Definitions.

The term "psychotherapy" is derived from Ancient Greek "" ( meaning "breath; spirit; soul") and "therapeia" ( "healing; medical treatment"). The "Oxford English Dictionary" defines it now as "The treatment of disorders of the mind or personality by psychological methods...", however, in earlier use it denoted the treatment of disease through hypnotic suggestion.  The American Psychological Association adopted a resolution on the effectiveness of psychotherapy in 2012 based on a definition developed by John C. Norcross: "Psychotherapy is the informed and intentional application of clinical methods and interpersonal stances derived from established psychological principles for the purpose of assisting people to modify their behaviors, cognitions, emotions, and/or other personal characteristics in directions that the participants deem desirable". Influential editions of a work by psychiatrist Jerome Frank defined psychotherapy as a healing relationship using socially

Delivery.

Psychotherapy may be delivered in person (one on one, or with couples, or in groups), over the phone, via telephone counseling, or via the internet.  It has not been established whether the effectiveness of psychotherapy administered online, over video chat for instance, is comparable to that delivered within in-person meetings: "Clear, consistent trends from empirical research are lacking regarding the efficacy of online therapy" - Australian Counselling Association.  The Victoria Government's Health Agency has awarded no mental health app with scores greater than 3 stars out of 5 for effectiveness. One reason for this is that online Cognitive Behavioural Therapy programs have poor "adherence" compared to face-to-face programs. That means that many users do not "stick to" the program as prescribed. They may uninstall the app or skip days, for instance.

Treatments duration.

According to the American Psychological Association, experts suggests that those who have had two depressive episodes in recent years, or three episodes over their life, should be treated on an

Regulation.

Psychotherapists traditionally may be: mental health professionals like psychologists and psychiatrists; professionals from other backgrounds (family therapists, social workers, nurses, etc.) who have trained in a specific psychotherapy; or (in some cases) academic or scientifically-trained professionals. Psychiatrists are trained first as physicians, and—as such—they may prescribe prescription medication; and specialist psychiatric training begins after medical school in psychiatric residencies: however, their specialty is in mental disorders or forms of mental illness. Clinical psychologists have specialist doctoral degrees in psychology with some clinical and research components. Other clinical practitioners, social workers, mental health counselors, pastoral counselors, and nurses with a specialization in mental health, also often conduct psychotherapy. Many of the wide variety of psychotherapy training programs and institutional settings are multi-professional. In most countries, psychotherapy training are all at a post-graduate level, often at a master's degree (or doctoral) level, over a 4-year period, with significant supervised practice and clinical placements. Such professionals doing specialized psychotherapeutic work also require a program of continuing professional education after basic professional training.  There is a 2013 listing of the extensive professional competencies of a European psychotherapist, developed by the European Association of Psychotherapy (EAP).  As sensitive and deeply personal topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality. The critical importance of client confidentiality—and the limited circumstances in which it may need to be broken for the protection of clients or others—is enshrined in the regulatory psychotherapeutic organizations' codes of ethical practice. Examples of when it is typically accepted to break confidentiality include when the therapist has knowledge that a child or elder is being physically abused; when there is a direct, clear and imminent threat of serious physical harm to self or to a specific individual.

Europe.

As of 2015, there are still a lot of variations between different European countries about the regulation and delivery of psychotherapy. Several countries have no regulation of the practice or no protection of the title. Some have a system of voluntary registration, with independent professional organizations, while other countries attempt to restrict the practice of psychotherapy to'mental health professionals' (psychologists and psychiatrists) with state-certified training. The titles that are protected also vary. The European Association for Psychotherapy (EAP) established the 1990 Strasbourg Declaration on Psychotherapy, which is dedicated to establishing an independent profession of psychotherapy in Europe, with pan-European standards. The EAP has already made significant contacts with the European Union & European Commission towards this end.  Given that the European Union has a primary policy about the free movement of labor within Europe, European legislation can overrule national regulations that are, in essence, forms of restrictive practices.  In Germany, the practice of psychotherapy for adults is restricted to qualified psychologists and physicians (including psychiatrists) who have completed several years of specialist practical training and certification in psychotherapy. As psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy, and cognitive behavioral therapy meet the requirements of German

United States.

In some states, counselors or therapists must be licensed to use certain words and titles on self-identification or advertising. In some other states, the restrictions on practice are more closely associated with the charging of fees. Licensing and regulation are performed by various states. Presentation of practice as licensed, but

History.

Psychotherapy can be said to have been practiced through the ages, as medics, philosophers, spiritual practitioners and people in general used psychological methods to heal others.  In the Western tradition, by the 19th century, a moral treatment movement (then meaning morale or mental) developed based on non-invasive non-restraint therapeutic methods. Another influential movement was started by Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) and his student Armand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis of Puységur (1751–1825). Called Mesmerism or animal magnetism, it would have a strong influence on the rise of dynamic psychology and psychiatry as well as theories about hypnosis. In 1853 Walter Cooper Dendy introduced the term "psycho-therapeia" regarding how physicians might influence the mental states of sufferers and thus their bodily ailments, for example by creating opposing emotions to promote mental balance. Daniel Hack Tuke cited the term and wrote about "psycho-therapeutics" in 1872, in which he also proposed making a science of animal magnetism. Hippolyte Bernheim and colleagues in the "Nancy School" developed the concept of "psychotherapy" in the sense of using the mind to heal the body through hypnotism, yet further. Charles Lloyd Tuckey's 1889 work, "Psycho-therapeutics, or Treatment by Hypnotism and Suggestion" popularized the work of the Nancy School in English. Also in 1889 a clinic used the word in its title for the first time, when Frederik van Eeden and Albert Willem in Amsterdam renamed theirs "Clinique de Psycho-thérapeutique Suggestive" after visiting Nancy. During this time, travelling stage hypnosis became popular, and such activities added to the scientific controversies around the use of hypnosis in medicine. Also in 1892, at the second congress of experimental psychology, van Eeden attempted to take the credit for the term psychotherapy and to distance the term from hypnosis. In 1896, the German journal Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus, Suggestionstherapie, Suggestionslehre und verwandte psychologische Forschungen changed its name to Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus, Psychotherapie sowie andere psychophysiologische und psychopathologische Forschungen, which is probably the first journal to use the term. Thus psychotherapy initially meant "the treatment of disease by psychic or hypnotic influence, or by suggestion".  Sigmund Freud visited the Nancy School and his early neurological practice involved the use of hypnotism. However following the work of his mentor Josef Breuer—in particular a case where symptoms appeared partially resolved by what the patient, Bertha Pappenheim, dubbed a "talking cure"—Freud began focusing on conditions that appeared to have psychological causes originating in childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. He went on to develop techniques such as free association, dream interpretation, transference and analysis of the id, ego and superego. His popular reputation as the father of psychotherapy was established by his use of the distinct term "psychoanalysis", tied to an overarching system of theories and methods, and by the effective work of his followers in rewriting history. Many theorists, including Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karen

Types.

Overview.

There are hundreds of psychotherapy approaches or schools of thought. By 1980 there were more than 250; by 1996 more than 450; and at the start of the 21st century there were over a thousand different named psychotherapies—some being minor variations while others are based on very different conceptions of psychology, ethics (how to live) or technique. In practice therapy is often not of one pure type but draws from a number of perspectives and schools—known as an integrative or eclectic approach. The importance of the therapeutic relationship, also known as therapeutic alliance, between client and therapist is often regarded as crucial to psychotherapy. Common factors theory addresses this and other core aspects thought to be responsible for effective psychotherapy. Sigmund Freud

Humanistic.

These psychotherapies, also known as "experiential", are based on humanistic psychology and emerged in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, being dubbed the "third force". They are primarily concerned with the human development and needs of the individual, with an emphasis on subjective meaning, a rejection of determinism, and a concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some posit an inherent human capacity to maximize potential, "the self-actualizing tendency"; the task of therapy is to create a relational environment where this tendency might flourish. Humanistic psychology can, in turn, be rooted in existentialism—the belief that human beings can only find meaning by creating

Insight-oriented.

Insight-oriented psychotherapies focus on revealing or interpreting unconscious processes. Most commonly referring to psychodynamic therapy, of which psychoanalysis is the oldest and most intensive form, these applications of depth psychology encourage the verbalization of all the patient's thoughts, including free

Cognitive-behavioral.

Behavior therapies use behavioral techniques, including applied behavior analysis (also known as behavior modification), to change maladaptive patterns of behavior to improve emotional responses, cognitions, and interactions with others. Functional analytic psychotherapy is one form of this approach. By nature, behavioral therapies are empirical (data-driven), contextual (focused on the environment and context), functional (interested in the effect or consequence a behavior ultimately has), probabilistic (viewing behavior as statistically predictable), monistic (rejecting mind-body dualism and treating the person as a unit), and relational (analyzing bidirectional interactions).  Cognitive therapy focuses directly on changing the thoughts, in order to improve the emotions and behaviors.  Cognitive behavioral therapy attempts to combine the above two approaches, focused on the construction and reconstruction of

Systemic.

