Club career.

Houseman was born in La Banda, Santiago del Estero Province. Despite having started his career at Club Atlético Excursionistas youth divisions, Houseman debuted professionally playing for Excursionistas's arch-rival Defensores de Belgrano, where he won its first title, the Primera C championship in 1971. At the beginning of 1973, as a recommendation by manager César Menotti, he was hired by Club Atlético Huracán.  Houseman was a keyplayer of the Huracán team that won the 1973 Metropolitano championship. Managed by Menotti, that squad is widely regarded as one of the best Argentine teams ever, where Houseman played along with notable players such as Miguel Brindisi, Carlos Babington and Omar Larrosa.  After leaving Huracán in 1980, Houseman spent a short time in River Plate (only one season, 1981), then moving to Chile to play for Colo Colo and then to South Africa when he joined AmaZulu F.C..  In 1984 he returned to Argentina to play for Independiente but he only played 3 matches in total. Nevertheless, Houseman was part of the roster that won the Libertadores and Intercontinental Cups that year.  Houseman retired from football in 1985, playing for his first club, Excursionistas, a match v. Boca Juniors.

International career.

During his international career Houseman also played for the Argentina national team and participated at the 1974 FIFA World Cup, where he scored three goals. His greatest achievement in football was being a member of the 1978 FIFA World Cup winning team and scoring in the 6-0 win over Peru.

Post retirement.

Houseman was part of the coaching staff lead by Angel Cappa that managed Huracán between 2008 and 2009. He said he was never paid for his services.

Personal life.

Houseman's career was cut short due to problems with alcoholism, with which he struggled for most of his life. Houseman even scored a goal versus River Plate in which he claims he doesn't remember it as he was drunk throughout that game. In 2017, it was revealed that Houseman had tongue cancer. The Argentine Football Association announced that it would help him to afford medical treatment.  Houseman died on 22 March 2018 after a long battle with cancer, eight days after the death of his 1978 teammate, Ruben Galvan.

René Orlando Houseman (19 July 1953 – 22 March 2018), nicknamed "Loco", was an Argentine footballer, who played as a right winger. At the beginning of his career, Houseman was considered successor of legendary winger Omar Corbatta, being still regarded by many sports journalists as one of the best Argentine wingers ever.

René Orlando Houseman (19. července 1953, La Banda – 22.března 2018) byl argentinský fotbalista. Nastupoval většinou na postu útočníka - pravého křídla.


History.

The club was formed in 1944 as a junior club, eventually they became a senior club and played in the West Riding County Amateur League and the West Yorkshire League, winning numerous honours before joining the Yorkshire League in 1957.  Albion won promotion from Division 2 in 1959 and were runner up to League champions Farsley Celtic in 1960. Albion were runners up again in 1962 to champions Stocksbridge Works. Albion continued to get regular top 4 places for several years afterwards but in 1972 they were relegated to Division 2. Albion won promotion in 1974 and finally won the Yorkshire League title in 1975. However, Albion went down again in 1978, but bounced back as Division 2 champions in 1979. Albion suffered yet another relegation in 1980, but again won the Division 2 title in 1981.  In 1982, the Yorkshire League joined up with the Midland League to form the Northern Counties East Football League. Ossett Albion were placed in Division 1 East, league re-organisations moved them into Division 1 Central in 1984 and Division 1 in 1985. Albion were Division 1 champions in 1987 and were promoted to the Premier Division. They finished bottom the first two seasons, but avoided relegation and eventually they began to climb the table. Albion, with Gerry Quinn as manager, were League champions in 1999, but were denied promotion to the Northern Premier League Division One due to one of their changing rooms not being big enough. In 2001, with Eric Gilchrist in charge, Albion finished 2nd to Brigg Town but were promoted to the Northern Premier League Division One instead of Brigg.  Ossett Albion finished bottom of the division in 2002 and they were relegated back to the Northern Counties East League but in 2004 Albion were champions again on a dramatic final day of the season, they pipped Eastwood Town to the Northern Counties East Premier Division title by virtue of scoring the more goals with the two clubs locked on the same number of points and also with the same goal difference, returning to the Northern Premier Division One.  2016–17 was Albion's 13th in the Northern Premier League Division One and their fortunes in recent campaigns fluctuated considerably. Twice the club finished just outside the play-off positions, they also had a few seasons struggling against relegation and in 2013–14 only a late reprieve rescued their status at this level.  Albion first entered the FA Cup in 1962–63, winning their first game 5–1 at Selby Town. They have reached the 4th Qualifying Round on three occasions, in 1965–66 they defeated Bridlington Town, Harrogate Town and Bridlington Trinity before losing 3–0 to South Liverpool away. In 2003–04, Albion beat Alnwick Town, Alsager Town, Ossett Town, Pickering Town and Newcastle Town before losing 1–0 at home to Stalybridge Celtic. In 2012–13, Albion beat Hebburn Town, Farsley, North Ferriby United, and Hinckley United before losing 4–1 away to Bradford Park Avenue.  In the FA Trophy, Albion have reached the 1st round twice, in 2002 and 2005.  In the FA Vase, Albion reached the 4th round in 1982, 1995 and 2000.  Albion first entered the FA Amateur Cup in 1952, beating Hull Old Grammarians 2–0. Their best performances, to get to the 1st round proper, were in 1962 (losing to Crook 1–0), 1968 (losing to North Shields 3–0) and 1973 (losing to Oldbury United 1–0). Albion's biggest win was 10–2 over Reckitts and Sons. Albion's last game in the Amateur Cup was a 3–1 defeat at North Ferriby United. The FA Amateur Cup was discontinued in 1974 and replaced by the FA Vase.  Albion have won the West Riding County Cup in 1965, 1966, 1968 and 1999, the Yorkshire League Cup in 1976 and 1977 and the Northern Counties East Football League Cup in 1984, beating Ilkeston 2-1, and 2003, beating Sheffield 3–0.  Albion's all-time record appearances holder is Peter Eaton, who made over 800 appearances during the 1970s and 1980s. Albion's record goalscorer is John Balmer, who hit over 40 goals in consecutive seasons during Jimmy Martin's reign in the early 1990s.  A number of former Ossett Albion players progressed into the Football League including Ian Ironside who went to Middlesbrough, Gary Brook who joined Newport County in 1987, Chris Cornelly who joined Lincoln City, Steve Downes who joined Grimbsy Town, Barry Holmes who went to Halifax Town, Shane Killock who joined Huddersfield Town and Dave Syers, who began his career with Ossett Albion, turned professional two seasons later with Bradford City. Players who represented Ossett Albion after their professional careers ended include ex-Cambridge United striker Micky Norbury, John Balmer who also played for Cambridge United, Fulham midfielder Robert Wilson, former Swansea City player Paul Raynor and former Huddersfield Town defender Rob Edwards.  Current Albion defender, Dominic Riordan, was appointed chairman on 25 June 2014.  Ex-Everton and England U18 youth player George Green signed for Ossett Albion in November 2015 after voluntarily terminating his contract at Oldham Athletic. He made 4 league appearances for the club before signing for Championship team Burnley in January 2016.  In September 2017, the founders and directors of Unita, a local based facilities management company, took the reins at Ossett Albion in a move which sees the club inherit a ready-made football academy with 150 players currently enrolled. This saw Huddersfield Town's former head of youth development Dave Haley take over as first team manager and Andy Welsh former Sunderland midfielder become head coach. Phil Smith (ex Sheffield Wednesday Academy coach) will provide support and oversee the running of the academy.  In 2018, it was announced that Ossett Albion and Ossett Town would merge to form Ossett United.

Ossett Albion Association Football Club was an English football club. They played at Queen's Terrace in Ossett, in West Yorkshire, more commonly known as Dimplewells, the area of Ossett the ground is situated in.

Ossett Albion AFC (celým názvem: Ossett Albion Association Football Club) byl anglický fotbalový klub, který sídlil ve městě Ossett v metropolitním hrabství West Yorkshire. Založen byl v roce 1944. Zanikl v roce 2018 po fúzi s Ossett Town do nově vytvořeného klubu Ossett United. Klubové barvy byly zlatá a černá.


Gameplay.

In "BattleBlock Theater", players control a prisoner as they are forced to play through games devised by Hatty Hattington. Controls are simple, with the game largely consisting of running, jumping and punching. Levels are made up of various types of blocks, such as collapsing blocks, sticky walls, bouncy volcanic rocks and deadly spikes, and also feature hazards such as water and deadly creatures.  The main mode in the game is Adventure Mode, which can be played solo or co-operatively with a second player. This mode can be played either in normal mode (with checkpoints) or insane mode (no checkpoints, meaning if the player dies, they have to restart the level). During co-operative play, players are able to work together to overcome obstacles, which includes throwing them across gaps, using their heads as platforms and helping each other get up ledges, although there is just as much opportunity of partner sabotage. Adventure mode consists of various worlds each with a set of levels. In order to progress to the next world, players need to collect gems which can also be used to unlock new customizable parts and complete a 'Boss Level' (timed level). Players can also collect balls of yarn which they can use to bribe cat guards and unlock new weapons, such as frisbees and vacuum cleaners. Collecting all gems and the yarn with a time good enough to get the clock stamp will get the player an A++ in the level and two extra gems.  In some levels, players can also have a chance to get a golden hat, which pops up in a random location at a random time, and are each worth ten extra gems. However, when the player dies, the golden hat they are carrying will stay at the point they had died (or be destroyed, depending on where it lands) until the player picks it up again.  Arena mode is a competitive mode for up to four players, which is played in teams of 2. There are several match types including:  Along with a Time Attack mode, the game also features a Level Editor, which allows players to create their own stages for any game type. These levels can be assembled into a playlist, consisting of various Adventure and Arena levels, and uploaded to the community for others to download. There is also additional content unlocked for players who also own "Castle Crashers" and "Alien Hominid HD".

Story.

