Appearances.

"2001: A Space Odyssey" (film/novel).

HAL became operational in Urbana, Illinois, at the HAL Plant (the University of Illinois' Coordinated Science Laboratory, where the ILLIAC computers were built). The film says this occurred in 1992, while the book gives 1997 as HAL's birth year.<ref name="Urbana 1992/7"></ref>  In "" (1968), HAL is initially considered a dependable member of the crew, maintaining ship functions and engaging genially with its human crew-mates on an equal footing. As a recreational activity, Frank Poole plays chess against HAL. In the film, the artificial intelligence is shown to triumph easily. However, as time progresses, HAL begins to malfunction in subtle ways and, as a result, the decision is made to shut down HAL in order to prevent more serious malfunctions. The sequence of events and manner in which HAL is shut down differs between the novel and film versions of the story. In the aforementioned game of chess HAL makes minor and undetected mistakes in his analysis, a possible foreshadowing to HAL's malfunctioning.  In the film, astronauts David Bowman and Frank Poole consider disconnecting HAL's cognitive circuits when he appears to be mistaken in reporting the presence of a fault in the spacecraft's communications antenna. They attempt to conceal what they are saying, but are unaware that HAL can read their lips. Faced with the prospect of disconnection, HAL decides to kill the astronauts in order to protect and continue its programmed directives. HAL uses one of the "Discovery"s EVA pods to kill Poole while he is repairing the ship. When Bowman, without a space helmet, uses another pod to attempt to rescue Poole, HAL locks him out of the ship, then disconnects the life support systems of the other hibernating crew members. Bowman circumvents HAL's control, entering the ship by manually opening an emergency airlock with his service pod's clamps, detaching the pod door via its explosive bolts. Bowman jumps across empty space, reenters "Discovery", and quickly re-pressurizes the airlock.  While HAL's motivations are ambiguous in the film, the novel explains that the computer is unable to resolve a conflict between his general mission to relay information accurately, and orders specific to the mission requiring that he withhold from Bowman and Poole the true purpose of the mission. (This withholding is considered essential after the findings of a psychological experiment, Project Barsoom, where humans were made to believe that there had been alien contact. In every person tested, a deep-seated xenophobia was revealed, which was unknowingly replicated in HAL's constructed personality. Mission Control did not want the crew of "Discovery" to have their thinking compromised by the knowledge that alien contact was already real.) With the crew dead, HAL reasons, he would not need to lie to them.  In the novel, the orders to disconnect HAL come from Dave and Frank's superiors on Earth. After Frank is killed while attempting to repair the communications antenna he is pulled away into deep space using the safety tether which is still attached to both the pod and Frank Poole's spacesuit. Dave begins to revive his hibernating crew mates, but is foiled when HAL vents the ship's atmosphere into the vacuum of space, killing the awakening crew members and almost killing Bowman, who is only narrowly saved when he finds his way to an emergency chamber which has its own oxygen supply and a spare space suit inside.  In both versions, Bowman then proceeds to shut down the machine. In the film, HAL's central core is depicted as a crawlspace full of brightly lit computer modules mounted in arrays from which they can be inserted or removed. Bowman shuts down HAL by removing modules from service one by one; as he does so, HAL's consciousness degrades. HAL finally reverts to material that was programmed into him early in his memory, including announcing the date he became operational as 12 January 1992 (in the novel, 1997). When HAL's logic is completely gone, he begins singing the song "Daisy Bell" and starts slowing down and changing pitch similar to an old electronic game running low on batteries (in actuality, the first song sung by a computer, which Clarke had earlier observed at a text-to-speech demonstration). HAL's final act of any significance is to prematurely play a prerecorded message from Mission Control which reveals the true reasons for the mission to Jupiter.

"2010: Odyssey Two" (novel) and "2010: The Year We Make Contact" (film).

In the 1982 novel "" written by Clark, HAL is restarted by his creator, Dr. Chandra, who arrives on the Soviet spaceship "Leonov".  Prior to leaving Earth, Dr. Chandra has also had a discussion with HAL's twin, the SAL 9000. Like HAL, SAL was created by Dr. Chandra. Whereas HAL was characterized as being "male", SAL is characterized as being "female" (voiced by Candice Bergen) and is represented by a blue camera eye instead of a red one.  Dr. Chandra discovers that HAL's crisis was caused by a programming contradiction: he was constructed for "the accurate processing of information without distortion or concealment", yet his orders, directly from Dr. Heywood Floyd at the National Council on Astronautics, required him to keep the discovery of the Monolith TMA-1 a secret for reasons of national security. This contradiction created a "Hofstadter-Moebius loop", reducing HAL to paranoia. Therefore, HAL made the decision to kill the crew, thereby allowing him to obey both his hardwired instructions to report data truthfully and in full, and his orders to keep the monolith a secret. In essence: if the crew were dead, he would no longer have to keep the information secret.  The alien intelligence initiates a terraforming scheme, placing the "Leonov", and everybody in it, in danger. Its human crew devises an escape plan which unfortunately requires leaving the "Discovery" and HAL behind to be destroyed. Dr. Chandra explains the danger, and HAL willingly sacrifices himself so that the astronauts may escape safely. In the moment of his destruction the monolith-makers transform HAL into a non-corporeal being so that David Bowman's avatar may have a companion.  The details in the novel and the 1984 film "" are nominally the same, with a few exceptions. First, in contradiction to the book (and events described in both book and film versions of "2001: A Space Odyssey"), Heywood Floyd is absolved of responsibility for HAL's condition; it is asserted that the decision to program HAL with information concerning TMA-1 came directly from the White House. In the film, HAL functions normally after being reactivated, while in the book it is revealed that his mind was damaged during the shutdown, forcing him to begin communication through screen text. Also, in the film the "Leonov" crew initially lies to HAL about the dangers that he faced (suspecting that if he knew he would be destroyed he would not initiate the engine burn necessary to get the "Leonov" back home), whereas in the novel he is told at the outset. However, in both cases the suspense comes from the question of what HAL will do when he knows that he may be destroyed by his actions.  In the novel, the basic reboot sequence initiated by Dr. Chandra is quite long, while the movie uses a shorter sequence voiced from HAL as: "HELLO_DOCTOR_NAME_CONTINUE_YESTERDAY_TOMORROW".  While Curnow tells Floyd that Dr. Chandra has begun designing the HAL 10000, the 10000 has not been mentioned in subsequent novels.

"2061: Odyssey Three" and "3001: The Final Odyssey".

In Clarke's 1987 novel "", Heywood Floyd is surprised to encounter HAL, now stored alongside Dave Bowman in the Europa monolith.  In Clarke's 1997 novel "", Frank Poole is introduced to the merged form of Dave Bowman and HAL, the two merging into one entity called "Halman" after Bowman rescued HAL from the dying "Discovery One" spaceship toward the end of "".

Concept and creation.

Clarke noted that the first film was criticized for not having any characters except for HAL, and that a great deal of the establishing story on Earth was cut from the film (and even from Clarke's novel). Clarke stated that he had considered Autonomous Mobile Explorer–5 as a name for the computer, then decided on Socrates when writing early drafts, switching in later drafts to Athena, a computer with a female personality, before settling on HAL 9000. The Socrates name was later used in Clarke and Stephen Baxter's "A Time Odyssey" novel series.  The earliest draft depicted Socrates as a roughly humanoid robot, and is introduced as overseeing Project Morpheus, which studied prolonged hibernation in preparation for long term space flight. As a demonstration to "Senator" Floyd, Socrates' designer, Dr. Bruno Forster, asks Socrates to turn off the oxygen to hibernating subjects Kaminski and Whitehead, which Socrates refuses, citing Asimov's First Law of Robotics.  In a later version, in which Bowman and Whitehead are the non-hibernating crew of "Discovery", Whitehead dies outside the spacecraft after his pod collides with the main antenna, tearing it free. This triggers the need for Bowman to revive Poole, but the revival does not go according to plan, and after briefly awakening, Poole dies. The computer, named Athena in this draft, announces "All systems of Poole now No–Go. It will be necessary to replace him with a spare unit." After this, Bowman decides to go out in a pod and retrieve the antenna, which is moving away from the ship. Athena refuses to allow him to leave the ship, citing "Directive 15" which prevents it from being left unattended, forcing him to make program modifications during which time the antenna drifts further.  During rehearsals Kubrick asked Stefanie Powers to supply the voice of HAL 9000 while searching for a suitably androgynous voice so the actors had something to react to. On the set, British actor Nigel Davenport played HAL. When it came to dubbing HAL in post-production, Kubrick had originally cast Martin Balsam, but as he felt Balsam "just sounded a little bit too colloquially American", he was replaced with Douglas Rain, who "had the kind of bland mid-Atlantic accent we felt was right for the part". Rain was only handed HAL's lines instead of the full script, and recorded them across a day and a half.  HAL's point of view shots were created with a Cinerama Fairchild-Curtis wide-angle lens with a 160° angle of view. This lens is about in diameter, while HAL's on set prop eye lens is about in diameter. Stanley Kubrick chose to use the large Fairchild-Curtis lens to shoot the HAL 9000 POV shots because he needed a wide-angle fisheye lens that would fit onto his shooting camera, and this was the only lens at the time that would work. The Fairchild-Curtis lens has a focal length of with a maximum aperture of 2.0 and a weight of approximately ; it was originally designed by Felix Bednarz with a maximum aperture of 2.2 for the first Cinerama 360 film, "Journey to the Stars", shown at the 1962 Seattle World's Fair. Bednarz adapted the lens design from an earlier lens he had designed for military training to simulate human peripheral vision coverage. The lens was later recomputed for the second Cinerama 360 film "To the Moon and Beyond", which had a slightly different film format. "To the Moon and Beyond" was produced by Graphic Films and shown at the 1964/1965 New York World's Fair, where Kubrick watched it; afterwards, he was so impressed that he hired the same creative team from Graphic Films (consisting of Douglas Trumbull, Lester Novros, and Con Pederson) to work on "2001".  A HAL 9000 face plate, without lens (not the same as the hero face plates seen in the film), was discovered in a junk shop in Paddington, London, in the early 1970s by Chris Randall. This was found along with the key to HAL's Brain Room. Both items were purchased for ten shillings (£0.50). Research revealed that the original lens was a Fisheye Nikkor 8 mm 8. The collection was sold at a Christie's auction in 2010 for £17,500 to film director Peter Jackson.