Systemic therapy seeks to address people not just individually, as is often the focus of other forms of therapy, but in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups, their patterns and dynamics (includes family therapy and marriage counseling). Community psychology is a type of systemic psychology.  The term group therapy was first used around 1920 by Jacob L. Moreno, whose main contribution was the development of psychodrama, in which groups were used as both cast and audience for the exploration of individual problems by reenactment under the direction of the leader. The more analytic and exploratory use of groups in both hospital and out-patient settings was pioneered

Expressive.

Expressive psychotherapy is a form of therapy that utilizes artistic expression (via improvisational, compositional, re-creative, and receptive experiences) as its core means of treating clients. Expressive psychotherapists use the different disciplines of the creative arts as therapeutic interventions.

Postmodernist.

Also known as post-structuralist or constructivist. Narrative therapy gives attention to each person's "dominant story" by means of therapeutic conversations, which also may involve exploring unhelpful ideas and how they came to prominence. Possible social and

Other.

Transpersonal psychology addresses the client in the context of a spiritual understanding of consciousness. Positive psychotherapy (PPT) (since 1968) is a method in the field of humanistic and psychodynamic psychotherapy and is based on a positive image of humans, with a health-promoting, resource-oriented and conflict-centered approach.  Hypnotherapy is undertaken while a subject is in a state of hypnosis. Hypnotherapy is often applied in order to modify a subject's behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including: dysfunctional habits, anxiety, stress-related illness, pain management, and personal development.  Body psychotherapy, part of the field of somatic psychology, focuses on the link between the mind and the body and tries to

Child.

Psychotherapy needs to be adapted to meet the developmental needs of children. Depending on age, it is generally held to be one part of an effective strategy to help the needs of a child within the family setting. Child psychotherapy training programs necessarily include courses in human development. Since children often do not have the ability to articulate thoughts and feelings, psychotherapists will use a variety of media such as musical instruments, sand and toys, crayons, paint, clay, puppets, bibliocounseling (books), or board

Computer-supported.

Research on computer-supported and computer-based interventions has increased significantly over

Effects.

Evaluation.

There is considerable controversy about whether, or when, psychotherapy efficacy is best evaluated by randomized controlled trials or more individualized idiographic methods.  One issue with trials is what to use as a placebo treatment group or non-treatment control group. Often, this group includes patients on a waiting list, or those receiving some kind of regular non-specific contact or support. Researchers must consider how best to match the use of inert tablets or sham treatments in placebo-controlled studies in pharmaceutical trials. Several interpretations and differing assumptions and language remain. Another issue is the attempt to standardize and manualize therapies and

Outcomes in relation with selected kinds of treatment.

Large-scale international reviews of scientific studies have concluded that psychotherapy is effective for numerous conditions.  One line of research consistently finds that supposedly different forms of psychotherapy show similar effectiveness. According to The Handbook of Counseling Psychology: "Meta-analyses of psychotherapy studies have consistently demonstrated that there are no substantial differences in outcomes among treatments". The handbook states that there is "little evidence to suggest that any one psychological therapy consistently outperforms any other for any specific psychological disorders. This is sometimes called the Dodo bird verdict after a scene/section in Alice in Wonderland where every competitor in a race was called a winner and is given prizes".  Further analyses seek to identify the factors that the psychotherapies have in common that seem to account for this, known as common factors theory; for example the quality of the therapeutic relationship, interpretation of problem,

Mechanisms of change.

It is not yet understood how psychotherapies can succeed in treating mental illnesses. Different therapeutic approaches may be associated with particular theories about what needs to change in a person for a successful

Adherence.

Patient adherence to a course of psychotherapy—continuing to attend sessions or complete tasks—is a major issue.  The dropout level—early termination—ranges from around 30% to 60%, depending partly on how it is defined. The range is lower for research settings for various reasons, such as the selection of clients and how they are inducted. Early termination is associated on average with various demographic and clinical characteristics of clients, therapists and treatment interactions. The high

Adverse effects.

Research on adverse effects of psychotherapy has been limited for various reasons, yet they may be expected to occur in 5% to 20% of patients. Problems include deterioration of

General critiques.

Some critics are skeptical of the healing power of psychotherapeutic relationships. Some dismiss psychotherapy altogether in the sense of a scientific discipline requiring professional practitioners, instead favoring either nonprofessional help or biomedical treatments. Others have pointed out ways in which the values and techniques of therapists can be harmful as well as helpful to clients (or indirectly to other people in a client's life).  Many resources available to a person experiencing emotional distress—the friendly support of friends, peers, family members, clergy contacts, personal reading, healthy exercise, research, and independent coping—all present considerable value. Critics note that humans have been dealing with crises, navigating severe social problems and finding solutions to life problems long before the advent of psychotherapy.  On the other hand, some argue psychotherapy is under-utilized and under-researched by contemporary psychiatry despite offering more promise than stagnant medication development. In 2015, the US National Institute of

Psychotherapy (psychological therapy or talking therapy) is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction with adults, to help a person change behavior and overcome problems in desired ways. Psychotherapy aims to improve an individual's well-being and mental health, to resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviors, beliefs, compulsions, thoughts, or emotions, and to improve relationships and social skills. There is also a range of psychotherapies designed for children and adolescents, which typically involve play, such as sandplay. Certain psychotherapies are considered evidence-based for treating some diagnosed mental disorders. Others have been criticized as pseudoscience.

Psychoterapie je záměrné a cílené používání psychoterapeutických prostředků kvalifikovaným odborníkem – psychoterapeutem v souladu s vědeckými poznatky. Historicky je psychoterapie (léčba slovem) jednou ze tří základních léčebných metod. Dalšími jsou chirurgie (léčba nožem) a farmakoterapie (léčba bylinou). V současnosti je psychoterapie jednou z pomáhajících profesí, která se (vedle medicíny, psychologie, léčitelství a dalších) uplatňuje v oblasti péče o zdraví. V České republice upravuje péči o zdraví nový občanský zákoník. Psychoterapie směřuje k dosažení, obnovení, rozvoji či udržení kvality života klientů tak, aby mohli žít život subjektivně spokojený, a to především v aspektech osobních, zdravotních, sociálních a pracovních. Cílem psychoterapie je dosažení optimálního rozvoje osobnosti a odstranění resp. zmírnění psychického či fyzického utrpení jedince.


Etymology.

Old English.

The is glossed as ""Orc, þyrs, oððe hel-deofol"" ("Goblin, spectre, or hell-devil") in the 10th century Old English "Cleopatra Glossary", about which Thomas Wright wrote, "Orcus was the name for Pluto, the god of the infernal regions, hence we can easily understand the explanation of "hel-deofol". "Orc", in Anglo-Saxon, like "thyrs", means a spectre, or goblin." The "Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal" defines "ork" in the closely related Old Dutch language as a "verslindend monster" ("devouring monster"), and points at a possible origin in the Old Dutch "nork" "petulant, crabbed, evil person".  The term is used just once in "Beowulf" as the plural compound "orcneas", one of the tribes alongside the elves and ettins (giants) condemned by God:  "Orcneas" is translated "evil spirits" above, but its meaning is uncertain. Klaeber suggested it consisted of "orc" < L. "orcus" "the underworld" + "neas" "corpses", which the translation "evil spirits" failed to do justice. It is generally supposed to contain an element "-né", cognate to Gothic "naus" and Old Norse "nár", both meaning 'corpse'. The usual Old English word for corpse is "líc", but "-né" appears in "nebbed" 'corpse bed', and in "dryhtné" 'dead body of a warrior', where "dryht" is a military unit. If "*orcné" is to be glossed as "orcus" 'corpse', the meaning may be "corpse from Orcus (i.e. the underworld)", or "devil-corpse", understood as some sort of walking dead creature.

Early Modern.

A monster called "Orcus" is mentioned in Edmund Spenser's 1590 "Faerie Queene". The "Oxford English Dictionary" records an Early Modern period "orke", meaning "ogre", in Samuel Holland's 1656 fairy tale "Don Zara", a pastiche of Spanish romances such as "Don Quixote". It is presumed that 'orke'/'ogre' came into English via continental fairy-tales, especially from the 17th-century French writer Charles Perrault, who borrowed most of his stories and developed his "ogre" from the 16th-century Italian writers Giovanni Francesco Straparola (credited with introducing the literary form of the fairy tale) and Giambattista Basile, who wrote in the Naples dialect, stating that he was passing on oral folktales from his region. In the tales, Basile used "huorco", "huerco" or "uerco", the Neapolitan form of Italian "orco", "giant" or "monster", to describe a large, hairy, tusked, mannish beast who could speak, lived in a dark forest or garden and might capture and eat humans.

Tolkien.

Stated etymology.

