Etymology.

The name "rose" comes from French, itself from Latin "rosa", which was perhaps borrowed from Oscan, from Greek ρόδον "rhódon" (Aeolic βρόδον "wródon"), itself borrowed from Old Persian "wrd-" ("wurdi"), related to Avestan "varəδa", Sogdian "ward", Parthian "wâr".

Botany.

The leaves are borne alternately on the stem. In most species they are long, pinnate, with (3–) 5–9 (–13) leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. Most roses are deciduous but a few (particularly from Southeast Asia) are evergreen or nearly so.  The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of "Rosa sericea", which usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of some "Rosa sericea", four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. There are multiple superior ovaries that develop into achenes. Roses are insect-pollinated in nature.  The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Many of the domestic cultivars do not produce hips, as the flowers are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination. The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. "Rosa pimpinellifolia") have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called achenes) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially the dog rose ("Rosa canina") and rugosa rose ("Rosa rugosa"), are very rich in vitamin C, among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds.  The sharp growths along a rose stem, though commonly called "thorns", are technically prickles, outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem), unlike true thorns, which are modified stems. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as "Rosa rugosa" and "Rosa pimpinellifolia" have densely packed straight prickles, probably an adaptation to reduce browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blown sand and so reduce erosion and protect their roots (both of these species grow naturally on coastal sand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer. A few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points.

Species.

The genus "Rosa" is subdivided into four subgenera:

Uses.

Roses are best known as ornamental plants grown for their flowers in the garden and sometimes indoors. They have been also used for commercial perfumery and commercial cut flower crops. Some are used as landscape plants, for hedging and for other utilitarian purposes such as game cover and slope stabilization.

Ornamental plants.

The majority of ornamental roses are hybrids that were bred for their flowers. A few, mostly species roses are grown for attractive or scented foliage (such as "Rosa glauca" and "Rosa rubiginosa"), ornamental thorns (such as "Rosa sericea") or for their showy fruit (such as "Rosa moyesii").  Ornamental roses have been cultivated for millennia, with the earliest known cultivation known to date from at least 500 BC in Mediterranean countries, Persia, and China. It is estimated that 30 to 35 thousand rose hybrids and cultivars have been bred and selected for garden use as flowering plants. Most are double-flowered with many or all of the stamens having morphed into additional petals.  In the early 19th century the Empress Josephine of France patronized the development of rose breeding at her gardens at Malmaison. As long ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by Loddiges nursery for Abney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England.

Cut flowers.

Roses are a popular crop for both domestic and commercial cut flowers. Generally they are harvested and cut when in bud, and held in refrigerated conditions until ready for display at their point of sale.  In temperate climates, cut roses are often grown in greenhouses, and in warmer countries they may also be grown under cover in order to ensure that the flowers are not damaged by weather and that pest and disease control can be carried out effectively. Significant quantities are grown in some tropical countries, and these are shipped by air to markets across the world.  Some kind of roses are artificially coloured using dyed water, like rainbow roses.

Perfume.

Rose perfumes are made from rose oil (also called attar of roses), which is a mixture of volatile essential oils obtained by steam distilling the crushed petals of roses. An associated product is rose water which is used for cooking, cosmetics, medicine and religious practices. The production technique originated in Persia and then spread through Arabia and India, and more recently into eastern Europe. In Bulgaria, Iran and Germany, damask roses ("Rosa" × "damascena" 'Trigintipetala') are used. In other parts of the world "Rosa" × "centifolia" is commonly used. The oil is transparent pale yellow or yellow-grey in colour. 'Rose Absolute' is solvent-extracted with hexane and produces a darker oil, dark yellow to orange in colour. The weight of oil extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example, about two thousand flowers are required to produce one gram of oil.  The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant alcohols geraniol and L-citronellol and rose camphor, an odorless solid composed of alkanes, which separates from rose oil. β-Damascenone is also a significant contributor to the scent.

Food and drink.

Rose hips are occasionally made into jam, jelly, marmalade, and soup or are brewed for tea, primarily for their high vitamin C content. They are also pressed and filtered to make rose hip syrup. Rose hips are also used to produce rose hip seed oil, which is used in skin products and some makeup products.  Rose water has a very distinctive flavour and is used heavily in Middle Eastern, Persian, and South Asian cuisine—especially in sweets such as barfi, baklava, halva, gulab jamun, gumdrops, kanafeh, nougat, and Turkish delight.  Rose petals or flower buds are sometimes used to flavour ordinary tea, or combined with other herbs to make herbal teas.  In France, there is much use of rose syrup, most commonly made from an extract of rose petals. In the Indian subcontinent, Rooh Afza, a concentrated squash made with roses, is popular, as are rose-flavoured frozen desserts such as ice cream and kulfi.  Rose flowers are used as food, also usually as flavouring or to add their scent to food. Other minor uses include candied rose petals.  Rose creams (rose-flavoured fondant covered in chocolate, often topped with a crystallised rose petal) are a traditional English confectionery widely available from numerous producers in the UK.  Under the American Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, there are only certain "Rosa" species, varieties, and parts are listed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS).

Medicine.

The rose hip, usually from "R. canina", is used as a minor source of vitamin C. The fruits of many species have significant levels of vitamins and have been used as a food supplement. Many roses have been used in herbal and folk medicines. "Rosa chinensis" has long been used in Chinese traditional medicine. This and other species have been used for stomach problems, and are being investigated for controlling cancer growth. In pre-modern medicine, diarrhodon (Gr διάρροδον, "compound of roses", from ῥόδων, "of roses") is a name given to various compounds in which red roses are an ingredient.

Art and symbolism.

The long cultural history of the rose has led to it being used often as a symbol. In ancient Greece, the rose was closely associated with the goddess Aphrodite. In the "Iliad", Aphrodite protects the body of Hector using the "immortal oil of the rose" and the archaic Greek lyric poet Ibycus praises a beautiful youth saying that Aphrodite nursed him "among rose blossoms". The second-century AD Greek travel writer Pausanias associates the rose with the story of Adonis and states that the rose is red because Aphrodite wounded herself on one of its thorns and stained the flower red with her blood. Book Eleven of the ancient Roman novel "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius contains a scene in which the goddess Isis, who is identified with Venus, instructs the main character, Lucius, who has been transformed into a donkey, to eat rose petals from a crown of roses worn by a priest as part of a religious procession in order to regain his humanity.  Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire, the rose became identified with the Virgin Mary. The color of the rose and the number of roses received has symbolic representation. The rose symbol eventually led to the creation of the rosary and other devotional prayers in Christianity.  Roses symbolised the Houses of York and Lancaster in a conflict known as the Wars of the Roses.  Roses are a favored subject in art and appear in portraits, illustrations, on stamps, as ornaments or as architectural elements. The Luxembourg-born Belgian artist and botanist Pierre-Joseph Redouté is known for his detailed watercolours of flowers, particularly roses.  Henri Fantin-Latour was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly flowers including roses. The rose 'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist.  Other impressionists including Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne and Pierre-Auguste Renoir have paintings of roses among their works.  In 1986 President Ronald Reagan signed legislation to make the rose the floral emblem of the United States.

Pests and diseases.

Wild roses are host plants for a number of pests and diseases. Many of these affect other plants, including other genera of the Rosaceae.  Cultivated roses are often subject to severe damage from insect, arachnid and fungal pests and diseases. In many cases they cannot be usefully grown without regular treatment to control these problems.

A rose is a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus Rosa, in the family Rosaceae, or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred species and tens of thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs, climbing, or trailing, with stems that are often armed with sharp prickles. Flowers vary in size and shape and are usually large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, and northwestern Africa. Species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Roses have acquired cultural significance in many societies. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach seven meters in height. Different species hybridize easily, and this has been used in the development of the wide range of garden roses.

Růže ("Rosa") je rod keřovitých rostlin z čeledi růžovitých s více než 100 druhy, které se v přírodě vyskytují na severní polokouli, nejvíce v oblasti mírného pásu Eurasie, méně též v Severní Americe. Jsou to většinou světlomilné opadavé keře obloukovitého, prutnatého nebo plazivého habitu, některé rostou i jako opíravé liány. V přírodě obvykle rostou na světlých sušších místech v křovinách, okrajích lesů, na mezích a ladech, menší množství jich vyhledává vlhko. Krom jediného druhu mají lichozpeřené listy s převážně vytrvalými palisty, které vyrůstají na ostnitých větvích. Květy jsou oboupohlavné, zpravidla pětičetné, u původních botanických druhů vonné, v barevné škále od bílé a světle růžové po purpurovou, jen málo druhů je žlutých. Plodem je souplodí nažek uzavřené v šípku, který je zpravidla červený, zřídka též oranžový či černý. Podle odlišného přístupu jednotlivých botaniků je popsáno 100 až 300 samostatných druhů, v české flóře se uvádí 14 původních druhů. Vzhledem ke značné morfologické mnohotvárnosti a častým obtížím při určování bývá rod růže řazen mezi tzv. kritické taxony. Rod "Rosa" a dvanáct jeho tehdy známých druhů platně popsal Carl Linné ve svém spisu "Species plantarum" z roku 1753; nejstarší fosilní doklady o existenci růží jsou z období raných třetihor.


Development history and overview.