Origin of name.

HAL's name, according to writer Arthur C. Clarke, is derived from "H"euristically programmed "AL"gorithmic computer. After the film was released, fans noticed HAL was a one-letter shift from the name IBM and there has been much speculation since then that this was a dig at the large computer company, something that has been denied by both Clarke and "2001" director Stanley Kubrick. Clarke addressed the issue in his book "The Lost Worlds of 2001": IBM was consulted during the making of the film and their logo can be seen on props in the film including the Pan Am Clipper's cockpit instrument panel and on the lower arm keypad on Poole's space suit. During production it was brought to IBM's attention that the film's plot included a homicidal computer but they approved association with the film if it was clear any "equipment failure" was not related to their products.  HAL Communications Corporation is a real corporation, with facilities located in Urbana, Illinois, which is where HAL in the movie identifies himself as being activated: "I am a HAL 9000 computer. I became operational at the H-A-L plant in Urbana Illinois on the 12th of January 1992."  The former president of HAL Communications, Bill Henry, has stated that this is a coincidence: "There was not and never has been any connection to 'Hal', Arthur Clarke's intelligent computer in the screen play '2001' — later published as a book. We were very surprised when the movie hit the Coed Theatre on campus and discovered that the movie's computer had our name. We never had any problems with that similarity - 'Hal' for the movie and 'HAL' (all caps) for our small company. But, from time-to-time, we did have issues with others trying to use 'HAL'. That resulted in us paying lawyers. The offenders folded or eventually went out of business."

Influences.

The scene in which HAL's consciousness degrades was inspired by Clarke's memory of a speech synthesis demonstration by physicist John Larry Kelly, Jr., who used an IBM 704 computer to synthesize speech. Kelly's voice recorder synthesizer "vocoder" recreated the song "Daisy Bell", with musical accompaniment from Max Mathews.  HAL's capabilities, like all the technology in "2001", were based on the speculation of respected scientists. Marvin Minsky, director of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) and one of the most influential researchers in the field, was an adviser on the film set. In the mid-1960s, many computer scientists in the field of artificial intelligence were optimistic that machines with HAL's capabilities would exist within a few decades. For example, AI pioneer Herbert A. Simon at Carnegie Mellon University, had predicted in 1965 that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do", the overarching premise being that the issue was one of computational speed (which was predicted to increase) rather than principle.

Cultural impact.

HAL is listed as the 13th-greatest film villain in the AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains.  The 9000th of the asteroids in the asteroid belt, 9000 Hal, discovered on May 3, 1981 by E. Bowell at Anderson Mesa Station, is named after HAL 9000.  A spoof of HAL, named SAL 3000, appears in the Disney animated series "Recess", appearing as the main antagonist of the episode "Schoolworld." This artificial intelligence monitors the students of Third Street School, at first behaving as a friend to them and appeasing their needs. However, similar to HAL, SAL loses control and becomes a tyrant bent on taking over the school and running it as his own. He is finally stopped when the main protagonists infiltrate the core of his system and shut him down. Upon his complete shutdown, SAL sings the song "School Days," as a spoof of HAL singing, "A Bicycle Built for Two" prior to "his" shutdown.

HAL 9000 is a fictional artificial intelligence character and the main antagonist in Arthur C. Clarke's "Space Odyssey" series. First appearing in the 1968 film "", HAL (Heuristically Programmed ALgorithmic Computer) is a sentient computer (or artificial general intelligence) that controls the systems of the "Discovery One" spacecraft and interacts with the ship's astronaut crew. While part of HAL's hardware is shown toward the end of the film, he is mostly depicted as a camera lens containing a red or yellow dot, instances of which are located throughout the ship. HAL 9000 is voiced by Douglas Rain in the two feature film adaptations of the "Space Odyssey" series. HAL speaks in a soft, calm voice and a conversational manner, in contrast to the crewmen, David Bowman and Frank Poole.

HAL 9000 je palubní počítač na vesmírné lodi Discovery One ve fiktivním příběhu Vesmírná odysea od spisovatele Arthura C. Clarka a ve sci-fi filmech podle něj natočených.


Titles and styles.

The titles and styles of the Royal Family are as follows:

Members of the King's Family.

Royal family tree.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> - Member of the Royal Family (as opposed to the Family of the King, or extended family)  <nowiki>**</nowiki> - Member of the Extended royal family

Public role.

Members of the Spanish Royal Family are often asked by non-profit charitable, cultural, or religious organizations within and without Spain to become their patrons, a role the Spanish constitution recognizes and codified in Title II Article 62 (j). It is incumbent for the monarch "to exercise the High Patronage of the Royal Academies". Royal patronage conveys a sense of official credibility as the organization is scrutinized for suitability. A royal presence often greatly raises the profile of the organization and attracts media publicity and public interest that the organization may not have otherwise garnered, aiding in the charitable cause or cultural event. Royalty make use of their considerable celebrity to assist the organization to raise funds or to promote government policy.  Additionally, members of the royal family may also pursue their own charitable and cultural interests. Queen Sofía devotes much of her time to the Queen Sofia Foundation ("Fundación Reina Sofía"); while Leonor, Princess of Asturias presents the annual Princess of Asturias Awards ("Premios Princesa de Asturias"), which aims to promote "scientific, cultural and humanistic values that form part of mankind's universal heritage." The Princess of Asturias Foundation ("Fundación Princesa de Asturias") holds the annual Princess of Asturias Awards acknowledging the contributions of individuals, entities, and/or organizations from around the world who make notable achievements in the sciences, humanities, or public affairs.  King Felipe VI serves as president of the Organization of Ibero-American States which hosts the annual Ibero-American Summit, serves as president of the Codespa Foundation, which finances specific economic and social development activities in Latin American and other countries, and serves as president of the Spanish branch of the Association of European Journalists, which is composed of achieving communications professionals. King Felipe VI also serves as honorary chair of the Ministry of Culture National Awards Ceremonies.  Infanta Elena, Duchess of Lugo, Juan Carlos' elder daughter, is the Director of Cultural and Social Projects of Mapfre Foundation, while Infanta Cristina, Juan Carlos' younger daughter, served as the Goodwill Ambassador to the United Nations for the 2nd World Assembly on Ageing, and is a member of the Dali Foundation Board of Trustees, president of the International Foundation for Disabled Sailing, and Director of Social Welfare at the La Caixa Foundation in Barcelona where she lives with her family.  King Juan Carlos, Queen Sofia, and Infanta Cristina are all members of the Bilderberg Group, an informal think-tank centered on United States and European relations, and other world issues.

The House of Borbón-Anjou, or simply House of Borbón (), is the reigning royal house of the Kingdom of Spain. The current Spanish royal family consists of the present king, King Felipe VI, the queen consort, Queen Letizia, their children Leonor, Princess of Asturias and Infanta Sofía of Spain, and the king's parents, King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía. The House of Bourbon-Anjou is a branch of the House of Bourbon that descends from Philip V of Spain. The royal family lives in Zarzuela Palace in Madrid, although their official residence is the Royal Palace of Madrid.

Španělská královská rodina (špan. Familia Real Española), případně "Královský dům Bourbonů" ("Casa Real de Borbón") je tvořena Držitelem koruny (Titular de la Corona) (Král španělský – Rey de España), jeho rodiči a sourozenci, jeho manželkou a dětmi a jejich vnoučaty, a manželi všech zmíněných.


Plot.

Tom Logan (Robert Redford) is an Assistant District Attorney in the Manhattan District Attorney's Office. He is slated as the next District Attorney. Laura Kelly (Debra Winger), an attorney representing performance artist, Chelsea Deardon (Daryl Hannah), seeks out Logan to discuss her client's case. Chelsea is accused of attempting to steal a painting from millionaire Robert Forrester (John McMartin). Chelsea claims that the painting was a gift from her artist father, Sebastian Deardon (James Hurdle), eighteen years earlier for her 8th birthday. That same day her father and most of his paintings were lost in a mysterious fire.  At a formal dinner to publicly launch Logan's candidacy as the next District Attorney, Kelly unexpectedly arrives with Chelsea and holds an impromptu press conference as a means to coerce Logan's cooperation. Soon after, Forrester drops all charges against Chelsea after swapping the Deardon painting for a Picasso with art gallery curator Victor Taft (Terence Stamp). Both Taft and Forrester were Sebastian Deardon's associates and do not want Chelsea prosecuted. Taft later shows Logan and Kelly the swapped Deardon painting, which does not have an inscription to Chelsea written on the back as she claims. Shortly after, police detective Cavanaugh (Brian Dennehy), who investigated the Deardon fire, provides Kelly with proof that the supposedly lost paintings still exist and says that Chelsea's father was murdered.  Late one night, Chelsea arrives at Logan's apartment claiming a man has been following her. She insists that the painting Taft showed Logan and Kelly was not the one that belongs to her. Logan escorts Chelsea home. As he leaves her building, someone shoots at him then runs off. Logan and Kelly later follow Taft to his warehouse and sneak in. They find evidence of an insurance fraud scheme between partners Taft, Forrester, and a third man, Joseph Brock. Taft locks them inside the warehouse, then makes a quick getaway. The two barely escape unharmed as the building explodes, apparently triggered by Taft to destroy evidence.  A distraught Chelsea arrives at Logan's apartment, revealing she went to Taft's residence and threatened him at gunpoint for information. She claims Taft took the gun away and hit her. Chelsea spends the night with Logan. The next morning, police burst into the bedroom and arrest Chelsea for Taft's murder. The resulting scandal ends Logan's D.A. career, and he reluctantly teams up with Kelly.  During her murder trial, Chelsea experiences a flashback memory and openly accuses Forrester of being involved in her father's death. When an assassin attempts to run down Logan and Kelly, the man is fatally hit by a taxi. Logan retrieves the assassin's wallet and finds Forrester's business card. Logan and Kelly discover Forrester's dead body and find Chelsea hiding at the scene, though she proclaims her innocence. Logan goes to the police department to find Cavanaugh while Kelly and Chelsea head to Taft's gallery where his memorial service is in progress.  Detective Cavanaugh is actually Joe Brock, Taft and Forrester's former business partner they framed for the fraud scheme, resulting in Brock being sentenced to prison. At the Taft Gallery, Brock forces Kelly and Chelsea to break open a large hollow sculpture where Sebastian Deardon's missing canvases, now estimated to be worth $20 million, are hidden. Brock takes the canvases, then sets the gallery on fire to escape during the evacuation. Logan arrives and struggles with Brock, who falls to his death. Logan finds Kelly and Chelsea, grabs the paintings, and the three exit the burning gallery. Outside, Chelsea tearfully reveals the "To Chelsea" inscription on the back of her father's painting. After all charges against Chelsea are dropped, Logan's former boss, exploiting Logan's publicity, offers him his old job. Logan chooses to continue working with Kelly, with whom he is now romantically involved.