Tolkien began the modern use of the English term "orc" to denote a race of evil, humanoid creatures. His earliest Elvish dictionaries include the entry "Ork (orq-)" "monster", "ogre", "demon", together with "orqindi" and "ogresse". He sometimes used the plural form "orqui" in his early texts. He stated that the Elvish words for orc were derived from a root "ruku", "fear, horror"; in Quenya, "orco", plural "orkor"; in Sindarin "orch", plurals "yrch" and "Orchoth" (as a class). They had similar names in other Middle-earth languages: "uruk" in Black Speech (restricted to the larger soldier-orcs); in the language of the Drúedain "gorgûn", "ork-folk"; in Khuzdul "rukhs", plural "rakhâs"; and in the language of Rohan and in the Common Speech, "orka".  Tolkien stated in a letter to the novelist Naomi Mitchison that his Orcs had been influenced by George MacDonald's "The Princess and the Goblin". He explained that his "orc" was "derived from Old English "orc" 'demon', but only because of its phonetic suitability", and  Tolkien also observed a connection with the Latin word "orcus", noting that "the word used in translation of Q[uenya] "urko", S[indarin] "orch" is Orc. But that is because of the similarity of the ancient English word "orc", 'evil spirit or bogey', to the Elvish words. There is possibly no connextion (sic) between them."

Description.

Orcs are of human shape, and of varying size; in "The Hobbit" they are called "goblins", though Thorin's Elvish sword from Gondolin is named as "Orcrist, Goblin-cleaver, but the goblins called it simply Biter". They are depicted as ugly and filthy, with a taste for human flesh. They are fanged, bow-legged and long-armed; some have dark skin as if burned. Most are small and avoid daylight. In Isengard, the Wizard Saruman has bred a large and powerful kind of orc, the Uruk-Hai, who are not afraid of daylight. Orcs eat meat, including the flesh of Men, and may indulge in cannibalism: in "The Two Towers", Grishnákh, an Orc from Mordor, claims that the Isengard Orcs eat orc-flesh. Whether that is true or spoken in malice is uncertain: an Orc flings Pippin stale bread and a "strip of raw dried flesh... the flesh of he dared not guess what creature".  The orcs from Mordor speak the Black Speech, a language invented for them by Sauron, while those from Isengard speak other tongues; to understand each other, they use the Common Speech (Westron), such as Pippin overheard and understood.

In-fiction origins.

Tolkien proposed several theories for the origins of orcs. In "The Tale of Tinúviel", Orcs originate as "foul broodlings of Melkor who fared abroad doing his evil work". In "The Fall of Gondolin" Tolkien wrote that "all that race were bred by Melkor of the subterranean heats and slime." In "The Silmarillion", Orcs are East Elves (Avari) enslaved, tortured, and bred by Morgoth; they "multiplied" like Elves and Men. Tolkien stated in a 1962 letter to a Mrs. Munsby that Orc-females must have existed. In "The Fall of Gondolin" Morgoth made them of slime by sorcery, "bred from the heats and slimes of the earth". Or, they were "The Orcs were "beasts" of humanized shape", possibly, Tolkien wrote, Elves mated with beasts, and later Men. Or again, Tolkien noted, they could have been fallen Maiar, perhaps a kind called "Boldog", like lesser Balrogs; or corrupted Men.  Half-orcs appear in "The Lord of the Rings", created by interbreeding of Orcs and Men; they were able to go in sunlight. The "sly Southerner" in "The Fellowship of the Ring" looks "more than half like a goblin"; similar but more orc-like hybrids appear in "The Two Towers" "man-high, but with goblin-faces, sallow, leering, squint-eyed."

Alleged racism.

The scholars of English literature William N. Rogers II and Michael R. Underwood note that a widespread element of late 19th century Western culture was fear of moral decline and degeneration; this led to eugenics. In "The Two Towers", the Ent Treebeard says:  The film-maker Andrew Stewart, writing in "CounterPunch", cites this speech as an instance of "mid-twentieth century scientific racism.. which alarmingly spells out the notion of 'race mixing' as a great sin". Stewart notes, too, that the geography of Middle-earth deliberately pits the good West against the evil East; John Magoun, writing in the "J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia", concurs, supposing that Middle-earth has a "moral geography". Any moral bias towards a north-western geography, however, was directly addressed by Tolkien himself in a letter to Charlotte and Denis Plimmer, who had recently interviewed him in 1967:  In a private letter, Tolkien describes orcs as:  A variety of critics and commentators have noted that orcs are somewhat like caricatures of non-Europeans. The journalist David Ibata writes that the orcs in Peter Jackson's Tolkien films look much like "the worst depictions of the Japanese drawn by American and British illustrators during World War II." The literary critic Jenny Turner, writing in the "London Review of Books", endorses Andrew O'Hehir's comment on Salon.com that orcs are "by design and intention a northern European's paranoid caricature of the races he has dimly heard about". O'Hehir describes orcs as "a subhuman race bred by Morgoth and/or Sauron (although not created by them) that is morally irredeemable and deserves only death. They are dark-skinned and slant-eyed, and although they possess reason, speech, social organization and, as Shippey mentions, a sort of moral sensibility, they are inherently evil." He notes Tolkien's own description of them (quoted above), saying it could scarcely be more revealing of his attitude to the "Other", but excuses him saying that "it is also the product of his background and era, like most of our inescapable prejudices. At the level of conscious intention, he was not a racist or an anti-Semite" and mentions his letters to this effect. In a letter to his son, Christopher who was serving in the RAF in the Second World War, Tolkien wrote of orcs as appearing on both sides of the conflict:  The scholar of English literature Robert Tally describes the orcs as a demonized enemy, despite (he writes) Tolkien's own objections to demonization of the enemy in the two World Wars. The Germanic studies scholar Sandra Ballif Straubhaar however argues against the "recurring accusations" of racism, stating that "a polycultured, polylingual world is absolutely central" to Middle-earth, and that readers and filmgoers will easily see that. The historian and Tolkien scholar Jared Lobdell likewise disagreed with any notions of racism inherent or latent in Tolkien's works, and wondered "if there were a way of writing epic fantasy about a battle against an evil spirit and his monstrous servants without its being subject to speculation of racist intent".

A shared morality.

The Tolkien critic Tom Shippey writes that the orcs in "The Lord of the Rings" were almost certainly created just to equip Middle-earth with "a continual supply of enemies over whom one need feel no ", or in Tolkien's words from "The Monsters and the Critics" "the infantry of the old war" ready to be slaughtered. Shippey states that all the same, orcs share the human concept of good and evil, with a familiar sense of morality, though he notes that, like many people, orcs are quite unable to apply their morals to themselves. In his view, Tolkien, as a Roman Catholic, took it as a given that "evil cannot make, only mock", so orcs could not have an equal and opposite morality to that of men or elves. Shippey notes that in "The Two Towers", the orc Gorbag disapproves of the "regular elvish trick" of seeming to abandon a comrade, as he wrongly supposes Sam has done with Frodo. Shippey describes the implied view of evil as Boethian, that evil is the absence of good; he notes however that Tolkien did not agree with that point of view, believing that evil had to be actively combatted, with war if necessary, the Manichean position.

Other authors.

In the fantasy series The Harrow, author Philip Mazza includes a race of orcs or the "Gulguthra" in the ancient tongue. The "Gulguthra" are members of the Brood, or "En' Rauko," an evil race that occupy a post-apocalypse fantasy world. They have low jutting foreheads, snouts, ray-green skin, reddish eyes, large canine teeth, and short pointed ears.  As a response to their type-casting as generic evil characters or antagonists, some novels portray events from the point of view of the orcs, or present them as more sympathetic characters. Mary Gentle's 1992 novel "Grunts!" presents orcs as generic infantry, used as metaphorical cannon-fodder. A series of books by Stan Nicholls,, focuses on the conflicts between orcs and humans, from the orcs' point of view. In Terry Pratchett's "Discworld" series, Orcs are a race that is close to extinction; in his "Unseen Academicals" it is said that "When the Evil Emperor wanted fighters he got some of the Igors to turn goblins into orcs" to be used as weapons in a Great War, "encouraged" by whips and beatings.

In games.

Orcs based on "The Lord of the Rings" have become a fixture of fantasy fiction and role-playing games, where orcs and goblins are usually distinct races of goblinoids. In the fantasy tabletop role-playing game "Dungeons & Dragons," orcs were one of the earliest creatures introduced in the game, and were largely based upon those described by Tolkien. The "D&D" orcs are a tribal race of hostile and bestial humanoids with muscular frames, large canine teeth and snouts rather than human-like noses. The orc appears in the first edition "Monster Manual" (1977), where it is described as a fiercely competitive bully, a tribal creature often living underground. The mythology and attitudes of the orcs are described in detail in "Dragon" #62 (June 1982), in Roger E. Moore's article, "The Half-Orc Point of View", and the orc is further detailed in Paizo Publishing's book "Classic Monsters Revisited" (2008), on pages 52–57.  Games Workshop's "Warhammer" universe features cunning and brutal Orcs in a fantasy setting. In the "Warhammer 40,000," a series of science-fiction games, they are a green-skinned alien species, called 'Orks'. Orcs are an important race in the "Warcraft," a high fantasy franchise created by Blizzard Entertainment. They are variously savage or "savage but noble" warriors and shamans, prodigiously muscled, with broad noses and distinctive tusked mouths. Several Orc characters from the "Warcraft" universe are playable heroes in the crossover multiplayer game "Heroes of the Storm".  In Hasbro's "Heroscape" products, Orcs come from the pre-historic planet Grut. They are blue-skinned, with prominent tusks or horns. Several Orc champions ride prehistoric animals (including a "Tyrannosaurus rex", a "Velociraptor" and sabre-tooth tigers, known as Swogs.