Development of the 959 (originally called the "Gruppe B") started in 1981, shortly after the company's then-new Managing Director, Peter Schutz, took his office. Porsche's chief engineer at the time, Helmuth Bott, approached Schutz with some ideas about the Porsche 911, or more aptly, a new one. Bott knew that the company needed a sports car that they could continue to rely on for years to come and that could be developed as time went on. Curious as to how much they could do with the rear-engined 911, Bott convinced Schutz that development tests should take place, and even proposed researching a new all wheel drive system. Schutz agreed, and gave the project the green light. Bott also knew through experience that a racing program usually helped to accelerate the development of new models. Seeing Group B rally racing as the perfect arena to test the new development mule and its all wheel drive system, Bott again went to Schutz and got the approval to develop a car, based on his development mule, for competition in Group B.  The powerplant is a sequential twin-turbocharged DOHC flat-six engine equipped with 4 valves per cylinder, fuel fed by Bosch Motronic 2.1 fuel injection with air-cooled cylinders and water-cooled heads, with a bore x stroke of for a total displacement of. It was coupled to a unique manual transmission offering five forward speeds plus a "gelände" (terrain) off-road gear, as well as reverse. The engine was largely based on the 4-camshaft 24-valve powerplant used in the Porsche 956 and 962 race cars. These components allowed Porsche to extract at 6,500 rpm and of torque at 5,000 rpm from the compact and efficient power unit.<ref name="1987/88 Porsche 959"></ref> The use of sequential twin turbochargers rather than the more usual identical turbochargers for each of the two cylinder banks allowed for smooth delivery of power across the engine speed band, in contrast to the abrupt on-off power characteristic that distinguished Porsche's other turbocharged engines of the period. The engine was used virtually unchanged in the 959 road car as well.  To create a rugged, lightweight shell, Porsche adopted an aluminium and Aramid (Kevlar) composite for the body panels and chassis construction along with a Nomex floor, instead of the steel floor normally used on their production cars.  Porsche also developed the car's aerodynamics, which were designed to increase stability, as was the automatic ride-height adjustment that became available on the road car (961 race cars had a fixed suspension system). Its drag coefficient was as low as 0.31 and aerodynamic lift was eliminated completely. The 959 also featured "Porsche-Steuer Kupplung" (PSK) all-wheel-drive system. Capable of dynamically changing the torque distribution between the rear and front wheels in both normal and slip conditions, the PSK system gave the 959 the adaptability it needed both as a race car and as a "super" street car. Under hard acceleration, PSK could send as much as 80% of the available power to the rear wheels, helping make the most of the rear-traction bias that occurs at such times. It could also vary the power bias depending on road surface and grip changes, helping maintain traction at all times. The dashboard featured gauges displaying the amount of rear differential slip as well as transmitted power to the front axle. The magnesium alloy wheels were unique, being hollow inside to form a sealed chamber contiguous with the tyre and equipped with a built-in tyre pressure monitoring system.  The 959 was actually produced at Karosserie Baur, not at the Porsche factory in Zuffenhausen, on an assembly line with Porsche inspectors overseeing the finished bodies. Most of Porsche's special order interior leather work was also done by the workers at Baur.  The 1983 Frankfurt Motor Show was chosen for the unveiling of the Porsche Group B prototype. Even in the closing hours of October 9, finishing touches were being applied to the car to go on display the next morning. After the first two prototypes, the bodywork was modified to include air vents in the front and rear wheel housings, as well as intake holes behind the doors. The first prototype receiving those modifications was code named "F3", and was destroyed in the first crash test.  The road version of the 959 debuted at the 1985 Frankfurt Motor Show as a 1986 model, but numerous issues delayed production by more than a year. The car was manufactured in two levels of trim, "Sport" and "Komfort", corresponding to the trim with more creature comforts and a more track focused trim. First customer deliveries of the 959 street variant began in 1987, and the car debuted at a cost of DM431,550 (US$225,000) each, still less than half what it cost Porsche to build each car. Production ended in 1988 with 292 cars completed. In total, 337 cars were built, including 37 prototypes and pre-production models. At least one 959 and one 961 remain in the Porsche historic hall in Stuttgart, Germany.  In 1992/1993, Porsche built eight more cars assembled from spare parts from the inventory at the manufacturing site in Zuffenhausen. All eight were "Komfort" versions: four in red and four in silver. These cars were much more expensive (DM 747,500) than the earlier ones. The later cars also featured a newly developed speed-sensitive damper system. The cars were sold to selected collectors after being driven by works personnel for some time and are today by far the most sought-after 959 models.

Performance.

Test results for the 959 "Sport" (450 PS):  Test results for the 959 "Komfort" version (450 PS):  If desired, even more power was available to customer cars by Porsche. According to Paul Frère there was an optional factory upgrade, with an increased top speed of along with the 0–100 km/h (62 mph) acceleration time reduced to 3.4 seconds.

Porsche 959S.

The Porsche 959 S was a 959 "Sport" with larger turbochargers that increased power output to thus resulting in a top speed of as tested by "Auto, Motor und Sport" at the Nardò Ring in 1988. Twenty-nine cars were built.

Racing.

Group B / Paris–Dakar Rally.

The 959 was originally meant for Group B racing but development time took longer than expected. The first development race cars, essentially modified 911 Carrera models with all-wheel-drive system known internally as the 953, were entered in the 1984 Paris-Dakar Rally, finishing 1st (René Metge), 6th (Jacky Ickx) and 25th. These cars tested the all-wheel-drive system to be used in the 959. Unlike the World Rally Championship the Dakar didn't require a minimum number of cars built for homologation. In 1985, three cars were entered in the Dakar rally with the proposed 959 body and the rest of the systems but they still used the engine of the 953 rally cars. These cars didn't finish (only one due to mechanical failure however). Afterwards Porsche fitted the cars with twin-turbochargers. Two cars started at the Rallye des Pharaons in October 1985. One of them caught fire, while Saeed Al-Hajri and John Spiller achieved a commanding victory with their 959. At the 1986 Paris-Dakar Rally the 959 finished 1st (René Metge), 2nd (Jacky Ickx) and 6th.  By the time the 959 was ready for production and homologation in 1987, the Group B programme was cancelled altogether a year prior thus ending Porsche's participation in Group B.

LeMans and IMSA.

The 959 was modified for LeMans class racing (now called the 961) and participated in the 1986 and 1987 seasons. It also participated once in IMSA class racing.  In 1986, the racing variant of the 959, the Porsche 961, made its debut at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Driven by René Metge partnering Claude Ballot-Léna, it finished first in its class and 7th overall. It returned in 1987 but while in 11th place Canadian/Dutch driver Kees Nierop mis-shifted from 6th into 2nd gear and crashed into the guard-rail. Upon re-joining the track, the car was observed on TV monitors in the Porsche pits to be on fire and the driver was told to stop and get out of the car. Sadly Nierop pulled over between marshal stations and this extra time taken to get to the car by the marshals allowed the fire to consume most of the rear end and destroy the car. It was later repaired and put on display at the Porsche Museum.

Canepa Design modifications.

In 2003, Canepa Design initiated a 959 upgrade program. By making modifications to the 959's turbochargers, exhaust system and computer-control systems, Canepa enabled the 959 to pass emissions requirements (thereby making it street-legal in the United States). The new configuration allowed parallel turbo charging and simplified diagnostics. Canepa also modified the 959's lightweight magnesium wheels in order to fit it with tyres without the unique Dunlop Denloc bead. Modern Michelin high-performance tyres capable of handling the increased performance could then be mounted. The original RE71 tires were available in the U.S. and have always been more than capable of handling the power output of the 959.  In April 2018, Canepa announced the Generation III package for the 959. The package includes the replacement of the standard sequential twin-turbo system with a pair of Borg Warner parallel twin-turbochargers, new wiring harness and a new engine control unit along with a new exhaust system and a new clutch to handle the extra power produced by the car. The package enables the engine to produce and of torque. The package also includes the replacement of the standard suspension system with an evolution of the 959 S' suspension system fitted with modern dampers and titanium springs for improved handling and ride-height along with new tyres. The headlamps are replaced with new Xenon headlamps, providing better illumination than the original units.  In addition to the package, Canepa also introduced a production of the 959 SC (Sport Canepa) limited to 50 cars. The 959 SC comes standard with the Generation III Canepa upgrade along with a body overhaul and a new paint-to-sample paint job according to the customer's desire that takes 500 hours to complete. The car also features a reworked leather interior which is complemented with a steering wheel having hand-stitched leather and a more modern sound system with the interior alone taking 300 hours to complete. The process starts with a standard 959 and its teardown to the chassis with every rusty part replaced and every component coated with zinc. The package costs in excess of US$2 million including the cost of the car itself.

Legality in the United States.

The 959 was not street legal in the United States prior to 1999 when the "Show or Display" law was passed, although an unknown number were imported via the "grey market" during the late 1980s as show pieces. Porsche didn't provide the United States Department of Transportation with four cars required for crash testing, so the car was never certified by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration for street use in the U.S. In 2001, with the passage of "Show and Display", the crash test requirements were removed and import of the 959 was allowed, assuming the car could meet the emissions standards applicable in 1987. The 959 could be fitted with a catalytic converter and a re-programmed computer which allowed it to meet those emissions requirements. As the 959 was a pre-1996 car, it was not required to pass any emissions testing; due to the fact that all cars are now over 25 years old and are therefore completely legal for US import, they are no longer required to comply with show and display laws.  Microsoft founder Bill Gates bought a 959 before the model had Department of Transportation and Environmental Protection Agency approval. The car was stored for 13 years by the Customs Service at the Port of San Francisco, until the Show or Display rule came into force.

