History.

All members of the European Union, except Denmark are required by treaty to join the euro once certain economic criteria have been met. The Lithuanian litas participated in ERM II since 28 June 2004, and was pegged to the euro at a rate of 3.45280 litai = €1. Lithuania originally set 1 January 2007 as their target date for joining the euro, and in March 2006 requested that the European Commission and the European Central Bank conduct an assessment on their readiness to adopt the currency. The Commission's report found that while Lithuania met four of the five criteria, their average annual inflation was 2.7%, exceeding the limit of 2.6%. As a result, the Commission concluded that "there should be no change at present to Lithuania's status as a Member State with a derogation." Lithuania is the only country initially to have been denied approval to adopt the euro after requesting a convergence check.  In December 2006 the government approved a new convergence plan, which pushed the expected adoption date to post-2010 due to inflation. In 2007, Prime Minister Gediminas Kirkilas stated that he hoped for adoption around 2010–11. Generally high inflation, which reached a peak of 12.7% in June 2008 (well above the 4.2% limit of the time), delayed Lithuania's adoption of the euro. By the time of the 2010 European debt crisis, the expected switch over date had been put further back to 2014. Lithuania expressed interest in a suggestion from the IMF that countries which are not able to meet the Maastricht criteria be able to "partially adopt" the euro, using the currency but not getting a seat at the European Central Bank. Interviews with the Foreign Minister and Prime Minister in May and August 2012 respectively highlighted that Lithuania still aimed to join the euro, but would not set a target date until the state of the eurozone post-crisis was clear.  During the 2012 Lithuanian parliamentary election campaign, the Social Democrats were reported to prefer delaying the euro adoption, from the previous 2014 target until 1 January 2015. When the second round of the elections were concluded in October, the Social Democrats and two coalition parties won a majority and formed the new government, and the coalition parties were expected to accept the proposed delay in adoption of the euro. When Prime Minister Algirdas Butkevičius presented his new government in December, eurozone accession as soon as possible was mentioned as one of the key priorities for the government. The Prime Minister said: "January 2015 is a feasible date. But things can also turn out, that we may try to adopt the euro together with Latvia in January 2014. Let the first quarter (of 2013) pass, and we'll give it a thought." However, in January 2013 the Prime Minister announced that the government and the Bank of Lithuania had agreed on a target date of 2015. In February 2013, the government of Lithuania approved a plan for euro adoption in 2015.  According to figures from the Bank of Lithuania, Lithuania had met 4 out of the 5 criteria by October 2013, the exception being the government deficit of 3.2% of GDP, exceeding the limit of 3.0%. The Lithuanian government expected this to decline to 2.9% by the first quarter of 2014. In April 2014, the European Parliament's Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs gave their preliminary consent for Lithuania to join the eurozone on 1 January 2015, having concluded that the country was complying with all the criteria according to economic data from the first months of 2014. Lithuania's parliament approved a euro changeover law in April 2014, and in their biennial reports released on 4 June the European Commission found that the country satisfied the convergence criteria. The European Central Bank does not conclude on whether the country is ready to join the euro area. On 16 July the European Parliament voted in favour of Lithuania adopting the euro. On 23 July the EU Council of Ministers approved the decision, clearing the way for Lithuania to adopt the euro on 1 January 2015.

Public opinion.

A poll by Eurobarometer in April 2013 found that 41% of Lithuanians supported switching to the euro, while 55% were opposed. This was a decrease in support of 3% from a year earlier. A September 2014 Eurobarometer poll found that 49% of Lithuanians were opposed to the introduction of the euro and 47% supported it.  Opinion polling in the run-up to the adoption of the euro produced a mixed set of results. A Baltic Surveys (Baltijos Tyrimai) face-to-face interview survey for the eurosceptic Europeans United for Democracy party conducted on 14–24 November found that 49% of Lithuanians disagree with their Government's decision to introduce the euro, while 26% of Lithuanians approved (5% fully, 21% rather in favour). 57% of respondents said the Government acted wrongly by introducing the euro without a referendum on the issue. However, a poll conducted by Berent Research Baltic for the Bank of Lithuania between 3 and 26 November showed that 53% of the population were in favour of the new currency while 39% were sceptical.

Coin design.

The designs of the Lithuanian coins share a similar national side for all denominations, featuring the Vytis symbol and the name of the country, ""Lietuva"". The design was announced on 11 November 2004 following a public opinion poll conducted by the Bank of Lithuania. It was created by the sculptor Antanas Žukauskas. The only difference between the coins is that the one and two euro coins have vertical lines on the outer circle, the fifty, twenty and ten cent coins have horizontal lines on the outer circle, and the five, two and one cent coins have no lines on the outer circle. In January 2014 it was announced that all coins will have "2015" printed on them to display the year of Lithuania's euro adoption. The Lithuanian Mint was chosen to mint the coins.  For the design of images on the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins.

Accession to the eurozone.

Lithuania officially joined the Eurozone at midnight on the morning of 1 January 2015, with the Lithuanian Central Bank offering an exchange rate of 3.4528 LTL to one euro. Immediately after the start of the New Year, Prime Minister Algirdas Butkevicius made the country's first cash withdrawal in euros. It was reported that nearly all of the nation's cash machines would be dispensing euros within 30 minutes of the New Year. In Brussels, the European Commission building was draped with a banner welcoming Lithuania to the Eurozone. The European Commission recommended in November 2014 that Lithuania extend the legally required dual price display period by six additional months, so that it would last until 31 December 2015. Lithuania did not adopt the recommendation and the required dual price display ended on 1 July 2015.

Rotation of voting rights in the ECB Governing Council.

On 17 June 2014 the Deutsche Bundesbank released a statement stating that "Lithuania could cause the ECB Governing Council's voting rights to rotate. The virtually certain introduction of the euro in this small Baltic nation at the beginning of next year would cause the number of national central bank (NCB) governors on the ECB Governing Council to exceed 18 for the first time. It would trigger a changed voting procedure designed to ensure that decisions can still be taken effectively in a growing Eurosystem. This would pave the way for the introduction of a modified voting system similar to that of the US Federal Reserve System."

Lithuania is an EU member state which joined the Eurozone by adopting the euro on 1 January 2015. This made it the last of the three Baltic states to adopt the euro, after Estonia (2011) and Latvia (2014). Before then, its currency, the litas, was pegged to the euro at 3.4528 litas to 1 euro.

Litevské euromince jsou mince, které začaly platit dne 1. ledna 2015, když Litva vstoupila do eurozóny a euro se stalo oficiálním platidlem státu.


History.

In August 1040, MacBeth's army defeated and killed Duncan I at Bothganowan (Pitgaveny), near Elgin. Elgin is first recorded in a charter of David I in 1151 in which he granted an annuity to the Priory of Urquhart. David had made Elgin a royal burgh around 1130, after his defeat of Óengus of Moray. During David's reign, the castle was established at the top of what is now Lady Hill. The town received a royal charter from Alexander II in 1224 when he granted the land for a new cathedral to Andrew, Bishop of Moray. This finally settled the episcopal see which had been at various times at Kinneddar, Birnie and Spynie. Elgin was a popular residence for the early Scottish monarchs: David I, William I, Alexander II and Alexander III all held court there and hunted in the royal forests.  Of these kings, Alexander II was Elgin's greatest benefactor and returned many times to his royal castle. He established the two religious houses of the town, the Dominicans or Blackfriars on the west side and the Franciscans or Greyfriars in the east. Further to the east stood the Hospital of Maison Dieu, or House of God also founded during the reign of Alexander II for the reception of poor men and women.  On 19 July 1224, the foundation stone of the new Elgin Cathedral was ceremoniously laid. The cathedral was completed sometime after 1242 but was completely destroyed by fire in 1270. The reasons for this are unrecorded. The buildings now remain as ruins date from the reconstruction following that fire. The Chartulary of Moray described the completed cathedral as "Mirror of the country and the glory of the kingdom".  Edward I of England travelled twice to Elgin. During his first visit in 1296, he was impressed by what he saw. Preserved in the Cotton library now held in the British Library is the journal of his stay, describing the castle and the town of Elgin as "bon chastell et bonne ville" — good castle and good town. By his second visit in September 1303, the castle's wooden interior had been burned while held by the English governor, Henry de Rye. As a result, he only stayed in Elgin for two days and then camped at Kinloss Abbey from 13 September until 4 October. King Edward was furious when David de Moravia, Bishop of Moray, joined Scotland's cause with Bruce, and Edward appealed to the Pope who excommunicated the bishop, thus removing papal protection, causing him to flee to Orkney, then to Norway, only to return after Robert Bruce's victories against the English. After Edward's death in July 1307, Robert the Bruce retook Scotland in 1308, slighting castles to keep them out of English hands. David de Moravia, the Bishop of Moray at the head of his army, joined with Bruce and they slighted the castles of Inverness, Nairn and Forres before seizing and slighting Kinneddar Castle, which also housed English soldiers. He attacked Elgin castle to be twice repulsed before finally succeeding.  In August 1370 Alexander Bur, Bishop of Moray began payments to Alexander Stewart, Wolf of Badenoch, King Robert III's brother, for the protection of his lands and men. In February 1390, the bishop then turned to Thomas Dunbar, son of the Earl of Moray, to provide the protection. This action infuriated Stewart and in May he descended from his castle on an island in Lochindorb and burned the town of Forres in revenge. In June he burned much of Elgin, including two monasteries, St Giles Church, the Hospital of Maison Dieu and the cathedral. Andrew of Wyntoun's "Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland" (a 15th-century history of Scotland) described this action by "wyld, wykked Heland-men". The rebuilding of the cathedral took many years; but much of it has since crumbled away due to the inferior quality of the stone made available to the 15th and 16th-century masons, while the 13th-century construction still remains. In 1506, the great central tower collapsed and although rebuilding work began the next year it was not completed till 1538.

From the Reformation to the eighteenth century.