Production.

The script was written by Jim Cash and Jack Epps who were represented by Creative Artists Agency (CAA). The film was originally meant to be a vehicle for Dustin Hoffman and Bill Murray, the latter a CAA client, and was written as a buddy movie. Murray pulled out and then Robert Redford, another CAA client, expressed interest in doing a romantic comedy, so it was rewritten to be a Spencer Tracy-Katharine Hepburn-type movie. It was set up at Universal, run by CAA client Frank Price and directed by Ivan Reitman, another CAA client. Tom Mankiewicz was called in to rewrite the script.

Music.

The film's score was composed and conducted by Elmer Bernstein, his final collaboration with Ivan Reitman. The soundtrack album was released by MCA Records, featuring selections from the score re-recorded in England under the composer's baton, and the songs "Good Lovin'" by The Rascals, "Magic Carpet Ride" by Steppenwolf, and Daryl Hannah's "Put Out The Fire" (which she performs onscreen). Rod Stewart's "Love Touch" was featured in the movie, but being a Warner Bros. Records exclusive it does not appear on the album.

Reception.

Critical response.

On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 44% based on reviews from 16 critics. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B+ on scale of A to F.  Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 2.5 out of 4, and wrote: "The movie has so much stuff in it, it's top-heavy. The wonder is that so many scenes play as well as they do."

Box office.

With a production budget of $40 million, the film was one of the most expensive ever released up to that point. It grossed a total of $49,851,591 in North America and $43,300,000 internationally, totaling $93,151,591 worldwide.

Legal Eagles is a 1986 American trial film directed by Ivan Reitman, written by Jim Cash and Jack Epps, Jr. from a story by Reitman and the screenwriters, and starring Robert Redford, Debra Winger, and Daryl Hannah.

Orlové práva, anglicky Legal Eagles, je americká romanticko-kriminální filmová komedie z roku 1986 režiséra Ivana Reitmana s Robertem Redfordem a Debrou Wingerovou v hlavní roli. Další významnou roli vytvořila Daryl Hannahová. Snímek pojednává o napínavém vyšetřování spletitého kriminálního případu padělání uměleckých děl, spojeného s vraždami a krádežemi obrazů.


Route description.

California.

The southernmost point of I-5 is at the Mexican border at the San Ysidro Port of Entry, one of the busiest border crossings in the world. Beginning at the border in San Ysidro, which is part of the city of San Diego, as the John J. Montgomery Freeway, I-5 goes through the suburbs of Chula Vista and National City before reaching downtown San Diego. It then parallels the Pacific coastline, going through the northern suburbs of San Diego, bisecting the University of California, San Diego campus, and passing the I-805 merge (where it becomes the widest Interstate in the United States for a short stretch), before passing through several North County coastal suburbs and then through of Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton in northern San Diego County. Here I-5 is also known as the San Diego Freeway.  At Dana Point, I-5 turns inland and heads due north through Mission Viejo to the El Toro Y interchange in southeastern Irvine. I-5 becomes the Santa Ana Freeway as it runs southeast to northwest, passing through major cities and suburbs in Orange and Southern Los Angeles counties. From this point, the San Diego Freeway continues northward as I-405. Southern Californians often refer to it as "the 5" or as the Santa Ana Freeway in the Los Angeles area.  When the freeway reaches the East Los Angeles Interchange east of downtown Los Angeles, I-5 becomes the Golden State Freeway. The route continues through the San Fernando Valley and then crosses the Newhall Pass through the Santa Susana Mountains into the Santa Clarita Valley. The interchange with State Route 14 (SR 14) is unusual in that truck traffic is separated into its own lanes for both the mainline of the freeway and the transition ramps to and from SR 14. For about a stretch between the Santa Clarita Valley and Pyramid Lake, the northbound and southbound lanes separate and cross sides, with the southbound lanes running to the east of the northbound ones. At that point, the Golden State Freeway rises sharply to the north through the Grapevine to eventually reach the second-highest point of its entire length, the Tejon Pass (elevation ). It then goes through the Tehachapi Mountains. Path 26 power lines generally follow the freeway along this stretch. The freeway then descends sharply for at Tejon Pass to around at Grapevine near the southernmost point of the San Joaquin Valley, approximately south of Bakersfield and south from where SR 99 splits away from it in Wheeler Ridge.  From SR 99 to south of Tracy, I-5 skirts along the far more remote western edge of the great Central Valley, and thus here is removed from population centers such as Bakersfield and Fresno; other state highways provide these connections. This part of I-5 is known as the West Side Freeway, and is a major connector between the San Francisco Bay Area and Southern California. I-580 splits from I-5 at a point south of Tracy as the West Side Freeway Scenic Byway, the last stretch of the West Side Freeway—providing a loop-route connection to the San Francisco Bay Area. East of Tracy, I-5 intersects with I-205, another freeway that links I-5 to the Bay Area and passes through Tracy. After passing Tracy, I-5 heads north through Stockton and Sacramento before turning west to Woodland. At Woodland, the Interstate heads northwest again towards Dunnigan, where it converges with I-505.  From Dunnigan, I-5 skirts north along the western edge of the Sacramento Valley to Red Bluff. I-5 then enters the Shasta Cascade region, passing through Redding and Shasta Lake before climbing up to near the foot of Mount Shasta. The interstate then travels to Weed and Yreka before reaching the Oregon border.

Oregon.

About north of the California border, the highway crosses Siskiyou Summit, the highest point on I-5, and then drops down into the Rogue Valley through Oregon's southern mountains and towns such as Ashland, Medford and Grants Pass. Turning north across three passes to the Umpqua Valley and through Roseburg, the mountains tend to turn into hills, and as it reaches Cottage Grove, the road enters the Willamette River Valley. At Eugene the highway intersects I-105, a short spur route into Downtown Eugene. Some city highways intersect on I-5 in the Eugene Metro. The Interstate then heads almost due north, skirting Albany and Corvallis, passing through Salem, and crossing through Woodburn. There were plans to build a spur, called I-305, into Salem. I-5 covers in Oregon.  Just north of Salem, between mile markers 259 and 260 just short of mile marker 260, signs in the median and on both shoulders mark the place where the 45th parallel crosses I-5. It reads "45th Parallel half way between the Equator and the North Pole".  The highway then tracks a little to the northeast, and I-205 splits off south of the Portland metro area. From here I-5 passes through Tualatin and Tigard along former U.S. Route 99W (US 99W) before hitting the southern terminus of I-405 and the Marquam Bridge. Also planned was a spur in Portland off I-405, called I-505, but it was never built and has been removed from city plans. A stub of I-505 exists as a long exit ramp to US 30.  After crossing the Willamette River on the Marquam Bridge, I-5 has junctions at the western end of I-84 and the northern end of I-405. It then continues through the northern parts of the city of Portland, and crosses into Washington via the Interstate Bridge.

Washington.

The highway continues over the Columbia River and drops down into the city of Vancouver. About into the state, it reaches the northern terminus of I-205, which is on the eastern edge of the Portland–Vancouver metropolitan area. It then tracks north by northwest through Woodland to Kelso and Longview, at which point it ceases to parallel a large bend of the Columbia River. Continuing north between the Willapa Hills and the Cascade foothills, the freeway eventually reaches Olympia, where it bends sharply east. The highway passes through the northern end of Joint Base Lewis-McChord (formerly Fort Lewis and McChord Air Force Base) and Tacoma, where it bends sharply north again to reach Seattle. The Ship Canal Bridge carries it over Portage Bay in Seattle. The freeway continues north out of the Seattle–Tacoma–Everett metro area, crosses the floodplains of three rivers, through the Skagit Valley and the Mount Vernon–Burlington Metropolitan Area to the northern city of Bellingham, to arrive at the Peace Arch Canada–US border crossing between Blaine, Washington, and Surrey, British Columbia. Highway 99 continues northwest from the border into Vancouver, BC. I-5 covers in Washington.

History.

An extensive section of this highway (over ), from approximately Stockton, California, to Portland, Oregon, follows very closely the track of the Siskiyou Trail. This trail was based on an ancient network of Native American footpaths connecting the Pacific Northwest with California's Central Valley. By the 1820s, trappers from the Hudson's Bay Company were the first non-Native Americans to use the route of today's I-5 to move between today's Washington State and California. During the second half of the 19th century, mule trains, stagecoaches, and the Central Pacific railroad also followed the route of the Siskiyou Trail. By the early 20th century, pioneering automobile roads were built along the path of the Siskiyou Trail, notably the Pacific Highway. The Pacific Highway ran from British Columbia to San Diego, California, and was the immediate predecessor of much of US 99. The route of US 99 was in turn used as a basis for much of the route of today's I-5.  A major deviation from the old US 99 route is the Westside Freeway portion of I-5 in California's Central Valley. To provide a faster and more direct north–south route through the state, the decision was made to build a new freeway to the west and bypass Fresno, Bakersfield, and the rest of population centers in the area instead of upgrading the existing highway (which was re-designated as part of SR 99). This re-route through California's Central Valley was the last section of I-5 to be constructed, with the final segment dedicated and opened to traffic near Stockton, California, on October 12, 1979. Representatives from both Canada and Mexico attended the dedication to commemorate the first contiguous freeway connecting the North American countries.  This direct route also bypasses San Francisco and the rest of the San Francisco Bay Area. Original plans called for a loop Interstate with a directional suffix, I-5W. This route now roughly corresponds to I-580 from I-5 south of Tracy to Oakland, I-80 from Oakland to Vacaville, and I-505 from Vacaville to I-5 near Dunnigan. I-5W and most of the other Interstates around the country with directional suffixes were eventually renumbered or eliminated. Nevertheless, San Francisco is still listed as a control city on northbound I-5 between SR 99 and I-580.  On May 23, 2013, a portion of a bridge on I-5 collapsed in Washington (near Mount Vernon, between Seattle and the Canada–US border at mile marker 228.3), sending two cars into the water and requiring traffic in both directions to bypass the crossing. The Washington State Department of Transportation used a temporary structure to restore access across the river while a permanent bridge replacement was built. That process was completed September 15, 2013.  On December 18, 2017 an Amtrak Train derailed by an overpass on I-5 near Tacoma, Washington and blocked several lanes of traffic.  In 2019, the three states started planning a charging network for electric trucks along I-5.