An orc is a fictional humanoid creature akin to a goblin. Orcs were brought into modern usage by the fantasy writings of J. R. R. Tolkien, especially "The Lord of the Rings". In Tolkien's works, orcs are a brutish, aggressive, ugly and malevolent race, contrasting with the benevolent Elves and serving an evil power, though they share a human sense of morality. His description of them has been criticised as caricature-like, even racist by some commentators, though others have noted that he was clearly anti-racist by intention.

Skřeti či orkové jsou fiktivní humanoidé. Objevují se ve fantasy, poprvé v díle J. R. R. Tolkiena. Tradiční skřeti, inspirovaní Tolkienovým dílem, bývají spojeni se zlem a chaosem a slouží Temnému pánovi či temným bohům. Často jsou jim přisuzovány prasečí rysy, někdy včetně klů, a různá barva kůže včetně šedé či zelené. Jsou vykreslováni jako hloupí, primitivní násilničtí a někdy jako lidožrouti. Především v hrách na hrdiny a počítačových plní skřeti často roli „kanónenfutru“, slabých a hloupých protivníků hrdinů.


Early life.

Kubasov was born 7 January 1935, in Vyazniki, Vladimir Oblast, Ivanovo Industrial Oblast, RSFSR, now Vladimir Oblast, Russia. After finishing secondary school in 1952, he graduated from the Moscow Aviation Institute in 1958 as an aerospace engineer and reported to work at the bureau led by Sergei Korolev. Initially focusing on ballistic studies, Kubasov worked on the design of the Voskhod capsule. He authored several studies on the calculation of spaceship trajectories, and acquired a Master of Science degree in Engineering.  In May 1964, while working for Korolev, Kubasov became one of a handful of civilian candidates who passed preliminary medical screening for one of the Soviet Voskhod missions. Two years later, after some relaxation of the existing rules, Kubasov along with Georgy Grechko and Vladislav Volkov, were officially accepted into the newly established civilian cosmonaut corps.

Cosmonaut.

Kubasov's first space mission, the five-day Soyuz 6 flight in October 1969, was unsuccessful due to technical issues as space vehicles never met up. During Soyuz 6 mission Kubasov and Georgy Shonin performed the first welding experiment in space. The Vulcan furnace required internal hatches between the orbital and descent modules to be sealed, with the welding performed automatically, overseen by Kubasov. Samples of stainless steel and titanium were welded together, then cut, after which the hatches were opened for Kubasov to perform a hand-held welding. However, in 1990 it became known that Vulcan's low-pressure compressed arc had inadvertently targeted a beam at the orbital module wall. Upon opening the hatch, the cosmonauts discovered the damage and, fearing a depressurization, returned to the descent module.  Following his first mission, Kubasov began training to fly aboard the world's first space station, Salyut 1, along with Georgy Shonin and Pyotr Kolodin.  In 1971 Kubasov was almost launched aboard the ill-fated Soyuz 11 mission, he was among the prime crew alongside Alexei Leonov. Medics from the Institute for Biomedical Problems in Moscow found a swelling on Kubasov's right lung. Fearing the onset of tuberculosis, the entire Soyuz 11 prime crew was grounded and replaced by the backup: Georgy Dobrovolsky, Vladislav Volkov and Viktor Patsayev. In his memoir "Two Sides of the Moon" Leonov would later write: "It turned out later, that [Kubasov] was allergic to a chemical insecticide used to spray trees".  The July, 1975, Apollo–Soyuz Test Project became Kubasov's second space mission and he was a flight engineer on it. Kubasov spent several hours in the Apollo command and docking modules. During this project Kubasov told the U.S. President Gerald Ford in a TV linkup, that they got "good space food... some juice, some coffee and a lot of water".  Kubasov's last spaceflight was aboard Soyuz 36 in 1980. During this flight, the Soyuz transported the crew that included Bertalan Farkas, the first Hungarian astronaut. Kubasov retired as a cosmonaut on 13 November 1993.

Death.

Kubasov died in Moscow of natural causes on 19 February 2014, at the age of 79. He is survived by his wife Lyudmila Kurovskaya, daughter Ekaterina and son Dmitry.

Awards.

Kubasov was awarded:  Kubasov, along with Slayton and Brand, won the Yuri Gagarin Gold Medal from FAI in 1976.  Kubasov was also an honorary citizen of the following cities: Vyazniki, Kaluga, Vladimir, Karaganda, Arkalyk, New York City, Houston, San Francisco, Atlanta, Nashville, and Salt Lake City.

Valeri Nikolayevich Kubasov (; 7 January 1935 – 19 February 2014) was a Soviet/Russian cosmonaut who flew on two missions in the Soyuz programme as a flight engineer: Soyuz 6 and Soyuz 19 (the Apollo–Soyuz mission), and commanded Soyuz 36 in the Intercosmos programme. On 21 July 1975, the Soyuz 7K-TM module used for ASTP landed in Kazakhstan at 5:51 p.m. and Kubasov was the first to exit the craft. Kubasov performed the first welding experiments in space, along with Georgy Shonin.

Valerij Nikolajevič Kubasov,, (7. ledna 1935 obec Vjazniki, Vladimirská oblast SSSR − 19. února 2014) byl sovětský kosmonaut ruské národnosti. Byl také vědec, konstruktér. Do vesmíru letěl třikrát.


Background.

When Italy declared war in June 1940, the "Regia Marina" was one of the largest navies in the world but it was restricted to the Mediterranean. The British Empire possessed enough resources and naval might to maintain a strong presence in the area and replace most losses by redeploying ships. This led to caution by the Italian command and a tendency to avoid conflict. Control of the Mediterranean was disputed by the "Regia Marina" the Royal Navy and their allies. The sea was vital for the supply of the Italian and German forces in North Africa, as well as the maintenance of Malta as a British offensive base. Without Malta, Britain could not intercept Italian convoys to prevent the supply of Axis forces.  The possession of radar and the breaking of Italian codes, particularly the Boris Hagelin C38 cipher machine used by the "Regia Marina", further contributed to British success. In November 1941, the supply of the Axis forces in Libya from Italy, had been interrupted by Force K, which had destroyed several Italian convoys (most notably the Duisburg convoy) and the loss of nearly 70 percent of the supplies sent to Libya, including 92 percent of the fuel. Force K based at Malta, and ships from Alexandria, intercepted an Axis convoy "Maritza" and "Procida", escorted by two Italian torpedo boats, sailing from Greece to Benghazi of on 24 November. The convoy was about west of Crete when the merchant ships were sunk by two British cruisers and two destroyers, the torpedo boats making off once it was certain that the ships were doomed. The loss of the cargoes led the German command to report that the fuel situation of the "Luftwaffe" in North Africa was critical.  The Italian and German forces in North Africa, facing Operation Crusader, a new Allied offensive, were in urgent need of fuel and ammunitions. "Supermarina" (the general staff of the Royal Italian Navy), at the request of "Comando Supremo" (supreme command of the Italian armed forces), developed an emergency plan to shift supplies using warships. The "Alberico da Barbiano" and "Alberto di Giussano", light cruisers of the 4th Cruiser Division and commanded by ammiraglio di divisione (divisional admiral) Antonino Toscano, were fast and too lightly armored for employment with the battle fleet and were selected for this role.  "Da Barbiano" (Toscano's flagship) and "Di Giussano" left Taranto at 8:15 on 5 December 1941, reached Brindisi at 17:50 and there loaded about of supplies, then proceeded to Palermo on 8 December, where they loaded another of aviation fuel to alleviate a shortage in Libya, which would prevent aircraft from escorting supply convoys. The fuel, contained in unsealed barrels, was placed on the stern deck, creating a grave risk of fire from British gunfire and from the discharge of the ships' own guns, preventing the use of the stern turrets unless the fuel was jettisoned. The two cruisers sailed unescorted from Palermo at 17:20 on 9 December, heading for Tripoli. At 22:56, when north of Pantelleria, they were spotted by a British reconnaissance aircraft, which had been directed to the area by Ultra intercepts, and which started to shadow them. At 23:55, Toscano (who was at that time in the middle of the Sicilian Channel) decided to turn back to base, as the surprise required for the success of the mission had vanished, much British radio traffic foreshadowed air attack, and worsening sea conditions would delay the ships, further exposing them to British attacks. "Da Barbiano" and "Di Giussano" reached Palermo at 8:20 on 10 December, after overcoming a British air attack off Marettimo. Toscano was heavily criticized by the "Supermarina" for his decision to abort the mission.