The citizens of Elgin and surrounding areas did not seem to object to the new religion following the Reformation. In 1568 the lead was stripped from the roof of the cathedral, by order of the Privy Council of Scotland. The lead was to be sold and the proceeds to go to the maintenance of Regent Moray's soldiers, but the ship taking the lead cargo to Holland sank almost immediately on leaving Aberdeen harbour. Without this protection, the building began to deteriorate. In 1637, the rafters over the choir were blown down and in 1640 the minister of St Giles along with the Laird of Innes and Alexander Brodie of Brodie, all ardent Covenanters, removed and destroyed the ornately carved screen and woodwork that had remained intact. The tracery of the West window was destroyed sometime between 1650 and 1660 by Cromwell's soldiers. On Easter Sunday 1711 the central tower collapsed for the second time in its history but caused much more damage. The rubble was quarried for various projects in the vicinity until 1807 when, through the efforts of Joseph King of Newmill, a wall was built around the cathedral and a keeper's house erected. Mountains of this rubble were cleared by one John Shanks, enabling visitors to view the ornate stonemasonry. John was presented with an ornate snuffbox by the authorities, it is now in Elgin Museum, he is also honoured with a large tombstone in the eastern Cathedral precincts.  When Daniel Defoe toured Scotland in 1717, he visited Elgin and said:In this rich country is the city, or town rather, of Elgin; I say city, because in antient time the monks claim'd it for a city; and the cathedral shews, by its ruins, that it was a place of great magnificence. Nor must it be wonder'd at, if in so pleasant, so rich, and so agreeable a part of the country, all the rest being so differing from it, the clergy should seat themselves in a proportion'd number, seeing we must do them the justice to say, that if there is any place richer and more fruitful, and pleasant than another, they seldom fail to find it out. As the country is rich and pleasant, so here are a great many rich inhabitants, and in the town of Elgin in particular; for the gentlemen, as if this was the Edinburgh, or the court, for this part of the island, leave their Highland habitations in the winter and come and live here for the diversion of the place and plenty of provisions; and there is, on this account, a great variety of gentlemen for society, and that of all parties and of all opinions. This makes Elgin a very agreeable place to live in, notwithstanding its distance, being above 450 measur'd miles [725 km] from London, and more, if we must go by Edinburgh.  The cathedral is known as the "Lantern of the North." When Bishop Bur wrote to King Robert III, complaining of the wanton destruction done to the building by the King's brother, the Wolf of Badenoch, he describes the cathedral as "the ornament of this district, the glory of the kingdom and the admiration of foreigners." Chambers, in his "Picture of Scotland", says: It is an allowed fact, which the ruins seem still to attest, that this was by far the most splendid specimen of ecclesiastical architecture in Scotland, the abbey church of Melrose not excepted. It must be acknowledged that the edifice last mentioned is a wonderful instance of symmetry and elaborate decoration; yet in extent, in loftiness, in impressive magnificence, and even in minute decoration, Elgin has been manifestly superior. Enough still remains to impress the solitary traveller with a sense of admiration mixed with astonishment.Lachlan Shaw in his "History of the Province of Moray" was equally impressed when he wrotethe church when entire was a building of Gothic architecture inferior to few in Europe.  Prince Charles Edward Stuart travelled to Elgin from Inverness in March 1746 and, falling ill with a feverish cold, stayed for 11 days before returning to await the arrival of the king's army. He stayed in Elgin with Mrs. Anderson, a passionate Jacobite, at Thunderton House. She kept the sheets that the Prince slept on and was buried in them a quarter of a century later. The Duke of Cumberland passed through the town on 13 April, camping at Alves on the way to meet the Prince in battle on Drummossie Muir. After the battle, William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock, one of the Prince's generals, was captured and taken to London and eventual execution, but he wrote to his friend from prison about his indebtedness to the shoemakers of Elgin: Beside my personal debts mentioned in general and particular in the State, there is one for which I am liable in justice, if it is not paid, owing to poor people who gave their work for it by my orders. It was at Elgin in Murray, the Regiment I commanded wanted shoes. I commissioned something about seventy pair of shoes and brogues, which might come to 3 shillngs or three shillings and sixpence each, one with the other. The magistrates divided them among the shoemakers of the town and country, and each shoemaker furnished his proportion. I drew on the town, for the price, out of the composition laid on them, but I was afterwards told at Inverness that, it was believed, the composition was otherwise applied, and the poor shoemakers not paid. As these poor people wrought by my orders, it will be a great ease to my heart to think they are not to lose by me, as too many have done in the course of that year, but had I lived I might have made some inquiry after but now it is impossible, as their hardships in loss of horses and such things, which happeened through my soldiers, are so interwoven with what was done by other people, that it would be very hard, if not impossible, to separate them. If you'll write to Mr. Innes of Dalkinty at Elgin (with whom I was quartered when I lay there), he will send you an account of the shoes, and if they were paid to the shoemakers or no; and if they are not, I beg you'll get my wife, or my successors to pay them when they can...

Nineteenth century.

In the 19th century, the old medieval town of Elgin was swept away. The first major addition to the town centre was the Assembly Rooms, built in 1821 by the Trinity Lodge of Freemasons, at the corner of High Street and North Street. In 1819, Dr. Gray's Hospital was built on unused ground. The building has imposing columns and distinctive dome. Dr. Alexander Gray, a doctor who worked for and made his fortune with the East India Company, endowed £26,000 for the hospital. In 1828 the new parish church of St Giles was built at a cost of £10,000. Lt. General Andrew Anderson, born in Elgin, also of the East India Company, died in 1824 and bequeathed £70,000 to the town to found an institution for the welfare of the elderly poor and for the education of orphans. The Anderson Institute was built in the east end of the town in 1832 with accommodation for 50 children and 10 elderly people. The Burgh Court House was built in 1841, the museum in 1842 and the County Buildings in 1866.  The Morayshire Railway was officially opened in ceremonies at Elgin and Lossiemouth on 10 August 1852, the steam engines having been delivered to Lossiemouth by sea. It was the first railway north of Aberdeen and initially ran only between Elgin and Lossiemouth. It was later extended south to Craigellachie. The Great North of Scotland Railway took over the working of the line in 1863 and bought the company in 1881 following the Morayshire Railway's return to solvency from crippling debt. The railway and Lossiemouth harbour became very important to Elgin's economy.  The town was becoming prosperous, and by 1882 it had a Head Post Office with a savings bank, insurance and telegraph departments, and branches of the Bank of Scotland and the British Linen Company, Caledonian, Commercial, North of Scotland, Royal and Union Banks, and the National Securities Savings Bank, offices or agencies of 48 insurance companies, five hotels, and a newspaper. It was not until the 20th century, however, that the separate villages of Bishopmill and New Elgin would be incorporated into the town.  The Cooper Park drill hall was completed in 1908.

Geography and geology.

The modern town straddles the River Lossie, with the suburbs of Bishopmill to the north and New Elgin to the south. Permo-Triassic rocks, rare in Scotland, are commonly found around Elgin. These are composed of aeolian sandstone formed when this area was subjected to desert conditions. Quarry Wood, on the town's edge, has a formation nicknamed Cuttie's Hillock which produced the internationally known fossils called the Elgin Reptiles. In the Elgin district, boulders belonging to the lowest group of Jurassic strata, Oxford clay and chalk are found both in glacial deposits and on the surface of the ground. The largest of these deposits is at Linksfield, where limestone and shale lie on boulder clay. There is a large hill in Elgin's town center, often viewed as the highlight of the Elgin tourist trail.

Climate.

Elgin's climate is temperate maritime, with cool summers and relatively mild winters due to its proximity to the sea. Rainfall is quite low as it is in the rain shadow of mountains to the west and southwest.

Economy.

The Elgin – Forres – Lossiemouth triangle is heavily dependent on Royal Air Force stations for the employment of civilians. In 2005, RAF Lossiemouth along with its neighbour RAF Kinloss contributed £156.5 million (including civilian expenditure) to the Moray economy, of which £76.6 million was retained and spent locally. The bases provide, directly or indirectly, 21% of all employment in the area, although in 2010 the closure of RAF Kinloss had a significant effect on these numbers. Aware of the impact that the Air Force has on the area's economy, the local population instigated a long campaign to save RAF Lossiemouth, the future of which was also in doubt. How much of an influence this had upon the government's and Ministry of Defence's final decision is uncertain, but the base was ultimately saved and RAF Leuchars instead faced the axe as part of the same Strategic Defence and Security Review. RAF Leuchars will now become, like RAF Kinloss, an army base. Other areas offering significant employment are local authority, construction and real estate, food and drink, tourism, transport, business services and wholesale/retail.  In a recent study, Elgin was shown to be one of the most expensive towns in which to buy property in Scotland.

Politics.

National governments.

Elgin is in the Moray (Westminster) constituency of The United Kingdom Parliament which returns a Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons, at Westminster. Elgin is in the Moray constituency of the Scottish Parliament which has slightly different boundaries to the UK Parliament constituency of the same name. The constituency returns a Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) to Holyrood and is part of the Highlands and Islands electoral region.

Local government.

Following the reorganisation of local government in Scotland, Elgin now has 2 multi-member wards, each with 3 councillors. These wards are Elgin North and Elgin South.

Transport.

Elgin is situated on the A96 trunk route which connects the cities of Aberdeen and Inverness. Heavy traffic through the town causes serious congestion. Scottish transport minister Tavish Scott visited the town in August 2006 to look at the traffic management problems and to meet campaigners for a bypass. It is estimated that a bypass would remove about one-third of traffic from Elgin's streets. The A941 runs from Lossiemouth through Elgin to Rothes, Craigellachie, Dufftown and Rhynie. Elgin railway station is operated by Abellio ScotRail. The railway also connects to Aberdeen and Inverness which have trains to other UK destinations. Elgin's bus station is operated mainly by Stagecoach, and provides services within Elgin and to other local towns as well as to Aberdeen and Inverness. There is a 'Jet' bus service which runs to the Inverness Airport at Dalcross, Inverness has flights to mainly UK destinations while Aberdeen Airport has UK and international flights.

Religion.

