History.

Early years.

The site of today's Malpensa Airport has seen aviation activities for more than 100 years. The first began on 27 May 1910, when the Caproni brothers flew their "flying machine", the Cal biplane. In the years that followed, many aircraft prototypes took off from the same site; eventually, it was decided to upgrade the farming patch to a more formal airfield. Both Gianni Caproni and Giovanni Agusta established factories on the new site; the airfield soon developed into the largest aircraft production centre in Italy.  During the 1920s and 1930s, the airfield hosted two squadrons of the "Regia Aeronautica Italiana" (Italian Air Force). In September 1943, Malpensa airfield was taken over by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe when northern Italy was invaded by Adolf Hitler. Soon after their arrival, the Germans laid the airfield's first concrete runway.  After the cessation of hostilities during the Second World War, manufacturers and politicians of the Milan and Varese regions, led by banker Benigno Ajroldi of Banca Alto Milanese, restored the airfield. They aimed to make it an industrial fulcrum for post-war recovery of Italy. The main runway, heavily damaged by German troops as they retreated from northern Italy, was rebuilt and extended to 1,800 metres. A small wooden terminal was constructed to protect goods and passengers from bad weather.

After World War II.

Malpensa Airport officially commenced commercial operations on 21 November 1948 as "Aeroporto Città di Busto Arsizio", although the Belgian national flag-carrier Sabena had started flying to Brussels from here a year earlier. On 2 February 1950 Trans World Airlines (TWA) became the first company to fly long-haul flights from Malpensa, using Lockheed Constellations on their services to New York Idlewild Airport.  A change of ownership occurred in 1952 when the Municipality of Milan took control of the airport's operator, the "Società Aeroporto di Busto Arsizio". The operator's name was subsequently changed to "" (SEA). After assuming full control, SEA decided to develop Malpensa as an international and intercontinental gateway, whereas Milan's other airport, Linate Airport, would be tasked with handling only domestic services.  Between 1958 and 1962 a new terminal arrived at Malpensa and the airport's two parallel runways were extended to, becoming the longest in Europe at that time. By the early 1960s, however, major European carriers such as British Airways, Air France, Lufthansa and Alitalia had moved the majority of their services to Linate Airport, which was just 11 km east of Milan's city centre, making it much easier for passengers to reach central Milan. This left Malpensa with just a handful of intercontinental links, charter flights and cargo operations. Malpensa suffered a decline in commercial traffic, with passenger numbers dropping from 525,000 in 1960 to just 331,000 by 1965. It was destined to play second fiddle to Linate Airport for another 20 years.

Expansion and development (1995–1998).

By the mid-1980s Linate Airport was handling seven million passengers per year and, with only a short single runway and limited parking slots, had reached its saturation point. With no available land nearby for expansion, an alternative solution was sought: "Società Esercizi Aeroportuali SpA" (SEA) quickly found that developing Malpensa was the only practical alternative.  By the end of 1985, a law had been passed by the Italian Parliament that paved the way for the reorganisation of the Milan airport system. Malpensa was designated as the centre for all services covering northern Italy, while Linate Airport was downgraded to a domestic and short-haul facility. "Malpensa 2000", as the plan was called, included the construction of a new terminal as well as the development of fast, efficient connections to Milan's city centre. The European Union recognised this project as one of the 14 "Essential to the Development of the Union" and provided €200 million to help finance the work. Construction started in November 1990; Malpensa airport was re-opened eight years later.

A brief life as Alitalia's main hub (1998–2008).

During the night of 24/25 October 1998, Alitalia moved the majority of its fleet from Rome Fiumicino Airport – where it had been flying from for over 50 years – to Malpensa Airport. The airport started a new lease of life as the Italian flag carrier's main hub. Alitalia added up to 488 movements and 42,000 passengers a day at the facility which, by the end of 1998, had handled 5.92 million passengers (an increase of more than two million over the previous year's figure).  In 1999 it recorded a spectacular leap to 16.97 million and, by 2007, passenger numbers had reached 23.9 million. Efficient rail links from two different stations in Milan (Centrale and Cadorna stations) ensured easy access by railway, whereas the nearby A8 motorway had an extra lane added in each direction to help speed up traffic into and out of the city centre.  Before 2001, ground handling services at Malpensa were shared by the SEA (airport's operator) and Trans-World Airlines. Since then, the contracting process has gradually been deregulated. In 2000, airport security services at Malpensa were transferred from the Polizia di Stato (State Police) to SEA's internal division, SEA Airport Security. Up to 2002, SEA was assisted by IVRI in providing security services, but the contract was not renewed after its expiry. Nevertheless, SEA Airport Security is supervised by the Polizia di Stato (Italian State Police), Guardia di Finanza (Italian Military Customs Police) and Ente Nazionale Aviazione Civile (Italy's Civil Aviation Authority), whereas the Carabinieri (Italian Military Police) supervises ramp entrance.  Ramp services are provided by SEA Handling, ATA and, more recently, Aviapartner. SEA Handling provided 80% of the ramp services at Malpensa Airport due to its major customer, Alitalia. In May 2006, however, Italy's Civil Aviation Authority took off the limitation of two ramp handlers.  In 2008, a new development plan was launched by "Società Esercizi Aeroportuali SpA" (SEA), valued at €1.4 billion, to include a third pier for Terminal 1 and the construction of a third runway. In a surprise move, however, Alitalia announced its decision to revert its main hub back to Rome Fiumicino Airport due to 'high operating costs' at Malpensa Airport. Alitalia did not pull out of Malpensa altogether and continues to fly several domestic and European services from Milan and two intercontinental flights (to New York City and Tokyo). However, Malpensa lost around 20% of its daily movements, a decrease from 700 to 550, which resulted in only 19.2 million passengers passing through in 2008. The airport continued to suffer during 2009 when the international financial crisis and higher fuel prices caused a reduction to only 17.6 million passengers that year.

Recent expansion: 2010s.

Responding to Alitalia's pullout, the operator SEA launched an all-out publicity programme and aggressively marketed Malpensa Airport around the world. This campaign was successful: from 2008 to 2011, a total of 34 new passenger and cargo routes were added to Malpensa's network.  The low-cost carrier EasyJet made Malpensa its main base after London Gatwick, with more than 20 of its Airbus A319s and Airbus A320s based there. The airline currently flies services from Malpensa to more than 70 destinations in Italy and across Europe. Competitor Ryanair confirmed plans to open an operating base at Malpensa from December 2015, initially with one aircraft.  In 2014 a contract was awarded for extension of the railway line from Terminal 1 to Terminal 2. The line was opened in December 2016. The new Malpensa Terminal 2 railway station is within 200 m north of the T2 arrivals hall, that is accessed by an outdoor covered walkway.

Terminals.

Malpensa Airport has two passenger terminals and they are connected by airport shuttle buses and trains.

Terminal 1.

Terminal 1, which opened in 1998, is the newer, larger and more prominent terminal. The terminal is divided into three sections and handles most passengers on scheduled as well as charter flights:

Terminal 2.

Terminal 2 is the older terminal. It is currently used exclusively by easyJet. All charter services, which were previously based in this terminal, moved to Terminal 1 upon its opening.  Prior to December 2016, the only public transport available at Terminal 2 was ATM (Transport for Milan) local buses or shuttle buses operated by Terravision, Autostradale and Malpensa Shuttle. Malpensa Airport additionally provides free shuttles connecting Terminal 2 to Terminal 1. A new railway station at Terminal 2 was opened in December 2016.

Airlines and destinations.

Passenger.

The following airlines operate regular scheduled, seasonal and charter flights to and from Malpensa:

Cargo.

The following airlines operate regular cargo services to and from Malpensa:

Transport links.

Rail.

The airport is served by two train stations, one in each terminal.

Malpensa Express.

Malpensa Express is a direct train connection between Terminal 2, Terminal 1 and Milan's city center.  As of 2019, its service is based on a clock-face timetable with four services per hour in both directions: two run between the two airport terminals and Milan Cadorna station; the other two between the two airport terminals, Milan Garibaldi and Milan Centrale stations. All services call at Busto Arsizio Nord, Saronno (connections for Como, Novara and Varese) and Milan Bovisa stations.  The journey time ranges between 30 and 50 minutes, depending on the type of service and number of stops.

Other train services.

TiLo operate services to Bellinzona in Switzerland.  Milan's Suburban Line S10 (Milano Rogoredo–Milano Bovisa) has run to Malpensa Airport/Aeroporto since June 2010. Trains call at: Ferno, Busto Arsizio, Castellanza, Rescaldina, Saronno, Milano Bovisa, Milano Lancetti, Milano Porta Garibaldi M2-M5, Milano Repubblica M3, Milano Porta Venezia M1, Milano Dateo and Milano Porta Vittoria. The service was terminated in October 2012.

Future train connections.

The Malpensa – Varese – Mendrisio (CH) – Lugano (CH) line is currently under construction, providing a direct connection between Malpensa Airport/Aeroporto and the south-eastern part of Switzerland. There are plans to connect Gallarate Station and Milan's Centrale Station (FS), which is currently a terminus station with no through tracks, to allow more convenient access to high-speed international lines.

Road.

Malpensa Airport is accessible by a four-lane motorway to the A8 (connecting Switzerland to Milan) and by a five-lane motorway to the A4 (connecting Turin/Torino, Verona, Venice and Triest/Trieste). Local access to the airport is provided by the State Road SS336 from Busto Arsizio and by the State Road SS336dir from Magenta.

Milan Malpensa Airport is the largest international airport in the Milan metropolitan area in northern Italy. It serves 15 million inhabitants in Lombardy, Piedmont and Liguria, as well as those living in the Swiss Canton of Ticino. The airport is located northwest of central Milan, next to the Ticino river (dividing Lombardy and Piedmont). The airport has two terminals (Terminal 1 and Terminal 2) and two runways as well as a dedicated cargo terminal.