Prelude.

Convoy M. 41, was planned for 13 December but air cover by aircraft based in Libya would be impossible unless they received fuel from Italy. On 12 December it was decided that the 4th Division would attempt again the trip to Tripoli. The cruiser "Bande Nere" was to join "Da Barbiano" and "Di Giussano" to carry more supplies but she was prevented from sailing by a breakdown and the cargo was transferred to the other two cruisers. "Da Barbiano" and "Di Giussano" were loaded with of aviation fuel, of gasoline, of naphtha, of food and 135 ratings on passage to Tripoli. The stern of "Da Barbiano" (and to a lesser extent, "Di Giussano") was packed with fuel barrels, so thickly that it was not possible to traverse the guns; Toscano held a briefing with his staff and officers from both ships, where it was decided that, in case of encounter with enemy ships, the barrels would be thrown overboard to enable the ships to open fire. "Da Barbiano", "Di Giussano" and their only escort, the "Spica"-class torpedo boat "Cigno" (a second torpedo boat, "Climene", was left in the port due to a breakdown), sailed from Palermo at 18:10 on 12 December. The 4th Division was ordered to pass north-west of the Aegadian Islands and then head for Cape Bon and follow the Tunisian coast; the ships would keep a speed of to conserve fuel and deliver it at Tripoli. Air cover, air reconnaissance and defensive MAS ambushes were planned to safeguard the convoy. The British 4th Destroyer Flotilla, consisting of the destroyers,, and the Dutch destroyer, (Commander G. H. Stokes), had departed Gibraltar on 11 December, to join the Mediterranean Fleet at Alexandria. By 8 December, the British had de-coded Italian C-38 wireless signals about the Italian supply operation and its course for Tripoli. The RAF sent a Wellington bomber on a reconnaissance sortie to sight the ships as a deception and on 12 December, the 4th Destroyer Flotilla, heading east from Gibraltar towards the Italian ships, was ordered to increase speed to and intercept. In the afternoon of 12 December, a CANT Z.1007 bis of the "Regia Aeronautica" spotted the four destroyers heading east at an estimated speed of, off Algiers; Supermarina was immediately informed but calculated that, even in the case the destroyers would increase their speed to, they would not reach Cape Bon until around 03:00 on 13 December, about one hour after the 4th Division, so Toscano (who learned of the sighting while he was still in harbour) was not ordered to increase speed or alter course to avoid them.  Following new Ultra decodes a new reconnaissance plane was sent and spotted Toscano's ships at sunset on 12 December, after which the 4th Destroyer Flotilla was directed to intercept the two cruisers, increasing speed to 30 knots. This speed, along with a one-hour delay that the 4th Division had accrued (and that Toscano omitted to report to Supermarina), frustrated all previous Supermarina calculations about the advantage that the 4th Division would have. At 22:23 Toscano was informed that he would possibly meet ""enemy steamers coming from Malta"", and at 23:15 he ordered action stations.

Battle.

12/13 December, night.

The 4th Destroyer Flotilla sighted the Italian cruisers near Cap Bon, at 02:30 on 13 December. At 2:45 on 13 December, seven miles off Cape Bon, the Italian ships heard the noise of a British plane (a radar-equipped Vickers Wellington, which located the ships and informed Stokes about their position), and at 3:15 they altered course to 157° to pass about a mile off Cape Bon. Five minutes later, Toscano suddenly ordered full speed ahead and to alter course to 337°, effectively reversing course; this sudden change disrupted the Italian formation, as neither "Cigno" (which was about two miles ahead of the cruisers) nor "Di Giussano" (which was following "Da Barbiano" in line) received the order, and while "Di Giussano" saw the flagship reverse course and imitated her (but remained misaligned) "Cigno" did not noticed the change until 3:25, when she also reversed course, but remained much behind the two cruisers.

13 December, morning.

Stokes's destroyers were just off Cape Bon by then and they had spotted the Italian ships. Arriving from astern, under the cover of darkness and using radar, the British ships sailed close inshore and surprised the Italians, who were further out to sea, by launching torpedoes from short range. The course reversal accelerated the approach between the two groups and the Allied destroyers attacked together; "Sikh" fired her guns and four torpedoes against "Da Barbiano" (less than distant), "Legion" did the same, "Isaac Sweers" opened fire against "Di Giussano" and "Maori" fired six torpedoes against "Di Giussano". Toscano ordered full speed and to open fire (and ordered "Di Giussano" to increase speed to ). "Da Barbiano" also started a turn to port (on orders from Captain Giorgio Rodocanacchi), but at 3.22, before her guns were able to fire (only some machine guns managed to), the cruiser was hit by a torpedo below the foremost turret, which caused her to list to port. "Da Barbiano" was then raked with machine gun fire, which killed or wounded many men and set fire to the fuel barrels, and was hit by a second torpedo in the engine room.  At 3.26 "Maori" fired two torpedoes at "Da Barbiano" and opened fire with her guns, hitting the bridge. The cruiser was hit soon after by another torpedo in the stern (possibly launched by "Legion") and "Di Giussano" was also hit by a torpedo and gunfire, being left disabled. The land behind the Allied destroyers made it impossible for the Italians to see them and "Di Giussano" managed to fire only three salvoes. In five minutes both cruisers were disabled; "Da Barbiano" rapidly listed to port, while fires quickly spread all over the ship and into the sea by the floating fuel; the crew abandoned ship. At 3:35, "Da Barbiano" capsized and sank in a sea of flame, with Toscano, Rodocanacchi and another 532 men still aboard. "Di Giussano" was left dead in the water with fires raging; the crew struggled to keep the ship afloat but she also had to be abandoned, breaking in two and sinking at 4:20, with the loss of 283 men. After a brief encounter with the Dutch destroyer "Isaac Sweers", "Cigno" rescued nearly 500 survivors; others reached the coast and another 145 men were later saved by Italian "Motoscafo armato silurante" motor torpedo boats; Italian losses amounted to 817 men.

Aftermath.

Analysis.

Toscano's decision to reverse course has never been fully explained, but various possibilities have been suggested. He may have decided to turn back after realizing that he had been spotted by aircraft, as he did on 9 December; however, a course towards the Aegadian islands would have made more sense, instead of the north-westerly course ordered by Toscano. The course change was ordered more than 30 minutes after the cruisers had been spotted; Toscano may have wanted to mislead the reconnaissance aircraft about his real course, wait for it to leave and then turn again for Tripoli. He may have thought, from the aircraft noise, that torpedo bombers were coming, and he wanted to get into waters farther away from the shore and from Italian minefields in order to gain freedom of manoeuvre. Toscano ordered his gunners to stand by; he may have known that Allied destroyers were astern of his ships, and he wanted to avoid presenting his stern to them because his aft turrets were obstructed by the fuel barrels.

The naval Battle of Cape Bon took place on December 13, 1941 during the Second World War, between two Italian light cruisers and an Allied destroyer flotilla off Cape Bon, Tunisia.

Bitva u mysu Bon byla jednou z námořních bitev druhé světové války ve Středozemním moři mezi italským loďstvem a Royal Navy. Uskutečnila se v noci na 13. prosince 1941 u pobřeží Tuniska.


Etymology.

The 18th-century Alpine explorer Horace-Bénédict de Saussure coined the term "roches moutonnées" in 1786. He saw in these rocks a resemblance to the wigs that were fashionable amongst French gentry in his era and which were smoothed over with mutton fat (hence "moutonnée") so as to keep the hair in place. The French term is often incorrectly interpreted as meaning "sheep rock".

Description.

The contrasting appearance of the erosional stoss and lee aspects is very defined on roches moutonnées; all the sides and edges have been smoothed and eroded in the direction travelled by the glacier that once passed over it. It is often marked with glacial striations.  The rough and craggy down-ice (leeward) side is formed by plucking or quarrying, an erosional process initiated when ice melts slightly by pressure and seeps into cracks in the rock. When the water refreezes, the rock becomes attached to the glacier. But as the glacier continues its forward progress it subjects the stone to frost shattering, ripping pieces away from the rock formation. Studies show that the plucking of the lee side is a much more significant erosional process than the abrasion of the stoss side.  The side profile of a stoss and lee glaciated, bedrock knob (an erosional feature) is opposite to that of a drumlin (a depositional feature). In a drumlin, the steep side is "facing" the approaching glacier, rather than "trailing" it.  Even larger examples are known from Sweden where they are referred to as flyggbergs. The Swedish flyggbergs have been interpreted by Sten Rudberg and others as reshaped inselbergs. Ice-smoothed bedrock bumps which lack the steep, plucked lee side faces are referred to as whalebacks or rock drumlins.  Prest (1983) specifies a distinction between a glaciated "roches moutonnées surface" and a simple "stoss and lee" glacial feature. He says that the term "roches moutonnées surface" has been abused in the literature in which the term became interchangeable with the term "stoss and lee". He points out that a "roches moutonnées surface" is a continuous bedrock surface having a resemblance to the continuous, wavy or undulating rows of curls seen in French wigs at the time of Horace de Saussure while a simple stoss and lee feature refers only to a bedrock knob having a smooth stoss side and a plucked lee side appearance.  Roches moutonnées may not be entirely glacial landforms taking most of their shape before glaciation. Jointing that contribute to the shape typically predate glaciation and roches moutonnee-like forms can be found in tropical areas such as East Africa and Australia. Further, at Ivö Klack in Sweden, weathered rock surfaces exposed by kaolin mining resemble roches moutonnées.