The following denominations have places of worship in Elgin:  Church of Scotland Free Church of Scotland Baptist Union of Scotland Roman Catholic Church Scottish Episcopal Church Other denominations

Music.

During the 1960s The Beatles, The Who, Pink Floyd, Cream and Dusty Springfield all performed at the Two Red Shoes dancehall, and The Kinks played Elgin Town Hall. Oi Polloi performed at the Ocean Club on Batchen Street in April 2007, under a gazebo erected by local punks.

Sport.

Football.

Formed in 1893, the town's only senior football club is Elgin City, who play at Borough Briggs stadium. They entered the Highland Football League in 1895 and won the league championship fourteen times. The club entered the Scottish Football League in season 2000–01 and currently competes in Division Two. Their home colours are black and white vertical stripes, black shorts and white socks. Past famous players for Elgin City include Andy Goram, Nicky Walker, Jimmy Johnstone and John McGinlay. Recently ex-Scotland players Brian Irvine and David Robertson have managed the club.  Two junior football sides, Bishopmill United and New Elgin, both currently compete in the Scottish Junior Football North Division Two while Moray Social, Golden Pheasant F.C. and Bishopmill Villa participate in the Moray District Welfare Football Association.

Rugby union.

Moray RFC was established in 1923 and play their home games at Morriston Playing Fields.

Cricket.

Elgin Cricket Club plays home games on the Cooper Park cricket pitch under the auspices of North of Scotland Cricket Association.

Ice hockey.

Elgin is home to the Moray Typhoons, a SNL team. They play their home games at the Moray Leisure Centre.

Roller Derby.

The Helgin Roller Derby team trains regularly within Elgin.

Elgin (;, ) is a town (former cathedral city) and formerly a Royal Burgh in Moray, Scotland. It is the administrative and commercial centre for Moray. The town originated to the south of the River Lossie on the higher ground above the floodplain where the town of Birnie is. There, the church of Birnie Kirk was built in 1140 and serves the community to this day. Elgin is first documented in the Cartulary of Moray in 1190 AD. It was created a royal burgh in the 12th century by King David I of Scotland, and by that time had a castle on top of the present day Lady Hill to the west of the town. The people of Elgin are collectively known as Elginites. The origin of the name Elgin is likely to be Celtic. It may derive from 'Aille' literally signifying beauty, but in topography a beautiful place or valley. Another possibility is 'ealg', meaning both 'Ireland' and 'worthy'. The termination 'gin' or 'in' are Celtic endings signifying little or diminutive forms, hence Elgin could mean beautiful place, worthy place or little Ireland.

Elgin je město ve Skotsku, ležící v oblasti Moray, cca 44 kilometrů východně od města Inverness. Ve městě Elgin žije necelých 21 000 obyvatel.


History.

Ušće Tower was built in 1964 as the headquarters of the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. The original building was 105 meters tall. Even today many people still call it "CK", which is the acronym for "Centralni Komitet" (Central Committee). During the "golden years" of Yugoslavia the lights were left partially turned on during the night to spell out "TITO", after president Josip Broz Tito.  In 1979, the Tower became a target of Nikola Kavaja, who hijacked American Airlines Flight 293 with the intention of crashing the plane into the building.  During the collapse of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, the Socialist Party of Serbia occupied the first ten floors of the building. The party leased out many of the floors to domestic companies. They kept however 9 levels as offices for their party. The cabinet of Josip Broz Tito (which he rarely used) was cleared out.  Later in the 1990s, three Serbian television stations occupied some of the levels in the building: RTV BK Telecom, RTV Pink and TV Košava.  MPC Holding, a holding company of Petar Matić, purchased the building in 2002.

NATO bombing.

On April 21, 1999 NATO air strikes hit the building, setting the upper floors on fire, and few days later NATO repeated the attack. Several Tomahawk cruise missiles were fired at the building. Despite the heavy damage, the building did not collapse and remained structurally intact. There were no reported deaths or injuries in the attack as the building was unoccupied at the time.

Reconstruction.

Reconstruction work on the building started in early 2003 and was carried out by European Construction. The reconstruction was completed in 2005 and the official opening took place in July that year. Two additional floors were added—conference halls are located on 24th and a restaurant on the 25th The multimillion-dollar project has 25 stories (above ground), totaling around 25,000 m of office space. An observation deck, fitness area and cafe are located on the top floor of the building. The observation deck is currently closed to the public, although there are plans to open it in the future.  The facade was redesigned and is now made entirely out of glass.

Ušće Office Tower 1.

Addiko Bank is now renting out the first four floors of the building and has become the anchor tenant. This bank also has a light-ad on the building roof.

Ušće Office Tower 2.

The city of Belgrade announced an architectural design competition in February 2003 for the Block 16, a section of New Belgrade in which the tower is located. The winning project was a design by architect Branislav Redžić, who envisioned a multi-functional urban center which would consist of two towers and a shopping mall. Tower I was reconstructed, shopping mall was built, albeit much larger than the one Redžić projected, but the Tower II remained on paper and a temporary parking lot was built instead.  After years of announcing it, MPC Properties, another Matić's company, revealed in January 2018 that the construction of the new tower, next to the old one, will commence in February. Characteristics of the new tower include height of 22 floors and and a total floor area of of an A-class commercial space. It is planned to have a restaurant on the top floor and a café and a bank on the ground floor. Chapman Taylor architectural company was hired to do the project, just as MPC hired Chapman Taylor to do the interiors and parts of the façade of the Ušće shopping mall. There will be two-leveled garage below ground, with a total area equal to the total floor area of the building. The foundation stone was laid on 27 February 2018. The building of the 22-stories high skyscraper will cost €65 million.

Ušće Business Center.

The Ušće Mall was opened on April 2009. The mall has an area of on 6 levels, of which is retail space, with 150 stores, restaurants and cafés. The shopping mall also has a multiplex cinema with 11 screens, a bowling alley and a casino. Subterranean levels house a 4,000 m hypermarket and two levels of parking.  A second tower has been approved by city officials. Usce Tower II will have additional garage with 750 parking spaces. Designed by Chapman Taylor, tower will be the same height.

Ušće Towers (; "Ušće", meaning "confluence") are two 25-story mixed use skyscrapers located at Mihajlo Pupin Boulevard in the New Belgrade municipality of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. While the second tower is under construction (as of August 2019), the first tower was the tallest building in Serbia until 1979 and construction of Genex Tower, and the second-tallest freestanding structure, after the Avala Tower.

Věž Ušće ("ušće" je "Soutok",, dříve Budova společensko-politických organizací, srbochorvatsky Зграда друштвено-политичких организација/Zgrada društveno-političkih organizacija) je největší budovou Srbska a bývalé Jugoslávie. Nachází se v Srbsku, v Bělehradě, u soutoku Sávy s Dunajem a je 134 m vysoká (antena).


Structure.

The brachialis originates from the anterior surface of the distal half of the humerus, near the insertion of the deltoid muscle, which it embraces by two angular processes. Its origin extends below to within 2.5 cm of the margin of the articular surface of the humerus at the elbow joint. Its fibers converge to a thick tendon, which is inserted into the tuberosity of the ulna

Blood supply.

The brachialis is supplied by the Muscular branches of brachial artery and the recurrent radial artery.

Nerve supply.

The brachialis muscle is innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve, which runs on its superficial surface, between it and the biceps brachii. However, in 70-80% of people, the muscle has double innervation with the radial nerve (C5-T1). The divide between the two innervations is at the insertion of the deltoid.

Variation.

The muscle is occasionally doubled; additional slips to the supinator, pronator teres, biceps brachii, lacertus fibrosus, or radius are more rarely found. (A "slip" in this context refers to an accessory or variant part of a muscle that has an unusual trajectory in growth relative to the normal fibers' direction of growth.)

Function.

The brachialis flexes the arm at the elbow joint. Unlike the biceps, the brachialis does not insert on the radius, and does not participate in pronation and supination of the forearm.

History.

Etymology.

The "brachialis muscle" In classical Latin "bracchialis" means "of or belonging to the arm", and is derived from classical Latin "bracchium","arm". The expression "musculus brachialis" is used in the current official anatomic nomenco[Terminologia Anatomica]]".

The brachialis (brachialis anticus) is a muscle in the upper arm that flexes the elbow joint. It lies deeper than the biceps brachii, and makes up part of the floor of the region known as the cubital fossa. The brachialis is the prime mover of elbow flexion. While the biceps brachii appears as a large anterior bulge on the arm and commands considerable interest among body builders, the brachialis underlying it actually generates about 50% more power and is thus the prime mover of elbow flexion.

Hluboký pažní sval (lat. musculus brachialis) je kosterní sval, který slouží jako ohybač loketního kloubu. Leží v rýze na pažní kosti pod dvojhlavým pažním svalem a v loketní krajině tvoří ohraničení loketní jamky.


Background.

In January 2003, Anastacia had discovered that she had breast cancer when she was preparing for breast reduction surgery due to orthopedic reasons. Anastacia subsequently established the Anastacia Fund through The Breast Cancer Research Foundation to promote awareness of breast cancer amongst younger women.  After this traumatic experience, Anastacia entered recording studios in September 2003 to record the "Anastacia" album with Glen Ballard, Dallas Austin, and Dave Stewart for release in 2004. Anastacia was after more of a rock feel on the album, as noted in tracks such as "Seasons Change", "Time", and "I Do" (which features Sonny Sandoval from P.O.D.).  Anastacia explained on her website that her illness made it more difficult to record the album: "... the experience was not pleasant. I usually look for the bright side of things, but so far nothing about making this record was positive for me. My doctor told me I'd be tired, not stupid. I could not focus on anything. I'd write a verse and then I couldn't write the chorus or I'd write the chorus but couldn't write the bridge. I couldn't talk, I couldn't think straight, I was totally out of it. The doctors said I'd be tired—but of course I had insomnia. It was tough..." She struggled through the process to finish the album for release in March 2004.

Commercial performance.

