Tributaries.

The Terek drains most of the northeast Caucasus east into the Caspian just as its sister, the Kuban, drains the northwest Caucasus west into the Black Sea. Its major tributaries are the following. In the west a fan of rivers flows east and northeast into the Terek. These are the east-flowing Malka, the Baksan, the Chegem and the Cherek with its two branches. These three join the Malka just before it reaches the Terek. The Liashen, Urukh, Duradur and Duradon flow northeast, the Ardon and its tributary, the Fiagdon flow north and the Gizeldon drains the north slope of Mount Kazbek and reaches the Terek near the mouth of the Ardon. Then there is the north-flowing part of the Terek with the Darial Pass. The great northwest bend of the Terek is cut off by the northeast-flowing Sunzha which catches most of the north-flowing rivers. These are the north-flowing upper Sunzha, the Assa, the Argun and Khukhulau. East of these are the Aksay and the Aktash which formerly dried up in the lowlands between the Sulak and the Terek. In the east the Sulak drains most of interior Dagestan and turns east to the Caspian before it reaches the Terek.

Human history.

The capital of Khazaria, Samandar, may have stood on the banks of the river Terek.  The Terek river was the site of the final defeat of the army of Hulagu, khan of the Ilkhanate, at the hands of the army of Berke, khan of the Golden Horde, led by Berke's nephew, Nogai Khan, in the first civil war of the Mongol Empire, the Berke–Hulagu war of 1262. Also on the river Timur defeated Tokhtamysh in 1395.  The Terek Cossack Host (1577–1832 and 1860– ) had its base in the Terek basin. During the Russian conquest of the Caucasus it was part of the North Caucasus Line.  During World War II, German forces at the end of August 1942 reached the Terek near Mozdok – the farthest extent of German conquests in the Soviet Union – but aside from a small bridgehead were unable to forge further toward the oil fields of Baku, Hitler's objective. The Germans penetrated the left bank of the Terek reaching Vladikavkaz suburbs and West Gizel, near the now built weather station.

The Terek (;, ;, ;, "Terk";, ;, ) a major river in the Northern Caucasus, it originates in the Mtskheta-Mtianeti region of Georgia and flows through North Caucasus region of Russia into the Caspian Sea. It rises near the juncture of the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range and the Khokh Range, to the southwest of Mount Kazbek, winding north in a white torrent between the town of Stepantsminda and the village of Gergeti toward the Russian region North Ossetia and the city of Vladikavkaz. It turns east to flow through Chechnya and Dagestan before dividing into two branches which empty into the Caspian Sea. Below the city of Kizlyar it forms a swampy river delta around wide. The river is a key natural asset in the region, providing irrigation and hydroelectric power in its upper reaches.

Těrek (, [Tergi], [Terka], ingušsky Тийрк [Tijrk]) je řeka na severu Kavkazu pramenící v Gruzii, dále protéká čtyřmi republikami Ruské federace (Severní Osetií-Alanií, Kabardsko-Balkarskem, Čečenskem a Dagestánem) a Stavropolským krajem. Řeka je dlouhá 623 km, povodí má rozlohu 43 200 km2.


Greek Dorian mode.

The Dorian mode (properly "harmonia" or "tonos") is named after the Dorian Greeks. Applied to a whole octave, the Dorian octave species was built upon two tetrachords (four-note segments) separated by a whole tone, running from the "hypate meson" to the "nete diezeugmenon".  In the enharmonic genus, the intervals in each tetrachord are quarter tone–quarter tone–major third.  \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { </score>  In the chromatic genus, they are semitone–semitone–minor third.  \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { </score>  In the diatonic genus, they are semitone–tone–tone.  \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { </score>  In the diatonic genus, the sequence over the octave is the same as that produced by playing all the white notes of a piano ascending from E to E, a sequence equivalent to the modern Phrygian mode.  Placing the single tone at the bottom of the scale followed by two conjunct tetrachords (that is, the top note of the first tetrachord is also the bottom note of the second), produces the Hypodorian ("below Dorian") octave species: A | B C D E | (E) F G A. Placing the two tetrachords together and the single tone at the top of the scale produces the Mixolydian octave species, a note sequence equivalent to modern Locrian mode.

Medieval Dorian mode.

The early Byzantine church developed a system of eight musical modes (the octoechos), which served as a model for medieval European chant theorists when they developed their own modal classification system starting in the 9th century. The success of the Western synthesis of this system with elements from the fourth book of "De institutione musica" of Boethius, created the false impression that the Byzantine octoechos was inherited directly from ancient Greece.  Originally used to designate one of the traditional "harmoniai" of Greek theory (a term with various meanings, including the sense of an octave consisting of eight tones), the name was appropriated (along with six others) by the 2nd-century theorist Ptolemy to designate his seven "tonoi", or transposition keys. Four centuries later, Boethius interpreted Ptolemy in Latin, still with the meaning of transposition keys, not scales. When chant theory was first being formulated in the 9th century, these seven names plus an eighth, Hypermixolydian (later changed to Hypomixolydian), were again re-appropriated in the anonymous treatise "Alia Musica". A commentary on that treatise, called the "Nova expositio", first gave it a new sense as one of a set of eight diatonic species of the octave, or scales.  In medieval theory, the authentic Dorian mode could include the note B "by licence", in addition to B. The same scalar pattern, but starting a fourth or fifth below the mode final D, and extending a fifth above (or a sixth, terminating on B), was numbered as mode 2 in the medieval system. This was the plagal mode corresponding to the authentic Dorian, and was called the Hypodorian mode. In the untransposed form on D, in both the authentic and plagal forms the note C is often raised to C to form a leading tone, and the variable sixth step is in general B in ascending lines and B in descent.

Modern Dorian mode.

The modern Dorian mode (also called "Russian minor" by Balakirev), by contrast, is a strictly diatonic scale corresponding to the white keys of the piano from D to D (shown below)  \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { </score>  or any transposition of its interval pattern, which has the ascending pattern of whole steps and half steps as follows:  Thus, the Dorian mode is a symmetric scale, since the pattern of whole and half step is the same ascending or descending.  The modern Dorian mode can also be thought of as a scale with a minor third and seventh, a major second and sixth, and a perfect fourth and fifth, notated relative to the major scale as:  It may be considered an "excerpt" of a major scale played from the pitch a whole tone above the major scale's tonic, i.e., a major scale played from its second scale degree up to its second degree again. The resulting scale is, however, "minor" in quality, because, as the D becomes the new tonal centre, the F a minor third above the D becomes the new mediant, or third degree. Thus, when a triad is built upon the tonic, it is a minor triad.  The modern Dorian mode is equivalent to the natural minor scale (or the Aeolian mode) but with a major sixth. The modern Dorian mode resembles the Greek Phrygian "harmonia" in the diatonic genus.

Dorian mode or Doric mode can refer to three very different but interrelated subjects: one of the Ancient Greek "harmoniai" (characteristic melodic behaviour, or the scale structure associated with it), one of the medieval musical modes, or, most commonly, one of the modern modal diatonic scales, corresponding to the white notes from D to D, or any transposition of this.

Dórský modus je pojem z oblasti hudební nauky, který se používá pro posloupnost tónů diatonické durové stupnice zahrané od jejího druhého stupně.


Birth and family.

Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, England. She was the only child of King Henry VIII and his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive infancy. Her mother had suffered many miscarriages. Before Mary's birth, four previous pregnancies had resulted in a stillborn daughter and three short-lived or stillborn sons, including Henry, Duke of Cornwall.  Mary was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church of the

Childhood.

Mary was a precocious child. In July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals (a type of harpsichord). A great part of her early education came from her mother, who consulted the Spanish humanist Juan Luis Vives for advice and commissioned him to write "De Institutione Feminae Christianae", a treatise on the education of girls. By the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin. She studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and perhaps Greek. Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the Venetian ambassador Sebastian Giustiniani, "This girl never cries." Also, as the miniature portrait of her shows, Mary had, like both her parents, a very fair complexion, pale blue eyes and red or reddish-golden hair. She was also ruddy-cheeked, a trait she inherited from her father.  Despite his affection for Mary, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons. By the time Mary was nine years old, it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children, leaving Henry without a legitimate male heir.

Adolescence.

Meanwhile, the marriage of Mary's parents was in jeopardy. Disappointed at the lack of a male heir, and eager to remarry, Henry attempted to have his marriage to Catherine annulled, but Pope Clement VII refused his request. Henry claimed, citing biblical passages (Leviticus 20:21), that his marriage to Catherine was unclean because she was the widow of his brother Arthur (Mary's uncle). Catherine claimed that her marriage to Arthur was never consummated and so was not a valid marriage. Her first marriage had been annulled by a previous pope, Julius II, on that basis. Clement may have been reluctant to act because he was influenced by Charles V, Catherine's nephew and Mary's former betrothed, whose troops had surrounded and occupied Rome in the War of the League of Cognac.  From 1531, Mary was often sick with irregular menstruation and depression, although it is not clear whether this was caused by stress, puberty or a more deep-seated disease. She was not permitted to see her mother, who had been sent

Adulthood.

In 1536, Queen Anne fell from the king's favour and was beheaded. Elizabeth, like Mary, was declared illegitimate and stripped of her succession rights. Within two weeks of Anne's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who urged her husband to make peace with Mary. Henry insisted that Mary recognise him as head of the Church of England, repudiate papal authority, acknowledge that the marriage between her parents was unlawful, and accept her own illegitimacy. She attempted to reconcile with him by submitting to his authority as far as "God and my conscience" permitted, but she was eventually bullied into signing a document agreeing to all of Henry's demands. Reconciled with her father, Mary resumed her place at court. Henry granted her a household (which included the reinstatement of Mary's favourite Susan Clarencieux). Mary's privy purse expenses for this period show that Hatfield House, the Palace of Beaulieu (also called Newhall), Richmond and Hunsdon were among her principal places of residence, as well as Henry's palaces at Greenwich, Westminster and Hampton Court. Her expenses included fine clothes and gambling at cards, one of her favourite pastimes. Rebels in the North of England, including Lord Hussey, Mary's former chamberlain, campaigned against Henry's religious reforms, and one of their demands was that Mary be made legitimate. The rebellion, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, was ruthlessly suppressed. Along with other rebels, Hussey was executed, but there was no suggestion that Mary was directly involved. The following year, 1537, Jane died after giving birth to a son, Edward. Mary was made godmother to her half-brother and acted as chief mourner at the queen's funeral.  Mary was courted by Duke Philip of Bavaria from late 1539, but he was Lutheran and his suit for her hand was unsuccessful. Over 1539, the king's chief minister, Thomas Cromwell, negotiated a potential alliance with the Duchy of Cleves. Suggestions that

Accession.

On 6 July 1553, at the age of 15, Edward VI died from a lung infection, possibly tuberculosis. He did not want the crown to go to Mary, because he feared she would restore Catholicism and undo his reforms as well as those of Henry VIII, and so he planned to exclude her from the line of succession. His advisers, however, told him that he could not disinherit only one of his half-sisters: he would have to disinherit Elizabeth as well, even though she was a Protestant. Guided by John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, and perhaps others, Edward excluded both from the line of succession in his will.  Contradicting the Succession Act, which restored Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession, Edward named Dudley's daughter-in-law Lady Jane Grey, the granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister,

Reign.

One of Mary's first actions as queen was to order the release of the Roman Catholic Duke of Norfolk and Stephen Gardiner from imprisonment in the Tower of London, as well as her kinsman Edward Courtenay. Mary understood that the young Lady Jane was essentially a pawn in Dudley's scheme, and Dudley was the only conspirator of rank executed for high treason in the immediate aftermath of the coup. Lady Jane and her husband, Lord Guildford Dudley, though found guilty, were kept under guard in the Tower rather than immediately executed, while Lady Jane's father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, was released. Mary was left in a difficult position, as almost all the Privy Counsellors had been implicated in the plot to put Lady Jane on the throne. She appointed Gardiner to the council and made him both Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor, offices he held until his death in November 1555. Susan Clarencieux became Mistress of the Robes. On 1 October 1553, Gardiner crowned Mary at Westminster Abbey.

Spanish marriage.

At age 37, Mary turned her attention to finding a husband and producing an heir, which would prevent the Protestant Elizabeth (still next-in-line under the terms of Henry VIII's will and the Act of Succession of 1544) from succeeding to the throne. Edward Courtenay and Reginald Pole were both mentioned as prospective suitors, but her cousin Charles V suggested she marry his only son, Prince Philip of Spain. Philip had a son from a previous marriage and was heir apparent to vast territories in Continental Europe and the New World. As part of the marriage negotiations, a portrait of Philip,

False pregnancy.

In September 1554, Mary stopped menstruating. She gained weight, and felt nauseated in the mornings. For these reasons, almost the entirety of her court, including her doctors, believed her to be pregnant. Parliament passed an act making Philip regent in the event of Mary's death in childbirth. In the last week of April 1555, Elizabeth was released from house arrest, and called to court as a witness to the birth, which was expected imminently. According to Giovanni Michieli, the Venetian ambassador, Philip may have planned to marry Elizabeth in the event of Mary's death in childbirth, but in a letter to his brother-in-law, Maximilian of Austria, Philip expressed uncertainty as to whether his wife was pregnant.  Thanksgiving services in the diocese of London were held at the end of April after false rumours that Mary had given birth to a son spread across Europe. Through May and

Religious policy.

In the month following her accession, Mary issued a proclamation that she would not compel any of her subjects to follow her religion, but by the end of September 1553, leading Protestant churchmen—including John Bradford, John Rogers, John Hooper, Hugh Latimer, and Thomas Cranmer—were imprisoned. Mary's first Parliament, which assembled in early October, declared the marriage of her parents valid and abolished Edward's religious laws. Church doctrine was restored to the form it had taken in the 1539 Six Articles of Henry VIII, which (among other things) re-affirmed clerical celibacy. Married priests were deprived of their benefices.  Mary had always rejected the break with Rome instituted by her father and the establishment of Protestantism by her brother's regents. Philip persuaded Parliament to repeal Henry's religious laws, thus returning the English church to Roman jurisdiction. Reaching an agreement took many months and Mary and Pope Julius III had to make a major concession: the confiscated monastery lands were not returned to the church but remained in

Foreign policy.