Almost all of the game's cut-scenes are done in a stick puppet style. The game begins with the narrator (voiced by Will Stamper) telling the adventures of the hundreds of friends aboard the S.S. Friendship, as well as Hatty Hattington, who is known as "best friend to one and all". After encountering a heavy storm, the S.S. Friendship becomes shipwrecked on a mysterious, seemingly abandoned island, and the crew itself vanishes. Upon waking up from the wreck, the player character seeks shelter from the storm in a dilapidated theater.  Upon coming to, it is revealed that the entire crew of the S.S. Friendship is being held prisoner by cats, with Hatty as their apparent new leader. The player is then released from their cell and forced into deadly games by the feline wardens. The cats, who force their prisoners into deadly theater performances, watch with amusement as the player fights for their survival. As the player completes challenges, they find gems which are spent on unlocking fellow crew members to play as in these theater performances. Appearing to be possessed by the hat's unknown powers, Hatty begins working for the cats and against the player.  As the player progresses, the narrator reveals more about the theater. Hundreds of years before the player shipwrecked on the island, Purrham Furbottom, a theatrical aficionado, sought to build the world's greatest theater. The opening night saw the most jaw-dropping feats and thrills the likes of which were never seen before, making the theater an overnight success. However, Furbottom did not allow intermissions in the theater, and after an untold amount of time watching the show, he died after "pooping himself to death on the way to the bathroom." Since then, his top hat has been passed down to various others, who were each revered by the cats as their leader, and who each met with grim fates of their own. The hat, the narrator theorizes, is haunted by the grief and sorrow of each of its past wearers, and Hatty is its current victim, having sunk into a depression while being surrounded by the many gems the player has accrued, without doing anything to help the state of the theater.  Eventually, the cats grow tired of Hatty's inaction, and begin rioting, striking, and more, while the player's challenges grow increasingly difficult. As the theater deteriorates further, the narrator provides encouragement to the player and continues to shed light on the cats' mental state, which grows more unstable as time progresses. The narrator also instructs the player to enter The Vault, which houses Hatty and all the gems the player has spent, before the cats kill Hatty and the rest of the crew, starting the madness over again.  After completing the final set of challenges inside the Vault, the player breaks into Hatty's throne room. Hatty does not budge, so the player carries him out of the crumbling theater as the crew of the S.S. Friendship orchestrates a mass breakout. Everyone manages to make it back to the boat amidst the chaos, escaping the island and the cats that reside there. As the player celebrates with hot cocoa, he tries to cheer up Hatty, who the narrator says that he would not move, blink, respond to hugs, and talk. He also asks "Where has he gone to?", referring back to Hatty's death during the riot at The Vault. The narrator sings a sad song as the credits roll, before quickly recovering and singing a more happy, upbeat song, rocking the boat and flinging Hatty into the sea, where he sinks to the bottom. The hat lands on his head and begins glowing green as opposed to its usual red, and shoots a beam skyward, where it sends the boat flying and continues into space, where it vaporizes "Alien Hominid" from the game of the same name and a bear that appeared during the narrator's upbeat song, foreshadowing the events of "Pit People". The narrator claims to understand what just happened but does not explain, sending the game back to the title screen.

Development.

The company originally revealed an early playable version of the game, originally code-named "Game #3", at the Tokyo International Anime Festival on March 16, 2009 with a trailer of gameplay footage. The game was released for Xbox Live Arcade and Steam. The game features user-generated music from the Newgrounds community and narration by Newgrounds contributor Will Stamper.

Reception.

"BattleBlock Theater" received "favorable" reviews on both platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. "GamesRadar+" praised the XBLA version's varied stages and extensive multiplayer modes. "Destructoid" called the same console version "a hallmark of excellence". "Eurogamer" called it "a masterclass in pure game design." IGN praised the same console verson's inventive level design, but criticised the platforming gameplay in comparison to other titles like "Super Meat Boy" and "Braid".  "Metro" gave the XBLA version nine out of ten and called it "The Behemoth's best game yet and a hilarious mix of co-op platforming and absurdly entertaining multiplayer madness." "GameZone" also gave it nine out of ten and said, "If you want to have some mindless fun while an eccentric voice does its best to criticize you for your failures, "BattleBlock Theater" is ready to fulfill those needs." "National Post" gave it 8.5 out of 10 and said, "Playing an $18 game like "BattleBlock Theater" leaves a fellow feeling like he's been hosed on nearly every $60 game he's ever bought." "411Mania" gave it 8.4 out of 10 and said, "If you’ve liked previous Behemoth games, "Battleblock Theater" "[sic]" will be right up your alley. The charm of past titles is there and the platforming is a solid experience. The game is definitely worth a look if you own a[n] Xbox 360." "The Digital Fix" gave it eight out of ten and said, "Games have been around long enough to poke fun at themselves and their cinematic predecessors, and while other titles like "Viewtiful Joe" and "" have both got their fair share of jollies from doing this, it's arguable that no game until now as done so with such vigour as "BattleBlock Theater"." "The Escapist" similarly gave it four stars out of five and called it "A refreshingly upbeat platformer that puts silliness and fun above all else. The gameplay is easy to grasp for platforming veterans, while the massive amount of content and alternate game modes ensure you'll be entertained for hours. You also may never look at your cat quite the same way again." "Slant Magazine" gave the PC version four stars out of five, saying, "With so many amusing ways to live and die, the question in this theater isn't 'To be or not to be?' but 'How much longer can I play for?'" However, "Digital Spy" gave the XBLA version three stars out of five, saying, "There's some good fun to be had with "BattleBlock Theater" and it's a mostly charming title. But its fair share of problems hold it back from being an unequivocally entertaining, must-have game."

BattleBlock Theater is a comedy platform game developed by The Behemoth and published by Microsoft Studios for Xbox 360, Windows, Mac, and Linux. It is the third title from The Behemoth following "Alien Hominid" and "Castle Crashers". The game was released on Xbox Live Arcade on April 3, 2013, and later temporarily made free via Games with Gold on July 16, 2014.

BattleBlock Theater je plošinová komediální hra, kterou vytvořilo studio The Behemoth. Hra je dostupná na platformách Xbox 360, Microsoft Windows, Linux a OS X.


Stamford Brook (stanice metra v Londýně)

History.

The line through Stamford Brook station was opened on 1 January 1869 by the London and South Western Railway (L&SWR) on a new branch line to Richmond from the West London Joint Railway starting north of Addison Road station (now Kensington (Olympia)). The line ran through Shepherd's Bush and Hammersmith via a now closed curve. Initially there were no stations between Grove Road station in Hammersmith (also now closed) and Turnham Green.  From its opening, a number of services operated over the route to Richmond in addition to the L&SWR including:  By 1 February 1912 when the station opened, only L&SWR and the DR still operated on the line and on 3 June 1916 the L&SWR withdrew its own service leaving the District Railway as the sole operator.  In the early 1930s, the London Electric Railway, precursor of the London Underground and owner of the District and Piccadilly lines, began the reconstruction of the tracks between Hammersmith and Acton Town to enable the Piccadilly line to be extended from Hammersmith to Uxbridge and Hounslow West (then the terminus of what is now the Heathrow branch). Express non-stop tracks were provided for the Piccadilly line between the stopping lines of the District line. Services on the Piccadilly line began running through Stamford Brook on 4 July 1932.  Originally, the station had an island platform with District line trains serving one side in each direction. However, with the introduction of the Piccadilly line tracks, the eastbound District line track became the westbound Piccadilly line track and a new platform was built for the eastbound District line. This is why there is one island platform and one side platform serving three tracks; the eastbound Piccadilly line track is the only track that is unable to serve the station.  On 5 January 1964 an automatic ticket barrier was installed at the station at a cost of around £1000. It was the first such barrier to be installed anywhere on the London Underground. The ticket-checking device itself was simplistic, optically scanning a printed ternary code on each ticket to check for validity, and had a theoretical maximum throughput of 30 tickets per minute. Nonetheless, the device was seen as a large improvement over manned barriers with staff checking tickets, and the experiment was expanded to other local stations Chiswick Park and Ravenscourt Park.

Connections.

London Buses route 237 serves the station.

Stamford Brook is a London Underground station on the eastern edge of Chiswick in west London. The station is served by the District line and is between Ravenscourt Park and Turnham Green stations. The main entrance is located on Goldhawk Road (A402) with a secondary entrance on Prebend Gardens. It is in Travelcard Zone 2. The station takes its name from Stamford Brook, a tributary of the River Thames that is now predominantly underground.

Stamford Brook je stanice metra v Londýně, otevřená 1. ledna 1869. 5. ledna 1964 zde byly nainstalovány automaty na jízdenky. Dříve zde jezdila Metropolitan Line. Autobusové spojení zajišťuje linka 237. Stanice se nachází v přepravní zóně 2 a leží na lince:


Kensington (Olympia) (stanice metra v Londýně)

Name and location.

In 1863, with the opening of the West London Extension Railway, a station named Kensington was opened north of the junction with the West London Railway, but when several underground lines opened stations at High Street Kensington and West Kensington, the station name was changed to Addison Road to avoid any confusion.  The station appears as Kensington Olympia on the National Rail website and on some of its maps and timetables. On London Underground and London Overground maps, station signage and the London Rail & Tube Services map, it is labelled Kensington (Olympia). On the automated announcements and the dot matrix indicators on District line trains, the station is shown as simply Olympia.  The station is located alongside the namesake Olympia exhibition centre. The boundary between the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham here runs parallel to and immediately to the west of the railway line.  The platforms are accessed via Russell Road from the east and Olympia Way from the west. A footbridge connects the two roads, and is segregated so it is possible to walk directly from Russell Road to Olympia Way without having to pass through any ticket barriers. Platform 1 serves the part-time District line services towards High Street Kensington via Earl's Court, platform 2 serves Overground trains towards Willsden, and platform 3 runs towards Clapham Junction.  London Buses routes 9, 23, 27, 28, 49, 391, C1; night routes N9, N28 and Green Line Coaches services 701 and 702 call at and pass the station.

History.

Opening.

A station called Kensington was opened by the West London Railway as its southern terminus on 27 May 1844, located just south of Hammersmith Road. The line was not popular and it was closed on 1 December that year due to the losses made. A scant and erratic goods service continued. The line was re-opened to passengers on 2 June 1862 as part of the West London Extension Railway with a new station, also called Kensington, to the north of Hammersmith Road, providing services to and. Great Western Railway trains started serving the station in 1863, with London & North Western Railway trains arriving in 1872. A link to the Hammersmith & City Railway enabled the station to join the Middle Circle service, which operated via Paddington to the north and South Kensington to the south. In 1868 the station was renamed Kensington Addison Road.  From 1869 the London & South Western Railway operated trains from Richmond to London Waterloo via Addison Road, until their branch via Shepherd's Bush closed in 1916. By 1907 the Middle Circle had been replaced by a link to Hammersmith. The station appears on the first 'London Underground' map in 1908 with Metropolitan and District Railway services.  There was an Express Dairies creamery and milk bottling plant close to the station. It was served by milk trains running from the Great Western Railway at Old Oak Common to a siding adjacent to the station.