"Anastacia" proved to be a huge commercial success, topping the charts in 11 European countries, including Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, while reaching number two in Ireland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. The album's lead single "Left Outside Alone" was equally successful, peaking at number one in Australia, Austria, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland, and reaching the top five in several other countries and on the European Hot 100 Singles chart. The album also spawned another three singles: "Sick and Tired", "Welcome to My Truth", and "Heavy on My Heart". "Sick and Tired" was the most successful of the three, charting inside the top five across numerous European nations, almost matching the success of "Left Outside Alone". "Welcome to My Truth" earned Anastacia her best-selling single ever in Spain and gained moderate European airplay and sales success, while "Heavy on My Heart" fared slightly worse, while proceeds from the single were donated to the Anastacia Fund.

Track listing.

Notes

Anastacia is the third studio album by American singer Anastacia. It was released on March 29, 2004, by Epic Records. The album represents a shift from the disco-inspired sound of Anastacia's previous albums, incorporating pop rock. It was a commercial success, peaking at the top of the albums charts in several countries, including Australia, Belgium, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, and becoming one of the top 10 best-selling albums of the year in much of Europe.

Anastacia je třetí řadové album stejnojmenné americké zpěvačky. Deska vyšla 29. března 2004 a zpěvačka ji natáčela i během léčby rakoviny prsu, kterou onemocněla. Toto album se stalo zatím jejím nejúspěšnějším.


In primarily Protestant countries.

Protestant Reformers, including John Wycliffe, Martin Luther, Henry VIII, John Calvin, Thomas Cranmer, John Thomas, John Knox, Roger Williams, Cotton Mather, and John Wesley, as well as most Protestants of the 16th-19th centuries, identified the Papacy with the Antichrist. The Centuriators of Magdeburg, a group of Lutheran scholars in Magdeburg headed by Matthias Flacius, wrote the 12-volume "Magdeburg Centuries" to discredit the Papacy and lead other Christians to recognize the Pope as the Antichrist. The fifth round of talks in the Lutheran–Catholic dialogue notes,  Doctrinal works of literature published by the Lutherans, the Reformed churches, the Presbyterians, the Baptists, the Anabaptists, and the Methodists contain references to the Pope as the Antichrist, including the Smalcald Articles, Article 4 (1537), the "Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope" (1537), the Westminster Confession, Article 25.6 (1646), and the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith, Article 26.4. In 1754, John Wesley published his "Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament", which is currently an official Doctrinal Standard of the United Methodist Church. In his notes on the Book of Revelation (chapter 13), he commented: "The whole succession of Popes from Gregory VII are undoubtedly Antichrists. Yet this hinders not, but that the last Pope in this succession will be more eminently the Antichrist, the Man of Sin, adding to that of his predecessors a peculiar degree of wickedness from the bottomless pit."  Referring to the Book of Revelation, Edward Gibbon stated that "The advantage of turning those mysterious prophecies against the See of Rome, inspired the Protestants with uncommon veneration for so useful an ally." Protestants condemned the Catholic policy of mandatory celibacy for priests.  During the Enlightenment Era, which spanned the 17th and 18th centuries, with its strong emphasis on the need for religious toleration, the Inquisition was a favorite target of attack for intellectuals.

British Empire.

Great Britain.

Institutional anti-Catholicism in Britain and Ireland began with the English Reformation under Henry VIII. The Act of Supremacy of 1534 declared the English crown to be 'the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England' in place of the pope. Any act of allegiance to the latter was considered treasonous because the papacy claimed both spiritual and political power over its followers. It was under this act that saints Thomas More and John Fisher were executed and became martyrs to the Catholic faith.  Queen Mary, Henry's daughter, was a devout Catholic and during her five years as queen (1553–58) she tried to reverse the Reformation. She married the Catholic king of Spain and executed Protestant leaders. Protestants reviled her as "Bloody Mary". Anti-Catholicism among many of the English was grounded in their fear that the pope sought to

19th century.

The long bitter wars with France 1793–1815, saw anti-Catholicism emerge as the glue that held the three kingdoms together. From the upper classes to the lower classes, Protestants were brought together from England, Scotland and Ireland into a profound distrust and distaste for all things French. That enemy nation was depicted as the natural home of misery and oppression because of its inherent inability to shed the darkness of Catholic

Since 1945.

Since World War II anti-Catholic feeling in England has abated somewhat. Ecumenical dialogue between Anglicans and Catholics culminated in the first meeting of an Archbishop of Canterbury with a Pope since the Reformation when Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher visited Rome in 1960. Since then, dialogue has continued through envoys and standing conferences. Meanwhile, both the nonconformist churches such as the Methodists, and the established Church

Ireland.

As punishment for the rebellion of 1641, almost all lands owned by Irish Catholics were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers. Under the penal laws, no Irish Catholic could sit in the Parliament of Ireland, even though some 90% of Ireland's population was native Irish Catholic when the first of these bans was introduced in 1691. Catholic / Protestant strife has been blamed for much of "The Troubles", the ongoing struggle in Northern Ireland.  The English Protestant rulers killed many thousands of Irish people (mostly

Canada.

Fears of the Catholic Church were quite strong in the 19th century, especially among Presbyterian and other Protestant Irish immigrants across Canada.  In 1853, the Gavazzi Riots left 10 dead in Quebec in the wake of Catholic Irish protests against Anti-catholic speeches by ex-monk Alessandro Gavazzi. The most influential newspaper in Canada, "The Globe" of Toronto, was edited by George Brown, a Presbyterian immigrant from Ireland who ridiculed and denounced the Catholic Church, Jesuits, priests, nunneries, etc. Irish Protestants remained a political force until the 20th century. Many belonged to the Orange Order, an anti-Catholic organization with chapters across Canada that was most powerful during the late 19th century.  A key leader was Dalton McCarthy (1836–1898), a Protestant who had immigrated from Ireland. In the late 19th century he mobilized the "Orange" or Protestant Irish, and fiercely fought against Irish Catholics as well as the French Catholics. He especially crusaded for the abolition of the French language in Manitoba and Ontario schools.

Australia.

The presence of Catholicism in Australia came with the 1788 arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney. The colonial authorities blocked a Catholic clerical presence until 1820, reflecting the legal disabilities of Catholics in Britain. Some of the Irish convicts had been transported to Australia for political crimes or social rebellion and authorities remained suspicious of the minority religion.  Catholic convicts were compelled to attend Church of England services and their children and orphans were raised as Anglicans. The first Catholic priests to arrive

New Zealand.

According to New Zealand scholar Michael King, the situation in New Zealand has never been as clear as it was in Australia. Catholics first arrived in New Zealand in 1769. The Church has had "a continuous presence there from the time of the permanent settlement by Irish Catholics in the 1820s, and the first conversions of Maori in the 1830s." However the achievement of the English to gain Maori signatures to a "Treaty" in 1840, created a dominant Protestant country, though French Jean Baptiste

German Empire.

Unification into the German Empire in 1871 saw a country with a Protestant majority and large Catholic minority, speaking German or Polish. Anti-Catholicism was common. The powerful German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck—a devout Lutheran—forged an alliance with secular liberals in 1871–1878 to launch a Kulturkampf (literally, "culture struggle") especially in Prussia, the largest state in the new German Empire to destroy the political power of the Catholic Church and the Pope. Catholics were numerous in the South (Bavaria, Baden-Wuerttemberg) and west (Rhineland) and fought back. Bismarck intended to end Catholics' loyalty with Rome (ultramontanism) and subordinate all Germans to the power

Nazi Germany.

The Catholic Church faced repression in Nazi Germany (1933-1945). Hitler despised the Church although he had been brought up in a Catholic home. The long-term aim of the Nazis was to de-Christianise Germany and restore Germanic paganism. Richard J. Evans writes that Hitler believed that in the long run National Socialism and religion would not be able to co-exist, and he stressed repeatedly that Nazism was a secular ideology, founded on modern science: "Science, he declared, would easily destroy the last remaining vestiges of superstition". Germany could not tolerate the intervention of foreign influences such as the Pope and "Priests, he said, were 'black bugs', 'abortions in black cassocks'". Nazi ideology desired the subordination of the Church to the State and could not accept an autonomous establishment, whose legitimacy did not spring from the government. From the beginning, the Catholic Church faced general persecution, regimentation and oppression. Aggressive anti-Church radicals like Joseph Goebbels and Martin Bormann saw the conflict with the Churches as a priority concern, and anti-Church and anti-clerical sentiments were strong among grassroots party activists. To many Nazis, Catholics were suspected of insufficient patriotism, or even of disloyalty to the Fatherland, and of serving the interests of "sinister alien forces".  Adolf Hitler had some regard for the organisational power of Catholicism, but towards its teachings he showed nothing but the sharpest hostility, calling them "the systematic cultivation of the human failure": To Hitler, Christianity was a religion that was only fit for slaves and he detested its ethics. Alan Bullock wrote: "Its teaching, he declared, was a rebellion against the natural law of selection by struggle and the survival of the fittest". For political reasons, Hitler was prepared to restrain his anti-clericalism, seeing danger in strengthening the Church by persecuting it, but he intended to wage a show-down against it after the war. Joseph Goebbels, the Minister for Propaganda, led the Nazi persecution of the Catholic clergy and wrote that there was "an insoluble opposition between the Christian and a heroic-German world view". Hitler's chosen deputy, Martin Bormann, was a rigid guardian of Nazi orthodoxy and saw Christianity and Nazism as "incompatible", as did the official Nazi philosopher, Alfred Rosenberg, who wrote in "Myth

Netherlands.

The independence of the Netherlands from Spanish rule saw a majority Protestant country of Calvinist nature. In Amsterdam Catholic priests

United States.

John Higham described anti-Catholicism as "the most luxuriant, tenacious tradition of paranoiac agitation in American history".  Historian Arthur Schlesinger Sr. has called Anti-Catholicism "the deepest-held bias in the history of the American people".  Historian Joseph G. Mannard says that wars reduced anti-Catholicism: "enough Catholics supported the War for Independence to erase many old myths about the inherently treasonable nature of Catholicism...During the Civil War the heavy enlistments of Irish and Germans into the Union Army helped to dispel notions of immigrant and Catholic disloyalty."