Letiště Milán Malpensa (IATA: MXP, ICAO: LIMC) (italsky: "Aeroporto di Milano-Malpensa") je mezinárodní letiště, které se nachází v provincii Varese poblíž obce Ferno nedaleko Milána v Itálii. Je jedním ze tří hlavních letišť v okolí Milána (Malpensa, Linate a Orio al Serio) a po římském Fiumicinu druhým nejrušnějším v zemi. Je vzdáleno 49 kilometrů od centra Milána, je s ním propojené dálnicí a železničním spojením Malpensa Express. Vzniklo v roce 1948. Má dva terminály: T1 pro komerční lety a T2 pro charterové a nízkonákladové společnosti.


History.

Early years.

By the 1940s, it was increasingly clear that Montreal's original airport, Saint-Hubert Airport, in operation since 1927, was no longer adequate for the city's needs. The Minister of Transport purchased land at the Dorval Race Track, which was considered the best location for an enlarged airport because of its good weather conditions and few foggy days. The airport opened on September 1, 1941, as Dorval Airport/Aéroport Dorval with three paved runways. By 1946 the airport was hosting more than a quarter of a million passengers a year, growing to more than a million in the mid-1950s. During World War II thousands of Allied aircraft passed through Dorval on the way to England. At one time Dorval was the major transatlantic hub for commercial aviation and the busiest airport in Canada, with flights from airlines such as British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). Until 1959, it also doubled as RCAF Station Lachine. Airport diagram for 1954

Growth.

In November 1960 the airport was renamed Montreal–Dorval International Airport/Aéroport international Dorval de Montréal. On December 15 of that year the Minister of Transport inaugurated a new $30 million terminal. The structure was built by Illsley, Templeton, Archibald, and Larose. At its height, it was the largest terminal in Canada and one of the biggest in the world. It was the gateway to Canada for all European air traffic and served more than two million passengers per year. Eight years later, Montréal–Dorval International Airport underwent a major expansion program. Despite this, the government of Prime Minister of Canada Pierre Elliott Trudeau (who represented a Montreal riding) predicted that Dorval would be completely saturated by 1985 and also projected that 20 million passengers would be passing through Montreal's airports annually. They decided to construct a new airport in Sainte-Scholastique, what became Montréal–Mirabel International Airport. As the first phase in the transition that would eventually have seen Dorval closed, all international flights (except those to and from the United States) were to be transferred to the new airport in 1975.

The opening and closing of Mirabel Airport.

On November 29, 1975, Mirabel International Airport went into service. With an operations zone of and a buffer zone of, it became the largest airport in the world. Many connecting flights to Canadian centres were transferred to Mirabel and 23 international airlines moved their overseas activities there. As a consequence, Montréal–Dorval was repurposed to serve domestic flights and transborder flights to the United States. Mirabel's traffic decreased due to the advent in the 1980s of longer-range jets that did not need to refuel in Montreal before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Montreal's economic decline in the late 1970s and 1980s had a significant effect on the airport's traffic, as international flights bypassed Montreal altogether in favour of Toronto Pearson International Airport. The Trudeau government had developed Mirabel Airport to handle an expected growth in international traffic and eventually, to replace Dorval. However, the extra traffic never materialized. This, combined with Dorval's closer proximity to downtown Montreal at instead of, led to the return of all scheduled air services to Dorval, while Mirabel ceased passenger operations in 2004. In May 2007, it was reported that the International Centre of Advanced Racing had signed a 25-year lease with Aéroports de Montréal to use part of the airport as a racetrack, the Circuit ICAR. At the same time the fixed-base operator Hélibellule opened a facility there which caters to private planes. The company also provides a helicopter passenger service from Mirabel to destinations in Canada and the United States. They operate two different types of helicopters; the Bell 222 and the Aérospatiale Gazelle.

Back to Montréal–Dorval, renaissance.

With all international scheduled flights returning to Montréal–Dorval in 1997, as well as charter flights in 2004, Montréal–Dorval International Airport finally became a true hub as passengers would no longer have to travel to different airports depending on the destination of their flight. The consolidation of flights to Montréal–Dorval resulted in an increase in passenger traffic, not only due to the transfer of flights but because it became easier to connect through Montreal.  Starting as "Dorval Airport", then "Montréal–Dorval International Airport", the airport was renamed "Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport" in Trudeau's honour on January 1, 2004, by the federal government. The renaming had been announced in September 2003 by then Minister of Transport David Collenette. This move provoked some opposition, especially Quebec sovereigntists opposed to Trudeau's staunchly federalist policies. The renaming also provoked opposition from many aviation historians and enthusiasts who recalled Trudeau's role in the effort to shutter Dorval in favour of the much larger and modern Mirabel Airport, of which he was the greatest instigator of its construction. Many Montrealers still refer to Trudeau airport as "Dorval," or "Dorval Airport."

Operation Yellow Ribbon.

After the September 11 attacks, Dorval Airport participated in Operation Yellow Ribbon, taking in seven diverted flights that had been bound for the closed airspace over the United States, even though pilots were asked to avoid the airport as a security measure. Mirabel International Airport also took in 10 other diverted flights totaling 17 diverted flight in the Montreal area bound for American cities.

75th Anniversary.

In 2016, Montréal-Trudeau celebrated its 75th anniversary. Under the theme "Service, Destinations, Passion since 1941", various activities and contests were planned throughout the year. In partnership with the Canada Aviation and Space Museum, the airport hosted the "Travelling Through Time" exhibition in the public hall of the US Departures area. Exhibits showcasing important milestones in the airport's history have been incorporated throughout the terminal.

Expansion.

Terminal expansion (2000–2007).

Montréal–Trudeau underwent a major expansion and modernization designed to increase the terminal's capacity and substantially enhance the level of passenger service. In February 2000, with a budget of CAD716 million, ADM announced plans for an extensive expansion plan that would bring Montréal–Trudeau up to standard with other North American airports its size. The airport terminal had for the most part remained the same, with the exception of minor renovations, since its opening in 1960. With increased passenger volume resulting from the transfer of international scheduled passengers from Mirabel Airport in 1997, as well as Air Canada's intentions to make Montréal–Trudeau its Eastern Canada hub, there was a strong need to greatly expand the terminal, whose capacity of roughly 7 million passengers per year had been exceeded.  The expansion program included the construction of several brand-new facilities, including a jetty for flights to the United States (US Preclearance Terminal), another for other international destinations (International Terminal) and a huge international arrivals complex. An 18-gate Transborder Concourse opened in 2003, an 11-gate International Concourse opened in 2004, new customs hall and baggage claim area for non-domestic flights and an expanded parking garage opened in 2005. Additionally, sections of the domestic area were renovated and expanded in 2007, accompanied with additional retail space. The International part of the Aeroquay satellite was demolished in 2008, leaving the domestic part for regional carriers. The completion of the CAD716 million expansion gives Montréal–Trudeau the ability to serve 15 million passengers a year. This ironically accomplished one of the goals that was to be met with the construction of Mirabel. (In the 1970s, the federal government projected that 20 million passengers would be passing through Montreal's airports annually by 1985, with 17 million through Mirabel). Aéroports de Montréal financed all of these improvements itself, with no government grants. By the end of 2007, CAD1.5 billion had been spent to upgrade Montréal–Trudeau. The last round of construction in this phase was to allow the airport to accommodate the Airbus A380. Gate 55, part of the international jetty, has been conceived for handling the A380. It is equipped with two air bridges to load and unload passengers on both decks of the A380 simultaneously. With Phase II of the international jetty expansion now completed, the airport have two additional A380 gates, although there are currently no airlines operating this type of aircraft at the airport.  Air France became the first operator of the type in Montreal on April 22, 2011, when they officially launched their daily A380 service from Paris. A380 service was reduced to 4 weekly flights during summer 2012 and withdrawn in October 2012, due to low demand for business class and a high level of competition, with Air Canada, Air Transat and Corsair also operating Montreal–Paris flights.

New hotel, transborder terminal expansion and modernization (2006–2009).

On June 15, 2006, construction began on a new four-star Marriott hotel at the airport, above the transborder terminal. Originally scheduled to be completed by September 2008, the 279 first-class room hotel opened its doors on August 19, 2009. Construction was slowed down because of the recession and a collapse in the Transborder market. It contains an underground train station that was planned to eventually connect the airport with downtown Montreal as well as ADM's corporate headquarters.  On the same day, Montreal–Trudeau airport opened the doors to the refurbished, expanded, modernized and user-friendly transborder terminal, meeting the industry's highest standards. This increased the total area of the terminal from. Furthermore, the terminal is equipped with a new baggage sorting room which allows U.S. customs officers to retrieve luggage for secondary inspection.

International terminal expansion (2011–2016).

In July 2011, James Cherry, the CEO of Aéroports de Montréal, announced the construction of a two-phase expansion of Montréal–Trudeau's international terminal. The total cost of the project, now completed, has been around $620 million.  Phase I of this project, which was completed on December 20, 2012, opened a new boarding lounge which can accommodate as many as 420 passengers, along with a new gate, numbered 62. It was officially completed at a cost of $270 million. The new gate can accommodate three Passenger Transfer Vehicles, allowing passengers to be transferred from the terminal to an aircraft parked on a remote stand nearby. When phase II of the expansion began in 2014, this gate was closed to passengers. It was reopened with the inauguration of the extension two years later.  Phase II of the project, which was officially inaugurated on May 10, 2016 and put into service two days after, added six new contact gates for wide-body jets, including two for the Airbus A380, increasing the total number of contact gates from 10 to 16. This expansion holds gates 63 through 68. The area has 20,000 m of open spaces, restaurants, shops and a children's playground area. It took two years to complete and opened four months ahead of the original schedule for a total cost of $350 million. It was conceived by "Humà Design" and integrates three massive art installations and four vitrines showcasing Montreal's museums. The extension of the international jetty was built to alleviate the high level of congestion on the tarmac and in the terminal. Apart from these expansions, ADM inaugurated in April 2016, a commercial area between gate 52 and 53. This area is called "Haltes gourmandes" (English: gourmet stops) referring to the large number of restaurants located there. The new restaurants are all owned by "SSP Canada Food Service Inc". They operate 12 locations in the terminal, managing a total of 4000 m of terminal area. SSP invested over $200 million throughout 2016 in its airport locations.