Decline.

In 1940 Addison Road and the link to the Metropolitan line at Latimer Road closed along with the other West London Line stations after the line was bombed, and it was not considered cost-effective to rebuild by the London Passenger Transport Board. Due to its ability to access all lines radiating from London, its close location to SHAEF headquarters and its relative quietness compared to the main London termini, it was the preferred embarkation point for US Army General Dwight D. Eisenhower when he visited troops in Wales preparing for the June 1944 Normandy landings.  On 19 December 1946 the station was renamed Kensington (Olympia) and became the northern terminus of a peak-hour shuttle service to Clapham Junction, serving workers at the Post Office Savings Bank (later National Savings Bank) in nearby Blythe Road. Until 1986 this was the only British Rail service stopping at the station. It was known as the "Kenny Belle" and was unadvertised, reportedly because the Post Office Savings Bank was under the Official Secrets Act. There was also a District line shuttle to Earl's Court, as the station had been left without a dedicated Underground connection. The service originally only ran when there was an exhibition at the centre, but a permanent platform opened on 3 March 1958. The station was sometimes used as a terminus during reconstruction and upgrading of mainline London terminal stations. It was recommended for closure in the 1963 Beeching Report.

Cold War.

Kensington (Olympia) was included in Cold War plans to ensure continuity of government in the event of hostilities.  The station was important in the war, as the West London Line connected to the Great Western Main Line (and hence the Wiltshire headquarters) at North Pole Junction, to the north, and acted as a diversionary route to Paddington station. Secret plans entailed use of the station, in the prelude to a nuclear war, to evacuate several thousand civil servants to the Central Government War Headquarters underground bunker (codenamed "Burlington") in Wiltshire. If the government had decided to activate its Central Government War Headquarters in Wiltshire, civil servants tasked with manning the facility would have been directed to join trains at this station. These trains would have connected with buses at Warminster for further transfer to the headquarters facility.

Motorail.

In 1966 Kensington (Olympia) became the main London terminus for British Rail Motorail trains, which carried passengers and vehicles across Britain. In the London Midland Region timetable for 1970–71 services are shown to Perth, Stirling, Carlisle, St Austell, Totnes, Newton Abbot and Fishguard (connecting with the ferry for Rosslare). This facility closed in 1981 with operations transferred to Paddington, Euston and King's Cross.  The car park for the service is now used for exhibition vehicles, and Europcar for car rental and is called "Olympia Motorail Car Park P4".

Revival.

From 12 May 1986 services at the station were greatly enhanced. The London Underground shuttle service started to run to a regular daily schedule, and inter-regional services from the Midlands and northern England stopped at Kensington (Olympia). Southern Region destinations included and. As part of this the footbridge was painted in InterCity colours. These trains were operated by the InterCity division of British Rail and later, after privatisation, by Virgin CrossCountry and CrossCountry. Destinations included,,, and. The services were withdrawn in October 2008, by which time only two daily Brighton–Manchester journeys were operated. The station was part of the London Station Group, accepting "London Terminals" tickets, until it was delisted in May 1994. The same year, a full passenger service between Willesden Junction and Clapham Junction was reinstated after a gap of 54 years.  There were two bay platforms on the south-eastern side, mainly used by services to/from Clapham Junction. These platforms were removed in 1983 and the track was lifted; the space was used for an additional car park for the exhibition centre. One of the former platforms is now Olympia Garden, a community garden with 89 vegetable plots.  Before the Channel Tunnel Rail Link was proposed in 1996, Kensington (Olympia) was planned to be expanded to accommodate a car terminal for international services. The line would have run via the West London and South Eastern Main Lines to before entering the tunnel. Before Eurostar transferred in November 2007 to St Pancras International, Eurostar trains passed through the station between Waterloo International station and North Pole depot, and the station was a backup terminus for the services in case Waterloo International became unusable; immigration facilities were maintained there.  In June 2011, Transport for London (TfL) announced that the District line shuttle between Kensington (Olympia) and Earl's Court would close on weekdays at the end of the year. The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea unsuccessfully protested against the closure, and general weekday services ceased in December 2011. Some special weekday services continue to run on the District line when there is an exhibition on. In 2012 TfL announced plans to introduce ticket gates at the station to combat fare dodgers, which would remove access to the footbridge used by local residents for years. Both the councils within whose boundaries this station falls challenged this loss of an established right of way. The plan was abandoned the following year.

Services.

National Rail.

The station is on the West London line of the London Overground network, which is signed by Transport for London as the "Willesden Junction – Clapham Junction" line. The line lies entirely in zone 2, and can be used to bypass central London. National Rail services are provided by London Overground and Southern.  The London Overground services in trains per hour are:  Southern operate between and, typically once an hour.

District line.

The District line shuttle to Earl's Court and High Street Kensington runs at weekends and sometimes when there is an exhibition on. A very limited service also operates during the early morning and evening each weekday. There is no service New Year's Eve or New Year's Day when these days fall on or partly on a weekend.

References.

Notes Citations Sources

Kensington (Olympia) is a combined rail and tube station in Kensington, London. Services are provided by London Overground, who manage the station, along with Southern and London Underground. It is in Travelcard Zone 2. On the Underground it is the terminus of a short District line branch from, originally built as part of the Middle Circle. On the main-line railway it is on the West London Line from to, by which trains bypass central London. The station's name is drawn from its location in Kensington and the adjacent Olympia exhibition centre.

Kensington (Olympia) je stanice metra v Londýně, otevřená 27. května 1844 jako "Kensington". Hned téhož roku se zavřela a otevřela se až 2. června 1862 pod názvem "Addison Road". Roku 1946 došlo k přejmenování na dnešní jméno. V roce 2011 se stanice rekonstruovala. Autobusové spojení zajišťují linky: 9, 10, 27, 28, 49, 391, C1 a noční linky: N9 a N28. Stanice se nachází v přepravní zóně 2 a leží na lince:


Playing career.

Major junior.

Nylander was selected 12th overall by the Mississauga Steelheads of the Ontario Hockey League at the 2015 Canadian Hockey League Import Draft. On 5 September 2015, Nylander committed to Steelheads with his father joining as assistant coach. His reasons for joining include being close to his brother William and to have the chance to play the Canadian style of hockey.  In his only season with the Steelheads, Nylander led all rookies in scoring, and was awarded both the Emms Family Award as OHL Rookie of the Year and CHL Rookie of the Year.  Leading up to the NHL draft, Nylander was ranked the No. 3 North American skater. He was described as a dynamic offensive player with a great shot and playmaking ability.

Professional.

Nylander was selected 8th overall by the Buffalo Sabres in the 2016 NHL Draft. On 15 July 2016, the Sabres signed Nylander to a three-year entry-level contract.  Nylander was called up to the NHL for the first time on 3 April 2017, to play in a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs. Nylander played 14:28 minutes during the 4–2 loss. After playing four games in the NHL he was reassigned back to their AHL affiliate, the Rochester Americans.  The Sabres assigned Nylander to their AHL affiliate before finalizing their roster for the 2017–18 season. Nylander suffered a lower-body injury in mid-September during the Buffalo Sabres' first prospect game, causing him to miss the rest of the training camp and the beginning of the 2017–18 AHL season. He returned to the lineup on 17 November 2017, for a game against the Hartford Wolf Pack. Despite a slow start, Nylander was called up to the NHL on 3 April 2018. He recorded his first career NHL goal on 6 April 2018 in a game against the Tampa Bay Lightning. After the Sabres failed to qualify for the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs, Nylander was reassigned to the AHL.  On 9 July 2019, Nylander was traded by the Sabres to the Chicago Blackhawks in exchange for fellow first-rounder Henri Jokiharju and opted to wear sweater #92 with the club, the same number his father wore.

International play.

Despite being born in Canada, like his brother, Nylander represents Sweden in international play.  At the 2016 IIHF World Junior Championships held in Helsinki, Nylander led the Swedish team in points with four goals and five assists. Team Sweden finished fourth at the tournament.  Nylander was also chosen to represent Sweden at the 2018 IIHF World Junior Championships. Nylander led Team Sweden to the silver medal in the 2018 World Junior Championships where he had 1 goal and 6 assists in 7 games. He was also awarded Player of the game.

Personal life.

Alexander was born in Calgary while his father, Michael, played for the Calgary Flames. He spent the majority of his youth in the United States where his father played for a multitude of NHL teams, and spending the summers in Sweden.  His older brother, William plays for the Toronto Maple Leafs. He was also drafted 8th overall, 2 years earlier.

Alexander Maximiliam Michael Junior Nylander Altelius (born 2 March 1998) is a Canadian-born Swedish ice hockey player who currently plays for the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was selected 8th overall by the Buffalo Sabres in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft.

Alexander Nylander Altelius (* 2. března 1998, Calgary, Alberta) je švédský hokejový útočník narozený v Kanadě působící v týmu Mississauga Steelheads v kanadské juniorské lize Ontario Hockey League (OHL). Dne 24. června 2016 byl draftován již v prvním kole draftu 2016 jako 8. celkově týmem Buffalo Sabres.


Description.

Like its relatives, "Cephalaspis" was heavily armored, presumedly to defend against predatory placoderms and eurypterids, as well as to serve as a source of calcium for metabolic functions in calcium-poor freshwater environments. It had sensory patches along the rim and center of its head shield, which were used to sense for worms and other burrowing organisms in the mud.

Diet.

Because its mouth was situated directly beneath its head, "Cephalaspis" was thought of as being a bottom-feeder, akin to a heavily armoured catfish or sturgeon. It moved its plow-like head from side to side, "Cephalaspis" easily stirring sand and dust into the water, along with revealing the hiding places of its prey, digging up worms or crustaceans hidden in the mud and algae, as well as sifting through detritus (inferred from its lack of jaws and inability to bite).

Classification.