Colonial era.

American anti-Catholicism has its origins in the Protestant Reformation which generated anti-Catholic propaganda for various political and dynastic reasons. Because the Protestant Reformation justified itself as an effort to correct what it perceived were the errors and the excesses of the Catholic Church, it formed strong positions against the Catholic bishops and the Papacy in particular. These positions were brought to New England by English colonists who were predominantly Puritans. They opposed not only the Catholic Church but also the Church of England which, due to its perpetuation of some Catholic doctrines and practices, was deemed insufficiently "reformed". Furthermore, English and Scottish identity to a large extent was based on opposition to Catholicism. "To be English was to be anti-Catholic," writes Robert Curran.  Because many of the British colonists, such as

New nation.

The Patriot reliance on Catholic France for military, financial and diplomatic aid led to a sharp drop in anti-Catholic rhetoric. Indeed, the king replaced the pope as the demon patriots had to fight against. Anti-Catholicism remained strong among Loyalists, some of whom went to Canada after the war while most remained in the new nation. By the 1780s, Catholics were extended legal toleration in all of the New England states that previously had been so hostile. "In the midst of war and crisis, New Englanders gave up not only their allegiance to Britain but one of their most dearly held prejudices."  George Washington was a vigorous promoter of tolerance for all religious denominations as commander of the army (1775-1783) where he suppressed anti-Catholic celebrations in the Army and appealed to French Catholics in Canada to join the American Revolution; a few hundred of

1840s–1850s.

Anti-Catholic fears reached a peak in the nineteenth century when the Protestant population became alarmed by the influx of Catholic immigrants. Some claimed that the Catholic Church was the Whore of Babylon described in the Book of Revelation. The resulting "nativist" movement, which achieved prominence in the 1840s, was whipped into a frenzy of anti-Catholicism that led to mob violence, most notably the Philadelphia Nativist Riot of 1844. Historian David Montgomery argues that the Irish Catholic Democrats in Philadelphia had successfully appealed to

20th century-21st century.

Anti-Catholicism played a major role in the defeat of Al Smith, the Democratic nominee for president in 1928. Smith did very well in Catholic precincts, but he did poorly in the South, as well as among the Lutherans of the North. His candidacy was also hampered by his close ties with the notorious Tammany Hall political machine in New York City and his strong opposition to prohibition. His cause was uphill in any case, because he faced a popular Republican leadership in a year of peace and unprecedented prosperity.  The adoption of the 18th Amendment in 1919, a culmination of

In primarily Catholic countries.

Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes religious (generally Catholic) institutional power and influence in all aspects of public and political life, and the involvement of religion in the everyday life of the citizen. It suggests a more active and partisan role than mere laïcité. The goal of anticlericalism is sometimes to reduce religion to a purely private belief-system with no public profile or influence. However, many times it has included outright suppression of all aspects of faith.  Anticlericalism has at times been violent, leading to murders and the desecration, destruction and seizure of Church property. Anticlericalism in one form or another has existed throughout most of Christian history, and it is considered to be one of the major popular forces underlying the 16th century reformation. Some of the philosophers of the Enlightenment, including Voltaire, continually attacked the Catholic Church, both its leadership and its priests, claiming that many of its clergy were morally corrupt. These assaults in part led to the suppression of the Jesuits, and played a major part in the wholesale attacks on the very existence of the Church during the French Revolution in the Reign of Terror and the program of dechristianization. Similar attacks on the Church occurred in Mexico and Portugal since their 1910 revolutions and in Spain during the twentieth century.

Argentina.

In 1954, Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches, denunciations of clergy and confiscation of

Austria.

Holy Roman Empire.

Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II (emperor 1765-1790) opposed what he called "contemplative" religious institutions — reclusive Catholic institutions that he perceived as doing nothing positive for the community. although Joseph II was himself a Catholic, he

Austro-Hungary.

Georg Ritter von Schönerer (17 July 1842 – 14 August 1921) was an Austrian landowner and politician of Austro-Hungary. He was a major opponent of political Catholicism and the founder of the movement "Away from Rome!", aimed the conversion of all the Catholic German-speaking population of Austria to Lutheranism, or, in some cases, to the Old Catholic Churches.

Brazil.

Brazil has the largest number of Catholics in the world, and as such it has not experienced any large anti-Catholic movements.  During the Nineteenth Century, the Religious Question was the name given to the crisis when Freemasons in the Brazilian government imprisoned two Catholic bishops for enforcing the Church's prohibition against Freemasonry.  Even during times

Colombia.

Anti-Catholic and anti-clerical sentiments, some spurred by an anti-clerical conspiracy theory which was circulating in Colombia

France.

During the French Revolution (1789–95) clergy and religious were persecuted and Church property was destroyed and confiscated by the new government as part of a process of "Dechristianization", the aim of which was the destruction of Catholic practices and the destruction of the very faith itself, culminating in the imposition of the atheistic Cult of Reason and then the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being. Persecution led Catholics in the west of France to engage in a counterrevolution, the War in the Vendée, and when the state was victorious it killed tens of thousands. A few historians have called it genocide. Most historians say it was a brutal repression of political enemies. The French invasions of Italy (1796–99) included an assault on Rome and the exile of Pope Pius VI in 1798.  Relations improved in 1802 when Napoleon came to terms with the Pope in the Concordat of 1801. It allowed the Church to operate but did not give back the lands; it proved satisfactory for a century. By 1815 the Papacy supported the growing alliance against

Italy.

In the Napoleonic era, anti-clericalism was a powerful political force. From 1860 through 1870, the new Italian government, under the House of Savoy, outlawed all religious orders, both male and female, including the Franciscans, the

Mexico.

Following the Mexican Revolution of 1860, President Benito Juárez issued a decree nationalizing Church property, separating Church and State, and suppressing religious orders.  In the wake of the revolution of 1910, the new Mexican Constitution of 1917 contained further anti-clerical provisions. Article 3 called for secular education in the schools and prohibited the Church from engaging in primary education; Article 5 outlawed monastic orders; Article 24 forbade public worship outside the confines of churches; and Article 27 placed restrictions on the right of religious organizations to hold property. Article 130 deprived clergy members of basic political rights.  Mexican President Plutarco Elías Calles's enforcement of previous anti-Catholic legislation denying priests' rights, enacted as

Poland.

"For the situation in Russian Poland, see Anticatholicism in Russian Empire"  Catholicism in Poland, the religion of the vast majority of the population, was severely persecuted during World War II, following the Nazi invasion of the country and its subsequent annexation into Germany. Over 3 million Catholics of Polish descent were murdered during the Invasion of Poland, including 3 bishops, 52 priests, 26 monks, 3 seminarians, 8 nuns and 9 lay people, later beatified in 1999 by Pope John Paul II as the 108 Martyrs of World War II.  The Roman Catholic Church was even more violently suppressed in Reichsgau Wartheland and the General Government. Churches were closed, and clergy were deported, imprisoned, or killed, among them was Maximilian Kolbe, a Pole of German descent. Between 1939 and 1945, 2,935 members of the Polish clergy (18%) were killed in

Spain.

Marxist anti-clericalism in Spain at the start of the Spanish Civil War resulted in the killing of almost 7,000 clergy, the

In mixed Catholic-Protestant countries.

Switzerland.

The Jesuits (Societas Jesu) were banned from all activities in either clerical or pedagogical functions by Article 51 of the Swiss constitution in 1848. The reason for the ban was the perceived threat to the stability of

In primarily Orthodox countries.

Byzantine Empire.

In the East–West Schism of 1054 the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church break full communion because of Ecclesiastical differences, Theological, and Liturgical disputes.  In April

Russian Empire.

During Russian rule, Catholics, primarily Poles and Lithuanians, suffered great persecution not only because of their ethnic-national background, but also for religious reasons. Especially after the uprisings of 1831 and 1863, and within the process of Russification (understanding that there is a strong link between religion and nationality), the tsarist authorities were anxious to promote the conversion of these peoples to

Serbia.

From the 19th Century onwards, anti-Catholic sentiment amongst Serbian nationalists has been synonymous with Anti-Croat sentiment, due to the fact that the plurality of Croats identify with the Roman Catholic Church. Beginning with the nation-building process in the mid-19th century, first Croatian–Serbian tension appeared. Serbian minister Ilija Garašanin's "Načertanije" (1844) claimed lands that were inhabited by Bulgarians, Macedonians, Albanians, Montenegrins, Bosnians, Hungarians and Croats were part of Serbia. Garašanin's plan also includes methods of spreading Serbian influence in the claimed lands. He proposed ways to influence Croats, who Garašanin regarded as "Serbs of Catholic faith". This plan considered surrounding peoples to be devoid of national consciousness.

Ukraine.

In the separatist region known as the Donetsk People's Republic, the government has declared that the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate is the state religion, and Protestant churches have been occupied by paramilitaries. Jehovah's Witnesses have lost their property, and their Kingdom

Non-Christian nations.

Bangladesh.

On 3 June 2001 nine people were killed

Burkina Faso.

On May 12, 2019, six Catholics including a priest were killed by gunmen on motorcycles that stormed a church in Dablo during a Sunday morning mass.

China.

The Daoguang Emperor modified existing law making spreading Catholicism punishable by death. During the Boxer Rebellion, Catholic missionaries and their families were murdered by Boxer rebels. During the 1905 Tibetan Rebellion, Tibetan rebels murdered Catholics and Tibetan converts.  Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, all religions including Catholicism only operate under state control. However, there are Catholics

Japan.

On February 5, 1597 a group of twenty-six Catholics were killed on the orders of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. During the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japanese

North Korea.

"See Roman

Sri Lanka.

Government actions.

A Buddhist-influenced government took over 600 parish schools in 1960

Anti-Catholic violence.