Auxiliary routes.

I-5 will have a complete set of auxiliary routes (i.e. 105, 205, 305, 405, 505, 605, 705, 805, 905), with the completion of I-905 in San Diego County. Currently, I-80 and I-90 are the only two Interstates to have complete sets of auxiliary routes.

Interstate 5 (I-5) is the main north–south Interstate Highway on the West Coast of the United States, running largely parallel to the Pacific coast of the contiguous U.S. from Mexico to Canada. It travels through the states of California, Oregon, and Washington, serving several large cities on the U.S. West Coast, including San Diego, Los Angeles, Sacramento, Portland, and Seattle. It is the only continuous Interstate highway to touch both the Mexican and the Canadian borders. Upon crossing the Mexican border at its southern terminus, I-5 continues to Tijuana, Baja California, as Mexico Federal Highway 1 (Fed. 1). Upon crossing the Canadian border at its northern terminus, it continues to Vancouver as British Columbia Highway 99 (BC 99).

Interstate 5 je mezistátní dálnice v USA, která vede po pobřeží Tichého oceánu a spojuje Mexiko s Kanadou. Mezi důležitá města ležící na její trase patří San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma a Seattle.


Diffieho–Hellmanův protokol s využitím eliptických křivek

Key establishment protocol.

The following example illustrates how a shared key is established. Suppose Alice wants to establish a shared key with Bob, but the only channel available for them may be eavesdropped by a third party. Initially, the domain parameters (that is, formula_1 in the prime case or formula_2 in the binary case) must be agreed upon. Also, each party must have a key pair suitable for elliptic curve cryptography, consisting of a private key formula_3 (a randomly selected integer in the interval formula_4) and a public key represented by a point formula_5 (where formula_6, that is, the result of adding formula_7 to itself formula_3 times). Let Alice's key pair be formula_9 and Bob's key pair be formula_10. Each party must know the other party's public key prior to execution of the protocol.  Alice computes point formula_11. Bob computes point formula_12. The shared secret is formula_13 (the "x" coordinate of the point). Most standardized protocols based on ECDH derive a symmetric key from formula_13 using some hash-based key derivation function.  The shared secret calculated by both parties is equal, because formula_15.  The only information about her key that Alice initially exposes is her public key. So, no party including Alice can determine Alice's private key (Alice of course knows it by having selected it), unless that party can solve the elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem. Bob's private key is similarly secure. No party other than Alice or Bob can compute the shared secret, unless that party can solve the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman problem.  The public keys are either static (and trusted, say via a certificate) or ephemeral (also known as ECDHE, where final 'E' stands for "ephemeral"). Ephemeral keys are temporary and not necessarily authenticated, so if authentication is desired, authenticity assurances must be obtained by other means. Authentication is necessary to avoid man-in-the-middle attacks. If one of either Alice's or Bob's public keys is static, then man-in-the-middle attacks are thwarted. Static public keys provide neither forward secrecy nor key-compromise impersonation resilience, among other advanced security properties. Holders of static private keys should validate the other public key, and should apply a secure key derivation function to the raw Diffie–Hellman shared secret to avoid leaking information about the static private key. For schemes with other security properties, see MQV.  If Alice maliciously chooses invalid curve points for her key and Bob does not validate that Alice's points are part of the selected group, she can collect enough residues of Bob's key to derive his private key. Several TLS libraries were found to be vulnerable to this attack.  While the shared secret may be used directly as a key, it can be desirable to hash the secret to remove weak bits due to the Diffie–Hellman exchange.

Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH) is a key agreement protocol that allows two parties, each having an elliptic-curve public–private key pair, to establish a shared secret over an insecure channel. This shared secret may be directly used as a key, or to derive another key. The key, or the derived key, can then be used to encrypt subsequent communications using a symmetric-key cipher. It is a variant of the Diffie–Hellman protocol using elliptic-curve cryptography.

Diffieho-Hellmanův protokol s využitím eliptických křivek (ECDH) je varianta Diffieho-Hellmanova protokolu, který využívá eliptických křivek. Jde o šifrovací protokol, který umožňuje dvěma stranám, které se v životě nesetkaly ani spolu nekomunikovaly, sdílet „tajné“ informace na nechráněném komunikačním kanálu (to jest na sdělovacím kanálu, přes který se posílají informace, například telefon). Tyto informace mohou být přímo použity jako klíč, nebo ještě lépe, na vytvoření jiného klíče, který může být použit k zašifrování další komunikace s použitím symetrické šifry.


Structure.

The blood–brain barrier results from the selectivity of the tight junctions between the endothelial cells of brain capillaries, restricting the passage of solutes. At the interface between blood and the brain, endothelial cells are adjoined continuously by these tight junctions, which are composed of smaller subunits of transmembrane proteins, such as occludin, claudins, junctional adhesion molecule. Each of these transmembrane proteins is anchored into the endothelial cells by another protein complex that includes tight junction protein 1 and associated proteins.  The blood-brain barrier is composed of endothelial cells restricting passage of substances from the blood more selectively than endothelial cells of capillaries elsewhere in the body. Astrocyte cell projections called astrocytic feet (also known as "glia limitans") surround the endothelial cells of the BBB, providing biochemical support to those cells. The BBB is distinct from the quite similar blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, which is a function of the choroidal cells of the choroid plexus, and from the blood-retinal barrier, which can be considered a part of the whole realm of such barriers.  Several areas of the human brain are not on the brain side of the BBB. Some examples of this include the circumventricular organs, the roof of the third and fourth ventricles, capillaries in the pineal gland on the roof of the diencephalon and the pineal gland. The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin "directly into the systemic circulation", thus melatonin is not affected by the blood-brain barrier.

Development.

The blood-brain barrier appears to be functional by the time of birth. P-glycoprotein, a transporter, exists already in the embryonal endothelium.  Measurement of brain uptake of various blood-borne solutes showed that newborn endothelial cells were functionally similar to those in adults, indicating that a selective BBB is operative at birth.

Function.

The blood-brain barrier acts effectively to protect the brain from circulating pathogens. Accordingly, blood-borne infections of the brain are rare. Infections of the brain that do occur are often difficult to treat. Antibodies are too large to cross the blood-brain barrier, and only certain antibiotics are able to pass. In some cases, a drug has to be administered directly into the cerebrospinal fluid where it can enter the brain by crossing the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier.  The blood-brain barrier may become leaky in select neurological diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy, brain trauma and edema, and in systemic diseases, such as liver failure. The blood-brain barrier becomes more permeable during inflammation, allowing antibiotics and phagocytes to move across the BBB. However, this also allows bacteria and viruses to infiltrate the blood-brain barrier. Examples of pathogens that can traverse the blood-brain barrier include "Toxoplasma gondii" which causes toxoplasmosis, spirochetes like "Borrelia" (Lyme disease), Group B streptococci which causes meningitis in newborns, and "Treponema pallidum" which causes syphilis. Some of these harmful bacteria gain access by releasing cytotoxins like pneumolysin which have a direct toxic effect on brain microvascular endothelium and tight junctions.

Circumventricular organs.

Circumventricular organs (CVOs) are individual structures located adjacent to the fourth ventricle or third ventricle in the brain, and are characterized by dense capillary beds with permeable endothelial cells unlike those of the blood-brain barrier. Included among CVOs having highly permeable capillaries are the area postrema, subfornical organ, vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, median eminence, pineal gland, and three lobes of the pituitary gland.  Permeable capillaries of the sensory CVOs (area postrema, subfornical organ, vascular organ of the lamina terminalis) enable rapid detection of circulating signals in systemic blood, while those of the secretory CVOs (median eminence, pineal gland, pituitary lobes) facilitate transport of brain-derived signals into the circulating blood. Consequently, the CVO permeable capillaries are the point of bidirectional blood-brain communication for neuroendocrine function.

Specialized permeable zones.

The border zones between brain tissue "behind" the blood-brain barrier and zones "open" to blood signals in certain CVOs contain specialized hybrid capillaries that are leakier than typical brain capillaries, but not as permeable as CVO capillaries. Such zones exist at the border of the area postrema—nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS), and median eminence—hypothalamic arcuate nucleus. These zones appear to function as rapid transit regions for brain structures involved in diverse neural circuits — like the NTS and arcuate nucleus — to receive blood signals which are then transmitted into neural output. The permeable capillary zone shared between the median eminence and hypothalamic arcuate nucleus is augmented by wide pericapillary spaces, facilitating bidirectional flow of solutes between the two structures, and indicating that the median eminence is not only a secretory organ, but may also be a sensory organ.

Clinical significance.

As a drug target.

The blood-brain barrier is formed by the brain capillary endothelium and excludes from the brain 100% of large-molecule neurotherapeutics and more than 98% of all small-molecule drugs. Overcoming the difficulty of delivering therapeutic agents to specific regions of the brain presents a major challenge to treatment of most brain disorders. In its neuroprotective role, the blood-brain barrier functions to hinder the delivery of many potentially important diagnostic and therapeutic agents to the brain. Therapeutic molecules and antibodies that might otherwise be effective in diagnosis and therapy do not cross the BBB in adequate amounts.  Mechanisms for drug targeting in the brain involve going either "through" or "behind" the BBB. Modalities for drug delivery to the brain in unit doses through the BBB entail its disruption by osmotic means, or biochemically by the use of vasoactive substances such as bradykinin, or even by localized exposure to high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). Other methods used to get through the BBB may entail the use of endogenous transport systems, including carrier-mediated transporters such as glucose and amino acid carriers, receptor-mediated transcytosis for insulin or transferrin, and the blocking of active efflux transporters such as p-glycoprotein. However, vectors targeting BBB transporters, such as the transferrin receptor, have been found to remain entrapped in brain endothelial cells of capillaries, instead of being ferried across the BBB into the targeted area.