Future projects 2018-2030.

In January 2016, ADM published a call for tenders on their website regarding the restoration and upgrade of the curtain wall of the main façade on the terminal. This part of the airport is one of the oldest remaining parts of the original terminal.  Also, according to the 2013-2033 Master plan from ADM, the following future developments are in the works:  On April 30, 2018, a massive new expansion project was unveiled that will last until 2030. The first phase ($2.5 billion) will see the airport's multi-level parking lot demolished and rebuilt with a green roof and the Montreal-Trudeau Airport REM station underneath. The drop-off area will be greatly expanded and covered with glass, and a new remote terminal will be built where runway 10/28 used to stand. By 2030, the remote terminal will be connected via future phases to the current terminal building to handle the expected growth. ADM CEO Philippe Rainville stated "the airport's growth has been about double the international average in recent years [so the] goal is to meet the growth projections of the airport."

Infrastructure.

Runways.

There are currently three runways in operation at Montréal-Trudeau, two parallel runways aligned in a north-south direction and a single runway in an east-west direction.

Terminal.

Montréal-Trudeau airport consists of one two-storied terminal, divided into four different zones: the public area (departures and arrivals level), the domestic jetty, the international jetty and the transborder jetty. There are two distinct areas in the public part of the airport (departure level); one is dedicated for the check-in of flights within or outside Canada (except U.S.) and the other one is for flights departing for the U.S. Both public areas are equipped with self-service check-in kiosks, a prayer area, shops and cafés. There is free Wi-Fi throughout the airport, luggage trolleys, ATMs and nursing rooms. When passengers arrive at Montréal-Trudeau from an international destination, they are welcomed into a huge and bright arrival complex, before passing through primary customs inspection, then go down one level to the baggage claim area and finally the international arrivals public area. The Aérogalerie program places artworks throughout the airport to showcase the city's artistic and cultural history. Works throughout the airport include showcases, illuminated columns, temporary exhibitions in the international arrival complex and permanent collection from various artists from the city. The domestic jetty, which is accessible via security checkpoint A, is divided into two parts: a satellite jetty connected by a tunnel to the main terminal and a wing attached to the main terminal building. The main jetty holds 16 gates: 1 through 12, 15, and 47 through 49. The satellite jetty holds another 10 gates: 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32 and 34. There are only two boarding bridges located inside the satellite (17 and 21) as the other gates are mostly used for prop aircraft like the Bombardier Dash 8 family. These parts of the airport are the only departure areas remaining that were part of the original terminal. The International jetty, also accessible via the security checkpoint A, is dedicated to flights with destinations outside Canada and United States. This jetty holds 18 gates: 50 through 53 and 55 through 68. Gates 53 and 62 are used exclusively for Passenger Transfer Vehicles. In this area, travellers can shop, eat and relax with a wide varieties of boutiques, restaurants, cafés, spa facilities and one of the biggest airport duty-free shops in Canada. At the far end of the jetty, there is a wide open space with a lot of natural lights through floor to ceilings windows and a big skylight in the rooftop. The masterpiece of the jetty is a work of art, called "Veil of Glass", composed of different coloured glass triangles illuminated by spotlights, created by local artist "ATOMIC3". Several murals and other works of art are also located in this jetty, including four from various Montréal museums. In the international jetty, there is a large area where passengers can relax before their flight. Travelers are able to download to their smartphone or e-reader the first chapter of any books available on the platform "Lire vous transporte". After that, they can choose to buy the entire book through the Wi-Fi network in the airport. A rest area has been constructed near gate 57 in order to read these books in a calm environment, with cushions and dimmed lights. There are over 1000 chairs with charging stations and USB ports throughout the jetty as well as three water bottle-filling stations. Lastly, there is a jetty dedicated to all U.S. bound flights, which holds 18 gates: 72 through 89. For access to gate 87, 88 or 89, passengers must go down one level via an escalator. Gate 56, 58 and 60 (part of the international jetty) can also be used for a U.S. bound flight. They can be isolated from the other gates by moving glass walls known as "swing gates". Unlike other jetties, the transborder jetty requires passengers to go through security checkpoint C and then the U.S. Customs and Border Protection and lastly through the duty-free shop before accessing their gates. The gate area contains the same services as the other parts of the airport such as shops, restaurants, rest zones and cafés. If needed, some gates can be isolated in order to offer additional security checkpoints if an aircraft flies to a potential risk zone like Washington–National.

Airport lounges.

Two major airline alliances (Star Alliance and SkyTeam) have a large presence at Montréal-Trudeau, and therefore both maintain frequent flyer lounges within the airport. There are also two "Pay-In" lounges open for use by all passengers, regardless of airline, frequent flyer status or class of travel.

Ground transportation.

Public transport.

The Société de transport de Montréal (STM) currently has four regular bus routes serving Trudeau International Airport, including routes "204 Cardinal" and "209 Sources" which run every day and routes "356 Lachine /Montreal–Trudeau /Des Sources" and "378 Sauvé /Côte-Vertu /Montreal–Trudeau" which are night buses. Three of the four routes can take passengers to and from the Dorval bus terminus and train station, within walking distance of Via's Dorval station. A shuttle bus also runs between the airport and Via's Dorval station.  On March 29, 2010, the STM introduced the 747 Montreal-Trudeau/Downtown route. Operating 7 days a week, 24 hours a day and 365 days a year, this route connects the airport to eight downtown stops, including transfer stops at Lionel-Groulx metro station, Central Station and Berri-UQAM metro station.  Prior to the introduction of this public transportation service, Groupe La Québécoise operated a coach service known as L'Aerobus between the airport and Central Station, connecting with several hotels downtown.

Inter-city Rail Connections.

Via Rail, the national train operator in Canada operates the "AirConnect" shuttle bus from the airport to Dorval station, the nearest station on the Québec City-Windsor Corridor. This line offers inter-city rail connections to Quebec City, Ottawa, Kingston and Toronto as well as smaller regional centres in Quebec and Ontario. (Please note that public transport options to downtown Montreal available from the STM are more frequent and Via does not provide service between Dorval and Montreal Central Station on some trains.)  The shuttle bus from Montréal–Trudeau International Airport to Dorval station is free of charge to Via Rail passengers, departs every 20-30 minutes from the departure level of the airport and takes around 20 minutes of travel time.

Private bus.

KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operates a bus from Trudeau Airport to Ottawa Railway Station only for Air France-KLM customers originating in/arriving in the Ottawa area. Air-France KLM has three daily bus services between those cities.  Air France also operates a bus from Trudeau to Sainte-Foy in Quebec City for its customers.  Swiss International Air Lines previously operated its Swissbus service from Trudeau to Ottawa Railway Station for Swiss customers.

Car.

The airport is accessible from Highway 20 or from Highway 520, a spur off Highway 40 that leads directly towards the airport. Eastbound Highway 20 leads to the Dorval interchange, the exit which drivers must take for the airport. From the north, Côte-Vertu Boulevard that runs parallel to runways 24L and 24R provides access to the Air Canada Base and hangars, Air Transat hangars, Air Inuit hangars, Bombardier Aerospace assembly facility and the deicing facility.  When drivers pick up or drop off guests at Trudeau, they are permitted to stop momentarily outside the Arrivals and Departure areas at both the Canada and International departures as well as the Transborder Jetty.  Aéroports de Montréal, the City of Montreal, Transports Québec and Transport Canada made plans to improve the Dorval interchange and built direct road links between the airport and highways 20 and 520. Once the certificate of authorization was obtained, work began in June 2009 with an original projected end date of 2017, although some parts of the project will be on hold for several years. The project entails redesigning the road network within the airport site, which was mostly completed as planned.

Future connections.

On April 22, 2016, the CEO of the Caisse de Dépot et de Placement du Québec Michael Sabia and Montreal mayor Denis Coderre announced a massive transit project called Réseau express métropolitain, slated to open between 2021 and 2023. This planned rapid transit network will connect the Trudeau Airport to the Central station in Downtown Montréal, the North Shore, the South Shore and the West Island. It will run from 5am to 1am, 7 days a week. Construction began in April 2018 and will connect Trudeau Airport with downtown by 2023.

Montréal–Trudeau International Airport () or Montréal–Trudeau, formerly known as Montréal–Dorval International Airport ("Aéroport international Montréal-Dorval"), is an international airport in Dorval, Quebec. It is the primary international airport serving Montreal, from Downtown Montreal. The airport terminals are located entirely in the suburb of Dorval, while one runway is located in the Montreal borough of Saint-Laurent. Air Canada, the country's flag carrier, also has its corporate headquarters complex on the Saint-Laurent side of the airport. It also serves Greater Montreal and adjacent regions in Quebec and eastern Ontario, as well as the states of Vermont and northern New York in the United States. The airport is named in honour of Pierre Elliott Trudeau, the 15th Prime Minister of Canada and father of current Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.

Mezinárodní letiště Pierra Elliotta Trudeau (, nebo Montreal – Trudeau, IATA: YUL, ICAO: CYUL) je mezinárodní letiště v druhém největším městě Kanady a největší v provincii Québec. Letiště je hlavním leteckým uzlem montrealské aglomerace, která je domovem přibližně 4 milionové populace, což představuje přibližně 12 procent obyvatelstva Kanady. Nachází se na ostrově Montreal ve vzdálenosti 12 km od centra Montrealu. Letiště nese název po kanadském politikovi Pierru Trudeau. Využávají ho i cestující ze severního Vermontu a severního New Yorku.