Since 2000, in a context of rising violence against religious minorities, i.e. Christians, Muslims and Hindus, multiple attacks on Catholic churches occurred. For instance, in 2009, a mob of 1,000 smashed the interior of a church in the town of Crooswatta, assaulting parishioners with clubs, swords and stones, leaving several to be treated in hospital. In 2013, vandals smashed a statue of the Virgin Mary as well as a tabernacle, and they also tried to burn the Eucharist at a church in Angulana, near Colombo.  The term "anti-Catholic Catholic" has come to be applied to Catholics who are perceived to view the Catholic Church with animosity. The term is often used by traditionalist or conservative Catholics to describe modernist or liberal Catholics, especially those modernist or liberal Catholics who seek to reform Church doctrine, make secularist critiques of the Catholic Church, or place secular principles above Church teachings. Those who take issue with the Catholic theology of sexuality are especially prone to be given this label.

Suppression of the Jesuits.

Prime Minister Pombal of Portugal was aggressively hostile to the Jesuit order, because it reported to an Italian power—the Pope—and tried to operate independently of the government. He organized a full-scale war on the Jesuits both in Portugal and in much of Catholic Europe as well. The Jesuit order was suppressed in the Portuguese Empire (1759), France (1764), the Two Sicilies, Malta, Parma, the Spanish Empire (1767) and Austria and Hungary (1782). The Pope himself suppressed the order everywhere in 1773, but it survived in Russia and Prussia. The suppression was a major blow to Catholic education across Europe, with nearly

In popular culture.

Anti-Catholic stereotypes are a long-standing feature of English literature, popular fiction, and even pornography. Gothic fiction is particularly rich in this regard. Lustful priests, cruel abbesses, immured nuns, and sadistic inquisitors appear in such works as "The Italian" by Ann Radcliffe, "The Monk" by Matthew Lewis, "Melmoth the Wanderer" by Charles Maturin and "The Pit and the Pendulum" by Edgar Allan Poe.

Anti-Catholicism is hostility towards Catholics or opposition to the Catholic Church, its clergy, or its adherents. At various points after the Reformation, some majority Protestant states, including England, Prussia, and Scotland made anti-Catholicism and opposition to the Pope and Catholic rituals major political themes, and the anti-Catholic sentiment which resulted from it frequently lead to religious discrimination against Catholic individuals (often derogatorily referred to in Anglophone Protestant countries as "papists" or "Romanists"). Historian John Wolffe identifies four types of anti-Catholicism: constitutional-national, theological, popular and socio-cultural.

Antikatolicismus je termín označující nepřátelský postoj vůči katolické církvi a jejím následovníkům. Je charakteristický pro celou řadu navzájem neslučitelných ideologií a filosofických směrů a může být založen na celé řadě východisek. Pojem se často používá také ve vztahu k politickým režimům a náboženské perzekuci zaměřené speciálně na katolickou církev. Mezi nejvýznamnější současné větve antikatolicismu se řadí ty, které jsou založeny na militantním ateismu a materialismu, a ty, které pocházejí z tvrdých větví protestantismu.


Early life and musical education in Bergamo and Bologna.

The youngest of three sons, Donizetti was born in 1797 in Bergamo's "Borgo Canale" quarter, located just outside the city walls. His family was very poor and had no tradition of music, his father Andrea being the caretaker of the town pawnshop. Simone Mayr, a German composer of internationally successful operas, had become "maestro di cappella" at Bergamo's principal church in 1802. He founded the Lezioni Caritatevoli school in Bergamo in 1805 for the purpose of providing musical training, including classes in literature, beyond what choirboys ordinarily received up until the time that their voices broke. In 1807, Andrea Donizetti attempted to enroll both his sons, but the elder, Giuseppe (then 18), was considered too old. Gaetano (then 9) was accepted. While not especially successful as a choirboy during the first three trial months of 1807 (there being some concern about a "difetto di gola", a throat defect), Mayr was soon reporting that Gaetano "surpasses all the others in musical progress" and he was able to persuade the authorities that the young boy's talents were worthy of keeping him in the school. He remained there for nine years, until 1815.  However, as Donizetti scholar William Ashbrook notes, in 1809 he was threatened with having to leave because his voice was changing. In 1810 he applied for and was accepted by the local art school, the Academia Carrara, but it is not known whether he attended classes. Then, in 1811, Mayr once again intervened. Having written both libretto

Career as an opera composer.

1818–1822: Early compositions.

After extending his time in Bologna for as long as he could, Donizetti was forced to return to Bergamo since no other prospects appeared. Various small opportunities came his way and, at the same time, he made the acquaintance of several of the singers appearing during the 1817/18 Carnival season. Among them was the soprano Giuseppina Ronzi de Begnis and her husband, the bass Giuseppe de Begnis.  A coincidental meeting around April 1818 with an old school friend, Bartolomeo Merelli (who was to go on to a distinguished career), led to an offer to compose the music from a libretto which became "Enrico di Borgogna". Without a commission from any opera house, Donizetti decided to write the music first and then try to find a company to accept it. He was able to do so when, the impresario of the Teatro San Luca (an early theatre built in 1629, which later became the Teatro Goldoni) in Venice accepted it. Thus "Enrico" was presented on 14 November 1818, but with little success, the audience appearing to be more interested

1822–1830: Rome, Naples, Milan.

Success in Rome.

After these minor compositions under the commission of Paolo Zancla, Donizetti retreated to Bergamo once again to examine how he could make his career move along. From the point of view of Donizetti's evolving style, Ashbrook states that, in order to please the opera-going public in the first quarter of the 19th century, it was necessary to cater to their tastes, to make a major impression at the first performance (otherwise there would be no others), and to emulate the preferred musical style of the day, that of Rossini whose music "was the public's yardstick when they were assessing new scores".  Remaining in Bergamo until October 1821, the composer busied himself with a variety of instrumental and choral pieces, but during that year, he had been in negotiation with Giovanni Paterni, intendant of the Teatro Argentina in Rome, and

Donizetti moves to Naples.

Soon after 19 February, Donizetti left Rome for Naples, where he was to settle for a large part of his life. It appears that he had asked Mayr for a letter of introduction, but his fame had preceded him for, on 28th, the announcement of the summer season at the Teatro Nuovo in the "Giornale del Regno delle Due Sicilie" stated that it would include a Donizetti opera, describing the composer as:  News of this work impressed Domenico Barbaja, the prominent Intendant of the Teatro San Carlo and other royal houses in the city such as the smaller Teatro Nuovo and the Teatro del Fondo. By late March Donizetti had been offered

Late July 1822 to February 1824: Assignments in Milan and Rome.

On 3 August for what would become "Chiara e Serafina, ossia I pirati", Donizetti entered into a contract with librettist Felice Romani, but he was over-committed and unable to deliver anything until 3 October. The premiere had been scheduled for only about three weeks away and, due to the delays and illnesses among the cast members, it did not receive good reviews, although it did receive a respectable 12 performances.  Returning north via Rome, Donizetti signed a contract for performances of "Zoraida" by the Teatro Argentina which included the requirement that the libretto to be revised by Ferretti, given Donizetti's low opinion of the work of the original Neapolitan librettist, Andrea Leone Tottola: he referred to it as "a great barking". In addition to the revision, he committed to write another new opera for the Rome's Teatro Valle which would also be set to a libretto written by Ferretti. Donizetti finally returned to Naples by late March.

1824–1830: Palermo and Naples.

Back in Naples, he embarked upon his first venture into English Romanticism with the "opera semiseria", "Emilia di Liverpool", which was given only seven performances in July 1824 at the Nuovo. The critical reaction in the "Giornali" some months later focused on the weaknesses of the "semiseria" genre itself, although it did describe Donizetti's music for "Emilia" as "pretty". The composer's activities in Naples became limited because 1825 was a Holy Year in Rome and the death of Ferdinand I in Naples caused little or no opera to be produced in either city for a considerable time.  However, he did obtain a year-long position for the 1825/26 season at the Teatro Carolino in Palermo, where he became musical director (as well teaching at the Conservatory). There, he staged his 1824 version of "L'ajo nell'imbarazzo" as well as his new opera "Alahor in Granata". But overall, his experience in Palermo does not appear to have been pleasant, mainly because of the poorly managed theatre, the continual indisposition of singers, or their failure to appear on time. These issues caused a delay until January 1827 for the premiere of "Alahor", after which he went back in Naples in February, but with no specific commitments until midsummer.  That summer was to see the

1830–1838: International fame.

In 1830, Donizetti scored his most acclaimed and his first international success with "Anna Bolena", given at the Teatro Carcano in Milan on 26 December 1830 with Giuditta Pasta in the title role. Also, the acclaimed tenor Giovanni Battista Rubini appeared in the role of Percy. With this opera, Donizetti achieved instant fame throughout Europe. Performances were staged "up and down the Italian peninsula" between 1830 and 1834 and then throughout Europe's capitals well into the 1840s, with revivals being presented up to about 1881. London was the first European capital to see the work; it was given at the King's Theatre on 8 July 1831.  In regard to which operatic form Donizetti was to have the greater success, when the semi-seria work of 1828, "Gianni di Calais", was given in Rome

1838–1840: Donizetti abandons Naples for Paris.

In October 1838, Donizetti moved to Paris vowing never to have dealings with the San Carlo again after the King of Naples banned the production of "Poliuto" on the grounds that such a sacred subject was inappropriate for the stage. In Paris, he offered "Poliuto" to the Opéra and it was set

1840–1843: Back and forth between Paris, Milan, Vienna, and Naples.

After leaving Paris in June 1840, Donizetti was to write ten new operas, although not all were performed in his lifetime. Before arriving in Milan by August 1840, he visited Switzerland and then his hometown of Bergamo, eventually reaching Milan where he was to prepare an Italian version of "La fille du régiment". No sooner was that accomplished than he was back in Paris to adapt the never-performed 1839 libretto "L'ange de Nisida" as the French-language "La favorite", the premiere of which took place on 2 December 1840. Then he rushed back to Milan for Christmas, but returned almost immediately and by late February 1841 was preparing a new opera, "Rita, ou Deux hommes et une femme". However, it was not staged

1843–1845: Paris to Vienna to Italy; final return to Paris.