Furthering the Tudor conquest of Ireland, under Mary and Philip's reign English colonists were settled in the Irish Midlands. Queen's and King's Counties (now Counties Laois and Offaly) were founded, and their plantation began. Their principal towns were respectively named Maryborough (now Portlaoise) and Philipstown (now Daingean).  In January 1556, Mary's father-in-law the Emperor abdicated. Mary and Philip were still apart; he was declared King of Spain in Brussels, but she stayed in England. Philip negotiated an unsteady truce with the French in February 1556. The following month, the French ambassador in England, Antoine de Noailles, was implicated in a plot against Mary when Sir Henry Dudley, a second cousin of the executed Duke of Northumberland, attempted to assemble an invasion force in France. The plot, known as the Dudley conspiracy, was betrayed, and the conspirators in England were rounded up. Dudley remained in exile in France,

Commerce and revenue.

The years of Mary's reign were consistently wet. The persistent rain and subsequent flooding led to famine. Another problem was the decline of the Antwerp cloth trade. Despite Mary's marriage to Philip, England did not benefit from Spain's enormously lucrative trade with the New World. The mercantilist Spanish guarded their trade routes jealously, and Mary could not condone English illicit trade or piracy against her husband. In an attempt to increase trade and rescue the English economy, Mary's counsellors continued Northumberland's policy of seeking out new commercial opportunities. She granted a royal charter to the Muscovy Company under governor Sebastian Cabot, and

Death.

After her husband Philip's visit in 1557, Mary again thought she was pregnant, with a baby due in March 1558. She decreed in her will that her husband would be the regent during the minority of their child. However, no child was born, and Mary was forced to accept that her half-sister Elizabeth would be her lawful successor.  Mary was weak and ill from May 1558. In pain, possibly from ovarian cysts or uterine cancer, she died on 17 November 1558, aged 42,

Legacy.

At her funeral service, John White, bishop of Winchester, praised Mary: "She was a king's daughter; she was a king's sister; she was a king's wife. She was a queen, and by the same title a king also." She was the first woman to successfully claim the throne of England, despite competing claims and determined opposition, and enjoyed popular support and sympathy during the earliest parts of her reign, especially from the Roman Catholics of England.  Mary's attempts to undo the national religious reforms of her brother's reign faced major obstacles. Despite her belief in the papal supremacy, she ruled constitutionally as the Supreme Head of the English Church, a contradiction under which she bridled. She found herself powerless to restore the vast number of ecclesiastical properties handed over or sold to private landowners.  Protestant writers at the time, and since, have often condemned Mary's reign. By the 17th century, the memory of her religious persecutions had led to the adoption of her sobriquet "Bloody Mary". John Knox attacked her in his "First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women" (1558), and she was prominently vilified in "Actes and Monuments" (1563), by John Foxe. Foxe's book remained popular throughout the following centuries and helped shape

Titles, style, and arms.

When Mary ascended the throne, she was proclaimed under the same official style as Henry VIII and Edward VI: "Mary, by the Grace of God, Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, and of the Church of England and of Ireland on Earth Supreme Head". The title Supreme Head of the Church was repugnant to Mary's Catholicism, and she omitted it after Christmas 1553.  Under Mary's marriage treaty with Philip, the official joint style reflected not only Mary's but also Philip's dominions and claims: "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God, King and Queen of

Ancestry.

Both Mary and Philip were descended from John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster, a relationship that was used to portray Philip as an English king. They descended from Lancaster and his first two wives: Blanche of Lancaster (grandmother of John, Constable of Portugal) and Constance of Castile (mother of Catherine of Lancaster). Mary also descended from Lancaster and his third wife, Katherine Swynford (grandmother of John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset and Cecily Neville).

Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558), also known as Mary Tudor, was the queen of England from July 1553 until her death. She is best known for her vigorous attempt to reverse the English Reformation, which had begun during the reign of her father, Henry VIII. Her attempt to restore to the Church the property confiscated in the previous two reigns was largely thwarted by parliament, but during her five-year reign, Mary had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions, which led to her denunciation as "Bloody Mary" by her Protestant opponents.

Marie I. Tudorovna (18. únor 1516 – 17. listopad 1558) byla královna Anglie a Irska od 19. července 1553 do své smrti. Stala se čtvrtým korunovaným panovníkem z rodu Tudorovců. Poté, co nastoupila na trůn po svém nevlastním bratrovi Eduardovi, obnovila spojení anglikánské církve s církví římskokatolickou. V procesu potlačování protestantismu bylo upáleno asi 300 církevních rebelů a královna získala přídomek Krvavá Marie, anglicky „Bloody Mary“. Její nástupkyně na anglickém trůnu Alžběta I. obnovila nezávislost Anglikánské církve.


History.

The earliest computing machines had fixed programs. Some very simple computers still use this design, either for simplicity or training purposes. For example, a desk calculator (in principle) is a fixed program computer. It can do basic mathematics, but it cannot run a word processor or games. Changing the program of a fixed-program machine requires rewiring, restructuring, or redesigning the machine. The earliest computers were not so much "programmed" as "designed" for a particular task. "Reprogramming" – when possible at all – was a laborious process that started with flowcharts and paper notes, followed by detailed engineering designs, and then the often-arduous process of physically rewiring and rebuilding the machine. It could take three weeks to set up and debug a program on ENIAC.  With the proposal of the stored-program computer, this changed. A stored-program computer includes, by design, an instruction set, and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation.  A stored-program design also allows for self-modifying code. One early motivation for such a facility was the need for a program to increment or otherwise modify the address portion of instructions, which operators had to do manually in early designs. This became less important when index registers and indirect addressing became usual features of machine architecture. Another use was to embed frequently used data in the instruction stream using immediate addressing. Self-modifying code has largely fallen out of favor, since it is usually hard to understand and debug, as well as being inefficient under modern processor pipelining and caching schemes.

Capabilities.

On a large scale, the ability to treat instructions as data is what makes assemblers, compilers, linkers, loaders, and other automated programming tools possible. It makes "programs that write programs" possible. This has made a sophisticated self-hosting computing ecosystem flourish around von Neumann architecture machines.  Some high level languages leverage the von Neumann architecture by providing an abstract, machine-independent way to manipulate executable code at runtime (e.g., LISP), or by using runtime information to tune just-in-time compilation (e.g. languages hosted on the Java virtual machine, or languages embedded in web browsers).  On a smaller scale, some repetitive operations such as BITBLT or pixel and vertex shaders can be accelerated on general purpose processors with just-in-time compilation techniques. This is one use of self-modifying code that has remained popular.

Development of the stored-program concept.