History.

Throughout history, people have bought food from bakeries, creameries, butcher shops and other commercial processors to save time and effort. The Aztec people of Central Mexico utilized several convenience foods that required only adding water for preparation, which were used by travelers. Cornmeal that was ground and dried, referred to as "pinolli", was used by travelers as a convenience food in this manner.  Canned food was developed in the 19th century, primarily for military use, and became more popular during World War I. The expansion of canning depended significantly upon the development of canneries for producing large quantities of cans very cheaply. Before the 1850s, making a can for food required a skilled tinsmith; afterwards, an unskilled laborer, operating a can-making machine, could produce 15 times as many cans each day.  One of the earliest industrial-scale processed foods was meatpacking. After the invention of a system of refrigerator cars in 1878, animals could be raised, slaughtered, and butchered hundreds (later thousands) of miles or kilometers away from the consumer.  Experience in World War II contributed to the development of frozen foods and the frozen food industry. Modern convenience food saw its beginnings in the United States during the period that began after World War II. Many of these products had their origins in military-developed foods designed for storage longevity and ease of preparation in the battle field. Following the war, several commercial food companies had leftover manufacturing facilities, and some of these companies created new freeze-dried and canned foods for home use. Like many product introductions, not all were successful—convenience food staples such as fish sticks and canned peaches were counterbalanced by failures such as ham sticks and cheeseburgers-in-a-can. However, this new focus on convenience foods and the use of technology in the kitchen alleviated labor that was traditionally carried out by women, and therefore meals that could be prepared quickly enabled women to exercise more control over their time. As of the 2010s due to increased preference for fresh, "natural", whole, and organic food and health concerns the acceptability of processed food to consumers in the United States was dropping and the reputation of major packaged food brands had been damaged. Firms responded by offering "healthier" formulations and acquisition of brands with better reputations.

Types.

Convenience foods can include products such as candy; beverages such as soft drinks, juices and milk; nuts, fruits and vegetables in fresh or preserved states; processed meats and cheeses; and canned products such as soups and pasta dishes. Additional convenience foods include frozen pizza, chips such as potato chips, pretzels, and cookies.  These products are often sold in portion-controlled, single-serving packaging designed for portability.

Packaged mixes.

Gristmills have produced flour for baking for thousands of years. In more recent times flour has been sold with other ingredients mixed in, as have other products ready to cook. Packaged mixes are convenience foods which typically require some preparation and cooking either in the oven or on the stove top.  Packaged baked goods mixes typically use chemical leaveners (commonly referred to as baking powder), for a quick, reliable result, avoiding the requirement for time-consuming skilled labor and the climate control needed for traditional yeast breads. These packaged mixes produce a type of quickbread.  Examples include cake mixes, macaroni and cheese, brownie mixes, and gravy mixes. Some packaged mixes may have a high saturated fat content.

By country.

In 2007, it was noted in the book "Australia's food & nutrition 2012" that a distinct increase in convenience food consumption had been occurring in Australia.  In the Republic of Ireland, breakfast rolls eaten by busy workers became a symbol of the Celtic Tiger economic boom.  In Japan, onigiri (rice balls) are a popular convenience food that dates for millennia — by the Heian period these were established enough to be mentioned in literature. Additional Japanese convenience foods include prepared tofu (bean curd), prepared packages of seafood and instant ramen noodles.  Canned tuna packed in oil is a convenience food in the Solomon Islands.  In Russia, frozen pelmeni, a type of meat dumplings, adopted from the Finno-Ugric Uralian peoples such as Komi, Mansi and Udmurts, are known from at least the 18th century, and industrially produced and prepacked pelmeni are a staple of the supermarket freezer sections.

By region.

In Western Africa, processed cassava flour that has been grated and dried is a popular convenience food.

Retail.

In some instances, retail sales of convenience foods may provide higher profit margins for food retailers compared to the profits attained from sales of the individual ingredients that are present in the convenience foods.  A survey in 1984 attributed over one-third of funds spent by consumers for food in Great Britain to be for convenience food purchases.

Environmental and health concerns.

Several groups have cited the environmental harm of single serve packaging due to the increased usage of plastics that contributes to solid waste in landfills. Due to concerns about obesity and other health problems, some health organizations have criticized the high fat, sugar, salt, food preservatives and food additives that are present in some convenience foods.  In most developed countries, 80% of consumed salt comes from industry-prepared food (5% come from natural salt; 15% comes from salt added during cooking or eating). Health effects of salt concentrate on sodium and depend in part on how much is consumed. A single serving of many convenience foods contains a significant portion of the recommended daily allowance of sodium. Manufacturers are concerned that if the taste of their product is not optimized with salt, it will not sell as well as competing products. Tests have shown that some popular packaged foods depend on significant amounts of salt for their palatability.

Labeling, mitigation, and regulation.

In response to the issues surrounding the healthfulness of convenience and restaurant foods, an initiative in the United States, spearheaded by Michelle Obama and her "Let's Move!" campaign, to reduce the unhealthy aspects of commercially produced food and fight childhood obesity, was unveiled by the White House in February 2010. Mrs. Obama has pushed the industry to cut back on sugars and salts found in many convenience foods, encouraging self-regulation over government intervention through laws and regulations. Despite Mrs. Obama's stated preference on self-regulation, the Food and Drug Administration announced that it was looking into quantifying the guidelines into law while other groups and municipalities are seeking to add other preventative measures such as target taxes and levies onto these products.  In response to the attention, in April 2010 a coalition of sixteen manufactures all agreed to reduce salt levels in foods sold in the United States under a program based on a similar effort in the United Kingdom. However, the initiative has met with resistance from some manufacturers, who claim that processed foods require the current high levels of salt to remain appetizing and to mask undesirable effects of food processing such as "warmed-over flavor". The coalition expanded its mission in May 2010 by announcing that it intends to reduce the amount of calories in foods. By introducing lower calorie foods, changing product recipes and reducing portion sizes, the coalition stated that it expected to reduce the caloric content of foods by more than 1.5 trillion calories in total by 2012.

Social inequality.

As previously stated, convenience foods cover a variety of food groups and come in numerous forms. Thus, there are a variety of healthy and unhealthy convenience foods. Research such as the 2002 study by Kimberly Morland et al., have correlated inequalities between low-income communities and increased access to unhealthy convenience foods. Comparing low-income communities to more affluent communities, there are four times more supermarkets located in white communities than the black communities (commonly found in food deserts). As a result, the 2002 study concluded that with limited access to healthy food options in supermarkets, members with in the low-income and minority communities have unequal access. A 2010 study by Dharma E. Cortes et al. also found a connection between consumption of unhealthy convenience food and minority communities. Limited access to healthy food options have resulted in an increase in obesity amongst members in these communities.  Many low-income families struggle with buying fresh fruits and vegetables and nutritional meals for their families because of the price of the products. These families are most often located in food deserts and fresh food is not readily available in their community. Thus, families resort to buying food that is high in fat, sugar, and salt because these highly processed options are inexpensive. These highly processed foods make up a significant portion of unhealthy convenience foods.

Convenience food, or tertiary processed food, is food that is commercially prepared (often through processing) to optimise ease of consumption. Such food is usually ready to eat without further preparation. It may also be easily portable, have a long shelf life, or offer a combination of such convenient traits. Although restaurant meals meet this definition, the term is seldom applied to them. Convenience foods include ready-to-eat dry products, frozen foods such as TV dinners, shelf-stable foods, prepared mixes such as cake mix, and snack foods.

Průmyslově zpracované potraviny, ultrazpracované nebo terciárně zpracované potraviny jsou potraviny komerčně vyrobené průmyslovým zpracováním potravinových surovin za účelem zjednodušit a zlevnit jejich výrobu, skladování, přípravu a konzumaci a zároveň upravit jejich chuť. Zpracované potraviny jsou snadno dostupné kvůli typicky dlouhé skladovatelnosti a snadno konzumovatelné díky jejich zpracování. Takové potraviny obvykle obsahují potravinářské přídatné látky (aditiva), vysoké množství soli, cukru a jejich konzumace je spojena s zvýšeným rizikem rakoviny a různých civilizačních chorob.


Life and career.

He was born in Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic in the former Soviet Union, and started his playing career in CSKA Moscow. He participated on the 1992 Olympic Games as a member of the Unified Team and won the gold medal. He also became the top scorer of the games with 47 goals and was elected into the dream team of the tournament. One year later he participated on the 1993 World Championships as a member of the Russian team and won the gold medal again.  After the 1992 Olympics he signed for Teka Cantabria and a few years later he received the Spanish citizenship. Afterwards he played in the Spain national handball team for nearly a decade, gaining two Olympic bronze medals in 1996 and 2000, and silver and bronze medals on the European championships. He also gained several individual recognitions in the world championships, like being elected as the best player of the tournament in 1997, but he failed to win any medals with the Spanish team, which finished 4th in both 1999 and 2003. Ironically when Spain finally won the world championship in 2005, Dujshebaev was no longer the member of the squad.  In 2001, after playing for a few years in Germany on club level, he returned to Spain and signed for BM Ciudad Real where he finished his playing career in 2007. In 2005 he became player-manager of the team, and after his retirement he became the full-time manager. His managerial successes include multiple Liga ASOBAL wins with the team, as well as winning the EHF Champions League in 2006, 2008 and 2009.  In 2006 he briefly returned to the field, when one of the Ciudad center backcourt players, Uroš Zorman injured.  He was voted twice as the IHF World Player of the Year, in 1994 and in 1996. He also came in second in the IHF World Player of the Century voting behind Magnus Wislander from Sweden.  In 2014 (8 January) he replaced Bogdan Wenta as head coach of PGE Vive Kielce.  Contemporaneously with his job in Kielce, he has been also coaching the Hungarian men's national handball team since October 8, 2014 until 2016.  He also coached Poland during the 2016 Summer Olympics and the 2017 World Men's Handball Championship in France.  He is the father of Alex Dujshebaev and Daniel Dujshebaev.