In glaciology, a roche moutonnée (or sheepback) is a rock formation created by the passing of a glacier. The passage of glacier ice over underlying bedrock often results in asymmetric erosional forms as a result of abrasion on the "stoss" (upstream) side of the rock and plucking on the "lee" (downstream) side. These erosional features are seen on scales of less than a metre to several hundred metres.

Oblík je ledovcem ohlazená i rýhovaná skalnatá vyvýšenina. Oblíky jsou základním tvarem plošně působící glaciální eroze. Český název „oblík“ zavedl Josef Kunský.


History.

The Metropolitan Police Service is responsible for law enforcement within Greater London, excluding the square mile of the City of London, which is covered by the City of London Police. Additionally, the London Underground and National Rail networks are the responsibility of the British Transport Police. The Metropolitan Police was formed by Robert Peel with the implementation of the Metropolitan Police Act, passed by Parliament in 1829. Peel, with the help of Eugène-François Vidocq, selected the original site on Whitehall Place for the new police headquarters. The first two commissioners, Charles Rowan and Richard Mayne, along with various police officers and staff, occupied the building. Previously a private house, 4 Whitehall Place () backed onto a street called Great Scotland Yard.  By 1887, the Metropolitan Police headquarters had expanded from 4 Whitehall Place into several neighbouring addresses, including 3, 5, 21 and 22 Whitehall Place; 8 and 9 Great Scotland Yard, and several stables. Eventually, the service outgrew its original site, and new headquarters were built () on the Victoria Embankment, overlooking the River Thames, south of what is now the Ministry of Defence's headquarters. In 1888, during the construction of the new building, workers discovered the dismembered torso of a female; the case, known as the 'Whitehall Mystery', was never solved. In 1890, police headquarters moved to the new location, which was named New Scotland Yard. By this time, the Metropolitan Police had grown from its initial 1,000 officers to about 13,000 and needed more administrative staff and a bigger headquarters. Further increases in the size and responsibilities of the force required even more administrators and space. Therefore, new buildings were constructed and completed in 1906 and 1940, so that New Scotland Yard became a three-building complex. (). The first two buildings are now a Grade I listed structure known as the Norman Shaw Buildings.  The original building at 4 Whitehall Place still has a rear entrance on Great Scotland Yard. Stables for some of the mounted branch are still located at 7 Great Scotland Yard, across the street from the first headquarters.

10 Broadway.

In 2008, the Metropolitan Police Authority (MPA) bought the freehold of 10 Broadway for around £120 million.  10 Broadway was sold to the Abu Dhabi Financial Group in December 2014 for £370 million, and redevelopment plans for a six-building, mixed-use development were approved in February 2016. Ownership was officially passed from the MPA to the Abu Dhabi Financial Group when the relocation was completed on 31 October 2016; the building began demolition later that year.

Current location.

In May 2013 the Metropolitan Police confirmed that the New Scotland Yard building on Broadway would be sold and the force's headquarters would be moved back to the Curtis Green Building on the Victoria Embankment. A competition was announced for architects to redesign the building prior to the Metropolitan Police moving to it in 2015. This building previously housed the Territorial Policing headquarters and is adjacent to the original New Scotland Yard (Norman Shaw North Building).  In December 2015 construction work on the exterior of the Curtis Green building was completed. On 31 October 2016, the Metropolitan Police staff left the building at 10 Broadway and moved to their new headquarters. The new New Scotland Yard building was to have been opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 23 March 2017, but that same day it was announced that the Royal opening would be postponed, due to the preceding day's terrorist attack at Westminster. The opening was re-arranged for 13 July 2017.

Museums.

The Crime Museum (formerly known as the Black Museum with a full official title 'The Crime Museum of Scotland Yard'), founded in 1874, is a collection of criminal memorabilia kept at New Scotland Yard.

Scotland Yard (officially New Scotland Yard) is a metonym for the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police, the territorial police force responsible for policing all 32 boroughs of London, excluding the City of London.

New Scotland Yard (často označovaný jen jako Scotland Yard či The Yard) je jméno velitelství Metropolitní policie, která působí na území Velkého Londýna (s výjimkou London City samotného). Nachází se ve dvacetiposchoďovém úřednickém bloku podél Brodwaye a Victoria Street ve Westminsteru, asi 450 metrů od Westminsterského paláce. Scotland Yard byl založen 29. září 1842 v ulici Whitehall, v roce 1890 byl přesunut na Victoria Embankment a začal se nazývat Nový (dnes v této budově sídlí ministerstvo obrany). Třetí a zatím poslední stěhování přišlo v roce 1967.


History.

Meroë was the southern capital of the Kingdom of Kush spanned the period c. 800 BCE – c. 350 CE. According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, the name of the city was Medewi or Bedewi. Excavations revealed evidence of important, high ranking Kushite burials, from the Napatan Period (c. 800 – c. 280 BCE) in the vicinity of the settlement called the Western cemetery. The culture of Meroë developed from the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, which originated in Kush. The importance of the town gradually increased from the beginning of the Meroitic Period, especially from the reign of Arakamani (c. 280 BCE) when the royal burial ground was transferred to Meroë from Napata (Gebel Barkal). In the fifth century BCE, Greek historian Herodotus described it as "a great city...said to be the mother city of the other Ethiopians." The city of Meroë was located along the middle Nile which is of much importance due to the annual flooding of the Nile river valley and the connection to many major river systems such as the Niger which aided with the production of pottery and iron characteristic to the Meroitic kingdom that allowed for the rise in power of its people. Rome's conquest of Egypt led to border skirmishes and incursions by Meroë beyond the Roman borders. In 23 BCE the Roman governor of Egypt, Publius Petronius, to end the Meroitic raids, invaded Nubia in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt, pillaging the north of the region and sacking Napata (22 BCE) before returning home. In retaliation, the Nubians crossed the lower border of Egypt and looted many statues (among other things) from the Egyptian towns near the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan. Roman forces later reclaimed many of the statues intact, and others were returned following the peace treaty signed in 22 BCE between Rome and Meroë under Augustus and Amanirenas, respectively. One looted head though, from a statue of the emperor Augustus, was buried under the steps of a temple. It is now kept in the British Museum.  The next recorded contact between Rome and Meroë was in the autumn of 61 CE. The Emperor Nero sent a party of Praetorian soldiers under the command of a tribune and two centurions into this country, who reached the city of Meroë where they were given an escort, then proceeded up the White Nile until they encountered the swamps of the Sudd. This marked the limit of Roman penetration into Africa.  The period following Petronius' punitive expedition is marked by abundant trade finds at sites in Meroë. L. P. Kirwan provides a short list of finds from archeological sites in that country. However, the kingdom of Meroë began to fade as a power by the 1st or 2nd century CE, sapped by the war with Roman Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries.  Meroë is mentioned succinctly in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: A stele of Ge'ez of an unnamed ruler of Aksum thought of as Ezana was found at the site of Meroë; from his description, in Greek, that he was "King of the Aksumites and the Omerites," (i.e. of Aksum and Himyar) it is likely this king ruled sometime around 330. While some authorities interpret these inscriptions as proof that the Axumites destroyed the kingdom of Meroe, others note that archeological evidence points to an economic and political decline in Meroe around 300. Moreover, some view the stele as military aid from Aksum to Meroe to quell down the revolt and rebellion by the Nuba. However, conclusive evidence and proof to which view is correct is not currently present.

Meroë in Hebrew legend.

Hebrew oral tradition avers that Moses, in his younger years, had led an Egyptian military expedition into Sudan (Kush), as far as the city of Meroë, which was then called Saba. The city was built near the confluence of two great rivers and was encircled by a formidable wall, and governed by a renegade king. To ensure the safety of his men who traversed that desert country, Moses had invented a stratagem whereby the Egyptian army would carry along with them baskets of sedge, each containing an ibis, only to be released when they approached the enemy's country. The purpose of the birds was to kill the deadly serpents that lay all about that country. Having successfully laid siege to the city, the city was eventually subdued by the betrayal of the king's daughter, who had agreed to deliver the city to Moses on condition that he would consummate a marriage with her, under the solemn assurance of an oath.

Civilization.