The genus "Cephalaspis" has long been used as a wastebasket taxon since Agassiz erected it in 1835 for four species, "C. lyelli", "C. rostratus", "C. lewisi" and "C. lloydi". Later, it was eventually determined that the last three species were portions of what would eventually be described as the heterostracan "Pteraspis rostratus". "C. lyelli", named after Sir Charles Lyell, would be left to be the type species of the genus. Other researchers would continue adding other similar-looking osteostracans throughout the decades until, in 2009, Sansom reevaluated Osteostraci, and determined that only "C. lyelli" could be reliably placed within "Cephalaspis", and that probably all other species would eventually need to be reexamined and be placed into other genera. In the same 2009 study, Sansom also determined that "Cephalaspis" "sensu stricto" was the sister-taxon of cornuate osteostracans, i.e., all osteostracans that either have, or have ancestors that had defined corners on the head-shields.

Included species.

The following is a list of species that have been included into "Cephalaspis"; most likely do not belong to the genus, but have not been formally moved.

Cephalaspis (meaning "head shield") is a probably monotypic genus of extinct osteostracan agnathan vertebrate. It was a trout-sized detritivorous fish that lived in estuaries of the early Devonian.

Cephalaspis je vyhynulý rod mihule z řádu Cephalaspidiformes, který popsal Louis Agassiz roku 1843. "Cephalaspis" žil v období Devonu. Nálezy připisované rodu "Cephalaspis" pocházejí ze západní Evropy i Severní Ameriky, ne všechny jsou ale vždy uznávány, proto se počet druhů liší od zdroje ke zdroji. BioLib uvádí druhy pouze dva: "Cephalaspis lyelii" a "Cephalaspis magnificans".


History.

Although formed in 2012, the club traces its history to 1991. That year, an U11 team was formed at the Shaw Lane sports complex in Barnsley. The next decade saw the club gradually expand and in 2004 they became part of the Shaw Lane Community Sports Association. The senior team merged with Worsbrough Common F.C. in 2011 to form Aquaforce Barnsley F.C., taking Worsbrough's Sheffield & Hallamshire County Senior League Division One place and winning promotion to the Premier Division in 2012. Aquaforce Barnsley then merged with Barugh F.C., another ailing local team, to form Shaw Lane Aquaforce.  In their first season, the club won the Sheffield and Hallamshire County Senior League Premier Division, winning promotion to the Northern Counties East League (NCEL) Division One. A year later, their rise continued when they finished runners-up in the NCEL Division One, winning promotion to the Premier Division. This was followed by the club winning the Premier Division in the 2014–15 season and gaining promotion to the Northern Premier League (NPL) Division One South.  The club's first season in the NPL ended with a second-place finish, with the team missing out on promotion after losing in the end of season play-offs. In the middle of 2016, the club was renamed as simply Shaw Lane in order to comply with FA regulations which prohibit the use of sponsored names above a certain level. They went on to win the 2016/17 Division One South championship to clinch their fifth promotion in seven years, and completed a league and cup double by beating Frickley Athletic in the final of the Sheffield & Hallamshire Senior Cup to win competition for the first time.  In the 2017-18 season, they reached their 1st FA Cup proper with a 2-1 win over Barrow and lost 1-3 to Mansfield Town.  On 8 June 2018 the club's first team withdrew from football.

Notable former players.

Players that have played in the Football League or at international level either before or after playing for Shaw Lane Aquaforce –

Shaw Lane Association Football Club was a football club based in Barnsley, South Yorkshire. They most recently played in the Northern Premier League Premier Division, at level 7 of the English football league system.

Shaw Lane AFC (celým názvem: Shaw Lane Association Football Club) byl anglický fotbalový klub, který sídlil ve městě Barnsley v metropolitním hrabství South Yorkshire. Založen byl v roce 2012 pod názvem Shaw Lane Aquaforce FC. Zanikl v roce 2018 po odhlášení mužského družstva z Northern Premier League. Klubové barvy byly modrá, černá a červená.


History.

It was opened on 22 June 1907 as Tottenham Court Road by the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway, but changed to the present name on 9 March 1908 before an interchange was built between the previously separate (and differently named) Northern line and Central line stations at the present Tottenham Court Road station.

Location.

The station is on the western side of Tottenham Court Road, a short distance north of the junction with Goodge Street.

Design.

It is one of the few tube stations that still rely on lifts rather than escalators to transport passengers to and from street level. In addition, it is one of the few such tube stations that still use the original scheme of separate exit and entrance areas. Alternatively, passengers can use the 138-step staircase to get down to the platforms. The surface building was designed by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London's (UERL's) architect Leslie Green.

Deep-level air-raid shelter.

Goodge Street has a Second World War deep-level air-raid shelter underneath it, and is one of eight such stations. From late 1943 until the end of the Second World War the Goodge Street shelter was used by the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. The shelter has two entrances, one on Chenies Street (pictured below) and the other on Tottenham Court Road next to the American International Church.  In the invasion preparations, Goodge Street station was used only as a signals installation by the United States Army Signal Corps. It was one of a number of signals installations for communications in and around London. Among these installations were SHAEF headquarters at 20 Grosvenor Square and the basement of the Selfridges department store on Oxford Street; both buildings exist today.  After the war the shelters were used as a hostel that could accommodate up to 8000 troops. Goodge Street continued in use as an army transit centre until it was damaged by fire on the night of 21 May 1956. The fire coincided with Parliamentary consideration of a Government Bill seeking power to take over the shelters (The Underground Works [London] Bill) and the Minister of Works assured the Commons they would not again be used for human occupation in peacetime (although no one was killed, the fire had caused some alarm and proved difficult to put out). Another fire, on 21 June 1981, caused by burning rubbish, killed a man and injured 16 people, and resulted in a recommendation of a smoking ban on the Underground. There was a tardy response with London Transport finally introducing a one-year trial smoking ban on 9 July 1984. Almost halfway through the trial a major fire occurred at Oxford Circus, resulting in a full smoking ban on all subterranean stations and Underground trains.

Services and connections.

Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally operate every 3–7 minutes in both directions.  London Bus routes 14, 24, 29, 73, 134 and 390, and night routes N5, N20, N29, N73, N253 and N279 serve the station. Furthermore, bus routes 14, 24, 134 and 390 provide a 24-hour bus service.

In popular culture.

The station appeared in the 1942 feature film "Gert and Daisy's Weekend". The former shelter is the setting for much of the 1968 "Doctor Who" serial "The Web of Fear". Dialogue in the story mentions the shelter's former use in the Second World War, and the exit in Chenies Street.  The station is the setting of the song "Sunny Goodge Street", from the 1965 album "Fairytale" by singer-songwriter Donovan. The station exterior also appeared in the 2005 music video for "Believe" by The Chemical Brothers.

Goodge Street is a London Underground station on Tottenham Court Road in Fitzrovia, West End, London. It is on the Northern line's Charing Cross branch between Tottenham Court Road and Warren Street stations, and is in Travelcard Zone 1.

Goodge Street je stanice metra v Londýně, otevřená 22. června 1907 jako "Tottenham Court Road", ale 3. září 1908 bylo jméno hned změněno na současné. Stanice je vybavena výtahy a eskalátory. Roku 1942 si stanice zahrála ve filmu Gert and Daisy's Weekend. V roce 1968 zas v seriálu Pán času v episodě "The Web of Fear". Název stanice byl použit v songu "Sunny Goodge Street" z alba Fairytale od Donovana. Autobusovou dopravu zajišťují linky 10, 14, 24, 29, 73, 134, 390 a noční linky N5, N20, N29, N73, N253 a N279. Stanice se nachází v přepravní zóně 1 a leží na lince:


Early life.

Watanabe was born in Koide, Niigata. His mother was a school teacher and his father taught calligraphy. Due to a number of relocations for his parents' work, he spent his childhood in the villages of Irihirose and Sumon, both now part of the city of Uonuma, and in Takada, now part of the city of Jōetsu. He attended Niigata Prefectural Koide High School, where he was a member of the concert band club, playing trumpet, which he had played since childhood.  After graduation from high school, in 1978 he aimed to enter Musashino Academia Musicae, a conservatory in Tokyo. However, he had never received a formal musical education, and because his father had collapsed when he was in junior high school and was unable to work, there was difficulty in finding the money for tuition. Because of these problems, Watanabe gave up trying to enter the conservatory.

Career.

Japanese roles.

After graduating from high school in 1978, Watanabe moved to Tokyo to begin his acting career, getting his big break with the Tokyo-based theater troupe En. While with the troupe, he was cast as the hero in the play Shimodani Mannencho Monogatari, under Yukio Ninagawa's direction. The role attracted critical and popular notice.  In 1982, he made his first TV appearance in "Michinaru Hanran" ("Unknown Rebellion"), and his first appearance on TV as a samurai in "Mibu no koiuta". He made his feature-film debut in 1984 with "MacArthur's Children".  Watanabe is mostly known in Japan for playing samurai, as in the 1987 "Dokuganryu Masamune" ("One eyed dragon, Masamune") the 50-episode NHK taiga drama. He played the lead character, Matsudaira Kurō, in the television jidaigeki "Gokenin Zankurō", which ran for several seasons. He has gone on to garner acclaim in such historical dramas as "Oda Nobunaga", "Chūshingura", and the movie "Bakumatsu Junjo Den".  In 1989, while filming Haruki Kadokawa's "Heaven and Earth", Watanabe was diagnosed with acute myelogenous leukemia. He returned to acting while simultaneously undergoing chemotherapy treatments, but in 1991 suffered a relapse.  As his health improved his career picked back up. He co-starred with Kōji Yakusho in the 1998 "Kizuna", for which he was nominated for the Japanese Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.  In 2002, he quit the En (Engeki-Shudan En) theatre group where he had his start and joined the K Dash agency. The film "Sennen no Koi" ("Thousand-year Love", based on "The Tale of Genji") earned him another Japanese Academy Award nomination.  In 2006, he won Best Lead Actor at the Japanese Academy Awards for his role in "Memories of Tomorrow (Ashita no Kioku)", in which he played a patient with Alzheimer's Disease.

International films.

Watanabe was introduced to most Western audiences in the 2003 American film "The Last Samurai", set in 19th Century Japan. His performance as Lord Katsumoto earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.  Watanabe appeared in the 2005 film "Memoirs of a Geisha", playing Chairman Iwamura. That same year, he also played the decoy of Ra's al Ghul in Christopher Nolan's Batman film reboot, "Batman Begins". In 2006, he starred in Clint Eastwood's "Letters from Iwo Jima", playing Tadamichi Kuribayashi. He has voiced Ra's al Ghul in the "Batman Begins" video game. He has filmed advertisements for American Express, Yakult, Canon and NTT DoCoMo. In 2004, he was featured in "People Magazine"'s "50 Most Beautiful People" edition. In 2009, he appeared in "". In 2010, he co-starred in "Inception", where he stars as Saito, a mark-turned-benefactor businessman of the film's heist team. In 2014, he starred in two Hollywood blockbusters "Godzilla" and "". In 2019, he starred in two other Hollywood blockbusters "Pokémon Detective Pikachu" and "".