Talant Mushanbetovich Dujshebaev (; born 2 June 1968) is a Russian-Spanish former handball player of Kyrgyz origin and current coach of PGE Vive Kielce. His most usual demarcation as a player was centre backcourt.

Talant Mušanbetovič Dujšebajev ("Талант Мушанбетович Дуйшебаев"; * 2. června 1968, Frunze) je bývalý španělský házenkář kyrgyzského původu. Hrál za CSKA Moskva, vyhrál olympiádu 1992 s týmem Společenství nezávislých států (se 47 brankami byl nejlepším střelcem turnaje) a Mistrovství světa v házené 1993 už s reprezentací samostatného Ruska. V roce 1993 přestoupil do klubu Teka Cantabria (v roce 1994 mu pomohl k vítězství v Lize mistrů) a v roce 1995 získal španělské občanství. Reprezentoval Španělsko na třech olympiádách (1996, 2000 a 2004, na třech mistrovstvích světa (v roce 1997 byl zvolen nejlepším hráčem šampionátu) a třech mistrovstvích Evropy. V národním týmu nastřílel 569 branek.


Biography.

De Nittis was born in Barletta, in the region of Apulia, where he first studied under Giovanni Battista Calò. After being expelled in 1863 from the Instituto di Belle Arti in Naples for insubordination, he launched his career with the exhibition of two paintings at the 1864 Neapolitan Promotrice. De Nittis came into contact with some of the artists known as the Macchiaioli, becoming friends with Telemaco Signorini, and exhibiting in Florence.  In 1867 he moved to Paris and entered into a contract with the art dealer Adolphe Goupil which called for him to produce saleable genre works. After gaining some visibility by exhibiting at the Salon he returned to Italy where, now free to paint from nature, he produced several views of Vesuvius.  In 1872 De Nittis returned to Paris and, no longer under contract to Goupil, achieved a success at the Salon with his painting "Che freddo!" ("Freezing!") of 1874 (Private collection). In that same year he was invited to exhibit at the first Impressionist exhibition, held at Nadar's. The invitation came from Edgar Degas, who was a friend of several Italian artists residing in Paris, including Telemaco Signorini, Giovanni Boldini and Federico Zandomeneghi. De Nittis was not accepted by all of the Impressionists, and did not participate in their subsequent exhibitions.  A trip to London resulted in a number of Impressionistic paintings. In 1875 De Nittis took up pastels, which became an important medium for him in his remaining years and which he helped popularize. Back in Paris, where his home was a favorite gathering place for Parisian writers and artists, as well as expatriate Italians, he executed pastel portraits of sitters including De Goncourt, Zola, Manet and Duranty. He preferred pastels as the medium for his largest works, such as the triptych entitled "Races at Auteuil" (1881).  De Nittis exhibited twelve paintings in the Exposition Universelle of 1878, and was awarded a gold medal. In that same year he received the Légion d’honneur.  In 1884, at the age of 38, De Nittis died suddenly of a stroke at Saint-Germain-en-Laye. His wife, the Parisian Léontine Lucile Gruvelle (married in 1869) donated his paintings to the town of Barletta and they are now gathered in the Pinacoteca De Nittis in the Palace of the Marra in the hometown of the painter.  Works by De Nittis are in many public collections, including the Musée d'Orsay in Paris, British Museum in London, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. His paintings "Return from the Races" and "The Connoisseurs" are in the Philadelphia Museum of Art.

Giuseppe De Nittis (February 25, 1846 – August 21, 1884) was one of the most important Italian painters of the 19th century, whose work merges the styles of Salon art and Impressionism.

Giuseppe De Nittis (25. února 1846, Barletta – 21. srpna 1884, Saint-Germain-en-Laye) byl italský impresionistický malíř působící v Paříži. Studoval Accademia di Belle Arti v Neapoli, odkud byl roku 1863 vyloučený pro nekázeň. Seznámil se s florentským výtvarným hnutím Macchiaioli, stal se přítelem představitele tohoto hnutí Telemaca Signoriniho a ve Florencii také vystavoval.


Early life.

Ovshinsky was born and grew up in the industrial town of Akron, Ohio, then at the center of the American rubber industry. The elder son of working-class Lithuanian Jewish immigrant parents who left Eastern Europe around 1905—Benjamin Ovshinsky from Lithuania and Bertha Munitz from what is now Belarus—Ovshinsky became active in social activities at an early age during the Great Depression. His lifelong concern to better the lives of workers and minorities, as well as to advance culture and the interests of industry, derive largely from his father, who was a generous, liberal, and highly cultured activist. With his horse and wagon, and later his truck, Ben Ovshinsky made his living collecting scrap metal from factories and foundries. Based on his father's example, and on teachings offered by the Akron Workmen's Circle, an organization mainly of Jewish immigrants who believed in social justice, Stan Ovshinsky developed a deep commitment to social values, including labor rights, civil rights, and civil liberties.

Work through the 1950s.

Work as a machinist and the Benjamin Center Drive.

Before graduating from high school in June 1941, Ovshinsky worked as a tool maker and machinist in various local shops affiliated with the rubber industry. During the Second World War, he and his bride, Norma Rifkin, moved to Arizona, where Ovshinsky worked for a time in the tool room of a Goodyear plant in Litchfield, not far from Phoenix. Returning to Akron shortly before the end of the war, Ovshinsky eventually established his own machine company, Stanford Roberts, initially in a barn. There he developed and patented his first invention, the Benjamin Center Drive, named after his father. This unique automatic high-speed center drive lathe had many important uses. After Ovshinsky sold his company to the New Britain Machine Company in Connecticut, it was used to help solve the national crisis of making artillery shells in large enough volume for wartime needs during the Korean War. Meanwhile, Ovshinsky continued to develop his growing interest in human and machine intelligence, avidly studying the research literature on neurophysiology, neurological disease, and cybernetics, corresponding briefly with Norbert Wiener.

Intelligent machines.

In 1951, Ovshinsky accepted an offer to move to Detroit and work in the automotive industry as the director of research at the Hupp Motor Company. Continuing his work on intelligent machines, he invented electric power steering, but Hupp's president was opposed to completing the arrangements with General Motors to utilize the product. Not long after that, Stan and his younger brother Herb Ovshinsky, a talented mechanical engineer, established a small company called General Automation in a Detroit storefront. There, Stan continued his study of intelligent machines and embarked on early research and development of various energy and information technologies. At the same time, he began studying neurophysiology and neurological diseases. On the basis of his early writings about nerve impulses and the nature of intelligence, he was invited by Wayne Medical School in June 1955 to participate in pioneering experimental research on the mammalian cerebellum.

The Ovitron.

By the late 1950s, working at General Automation, Ovshinsky brought together these disparate studies in an invention. Crossing scientific disciplines that academics traditionally hold separate, including neurophysiology and cybernetics, Stan invented, and Herb Ovshinsky helped build, a mechanical model of a nerve cell – an amorphous thin-film switch they called the Ovitron. Stan patented the device and the brothers disclosed it publicly in 1959 in New York City. In an attempt to model the learning ability of nerve cells, which Stan recognized as deriving from the plasticity of the cell's membrane, he drew on his knowledge of surfaces and materials to fashion very thin layers of amorphous material, thus pioneering the use of nanostructures. He created these layers by combining elements, especially from the Group 16 elements under oxygen, known as chalcogenides, including sulphur, selenium, and tellurium. He would continue to work with chalcogenides in his inventions for decades to come.

Work from 1960.

Energy Conversion Laboratory.

On January 1, 1960, Ovshinsky and Iris Miroy Dibner, whom he married soon after his divorce from Norma Rifkin, founded Energy Conversion Laboratory to develop his inventions in the interest of solving societal problems, especially those they identified in the areas of information and energy (e.g. pollution and wars over oil). Iris had a BA in zoology from Swarthmore College, an MS in biology from the University of Michigan, and a PhD in biochemistry from Boston University. Continuing to work on his atomically designed chalcogenide materials, which Ovshinsky realized offer unique electronic physical mechanisms, he utilized chain structures, cross links, polymeric concepts, and divalent structural bonding with a huge number of unbonded lone pairs to achieve what is now referred to as the Ovshinsky Effect – "an effect that turns special types of glassy, thin films into semiconductors upon application of low voltage." Applying this effect, he built new types of electronic and optical switches, including his Ovonic Phase Change Memory and his Threshold Switch. The former would become the basis of his subsequent inventions of rewritable CDs and DVDs and other new computer technologies including his cognitive computer. The latter is used in phase change memory that is entering the consumer market in 2017. While others working in the crystalline field were building devices based on bulk materials, Ovshinsky's work in the 1960s and later continued to be based on thin films and nanostructures. Recognizing the significance of his results, Ovshinsky applied for a patent on June 21, 1961 and, in 1962, made his first licensing pact on phase-change memory.

Energy Conversion Devices.