Meroë was the base of a flourishing kingdom whose wealth was centered around a strong iron industry, as well as international trade involving India and China. Metalworking is believed to have gone on in Meroë, possibly through bloomeries and blast furnaces, and Archibald Sayce reportedly referred to it as "the Birmingham of Africa", because of perceived vast production and trade of iron (a contention that is a matter of debate in modern scholarship).  The centralized control of production within the Meroitic empire and distribution of certain crafts and manufactures may have been politically important with their iron industry and pottery crafts gaining the most significant attention. The Meroitic settlements were oriented in a savannah orientation with the varying of permanent and less permanent agricultural settlements can be attributed to the exploitation of rainlands and savannah-oriented forms of subsistence.  At the time, iron was one of the most important metals worldwide, and Meroitic metalworkers were among the best in the world. Meroë also exported textiles and jewelry. Their textiles were based on cotton and working on this product reached its highest achievement in Nubia around 400 BCE. Furthermore, Nubia was very rich in gold. It is possible that the Egyptian word for gold, "nub", was the source of name of Nubia. Trade in "exotic" animals from farther south in Africa was another feature of their economy.  Apart from the iron trade, pottery was a widespread and prominent industry in the Meroe kingdom. The production of fine and elaborated decorated wares was a strong tradition within the middle nile. Such productions carried considerable social significance and are believed to be involved in mortuary rites. The long history of goods imported into the Meroitic empire and their subsequent distribution provides insight into the social and political workings of the Meroitic state. The major determinant of production was attributed to the availability of labor rather than the political power associated with land. Power was associated with control of people rather than control of territory.  The Egyptian import, the water-moving wheel, the sakia, was used to move water, in conjunction with irrigation, to increase crop production.  At its peak, the rulers of Meroë controlled the Nile Valley north to south, over a straight-line distance of more than.  The King of Meroë was an autocratic ruler who shared his authority only with the Queen Mother, or Candace. However, the role of the Queen Mother remains obscure. The administration consisted of treasurers, seal bearers, heads of archives and chief scribes, among others.  Although the people of Meroë also had southern deities such as Apedemak, the lion-son of Sekhmet (or Bast, depending upon the region), they also continued worshipping ancient Egyptian gods that they had brought with them. Among these deities were Amun, Tefnut, Horus, Isis, Thoth and Satis, though to a lesser extent.  The collapse of their external trade with other Nile Valley states may be considered as one of the prime causes of the decline of royal power and disintegration of the Meroitic state in the 3rd and 4th centuries CE.

Language.

The Meroitic language was spoken in Meroë and the Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BCE). It became extinct about 400 CE. The language was written in two forms of the Meroitic alphabet: Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a stylus and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of bilingual texts. The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180-170 BCE. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of Queen Shanakdakhete. Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and reads from right to left like all Semitic orthographies.  By the 3rd century BCE, a new indigenous alphabet, the Meroitic, consisting of twenty-three letters, replaced Egyptian script. The Meroitic script is an alphabetic script originally derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs, used to write the Meroitic language of the Kingdom of Meroë/Kush. It was developed in the Napatan Period (about 700 - 300 BCE), and first appears in the 2nd century BCE. For a time, it was also possibly used to write the Nubian language of the successor Nubian kingdoms.  It is uncertain to which language family the Meroitic language is related. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the Egyptian language, belongs to the Afro-Asiatic family. She bases this on its sound inventory and phonotactics, which, she proposes, are similar to those of the Afro-Asiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages. Claude Rilly, based on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary, proposes that Meroitic, like the Nobiin language, instead belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan family.

Archaeology.

The site of Meroë was brought to the knowledge of Europeans in 1821 by the French mineralogist Frédéric Cailliaud (1787–1869), who published an illustrated in-folio describing the ruins. His work included the first publication of the southernmost known Latin inscription.  As Margoliouth notes in the 1911 "Encyclopedia Britannica", small scale excavations occurred in 1834, led by Giuseppe Ferlini, who, as Margoliouth states, "discovered (or professed to discover) various antiquities, chiefly in the form of jewelry, now in the museums of Berlin and Munich." Margoliouth continues,

World Heritage listing.

In June 2011, the Archeological Sites of Meroë were listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites.

Meroë (; also spelled "Meroe"; Meroitic or ; and ; ) was an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan, approximately 200 km north-east of Khartoum. Near the site is a group of villages called Bagrawiyah. This city was the capital of the Kingdom of Kush for several centuries, until its collapse in the fourth century CE. The Kushitic Kingdom of Meroë gave its name to the "Island of Meroë", which was the modern region of Butana, a region bounded by the Nile (from the Atbarah River to Khartoum), the Atbarah and the Blue Nile.

Meroe bylo hlavní město starověkého núbijského království Kuš. Zbytky tohoto města leží na východním břehu Nilu, pod jeho 6. kataraktem, asi 6 km severně od města Kabušíja v dnešním Súdánu. Archeologické práce, které zde začaly roku 1902, odhalily budovy a ulice, chrám zasvěcený bohu Amonovi, paláce a přístavní hráz. Ve třech nekropolích 4 km východně od města je asi 200 pyramid. Pyramidy a další vykopávky v Meroe jsou od roku 2011 zapsány v Seznamu světového dědictví UNESCO.


Early years.

Birth.

Pedro was born at 08:00 on 12 October 1798 in the Queluz Royal Palace near Lisbon, Portugal. He was named after St. Peter of Alcantara, and his full name was Pedro de Alcântara Francisco António João Carlos Xavier de Paula Miguel Rafael Joaquim José Gonzaga Pascoal Cipriano Serafim. He was referred to using the honorific "Dom" (Lord) from birth.  Through his father, Prince Dom João (later King Dom João VI), Pedro was a member of the House of Braganza (Portuguese: "Bragança") and a grandson of King Dom Pedro III and Queen Dona (Lady) Maria I of Portugal, who were uncle and niece as well as husband and

Education.

In late November 1807, when Pedro was nine, the royal family escaped from Portugal as an invading French army sent by Napoleon approached Lisbon. Pedro and his family arrived in Rio de Janeiro, then capital of Brazil, Portugal's largest and wealthiest colony, in March 1808. During the voyage, Pedro read Virgil's "Aeneid" and conversed with the ship's crew, picking up navigational skills. In Brazil, after a brief stay in the City Palace, Pedro settled with his younger brother Miguel and their father in the Palace of São Cristóvão (Saint Christopher). Although never on intimate terms with his father, Pedro loved him and resented the constant humiliation his father suffered at the hands of Carlota Joaquina due to her extramarital affairs. As an adult, Pedro would openly call his mother, for whom he held only feelings of contempt, a "bitch". The early experiences of betrayal, coldness and neglect had a great impact on

First marriage.

The prince found fulfillment in activities that required physical skills, rather than in the classroom. At his father's Santa Cruz farm, Pedro trained unbroken horses, and became a fine horseman and an excellent farrier. He and his brother Miguel enjoyed mounted hunts over unfamiliar ground, through forests, and even at night or in inclement weather. He displayed a talent for drawing and handicrafts, applying himself to wood carving and furniture making. In addition, he had a taste for music, and under the guidance of Marcos Portugal the prince became an able composer. He had a good singing voice, and was proficient with several musical instruments (including piano, flute and guitar), playing popular songs and dances. Pedro was a simple man, both in habits and in dealing with others. Except on solemn occasions when he donned court dress, his daily attire consisted of white cotton trousers, striped cotton jacket and a broad-brimmed straw hat, or a frock coat and a top hat in more formal situations. He would frequently take time to engage in conversation with people on the street, noting their concerns.  Pedro's character was marked by an energetic drive that bordered

Independence of Brazil.

Liberal Revolution of 1820.

On 17 October 1820, news arrived that the military garrisons in Portugal had mutinied, leading to what became known as the Liberal Revolution of 1820. The military formed a provisional government, supplanting the regency appointed by João VI, and summoned the "Cortes"—the centuries-old Portuguese parliament, this time democratically elected with the aim of creating a national Constitution. Pedro was surprised when his father not only asked for his advice, but also decided to send him to Portugal to rule as regent on his behalf and to placate the revolutionaries. The prince was never educated to rule and had previously been allowed no participation in state affairs. The role that was his by birthright was instead filled by his elder sister Dona Maria Teresa: João VI had relied on her for advice, and it was she who had been given membership in the Council of State.  Pedro was regarded with suspicion by his father and by the king's close advisers, all of whom clung to the principles of absolute monarchy. By

Independence or Death.

At the outset of his regency, Pedro promulgated decrees that guaranteed personal and property rights. He also reduced government expenditure and taxes. Even the revolutionaries arrested in the Merchants' Exchange incident were set free. On 5 June 1821, army troops under Portuguese lieutenant general Jorge Avilez (later Count of Avilez) mutinied, demanding that Pedro should take an oath to uphold the Portuguese Constitution after it was enacted. The prince rode out alone to intervene with the mutineers. He calmly and resourcefully negotiated, winning the respect of the troops and succeeding in reducing the impact of their more unacceptable demands. The mutiny was a thinly veiled military coup d'état that sought to turn Pedro into a mere figurehead and transfer power to Avilez. The prince accepted the unsatisfactory outcome, but he also warned that it was the last time he would yield under pressure.  The continuing crisis reached a point of no return when the "Cortes" dissolved the central government in Rio de Janeiro and ordered Pedro's return. This was perceived by Brazilians as an attempt to subordinate their country again to Portugal—Brazil had not been a colony since 1815 and had the

Constitutional Emperor.