The mathematician Alan Turing, who had been alerted to a problem of mathematical logic by the lectures of Max Newman at the University of Cambridge, wrote a paper in 1936 entitled "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem", which was published in the "Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society". In it he described a hypothetical machine he called a "universal computing machine," now known as the "Universal Turing machine". The hypothetical machine had an infinite store (memory in today's terminology) that contained both instructions and data. John von Neumann became acquainted with Turing while he was a visiting professor at Cambridge in 1935, and also during Turing's PhD year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey during 1936 – 1937. Whether he knew of Turing's paper of 1936 at that time is not clear.  In 1936, Konrad Zuse also anticipated in two patent applications that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data.  Independently, J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, who were developing the ENIAC at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, at the University of Pennsylvania, wrote about the stored-program concept in December 1943.  Von Neumann was involved in the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, which required huge amounts of calculation. This drew him to the ENIAC project, during the summer of 1944. There he joined the ongoing discussions on the design of this stored-program computer, the EDVAC. As part of that group, he wrote up a description titled "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC" based on the work of Eckert and Mauchly. It was unfinished when his colleague Herman Goldstine circulated it with only von Neumann's name on it, to the consternation of Eckert and Mauchly. The paper was read by dozens of von Neumann's colleagues in America and Europe, and influenced the next round of computer designs.  Jack Copeland considers that it is "historically inappropriate, to refer to electronic stored-program digital computers as 'von Neumann machines'". His Los Alamos colleague Stan Frankel said of von Neumann's regard for Turing's ideas: At the time that the "First Draft" report was circulated, Turing was producing a report entitled "Proposed Electronic Calculator". It described in engineering and programming detail, his idea of a machine he called the "Automatic Computing Engine (ACE)". He presented this to the Executive Committee of the British National Physical Laboratory on February 19, 1946. Although Turing knew from his wartime experience at Bletchley Park that what he proposed was feasible, the secrecy surrounding Colossus, that was subsequently maintained for several decades, prevented him from saying so. Various successful implementations of the ACE design were produced.  Both von Neumann's and Turing's papers described stored-program computers, but von Neumann's earlier paper achieved greater circulation and the computer architecture it outlined became known as the "von Neumann architecture". In the 1953 publication "Faster than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines" (edited by B. V. Bowden), a section in the chapter on "Computers in America" reads as follows:  The Machine of the Institute For Advanced Studies, Princeton In 1945, Professor J. von Neumann, who was then working at the Moore School of Engineering in Philadelphia, where the E.N.I.A.C. had been built, issued on behalf of a group of his co-workers, a report on the logical design of digital computers. The report contained a detailed proposal for the design of the machine that has since become known as the E.D.V.A.C. (electronic discrete variable automatic computer). This machine has only recently been completed in America, but the von Neumann report inspired the construction of the E.D.S.A.C. (electronic delay-storage automatic calculator) in Cambridge (see page 130). In 1947, Burks, Goldstine and von Neumann published another report that outlined the design of another type of machine (a parallel machine this time) that would be exceedingly fast, capable perhaps of 20,000 operations per second. They pointed out that the outstanding problem in constructing such a machine was the development of suitable memory with instantaneously accessible contents. At first they suggested using a special vacuum tube—called the "Selectron"—which the Princeton Laboratories of RCA had invented. These tubes were expensive and difficult to make, so von Neumann subsequently decided to build a machine based on the Williams memory. This machine—completed in June, 1952 in Princeton—has become popularly known as the Maniac. The design of this machine inspired at least half a dozen machines now being built in America, all known affectionately as "Johniacs." In the same book, the first two paragraphs of a chapter on ACE read as follows:  Automatic Computation at the National Physical Laboratory One of the most modern digital computers which embodies developments and improvements in the technique of automatic electronic computing was recently demonstrated at the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, where it has been designed and built by a small team of mathematicians and electronics research engineers on the staff of the Laboratory, assisted by a number of production engineers from the English Electric Company, Limited. The equipment so far erected at the Laboratory is only the pilot model of a much larger installation which will be known as the Automatic Computing Engine, but although comparatively small in bulk and containing only about 800 thermionic valves, as can be judged from Plates XII, XIII and XIV, it is an extremely rapid and versatile calculating machine. The basic concepts and abstract principles of computation by a machine were formulated by Dr. A. M. Turing, F.R.S., in a paper. read before the London Mathematical Society in 1936, but work on such machines in Britain was delayed by the war. In 1945, however, an examination of the problems was made at the National Physical Laboratory by Mr. J. R. Womersley, then superintendent of the Mathematics Division of the Laboratory. He was joined by Dr. Turing and a small staff of specialists, and, by 1947, the preliminary planning was sufficiently advanced to warrant the establishment of the special group already mentioned. In April, 1948, the latter became the Electronics Section of the Laboratory, under the charge of Mr. F. M. Colebrook.

Early von Neumann-architecture computers.

The "First Draft" described a design that was used by many universities and corporations to construct their computers. Among these various computers, only ILLIAC and ORDVAC had compatible instruction sets.

Early stored-program computers.

The date information in the following chronology is difficult to put into proper order. Some dates are for first running a test program, some dates are the first time the computer was demonstrated or completed, and some dates are for the first delivery or installation.

Evolution.

Through the decades of the 1960s and 1970s computers generally became both smaller and faster, which led to evolutions in their architecture. For example, memory-mapped I/O lets input and output devices be treated the same as memory. A single system bus could be used to provide a modular system with lower cost. This is sometimes called a "streamlining" of the architecture. In subsequent decades, simple microcontrollers would sometimes omit features of the model to lower cost and size. Larger computers added features for higher performance.

Design limitations.

Von Neumann bottleneck.

The shared bus between the program memory and data memory leads to the "von Neumann bottleneck", the limited throughput (data transfer rate) between the central processing unit (CPU) and memory compared to the amount of memory. Because the single bus can only access one of the two classes of memory at a time, throughput is lower than the rate at which the CPU can work. This seriously limits the effective processing speed when the CPU is required to perform minimal processing on large amounts of data. The CPU is continually forced to wait for needed data to move to or from memory. Since CPU speed and memory size have increased much faster than the throughput between them, the bottleneck has become more of a problem, a problem whose severity increases with every new generation of CPU.  The von Neumann bottleneck was described by John Backus in his 1977 ACM Turing Award lecture. According to Backus:  Surely there must be a less primitive way of making big changes in the store than by pushing vast numbers of words back and forth through the von Neumann bottleneck. Not only is this tube a literal bottleneck for the data traffic of a problem, but, more importantly, it is an intellectual bottleneck that has kept us tied to word-at-a-time thinking instead of encouraging us to think in terms of the larger conceptual units of the task at hand. Thus programming is basically planning and detailing the enormous traffic of words through the von Neumann bottleneck, and much of that traffic concerns not significant data itself, but where to find it.

Mitigations.

There are several known methods for mitigating the Von Neumann performance bottleneck. For example, the following all can improve performance:  The problem can also be sidestepped somewhat by using parallel computing, using for example the non-uniform memory access (NUMA) architecture—this approach is commonly employed by supercomputers. It is less clear whether the "intellectual bottleneck" that Backus criticized has changed much since 1977. Backus's proposed solution has not had a major influence. Modern functional programming and object-oriented programming are much less geared towards "pushing vast numbers of words back and forth" than earlier languages like FORTRAN were, but internally, that is still what computers spend much of their time doing, even highly parallel supercomputers.  As of 1996, a database benchmark study found that three out of four CPU cycles were spent waiting for memory. Researchers expect that increasing the number of simultaneous instruction streams with multithreading or single-chip multiprocessing will make this bottleneck even worse. In the context of multi-core processors, additional overhead is required to maintain cache coherence between processors and threads.

Self-modifying code.

Aside from the von Neumann bottleneck, program modifications can be quite harmful, either by accident or design. In some simple stored-program computer designs, a malfunctioning program can damage itself, other programs, or the operating system, possibly leading to a computer crash. Memory protection and other forms of access control can usually protect against both accidental and malicious program changes.

The von Neumann architecture—also known as the von Neumann model or Princeton architecture—is a computer architecture based on a 1945 description by Hungarian-American mathematician and physicist John von Neumann and others in the "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC". That document describes a design architecture for an electronic digital computer with these components:

Von Neumannova architektura je v informatice označení pro jednoduché schéma programovatelného počítače, které používá jednu sběrnici, na kterou jsou připojeny všechny aktivní prvky (procesor, paměť, vstupy a výstupy).