By the spring of 1963, the Ovshinskys had exhausted the savings with which they had initially funded ECL. Before seeking public funding, Stan wanted validation of the importance of his work from a well-recognized scientist. He telephoned Nobel Laureate John Bardeen, a co-inventor of the transistor and co-discoverer of the BCS theory of superconductivity. Bardeen immediately recognized the importance of Ovshinsky's work but his schedule did not permit him to visit ECL for five months. Stan replied, "We'll be broke by then." In his place, Bardeen sent Hellmut Fritzsche, a University of Chicago physicist. Fritzsche became very positive in his support of Ovshinsky's work and helped attract other scientists to the Ovshinsky laboratory. As Fritzsche and Brian Schwartz later wrote, "There is a mysterious quality in Ovshinsky's persona that attracts people into his sphere, builds life long friendships and awakens deep respect and devotion. Meeting him leaves each person with a deep impression of his superior intellect, his self confidence, his compassion to improve society combined with his certainty that his vision can be realized. His enthusiasm is contagious. In his presence, you feel how exciting it would be to join him in his endeavors." Among the many famous scientists who came regularly to ECL as friends or collaborators over the next years, were David Adler, Bardeen, Arthur Bienenstock, Morrel Cohen, Kenichi Fukui, William Lipscomb, Sir Nevill Mott, Linus Pauling, Isadore I. Rabi, Edward Teller, David Turnbull, Victor Weisskopf, and Robert R. Wilson. Some joined as consultants or as members of the Board of Directors. Meanwhile, the ECL community developed a uniquely productive, non-hierarchical, multicultural, international environment, reflecting Stan and Iris' social values. In 1964, Stan and Iris changed the laboratory's name to Energy Conversion Devices and moved the company to larger quarters in Troy, Michigan.  The company continued to develop electronic memory, batteries, and solar cells, reinvesting almost every penny of profit into the scientific study of a wide variety of problems, much of which later became the basis of lucrative industries, e.g., flat screen liquid crystal displays. In time, license fees to ECD began to grow, especially when amorphous silicon was used to make solar cells "by the mile," with an approach that originated from Ovshinsky's non-silver photographic film work. It led to the bold approach of using the first continuous web photovoltaic machine, designed and built under Stan's direction by Herb Ovshinsky and a small group in the machine division. Generations of machines later resulted in sufficient money to reach Ovshinsky's objective of building a 30 megawatt machine, rather than a 5 megawatt machine. Despite considerable skepticism toward the machine, it is now being cloned very successfully by ECD in new plants. ECD also saw profits from the nickel metal hydride batteries, which were important for a time in laptop computers and continue to be important in hybrid gas-electric automobiles.

Ovshinsky Innovation LLC.

On August 16, 2006, Iris Ovshinsky, Stan's wife and partner of almost fifty years, died suddenly while swimming. A year later, Ovshinsky retired from ECD and launched a new company with Rosa Young, whom he later married. At Ovshinsky Innovation LLC, he continued his work on information and energy science, in strong relationships with colleagues and with industrial partners (for example, Ovonyx, which is developing phase-change semiconductor memory). Ovshinsky Innovation is currently focusing on a new kind of photovoltaic plant based on a new concept promising to lower the cost of photovoltaic energy sources below that of coal. This latter innovation would help realize his long-term goal over the last half-century to make fossil fuels obsolete while, at the same time, providing countless jobs in new industries.  ECD has been recognized as the company that "developed solar roofing shingles in the 1990s," and making "the best available flexible thin film in the world," in addition to being one of the first companies to work on building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) Because of his independent and radical contributions to science, he has been compared with Albert Einstein. Because of his many inventions in digital memory, solar energy, battery technology, optical media, and solid hydrogen storage, and his hundreds of basic scientific patents, he has often been compared with Thomas Edison. In the area of alternatives to fossil fuel, his pioneering work has caused many writers to refer to him as "the modern world's most important energy visionary."

General Motors and the US Auto Battery Consortium.

In an interview in the 2006 documentary "Who Killed the Electric Car?", Ovshinsky stated that in the early 1990s, the auto industry created the US Auto Battery Consortium (USABC) to stifle the development of electric vehicle technology by preventing the dissemination of knowledge about Ovshinky's battery-related patents to the public through the California Air Resources Board (CARB).  According to Ovshinsky, the auto industry falsely suggested that NiMH technology was not yet ready for widespread use in road cars. Members of the USABC, including General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler, threatened to take legal action against Ovshinsky if he continued to promote NiMH's potential for use in BEVs, and if he continued to lend test batteries to Solectria, a start-up electric vehicle maker that was not part of the USABC. Critics argue that the Big Three were more interested in convincing CARB members that electric vehicles were not technologically and commercially viable. In 1994, General Motors acquired a controlling interest in Ovonics's battery development and manufacture, including patents controlling the manufacture of large NiMH batteries. The original intent of the equity alliance was to develop NiMH batteries for GM's EV1 BEV. Sales of GM-Ovonics batteries were later taken over by GM manager and critic of CARB John Williams, leading Ovshinsky to wonder whether his decision to sell to GM had been naive. The EV1 program was shut down by GM before the new NiMH battery could be commercialized, despite field tests that indicated the Ovonics battery extended the EV1's range to over 150 miles.

Death.

His last public appearance was at Louis Riel School in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ovshinsky died of prostate cancer on October 17, 2012, aged 89 in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.

Honors and awards.

With more than 300 publications on his curriculum vitae, Ovshinsky has won many prizes for his contributions to science and innovation.

In popular culture.

Ovshinsky appeared in the documentary "Who Killed the Electric Car?", as well as in parts 1 and 3 of the episode "Hydrogen Hopes" of Alan Alda's television series "Scientific American Frontiers". The website of "Scientific American Frontiers" makes "Hydrogen Hopes" available for viewing at no charge, as well as the text of an interview with Stan and Iris Ovshinsky. Ovshinsky was profiled as "Japan's American Genius" in the PBS series "NOVA" (October 1987).

Stanford Robert Ovshinsky (November 24, 1922 – October 17, 2012) was an American engineer, scientist and inventor who over a span of fifty years was granted well over 400 patents, mostly in the areas of energy and information. Many of his inventions have had wide ranging applications. Among the most prominent are: an environmentally friendly nickel-metal hydride battery, which has been widely used in laptop computers, digital cameras, cell phones, and electric and hybrid cars; flexible thin-film solar energy laminates and panels; flat screen liquid crystal displays; rewritable CD and DVD discs; hydrogen fuel cells; and nonvolatile phase-change memory.

Stanford R. Ovshinsky (24. listopadu 1922, Akron, Ohio − 17. října 2012, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan) byl americký vynálezce, vědec a držitel více než 400 patentů v průběhu posledních 50 let, většinou z oblastí energie a informatiky. Mnoho jeho vynálezů mělo rozmanité uplatnění. Mezi nejvýznamnější patří environmentální přátelské NiMH akumulátory, které mají široké uplatnění v laptopech, digitálních fotoaparátech, mobilních telefonech, elektrických a hybridních autech. Z jiné oblasti použití jsou to napíklad tenké flexibilní fotovoltaické panely, ploché obrazovky (LCD), přepisovatelné CD a DVD disky, vodíkové články, nevolatilní elektronické paměti s proměnnou fází. Ovshinsky odkryl vědecké pole amorfních materiálů v průběhu jeho výzkumu ve čtyřicátých a padesátých letech v oblastech neurofyziologie a nervových chorob. Amorfní křemíkové polovodiče se staly základem pro mnoho technologických odvětví. Ovshinsky byl samouk, bez formálního vysokoškolského vzdělání.


Precursor.

The Great Central Fair on Logan Square in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1864 (also known as the Great Sanitary Fair), was one of the many sanitary fairs held during the Civil War. They provided a creative and communal means for ordinary citizens to promote the welfare of Union soldiers and dedicate themselves to the survival of the nation, and the Great Central Fair bolstered Philadelphia's role as a vital center in the Union war effort. It anticipated the combination of public, private, and commercial investments that were necessary to mount the Centennial Exposition. Both had a similar neo-Gothic appearance, the waving flags, the huge central hall, the "curiosities" and relics, handmade and industrial exhibits, and also a visit from the president and his family.

Planning.

The idea of the Centennial Exposition is credited to John L. Campbell, a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy, and astronomy at Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana. In December 1866, Campbell suggested to Philadelphia Mayor Morton McMichael that the United States Centennial be celebrated with an exposition in Philadelphia. Naysayers argued that the project would not be able to find funding, other nations might not attend, and domestic exhibits might compare poorly to foreign ones.  The Franklin Institute became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the Philadelphia City Council for use of Fairmount Park. With reference to the numerous events of national importance that were held in the past and related to the city of Philadelphia, the City Council resolved in January 1870 to hold the Centennial Exposition in the city in 1876.  The Philadelphia City Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly created a committee to study the project and seek support of the U.S. Congress. Congressman William D. Kelley spoke for the city and state, and Daniel Johnson Morrell introduced a bill to create a United States Centennial Commission. The bill, which passed on March 3, 1871, provided that the U.S. government would not be liable for any expenses.  The United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3, 1872, with Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as president. The Centennial Commission's commissioners included one representative from each state and territory in the United States. On June 1, 1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money. The board's president was John Welsh, brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for the Great Sanitary Fair in 1864. The board was authorized to sell up to $10 million in stock via $10 shares. The board sold $1,784,320 ($ today) worth of shares by February 22, 1873. Philadelphia contributed $1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave $1 million. On February 11, 1876, Congress appropriated $1.5 million in a loan. Originally, the board thought it was a subsidy, but after the exposition ended, the federal government sued for the money back, and the United States Supreme Court ultimately forced repayment. John Welsh enlisted help from the women of Philadelphia who had helped him in the Great Sanitary Fair. A Women's Centennial Executive Committee was formed with Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, a great-granddaughter of Benjamin Franklin, as president. In its first few months, the group raised $40,000. When the group learned the planning commission was not doing much to display the work of women, it raised an additional $30,000 for a women's exhibition building.  In 1873, the Centennial Commission named Alfred T. Goshorn as the director general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside of West Fairmount Park for the exposition, which was dedicated on July 4, 1873, by Secretary of the Navy George M. Robeson. The Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments: agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher John W. Forney agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at the exposition. Despite fears of a European boycott and high American tariffs making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation.  To accommodate out-of-town visitors, temporary hotels were constructed near the exposition's grounds. A Centennial Lodging-House Agency made a list of rooms in hotels, boarding houses, and private homes and then sold tickets for the available rooms in cities promoting the Centennial or on trains heading for Philadelphia. Philadelphia streetcars increased service, and the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains from Philadelphia's Market Street, New York City, Baltimore, and Pittsburgh. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad ran special trains from the Center City part of Philadelphia. A small hospital was built on the exposition's grounds by the Centennial's Medical Bureau, but despite a heat wave during the summer, no mass health crises occurred.  Philadelphia passed an ordinance that authorized Mayor William S. Stokley to appoint 500 men as Centennial Guards for the exposition. Among soldiers and local men hired by the city was Frank Geyer, best known for investigating one of America's first serial killers, H. H. Holmes. Centennial Guards policed exhibits, kept the peace, reunited lost children, and received, recorded, and when possible, returned lost items, the most unusual of which were front hair pieces and false teeth. Guards were required to live onsite and were housed at six police stations strategically located throughout the Exposition. A magistrate's office and courtroom were located at the only two-story police station located on the grounds and was used to conduct prisoner hearings. Officers slept in cramped quarters, which fostered health issues. Eight guards died while working the Exposition, six from typhoid fever, one from smallpox, and one from organic disease of the heart.  The Centennial National Bank was chartered on January 19, 1876, to be the "financial agent of the board at the Centennial Exhibition, receiving and accounting for daily receipts, changing foreign moneys into current funds, etc.," according to an article three days later in the "Philadelphia Inquirer". Its main branch, designed by Frank Furness, was opened that April on the southeast corner of Market Street and 32nd Street. A branch office operated during the exposition on the fairgrounds. The Centennial Commission ran out of funds for printing and other expenses. Philadelphia city officials appropriated $50,000 to make up for the shortfall.