Nanoparticles.

Nanotechnology is under preliminary research for its potential to facilitate the transfer of drugs across the BBB. Capillary endothelial cells and associated pericytes may be abnormal in tumors and the blood-brain barrier may not always be intact in brain tumors. Other factors, such as astrocytes, may contribute to the resistance of brain tumors to therapy using nanoparticles. Fat soluble molecules less than 400 Daltons in weight can freely diffuse past the BBB through lipid mediated passive diffusion.

Disease.

Alzheimer's disease.

There is significant evidence that implicates blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction with Alzheimer's disease risk and progression. In both patients with AD and animal models of the disease, increased BBB permeability precedes symptoms of cognitive decline or neuro-degeneration. and patients with early-stage AD consistently exhibit a "leaky" BBB. Postmortem analysis of brains from AD patients also exhibit significantly higher concentrations of fibrinogen, a key clotting factor in the peripheral blood supply that incites neuroinflammation and damages the myelin sheath of axons One prevailing theory regarding Alzheimer's disease development involves an imbalance between clearance and production of beta-amyloid protein (Aβ) and direct transport of Aβ across the BBB accounts for ~25% of clearance from the brain, indicating that alterations to barrier permeability will effect Aβ clearance. AD is also consistently associated with increased inflammatory responses, causing a lack of oxygen and vascular changes at the barrier, shortening the length of neuronal capillaries which restricts blood supply and causes cell death. Hyperphosphorylated tau, a hallmark AD, also adversely impacts the stability of the BBB. In a mouse model of tauopathy, hyperphosphorylated tau damages the vasculature of the BBB and transgenic mice deficient in tau display increased barrier resiliency

Anxiety and depression.

Blood–brain barrier dysfunction is associated with anxiety and depression, and may have a role in the vulnerability/resilience of certain individuals to these disorders. Patients with depression and anxiety exhibit increased concentrations of pro-inflammatory signalling molecules in the blood. and brain These molecules alter the vasculature of the blood-brain barrier and increase its permeability to neurotoxic factors from the periphery, leading to further inflammation and barrier permeability.

Brain abscess.

A brain or cerebral abscess, like other abscesses, is caused by inflammation and collection of lymphatic cells and infected material originating from a local or remote infection. A brain abscess is a rare, life-threatening condition. Local sources may include infections of the ear, the oral cavity and teeth, the paranasal sinuses, or an epidural abscess. Remote sources may include infections in the lung, heart or kidney. A brain abscess may also be caused by head trauma or as a complication of surgery. In children cerebral abscesses are usually linked to congenital heart disease. In most cases, 8–12 weeks of antibacterial therapy is required.

De Vivo disease.

De Vivo disease (also known as GLUT1 deficiency syndrome) is a rare condition caused by inadequate transportation of the sugar glucose across the blood–brain barrier, resulting in developmental delays and other neurological problems. Genetic defects in glucose transporter type 1 (GLUT1) appears to be the primary cause of De Vivo disease.

HIV encephalitis.

A 2002 review indicated that latent HIV can cross the blood–brain barrier inside circulating monocytes in the bloodstream ("Trojan horse theory") within the first 14 days of infection. Once inside, these monocytes become activated and are transformed into macrophages. Activated macrophages release virions into the brain tissue proximate to brain microvessels. These viral particles likely attract the attention of sentinel brain microglia and perivascular macrophages initiating an inflammatory cascade that may cause a series of intracellular signaling in brain microvascular endothelial cells and damage the functional and structural integrity of the BBB.

Meningitis.

Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord (these membranes are known as meninges). Meningitis is most commonly caused by infections with various pathogens, examples of which are "Streptococcus pneumoniae " and "Haemophilus influenzae". When the meninges are inflamed, the blood-brain barrier may be disrupted. This disruption may increase the penetration of various substances (including either toxins or antibiotics) into the brain. Antibiotics used to treat meningitis may aggravate the inflammatory response of the central nervous system by releasing neurotoxins from the cell walls of bacteria-like lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Depending on the causative pathogen, whether it is bacterial, fungal, or protozoan, treatment with third-generation or fourth-generation cephalosporin or amphotericin B is usually prescribed.

Multiple sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis is considered to be an autoimmune and neurodegenerative disorder in which the immune system attacks the myelin that protects and electrically insulates the neurons of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Normally, a nervous system would be inaccessible to the white blood cells due to the blood–brain barrier. However, magnetic resonance imaging has shown that when a person is undergoing an MS "attack," the blood–brain barrier has become more permeable in a section of the brain or spinal cord, allowing white blood cells called T lymphocytes to cross over and attack the myelin. One consideration is multiple sclerosis may be a disease of the blood–brain barrier.

Neuromyelitis optica.

Neuromyelitis optica, also known as Devic's disease, is similar to and is often confused with multiple sclerosis. People with neuromyelitis optica have high levels of antibodies against a protein called aquaporin 4 (a component of the astrocytic foot processes in the blood–brain barrier).

Systemic inflammation.

During systemic inflammation, whether in the form of infection or sterile inflammation, the BBB may become leaky to blood-borne compounds. Such changes may be part of a productive host response to systemic inflammation, or may lead to deleterious consequences within the central nervous system. These changes may also affect the course of multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and depression.

History.

Paul Ehrlich was a bacteriologist studying staining, a procedure that is used in many microscopy studies to make fine biological structures visible using chemical dyes. As Ehrlich injected some of these dyes (notably the aniline dyes that were then widely used), the dye stained all of the organs of some kinds of animals except for their brains. At that time, Ehrlich attributed this lack of staining to the brain simply not picking up as much of the dye.  However, in a later experiment in 1913, Edwin Goldmann (one of Ehrlich's students) injected the dye directly into the cerebrospinal fluids of animal brains. He found then the brains did become dyed, but the rest of the body did not, demonstrating the existence of a compartmentalization between the two. At that time, it was thought that the blood vessels themselves were responsible for the barrier, since no obvious membrane could be found. The concept of the blood–brain barrier (then termed hematoencephalic barrier) was proposed by a Berlin physician, Lewandowsky, in 1900.

The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable border of endothelial cells that prevents solutes in the circulating blood from "non-selectively" crossing into the extracellular fluid of the central nervous system where neurons reside. The blood-brain barrier is formed by endothelial cells of the capillary wall, astrocyte end-feet ensheathing the capillary, and pericytes embedded in the capillary basement membrane. This system allows the passage of some molecules by passive diffusion, as well as the selective transport of various nutrients, ions, organic anions, and macromolecules such as glucose, water and amino acids that are crucial to neural function.

Hematoencefalická bariéra je označení pro bariéru, která odděluje vnitřní prostředí mozku obratlovců od cévního systému v těle a umožňuje jen omezený transport látek mezi mozkovou tkání a krví. Je to možné díky tomu, že buňky cévního endotelu jsou opatřeny výrazně vyvinutými těsnými spoji, jež zamezují vzniku pórů mezi buňkami. Roli hraje do jisté míry i bazální lamina a dále také výběžky astrocytů, které se napojují na vnější stěny krevních vlásečnic a zřejmě vylučují jisté regulační signální proteiny.


Background.

The album was executive produced by Eminem, who had recently released his hugely successful third studio album, "The Marshall Mathers LP", a year earlier. The album's title comes from the Devil's Night tradition, recognized in and around Detroit in which abandoned homes are set ablaze. This practice was so popular in Detroit that it was depicted in the film "8 Mile". The group recorded "Devil's Night" in memory of Bugz, who was killed in May 1999 just hours prior to a concert.

Singles.

The album produced three singles: "Purple Pills", "Ain't Nuttin' But Music", and "Fight Music". The album featured a hidden track by Eminem called "Girls", which is a diss track aimed at Limp Bizkit, DJ Lethal, Dilated Peoples, and Everlast.

Production.

In August 2001, while on promotion for the album, D12 and Esham were kicked off the Warped Tour after members of the group allegedly physically attacked Esham over the lyrics of his song "Chemical Imbalance," which contained a reference to Eminem's daughter. Eminem was not present during the tour.  Guest appearances on the album included Dr. Dre, Obie Trice, Truth Hurts, and Dina Rae.  The song "Revelation" parodies "Another Brick in the Wall Pt II", where there are kids screaming and Eminem shouting "Wrong! Do it again!" and "If you don't eat yer meat, you can't have any pudding! You can't have any pudding if you don't eat yer meat!". During the chorus, Eminem also raps: "I don't wanna go to school, I don't need no education".

Censored material.

On the censored version of the album, alternate versions of "Purple Pills" and "Fight Music" were included, entitled "Purple Hills" and "Flight Music". "Shit Can Happen", "Pistol Pistol", and "Pimp Like Me", were also edited, removing the offensive content from their titles. The "Dirty Edition" was available in both Europe and the United Kingdom. However, some versions swap the running order, making "Shit On You" track three and "These Drugs" track one. The rare censored version of the album did not remove all expletives, as words like "ass", "asshole", "faggot", "nigga", "pussy", "hoe", "whore", "slut", "tits", "nuts" and "goddamn" were permissible on the album, as well as most sex references. Mostly violence and heavy drug use are removed on the edited version.  There were several songs that contained censored parts, even in the explicit version of the album: In the song "Pistol Pistol", Kon Artis' line "some semi-automatic for static's the motto, spitting like Columbine kids from Colorado" was censored, with the phrase "Columbine kids" removed and replaced with the sound of kids screaming. Eminem also had a censored line at the end of the song, where he said "Sorry cops, fucking pigs" with the words "cops" and "pigs" removed. In the song "Shit Can Happen", the word "cops" is censored again in Eminem's verse when he says "when the cops come knocking". In the song "Purple Pills" the word "infant" is removed from Proof's verse when he says "now I gotta strangle an infant". In the song "Instigator", when Proof says "convinced a tenth grader to run up inside his classroom and leave the kids sprayed up" the phrase "sprayed up" is removed. In the song "Devil's Night", Kuniva's line is censored when he says "and when it blast, it'll take off every piece of your niece, from her barrettes to her cheeks to her cute little feet" with the word "niece" removed and replaced with the sound of a girl's scream.

Commercial performance.

