "Black Sabbath" album was still on the charts at the time of its UK release. "Paranoid" reached No.12 in the US in March 1971 with virtually no radio airplay.  In a retrospective review, AllMusic's Steve Huey cited "Paranoid" as "one of the greatest and most influential heavy metal albums of all time", which "defined the sound and style of heavy metal more than any other record in rock history". Ben Mitchell from "Blender" said it was "the greatest metal album of all time". According to "Rolling Stone" Joe Levy, "Sabbath ruled for bummed-out kids in the Seventies" and "nearly every heavy-metal and extreme rock band of the last three decades", including Metallica, Nirvana and Slipknot, "owes a debt of worship" to Iommi's "crushing" guitar riffs, Ward and Butler's "Visigoth rhythm section" and Osbourne's "agonized bray" on tracks such as "Paranoid", "Iron Man" and "War Pigs". Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic in "" (1981), feeling he could not take the band's horror-themed music seriously enough to appreciate it as anything other than "camp", noting that the title cut is especially "screamworthy". However, he did note that the band does take musical heaviness to "undreamt-of extremes".  The album is currently ranked at No.131 on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. "Paranoid" chart success allowed the band to tour the US for the first time in October 1970, which spawned the release of the album's second single "Iron Man". Although it failed to reach the top 40, "Iron Man" remains one of Black Sabbath's most popular songs, as well as the band's highest charting US single. As of 2014, "Paranoid" is Black Sabbath's best-selling album, having sold 1.6 million copies in the US since the beginning of the SoundScan era.  Speaking to "Guitar World" in 2008, Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains called "Hand of Doom" "a masterpiece. It's hypnotic and terrifying and has a seductive groove. The song explodes into a twisted landscape made physical through sound." Scott Ian of Anthrax told Nick Bowcott that "War Pigs" is "the sound of the apocalypse. It's the sound of a vengeful God. It's the sound of a beast crushing everything in its path." In the Holiday 2008 issue of "Guitar World", Lemmy Kilmister of Motörhead called "Iron Man" one of the most memorable riffs of all time while Kerry King of Slayer cited "Electric Funeral" as having "some monster riffs that have stood the test of time".

Controversy.

In the early 1970s, an American nurse committed suicide and the "Paranoid" album was found on her turntable. The album's possible influence in her decision to commit suicide was mentioned in the inquest, but ultimately it was decided that Black Sabbath were not to blame for her death. "A lot of the words in the songs – a lot of the moods of the songs – are aggressive," Iommi acknowledged. "Especially in the early days – Satanic, if you like... That was the way it felt, so that was the way we played. But it got out of hand. With "Paranoid" in England, for instance. There was a girl found dead – a nurse she was: dead in her room with our album on the turntable going round. And it was taken to court saying that it was because of the album that she was depressed and killed herself, which was totally ridiculous, I think."  In a 1982 interview with "The New Music" Butler claimed, "If the moral majority don't understand it they'll try to put it down, or get other people to read all sorts of things into it... The moral majority sort of people picked up on the Satanic part of it. I mean, most of it was about stopping wars and that side of it, and some science fiction stuff. There wasn't that much Satanic stuff, and what there was it wasn't exactly "for the devil" or anything like that; it was just around at the time and we just brought it to people's attention." In the documentary "The Black Sabbath Story, Vol. 1", Butler expresses his frustration at how fans misinterpreted the band's lyrics, stating that "for instance, on 'Hand of Doom' they'll pick up one sentence out of that and blow it up into this big thing, like as if we're telling everyone to go and shoot smack. The whole song is "against" drugs."

Track listing.

All music composed by Black Sabbath (Tony Iommi, Geezer Butler, Bill Ward, Ozzy Osbourne). All lyrics written by Geezer Butler, except for "Fairies Wear Boots", written by Ozzy Osbourne.

Paranoid is the second studio album by the English rock band Black Sabbath. Released in September 1970, it was the band's only LP to top the UK Albums Chart until the release of "13" in 2013. "Paranoid" contains several of the band's signature songs, including "Iron Man", "War Pigs" and the title track, which was the band's only Top 20 hit, reaching number 4 in the UK charts. It is often cited as an influential album in the development of heavy metal music.