Herman J. Schwarzmann.

Herman J. Schwarzmann, an engineer for the Fairmount Park Commission, was appointed the main designer of the exposition. In 1869 Schwarzmann had begun working for the Fairmount Park Commission, which administered the site of the 1876 Centennial Exposition. It is one of the great urban parks of America, its importance in landscape history surpassed only by Central Park. Schwarzmann was the chief architect for the Centennial Exposition, designing Memorial Hall, Horticultural Hall, other small buildings, and the landscaping around them. His work for the Centennial Exposition was informed by the Vienna International Exposition in 1873, which Schwarzmann visited to study the buildings and the grounds layout. The Vienna International Exposition in 1873 was marred by disastrous logistic planning and was taken as a cautionary example.  At the Vienna Exposition, there was no convenient way for visitors to reach the fairgrounds, and exorbitant rates were charged by carriage drivers. Drawing lessons from this failure, the Philadelphia expo was ready for its visitors, with direct railroad connections to service passenger trains every 30 minutes, trolley lines, street cars, carriage routes, and even docking facilities on the river.

Structures.

More than 200 buildings were constructed within the Exposition's grounds, which were surrounded by a fence nearly three miles long. There were five main buildings in the exposition. They were the Main Exhibition Building, Memorial Hall, Machinery Hall, Agricultural Hall, and Horticultural Hall. Apart from these buildings, there were separate buildings for state, federal, foreign, corporate, and public comfort buildings. This strategy of numerous buildings in one exposition set it apart from the previous fairs around the world that had relied exclusively on having one or a few large buildings.  The Centennial Commission sponsored a design competition for the principal buildings, conducted in two rounds; winners of the first round had to have details such as construction cost and time prepared for the runoff on September 20, 1873. After the ten design winners were chosen, it was determined that none of them allowed enough time for construction and limited finances.  The architecture of the exposition mainly consisted of two types of building, traditional masonry monuments and buildings with a structural framework of iron and steel.

Main Exhibition Building.

The Centennial Commission turned to third-place winner's architect Henry Pettit and engineer Joseph M. Wilson for design and construction of the Main Exhibition Building. A temporary structure, the Main Building was the largest building in the world by area, enclosing. It measured 464 ft in width and 1,880 ft in length.  It was constructed using prefabricated parts, with a wood and iron frame resting on a substructure of 672 stone piers. Wrought iron roof trusses were supported by the columns of the superstructure.  The building took eighteen months to complete and cost $1,580,000. The building was surrounded by portals on all four sides. The east entrance of the building was used as an access way for carriages, and the south entrance of the building served as a primary entrance to the building for streetcars. The north side related the building to the Art Gallery and the west side served as a passageway to the Machinery and Agricultural Halls.  In the Main Exhibition Building, columns were placed at a uniform distance of 24 feet. The entire structure consisted of 672 columns, the shortest column 23 ft in length and the longest 125 ft in length. The construction included red and black brick-laid design with stained glass or painted glass decorations. The Interior walls were whitewashed, and woodwork was decorated with shades of green, crimson, blue, and gold. The flooring of the building was made of wooden planks that rested directly on the ground without any air space underneath them.  The orientation of the building was east-west in direction, making it well lit, and glass was used between the frames to let in light. Skylights were set over the central aisles of the structure. The corridors of the building were separated by fountains that were attractive and also provided cooling.  The structure of the building featured a central avenue with a series of parallel sheds that were wide, long, and high. It was the longest nave ever introduced into an exhibition building up to that time. On both sides of the nave were avenues 100 feet in width and 1832 feet in length. Aisles 48 ft wide were located between the nave and the side avenues, and smaller aisles 24 ft in width were on the outer sides of the building.  The exterior of the building featured of four towers, each 75 feet high, at each of the building's corners. These towers had small balconies at different heights that served as observation galleries.  Within the building, exhibits were arranged in a grid, in a dual arrangement of type and national origin. Exhibits from the United States were placed in the center of the building, and foreign exhibits were arranged around the center, based on the nation's distance from the United States. Exhibits inside the Main Exhibition Building dealt with mining, metallurgy, manufacturing, education, and science. Offices for foreign commissioners were placed in proximity to the products exhibited along in the aisles along the sides of the building. The walkways leading to the exit doors were ten feet wide.  After the Exposition, the structure was turned into a permanent building for the International Exhibition. During the auction held on December 1, 1876, it was bought for $250,000. It quickly ran into financial difficulties but remained open through 1879 and was finally demolished in 1881.

Agricultural Hall.

The third largest structure at the exposition was Agricultural Hall. Designed by James Windrim, Agricultural Hall was long and wide. Made of wood and glass, the building was designed to look like various barn structures pieced together. The building's exhibits included products and machines used in agriculture and other related businesses.

Horticultural Hall.

Situated high atop a hill presiding over Fountain Avenue, Horticultural Hall epitomized floral achievement, which attracted professional and amateur gardeners. Unlike the other main buildings, it was meant to be permanent. Horticultural Hall had an iron and glass frame on a brick and marble foundation and was long, wide,and tall. The building was designed in the Moorish style and intended as a tribute to the Crystal Palace of London's Great Exhibition of 1851. Inside, nurserymen, florists, and landscape architects exhibited a variety of tropical plants, garden equipment, and garden plans. In dramatic fashion, the exposition introduced the general public to the notion of landscape design, as exemplified the building itself and the grounds surrounding it. A long, sunken parterre leading to Horticultural Hall became the exposition's iconic floral feature, reproduced on countless postcards and other memorabilia. This sunken garden enabled visitors on the raised walkways to see the patterns and shapes of the flowerbeds. After the Exposition, the building continued to be used for horticultar exhibit until it was severely damaged by Hurricane Hazel in 1954 and was subsequently demolished. As a replacement, the Fairmount Park Horticulture Center was built on the site in 1976 as part of the United States Bicentennial exposition.

Machinery Hall.

Designed by Joseph M. Wilson and Henry Pettit, Machinery Hall was the second largest structure in the exposition and located west of the Main Exhibition Building. With a superstructure made of wood and glass resting on a foundation of massive masonry, it had a main hall painted light blue, 1,402 ft long and 360 ft wide, with a wing of 208 ft by 210 ft attached on the south side of the building. The length of the building was 18 times its height. With eight entrances, it occupied 558,440 square feet, had 1,900 exhibitors, and took six months to construct. The exhibits focused on machines and evolving industries. Machinery Hall was the show case for the state of the art industrial technology that was being produced at the time. The United States of America alone took up two-thirds of the exhibit space in the building.  One of the major attractions on display in the building was the Corliss Centennial Steam Engine that ran power to all the machinery in the building as well as other parts of the world's fair. The 1,400 horsepower engine was 45 feet tall, weighed 650 tons, and had one mile of overhead line belts connecting to the machinery in the building. It symbolized the technology that was transforming the United States into an industrial powerhouse.  Amenities available to the visitors within the hall were rolling chairs, telegraph offices, and dinner for fifty cents. Machinery Hall had 8,000 operating machines and was filled with a wide assortment of hand tools, machine tools, material handling equipment, and the latest fastener technology.

Memorial Hall.

The Art Gallery building (now known as Memorial Hall) is the only large exhibit building still standing on the exposition site. Constructed of brick, glass, iron, and granite in the beaux-arts style, it was the largest art hall in the country when it opened, with a massive 1.5-acre footprint and a 150-foot dome atop a 59-foot-high structure. The central domed area is surrounded by four pavilions on the corners, with open arcades to the east and west of the main entrance. It provided 75,000 square feet of wall surface for paintings and 20,000 square feet of floor space for sculptures. The exposition received so many art contributions that a separate annex was built to house them all. Another structure was built for the display of photography. Memorial Hall was designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann, who basically adopted an art museum plan submitted by Nicholas Félix Escalier to the Prix de Rome competition in 1867–69. Memorial Hall became the prototype, both from a stylistic and organizational standpoint, for other museums such as the Art Institute of Chicago (1892–1893), the Milwaukee Public Museum (1893–1897), the Brooklyn Museum (1893–1924), and the Detroit Institute of Art (1920–1927). Libraries such as the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, and the Free Library of Philadelphia also emulated its form.  After the exposition, Memorial Hall reopened in 1877 as the Pennsylvania Museum of Art and included the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art. In 1928 the museum moved to Fairmount at the head of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, and in 1938 was renamed the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Memorial Hall continued to house the school, and afterward was taken over by the Fairmount Park Commission in 1958. The museum school is now the University of the Arts. Used for a time as a police station, the building now houses the Please Touch Museum, which includes a faithful 20x30-foot model of the exposition grounds and 200 buildings.