The prince was acclaimed Emperor Dom Pedro I on his 24th birthday, which coincided with the inauguration of the Empire of Brazil on 12 October. He was crowned on 1 December in what is today known as the Old Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro. His ascendancy did not immediately extend throughout Brazil's territories. He had to force the submission of several provinces in the northern, northeastern and southern regions, and the last Portuguese holdout units only surrendered in early 1824. Meanwhile, Pedro I's relationship with Bonifácio deteriorated. The situation came to a head when Pedro I, on the grounds of inappropriate conduct, dismissed Bonifácio. Bonifácio had used his position to harass, prosecute, arrest and even exile his political enemies. For months Bonifácio's enemies had worked to win over the Emperor. While Pedro I was still Prince Regent, they had given him the title "Perpetual Defender of Brazil" on 13 May 1822. They also inducted him into Freemasonry on 2 August and later made him grand master on 7 October, replacing Bonifácio in that position.  The crisis between

Crises within and without.

Portuguese dynastic affair.

After long negotiations, Portugal signed a treaty with Brazil on 29 August 1825 in which it recognized Brazilian independence. Except for the recognition of independence, the treaty provisions were at Brazil's expense, including a demand for reparations to be paid to Portugal, with no other requirements of Portugal. Compensation was to be paid to all Portuguese citizens residing in Brazil for the losses they had experienced, such as properties which had been confiscated. João VI was also given the right to style himself emperor of Brazil. More humiliating was that the treaty implied that independence had been granted as a beneficent act of João VI, rather than having been compelled by the Brazilians through force of arms. Even worse, Great Britain was rewarded for its role in advancing the negotiations by the signing of a separate treaty in which its favorable commercial rights were renewed and by the signing of a convention in which Brazil agreed to abolish slave trade with Africa within four years. Both accords were severely harmful to Brazilian economic interests.  A few months later, the Emperor received word that

War and widowhood.

Backed by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina), a small band declared Brazil's southernmost province of Cisplatina to be independent in April 1825. The Brazilian government at first perceived the secession attempt as a minor uprising. It took months before a greater threat posed by the involvement of the United Provinces, which expected to annex Cisplatina, caused serious concern. In retaliation, the Empire declared war in December, triggering the Cisplatine War. The Emperor traveled to Bahia province (located in northeastern Brazil) in February 1826, taking along his wife and daughter Maria. The Emperor was warmly welcomed by the inhabitants of Bahia. The trip was planned to generate support for the war-effort.  The imperial entourage included Domitila de Castro (then-Viscountess and later Marchioness of Santos), who had been Pedro I's mistress since their first meeting in 1822. Although he had never been faithful to Maria Leopoldina, he had previously been careful to conceal his sexual escapades with other women. However, his infatuation

Second marriage.

After his wife's death, Pedro I realized how miserably he had treated her, and his relationship with Domitila began to crumble. Maria Leopoldina, unlike his mistress, was popular, honest and loved him without expecting anything in return. The Emperor greatly missed her, and even his obsession with Domitila failed to overcome his sense of loss and regret. One day Domitila found him weeping on the floor and embracing a portrait of his deceased wife, whose sad-looking ghost Pedro I claimed to have seen. Later on, the Emperor left the bed he shared with Domitila and shouted: "Get off of me! I know I live an unworthy life of a sovereign. The thought of the Empress does not leave me." He did not forget his children, orphaned of their mother, and was observed on more than one occasion holding his son, the young Pedro, in his arms and saying: "Poor boy, you are the most unhappy prince in the world."  At the insistence of Pedro I, Domitila departed from Rio de Janeiro on 27 June 1828. He had resolved to marry again and to

Between Portugal and Brazil.

Endless crises.

Since the days of the Constituent Assembly in 1823, and with renewed vigor in 1826 with the opening of the General Assembly (the Brazilian parliament), there had been an ideological struggle over the balance of powers wielded by the emperor and legislature in governance. On one side were those who shared Pedro I's views, politicians who believed that the monarch should be free to choose ministers, national policies and the direction of government. In opposition were those, then known as the Liberal Party, who believed that cabinets should have the power to set the government's course and should consist of deputies drawn from the majority party who were accountable to the parliament. Strictly speaking, both the party that supported Pedro I's government and the Liberal Party advocated Liberalism, and thus constitutional monarchy.  Regardless of Pedro I's failures as a ruler, he respected the Constitution: he did not tamper with elections or countenance vote rigging, refuse to sign acts ratified by the government, or impose any restrictions on freedom of speech. Although within his prerogative, he did not dissolve the Chamber of Deputies and call for new elections when it disagreed with his aims

Abdication.

The Emperor's efforts to appease the Liberal Party resulted in very important changes. He supported an 1827 law that established ministerial responsibility. On 19 March 1831, he named a cabinet formed by politicians drawn from the opposition, allowing a greater role for the parliament in the government. Lastly, he offered positions in Europe to Francisco Gomes and another Portuguese-born friend to extinguish rumors of a "secret cabinet". To his dismay, his palliative measures did not stop the continuous attacks from the Liberal side upon his government and his foreign birth. Frustrated by their intransigence, he became unwilling to deal with his deteriorating political situation.  Meanwhile, Portuguese exiles campaigned to convince him to give up on Brazil and instead devote his energies to the fight for his daughter's claim to Portugal's crown. According to Roderick J. Barman, "[in] an emergency the Emperor's abilities shone forth—he became cool in nerve, resourceful and steadfast in action. Life as a constitutional monarch, full of tedium, caution, and conciliation, ran against the essence of his character." On the other hand,

Return to Europe.

War of restoration.

At dawn on the morning of 7 April, Pedro, his wife, and others, including his daughter Maria II and his sister Ana de Jesus, were taken on board the British warship HMS "Warspite". The vessel remained at anchor off Rio de Janeiro, and, on 13 April, the former emperor transferred to and departed for Europe aboard HMS "Volage". He arrived in Cherbourg-Octeville, France, on 10 June. During the next few months, he shuttled between France and Great Britain. He was warmly welcomed, but received no actual support from either government to restore his daughter's throne. Finding himself in an awkward situation because he held no official status in either the Brazilian Imperial House or in the Portuguese Royal House, Pedro assumed the title of Duke of Braganza on 15 June, a position that once had been his as heir to Portugal's crown. Although the title should have belonged to Maria II's heir, which he certainly was not, his claim was met with general recognition. On 1 December, his only daughter by Amélie, Maria Amélia, was born in Paris.  He did not forget his children left in Brazil. He wrote poignant letters to each

Death.

In early 1833, while besieged in Porto, Pedro received news from Brazil of his daughter Paula's impending death. Months later, in September, he met with Antônio Carlos de Andrada, a brother of Bonifácio who had come from Brazil. As a representative of the Restorationist Party, Antônio Carlos asked the Duke of Braganza to return to Brazil and rule his former empire as regent during his son's minority. Pedro realized that the Restorationists wanted to use him as a tool to facilitate their own rise to power,

Legacy.

Upon the death of Pedro I, the then-powerful Restorationist Party vanished overnight. A fair assessment of the former monarch became possible once the threat of his return to power was removed. Evaristo da Veiga, one of his worst critics as well as a leader in the Liberal Party, left a statement which, according to historian Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa, became the prevailing view thereafter: "the former emperor of Brazil was not a prince of ordinary measure... and Providence has made him a powerful instrument

Titles and honors.

Titles and styles.

As Brazilian emperor his full style and title were: "His Imperial Majesty Dom Pedro I, Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil".  As Portuguese king his full

Nobility.

As heir

Honors.

Emperor Pedro I was Grand Master of the following Brazilian Orders:  As King Pedro IV, he

Genealogy.

Ancestry.

The ancestry

Dom Pedro I (English: Peter I; 12 October 1798 – 24 September 1834), nicknamed "the Liberator", was the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil. As King Dom Pedro IV, he reigned briefly over Portugal, where he also became known as "the Liberator" as well as "the Soldier King". Born in Lisbon, Pedro I was the fourth child of King Dom João VI of Portugal and Queen Carlota Joaquina, and thus a member of the House of Braganza. When the country was invaded by French troops in 1807, he and his family fled to Portugal's largest and wealthiest colony, Brazil.

Petr I. Brazilský a IV. Portugalský (12. října 1798 palác Queluz u Lisabonu – 24. září 1834), jako korunní portugalský princ znám pod jménem Dom Pedro, byl v letech 1822 až 1831 brazilským císařem a v roce 1826 také nakrátko jako Petr IV. (Pedro IV.) králem portugalským.