The album debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 with approximately 371,881 copies sold during the first week of release. It re-entered the number one spot in its third week of release with approximately 173,956 copies sold overtaking Alicia Keys' Songs in A Minor by just 306 copies. Ultimately the album was certified platinum by a two week stay at number one and twenty-two weeks on the chart overall.  The album debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart with approximately 57,967 copies sold during the first week of release. Ultimately the album was certified platinum; total sales of the album stand at 436,977 as of December 2017.

Critical reception.

Upon its release, Devil's Night received a score of 58 out of 100 from Metacritic due to mixed or average reviews from music critics. Nathan Brackett of "Rolling Stone" gave the album 3 stars out of 5, saying that "If the Slim Shady and Marshall Mathers albums were slapstick trips into one man's psychosis - like the Marx Brothers starring in 'Taxi Driver' - then Devil's Night is 'Friday the 13th' by the Farrelly brothers...with results varying from silly to just dumb...yet its high points are some of the most accomplished hip-hop we'll hear this year." AllMusic wrote "Besides the remarkable production, Eminem also showcases his songwriting genius on several of the song's hooks, bringing a catchy pop-rap approach to hardcore lyrics." Q Magazine also awarded it 3 stars out of 5, commenting, "A slightly tweaked re-run of The Marshall Mathers LP, with a couple of stonking singles."  "NME" gave Devil's Night a 7 out of 10, stating that it is "Eminem's most misogynistic, homophobic, violent and anally fixated trip to date." The Source gave the record 3 and half out of 5 mics. As many of the magazine's editors were feuding with D12 at the time of the review, namely Benzino, the rating is usually considered biased.

Devil's Night is the debut studio album by Detroit hip hop group D12. It was released on June 19, 2001 under Shady Records and Interscope Records. It was also the first album to be released on Shady Records, although the label had been active since 1999.

Devil's Night je debutové album rapové skupiny z Detroitu D12 vydané 19. června 2001. Název alba vychází z tradice ďáblovy noci, slavené v okolí Detroitu, během které jsou každoročně žháři zapalovány opuštěné domy. Devil's Night (Ďáblova noc) se také říká noci před Halloweenem. Z alba vzešly dva singly: "Purple Pills" a "Fight Music", poté ještě Shit On You, což je singl z bonusového disku. Album obsahuje i skrytou skladbu Eminema s názvem "Girls", což je písnička proti numetalové skupině Limp Bizkit, z níž jsou Eminemovi hlavní nepřátelé DJ Lethal a Fred Durst, potom proti Everlastovi, americkému hip hoperovi a rockerovi. Alba se v prvním týdnu vydalo a prodalo 372 000 kopií.


Description.

The immature holotype specimen measures roughly four meters (13 feet) in length. When it was originally described, it was considered to be an adult, because of its co-ossified sacral vertebra. Future authors doubted this, merely citing its small size. In the 2004 redescription, it was examined more closely and several characteristics were found that identified it as an juvenile individual. Later, in 2017, another team re-evaluated the specimen, and determined through investigating the fossils at a microscopic level (in a process called histology) that this was correct, although they doubted the significance of some of the characters identified in the former study.  Though the quality of bone preservation is generally poor, the holotype skeleton is estimated to be 60% complete. It consists of a left maxilla and dentary, parietal, various isolated skull elements, thirteen cervical vertebrae, six dorsal vertebrae, two sacral vertebrae, a series of 35 caudal vertebrae, a left scapula, lower portions of both humeri, most elements of the lower forelimbs, an ischium, left ilium, and most of the hindlimbs.

History of study.

Discovery and naming.

The holotype (UHR 6590, University of Hokkaidō Registration) was discovered in November 1934 during the construction of a hospital for the Kawakami colliery of the Mitsui Mining Company on Karafuto Prefecture (now Sinegorsk, Sakhalin, Russia). It was disarticulated when discovered. "N. sachalensis" was named and described in 1936 by Professor Takumi Nagao of the Imperial University of Hokkaido. The generic name refers to Nippon, the Japanese name of Japan; it was the first dinosaur named based on a find made on Japanese territory – though South Sakhalin was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1945. The specific name refers to Sakhalin.  Although being relatively complete at the time of discovery, the specimen was missing much of the skull and limbs. A second expedition was organised in the summer of 1937, in which limb material pertaining to the holotype was recovered. The next year, Nagao authored a second article on the species describing these additional remains.  "Nipponosaurus" was described as a member of the Trachodontidae; however "Trachodon" is now considered an invalid "nomen dubium". The family is now known as the Hadrosauridae. Among its relatives, Nagao thought it was possibly closest to the taxa "Cheneosaurus" and "Tetragonosaurus", even suggesting that his species might later prove to be congeneric with one of them. However, these were later determined to be juvenile forms of "Hypacrosaurus", "Corythosaurus" and "Lambeosaurus", and not distinct species.

Further research.

For the remainder of the 20th century, the taxon was scarcely mentioned. While they were still considered valid species, the relationship with the supposed "cheneosaurs" "Cheneosaurus" and "Procheneosaurus" was accepted; after this it was rarely assigned past the Lambeosaurinae. A humerus from a pit near Hashima Island, Japan was assigned to "Nipponosaurus", variously referred to as "Trachodon", in 1967. No further studies have acknowledged the specimen, and the referral has been ignored, with the species still considered to be represented by a single specimen. In 1977, a review of Asian dinosaur palaeontology mentioned it as a possible close relative of "Mandschurosaurus" without comment. Later in 1989, a study noted that features of its metacarpals could indicate a basal position within the Hadrosauridae. Near the turn of the century, in 1994, a review of Japanese dinosaurs noted the incomplete nature of many Asian hadrosaurs could mean some of them, including "Nipponosaurus", maybe in fact be representatives of the same species.  More extensive research has been conducted in the 21st century. In 2004, the species was redescribed, with focus on its growth stage. They concluded it was a valid taxon, and that the holotype was immature. More recently, a 2017 study provided further descriptions of the specimen, and conducted a microscopic examination on sections of the left femur, a rib, and an isolated chevron, which re-affirmed the age of the holotype.

Classification.

Validity.

Some authors have deemed the species a "nomen dubium", questioning its supposed diagnostic characteristics, especially in light of its presumed immature status. The validity of the taxon has therefore been controversial. The 2004 redescription denied this, proposing three diagnostic characters. In their description of "Sahaliyania" and "Wulagasaurus", Pascal Godefroit and colleagues reported based on direct observation of the type specimen that all of these supposed unique traits were found in other hadrosaurids. The lack of certain portions of the skull key to evaluating its systematic position was also cited as a reason to doubt the validity of the genus, and the problematic nature of the skull had indeed been noted before. Later, a 2017 study once again questioned the validity of the proposed diagnostic characters; however, upon a re-examination of the specimen, three new ones were put forward.

Phylogeny.

A cladistic analysis in 2004 placed "Nipponosaurus sachalinensis" very close to the well-known North American "Hypacrosaurus altispinus" within the Lambeosaurinae. They suggested it might be congeneric with the species, but because of the incomplete nature of the holotype and the questionable monophyly of the genus "Hypacrosaurus", they refrained from reassigning it. However, later in 2007, a study providing a redescription of "Lambeosaurus magnicristatus" re-evaluated a character relating to the size of the distal ischial foot, and found this drew "Nipponosaurus" away from "H. altispinus" and into a more basal position within their Corythosaurini (now generally referred to as the Lambeosaurini). They however noted the only character uniting it specifically with this group, an increased number of cervical vertebra, was a state poorly known in more basal Asian lambeosaurines, and cautioned its position was likely liable to change. The left cladogram was recovered in the 2004 study, and the right cladogram was recovered by the 2007 study:  More recently, another analysis, accounting for characters that vary through ontogeny, instead found it to be closely related to the European taxa "Arenysaurus" and "Blasisaurus", outside of Lambeosaurini, unlike the earlier studies. Its position outside of the clade containing Parasaurolophini and Lambeosaurini was supported by the absence of two synapomorphies of the group in its teeth. Four characters united it with "Arenysaurus" and "Blasisaurus"; the end margin of the coronoid process overlapping with the back portion of the dental battery (which was suggested to perhaps reflect a difference in feeding habits from other taxa), a short edentulous slope, and two characters of the jugal. The following cladogram was recovered in their analysis:

Palaeoecology.

The specimen was collected from Upper Yezo Group, which was known as the Upper Ammonites Bed at the time of the original description. Because the area where it was discovered no longer belongs to Japan, follow up research has become difficult. Additionally, field notes from the time of discovery have been lost. This has made determining the age of the horizon problematic. However, Nagao noted fossil molluscs now called "Parapuzosia japonica" and "Sphenoceramus schmidti" were also found at the locality, and these are known to hail from the lower Campanian. An age from the upper Santonian or lower Campanian is therefore likely.  Based on the sediments it was preserved in, the "Nipponosaurus" specimen is thought to have been buried in a marine setting. However, this would not have been far from the shore, as indicated by the relatively complete nature of the specimen and the presence of fossilised terrestrials plants found alongside it. This indicates the species may have lived primarily on low-lying plains near the coast, a lifestyle consistent with some of its North American relatives.

Nipponosaurus (meaning "Japanese lizard") is a lambeosaurine hadrosaur from sediments of the Yezo Group, Sinegorsk, Sakhalin Island in Russia, part of Japan at the time of naming. The type and only species is N. sachalinensis, known only from a single juvenile specimen discovered in 1934 and named in 1936, by Takumi Nagao, with further material of the same individual found in 1937. Since then, the taxon has been largely ignored, and its validity has been doubted, with synonymy with other Asian hadrosaurs or status as a "nomen dubium" being suggested. Redescriptions from 2004 and 2017, however, have supported recognition as a distinct species. Dating the only specimen has been difficult, but based on associated mollusc taxa, the species likely lived sometime in the upper Santonian or lower Campanian, around 80 million years ago.

Nipponosaurus („japonský ještěr“) byl rod mohutného kachnozobého dinosaura, žijícího v období pozdní křídy (asi před 80 miliony let) na území dnešního ostrova Sachalin (Rusko).


History.

The old Hôtel-Dieu.