The Porsche 959 is a sports car manufactured by German automobile manufacturer Porsche from 1986 to 1993, first as a Group B rally car and later as a road legal production car designed to satisfy FIA homologation regulations requiring at least 200 units be produced.

Porsche 959 byl supersportovní automobil, který v letech 1986 až 1989 vyráběla německá automobilka Porsche. Bylo jedním z prvních sportovních vozů, který používal pohon všech kol. Do roku 1987, kdy ho předčilo Ferrari F40, byl nejrychlejším sériově vyráběným automobilem. Sports Car International jmenoval typ 959 jako nejlepší sportovní automobil 80. let.


History.

Founding and growth.

In 1983, Gary Burrell recruited Min H. Kao from the defense contractor Magnavox while working for the former King Radio. They founded Garmin in 1989 in Lenexa, Kansas, as "ProNav". ProNav's first product was a GPS unit which sold for. The company was later renamed "Garmin", a portmanteau of its two founders, Gary Burrell and Min H. Kao. In 1991, the U.S. Army became their first customer.  By 1995, Garmin's sales had reached $105 million, and it had achieved a profit of $23 million. By 1999, sales had reached $233 million and a profit of $64 million. Garmin reported a 2006 total revenue of $1.77 billion, up 73% from $1.03 billion in 2005.  By 2000 Garmin had sold three million GPS devices, and was producing 50 different models. Its products were sold in 100 countries and carried by 2,500 independent distributors. As of 22 August 2000, the company held 35 patents on GPS technology. By the end of June 2000, the company employed 1,205 people: 541 in the United States, 635 in Taiwan, and 29 in the United Kingdom. In April 2018, Garmin launched Connect IQ 3.0 along with new apps—MySwim Pro, Yelp, Trailforks and iHeartRadio. In May 2018, Garmin partnered with the University of Kansas Medical Center to tackle sleep apnea and atrial fibrillation.

Public offering.

The company began public trading on NASDAQ on 8 December 2000. At that time Burrell owned 19,911,155 shares. Kao owned 20,352,803 shares. Together their holdings accounted for 45 percent of the company's stock. Kao's brother, Ruey-Jeng Kao, an attorney in Taipei, owned another 7,984,109 shares, which when combined with Burrell's and Kao's shares constituted 54.22 percent of the shares outstanding.

Acquisitions.

In August 2003, Garmin completed acquisition of UPS Aviation Technologies, Inc. based in Salem, Oregon, a subsidiary of United Parcel Service, Inc., expanding its product line of panel-mounted GPS/NAV/COMM units and integrated cockpit systems for private and commercial aircraft. The acquired company changed its name to Garmin AT, Inc. and continued operations as a wholly owned subsidiary of Garmin International, Inc.  Garmin has acquired Dynastream Innovations, EME Tec Sat SAS (EME), and Digital Cyclone. Dynastream, in Cochrane, Alberta, produces personal monitoring technology (ANT+)—such as foot pods and heart rate monitors for sports and fitness products—and also ultra-low-power and low-cost wireless connectivity devices for a wide range of applications (ANT). EME Tec Sat SAS (EME) is the distributor of Garmin's consumer products in France; following the acquisition, EME changed its name to Garmin France SAS. Digital Cyclone Inc (DCI), located in Chanhassen, Minnesota, provides mobile weather solutions for consumers, pilots, and outdoor enthusiasts. Garmin also bought Nautamatic Marine Systems, an Oregon-based company that makes autopilot systems for boats. In July 2011, Garmin finished its acquisition of the German satellite navigation company Navigon.  In 2006, Garmin introduced a new corporate logo, and opened its first retail store, located on Michigan Avenue in Chicago, Illinois.  In 2015, Garmin acquired South Africa's iKubu Ltd. for its Backtracker on-bicycle low power radar system.  In 2018, it was reported that the Garmin subsidiary Navionics had exposed hundreds of thousands of customer records, when its MongoDB database wasn't secured with a password.

Corporate governance.

Burrell retired in 2003 as Garmin's chief executive officer and in 2004 retired as chairman of its board of directors. He remained chairman emeritus until his death in 2019. Kao became CEO in 2003, and chairman in 2004.  In 2005, "Forbes" estimated Kao's net worth at $1.5 billion. He has donated $17.5 million to the University of Tennessee. The same year "Forbes" estimated Burrell's net worth as $940 million. Cliff Pemble is the current CEO of Garmin.

Operations.

Garmin operates in several other countries besides the UK, USA, and Taiwan. It operates as Formar (Belgium), Garmin AMB (Canada), Belanor (Norway), Trepat (Spain), and Garmin-Cluj (Romania).

Products and brands.

Marine GPS.

The company's first product was the GPS 100, a panel-mounted GPS receiver aimed at the marine market, priced at $2,500. It made its debut at the 1990 International Marine Technology Exposition in Chicago.

Handheld GPS.

Another early product, a handheld GPS receiver, was sold to military personnel serving in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia during the 1991 Gulf War.  In the early 2000s (decade), Garmin launched a series of personal GPS devices aimed at recreational runners called the Forerunner. The Garmin Foretrex is a similar wrist-worn GPS device with two-dimensional GPS tracking and waypoint projection called.

eTrex.

The compact eTrex was introduced in 2000; several models with different features have been released since. The original eTrex, commonly nicknamed "eTrex Yellow", offered a lightweight (5.3 oz/150 g), waterproof, palm-sized 12-channel GPS receiver, along with a battery life of up to 22 hours on two AA-size batteries. It was replaced in 2007 by the eTrex H, which added a high-sensitivity receiver. Other eTrex models include the Summit, Venture, Legend, and Vista, each with various additional features such as WAAS, altimeter, digital compass, city database, and highway maps. Many of these models come in color and expandable-memory versions.  In May 2011 Garmin refreshed the eTrex product line with new mechanical design and support for advances in cartography and hardware technology with its release of the eTrex 10, eTrex 20, and eTrex 30, Garmin became the first company to manufacture and distribute a worldwide consumer navigation product supporting both GPS and GLONASS satellite constellations. On May 13, 2015 Garmin released the eTrex 20x and 30x, which succeeded the eTrex 20 and 30. The main upgrade was a higher resolution screen and 4GB storage, double of the previous models.  On July 2, 2015 Garmin introduced its eTrex Touch line, releasing three models (25, 35 and 35t), all featuring a 2.6" touch screen. The 35t model designation is not used in Europe, but the European market 35 is essentially the 35t, and both the European 25 and 35 include Garmin TopoActive Europe maps and 8GB of internal storage. The Geko series was a compact line of handheld GPS receivers aimed at the budget or lightweight hiking market.  In 2004, Garmin introduced its "60C" line of handheld GPS mapping receivers, featuring increased sensitivity and storage capacity along with a battery life of up to 30 hours in battery-save mode. This was followed by the "60Cx" and "60CSx" with improved color map displays.  With the GTM-11, GTM 20 and GTM 25, a Garmin GPS device receives and uses traffic message channel (TMC) information. Also, some Garmin nüvi (1690, 1490T, 1450T, 1390T, 1390, 1350, 1260, 1250 and 265WT, 265T, 265W, 265, 255w and 255) comes with an integrated TMC receiver.

iQue PDA receivers.

In 2003, Garmin launched the iQue line of integrated PDA-GPS receivers. On 31 October 2005, the iQue M4 became the first PDA that did not require a PC to preload the maps. The American version came with built-in maps of North America, while the UK version was supplied pre-loaded with maps of Western Europe.

Dog tracking and training.

On June 2, 2011, Garmin introduced Astro 320.  On June 12, 2014, Garmin introduced T5 and TT15 Collars for Astro and Alpha.  On July 31, 2015, T5 mini and T15 mini collars were added.  On June 16, 2016, Garmin introduced the Astro 430.  On October 10, 2016, Garmin added pairing of the Astro 430 and Alpha 100 to Garmin Smart Watches.

Fishfinders.

Garmin also manufactures a line of sonar fishfinders, including some units that also have GPS capability, and some that use spread spectrum technology.

Laptop GPS and mobile apps.

In April 2008, Garmin launched Garmin Mobile PC, a GPS navigation software program for laptop PCs and other computers, based on the Microsoft Windows operating system, now discontinued.  Garmin offers mobile apps for various purposes for Android, Windows Phone, and for iPhone.

Nüvifone.

In early 2009, Garmin announced it would be manufacturing a location-specific cellular telephone in cooperation with Asus. Called the "Garmin-Asus nüvifone G60", the United States release on AT&T was scheduled for October 4, 2009. Four other models in this line have since been released: two Windows Mobile-powered models for the European and Asian market, and two Android models, one for the Europe/Asia market and another for T-Mobile USA.

Personal trainers.