Background.

Brian Transeau (BT) released his debut single, "Embracing the Future" in 1993 through MusicNow Records in the United States, where it failed to chart. However, Welsh DJ Sasha performed the song in the United Kingdom where it saw success, and he paid for Transeau to relocate to the country. Transeau brought an IBM Personal System/2 computer from the US, which the album was recorded on.

Composition.

In an interview with "Musik Magazine", Transeau spoke about the composition of the album. He cited that "Nocturnal Transmission" and "Quark" were inspired by nature, after he was taken hiking by British DJ Guy Oldhams in Cumbria, North England. On the topic of the album's composition, Transeau stated:  The album's fourth track, "Sasha's Voyage of "Ima"", is a DJ mix by Sasha, comprising the three former tracks in addition to mixes of "Embracing the Future", "Loving You More" and "Deeper Sunshine". Explaining the inclusion of the mix on the album, Transeau stated that "I wanted some tracks to stand out for themselves, but I also wanted Sasha to show how he interprets songs. He makes every individual record more than just the sum of its parts".  "Loving You More" was composed as a challenge for Transeau to create a vocal track; of which the vocals were provided by Vincent Covello. The final track, "Divinity", was composed after Transeau recorded himself overtone singing.

Release.

"Ima" was released on October 9, 1995 through Perfecto Records in the United Kingdom. In the United States, it was released in 1996 in a double disc format, featuring the single "Blue Skies", featuring Tori Amos, as well as its remix, "Blue Skies (The Delphinium Days Mix)". "Blue Skies" was previously featured in edited form on the soundtrack for the TV show "Party of Five". This version also includes several singles released prior to the album, as well as the B-sides to "Embracing the Sunshine" and "Nocturnal Transmission". A portion of "Nocturnal Transmission" is featured in the film "The Fast and the Furious", for which BT also composed the score.  The cover art is a photograph of "Christ of the Abyss", submerged bronze statue of Jesus Christ in the Mediterranean Sea.

Critical reception.

"Ima" received positive reviews from critics.

Track listing.

All songs written by Brian Transeau, except where noted.

Ima (; stylized as 今 ima; Japanese for "now") is the debut studio album by American electronic musician BT, released on October 9, 1995 through Perfecto Records. The album is considered a major stepping stone in trance music, popularizing a more progressive approach. The album includes the 1995 single "Embracing the Future", which reached number one on the UK Dance Chart, as well as "Loving You More" featuring Vincent Covello. Following its release, "Ima" appeared on the UK Albums Chart for four weeks, peaking at 45. In 1996, the album was released in the United States in a double disc format, with the US Dance number one single "Blue Skies" featuring Tori Amos.

Ima je debutové album od amerického producenta Briana Wayna Transeau, také známého jako BT. Bylo vydáno roku 1995, na prvním CD je 9 skladeb a na druhém 4. Název „Ima“ znamená japonsky "Teď".


History.

Out of former more than 200 mosques and many small Islamic places of worship the so called mesdzid, the Bajrakli Mosque in 11, Gospodar Jevremova Street is the only remaining and active example of Islamic religious architecture in Belgrade. It is situated on a slope towards the Danube River, near the junction with Kralja Petra Street. Once it dominated in the atmosphere of mostly ground floor houses in the busy commercial and craft town district of Belgrade, the so-called Zerek.  Descriptions of Belgrade of the 17th century were preserved by Ottoman travel writer Evliya Celebi in which he vividly described the appearance of the town in the period of Turkish rule, with various buildings of Islamic architecture. In the second half of the 19th century the Bajrakli Mosque was described by historians and travel writers Konstantin Jireček, Giuseppe Barbanti Brodano,as well as by archaeologist and ethnologist Felix Kanitz. It is assumed that today's Bajrakli Mosque was built on the place of an older mesdzid, probably in the second half of the 17th century, as the endowment of the Turkish ruler Sultan Suleiman II (1687—1691). It was originally named after former renewers, Čohadži-Hajji Alija's and later Hussein Ćehaja's mosque, while the current name was given in the late 18th or in the early 19th century. In it, as in the main mosque, there was the muvekit, the man who calculated the exact time of AH according to the Islamic calendar (which began in 622, i.e. in the year of Hijra, the year during which the emigration of the Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina) occurred to determine sacred days, regulated clock mechanism and put the flag on the minaret, to signal the simultaneous beginning of the prayer to other Islamic places of worship in the town of Belgrade. Between 1717 and 1739, during the Austrian rule, it served as a cathedral Catholic church, but its original function was renewed in 1741 when the Ottomans returned to Belgrade. The mosque was renewed in the 19th century by the rulers of the Obrenovic dynasty, Prince Mihailo and King Aleksandar Obrenović.  In 1868, The Minister of Education and Church Affairs was ordered by Prince Mihailo Obrenovic to choose one of the existing mosques and enable it for the performance of Muslim religious rites, when besides the mosque was repaired even the courtyard building next to it. The Minister of Education and Church Affairs sent to the State Council of the Principality of Serbia a document dated May 10, 1868, with the following content: "In order for Mohammedans, who are on their business in Belgrade, not to be without religious consolation, His Excellency ordered the one of the local mosques to be repaired for their place of worship. Due to this high order, "Bajrak" mosque was chosen as the most appropriate one and the Minister of Construction as at my request sent the professional people to examine the same mosque, and a house next to it, where the mullahs will reside..."  By the Decree of Prince Mihailo Obrenović from May 1868, The Minister of Education and Church Affairs was authorized to "give to khoja 240, and a muezzin 120 talirs a year", and the servants of the mosque had even income from real estate - waqf property. The first imam and the muezzin at the Bajrakli Mosque were appointed in 1868.  Between the two world wars, the mosque was restored even by the Municipality of Belgrade, when in 1935 it was protected for the first time by the Regulation on the Protection of Antiquities in Belgrade. The restoration was performed several times and after the Second World War by the National Committee of the City of Belgrade and by the Cultural Heritage Preservation and Scientific Research Institute and, from the mid sixties of the 20th century even by the Cultural Heritage Preservation Institute of Belgrade. After the recent damage in 2004 conservation works on rehabilitation and restoration of stone facades with the restoration of window openings were carried out.

Architecture.

The architecture of the mosque belongs to the type of one-storey cubic building with a dome and minaret. With massive walls and small openings, it was built of stone, and some segments were carried out in brick and stone. The building has the square plan, while the octagonal dome is supported by oriental domed arches and niches -trompes, with modest decoration of consoles. The number of windows on the facades is uneven, while the one is located on each side of the tambour of the dome. Dome supporting elements and all the openings on the building end in characteristic ogee oriental arches. Minaret - a thin tower with conical roof, with a circular terrace at the top, from which the faithful are called to prayer by the muezzin - is located on the northwest exterior side. Opposite the entrance, in the interior of the mosque, there is the most sacred space - the mihrab, a shallow niche with elaborate vault decoration, set in the direction of the holy city of Mecca to the southeast, while the raised wooden pulpit (minber or mimbar) is set to the right of the mihrab, in the south-west corner. Above the entrance, there is a wooden gallery (mahfil) from which one can come to the serefa, terrace on the minaret.  Interior decoration of the mosque is very modest. The walls are without plaster with shallow moldings, rare stylized floral and geometrical motifs and calligraphic inscriptions of verses from the Muslim holy book Koran, then with the names of the first righteous religious leaders caliphs, as well as of the God's i.e. Allah's magnificent properties and names written in Arabic letters on a specially decorated carved panels levhas. At the entrance to the mosque there was an arched arcade porch with three small domes. There is a fountain for prayer washing in the yard, as well as uncompleated religious school (madrassa) with the library. The Bajrakli Mosque is the main Islamic cultural center in Belgrade. Today is a bit hidden in the environment of higher housing units in Gospodar Jevremova Street.  Because of its antiquity, rarity, preservation of the original purpose and representativeness of religious architecture and Islamic culture, in 1946 was placed under state protection as a cultural monument, and in 1979 was declared cultural monument of great value (Decision, "Official Gazette of SRS" No. 14/79).