The Hôtel-Dieu was supposedly founded by Saint Landry in 651 AD, but its first recorded mention only dates back to 829. It is nonetheless considered to be the oldest hospital in the city and the oldest worldwide still operating.  The history of Parisian hospitals dates from the Middle Ages. Poverty was widespread during that period, and the Hôtel-Dieu became an opportunity for many of the bourgeois and nobility to come to its aid. Their efforts allowed the construction of the Hôpital de la Charité, which linked piety and medical care. Like many hospitals of that era, it started as a general institution catering for the poor and sick, offering food and shelter in addition to medical care. The creation of the Hôtel-Dieu continued this tradition of charity up until the 19th century, despite being called into question during the centuries which followed. In the 16th century the Hôtel-Dieu faced a financial crisis, as it was financed only by help, subsidies or privileges. This brought about the creation in 1505 of a council of laymen governors: the Presidents of Parliament, the Chambre des Comptes, the Cour des Aides and the Prévôt des Marchands. during the same century, Henry IV built Hôpital Saint-Louis to unclog the Hotel Dieu.  The 17th century elite created establishments to house the poor. Hospitals thus took the name of ""Hôpital Général"" (General hospital) or ""Hôpital d'enfermement"" (Asylum), of which the Hôtel-Dieu was one. The centralized approach to extreme poverty in France was based on the premise that medical care was a right for those without family or income, and formalized the admission process in hospitals to prevent overcrowding and unsanitary conditions. The Lieutenant Général de Police became a member of the "Bureau de l’Hôtel-Dieu de Paris" (Bureau for the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris) in 1690. The hospital extended across the river with building of the Rosary House surmounting the Pont au Double.  In the 18th century, Paris hospitals in general were characterized with poor sanitation and treatment followed by high mortality rate. As Jacques Tenon would note in his "Mémoires sur les hôpitaux de Paris" (1788), the sanitary conditions were horrendous, facilities were overcrowded and there was a high mortality rate in these hospitals. The Hôtel-Dieu was "the most unhealthy and uncomfortable of all hospitals", with a mortality rate of almost 25 percent. Even though it was the largest of Paris' hospitals with 1,200 beds, many beds held three or more patients—women gave birth in shared beds and there was no separation amongst patients with contagious diseases. The 1,200 beds in the hospital were completely inadequate for housing its over 3,500 patients. In 1772 a fire destroyed a large part of the Hôtel-Dieu. This event sparked discussions over the conditions and possible reforms that would be made to the hospital system. Louis XV ordered the demolition of the Hôtel-Dieu in 1773 after hearing of its poor patient conditions. The execution of the order was however delayed due to the King's death, and Louis XVI, who succeeded him, was persuaded of an alternate plan to reconstruct the damaged parts of the hospital. This scheme was submitted to the Academy of Sciences for review, and debate regarding Hôtel-Dieu extended until 1785 as it transformed into discussions about the reformation of Paris's hospital system. Conditions enhanced in 1787, when the Hôtel-Dieu implemented a code of medical services that shifted the hospital from a curing machine run by nuns to a medical and surgical establishment run by doctors. Jacques Necker created the positions of "Inspecteur général des hôpitaux civils et des maisons de force" (General Inspector for civil hospitals and jails) and "Commissaire du roi pour tout ce qui a trait aux hôpitaux" (Royal Commissioner for all that relates to hospitals). In the meantime, the Hôtel-Dieu had received a high status as a surgical training institution with the appointment of Pierre-Joseph Desault as "chef de service" in 1785. Desault established an elaborate educational program for surgical interns when previously they had only informal training. By the 19th century hospitals had become places of teaching and medical research in addition to practicing medicine. Xavier Bichat, a pupil of Desault, expounded on his new "membrane theory" during a course taught in 1801–1802 at the Hôtel-Dieu. In 1801, the Parisian hospitals adopted a new administrative framework: the "Conseil général des hôpitaux et hospices civils de Paris" (General Council for Parisian hospitals and civil hospices). This willingness to improve management brought about the creation of new services: the "Bureau d'admission " (Admissions office) and the "Pharmacie centrale "(Central Pharmacy). Napoleon I finally rebuilt the portions of the Hôtel-Dieu which had burnt in 1772. Also during this period, the Hôtel-Dieu advocated the practice of vaccination, of which Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt was a fervent supporter. Similarly, the discoveries of René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laennec permitted the refinement of methods of diagnosis, auscultation, and aetiology of illnesses. The Pont au Double was demolished in 1847 and rebuilt without covering.

Present Hôtel-Dieu.

The Hôtel-Dieu was rebuilt between 1867 and 1878 on the opposite side of the parvise of Notre Dame, as part of Haussmann's renovation of Paris commissioned by Napoleon III. The reconstruction followed plans by architects Gilbert and Diet.  It was not until 1908 that the Augustinian nuns left the Hôtel-Dieu for good.

Role within the Parisian healthcare system.

The Hôtel-Dieu is the top casualty centre to deal with emergency cases, being the only emergency centre for the first nine arrondissements and being the local centre for the first four.  For the last 50 years it has been home to the diabetes and endocrine illnesses clinical department. It deals almost exclusively with the screening, treatment and prevention of the complications associated with diabetes mellitus. It is also a referral service for hypoglycemia. Oriented towards informing the patient (therapeutic education) and technological innovation, it offers a large choice of care facilities for all levels of complications. It is also at the forefront of research in diabetes in areas such as new insulins and new drugs, effects of nutrition, external and implanted pumps, glucose sensors and artificial pancreas.  More recently, a major department for ophthalmology (emergencies, surgery and research) has been developed at the Hôtel-Dieu, under the supervision of Yves Pouliquen.

Notable figures.

Notable physicians, researchers, and surgeons who practised at the hospital include Forlenze, Bichat, Dupuytren, Hartmann, Desault, Récamier, Cholmen, Dieulafoy, Trousseau, Ambroise Paré, Marc Tiffeneau.

The Hôtel-Dieu () is a hospital located on the Île de la Cité in the 4th arrondissement of Paris, on the parvise of Notre-Dame. It was supposedly founded by Saint Landry in 651 AD, making it the oldest hospital in the city and the oldest worldwide still operating. The Hôtel-Dieu was the only hospital in the city until the Renaissance. While the old Hôtel-Dieu stood by the Seine on the opposite side of the parvise, it was ravaged by fire several times, and was rebuilt for the last time at its present location between 1867 and 1878, as part of Haussmann's renovation of Paris.

Hôtel-Dieu (česky "Dům Boží") je nejstarší nemocnice v Paříži. Nachází se v 1. obvodu na ostrově Cité. Špitál zasvěcený svatému Kryštofovi byl založen již v polovině 7. století.


Principles.

The principles of work within IFA are that of federalism, free arrangement and Mutual Aid, and as states in their preamble of their principles, the IAF fights for:  The IAF is committed to Direct Action, struggle from below, anti-parliamentarism, and opposition to reformism, on both a theoretical and a practical level.  To improve co-ordination and communication within IAF, as well as to provide an open contact address for the public and other anarchist groups and organisations, an International Secretariat (the Commission of Relations of the International of Anarchist Federations—referred to commonly as C.R.I.F.A.) was set up. The CRIFA irregularly rotates among the IAF federations. It is currently based with the Fédération Anarchiste (France). Often, the different member federations will work with one another on certain agreed issues and campaigns, in order to be able to mount a joint worldwide effort to raise awareness and assist the struggle around certain issues.  The different member federations also produce their own publications, such as "Le Monde libertaire" in France and Belgium, and "El Libertario" in Argentina. However, there was also an IAF magazine, "Anarkiista Debato" which, due, however, to a lack of funds, was unable to continue.  A number of reports have been written for the IAF, particularly on issues such as the struggle between the village of Rossport, the Corrib gas field and Shell in 2007. Members of the IAF often congregate at meetings of world leaders, such as Gleneagles in 2005.

Member federations.

This is the current list of member federations as confirmed during the 11th Congress of the International of Anarchist Federations.

Congresses of the IFA.

All members of regional federations meet every three years for a congress that decides on direction and lines of action. One year before the Assembly, the IFA Secretariat and those responsible for international relations in the various federations will determine the agenda, date and location of the Congress. The Congress debates the initiatives of the IFA, passes resolutions and mandates a federation to run the Secretariat of the IFA.

The International of Anarchist Federations (IAF/IFA) (, IFA) was founded during an international anarchist conference in Carrara in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France, Italy and Spain as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile. Other groups were also present in the formation of the IAF, such as the now defunct "London Federation of Anarchists" who took part in the preparation for the conference in 1968. According to "Time" magazine, before the first IAF conference in Carrara could begin, firemen were called to check the venue for bombs. The Carrara congress was a response to a congress held in London from June to August 1958 which "recreated a certain dynamism and wish towards the organisational aspiration of international anarchism".

Internacionála anarchistických federací (: "International of Anarchist Federations", IAF; : "Internationale des Fédérations Anarchistes", IFA) je anarchistická internacionála. Byla založena během anarchistické konference v italském městě Carrara v roce 1968 třemi existujícími federacemi Francie, Itálie a Španělska a také bulharskou federací ve francouzském exilu. Členy jsou Československá anarchistická federace, Iberská anarchistická federace, Argentinská libertariánská federace, Anarchistická federace Běloruska, Federace anarchistů v Bulharsku, Anarchistická federace ve Francii, Federace německy mluvících anarchistů, Italská anarchistická federace, Anarchistická federace v Británii a Irsku a Federace pro anarchistickou organizaci působící ve Slovinsku a Chorvatsku.


Soviet statute.

From its establishment in 1944 until September 2010, the Order of Ushakov was awarded to officers of the Navy for outstanding achievements in the development, implementation and prosecution of naval operations resulting in victory over a numerically superior enemy.  The Order of Ushakov 1st class was awarded to naval officers for:  The Order of Ushakov 2nd class was awarded to naval officers for:  The Order of Ushakov 1st class was worn on the right side of the chest and when in the presence of other Orders of the USSR, located immediately after the Order of Suvorov 1st class. The Order 2nd class was also worn on the right side and located immediately after the Order of Suvorov 2nd class.

Soviet and pre September 2010 award description.