The "Garmin Edge" and certain models of "Garmin Forerunner" are a suite of GPS-enabled devices for use while running or cycling.  Garmin offers integrated cockpits, panel mount displays, multi-function displays (MFD), transponders, radar and other avionics. Garmin entered this market in 1991 with the "GPS-100AVD" panel-mounted receiver. Its first portable unit, the "GPS-95", was introduced in 1993. In 1994, the "GPS-155" panel-mounted unit was the first GPS receiver on the market to receive full FAA certification for instrument approaches. In 1998, Garmin introduced the "GNS-430", an integrated GPS navigation receiver/communications transceiver. in 1998 rolled out its first integrated GPS, COM, VOR, LOC and glideslope product, the GNS 430. More than 125,000 GNS navigators are now installed in aircraft. Garmin reached its one millionth delivery in November 2017.  The G1000 is an all-glass avionics suite for OEM aircraft, the similar G950 is used in experimental aircraft, and the G600 is a retrofit.  On 30 October 2019, Garmin announced that the Piper M600 and Cirrus Vision Jet would become the first general aviation aircraft certified with the company's emergency autoland system, which is capable of automatically landing the aircraft with the push of a button and will be a part of both aircraft's G3000 integrated avionics suite in 2020. Garmin calls the new technology "Autonomí". Garmin plans to equip other platforms in 2020, like the TBM 940, and could expand its offer to the G1000 avionics suite.  In 2003, Garmin acquired UPS Aviation Technologies, including that firm's II Morrow Apollo line of aircraft MFD/GPS/NAV/COMM units. II Morrow had been founded in Salem, Oregon in 1982 as a manufacturer of LORAN C marine and general aviation products. In 1982 its aircraft navigator 602 LORAN C receiver permitted point to point navigation. Some examples of its LORAN units are Apollo II 616B Aviation LORAN panel mount (1986), II Morrow Apollo 604 Loran Navigator (1987) and Apollo 820 GPS Flybuddy (1991). In 1986, United Parcel Service (UPS) purchased the company to expand the use of electronic technology in the package delivery and tracking business.  II Morrow shifted focus from marine business to development of package process automation technology for UPS such as vehicle management systems, automated high speed package sorting systems, as well as delivery and tracking systems. In 1999, II Morrow was renamed to UPS Aviation Technologies, and re-focused towards modernizing UPS' Boeing 7xx series Heavy Iron Transport Category Aircraft fleet, as well they also re-entered the general aviation marketplace. It certified the first Gamma 3 WAAS GPS engine for FAA Certified Precision GPS approaches. The new certified WAAS engine yielded vertical and horizontal accuracy of one meter RMS in guidance into airports without existing ILS approaches. This GPS technology met the FAA's TSO-C146a primary navigation standards for en route, terminal and approach phases of flight—with WAAS augmentation as the sole means of navigation. This primary GPS "sole source" navigation capability was integrated into the CNX-80. The CNX-80 WAAS GPS/COM/NAV integrated navigator was the first product in the industry approved for primary GPS navigation. It also enabled LPV "glidescope" approaches without requiring ground nav aids. New LNAV (GPS) approaches provide the accuracy and safety of an ILS—without the ground-based localizer and glideslope equipment. Later, the CNX-80 was renamed the GNS-480, under Garmin.  In 1999: "Flight International" magazine presented UPS Aviation Technologies with its Aerospace Industry Award for the development of ADS-B, a surveillance technology intended to reduce aviation delays while improving safety.

Wristwear.

Garmin produces activity trackers and sports watches, aimed at activities such as running, watersports, golf, cycling and swimming with sensors such as heart rate and gps. Some recent models add Bluetooth music playback and pulse-oximetry.  The vivofit and vivosmart ranges are activity trackers. The Garmin Vivofit 3 measures the wearer's duration and quality of sleep, quantifies body movement, records heart rate, counts steps and the number of stairs climbed. Garmin produces the Vivosmart HR. It comes with the touch screen and includes heart rate monitoring, media player controls, smart notifications and phone finder features.  The Forerunner series is aimed at running primarily, but the watches are more broadly focussed, especially in the higher end. The 735 XT has multi-sport tracking capabilities (automatically switching between sports, for example in a triathlon) and a variety of special profiles for jogging, swimming, cycling, skiing, paddle sports, a variety of weight loss activities, and hiking. It comes with built-in heart rate sensor and GPS.  The Fenix range, such as the Fenix 6 released in August 2019, is a more rugged, multisport range that now offers a solar charging model,  The Vivomove is a traditionally-styled watch with activity tracking capabilities. It has a built-in accelerometer (calculates distance during indoor workouts, without the need for a foot pod), step counter, auto goal (learns the wearer's activity level and assigns a daily step goal), move bar, and sleep-monitoring capabilities.  Other series include the Quatix aimed at water sports, the D2 aviator watches, the Approach golf watches.  In 2018, Garmin introduced functionality such as maps, Bluetooth music playback, NFC payment and pulse-oximetry for its wristwear.  In October 2018, Garmin announced it has integrated Spotify to its Garmin Fenix 5 Plus and Garmin Forerunner 645 Music GPS sports watch. Garmin was the second smartwatch maker to do so, after Spotify was exclusive to Samsung smartwatches since 2016.

Maps.

Most current Garmin devices can display its current location on a map, which is vector-based and stored in the built-in memory or loaded from additional flash media. The built-in (or 'basemap') displays all country borders and major cities. Garmin offers different maps for purchase, including detailed road maps, topographic maps and nautical maps. Non-commercial maps are also available and can be displayed on most Garmin GPS devices.  The maps used by Garmin products are currently provided by Navteq. Map errors are handled using Navteq Map Reporter. Errors can be reported using Garmin's report a map error page, or by using the Navteq map reporter.

Sport sponsorship.

In 2007 Garmin began sponsorship of English Premier League football club Middlesbrough in a one-year deal that was carried into a second year for the 2008/09 season. In 2008 Garmin began sponsorship of cycling team to promote its "Edge" line of bicycle computers. In 2015, the team became Cannondale-Garmin. In 2014 Garmin paired up with Premier League side Southampton FC in a global partnership. Garmin's European head office is located in Southampton.

Garmin Ltd. (shortened to Garmin, stylized as GARMIN, and formerly known as ProNav) is an American multinational technology company founded in 1989 by Gary Burrell and Min Kao in Lenexa, Kansas, United States, with headquarters in Olathe, Kansas. Since 2010, the company is incorporated in Schaffhausen, Switzerland.

Garmin International Ltd. je společnost, kterou v roce 1989 založili Gary Burrell a Min Kao "(odtud název GarMin)". Společnost se zaměřila na vývoj a výrobu civilních GPS přijímačů, které do té doby byly určené výhradně pro vojenské využití. Společnost se zaměřila na několik oblastí, pro které začala nabízet své výrobky využívající GPS: letecké, námořní, outdoorové, automobilové a letecké avioniky. Hlavní sídlo společnosti je ve státě Kansas, v USA. Největší výrobní závod, Garmin (Asia) Corporation je situován ve městě Sijhih na Tchaj-wanu.


Career.

Stambolić graduated from the University of Belgrade's Law School. In spring 1986, he became the President of the Presidency of Serbia. He was a mentor and a close personal friend to Slobodan Milošević, and supported him in the elections for the new leader of the League of Communists of Serbia, to the dismay of the other leaders in the party. Stambolić spent three days advocating Milošević's election and finally managed to secure him a tight victory, the tightest ever in the history of Serbian Communist Party internal elections.  Stambolić and Milošević held similar views on the autonomous provinces of Serbia, Kosovo and Vojvodina, both feeling that constitutional changes were necessary to sort out their relationship with the centre. Stambolić managed to win over the League of Communists of Yugoslavia to his position on this matter at the Thirteenth Congress of the LCY, held in 1986, and then set up a commission to work out the details of the constitutional reforms that were eventually passed in 1989. He also wanted to protect the rights of Serbs and Montenegrins in Kosovo, insisting as early as 1982 that he would speak up for those rights even if his opponents labelled him a Greater Serbian nationalist. Where Milošević and he differed on these matters was Milošević's demand for greater rapidity and his stronger sympathy for Serb demonstrators. It was the issue of speed that was to bring the two into conflict.  Stambolić and the Serbian government joined the federal Yugoslav government in harshly condemning the controversial Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts of 1986 for inciting nationalism. Stambolić said:  "we [communist party leaders] do not accept the Memorandum’s call for Serbia to turn its back on its own future and the future of Yugoslavia, for it to arbitrarily accuse the proven leaders of the revolution and of socialist development, for Serbian Communists to be seen as the illegitimate leaders of the working class and people of Serbia."  Dragiša Pavlović, Milošević's fairly liberal successor at the head of the Belgrade Committee of the party, opposed his policy towards the solving of the issues of the Kosovo Serbs, calling it "hastily promised speed". Milošević denounced Pavlović as being soft on Albanian radicals, contrary to advice from Stambolić. On 23/24 September 1987, at the subsequent eighth session of the Central Committee, one that lasted around 30 hours, and was broadcast live on the state television, Milošević had Pavlović deposed, to the utter embarrassment of Ivan Stambolić, who resigned under pressure from Milošević's supporters a few days later.  In December 1987, Stambolić was officially voted off the position and replaced by Petar Gračanin, who was in turn succeeded the following year by Milošević himself.  Stambolić mysteriously disappeared on 25 August 2000, still during the rule of Slobodan Milošević. On 28 March 2003, the police revealed that he was murdered on Fruška Gora by eight Special Operations Unit officers. On 18 July 2005, these men and their co-conspirators were found guilty of the murder of Stambolić and were sentenced to between 15 and 40 years in prison. The court found that the order for Stambolić's murder came from Slobodan Milošević.