By 1843, Donizetti was exhibiting symptoms of syphilis and probable bipolar disorder: "the inner man was broken, sad, and incurably sick", states Allitt. Ashbrook observes that the preoccupation with work which obsessed Donizetti in the last months of 1842 and throughout 1843 "suggests that he recognised what was wrong with him and that he wanted to compose as much as he could while he was still able" But after the success in Paris, he continued working and left once again for Vienna, arriving there by mid-January 1843.  Shortly thereafter, he wrote to Antonio Vasselli outlining his plans for that year, concluding with the somewhat ominous: "All of this with a new illness contracted in Paris, which has still not passed and for which I am awaiting your prescription" But, in the body of the letter, he lays out what he will be aiming to accomplish in 1843: in Vienna,

Work in Vienna.

Donizetti's obligations in Vienna included overseeing the annual Italian season at the Theater am Kärntnertor which began in May. Verdi's "Nabucco" (which Donizetti had seen in Milan at its premiere in March 1842 and with which he had been impressed) was featured as part of that season. However, his main preoccupation was to complete the orchestration of "Maria di Rohan", which was accomplished by 13 February for planned performances in June. The season

Return to Paris.

Returning to Paris as quickly as possible, Donizetti left Vienna around 11 July 1843 in his newly purchased carriage and arrived on about 20th, immediately getting down to work on finishing "Dom Sébastien", which he describes as a massive enterprise: "what a staggering spectacle...I am terribly wearied by this enormous opera in five acts which carries bags full of music for singing and dancing." It is

1844: In Vienna.

On 30 December 1843, Donizetti was back in Vienna, having delayed leaving until the 20th because of illness. Ashbrook comments on how he was viewed in that city, with "friends notic[ing] an alarming change in his physical condition", and with his ability to concentrate and simply to remaining standing often being impaired.  Having entered into a contract with Léon Pillet of the Opéra for a new work for the coming year, he found nothing to be suitable and immediately wrote to Pillet proposing that another composer take his place. While waiting to see if he could be relieved from writing a large-scale work if Mayerbeer would allow "Le Prophète" to be staged instead that autumn, he looked forward to the arrival of his brother from Turkey in May and to the prospect of their traveling to Italy together that summer. Eventually, it was agreed that his commitment to the Opéra could

Summer/Autumn 1844: Travel to and within Italy.

Gaetano's brother Giuseppe, on leave from Constantinople, arrived in Vienna in early June. He had intended to leave by about 22nd, but Gaetano's bout of illness delayed his departure, and the brothers traveled together to Bergamo on about 12 or 13 July proceeding slowly but arriving around the 21st.  William Ashbrook describes the second half of 1844 as a period of "pathetic restlessness". He continues: "Donizetti went to Bergamo, Lovere on Lake Iseo [about 26 miles from Bergamo], back to Bergamo, to Milan [31 July], to Genoa [with his

December 1844 – July 1845: Last visit to Vienna.

By 5 December he was in Vienna writing a letter to his friend Guglielmo Cottrau on 6th and again on 12th, stating "I am not well. I am in the hands of a doctor." While there were periods of relative calm, his health continued to fail him periodically and then there were relapses into depression, as expressed in a letter: "I am half-destroyed, it's a miracle that I'm still on my feet".  Writing to unnamed Paris friends on 7 February, even after the very positive reaction received at the premiere of a specially-prepared "Dom Sébastien" on 6 February 1845 (which he had conducted for three performances of the total of 162 given over the following years until 1884), he grumbles about the reactions of the Parisian audiences and continues with a brief report on his health which, he says, "if it

1845–1848: Return to Paris; declining health; return to Bergamo; death.

By the time he reached Paris, Donizetti had been suffering from malaises, headaches, and nausea for decades, but had never been formally treated. In early August, he initiated a lawsuit against the Opéra which dragged on until April 1846 and in which he prevailed.  The culmination of the crisis in Donizetti's health came in August 1845 when he was diagnosed with cerebro-spinal syphilis and severe mental illness. Two doctors, including Dr. Philippe Ricord (a specialist in syphilis), recommended that, along with various remedies, he abandon work altogether and both agreed that the Italian climate would be better for his health. But letters

Institutionalization.

In February 1846, reluctant to consider going further towards institutionalization, he relied on the further advice of two of the doctors who had examined his uncle in late January. They stated:  Therefore, Andrea agreed to allow his uncle to be taken to a facility which has been described as "resemb[ling] that of a health spa... with a central hospital more-or-less in the guise of a country house" and Donizetti left Paris by coach with Andrea, believing that they were travelling to Vienna, where he was due by 12 February to fulfill his contract. Following behind in another coach was Dr. Ricord. After three hours they arrived at the Maison Esquirol in Ivry-sur-Seine, a suburb of Paris, where an explanation involving an accident was concocted to explain the need to spend the night at a "comfortable inn". Within a few days—realizing that he was being confined—Donizetti wrote urgent letters seeking help from friends, but they were never delivered. However, evidence provided from friends who visited Donizetti over the following months, states that he was

Attempts to move Donizetti back to Paris.

In late December, early January 1847, visits from a friend from Vienna who lived in Paris—Baron Eduard von Lannoy—resulted in a letter from Lannoy to Giuseppe Donizetti in Constantinople outlining what he saw as a better solution: rather than have friends travel the five hours to see his brother, Lannoy recommended that Gaetano be moved to Paris where he could be taken care of by the same doctors. Giuseppe agreed and sent Andrea back to Paris, which he reached on 23 April. Visiting his uncle the following day, he found himself recognized. He was able to go on to convince the Paris Prefect, by threats of family action and general public concern, that the composer should be moved to an apartment in Paris. This took place on 23 June and, while

Final journey to Bergamo.

Arrangements had been made well ahead of time as to where Donizetti would live when he arrived in Bergamo. In fact, on his second visit to Paris, when it appeared that his uncle would return to Italy, Andrea had an agreement from the noble Scotti family for his uncle to be able to stay in their palace. The accompanying party of four consisted of Andrea, the composer's younger brother Francesco who had come specially from Bergamo for this purpose, Dr. Rendu, and nurse-custodian Antoine Pourcelot. They traveled by train to Amiens, then on to Brussels, after which they traveled in two coaches (one of which was Donizetti's, sent ahead to await the party). They crossed Belgium and Germany to Switzerland, crossing the Alps via the St Gotthard Pass, and came down into

Personal life.

It was during the months which Donizetti spent in Rome for the production of "Zoraida" that he met the Vasselli family, with Antonio initially becoming a good friend. Antonio's sister Virginia was at that point only 13. However, Virginia was to become Donizetti's wife in 1828. She gave birth to three children, none of whom survived and, within a year of his parents' deaths—on

Critical reception.

After the death of Bellini, Donizetti was the most significant composer of Italian opera until Verdi. His reputation fluctuated, but

Donizetti's compositions.

Donizetti, a prolific composer, is best known for his operatic works, but he also wrote music in a number of other forms, including some

External links.

Sheet music  Recordings

Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti (,,, ; 29 November 1797 – 8 April 1848) was an Italian composer, best known for his almost 70 operas. Along with Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini, Donizetti was a leading composer of the "bel canto" opera style during the first half of the nineteenth century. Donizetti's close association with the bel canto style was undoubtedly an influence on other composers such as Giuseppe Verdi. Donizetti was born in Bergamo in Lombardy. Although he did not come from a musical background, at an early age he was taken under the wing of composer Simon Mayr who had enrolled him by means of a full scholarship in a school which he had set up. There he received detailed training in the arts of fugue and counterpoint. Mayr was also instrumental in obtaining a place for the young man at the Bologna Academy, where, at the age of 19, he wrote his first one-act opera, the comedy "Il Pigmalione", which may never have been performed during his lifetime.

Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti (29. listopadu 1797, Bergamo, Itálie – 8. dubna 1848, Bergamo) byl italský operní skladatel. Jeho nejslavnější díla jsou opery "Nápoj lásky" (1832) a "Lucie z Lammermooru" (1835). Operní scény celého světa uvádějí velmi často jeho další díla, např. "Anna Bolena" (1830), "Roberto Devereux" (1837) nebo "Don Pasquale" (1843). Donizetti byl spolu s Vincenzem Bellinim a Gioacchinem Rossinim vůdčí osobností operního skladatelského stylu belcanto, pěstovaného především v Itálii.


Etymology.

The name Rabat comes from ("ar-ribāṭ") meaning "the ribat", an Islamic base or fortification. This name is short for ("ribāṭu l-fatḥ") meaning "the ribat of conquest" or "stronghold of victory—"a title the city acquired in 1170, due to its military importance.

History.

12th to 17th century.

Rabat has a relatively modern history compared to the nearby ancient city of Salé. In 1146, the Almohad ruler Abd al-Mu'min  Yaqub al-Mansur (known as Moulay Yacoub in Morocco), another Almohad Caliph, moved the capital of his empire to Rabat. He built Rabat's city walls, the Kasbah of the Udayas and began construction on what would have been the world's largest mosque. However, Yaqub died and construction stopped. The ruins of the unfinished mosque, along with the Hassan Tower, still stand today.  Yaqub's death initiated a period of decline. The Almohad empire lost control of its possessions in Spain and much of its African territory, eventually leading to its total collapse. In the 13th century, much of Rabat's economic power shifted to Fez. In 1515 a Moorish explorer, El Wassan, reported that Rabat had declined so much that only 100 inhabited houses remained. An influx of Moriscos, who had been expelled from Spain, in the early 17th century helped boost Rabat's growth.

Corsair republics.

Rabat and neighboring Salé united to form the Republic of Bou Regreg in 1627. The republic was run by Barbary pirates who used the two cities as base ports for launching attacks on shipping. The pirates did not have to contend with any central authority until the Alaouite Dynasty united Morocco in 1666. The latter attempted to establish control over the pirates, but failed. European and Muslim authorities continued to attempt to control the pirates over many years, but the Republic of Bou Regreg did not collapse until 1818. Even after the republic's collapse, pirates continued to use the port of Rabat, which led to the shelling of the city by Austria in 1829 after an Austrian ship had been lost to a pirate attack.