Television.

Watanabe will appear in a forthcoming television series of Tokyo Vice, based on the non-fiction book by Jake Adelstein and written for television by J.T. Rogers. The ten-part series has been ordered by WarnerMedia and is set to star Ansel Elgort, playing Adelstein, an American journalist who embeds himself into the Tokyo Vice police squad to reveal corruption. Ken is currently starring in the NHK World Japan's comedy "You're a Genius!".  In April 2019, it was announced that Warner Bros. International Television Production and Japan’s TV Asahi network were teaming up to remake The Fugitive. Watanabe is set to star in the upcoming remake, taking place in present-day Tokyo just before the opening of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. The broadcast date has yet to be announced.

Personal life.

In 1983, Watanabe married his first wife, Yumiko. In September 2005, following two years of arbitration, he and Yumiko were divorced. He got to know Kaho Minami when they were acting together in a suspense drama for TV Tokyo. Around the time of his divorce the two began seriously dating, and were married on December 3 of the same year. Their marriage was announced by their agencies on 7 December, just after they had attended a New York City premiere of his film "Sayuri" together.  Watanabe formally adopted Minami's son from her previous marriage to director Jinsei Tsuji, and for a time the three of them lived in Los Angeles. In order to increase the amount of time the family could spend together, considering Ken's work requiring him to travel so much, they later returned to Japan. Initially Minami and Ken did not hold any wedding ceremony, but in 2010 they announced that they had held a ceremony on August 1 in Los Angeles.  Watanabe has two biological children and an adopted son. His oldest son, Dai Watanabe (born 1984), is an actor, and his daughter Anne Watanabe (born 1986) is also an actress and fashion model. In August 2008, Dai had his first child, a son, making Ken a grandfather at the age of 48. A granddaughter was born to Dai in March 2010.  In 1989 Watanabe was diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia. The cancer returned in 1994, but he later recovered.  In 2006 Watanabe revealed in his autobiography "Dare? - Who Am I?" that he has hepatitis C. At a press conference held May 23, 2006 in Tokyo's Ginza district, he said he was in good condition but was still undergoing treatment.  On March 13, 2011, he launched a YouTube page to raise awareness about the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and invited celebrities to add their videos. In his video in English, he made a call to action to support the victims and to raise funds in the relief effort. In conjunction, he has created his own website for the cause.  On February 9, 2016, it was revealed Watanabe had been diagnosed with stomach cancer and would postpone scheduled performances to undergo necessary treatment.  In May 2016, Watanabe's daughter by his first marriage, Anne, gave birth to twin girls, and in November 2017 she gave birth to a son, giving Ken Watanabe five grandchildren altogether.  On May 17, 2018, Kaho Minami's agency announced that Minami and Watanabe had divorced after he had admitted having an extramarital affair.

In 2014, he starred in the reboot "Godzilla" as Dr. Ishiro Serizawa, a role he reprised in the sequel, "". He lent his voice to the fourth and fifth installments of the "Transformers" franchise respectively, "" and "", as Decepticon turned Autobot Drift.

Ken Watanabe ( 渡辺 謙 - "Watanabe Ken"; * 21. říjen 1959) je herec japonského původu. Pro evropského diváka známý například z filmu Poslední samuraj nebo Batman začíná. V Japonsku je znám hlavně rolemi samurajů.


History.

The club was established in 1873. They joined the new Wiltshire League in 1901, and finished joint top of the table with Warminster Town, but lost the championship play-off replay 1–0, following a 1–1 draw in the first match. They joined Division Two of the Western League in 1904, but also continued to play in the Wiltshire League. The 1904–05 season saw them finish bottom of the Western League and second in the Wiltshire League. At the end of the 1905–06 season the club withdrew from the Western League, and went on to win the Wiltshire League in 1907–08 and 1908–09, before finishing as runners-up in 1909–10. They were runners-up again in 1912–13, 1921–22 and 1922–23, before winning the league in 1928–29.  In 1930 Chippenham rejoined Division Two of the Western League. The league was reduced to a single division in 1939, and the club were runners-up when the league resumed in the 1945–46 season. The 1951–52 season saw them win the Western League for the first time, and they also reached the first round of the FA Cup for the first time, losing 3–0 at Leyton. They were Western League runners-up again in 1954–55. However, they left the Western League at the end of the 1964–65 season, dropping back into the Wiltshire League. In 1968 the club joined the Premier Division of the Hellenic League, where they played until rejoining the Western League in 1973. When the league gained a second division in 1976, the club were relegated to the new Division One. They were Division One champions in 1980–81, earning promotion to the Premier Division. In 1999–2000 the club reached the final of the FA Vase, eventually losing 1–0 to Deal Town at Wembley Stadium.  After finishing as runners-up in 2000–01, Chippenham were promoted to Division One West of the Southern League. Their first season in the division saw them finish as runners-up, resulting in promotion to the Southern League Premier Division. In 2004–05 they were Premier Division runners-up, qualifying for the promotion play-offs. However, after beating Bedford Town 5–4 on penalties following a 2–2 draw in the semi-finals, they lost the final 1–0 to Hednesford Town. The following season saw them reach the first round of the FA Cup for a second time, eventually losing 1–0 at Worcester City in a replay. They also qualified for the promotion play-offs again after finishing fourth, beating King's Lynn 3–1 in the semi-finals before losing 3–2 to Bedford Town in the final. Another fourth-place finish in 2007–08 led to another play-off campaign, this time ending with a 2–1 defeat to Halesowen Town in the semi-finals. In 2009–10 the club finished third, and after beating Hednesford Town 2–0 in the play-off semi-finals, lost the final 2–1 to Nuneaton Town.  In 2016–17 Chippenham won the Southern League's Premier Division with a league record 103 points, earning promotion to the National League South. They reached the first round of the FA Cup again in 2019–20, losing 3–0 at home to Northampton Town.

Ground.

The club moved to Hardenhuish Park in 1919, having previously played at at least four other grounds. A main stand was erected and subsequently added to on several occasions. A new clubhouse was opened in 1979 and floodlights were installed in 1986. Covered standing is provided behind one goal and along the opposite side of the pitch to the main stand. This was built in 1993, replacing an earlier stand that had been damaged by storms. The pitch at Hardenhuish Park has a noticeable slope, downwards towards the Bristol Road end. The ground currently has a capacity of 3,000, of which 300 is seated and 1,000 covered.

Chippenham Town Football Club is a football club based in Chippenham, Wiltshire, England. They are currently members of and play their games at Hardenhuish Park.

Chippenham Town FC (celým názvem: Chippenham Town Football Club) je anglický fotbalový klub, který sídlí ve městě Chippenham v nemetropolitním hrabství Wiltshire. Založen byl v roce 1873. Od sezóny 2017/18 hraje v National League South (6. nejvyšší soutěž). Klubové barvy jsou modrá, bílá a černá.


History.

The club was established in October 1889. They played in the Cheltenham League, winning the Division One title in 1927–28 and again in 1929–30. They joined the Gloucestershire Northern Senior League in 1935, but left after two season. Returning to the Cheltenham League, they were Division One champions again in 1948–49, before winning back-to-back titles in 1954–55 and 1955–56. In 1957 they rejoined the Gloucestershire Northern Senior League, but left again after finishing second-from-bottom in 1960–61. However, they returned for the 1962–63 season. They left the league again at the end of the 1963–64 season, but returned in 1965 and were runners-up in 1965–66, before going on to win back-to-back titles in 1966–67 and 1967–68.  In 1968 Cirencester were founder members of the Gloucestershire County League, but after a single season in the new league they moved up to the Premier Division of the Hellenic League. They were relegated to Division One at the end of the 1971–72 season, but were promoted back to the Premier Division after winning Division One in 1973–74. The club returned to Division One after finishing bottom of the Premier Division in the 1977–78 season.  The 1990–91 season saw the club finish as Division One runners-up, earning promotion to the Premier Division. They were Premier Division runners-up the following season, and won the league in 1995–96, earning promotion to Division One South of the Southern League. The season also saw them win the Gloucestershire Senior Cup, beating Endsleigh 2–1 in the final. The division was renamed Division One West in 1999, and after finishing third in 2003–04, the club were promoted to the Premier Division.  The next few years saw Cirencester becoming a yo-yo club as they were relegated in 2007–08 and then promoted in 2009–10 after finishing fifth and winning the promotion play-offs, beating AFC Totton 3–2 in the semi-final and Bridgwater Town 4–3 in the final. They were relegated again at the end of the 2011–12 season after finishing bottom of the Premier Division, but returned to the division after winning Division One South & West in 2013–14. They won the Gloucestershire Senior Cup again in 2014–15, beating Shortwood United 2–0 in the final.

Reserves.

In the 2009–10 season the club's reserve team joined the Reserve Division Two West of the Hellenic League the Hellenic League reserves divisions made up mainly of youth players as practice for the first team squad. In their debut season, the reserves won the division. In 2011 the team moved out of the reserves into Division One West. However, they withdrew at the end of the season and were replaced with a development team in Division Two West. In 2013–14 the team won Division Two West, and were promoted to Division One West.

Ground.

The club has played at the Corinium Stadium since moving from the Smithfield ground in 2002. The ground has also been used by Gloucester City (2008–2010) and Wootton Bassett Town. It has a capacity of 4,500, of which 550 is seated and 1,250 covered.

Cirencester Town Football Club is a football club based in Cirencester, Gloucestershire, England. Affiliated to the Gloucestershire County FA, the club are currently members of the and play at the Corinium Stadium.

Cirencester Town FC (celým názvem: Cirencester Town Football Club) je anglický fotbalový klub, který sídlí ve městě Cirencester v nemetropolitním hrabství Gloucestershire. Založen byl v roce 1889. Od sezóny 2018/19 hraje v Southern Football League Division One South (8. nejvyšší soutěž). Klubové barvy jsou červená a černá.


Early life.