The Bajrakli Mosque ( / Bajrakli džamija; named in Turkish as "Bayraklı", "bayrak" is Turkish for "flag" and "Bayraklı" means "with flag") is a mosque in Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It is located in Gospodar Jevremova Street in the neighbourhood of Dorćol. It was built around 1575, and is the only mosque in the city out of the 273 that had existed during the time of the Ottoman Empire's rule of Serbia.

Mešita Bajrakli () se nachází v hlavním městě Srbska, Bělehradu. Je jedinou stavbou tohoto typu z původních osmdesáti v srbské metropoli, která stále stojí a slouží věřícím. Nachází se v bývalé turecké čtvrti Bělehradu, která se rozpínala na jižním břehu Dunaje od pevnosti Kalemegdan směrem na východ.


Nomenclature.

Classical era.

The Dacians are first mentioned in the writings of the Ancient Greeks, in Herodotus ("Histories" Book IV XCIII: ""[Getae] the noblest as well as the most just of all the Thracian tribes"") and Thucydides ("Peloponnesian Wars", Book II: ""[Getae] border on the Scythians and are armed in the same manner, being all mounted archers"").

Geography.

The extent and location of Dacia varied in its three distinct historical periods (see below):

Periods.

1st century BC.

The Dacia of King Burebista (82–44 BC), stretched from the Black Sea to the source of the river Tisa and from the Balkan Mountains to Bohemia. During that period, the Geto-Dacians conquered a wider territory and Dacia extended from the Middle Danube to the Black Sea littoral (between Apollonia and Olbia) and from present-day Slovakia's mountains to the Balkan mountains. In 53 BC, Julius Caesar stated that the lands of the Dacians started on the eastern edge of the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest). After Burebista's death, his kingdom split in four states, later five.

1st century AD.

Strabo, in his Geography written around AD 20, says:  ′′As for the southern part of Germany beyond the Albis, the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by the Suevi; then immediately adjoining this is the land of the Getae, which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along the Ister on its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of the Hercynian Forest (for the land of the Getae also embraces a part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as the Tyregetae; but I cannot tell the precise boundaries′′  On this basis, Lengyel and Radan (1980), Hoddinott (1981) and Mountain (1998) consider that the Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisza river prior to the rise of the Celtic Boii, and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians. The hold of the Dacians between the Danube and Tisza was tenuous. However, the archaeologist Parducz argued a Dacian presence west of the Tisa dating from the time of Burebista. According to Tacitus (AD 56 – AD 117) Dacians bordered Germania in the south-east, while Sarmatians bordered it in the east.  In the 1st century AD, the Iazyges settled West of Dacia, on the plain between the Danube and the Tisa rivers, according to the scholars' interpretation of Pliny's text: "The higher parts between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest) as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnutum and the plains and level country of the German frontiers there are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges, while the Dacians whom they have driven out hold the mountains and forests as far as the river Theiss".

2nd century AD.

Written a few decades after Emperor Trajan's Roman conquest of parts of Dacia in AD 105–106, Ptolemy's "Geographia" included the boundaries of Dacia. According to the scholars' interpretation of Ptolemy (Hrushevskyi 1997, Bunbury 1879, Mocsy 1974, Barbulescu and Nagler 2005) Dacia was the region between the rivers Tisza, Danube, upper Dniester, and Siret. Mainstream historians accept this interpretation: Avery (1972) Berenger (1994) Fol (1996) Mountain (1998), Waldman Mason (2006).  Ptolemy also provided a couple of Dacian toponyms in south Poland in the Upper Vistula (Polish: Wisla) river basin: Susudava and Setidava (with a manuscript variant Getidava). This could have been an "echo" of Burebista's expansion. It seems that this northern expansion of the Dacian language, as far as the Vistula river, lasted until AD 170–180 when the migration of the Vandal Hasdingi pushed out this northern Dacian group. This Dacian group, possibly the Costoboci/Lipiţa culture, is associated by Gudmund Schütte with towns having the specific Dacian language ending "dava" i.e. Setidava.  The Roman province "Dacia Traiana", established by the victors of the Dacian Wars during AD 101–106, initially comprised only the regions known today as Banat, Oltenia, Transylvania, and was subsequently gradually extended to southern parts of Moldavia, while Dobruja and Budjak belonged the Roman province of Moesia.  In the 2nd century AD, after the Roman conquest, Ptolemy puts the eastern boundary of "Dacia Traiana" (the Roman province) as far east as the "Hierasus" (Siret) river, in the middle of modern Romania. Roman rule extended to the south-western area of the Dacian Kingdom (but not to what later became known as Maramureş), to parts of the later Principality of Moldavia east of the Siret and north of the Upper Trajan Wall, and to areas in modern Muntenia and Ukraine, except the Black Sea shore.  After the Marcomannic Wars (AD 166–180), Dacian groups from outside Roman Dacia had been set in motion. So were the 12,000 Dacians 'from the neighbourhood of Roman Dacia sent away from their own country'. Their native country could have been the Upper Tisa region, but other places cannot be excluded.  The later Roman province "Dacia Aureliana", was organized inside former Moesia Superior after the retreat of the Roman army from Dacia, during the reign of emperor Aurelian during AD 271–275. It was reorganized as Dacia Ripensis (as a military province) and Dacia Mediterranea (as a civil province).

Cities.

Ptolemy gives a list of 43 names of towns in Dacia, out of which arguably 33 were of Dacian origin. Most of the latter included the added suffix ‘dava’ (meaning settlement, village). But, other Dacian names from his list lack the suffix (e.g. Zarmisegethusa regia = Zermizirga) In addition, nine other names of Dacian origin seem to have been Latinised.  The cities of the Dacians were known as "-dava", "-deva", -δαυα ("-dawa" or "-dava", Anc. Gk.), -δεβα ("-deva", Byz. Gk.) or -δαβα ("-dava", Byz. Gk.), etc..  "Gil-doba", a village in Thracia, of unknown location.  "Thermi-daua", a town in Dalmatia. Probably a Grecized form of "*Germidava".  "Pulpu-deva", (Phillipopolis) today Plovdiv in Bulgaria.

Political entities.

Rubobostes.

Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisa river prior to the rise of the Celtic Boii and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians under the king Burebista. It seems likely that the Dacian state arose as a tribal confederacy, which was united only by charismatic leadership in both military-political and ideological-religious domains. At the beginning of the 2nd century BC, under the rule of Rubobostes, a Dacian king in present-day Transylvania, the Dacians' power in the Carpathian basin increased after they defeated the Celts, who previously held power in the region.

Oroles.