20th century.

French invasion.

The French invasion of Morocco began in the east with General Hubert Lyautey's occupation of Oujda March 1907 and in the west with the Bombardment of Casablanca August 1907. The Treaty of Fes established the protectorate March 1912. Acting as French administrator of Morocco, Lyautey, decided to relocate the country's capital from Fes to Rabat. Among other factors, rebellious citizens had made Fes an unstable place. Sultan Moulay Youssef followed the decision of the French and moved his residence to Rabat. In 1913, Lyautey hired Henri Prost who designed the "Ville Nouvelle" (Rabat's modern quarter) as an administrative sector. When Morocco achieved independence in 1955, Mohammed V, the then King of Morocco, chose to have the capital remain at Rabat.

Post World War II.

Following World War II, the United States established a military presence in Rabat at the former French air base. By the early 1950s, Rabat Salé Air Base was a U.S. Air Force installation hosting the 17th Air Force and the 5th Air Division, which oversaw forward basing for Strategic Air Command (SAC) B-47 Stratojet aircraft in the country. With the destabilization of French government in Morocco, and Moroccan independence in 1956, the government of Mohammed V wanted the U.S. Air Force to pull out of the SAC bases in Morocco, insisting on such action after American intervention in Lebanon in 1958. The United States agreed to leave as of December 1959, and was fully out of Morocco by 1963. SAC felt the Moroccan bases were much less critical with the long range capability of the B-52 Stratofortresses that were replacing the B-47s and with the completion of the USAF installations in Spain in 1959.  With the USAF withdrawal from Rabat-Salé in the 1960s, the facility became a primary facility for the Royal Moroccan Air Force known as Air Base No 1, a status it continues to hold.

Geography.

Neighbourhoods of Rabat.

Rabat is an administrative city. It does have many shopping districts and residential neighbourhoods. The geographically spread out neighbourhoods are as follows:  The heart of the city consists of three parts: the Medina (old town); the Oudayas and Hassan both located to meet the Bou Regreg; and the Atlantic Ocean.  To the west, and along the waterfront, there is a succession of neighbourhoods.  First, around the ramparts, there is the old neighbourhoods, Quartier l'Océan and Quartier les Orangers. Beyond that, a succession of mostly working-class districts: Diour Jamaa, Akkari, Yacoub El Mansour, Massira and Hay el Fath are the main parts of this axis. Hay el Fath, which ends this sequence, evolves into a middle-class neighbourhood.  To the east, along the Bouregreg, the Youssoufia region (working and middle class) : Mabella; Taqaddoum; Hay Nahda(mostly middle class); Aviation(middle and upper middle class); and Rommani.  Between the two axes, from north to south, there are three main neighbourhoods (middle class to affluent): Agdal (Ward Building; a lively mix of residential and commercial buildings. The residents are predominantly upper middle class); Hay Riad (affluent villas; this neighbourhood has experienced a surge of momentum since the 2000s); and Souissi (residential neighborhood).  On the outskirts of Souissi, are a number of less-dense regions mainly comprising large private houses to areas that seem out of the city.

Bouregreg Marina.

Located between the Atlantic and the Bouregreg Valley, this river marina is paved with famous historical sites like the esplanade of the Hassan Tower and the picturesque Chellah necropolis, which has witnessed many Mediterranean civilizations pass by.  Outfitted with the most modern equipment to host up to 240 boats, the Bouregreg Marina aims to become an essential destination for recreational boaters seeking long stays or just a stopover on their way to West Africa, the Caribbean or the shores of North America.

Subdivisions.

The prefecture is divided administratively into the following:

Families of Rabat.

Called "Rbatis", these families have lived for more than 400 years with many events in common. From the expulsion of the Moriscos to arrive at the foundation of a culture that combines the Arabic and Andalusian cultures, through the Republic of Bouregreg events than other families coming to live in Rabat recently, have not known.  Since its founding, Rabat was inhabited by several families from the High Atlas with Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur, who founded the city in 1198, then families from many parts of Morocco have settled. Rabat has around 1240 a few hundred fifty families whose families Chiadmi, Regragui, Loudiyi, etc.  Since the end of the thirteenth century, the city has had an influx of Moriscos expelled from Granada until 1609, the year of total expulsion of Muslims from Spain by Philip III. These families include: Bargach (Vargas); Guedira (Guadaira); Mouline (Molina); Sebbata (Zapata); and Frej.  The said families are considered, until today, as "Rbati's Families of strain". They are about four hundred families.  Other families in the city are considered residents of Rabat because they came at the time when Rabat became the capital of the country, either through rural exodus or to work in public administration based in the city since the establishment of the protectorate.  The city is on the territory of Zaer, an Arab tribe of Maqil origin. Leo Africanus in the early 16th century the signals in the region of Khenifra there, she continued on to the north to the Rabat region.

Climate.

Rabat features a Mediterranean climate ("Csa") with warm to hot dry summers and mild damp winters. Located along the Atlantic Ocean, Rabat has a mild, temperate climate, shifting from cool in winter to warm days in the summer months. The nights are always cool (or cold in winter, it can reach sub sometimes), with daytime temperatures generally rising about. The winter highs typically reach only in December–February. Summer daytime highs usually hover around, but may occasionally exceed, especially during heat waves. Summer nights are usually pleasant and cool, ranging between and and rarely exceeding. Rabat belongs to the sub-humid bioclimatic zone with an average annual precipitation of.

Culture.

The biggest place for theatre is the Theatre Mohammed V in the centre of the town.  The city has the Rabat Archaeological Museum and the Musée Mohamed VI d'Art Moderne et Contemporain.  Many organizations are active in cultural and social issues. Orient-Occident Foundation and ONA Foundation are the biggest of these. An independent art scene is active in the city. L'appartement 22, which is the first independent space for visual arts created by Abdellah Karroum, opened in 2002 and introduced international and local artists. Other independent spaces opened few years after, such as Le Cube, also set up in a private space.

Mawazine.

Mawazine is a music festival in Rabat welcomed by Mohammed VI King of Morocco, that started in 2001 where music groups, fans and spectators come together in a week-long celebration of culture and music both locally and internationally. Musicians such as Scorpions, Rihanna, Elton John, Stromae and many others have performed at the festival.  Mawazine was host to more than 2,500,000 in 2013. Workshops are available for teaching dances and other arts. The festival is free. However, while most areas are free, there are those that require payment, specifically the smaller stages being the historical site of Chellah, the Mohammed V National Theater, and the Renaissance Cultural Center.

Places of worship.

The places of worship are predominantly Muslim mosques. The last remaining synagogue in Rabat is the Rabbi Shalom Zawi Synagogue. There are also Christian churches and temples, including an Evangelical church and St. Peter's Cathedral, which hosts the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Rabat.

Education.

The Mohammed V University was founded in 1957.

Notable people.

Politicians:  Scientists, writers and philosophers:  Artists  Sportsmen  Royal descendants

Transport.

Air.

Rabat's main airport is Rabat–Salé Airport.

Trains.

Rabat is served by two principal railway stations run by the national rail service, the ONCF.  Rabat-Ville is the main inter-city station, from which trains run south to Casablanca, Marrakech and El Jadida, north to Tanger, or east to Meknes, Fes, Taza and Oujda.  ONCF operates the Le Bouregreg urban rail for Rabat-Salé agglomeration.

Tram.

The Rabat-Salé tramway is a tram system which was put into service on May 23, 2011 in the Moroccan cities of Rabat and Salé. The network has two lines for a total length of and 31 stops. It is operated by Veolia Transdev with Alstom Citadis trams.

Public transport.

After some years of neglect as investment was directed at the tramway, the existing operator, STAREO, was displaced in 2019. A contract was awarded to Alsa-City Bus, a joint venture between Moroccan company City Bus and Spanish company Alsa s.a, a subsidiary of the UK's National Express Group. The new operator took over in July 2019 with a commitment to three hundred and fifty new buses. These will comprise 102 Mercedes-Benz and 248 Scania- vehicles. The contract covers a 15-year period, renewable for seven years, and promises approximately 10 billion dinars investment into the bus transport system in the region.

Sports.

Prince Moulay Abdellah Stadium (Arabic: مركب الأمير مولاي عبد لله) is a multi-purpose stadium in Rabat, Morocco. It is named after Prince Moulay Abdellah. It was built in 1983 and is the home ground of ASFAR (football club). It is used mostly for football matches, and it can also stage athletics. The stadium holds 52,000. Since 2008 it is host of the Meeting International Mohammed VI d'Athlétisme de Rabat.  Rabat will host the 2019 African Games after Malabo, Equatorial Guinea stripped out of hosting due to economical matters. It will be the first time in an African Games to be hosted by Morocco.

Football.

The local football teams are:

Basketball.

The local basketball teams are:

International relations.

Twin towns—sister cities.

Rabat is twinned with:

Rabat (,, ; ; ; ) is the capital city of Morocco and the country's seventh largest city with an urban population of approximately 580,000 (2014) and a metropolitan population of over 1.2 million. It is also the capital city of the Rabat-Salé-Kénitra administrative region. Rabat is located on the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the river Bou Regreg, opposite Salé, the city's main commuter town.

Rabat (někdy též Ribát, arabsky ar-Rabāṭ nebo ar-Ribāṭ, berbersky "ⵕⵕⴱⴰⵟ") je od roku 1956 hlavní město Maroka. Zároveň je jedno z marockých „královských měst“. Je situováno na pobřeží Atlantského oceánu, na levém břehu ústí řeky Bú Regreg. Na protějším pravém břehu leží město Salé, se kterým je spojen několika mosty. Oblast Rabatu, Salé a okolních sídel je po Casablance druhou největší městskou aglomerací v Maroku. V minulosti bylo správním střediskem protektorátu Francouzské Maroko.