Miró was a lawyer and professor at the University of Havana and had become a noted leader in the civil opposition to President Fulgencio Batista. He had inspired students to work for the Cuban Revolution. Following his brief spell as Prime Minister of Cuba, Castro designated Miró ambassador to Spain in May 1960. But by July, Miró had rejected the policies of Castro, resigned his post and had sought refuge in the Argentine Embassy. He entered the United States as an exile in the winter of 1960-1.

Revolutionary Council and the Bay of Pigs invasion.

In the U.S. Miró became the head of the exile group Cuban Revolutionary Council which became a principal exile committee working with the Kennedy administration on preparations for the Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961. It was decided that Miró would become the provisional President of Cuba depending upon the success of the invasion, and after the exiles had gained "a piece of Cuban soil". Miró drafted a constitutional programme for Cuba's economic and political future to encourage Cubans to reject Castro. The document was considered too conservative by officials in Washington, yet too "communistic" by the dominant right wing of the Cuban exile community. Despite this, Miró accepted amendments offered by Washington which were designed to appeal to the poorer rural classes in Cuba.  As the deadline for the proposed invasion neared, Miró became increasingly frustrated with the CIA and the lack of communication between different factions. "There must be some military plan I don't know about. I would like to know about it for purposes of coordination. I don't want to know these things; but I have to know to make our efforts effective". Miró was convinced that U.S. forces would support the Cuban exile invasion, even telling other groups that 10,000 U.S. troops were on hand to assist. The CIA, and the Kennedy administration repeatedly denied that the U.S. had offered overt military support.  On the eve of the invasion Miró made his keynote announcement: To arms, Cubans! We must conquer or we shall die choked by slavery. In the name of God we assure you all that after the victory we will have peace, human solidarity, general well-being and absolute respect for the dignity of all Cubans without exception." ("The New York Times", April 9, 1961).  As the invasion floundered, Miró, whose son had joined the invasion force, blamed the CIA for the failure. Miró concluded that the CIA had entirely disregarded resistance groups within Cuba, ignored the paramilitary groups led by Manuel Ray and misled the Cuban exiles over the role of the U.S. military in the invasion.  Later, he was a law professor at the University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras.

Family.

Dr. Miró was married to Ernestina Torra and they had two children, Yolanda and Jose Antonio Miró Torra, and seven grandchildren - two born to Yolanda (Yolanda de la Luz and Sergio López Miró) and five born to Jose (Silviana, Jose, Patricia, Natalia and Fernando Miró Santaella).

José Miró Cardona (22 August 1902 in Havana – 10 August 1974 in San Juan, Puerto Rico) was a Cuban politician. He served as Prime Minister for a period of some six weeks in early 1959, following his appointment by President Manuel Urrutia on January 5, 1959. On February 13, 1959, Miró unexpectedly resigned and was replaced by Fidel Castro.

José Miró Cardona (22. srpna 1902 – 10. srpna 1972) byl kubánský právník a diplomat. Po svržení režimu diktátora Fulgencia Batisty byl Cardona od 5. ledna do 16. února 1959 ministerským předsedou přechodné revoluční vlády. Po jeho odstoupení funkci převzal Fidel Castro.


Geography.

Currently Occitanie is the second largest region in mainland France, covering an area of more than, and has a population of 5,839,867. It has a Mediterranean coast on the southeast and is neighbored by Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur on the east, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes on the northeast, and Nouvelle-Aquitaine on the west and northwest, as well as foreign borders of Andorra (Canillo, Encamp, La Massana, Ordino) and Spain (Aragon and Catalonia) on the south.

Toponymy.

Enacted in 2014, the territorial reform of the French regions had been subject to debate for many years. The reform law used as the new region's provisional name the hyphenated names of its predecessors: Languedoc-Roussillon and Midi-Pyrénées, in alphabetical order. As for most of the merged regions, a permanent name was then proposed by the new regional council to replace that provisional name. On 24 June 2016, the regional council of Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées adopted the name Occitanie after lengthy public consultation. The provisional name of the region was withdrawn on 30 September 2016, when the new name took effect.  Occitanie, the new name, derives from the historical appellation of the broader region, and refers to the historical use throughout that territory of the Occitan language and its various dialects, which are so named for the word "", the Occitan word for "oui" or "yes". The circa 450,000 French Catalans living in the region (or Catalans of the North, as they mostly call themselves) expressed dismay at the regional assembly resolution, regarding the new name as ignoring their presence. On 10 September 2016, some 10,000 people (7,800 according to the police) demonstrated in Perpignan, demanding that the merged region name contain the words "Pays catalan" (literal translation: "Catalan country").

Politics.

Following the creation of the region in 2016, Carole Delga, a member of the Socialist Party, was elected President of the Regional Council. The "hôtel de région", where the Regional Council of Occitanie meets, is situated in Toulouse.

Economy.

The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 171.2 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 7.3% of French economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 26,000 euros or 86% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 102% of the EU average.

Culture.

Historical identity.

The new administrative region includes provinces and territories of diverse cultural and historical origin: Languedoc (High and Low Languedoc), Països Catalans (Roussillon, Cerdanya, Vallespir, Conflent, Capcir), the County of Foix, and the eastern parts of what was formerly Gascony (Armagnac, Comminges, Couserans, Bigorre, Condomois, Nébouzan, Rivière-Verdun), and Guiana (Carcin, Roergue). During the Ancien Régime, most of these territories lay within the jurisdiction of the Parlement of Toulouse, founded in 1443.

Occitania.

Occitania ("Occitània" or "Óucitanìo" in Occitan) is a historical region of southwestern Europe in which Occitan was the main vernacular language. This territory was already united, in Roman times first as the Diocese of Vienne and then as the Seven Provinces ("Septem Provinciae") and in Aquitaine at the beginning of the Middle Ages (Aquitanica, Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse), before the Frankish conquest. Occitania is characterized by "the Occitan culture", since the Middle Ages another expression of Romance culture in France and to a lesser extent in Italy, Spain and Monaco. It is presented and recognized on institutional sites of French communities, such as those of the Lot-et-Garonne County Council and the city of Agen.

Languedoc.

Most of the territory that came to be called Languedoc (the region where "langue d'oc" is spoken; in Occitan "Lengadòc", ) became attached to the Kingdom of France in the 13th century, following the Albigensian Crusade (1208–1229). This crusade aimed to put an end to what the Church considered the Cathar heresy, and enabled the Capetian dynasty to extend its influence south of the Loire. As part of this process, the former principalities of Trencavel (the Viscounty of Albi, Carcassona, Besièrs, Agde and Nimes) were integrated into the Royal French Domain in 1224. The Counts of Toulouse followed them in 1271. The remaining feudal enclaves were absorbed progressively up to the beginning of the 16th century; the County of Gévaudan in 1258, the County of Melgueil (Mauguiò) in 1293, the Lordship of Montpellier in 1349 and the Viscounts of Narbonne in 1507.  The territory falling within the jurisdiction of the Estates of Languedoc, which convened for the first time in 1346, shrank progressively, becoming known during the Ancien Régime as the province of Languedoc.  The year 1359 marked a turning point in the history of the province. The three bailiwicks ("sénéchaussées") of Bèucaire, Carcassona and Tolosa had the status of "bonnes villes" (towns granted privileges and protection by the king of France in return for providing a contingent of men at arms). In that year, the three entered into a perpetual union, after which their contribution of royal officers was summoned jointly rather than separately for each of the three sénéchaussées.  Towards the end of the 14th century, the term "country of the three seneschalties" ("pays des trois sénéchaussées"), later to become known as Languedoc, designated the two bailiwicks of Bèucaire-Nimes and Carcassona, and the eastern part of Tolosa (Toulouse), retained under the Treaty of Brétigny. At that time, the County of Foix, which belonged to the seneschal of Carcassona until 1333 before passing to Toulouse, ceased to belong to Languedoc. In 1542, the province was divided into two "généralités": Toulouse for Haut-Languedoc, and Montpellier for Bas-Languedoc. This lasted until the French Revolution in 1789. From the 17th century onward, there was only one intendance for the whole of Languedoc, with its seat in Montpellier.

Haute-Guyenne.

The former provinces of Gascony (in Gascon "Gasconha", ), and Guyenne; in Occitan "Guiana" ) were historically part of the Great South-West of France ("Grand Sud-Ouest français"), and derived from the medieval duchys of Vasconia, Aquitaine and then Guyenne. Today, only the eastern regions of the two provinces are part of Occitania. These areas correspond essentially to the territories acquired by the kings of England, dukes of Guyenne, under the treaty of Brétigny of 1360, and which then remained under the jurisdiction of the provincial appellate court of Toulouse (Parlement of Toulouse) after the creation of the Parlement of Bordeaux in 1462. From that time, they were generally grouped under the name of Haute-Guyenne, by opposition with Basse-Guyenne, which was dependent on the Parlement of Bordeaux.  The territory of the former province of Guyenne (Guiana) that lies within the region corresponds with Quercy (the current department of Lot and the north of Tarn e Garona), and with Roergue (Avairon). These two counties are thus part of the Occitan linguistic area, in its Languedocien dialectal variant. They were possessions of the Counts of Toulouse from the 9th century, at various stages a minor branch or the main branch. Like the other possessions of the Counts of Toulouse, they were integrated for the first time with the French royal domain in 1271,and then yielded to the kings of England under the 1360 Treaty of Brétigny. The province of Quercy was definitely reunited with the Crown in 1472; Roergue, possession of the counts of Armagnac, did not follow until 1607. Both came within the province of Guyenne, under military rule from 1561. Together, they became the "généralité" of Montauban from 1635, which then became the province of Haute-Guyenne in 1779. Today, the name Guyenne no longer has administrative or political currency, although the Haut-Agenais used the term "Pais de Guiana" in a campaign which evoked its historical identity to promote the Lot-et-Garonne and part of the valley of Dròt. This reference is now superseded in the promotion of tourism by the designation "Pais del Dròt". The appellations Quercy and Roergue, in contrast, retain a strong identity.  Gascony is the former province located on the territory of the current departments of Gers (Armanhac and Condomois), Hautes-Pyrénées (Bigorre), Lanas in the neighboring region, and parts of other departments of the two regions of Aquitània and Midi-Pyrénées (Comenge, Nebosan and Rivière-Verdun mainly in the south and west of Haute-Garonne, and Couserans in the western part of Ariège). Successively called Aquitania, Novempopulania, Vasconia (territory of the Vascones) and Gascony in the 13th century, the territory was geographically diverse, situated between the Atlantic Ocean, Garona and the Pyrenees. Claiming a cultural identity based on evolving occupation, from the Aquitani peoples of Proto-Basque language to a Gascon population sharing a latinized Occitan dialect, it constitutes the current Gascon linguistic area. Between the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, it was progressively integrated into the Royal French domain. Comenge yielded to the kings of France in 1443, extinguishing the local dynasty. Armagnac, Bigorre and Nebosan followed, with the county of Foix, in 1607.