The Order of Ushakov 1st class was of multi part construction consisting of a five pointed star struck from platinum, an oxidised silver anchor and chain secured to the platinum star with four rivets, and a circular central medallion struck from gold superimposed on the anchor and bearing the relief image of admiral Ushakov, the background being covered in dark blue enamel, around the admiral's head, the inscription in gilt letters "ADMIRAL USHAKOV" (), below the admiral, laurel and oak branches bisected by the hammer and sickle. The central medallion was secured to the platinum star by two rivets and surrounded by a gilt rope. On the reverse, a threaded screw and a 33 mm in diameter nut arrangement for attachment to clothing. The award serial number was hand etched in the lower part. The Order 2nd class differed from the 1st class in the materials used in its construction, its five pointed star was made of gold while the anchor and central medallion were of silver and the oak and laurel branches were omitted.  The only noticeable difference between the Soviet and early Russian Federation variants was the abrogation of the hammer and sickle from the latter.

Recipients of the Soviet award (partial list).

The Soviet Union's Order of Ushakov first class was awarded a total of 47 times, the second class 194 times.  The individuals listed below were awarded the Order of Ushakov 1st class:  The individuals listed below were awarded the Order of Ushakov 2nd class:  The Order of Ushakov was also bestowed to the following units and institutions:

Statute of the modern award.

The Order of Ushakov is awarded to command grade officers of formations and divisions of the Navy for:  The Order of Ushakov may also be awarded to military units and formations of the Navy for participation in successful naval operations. It may also be awarded to foreign citizens - soldiers of allied forces from among its senior officers involved alongside troops of the Russian Federation. for organizing and conducting successful joint operations of allied troops (forces).  The Russian Federation order of precedence dictates that the Order of Ushakov is to be worn on the left side of the chest, and in the presence of other orders of the Russian Federation, is to be located immediately after the Order of Suvorov.

Description of the modern award.

The Order of Ushakov is a 40 mm wide blue enamelled silver cross pattée, seven silver rays of increasing size protrude from the center between each cross arm. On the obverse, a convex central blue enamelled medallion superimposed over a ship's anchor, the arms and flukes, stock and shackle visible. On the medallion, the gilded bust of Admiral Fyodor Ushakov half turned to the left. Below the medallion, on the crown and arms of the anchor, crossed gilded branches of oak and laurel. On either side of the bust, following the medallion's circumference, the gilded relief inscription "ADMIRAL USHAKOV" (). The maximum distance between the tips of opposing silver rays is 45 mm. The plain reverse bears only a relief "N" and a line for the award serial number.  The badge of the Order is suspended by a ring through the award's suspension loop to a standard Russian pentagonal mount covered by an overlapping 24 mm wide white silk moiré ribbon with a 4 mm wide blue central stripe and two 2 mm blue edge stripes.

The Order of Ushakov () is a military decoration of the Russian Federation named in honour of admiral Fyodor Ushakov (1744–1817) who never lost a battle and was proclaimed patron saint of the Russian Navy. It is bestowed to command grade naval officers for outstanding leadership. The order was established in two classes during World War II by decision of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of March 3, 1944. The idea was given to Joseph Stalin by admiral Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov in the summer of 1943. Following the 1991 dissolution of the USSR, the Order of Ushakov was retained unchanged by Decision of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation 2557-I of March 20, 1992 but it was not awarded in this form. The all encompassing Presidential Decree 1099 of September 7, 2010 that modernised and reorganised the entire Russian awards system away from its Soviet past amended the Order to its present form, a ribbon mounted single class Order.

Řád Ušakova (rusky "Орден Ушакова") byl sovětský vojenský řád určený pro námořní důstojníky. Založen byl 3. března 1944 a byl udělován „důstojníkům válečného námořnictva Sovětského svazu za vynikající úspěch ve vypracování, provedení a zajištění bojů a operací na moři, v jejichž průběhu bylo dosaženo vítězství nad početně převažujícím nepřítelem“. Pro poddůstojníky a řadové mužstvo byla určena Medaile Ušakova. Pojmenován byl na počest ruského admirála Fjodora Ušakova, jenž je považován za zakladatele ruského vojenského námořního umění. Prvními držiteli řádu se stali viceadmirál Pavel Ivanovič Boltunov a generálporučík Vasilij Vasiljevič Jermačenkov, přesto odznak s pořadovým číslem 1 nosil viceadmirál Vladimir Filippovič Tribuc.


Life.

Chalkokondyles was a member of a prominent family of Athens, which at the time was ruled by the Florentine Acciaioli family. His father George was a kinsman of Maria Melissene, the wife of Duke Antonio I Acciaioli. When Antonio died in 1435, Maria attempted to secure control of the Duchy of Athens and sent George on a mission to the Ottoman Sultan Murad II, asking that the government of Athens might be entrusted to herself and George Chalkokondyles. However, during his absence, the Duchess was enticed out of the Acropolis and a young scion of the Acciaiuoli family, Nerio II, was proclaimed Duke of Athens. Meanwhile, George Chalkokondyles had his proposal rejected, despite offering the Sultan 30,000 gold pieces, and was cast into prison. George Chalkokondyles managed to escape to Constantinople, according to William Miller "leaving his retinue, tents and beasts of burden behind him", but after leaving Constantinople by ship, he was captured by an Athenian ship and taken back to the Sultan, who pardoned him.  George with Laonikos and the rest of the family relocated to the Peloponnese, which was under Byzantine rule as the Despotate of the Morea. In 1446 Constantine Palaiologos, then Despot of the Morea, sent George on a diplomatic mission to Murad II to obtain the independence of the Greek states south of Thermopylae; enraged at the offered terms, the Sultan put George Chalkokondyles into prison, then marched on Constantine's forces holding the Hexamilion wall on the Isthmus of Corinth and after bombarding it for three days, destroyed the fortifications, massacred the defenders, then pillaged the countryside, ending all hopes of independence. According to Miller, Laonikos was "evidently" an eye-witness to this battle, although the historian Theodore Spandounes claims Laonikos was the secretary of Murad II and present at the Battle of Varna in 1444.  The one glimpse we have of Laonikos himself is in the summer of 1447, when Cyriacus of Ancona met him in the summer of 1447 at the court of Constantine Palaiologos at Mistra. Cyriacus describes him as a youth "egregie latinis atque grecis litteris eruditum" ("surprisingly learned in Latin and Greek literature"). It was at Mistra where Laonikos was taught by George Gemistos Plethon, and who gave Laonikos his personal copy of the "Histories" of Herodotus: Laur. Plut. 70.6, written in 1318, with corrections by Plethon, and later used by Bessarion in 1436 to make another copy, contains a subscription written by Laonikos.  Laonikos' movements and actions after 1447 are not known with certainty. Internal evidence has led Byzantinist Anthony Kaldellis to put the date Laonikos stopped writing his "Histories" as 1464. In writing this work, his account of the circumcision of Sultan Mehmed II's sons in 1457 suggest he was an eye-witness to the event, and his account of Ottoman finances indicate he interviewed the Sultan's accountants. Other speculations about Laonikos Chalkokondyles' life are not as widely accepted.

Portrayals in fiction.

In the 1954 Albanian–Soviet movie "The Great Warrior Skanderbeg", Laonikos Chalkokondyles is portrayed as an official historian at the Ottoman Court with opportunistic views on politics who tries to discourage Skanderbeg from an anti-Ottoman insurrection. After Skanderbeg leaves the Ottoman army and becomes leader of Albania on his own right, Chalkokondyles is brought as a hostage to his court to witness the First Siege of Krujë.

"The Histories" of Chalkokondyles.

After the Fall of Constantinople, Chalkokondyles wrote his most important historical work, "Proofs of Histories" (Ἀποδείξεις Ἱστοριῶν). This historical work comprises one of the most important sources for the students of the final 150 years of Byzantine history, despite being defective in its chronology. It covers the period from 1298–1463, describing the fall of the Byzantine empire and the rise of the Ottoman Turks, which forms the centre of the narrative, down to the conquest of the Venetians and Mathias, king of Hungary, by Mehmed II. The capture of Constantinople he rightly regarded as an historical event of far-reaching importance and compared it to the fall of Troy. The work also sketches other manners and civilization of England, France and Germany, whose assistance the Greeks sought to obtain against the Turks. For his account of earlier events he was able to obtain information from his father.  His model is Thucydides (according to Bekker, Herodotus), his language is tolerably pure and correct, and his style is simple and clear. The text, however, is in a very corrupt state. The archaic language he used made his texts hard to read in many parts, while the antiquarian names, with which he named people of his time, created confusion (Γέται, Δάκες, Λίγυρες, Μυσοί, Παίονες, Ἕλληνες). The extended use of the name "Hellenes" (Ἕλληνες), which Laonikos used to describe the Byzantines contributed to the connection made between the ancient Greek civilization and the modern one.  Chalkokondyles' "History" was first published in a Latin translation by Conrad Clauser at Basel in 1556, although the translation itself bears the date of November 1544. A French translation was published by Blaise de Vigenère in 1577 with a later edition by Artus Thomas, with valuable illustrations on Turkish matters. The "editio princeps" of the Greek text had to wait until 1615 for J. B. Baumbach's printing.  The two best editions are: "Historiarum Libri Decem", ed. I. Bekker, Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae (Bonn 1843) and "Historiae Demonstrationes", 2 vols., ed. E. Darko, (Budapest 1922-7). The text can also be found in J.-P. Migne, "Patrologia Graeca", volume 159.  A complete English translation (by Anthony Kaldellis) of "The Histories" was published in two volumes in 2014 by Harvard University Press, as volumes 33 and 34 of The Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library. Partial translations include one of Books I-III in "Laonikos Chalkokondyles. A Translation and Commentary of the Demonstrations of Histories", trans. Nikolaos Nikoloudis (Athens 1996) and another of Book VIII in J. R. Melville Jones, "The Siege of Constantinople: Seven Contemporary Accounts" (Amsterdam 1972), pp. 42–55.

Laonikos Chalkokondyles, Latinized as Laonicus Chalcocondyles (, from λαός "people", νικᾶν "to be victorious", an anagram of Nikolaos which bears the same meaning; c. 1430 – c. 1470). Incidentally Chalcokondyles is from χαλκος "brass",and κονδυλος "knuckle". He was a Byzantine Greek historian from Athens. He is known for his "Histories" in ten books, which record the last 150 years of the Byzantine Empire.

Laonikos Chalkokondyles (asi 1423 – 1490) byl byzantský historik původem z Athén, který sepsal ve svém díle "Výklad dějin" (Ἀποδείξεις Ἱστοριῶν, "Apodeixis historión") historický vývoj v letech 1298–1463.