References.

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Ivan Stambolić (; 5 November 1936 – 25 August 2000) was a Serbian politician. He was a prominent official of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia and the President of the Presidency of Serbia in the 1980s.

Ivan Stambolić (Brezova nedaleko města Ivanjica, 5. listopadu 1936 – Fruška Gora, 25. srpna 2000) byl srbský komunistický politik. V 80. letech zastával pozici předsedy předsednictva srbské svazové republiky, stejně tak byl i v čele Svazu komunistů Srbska. Stambolić podporoval tržní reformy, liberalizaci ekonomického systému a ostře se vymezoval proti jakémukoliv nacionalismu. V obou funkcích byl vystřídán Slobodanem Miloševićem, jeho známým, ale i protivníkem. Ten po 8. zasedání srbských komunistů v září 1987 ostře změnil kurz srbské politiky směrem k centralismu a nebál se využít i nacionalistickou kartu, která v zemi začala být stále více na pořadu dne. Stambolić se později stal ředitelem banky JUMBES, která pomáhala v implementaci tržních reforem, které měly zachránit kolabující jugoslávské hospodářství.


Background and description.

Naval historians Yakubov and Worth state that the change to unit machinery was due to an incident when the British destroyer was stopped due to machinery damage by a mine during neutrality patrols in the Spanish Civil War. The incident reported at a meeting where Joseph Stalin was present and he ordered that the ships be redesigned with unit machinery so that a ship could still move if one of the two boiler or engine rooms were incapacitated. This change in design saved following mine damage in 1941, but led to a considerable delay in the Soviet destroyer program and the cancellation of six Type 7 ships. Fitting the additional machinery in the same hull presented significant challenges, leading to an increase in weight, cramped accommodation and a reduction in fuel capacity. These changes led Soviet sailors to nickname the Type 7U, 7 Ukhudshennyi (ухудшенный, made worse).  The "Storozhevoy"s had an overall length of, a beam of, and a draft of at deep load. The ships were slightly overweight, displacing at standard load and at deep load. Their crew numbered 207 officers and sailors in peacetime and 271 in wartime.  The ships were powered by two geared steam turbine sets, each driving a single three-bladed propeller using steam provided by four water-tube boilers that operated at a pressure of and a temperature of. The turbines, rated at, were intended to give the ships a speed of. The designers had been conservative in rating the turbines and many, but not all, of the ships handily exceeded their designed speed during their sea trials. reached during her trials in 1941, but only managed. Variations in fuel oil capacity meant that the range of the "Storozhevoy"s varied between at.

Armament and fire control.

As built, the "Storozhevoy"-class ships mounted four 50-caliber B-13 guns in two pairs of superfiring single mounts fore and aft of the superstructure. Each gun was provided with 150 rounds. The development of the gun was troubled by excessive barrel erosion problems and three variants were built in a not entirely successful effort to resolve the problem which complicated logistical and operational support as each performed slightly differently. The manually operated mounts had an elevation range between -5° to +45° and had a rate of fire of 6–10 rounds per minute. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of, which gave them a range of.  Anti-aircraft defense was provided by two 55-caliber 34-K AA guns and three 46-caliber 21-K AA guns, all in single mounts as well as four DK or DShK machine guns. The 34-K guns could elevate between -5° and +85°, had a rate of fire of 15–20 rounds per minute, and the ships carried 300 rounds per gun for them. Their muzzle velocity of gave their high-explosive shells a maximum horizontal range of and an effective ceiling of. The 21-K was a converted anti-tank gun with a rate of fire of 25–30 rounds per minute with an elevation range between -10° and +85°. The gun fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of. This gave them a range of. The Project 7Us stowed 500 rounds for each gun. The DShK had an effective rate of fire of 125 rounds per minute and an effective range against aircraft of.  The ships were equipped with six torpedo tubes in two rotating triple mounts amidships; each tube was provided with a reload. The Project 7U-class ships primarily used the 53-38 or the 53-38U torpedo, which differed only in the size of their warhead; the latter had a warhead heavier than the warhead of the 53-38. The torpedoes had three range/speed settings: at ; at and at. The ships could also carry a maximum of either 60 or 96 mines and 25 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Mars hydrophones for anti-submarine work, although it was useless at speeds over.  Fire control for the main battery of the "Storozhevoy"s was provided by a Mina-7 fire-control system that was derived from an Italian Galileo system. It included a TsAS-2 mechanical analog computer that received information from a KDP2-4 gunnery director on the roof of the bridge which mounted a pair of DM-4 stereoscopic rangefinders. Anti-aircraft fire control was strictly manual with only a DM-3 rangefinder to provide data to the guns. Some ships received the "Soyuz" high-angle fire-control system for the 34-K guns. It consisted of a mechanical analog computer, a "Gazon" vertical gyroscope and an SVP-29 stabilized viewfinder. The system could handle targets like bombers flying level, but was useless against aircraft attacking in a dive.

Modifications.

Later in the war electronic equipment such as radar and sonar were supplied by the Allies for these ships.

Ships.

All of the ships of the class were originally begun as Type 7 destroyers and their partially completed hulls were broken up and relaid down as Type 7Us. Those ships shown with two shipyards were begun at the first and were then towed to the second one for completion.

Service history.

Black Sea Fleet.

The first two Project 7U destroyers completed by the Black Sea shipyards, "Smyshlyony" and "Soobrazitelny", joined the 3rd Destroyer Division, led by destroyer leaders and ', of the fleet Light Forces Detachment upon their entry into service at Sevastopol in late 1940 and early 1941. After the 22 June 1941 start of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, "Smyshlyony" and "Soobrazitelny" were tasked to support "Kharkov" and "Moskva" in the 26 June Raid on Constanța together with the cruiser '. A grounded paravane on "Smyshlyony" prevented her from rendezvousing on schedule, while "Soobrazitelny" became separated from the cruiser in the dark. Both destroyers helped escort the damaged "Kharkov" back to base. "Sposobny" and "Svobodny" joined the 3rd Division when they entered service during the war. All three destroyers in service were on escort duty in July and from late August they escorted transports and provided fire support to the defenders of besieged Odessa. "Sovershenny" never joined the fleet as she was heavily damaged by a Soviet mine during trials. "Soobrazitelny" was the only one of the five Project 7Us completed for the Black Sea Fleet to survive the war.

The Storozhevoy class were a group of 18 destroyers built for the Soviet Navy in the late 1930s that were officially known as Project 7U ( (Improved)). The design was finalised in 1936 after initial disappointments with the. The main changes were unit machinery (four boilers instead of three), a strengthened hull and reduced fuel capacity. The anti-aircraft guns were repositioned to improve firing arcs. The ships fought in World War II.

Třída Storoževoj (Typ 7U) byla třída torpédoborců sovětského námořnictva, stavěných v počtu 19 kusů na přelomu 30. a 40. let 20. století. Lodě byly součástí druhého pětiletého plánu na obnovu sovětské flotily. Třída byla vylepšením předchozí třídy "Gněvnyj" (Typ 7). První jednotky této třídy – "Storoževoj" a "Silnyj", vznikly přestavbou rozestavěných lodí typu 7. Lodě měly stejný trup a řadu komponentů, lišily se zejména pohonem (čtyři místo tří kotlů), zesíleným trupem a menší zásobou paliva. Vizuálně se lišily druhým komínem. Výzbroj se změnila jen minimálně.


Structure.

The ulna is a long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, and when in anatomical position, is found on the medial side of the forearm. It is broader close to the elbow, and narrows as it approaches the wrist.  Close to the elbow, the ulna has a bony process, the olecranon process, a hook-like structure that fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus. This prevents hyperextension and forms a hinge joint with the trochlea of the humerus. There is also a radial notch for the head of the radius, and the ulnar tuberosity to which muscles attach.  Close to the wrist, the ulna has a styloid process.

Lower end of Ulna.

Near the elbow.