County of Foix (Fois).

The County of Foix is an old French county created out of the County of Carcassonne in around 1050 for Bernard Roger, son of Roger I of Carcassonna. In 1398, the county passed to House of Grailly and, in 1458, King Charles VII of France raised it to the Peerage of France in favor of Gaston IV, Count of Foix.  The county-peerage passed to the House of Albret in 1484, and then to House of Bourbon-Vendôme in 1548. In 1607, King Henry IV of France attached the county to the Royal French domain.  From the time of the French Revolution, the county was fully incorporated into the department of Ariège. The Occitan dialect traditionally spoken there is Languedocien.

Roussillon.

The Ancien Régime province of Roussillon, which had formerly been integrated with the Catalan counties, the Kingdom of Majorca, and the crown of Aragon, was attached to the crown of France under the Treaty of the Pyrenees, signed on November 7, 1659. Prior to this treaty, the border between the kingdoms of France and Aragon lay further north, along a line of citadels (see Treaty of Corbeil).  These territories corresponded to the Catalan counties of Roussillon and Conflent, founded in the 9th century, as well as to the northern part of the County of Cerdanya, to which was added the former Vicounty of Castelnou, or Vallespir (the "pagus" of County of Besalú, united with the County of Roussillon in 1209). The new Province of Roussillon also known simply as Roussillon, brought together the medieval administrative courts, or vigueries, of Roussillon, Conflent, and the north of the County of Cerdanya which were part of the government structure of the Crown of Aragon's counties of Roussillon and Cerdanya ("governació dels comtats of Rosselló i Cerdanya" in Catalan) at the time of their attachment to France. Roussillon was subject to direct taxation as a "pays d'imposition" (taxing country) and did not have representation through the Estates (a provincial assembly, the provincial assembly of Roussillon, was created on August 15, 1787). It formed both a government and an intendance and, as a border province, reported to the Secretary of State for War. It had sovereign jurisdiction: the Sovereign Council of Roussillon, independent of the Parlement of Toulouse.  Currently, the name Roussillon is still the most widely used to designate this territory, being found in the denomination of the former region of Languedoc-Roussillon.  Today, the territory is often subdivided into five unofficial traditional and natural comarques: Roussillon proper, Vallespir, Conflent, Upper Cerdanya and Capcir. A recent addition is Fenouillèdes, the Occitan part of the department of Pyrénées-Orientales.

Occitanie (; ; ), Occitany or Occitania is the southernmost administrative region of metropolitan France excluding Corsica, created on 1 January 2016 from the former regions of Languedoc-Roussillon and Midi-Pyrénées. The Conseil d'État approved Occitanie as the new name of the region on 28 September 2016, coming into effect on 30 September 2016.

Okcitánie je jeden z 13 metropolitních regionů Francie. Vznikl 1. ledna 2016 sloučením dvou bývalých regionů Languedoc-Roussillon a Midi-Pyrénées. Správním střediskem regionu je město Toulouse.


General principles.

The reaction catalysed by an enzyme uses exactly the same reactants and produces exactly the same products as the uncatalysed reaction. Like other catalysts, enzymes do not alter the position of equilibrium between substrates and products. However, unlike uncatalysed chemical reactions, enzyme-catalysed reactions display saturation kinetics. For a given enzyme concentration and for relatively low substrate concentrations, the reaction rate increases linearly with substrate concentration; the enzyme molecules are largely free to catalyse the reaction, and increasing substrate concentration means an increasing rate at which the enzyme

Enzyme assays.

Enzyme assays are laboratory procedures that measure the rate of enzyme reactions. Since enzymes are not consumed by the reactions they catalyse, enzyme assays usually follow changes in the concentration of either substrates or products to measure the rate of reaction. There are many methods of measurement. Spectrophotometric assays observe change in the absorbance of light between products and reactants; radiometric assays involve the incorporation or release of radioactivity to measure the amount of product made over time. Spectrophotometric assays are most convenient since they allow the rate of the reaction to be measured continuously. Although radiometric assays require the removal and counting of samples (i.e., they are discontinuous assays) they are usually extremely sensitive and can measure very low levels of enzyme activity. An analogous approach is to use mass spectrometry to monitor the incorporation or release of stable isotopes as substrate is converted into product. Occasionally, an assay fails and approaches are essential to resurrect a failed assay.  The most sensitive enzyme assays use lasers focused through a microscope to observe changes in single enzyme molecules

Single-substrate reactions.

Enzymes with single-substrate mechanisms include isomerases such as triosephosphateisomerase or bisphosphoglycerate mutase, intramolecular lyases such as adenylate cyclase and the hammerhead ribozyme, an RNA lyase. However, some enzymes that only have a single substrate do not fall into this category of mechanisms. Catalase is an example of this, as the enzyme reacts with a first molecule of hydrogen peroxide substrate, becomes oxidised and is then reduced by a second molecule of substrate. Although a single substrate is involved, the existence of a modified enzyme intermediate means that the mechanism of catalase is actually a ping–pong mechanism, a type of mechanism that is discussed in the "Multi-substrate reactions" section below.

Michaelis–Menten kinetics.

As enzyme-catalysed reactions are saturable, their rate of catalysis does not show a linear response to increasing substrate. If the initial rate of the reaction is measured over a range of substrate concentrations (denoted as [S]), the initial reaction rate (formula_1) increases as [S] increases, as shown on the right. However, as [S] gets higher, the enzyme becomes saturated with substrate and the initial rate reaches "V", the enzyme's maximum rate.  The Michaelis–Menten kinetic model of a single-substrate reaction is shown on the right. There is an initial bimolecular reaction between the enzyme E and substrate S to form

Direct use of the Michaelis–Menten equation for time course kinetic analysis.

The observed velocities predicted by the Michaelis–Menten equation can be used to directly model the time course disappearance of substrate and the production of product through incorporation of the Michaelis–Menten equation into the equation for first order chemical kinetics. This can only be achieved however if one recognises the problem associated with the use of Euler's number in the description of first order chemical kinetics. i.e. "e" is a split constant that introduces

Linear plots of the Michaelis–Menten equation.

The plot of "v" versus [S] above is not linear; although initially linear at low [S], it bends over to saturate at high [S]. Before the modern era of nonlinear curve-fitting on computers, this nonlinearity could make it difficult to estimate "K" and "V" accurately. Therefore, several researchers developed linearisations of the Michaelis–Menten equation, such as the Lineweaver–Burk plot, the Eadie–Hofstee diagram and the Hanes–Woolf plot. All of these linear representations can be useful for visualising data, but none should be used to determine kinetic parameters, as computer software is readily available that allows for more accurate determination by nonlinear regression methods.  The Lineweaver–Burk plot or double reciprocal plot is a common way of illustrating kinetic data. This is produced by

Practical significance of kinetic constants.

The study of enzyme kinetics is important for two basic reasons. Firstly, it helps explain how enzymes work, and secondly, it helps predict how enzymes behave in living organisms. The kinetic constants defined above, "K" and "V", are critical to attempts to understand how enzymes work together to control metabolism.  Making these predictions is not trivial, even for simple systems. For example, oxaloacetate is formed by malate dehydrogenase within the mitochondrion. Oxaloacetate can then be

Michaelis–Menten kinetics with intermediate.

One could also consider the less simple case </chem> where a complex with the enzyme and an intermediate exists and the intermediate is converted into product in a second step. In this case

Multi-substrate reactions.

Multi-substrate reactions follow complex rate equations that describe how the substrates bind and in what sequence. The analysis of these reactions is much simpler if the concentration of substrate A is kept constant and substrate B varied. Under these conditions, the enzyme behaves just like a single-substrate enzyme and a plot of "v" by [S] gives apparent "K" and "V" constants for substrate B. If a set of these measurements is performed at different fixed concentrations of A, these data can be used to work out what the mechanism of the reaction is. For an enzyme that takes two substrates A and B and turns them into two products P and Q, there are two types of mechanism: ternary complex and ping–pong.

Ternary-complex mechanisms.

In these enzymes, both substrates bind to the enzyme at the same time to produce an EAB ternary complex. The order of binding can either be random (in a random mechanism) or substrates have to bind in a particular sequence (in an ordered

Ping–pong mechanisms.

As shown on the right, enzymes with a ping-pong mechanism can exist in two states, E and a chemically modified form of the enzyme E*; this modified enzyme is known as an intermediate. In such mechanisms, substrate A binds, changes the enzyme to E* by, for example, transferring a chemical group to the active site, and is then released. Only after the first substrate is released can substrate B bind and react with the modified enzyme, regenerating the unmodified E form. When a set of

Reversible catalysis and the Haldane equation.

We consider the case of an enzyme that can catalyse the reaction in both directions (not all enzymes can):  <chem> </chem>  The steady-state, initial rate of the reaction is formula_28  formula_1 is positive if the reaction proceed in the forward direction (formula_30) and negative otherwise.  The values of the forward and backward "maximal" rates, obtained

Non-Michaelis–Menten kinetics.

Some enzymes produce a sigmoid "v" by [S] plot, which often indicates cooperative binding of substrate to the active site. This means that the binding of one substrate molecule affects the binding of subsequent substrate molecules. This behavior is most common in multimeric enzymes with several interacting active sites. Here, the mechanism of cooperation is similar to that of hemoglobin, with binding of substrate to one active site altering the affinity of the other active sites for substrate molecules. Positive cooperativity occurs when binding of the first substrate molecule "increases" the affinity of the other active sites for substrate. Negative cooperativity occurs

Pre-steady-state kinetics.

In the first moment after an enzyme is mixed with substrate, no product has been formed and no intermediates exist. The study of the next few milliseconds of the reaction is called pre-steady-state kinetics. Pre-steady-state kinetics is therefore concerned with the formation and consumption of enzyme–substrate intermediates (such as ES or E*) until their steady-state concentrations are reached.  This approach was first applied to the hydrolysis reaction catalysed by chymotrypsin. Often, the detection of an intermediate is a vital piece of evidence in investigations of what mechanism an enzyme

Chemical mechanism.