Women's Pavilion.

The Women's Pavilion was the first structure at an international exposition to highlight the work of women, with exhibits created and operated by women. Female organizers drew upon deep-rooted traditions of separatism and sorority in planning, fundraising, and managing a pavilion devoted entirely to the artistic and industrial pursuits of their gender. They had to build their own structure because they lost their spot in one of the larger pavilions (the Main Building) due to an unexpected increase in the participation of foreign countries. Their aim was to employ only women in the construction of the pavilion and even to power it, and they succeeded with the exception of the design by Hermann J. Schwarzmann. Their overarching goal was to advance women's social, economic, and legal standing, abolish restrictions discriminating against their gender, encourage sexual harmony, and gain influence, leverage, and freedom for all women in and outside of the home by increasing women's confidence and ability to choose.  A project of the Women's Centennial Executive Committee, the Women's Pavilion was commissioned in 1873 by the United States Centennial Board of Finance with the expectation that it would generate enthusiasm for the celebration of the fair and increase subscriptions to exposition stock. Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, president of the Women's Centennial Committee, led the effort to gather 82,000 signatures in two days to raise money for the pavilion. Gillespie also helped convince Congress to grant additional funding. It only took only four months to raise the funds for the pavilion.  Much of the pavilion was devoted to human ecology and home economics. On exhibit were over 80 patented inventions, including a reliance stove, a hand attachment for sewing machines, a dishwasher, a fountain griddle-greaser, a heating iron with removable handle, a frame for stretching and drying lace curtains, and a stocking and glove darner. The Centennial women not only showed domestic production but also employed a popular means for justifying female autonomy outside of the home by demonstrating to visitors the many ways women were making a profitable living. Exhibits demonstrated positive achievements and women's influence in domains such as industrial and fine arts (wood-carvings, furniture-making, and ceramics), fancy articles (clothing and woven goods), and philanthropy as well as philosophy, science, medicine, education, and literature.  Mexico participated in the pavilion's exhibits, indicating the growth of a sector of elite women during the Porfirio Díaz regime of the late nineteenth century, with many individual women sending examples of woven textiles and embroidery.

Other buildings.

The British buildings were extensive and exhibited the evolved bicycle, with tension spokes and a large front wheel. Two English manufacturers, Bayless Thomas and Rudge, displayed their high-wheel bikes (called "ordinary bikes" or "penny farthings") at the exposition. The bicycle displays inspired Albert Augustus Pope to begin making high-wheel bikes in the United States. He started the Columbia Bike Company and published a journal called "LAW Bulletin and Good Roads", which was the beginning of the Good Roads Movement.  Beyond the US, eleven nations had their own exhibition buildings, along with 26 of the 37 U.S. states. Only two such state houses are still extant: the Ohio House at its original location in Fairmount Park, and the Missouri House, which was moved to Spring Lake, New Jersey, along with several other exhibition buildings, some of which are still extant in various Jersey Shore towns.  The United States government had a cross-shaped building that held exhibits from various government departments. The remaining structures were corporate exhibitions, administration buildings, restaurants, and other buildings designed for public comfort.

Exposition.

The formal name of the exposition was the International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine, but the official theme was the celebration of the United States centennial. This was reinforced by promotional tie-ins, such as the publication of Kate Harrington's "Centennial, and Other Poems", which celebrated the exposition and the centennial. At the same time, the exposition was designed to show the world the United States' industrial and innovative prowess. The exposition was originally scheduled to open in April, marking the anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord, but construction delays caused the date to be pushed back to May 10. Bells rang all over Philadelphia to signal the exposition's opening. The opening ceremony was attended by President Ulysses Grant and his wife as well as Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his wife. The opening ceremony concluded in Machinery Hall, with Grant and Pedro II turning on the Corliss Steam Engine which powered most of the other machines at the exposition. The official number of first day attendees was 186,272 people, with 110,000 entering with free passes.  In the days following the opening ceremony, attendance dropped dramatically, with only 12,720 people visiting the exposition the next day. The average daily attendance for May was 36,000 and for June 39,000. A severe heat wave began in mid-June and continued into July, hurting attendance. The average temperature was, and on ten days during the heat wave the temperature reached. The average daily attendance for July was 35,000, but it rose in August to 42,000 despite the return of high temperatures at the end of the month.  Cooling temperatures, news reports, and word of mouth began increasing attendance in the final three months of the exposition, with many of the visitors coming from farther distances. In September the average daily attendance rose to 94,000 and in October to 102,000. The highest attendance date of the entire exposition was September 28. The day, which saw about a quarter of a million people attend, was Pennsylvania Day. It celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776, and exposition events included speeches, receptions, and fireworks. The final month of the exposition, November, had an average daily attendance of 115,000. By the time the exposition ended on November 10, a total of 10,164,489 had visited the fair. Among the attendees who were duly impressed by the exposition were Princeton University sophomore Woodrow Wilson and his minister father, Dr. Joseph Ruggles Wilson, visiting from North Carolina.  Although not financially successful for investors, the Centennial Exposition impressed foreigners with the industrial and commercial growth of the country. The level of exports increased, the level of imports decreased, and the trade balance grew in favor of the United States.

Inventions.

The Centennial Monorail featured a steam locomotive and passenger car that straddled a single elevated iron rail. Mass-produced products and new inventions were on display within Machinery Hall. Inventions included the typewriter and electric pen along with new types of mass-produced sewing machines, stoves, lanterns, guns, wagons, carriages, and agricultural equipment.  The exposition also featured many well-known products including Alexander Graham Bell's first telephone, set up at opposite ends of Machinery Hall, Thomas Edison's automatic telegraph system, screw-cutting machines that dramatically improved the production of screws and bolts from 8,000 to 100,000 per day, and a universal grinding machine by the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company.  Air-powered tools along with a mechanical calculator by George B. Grant were exhibited. John A. Roebling & Sons Company displayed a slice of their 5 3⁄4 inch diameter cable to be used for the Brooklyn Bridge. New food products such as popcorn and ketchup, along with root beer, were also exhibited.

Exhibits.

The right arm and torch of the Statue of Liberty were showcased at the exposition. For a fee of 50 cents, visitors could climb the ladder to the balcony, and the money raised this way was used to fund the pedestal for the statue.  Technologies introduced at the fair include the Corliss Steam Engine. Pennsylvania Railroad displayed the "John Bull" steam locomotive that was originally built in 1831. The Waltham Watch Company displayed the first automatic screw-making machinery and won the Gold Medal in the first international watch precision competition. Until the start of 2004, many of the exposition's exhibits were displayed in the Smithsonian Institution's Arts and Industries Building in Washington, D.C., adjacent to the Castle building.  Still basking in afterglow of its victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, the newly founded German Empire foregrounded its arms industry, especially the powerful Krupp guns and heavy cannons that were sold and exported to numerous nations in the following years. By way of contrast, the craftsmanship of France, which had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War, was represented by the Gothic Revival high altar that Edward Sorin, founder of University of Notre Dame, had commissioned from the workshop of Désiré Froc-Robert & Sons in Paris. After the exposition, the altar was installed at the Basilica of the Sacred Heart on Notre Dame's campus where it remains to this day.  For Mexico, which was emerging from a long period of internal disorder and foreign invasions, the exposition was an opportunity for the Liberal regime of President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada to garner international recognition of his regime and to counter anti-Mexican public opinion in the United States. Prominent Mexican painters including José María Velasco, José Obregón, and Santiago Rebull exhibited there. Velasco's work was greatly admired, gaining him international recognition and enhancing his standing in Mexico.  The Swedish Cottage, representing a rural Swedish schoolhouse of traditional style, was re-erected in Central Park, New York, after the exposition closed. It is now the Swedish Cottage Marionette Theatre. The official State Pavilion of New Jersey was a reconstruction of the Ford Mansion in Morristown, New Jersey, which served as General George Washington's headquarters during the winter of 1779–80. Featuring costumed presenters and a "colonial kitchen" complete with a spinning wheel, the reconstructed mansion was accompanied a polemical narrative about "old-fashioned domesticity". This quaint hearth-and-home interpretation of the colonial past was counterposed to the theme of progress, with the overarching theme of the exposition serving to reinforce a view of American progress as evolving from a small, hardy colonial stock rather than from a continual influx of multi-ethnic waves of immigration. It sparked an era of "Colonial Revival" in American architecture and house furnishings.  Beaver Falls Cutlery Company exhibited the "largest knife and fork in the world" made by Chinese immigrant workers, among others.  Consumer products first displayed to the public include:

The Centennial International Exhibition of 1876, the first official World's Fair to be held in the United States, was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from May 10 to November 10, 1876, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia. Officially named the International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine, it was held in Fairmount Park along the Schuylkill River on fairgrounds designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann. Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exposition, and 37 countries participated in it.

Světová výstava 1876 ("The Centennial International Exhibition") byla v pořadí šestá a konala se roku 1876 ve Filadelfii jako první oficiální světová výstava na území Spojených států amerických. Představila mimo jiné telegraf, telefon, psací stroj, šicí stroj a Thonetovy židle.