Near the elbow, the ulna has two curved processes, the olecranon and the coronoid process; and two concave, articular cavities, the semilunar and radial notches.  The olecranon is a large, thick, curved eminence, situated at the upper and back part of the ulna. It is bent forward at the summit so as to present a prominent lip which is received into the olecranon fossa of the humerus in extension of the forearm. Its base is contracted where it joins the body and the narrowest part of the upper end of the ulna. Its posterior surface, directed backward, is triangular, smooth, subcutaneous, and covered by a bursa. Its superior surface is of quadrilateral form, marked behind by a rough impression for the insertion of the triceps brachii; and in front, near the margin, by a slight transverse groove for the attachment of part of the posterior ligament of the elbow joint. Its anterior surface is smooth, concave, and forms the upper part of the semilunar notch. Its borders present continuations of the groove on the margin of the superior surface; they serve for the attachment of ligaments: the back part of the ulnar collateral ligament medially, and the posterior ligament laterally. From the medial border a part of the flexor carpi ulnaris arises; while to the lateral border the anconeus is attached.  The coronoid process is a triangular eminence projecting forward from the upper and front part of the ulna. Its base is continuous with the body of the bone, and of considerable strength. Its apex is pointed, slightly curved upward, and in flexion of the forearm is received into the coronoid fossa of the humerus. Its upper surface is smooth, concave, and forms the lower part of the semilunar notch. Its antero-inferior surface is concave, and marked by a rough impression for the insertion of the brachialis. At the junction of this surface with the front of the body is a rough eminence, the tuberosity of the ulna, which gives insertion to a part of the brachialis; to the lateral border of this tuberosity the oblique cord is attached. Its lateral surface presents a narrow, oblong, articular depression, the radial notch. Its medial surface, by its prominent, free margin, serves for the attachment of part of the ulnar collateral ligament. At the front part of this surface is a small rounded eminence for the origin of one head of the flexor digitorum superficialis; behind the eminence is a depression for part of the origin of the flexor digitorum profundus; descending from the eminence is a ridge which gives origin to one head of the pronator teres. Frequently, the flexor pollicis longus arises from the lower part of the coronoid process by a rounded bundle of muscular fibers.  The semilunar notch is a large depression, formed by the olecranon and the coronoid process, and serving as articulation with the trochlea of the humerus. About the middle of either side of this notch is an indentation, which contracts it somewhat, and indicates the junction of the olecranon and the coronoid process. The notch is concave from above downward, and divided into a medial and a lateral portion by a smooth ridge running from the summit of the olecranon to the tip of the coronoid process. The medial portion is the larger, and is slightly concave transversely; the lateral is convex above, slightly concave below.  The radial notch is a narrow, oblong, articular depression on the lateral side of the coronoid process; it receives the circumferential articular surface of the head of the radius. It is concave from before backward, and its prominent extremities serve for the attachment of the annular ligament.

Body.

The body of the ulna at its upper part is prismatic in form, and curved so as to be convex behind and lateralward; its central part is straight; its lower part is rounded, smooth, and bent a little lateralward. It tapers gradually from above downward, and has three borders and three surfaces.

Near the wrist.

The head of ulna presents an articular surface, part of which, of an oval or semilunar form, is directed downward, and articulates with the upper surface of the triangular articular disc which separates it from the wrist-joint; the remaining portion, directed lateralward, is narrow, convex, and received into the ulnar notch of the radius.  Near the wrist, the ulnar, with two eminences; the lateral and larger is a rounded, articular eminence, termed the head of the ulna; the medial, narrower and more projecting, is a non-articular eminence, the styloid process.  The head is separated from the styloid process by a depression for the attachment of the apex of the triangular articular disk, and behind, by a shallow groove for the tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris.

Microanatomy.

The ulna is a long bone. The long, narrow medullary cavity of the ulna is enclosed in a strong wall of cortical tissue which is thickest along the interosseous border and dorsal surface. At the extremities the compact layer thins. The compact layer is continued onto the back of the olecranon as a plate of close spongy bone with lamellæ parallel. From the inner surface of this plate and the compact layer below it trabeculæ arch forward toward the olecranon and coronoid and cross other trabeculæ, passing backward over the medullary cavity from the upper part of the shaft below the coronoid. Below the coronoid process there is a small area of compact bone from which trabeculæ curve upward to end obliquely to the surface of the semilunar notch which is coated with a thin layer of compact bone. The trabeculæ at the lower end have a more longitudinal direction.

Development.

The ulna is ossified from three centers: one each for the body, the wrist end, and the elbow end, near the top of the olecranon. Ossification begins near the middle of the body of the ulna, about the eighth week of fetal life, and soon extends through the greater part of the bone.  At birth, the ends are cartilaginous. About the fourth year or so, a center appears in the middle of the head, and soon extends into the ulnar styloid process. About the tenth year, a center appears in the olecranon near its extremity, the chief part of this process being formed by an upward extension of the body. The upper epiphysis joins the body about the sixteenth, the lower about the twentieth year.

Function.

Joints.

The ulna forms part of the wrist joint and elbow joints. Specifically, the ulna joins (articulates) with:

Clinical significance.

Fractures.

Specific types of ulna fracture include: Conservative management is possible for ulnar fractures when they are located in the distal two-thirds, only involve the shaft, with no shortening, less than 10° angulation and less than 50% displacement. In such cases, a cast should be applied that goes above the elbow.

Other animals.

In four-legged animals, the radius is the main load-bearing bone of the lower forelimb, and the ulna is important primarily for muscular attachment. In many mammals, the ulna is partially or wholly fused with the radius, and may therefore not exist as a separate bone. However, even in extreme cases of fusion, such as in horses, the olecranon process is still present, albeit as a projection from the upper radius.

The ulna is a long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, and when in anatomical position, is found on the medial side of the forearm. It runs parallel to the radius, the other long bone in the forearm. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore the radius is considered to be the larger of the two.

Loketní kost ("ulna") je dlouhá kost v lidském těle, která tvoří část kostry člověka v horní končetině, přesnějí v ruce. Na masivnějším zakončení se spojuje s kladkou pažní kosti, na užší straně (distální konec) pak je zakončena hlavicí loketní kosti ("caput ulnae") s úzkou kloubní plochou pro artikulaci s vřetenní kostí.


Notation and the system.

The calculus contains the first appearance of quantified variables, and is essentially classical bivalent second-order logic with identity. It is bivalent in that sentences or formulas denote either True or False; second order because it includes relation variables in addition to object variables and allows quantification over both. The modifier "with identity" specifies that the language includes the identity relation, =.  Frege presents his calculus using idiosyncratic two-dimensional notation: connectives and quantifiers are written using lines connecting formulas, rather than the symbols ¬, ∧, and ∀ in use today. For example, that judgement "B" materially implies judgement "A", i.e. formula_1 is written as.  In the first chapter, Frege defines basic ideas and notation, like proposition ("judgement"), the universal quantifier ("the generality"), the conditional, negation and the "sign for identity of content" formula_2 (which he used to indicate both material equivalence and identity proper); in the second chapter he declares nine formalized propositions as axioms.  In chapter 1, §5, Frege defines the conditional as follows:  Let signify that the third of those possibilities does not obtain, but one of the three others does. So if we negate, that means the third possibility is valid, i.e. we negate A and assert B."

The calculus in Frege's work.

Frege declared nine of his propositions to be axioms, and justified them by arguing informally that, given their intended meanings, they express self-evident truths. Re-expressed in contemporary notation, these axioms are:  These are propositions 1, 2, 8, 28, 31, 41, 52, 54, and 58 in the "Begriffschrifft". (1)–(3) govern material implication, (4)–(6) negation, (7) and (8) identity, and (9) the universal quantifier. (7) expresses Leibniz's indiscernibility of identicals, and (8) asserts that identity is a reflexive relation.  All other propositions are deduced from (1)–(9) by invoking any of the following inference rules:  The main results of the third chapter, titled "Parts from a general series theory," concern what is now called the ancestral of a relation "R". ""a" is an "R"-ancestor of "b"" is written ""aR"*"b"".  Frege applied the results from the "Begriffsschrifft", including those on the ancestral of a relation, in his later work "The Foundations of Arithmetic". Thus, if we take "xRy" to be the relation "y" = "x" + 1, then 0"R"*"y" is the predicate ""y" is a natural number." (133) says that if "x", "y", and "z" are natural numbers, then one of the following must hold: "x" < "y", "x" = "y", or "y" < "x". This is the so-called "law of trichotomy".

Influence on other works.

For a careful recent study of how the "Begriffsschrift" was reviewed in the German mathematical literature, see Vilko (1998). Some reviewers, especially Ernst Schröder, were on the whole favorable. All work in formal logic subsequent to the "Begriffsschrift" is indebted to it, because its second-order logic was the first formal logic capable of representing a fair bit of mathematics and natural language.  Some vestige of Frege's notation survives in the "turnstile" symbol formula_17 derived from his "Urteilsstrich" ("judging/inferring stroke") │ and "Inhaltsstrich" (i.e. "content stroke") ──. Frege used these symbols in the "Begriffsschrift" in the unified form ├─ for declaring that a proposition is true. In his later "Grundgesetze" he revises slightly his interpretation of the ├─ symbol.  In "Begriffsschrift" the "Definitionsdoppelstrich" (i.e. "definition double stroke") │├─ indicates that a proposition is a definition. Furthermore, the negation sign formula_18 can be read as a combination of the horizontal "Inhaltsstrich" with a vertical negation stroke. This negation symbol was reintroduced by Arend Heyting in 1930 to distinguish intuitionistic from classical negation. It also appears in Gerhard Gentzen's doctoral dissertation.  In the "Tractatus Logico Philosophicus", Ludwig Wittgenstein pays homage to Frege by employing the term "Begriffsschrift" as a synonym for logical formalism.  Frege's 1892 essay, "On Sense and Reference," recants some of the conclusions of the "Begriffsschrifft" about identity (denoted in mathematics by the "=" sign). In particular, he rejects the "Begriffsschrift" view that the identity predicate expresses a relationship between names, in favor of the conclusion that it expresses a relationship between the objects that are denoted by those names.

Quotations.

"If the task of philosophy is to break the domination of words over the human mind [...], then my concept notation, being developed for these purposes, can be a useful instrument for philosophers [...] I believe the cause of logic has been advanced already by the invention of this concept notation." (Preface to the "Begriffsschrift")  Translations:

Further reading.