An important goal of measuring enzyme kinetics is to determine the chemical mechanism of an enzyme reaction, i.e., the sequence of chemical steps that transform substrate into product. The kinetic approaches discussed above will show at what rates intermediates are formed and inter-converted, but they cannot identify exactly what these intermediates are.  Kinetic measurements taken under various solution conditions or on slightly modified enzymes or substrates often shed light on this chemical mechanism, as they reveal the rate-determining step or intermediates in the reaction. For example, the breaking of a covalent bond to a hydrogen atom is a common rate-determining step. Which of the possible hydrogen transfers is rate determining can be shown by measuring the kinetic effects of substituting each hydrogen by deuterium,

Enzyme inhibition and activation.

Enzyme inhibitors are molecules that reduce or abolish enzyme activity, while enzyme activators are molecules that increase the catalytic rate of enzymes. These interactions can be either "reversible" (i.e., removal of the inhibitor restores enzyme activity) or "irreversible" (i.e., the inhibitor permanently inactivates the enzyme).

Reversible inhibitors.

Traditionally reversible enzyme inhibitors have been classified as competitive, uncompetitive, or non-competitive, according to their effects on "K" and "V". These different effects result from the inhibitor binding to the enzyme E, to the enzyme–substrate complex ES, or to both, respectively. The division of these classes arises from a problem in their derivation and results in the need to use two different binding constants for one binding event. The binding of an inhibitor and its effect on the enzymatic activity are two distinctly different things, another problem the traditional equations fail to acknowledge. In noncompetitive

Irreversible inhibitors.

Enzyme inhibitors can also irreversibly inactivate enzymes, usually by covalently modifying active site residues. These reactions, which may be called suicide substrates, follow exponential decay functions and are usually saturable. Below saturation, they follow first order kinetics with respect to inhibitor. Irreversible inhibition could

Philosophical discourse on reversibility and irreversibility of inhibition.

Having discussed reversible inhibition and irreversible inhibition in the above two headings, it would have to be pointed out that the concept of reversibility (or irreversibility) is a purely theoretical construct exclusively dependent on the time-frame of the assay, i.e., a reversible assay involving

Mechanisms of catalysis.

The favoured model for the enzyme–substrate interaction is the induced fit model. This model proposes that the initial interaction between enzyme and substrate is relatively weak, but that these weak interactions rapidly induce conformational changes in the enzyme that strengthen binding. These conformational changes also bring catalytic residues in the active site close to the chemical bonds in the substrate that will be altered in the reaction. Conformational changes can be measured using circular dichroism or dual polarisation interferometry. After binding takes place, one

History.

In 1902 Victor Henri proposed a quantitative theory of enzyme kinetics, but at the time the experimental significance of the hydrogen ion concentration was not yet recognized. After Peter Lauritz Sørensen had defined the logarithmic pH-scale and introduced the concept of buffering in 1909 the German chemist Leonor Michaelis and Dr. Maud Leonora Menten (a postdoctoral researcher in Michaelis's lab at the time) repeated Henri's experiments and confirmed his equation, which is now generally referred to as Michaelis-Menten kinetics (sometimes also "Henri-Michaelis-Menten kinetics"). Their work was further developed by G. E. Briggs

Software.

ENZO.

ENZO (Enzyme Kinetics) is a graphical interface tool for building kinetic models of enzyme catalyzed reactions. ENZO automatically generates the corresponding differential equations from a stipulated enzyme reaction scheme.

Further reading.

Introductory  Advanced

Enzyme kinetics is the study of the chemical reactions that are catalysed by enzymes. In enzyme kinetics, the reaction rate is measured and the effects of varying the conditions of the reaction are investigated. Studying an enzyme's kinetics in this way can reveal the catalytic mechanism of this enzyme, its role in metabolism, how its activity is controlled, and how a drug or an agonist might inhibit the enzyme.

Enzymatická kinetika nebo enzymová kinetika zkoumá rychlost chemických reakcí aktivity enzymů. Pro enzymatickou kinetiku platí obecné zákony chemické kinetiky a chemické veličiny, jako je reakční rychlost (v), rovnovážná konstanta (K) či třeba Gibbsova energie (G). Obvykle se vychází ze zjednodušující představy, že enzymem katalyzovaná reakce probíhá ve dvou krocích („E“ je enzym, „S“ je substrát, „P“ je produkt): načež platí:


Location.

Neuropil has been found in the following regions: outer neocortex layer, barrel cortex, inner plexiform layer and outer plexiform layer, posterior pituitary, and glomeruli of the cerebellum. These are all found in humans, with the exception of the barrel cortex, but many species have counterparts similar to our own regions of neuropil. However, the degree of similarity depends upon the composition of neuropil being compared. The concentrations of neuropil within certain regions are important to determine because simply using the proportions of the different postsynaptic elements does not verify the necessary, conclusive evidence. Comparing the concentrations can determine whether or not proportions of different postsynaptic elements contacted a particular axonal pathway. Relative concentrations could signify a reflection of different postsynaptic elements in the neuropil or show that axons sought out and formed synapses only with specific postsynaptic elements.

Function.

Since neuropils have a diverse role in the nervous system, it is difficult to define a certain overarching function for all neuropils. For instance, the olfactory glomeruli function as sorts of way-stations for the information flowing from the olfactory receptor neurons to the olfactory cortex. The inner plexiform layer of the retina is a little more complex. The bipolar cells post-synaptic to either rods or cones are either depolarized or hyperpolarized depending on whether the bipolar cells have sign-inverting synapses or a sign-conserving synapses.

Efficiency in the brain.

Neurons are necessary for all connections made in the brain, and thus can be thought of as the "wires" of the brain. As in computing, an entity is most efficient when its wires are optimized; therefore, a brain which has undergone millions of years of natural selection would be expected to have optimized neural circuitry. To have an optimized neural system it must balance four variables—it must "minimize conduction delays in axons, passive cable attenuation in dendrites, and the length of 'wire' used to construct circuits" as well as "maximize the density of synapses", essentially optimizing the neuropil. Researchers at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory formulated the optimal balance of the four variables and calculated the optimal ratio of axon plus dendrite volume (i.e. the "wire" volume or neuropil volume) to total volume of grey matter. The formula predicted an optimal brain with 3/5 (60%) of its volume occupied by neuropil. Experimental evidence taken from three mouse brains agrees with this result. The "fraction of wire is 0.59 ± 0.036 for layer IV of visual cortex, 0.62 ± 0.055 for layer Ib of piriform cortex, and 0.54 ± 0.035 for the stratum radiatum of hippocampal field CA1. The overall average is 0.585 ± 0.043; these values are not statistically different from the optimal 3/5."

Clinical significance.

Schizophrenia.

It has been shown that a certain protein is lost in people with schizophrenia that causes dendrites and spines to deteriorate in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a part of the neocortex, which plays a key role in information processing, attention, memory, orderly thinking and planning which are all functions that deteriorate in people with schizophrenia. The deterioration of the neuropil in this cortex has been proposed as the cause of schizophrenia.

Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's is a neuropathological disease that is hypothesized to result from the loss of dendritic spines and/or deformation of these spines in the patient's frontal and temporal cortices. Researchers have tied the disease to a decrease in the expression of drebrin, a protein thought to play a role in long-term potentiation, meaning the neurons would lose plasticity and have trouble forming new connections. This malfunction presents itself in the form of helical filaments that tangle together in the neuropil. This same phenomenon seems to occur in the elderly as well.

Other animals.

Other mammals.

A significant non-human area of neuropil is the barrel cortex found in mammals with whiskers (e.g. cats, dogs and rodents); each "barrel" in the cortex is a region of neuropil where the input from a single whisker terminates.

Significance of neuropil difference in chimpanzees and humans.

Neuropil have been hypothesized to be a key factor in differentiating human cognitive capacity from that of other animals. In one study comparing chimpanzee and human frontopolar cortex and the frontoinsular cortex neuropil, it was found that humans exhibit a significantly higher neuropil fraction than the other areas of their brain. This suggests that as we evolved our prefrontal cortex developed denser neuropil which translates to more neural connections. In chimpanzees these prefrontal regions did not display significantly more neuropil.

Arthropods.

The optic lobe of arthropods and the ganglia of the arthropod brain as well as the ganglia in the ventral nerve cord are unmyelinated and therefore belong to the class of neuropils.

Research.

Research has focused on where neuropil is found in many different species in order to unveil the range of significance it has and possible functions.

Recent studies.

In chimpanzees and humans the neuropil provides a proxy measure of total connectivity within a local region because it is composed mostly of dendrites, axons, and synapses.  In insects the central complex plays an important role in higher-order brain function. The neuropil in "Drosophila" Ellipsoid is composed of four substructures. Each section has been observed in several insects as well as the influence it has on behavior, however the exact function of this neuropil has proven elusive. Abnormal walking behavior and flight behavior are controlled primarily by the central complex and genetic mutations that disrupt the structure support the hypothesis that the central complex neuropil is a site of behavioral control. However, only specific components of the behavior were affected with the genetic mutations. For example, basic leg coordination of walking was normal, whereas speed, activity, and turning were affected. These observations suggest that the central complex not only plays a role in locomotor behavior, but fine tuning as well. There is also additional evidence that the neuropil may function in olfactory associative learning and memory.  In humans, schizophrenia may be caused by deterioration of neuropil, with much evidence specifically pointing to dysfunction in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Research has shown reduced neuropil in area 9 of schizophrenics, as well as consistent findings of reduced spine density in layer III pyramidal neurons of the temporal and frontal cortices. Since neuropil is the location of most cortical synapses it is likely that the deterioration greatly affects processing and produces the symptoms schizophrenics exhibit.

Neuropil (or "neuropile") is any area in the nervous system composed of mostly unmyelinated axons, dendrites and glial cell processes that forms a synaptically dense region containing a relatively low number of cell bodies. The most prevalent anatomical region of neuropil is the brain which, although not completely composed of neuropil, does have the largest and highest synaptically-concentrated areas of neuropil in the body. For example, the neocortex and olfactory bulb both contain neuropil.

Neuropil tvoří objemově největší část šedé hmoty mozkové (nemyelizované axony, dendrity, synapse a výběžky gliových buněk. Při světelné mikroskopii se jeví jako amorfní substance. Pojem pochází ze spojení neura, neuron = „řetěz“ a pilêma = „pociťovaný“.