Paranoid je druhé studiové a zároveň průlomové album anglické skupiny Black Sabbath. V britském žebříčku brzy dosáhlo první příčky. Tehdy překonalo Bridge Over Troubled Water od Simona & Garfunkla. Na prvním místě se udrželo jeden týden. Je považováno za jedno z prvních a průkopnických metalových alb. Deska se původně měla jmenovat podle titulní protiválečné skladby "War Pigs", na poslední chvíli byl název změněn, avšak obal zůstal původní. Skladba „Paranoid“, podle které album dostalo nový název, byla nahrána na poslední chvíli, aby se prodloužila celková délka alba. Prý byla nahraná dodatečně v jednom starém kostele.


Description.

On Dutch and German pressings of the album, the title is listed as "The Rolling Stones Vol. 2" on the front cover, although the back of the album cover lists the title as "The Rolling Stones No. 2".  Using the cover shot for "12 X 5", the second US-released album in October 1964, "The Rolling Stones No. 2"'s track listing would largely be emulated on the upcoming US release of "The Rolling Stones, Now!". While Eric Easton was co-credited as producer alongside Andrew Loog Oldham on The Rolling Stones' debut album, Oldham takes full production duties for "The Rolling Stones No. 2", which was recorded sporadically in the UK and US during 1964.  A huge hit in the UK upon release, "The Rolling Stones No. 2" spent 10 weeks at No. 1 in early 1965, becoming one of the year's biggest sellers in the UK.  According to Bill Wyman in his book "Stone Alone: The Story of a Rock 'n' Roll Band", John Lennon said of "The Rolling Stones No. 2": "The album's great, but I don't like five-minute numbers."  Due to ABKCO's preference towards the American albums, they overlooked both "The Rolling Stones" and "The Rolling Stones No. 2" for CD release in 1986 and during its remastering series in 2002. Consequently, the album was out of print for many years and was thus widely bootlegged by collectors.  "The Rolling Stones No. 2" was again made available to the public as part of a limited edition vinyl box set, titled "The Rolling Stones 1964–1969", in November 2010 and (by itself) digitally at the same time. The original title was also re-instated as part of "The Rolling Stones in Mono" box set, released on 30 September 2016.

Personnel.

The Rolling Stones  Additional personnel

The Rolling Stones No. 2 is the second UK studio album by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released in 1965 following the success of their 1964 debut album "The Rolling Stones". It followed its predecessor's tendency to largely feature American R&B and rock and roll covers. However, it does contain three compositions from the still-developing Mick Jagger/Keith Richards songwriting team.

The Rolling Stones No. 2 je druhé britské album vydané kapelou The Rolling Stones. Album vyšlo v roce 1965 po obrovském úspěchu předchozího alba "The Rolling Stones" z roku 1964. "The Rolling Stones No. 2" obsahuje převážně cover verze R&B hitů tehdejší doby, ale obsahuje i tři písně autorské dvojice Mick Jagger/Keith Richard.


Voiced palato-alveolar fricative.

The voiced palato-alveolar fricative or voiced domed postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages.

Transcription.

The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is the lower case form of the letter Ezh (), and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_1. An alternative symbol used in some older and American linguistic literature is, a "z" with a caron. In some transcriptions of alphabets such as the Cyrillic, the sound is represented by the digraph zh. Although present in English, the sound is not represented by a specific letter or digraph, but is formed by yod-coalescence of and in words such as measure. It also appears in some loanwords, mainly from French (thus written with and ).  The sound occurs in many languages and, as in English and French, may have simultaneous lip rounding (), although this is rarely indicated in transcription.

Features.

Features of the voiced palato-alveolar fricative:

Occurrence.

The sound in Russian denoted by is commonly transcribed as a palato-alveolar fricative but is actually a laminal retroflex fricative.

Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative.

The voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that aren't palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed (retracted constricted ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_2.

Features.

However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.

A voiced postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are several types with significant perceptual differences: This article discusses the first two.

Znělá postalveolární frikativa je souhláska, která se vyskytuje v mnoha jazycích. V mezinárodní fonetické abecedě se označuje symbolem, číselné označení IPA je 135, ekvivalentním symbolem v SAMPA je Z.