Secondary literature:

Begriffsschrift (German for, roughly, "concept-script") is a book on logic by Gottlob Frege, published in 1879, and the formal system set out in that book.

Begriffsschrift, česky pojmové písmo, je název tenké knížky o logice od Gottloba Fregeho, vydané v roce 1879. Plný název knihy zní Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens (Jazyk formulí čistého myšlení, vystavěný podle jazyka aritmetiky. Kniha zavádí logický kalkul obsahující jako novinku kvantifikaci proměnných.


Terminology.

The term "dilemma" is attributed by Gabriel Nuchelmans to Lorenzo Valla in the 15th century, in later versions of his logic text traditionally called "Dialectica". Valla claimed that it was the appropriate Latin equivalent of the Greek "dilemmaton". Nuchelmans argued that his probable source was a logic text of c.1433 of George of Trebizond. He also concluded that Valla had reintroduced to the Latin West a type of argument that had fallen into disuse.  Valla's neologism did not immediately take hold, preference being given to the established Latin term "complexio", used by Cicero, with "conversio" applied to the upsetting of dilemmatic reasoning. With the support of Juan Luis Vives, however, "dilemma" was widely applied by the end of the 16th century.  In the form "you must accept either A, or B" — here A and B are propositions each leading to some further conclusion — and applied incorrectly, the dilemma constitutes a false dichotomy, that is, a fallacy. Traditional usage distinguished the dilemma as a "horned syllogism" from the sophism that attracted the Latin name "cornutus". The original use of the word "horns" in English has been attributed to Nicholas Udall in his 1548 book "Paraphrases", translating from the Latin term "cornuta interrogatio".

Dilemmatic arguments.

The dilemma is sometimes used as a rhetorical device. Its isolation as textbook material has been attributed to Hermogenes of Tarsus in his work "On Invention". C. S. Peirce gave a definition of "dilemmatic argument" as any argument relying on excluded middle.

In logic.

In propositional logic, "dilemma" is applied to a group of rules of inference, which are in themselves valid rather than fallacious. They each have three premises, and include the constructive dilemma and destructive dilemma. Such arguments can be refuted by showing that the disjunctive premise — the "horns of the dilemma" — does not in fact hold, because it presents a false dichotomy. You are asked to accept "A or B", but counter by showing that is not all. Successfully undermining that premise is called "escaping through the horns of the dilemma".

In philosophy.

Dilemmatic reasoning has been attributed to Melissus of Samos, a Presocratic philosopher whose works survive in fragmentary form, making the origins of the technique in philosophy imponderable. It was established with Diodorus Cronus (died c. 284 BCE). The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea were reported by Aristotle in dilemma form, but that may have been to conform with what Plato said about Zeno's style.

Moral and ethical dilemmas.

In cases where two moral principles appear to be inconsistent, an actor confronts a dilemma in terms of which principle to follow. This kind of moral case study is attributed to Cicero, in book III of his "De Officiis". In the Christian tradition of casuistry, an approach to abstract ranking of principles introduced by Bartolomé de Medina in the 16th century became tainted with the accusation of laxism, as did casuistry itself. Another approach, with legal roots, is to lay emphasis on particular features present in a given case: in other words, the exact framing of the dilemma.

In law.

In law, Valentin Jeutner has argued that the term "legal dilemma" could be used as a term-of-art, to describe a situation where a legal subject is confronted with two or more legal norms that the legal subject cannot simultaneously comply with.  Examples include contradictory contracts where one clause directly negates another clause, or conflicts between fundamental (e.g. constitutional) legal norms. Leibniz's 1666 doctoral dissertation "De casibus perplexis" (Perplexing Cases) is an early study of contradictory legal conditions. In domestic law, it has been argued that the German Constitutional Court confronted a legal dilemma when determining, in connection with proceedings relating to the German Aviation Security Act, whether a government official could intentionally kill innocent civilians by shooting down a hijacked airplane that would otherwise have crashed into a football stadium, killing tens of thousands.  In international law, it has been suggested that the International Court of Justice confronted a legal dilemma in its 1996 Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion. It was faced with the question whether, in an extreme circumstance of self-defence, it is a state's right to self-defence or international law's general prohibition of nuclear weapons that should take priority.

A dilemma ( "double proposition") is a problem offering two possibilities, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or preferable. The possibilities are termed the "horns" of the dilemma, a clichéd usage, but distinguishing the dilemma from other kinds of predicament as a matter of usage.

Dilema (řecky δί-λημμα „dvojí volba“) je problém nabízející alespoň dvě řešení nebo volby, z kterých ani jedna není přijatelná; tradičně je to popisováno jako „rozpolcen při rozhodování“ ("being on the horns of a dilema"), kdy žádná možnost není příjemná nebo „být mezi dvěma ohni“ ("being between a rock and a hard place"), kdy jsou oba objekty nebo výběry destruktivní.


Biography.

The Puskás family from Ditró (today Harghita County of Romania), was part of the Transylvanian Hungarian nobility. Puskás studied law and later engineering sciences. After living in England and working for the Warnin Railway Construction Company he returned to Hungary. In 1873, on the occasion of the World Exhibition in Vienna, he founded the Puskás Travel Agency, the fourth-oldest in the world and the first travel agency in Central Europe. After this, Puskás moved to Colorado and became a gold miner. It was while he was in America that Puskás exposed the American "energy machine" inventor Keely as a fraud.  Puskás was working on his idea for a telegraph exchange when Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. This led him to take a fresh look at his work and he decided to get in touch with the American inventor Thomas Edison.  Puskás now began to concentrate on perfecting his scheme to build a telephone exchange. According to Edison, ""Tivadar Puskas was the first person to suggest the idea of a telephone exchange"". The first experimental telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás, and it was built by the Bell Telephone Company in Boston in 1877.  In 1879 Puskás set up a telephone exchange in Paris, where he looked after Thomas Edison's European affairs for the next four years. In Paris he was greatly helped by his younger brother Ferenc Puskás (1848–1884), who later established the first telephone exchange in Pest.  In 1887 he introduced the multiplex switchboard, which was a revolutionary step in the development of telephone exchanges. His next invention was the "Telephone News Service" that he introduced in Pest, which announced news and "broadcast" programmes and was in many ways the forerunner of the radio. According to a contemporary scientific journal, at most 50 people could listen to Edison's telephone at the same time, if one more person was connected, none of the subscribers could hear anything. With Puskás's apparatus, by contrast, half a million people could clearly hear the programme coming from the exchange.  In 1890, Puskás was granted a patent for a procedure for carrying out controlled explosions, which was the forerunner of modern techniques. He experimented with this technology when he was working on regulating the Lower Danube.  Puskás registered the patent of technology behind the telephone newspaper Telefon Hírmondó in 1892, in the Patent Office of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with the title "A new method of organizing and fitting a telephone newspaper". The "Telefon Hírmondó" service started on 15 February 1893, with around 60 subscribers. After Puskás's death on 16 March 1893, his brother Albert Puskás sold the enterprise and the patent rights to István Popper.  Tivadar Puskás did not win extensive public recognition during his lifetime. However, in 2008, the Hungarian National Bank issued a 1000 Forint commemorative coin in honor of Puskás and the 115th anniversary of the introduction of the "Telefon Hírmondó".

Tivadar Puskás de Ditró (English: Theodore Puskás b. 17 September 1844, Pest – d. 16 March 1893, Budapest) was a Hungarian inventor, telephone pioneer, and inventor of the telephone exchange. He was also the founder of Telefon Hírmondó.

Tivadar Puskás (17. září 1844, Pešť – 16. březen 1893, Budapešť) byl maďarský vynálezce, průkopník telefonu a vynálezce telefonní ústředny.


Exegesis.

The Arabic word () means "great" from the Semitic root '. The Arabic word () is the elative form ("greatest") of the adjective "kabīr". When used in the it is usually translated as "greatest", but some authors translate it as "greater". The term'itself is the stem II verbal noun of the triliteral root ', meaning "great", from which "akbar" "greater" is derived. The form'is the nominative of "Allah", meaning 'God'.

Usage.

This phrase is recited by Muslims in many different situations. For example, when they are very happy, to express approval, to prevent a Muslim from becoming prideful by reminding them that Allah is their source of success, or as a battle cry, during times of extreme stress. The phrase is not found in the Quran, which does not refer to God as "akbar", but uses the name "al-Kabīr" "The Great" or "Kabīr" "Great", commonly translated as "Most Great" (13:9, 31:30, 22:62, 34:23, 40:12, 4:34).

In prayer.

The phrase is said during each stage of both salah (obligatory prayers, performed five times a day), and nafl (supererogatory prayers performed at will). The Muslim call to prayer ("adhan") by the "muezzin" and to commence prayer ("iqama") also contains the phrase.

In times of distress.

The phrase is sometimes used during distress.  Just before Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 crashed into the jungle near Medan, Indonesia, the pilot screamed "Aaaaaaah! "Allāhu akbar"" into his radio. According to a radio communication transcript, the pilot's conversation with the air controller had been in English, but his last words were the takbir as the plane crashed on September 26, 1997, killing all 234 people aboard in Indonesia's deadliest crash. It was suspected that the crash may have been due to either disorientation or turbine engine failure caused by local dense smog resulting from forest fires.

In times of joy and gratitude.

When Reshma Begum was discovered alive 17 days after the 2013 Savar building collapse in Bangladesh which killed 1129 people, crowds jubilantly cried ""Allāhu akbar"" to express their joy and gratitude that she had survived.  As a multi-purpose phrase, it is sometimes used by Arab football commentators as an expression of amazement.

Following births and deaths.

The phrase is used after the birth of a child as a means of praising God. It is also part Islamic funeral and burial customs.

During the Eid Festival and the Hajj.

During the festival of Eid al-Adha and the days preceding it, Muslims recite the Takbīr. This is particularly the case on the Day of Arafah.

In Politics and warfare.

In history.

It has been used historically as a battle cry during war. Ibn Ishaq's Life of Mohammed narrates at least two incidents in which the phrase was used.  "When the apostle raided a people he waited until the morning. If he heard a call to prayer' he held back; if he did not hear it he attacked. We came to Khaybar by night, and the apostle passed the night there; and when morning came he did not hear the call to prayer,' so he rode and we rode with him, and I rode behind Abii Talba with my foot touching the apostle's foot. We met the workers of Khaybar coming out in the morning with their spades and baskets. When they saw the apostle and the army they cried, `Muhammad with his force,' and turned tail and fled. The apostle said, 'Allah akbar! Khaybar is destroyed. When we arrive in a people's square it is a bad morning for those who have been warned.'" (page 511) "So he got off his horse and came at him and 'Ali advanced with his shield. `Amr aimed a blow which cut deeply into the shield so that the sword stuck in it and struck his head. But 'Ali gave him a blow on the vein at the base of the neck and he fell to the ground. The dust rose and the apostle heard the cry, 'Allah Akbar' and knew that 'Ali had killed him." (page 456)

Iranian usage.

During the Iranian Revolution of 1979, it was shouted from rooftops in Iran during the evenings as a form of protest. This practice returned in the 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, which protested the election results.

In Syrian and Iraqi insurgency.

In videos released during the course of the Syrian Civil War, Free Syrian Army, Al-Nusra Front, other rebel and Islamist groups and ISIL forces are heard shouting "Takbir" and "Allāhu akbar" in the background while fighting. Even more "secular" groups such as the Free Syrian Army - Operation Southern Storm have been heard yelling the phrase before the firing of heavy weapons. In 2019 during the Syrian civil war, militants shouted "Allahu akbar" before firing their mortar blasts.

Usage by extremists.

Almost all Muslim extremists have used the phrase while committing violent acts such as beheadings. The phrase was invoked by fighters throughout the First and Second Chechen Wars, the Abu Sayyaf group in the Philippines, ISIS, the Taliban and multiple groups in Algeria. Jonathan Matusitz has written: "Today, it is still the mujahedin's most repeated battlecry; it was shouted by the 9/11 hijackers a few seconds before hitting the Twin Towers. Shouted and heard by millions for centuries, this battle cry clearly evinces the religious nature of Islamist methods and objectives."  Matusitz argues that these beheadings are a form of ritual murder which he defines as "a sequence of repeated physical, sexual, and/or psychological assaults, along with a methodical use of symbols, ceremonies, and/or machinations".

September 11.

After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the FBI released a letter reportedly handwritten by the hijackers and found in three separate locations on the day of the attacks—at Dulles International Airport, at the Pennsylvania crash site, and in hijacker Mohamed Atta's suitcase. It included a checklist of final reminders for the 9/11 hijackers. An excerpt reads: "When the confrontation begins, strike like champions who do not want to go back to this world. Shout, 'Allāhu akbar,' because this strikes fear in the hearts of the non-believers." Also, in the cockpit voice recorders found at the crash site of Flight 93, the hijackers are heard reciting the Takbīr repeatedly as the plane plummets toward the ground and the passengers attempt to retake control of the plane.

Hamas.

When in March 2002 Maryam Mohammad Yousif Farhat of Hamas, popularized as "Umm Nidal" (and subsequently elected to the Palestinian Legislative Council), learned that her 17-year-old son had died during a suicide attack in which he killed five students of a pre-military school, she celebrated by proclaiming "Allāhu akbar" and giving out boxes of halva and chocolates.

Beheading of Nick Berg in Iraq.

In the video of Nick Berg being beheaded in Iraq in 2004, the perpetrators can be heard shouting "Allāhu akbar". And in the 2007 Fort Dix attack plot, a group of radical Islamists who were convicted of plotting an attack on the Fort Dix military base in New Jersey had videotaped themselves shooting weapons and shouting "Allāhu akbar". In 2008, Aafia Siddiqui is alleged to have fired at US interrogators while yelling "Allāhu akbar".

Fort Hood massacre.

The phrase was also invoked by Nidal Hasan. Charles Krauthammer objected to framing the Fort Hood mass shooting as being caused by PTSD rather than ideology, describing takbir as a "jihadist battle cry":  "What comes as a surprise [is] that someone who shouts 'Allahu Akbar' (the 'God is great' jihadist battle cry) as he is shooting up a room of American soldiers might have Islamist motives. It certainly was a surprise to the mainstream media, which spent the weekend after the Fort Hood Massacre playing down Nidal Hasan's religious beliefs".

Times Square bomber.

Times Square bomber Faisal Shahzad smiled and said "Allāhu akbar" after receiving a life sentence in 2010 for his attempted bombing.

American Flight 1561.

During the incident aboard American Airlines Flight 1561 in 2011, the person attempting to bash his way into the cockpit was heard shouting "Allāhu akbar". Mohammed Merah recorded himself shouting "Allahu akbar" as he killed three French paratroopers in the 2012 Midi-Pyrénées shootings.

2014 Jerusalem synagogue attack.

In the 2014 Jerusalem synagogue attack witnesses reported that the perpetrators screamed "Allāhu akbar" as they axed and shot at the worshippers.

Charlie Hebdo shooting.

The killers in the January 2015 "Charlie Hebdo" shooting in Paris shouted "Allāhu akbar" during their attack.

Bataclan mass shooting.

During the November 2015 Paris attacks, witnesses reported hearing gunmen shouting "Allāhu akbar" before opening fire in the Bataclan theatre, killing 89 people.

Assassination of Andrei Karlov.

When Russian ambassador to Turkey Andrei Karlov was assassinated on 19 December 2016 at Ankara, the capital of Turkey, after shooting the ambassador the shooter shouted "Allāhu akbar" and "Do not forget Aleppo", referring to Russia helping the Syrian government conquer the eastern part of the city of Aleppo only a few days prior to the assassination.

On flags.

The phrase "Allāhu akbar" is written on the center of the flag of Iraq, 22 times along the borders of the central white stripe on the flag of Iran, and beneath the shahada in the flag of Afghanistan in white script on the central red background as determined by the 2004 draft constitution.

Iraq.

During the Gulf War in January 1991, Saddam Hussein held a meeting with top military commanders, where it was decided to add the words "Allāhu akbar" (described as the Islamic battle cry) to Iraq's flag to boost his secular regime's religious credentials, casting himself as the leader of an Islamic army. Hussein described the flag as "the banner of jihad and monotheism".  In 2004, the US-picked Iraqi Governing Council approved a new flag for Iraq that abandoned symbols of Hussein's regime, such as the words "Allāhu akbar". In January 2008, however, Iraq's parliament passed a law to change the flag by leaving in the phrase, but changing the calligraphy of the words "Allāhu akbar", which had been a copy of Hussein's handwriting, to a Kufic script. The Iraqi flag under Hussein had each of the two words of the phrase written in one of the spaces between the stars on the central band; the 2008 flag, while leaving the phrase in, removes the stars.

Iran.

The phrase "Allāhu akbar" is written on the flag of Iran, as called for by Article 18 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The phrase appears 22 times on the flag.

Afghanistan.

The Afghan constitution that came into force on January 4, 2004, required that "Allāhu akbar" be inscribed on Afghanistan's national flag.

Waziristan.

A resistance movement that fought British rule in Waziristan, Pakistan, in the 1930s used a red flag bearing "Allāhu akbar" in white letters.

Criticism.

According to a 2016 analysis report by the Middle East Media Research Institute MEMRI, the phrase "Allahu Akbar" – which means "Allah is the greatest" – is routinely misunderstood and mistranslated by Western media. As explained by MEMRI in its 2016 analysis, "the rendering of "Allah akbar" in the U.S. media as 'God is great' [is misleading because it] omits the aspect of superiority in the word "akbar" (which means 'greater' or 'greatest,' not merely 'great') and blurs the specific reference to Allah rather than to another deity."

The Takbir (,, "magnification [of God]") is the Arabic phrase "" (, ), "Allah is greater [than everything]". It is a common Islamic Arabic expression, used in various contexts by Muslims; in formal Salah (prayer), in the Adhan (Islamic call to prayer), as an informal expression of faith, in times of distress or joy, or to express resolute determination or defiance and for war cry.

Takbír (تَكْبِير) je arabský název pro frázi Allāhu Akbar (الله أكبر). Obvykle se překládá jako „Bůh je veliký“ nebo „Bůh je největší“. Jedná se o běžný arabský výraz, používaný jak jako neformální vyjádření, tak jako formální deklarace islámské víry.