A kingdom of Dacia also existed as early as the first half of the 2nd century BC under King Oroles. Conflicts with the Bastarnae and the Romans (112–109 BC, 74 BC), against whom they had assisted the Scordisci and Dardani, greatly weakened the resources of the Dacians.

Burebista.

Burebista (Boerebista), a contemporary of Julius Caesar, ruled Geto-Dacian tribes between 82 BC and 44 BC. He thoroughly reorganised the army and attempted to raise the moral standard and obedience of the people by persuading them to cut their vines and give up drinking wine. During his reign, the limits of the Dacian Kingdom were extended to their maximum. The Bastarnae and Boii were conquered, and even the Greek towns of Olbia and Apollonia on the Black Sea ("Pontus Euxinus") recognized Burebista's authority. In 53 BC, Caesar stated that the Dacian territory was on the eastern border of the Hercynian Forest.  Burebista suppressed the indigenous minting of coinages by four major tribal groups, adopting imported or copied Roman denarii as a monetary standard During his reign, Burebista transferred Geto-Dacians capital from Argedava to Sarmizegetusa Regia. For at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegetusa was the Dacians' capital and reached its peak under King Decebalus. The Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which his death in 44 BC prevented. In the same year Burebista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (later five) parts under separate rulers.

Cotiso.

One of these entities was Cotiso's state, to whom Augustus betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia. He is well known from the line in Horace ("Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen", Odes, III. 8. 18).  The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However they were by no means subdued, and in later times to maintain their independence they seized every opportunity to cross the frozen Danube during the winter and ravaging the Roman cities in the province of Moesia, which was under Roman occupation.  Strabo testified: "although the Getae and Daci once attained to very great power, so that they actually could send forth an expedition of two hundred thousand men, they now find themselves reduced to as few as forty thousand, and they have come close to the point of yielding obedience to the Romans, though as yet they are not absolutely submissive, because of the hopes which they base on the Germans, who are enemies to the Romans."  In fact, this occurred because Burebista's empire split after his death into four and later five smaller states, as Strabo explains, "only recently, when Augustus Caesar sent an expedition against them, the number of parts into which the empire had been divided was five, though at the time of the insurrection it had been four. Such divisions, to be sure, are only temporary and vary with the times".

Decebalus.

Decebalus ruled the Dacians between AD 87 and 106. The frontiers of Decebal's Dacia were marked by the Tisa River to the west, by the trans-Carpathians to the north and by the Dniester River to the east. His name translates into ""strong as ten men"".

Roman conquest.

When Trajan turned his attention to Dacia, it had been on the Roman agenda since before the days of Julius Caesar when a Roman army had been beaten at the Battle of Histria.  From AD 85 to 89, the Dacians under Decebalus were engaged in two wars with the Romans.  In AD 85, the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia. In AD 87, the Roman troops sent by the Emperor Domitian against them under Cornelius Fuscus, were defeated and Cornelius Fuscus was killed by the Dacians by authority of their ruler, Diurpaneus. After this victory, Diurpaneus took the name of "Decebalus", but the Romans were victorious in the Battle of Tapae in AD 88 and a truce was drawn up. The next year, AD 88, new Roman troops under Tettius Julianus, gained a significant advantage, but were obligated to make peace following the defeat of Domitian by the Marcomanni, leaving the Dacians effectively independent. Decebalus was given the status of "king client to Rome", receiving military instructors, craftsmen and money from Rome.  To increase the glory of his reign, restore the finances of Rome, and end a treaty perceived as humiliating, Trajan resolved on the conquest of Dacia, the capture of the famous Treasure of Decebalus, and control over the Dacian gold mines of Transylvania. The result of his first campaign (101–102) was the siege of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa and the occupation of part of the country. Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and, following an uncertain number of battles, and with Trajan's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa, Decebalus once more sought terms. Decebalus rebuilt his power over the following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in AD 105. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia, attacking the Dacian capital in the Siege of Sarmizegethusa, and razing it to the ground; the defeated Dacian king Decebalus committed suicide to avoid capture. With part of Dacia quelled as the Roman province Dacia Traiana. Trajan subsequently invaded the Parthian empire to the east. His conquests brought the Roman Empire to its greatest extent. Rome's borders in the east were governed indirectly in this period, through a system of client states, which led to less direct campaigning than in the west.  The history of the war is given by Cassius Dio, but the best commentary upon it is the famous Column of Trajan in Rome.

Provincial history.

Although the Romans conquered and destroyed the ancient Kingdom of Dacia, a large remainder of the land remained outside of Roman Imperial authority. Additionally, the conquest changed the balance of power in the region and was the catalyst for a renewed alliance of Germanic and Celtic tribes and kingdoms against the Roman Empire. However, the material advantages of the Roman Imperial system was attractive to the surviving aristocracy. Afterwards, many of the Dacians became Romanised (see also Origin of Romanians). In AD 183, war broke out in Dacia: few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for the throne of emperor Commodus, Clodius Albinus and Pescennius Niger, both distinguished themselves in the campaign.  According to Lactantius, the Roman emperor Decius (AD 249–251) had to restore Roman Dacia from the Carpo-Dacians of Zosimus "having undertaken an expedition against the Carpi, who had then possessed themselves of Dacia and Moesia". Even so, the Germanic and Celtic kingdoms, particularly the Gothic tribes, slowly moved toward the Dacian borders, and within a generation were making assaults on the province. Ultimately, the Goths succeeded in dislodging the Romans and restoring the "independence" of Dacia following Emperor Aurelian's withdrawal, in 275.  In AD 268–269, at Naissus, Claudius II (Gothicus Maximus) obtained a decisive victory over the Goths. Since at that time Romans were still occupying Roman Dacia it is assumed that the Goths didn't cross the Danube from the Roman province. The Goths who survived their defeat didn't even attempt to escape through Dacia, but through Thrace. At the boundaries of Roman Dacia, Carpi (Free Dacians) were still strong enough to sustain five battles in eight years against the Romans from AD 301–308. Roman Dacia was left in AD 275 by the Romans, to the Carpi again, and not to the Goths. There were still Dacians in AD 336, against whom Constantine the Great fought.  The province was abandoned by Roman troops, and, according to the "Breviarium historiae Romanae" by Eutropius, Roman citizens "from the towns and lands of Dacia" were resettled to the interior of Moesia. Under Diocletian, c. AD 296, in order to defend the Roman border, fortifications were erected by the Romans on both banks of the Danube.

Constantinian reconquest.

In 328 the emperor Constantine the Great inaugurated the Constantine's Bridge (Danube) at Sucidava, (today Celei in Romania) in hopes of reconquering Dacia, a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths. The weather and lack of food cost the Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line supported by Castra of Hinova, Rusidava and Castra of Pietroasele The limes passed to the north of Castra of Tirighina-Bărboși and ended at Sasyk Lagoon near Dniester river Constantine took the title "Dacicus maximus" in 336. Some Roman territories North of Danube resisted until Justinian.

Dacia after the Romans.

Victohali, Taifals and Thervingians are tribes mentioned for inhabiting Dacia in 350, after the Romans left. Archeological evidence suggests that Gepids were disputing Transylvania with Taifals and Tervingians. Taifals, once independent from Gothia became federati of the Romans, from whom they obtained the right to settle Oltenia.  In 376 the region was conquered by Huns, who kept it until the death of Attila in 453. The Gepid tribe, ruled by Ardaric, used it as their base, until in 566 it was destroyed by Lombards. Lombards abandoned the country and the Avars (second half of the 6th century) dominated the region for 230 years, until their kingdom was destroyed by Charlemagne in 791. At the same time Slavic people arrived.

Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians. The Greeks referred to them as the Getae (east of Dacia) and the Romans called them Daci.

Dácie (latinsky "Dacia") bylo ve starověku území obývané kmeny Dáků a Getů, které se nacházelo převážně v dnešním Rumunsku. Jeho jižní okraj určovaly Dunaj a pohoří Balkán, zatímco ze západu a východu ho vymezovaly řeky Tisa a Dněstr. Ze severu ohraničoval Dácii horský masiv Karpat, táhnoucí se do středu této země, již rozděloval na dvě části.


URLs and URNs.

A Uniform Resource Name (URN) is a URI that identifies a resource by name in a particular namespace. A URN may be used to talk about a resource without implying its location or how to access it. For example, in the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) system, "<nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> 0-486-27557-4" identifies a specific edition of Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet". The URN for that edition would be "<nowiki>urn:isbn:0-486-27557-4</nowiki>". However, it gives no information as to where to find a copy of that book.  A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a URI that specifies the means of acting upon or obtaining the representation of a resource, i.e. specifying both its primary access mechanism and network location. For example, the URL codice_2 refers to a resource identified as codice_3, whose representation, in the form of HTML and related code, is obtainable via the Hypertext Transfer Protocol ("http:") from a network host whose domain name is codice_4.  A URN may be compared to a person's name, while a URL may be compared to their street address. In other words, a URN identifies an item and a URL provides a method for finding it.  Technical publications, especially standards produced by the IETF and by the W3C, normally reflect a view outlined in a W3C Recommendation of 2001, which acknowledges the precedence of the term URI rather than endorsing any formal subdivision into URL and URN.  As such, a URL is simply a URI that happens to point to a resource over a network. However, in non-technical contexts and in software for the World Wide Web, the term "URL" remains widely used. Additionally, the term "web address" (which has no formal definition) often occurs in non-technical publications as a synonym for a URI that uses the "http" or "https" schemes. Such assumptions can lead to confusion, for example, in the case of XML namespaces that have a visual similarity to resolvable URIs.  Specifications produced by the WHATWG prefer "URL" over "URI", and so newer HTML5 APIs use "URL" over "URI".  While most URI schemes were originally designed to be used with a particular protocol, and often have the same name, they are semantically different from protocols. For example, the scheme "http" is generally used for interacting with web resources using HTTP, but the scheme "file" has no protocol.

Generic syntax.

Definition.

Each URI begins with a scheme name that refers to a specification for assigning identifiers within that scheme. As such, the URI syntax is a federated and extensible naming system wherein each scheme's specification may further restrict the syntax and semantics of identifiers using that scheme. The URI generic syntax is a superset of the syntax of all URI schemes. It was first defined in, published in August 1998, and finalized in, published in January 2005. <section begin="syntax"/> The "URI generic syntax" consists of a hierarchical sequence of five "components":  where the authority component divides into three "subcomponents":  This is represented in a syntax diagram as:  The URI comprises:  Strings of data octets within a URI are represented as characters. Permitted characters within a URI are the ASCII characters for the lowercase and uppercase letters of the modern English alphabet, the Arabic numerals, hyphen, period, underscore, and tilde. Octets represented by any other character must be percent-encoded.  Of the ASCII character set, the characters codice_30 are reserved for use as delimiters of the generic URI components and must be percent-encoded – for example, codice_31 for a question mark. The characters codice_32 are permitted by generic URI syntax to be used unencoded in the user information, host, and path as delimiters. Additionally, codice_5 and codice_18 may appear unencoded within the path, query, and fragment; and codice_27 and codice_23 may appear unencoded as data within the query or fragment.

Examples.

The following figure displays example URIs and their component parts.

URI references.

Definition.

A "URI reference" is either a URI, or a "relative reference" when it does not begin with a scheme component followed by a colon (codice_5). A path segment that contains a colon character (e.g., codice_38) cannot be used as the first path segment of a relative reference if its path component does not begin with a slash (codice_23), as it would be mistaken for a scheme component. Such a path segment must be preceded by a dot path segment (e.g., codice_40).  Web document markup languages frequently use URI references to point to other resources, such as external documents or specific portions of the same logical document:

URI resolution.

Definition.

An "absolute URI" is a URI with no fragment component.  "Resolving" a URI reference against a "base URI" results in a "target URI". This implies that the base URI exists and is an absolute URI. The base URI can be obtained, in order of precedence, from:

Examples.

Within a representation with a well defined base URI of  a relative reference is resolved to its target URI as follows:

History.

Naming, addressing, and identifying resources.

URIs and URLs have a shared history. In 1994, Tim Berners-Lee's proposals for hypertext implicitly introduced the idea of a URL as a short string representing a resource that is the target of a hyperlink. At the time, people referred to it as a "hypertext name" or "document name".  Over the next three and a half years, as the World Wide Web's core technologies of HTML, HTTP, and web browsers developed, a need to distinguish a string that provided an address for a resource from a string that merely named a resource emerged. Although not yet formally defined, the term "Uniform Resource Locator" came to represent the former, and the more contentious "Uniform Resource Name" came to represent the latter.  During the debate over defining URLs and URNs, it became evident that the concepts embodied by the two (2) terms were merely aspects of the fundamental, overarching, notion of resource "identification". In June 1994, the IETF published Berners-Lee's, the first "Request for Comments" that acknowledged the existence of URLs and URNs. Most importantly, it defined a formal syntax for "Universal Resource Identifiers" (i.e. URL-like strings whose precise syntaxes and semantics depended on their schemes). In addition, the RFC attempted to summarize the syntaxes of URL schemes in use at the time. It acknowledged -- "but did not standardize" -- the existence of relative URLs and fragment identifiers.

Refinement of specifications.

In December 1994, formally defined relative and absolute URLs, refined the general URL syntax, defined how to resolve relative URLs to absolute form, and better enumerated the URL schemes then in use. The agreed definition and syntax of URNs had to wait until the publication of in May 1997.  The publication of in August 1998 saw the URI syntax become a separate specification and most of the parts of RFCs 1630 and 1738 relating to URIs and URLs in general were revised and expanded by the IETF. The new RFC changed the meaning of "U" in "URI" to "Uniform" from "Universal".  In December 1999, provided a minor update to <nowiki>RFC 2396</nowiki>, allowing URIs to accommodate IPv6 addresses. A number of shortcomings discovered in the two specifications led to a community effort, coordinated by <nowiki>RFC 2396</nowiki> co-author Roy Fielding, that culminated in the publication of in January 2005. While obsoleting the prior standard, it did not render the details of existing URL schemes obsolete; <nowiki>RFC 1738</nowiki> continues to govern such schemes except where otherwise superseded. for example, refines the codice_9 scheme. Simultaneously, the IETF published the content of <nowiki>RFC 3986</nowiki> as the full standard STD 66, reflecting the establishment of the URI generic syntax as an official Internet protocol.  In 2001, the W3C's Technical Architecture Group (TAG) published a guide to best practices and canonical URIs for publishing multiple versions of a given resource. For example, content might differ by language or by size to adjust for capacity or settings of the device used to access that content.  In August 2002, pointed out that the term "URL" had, despite widespread public use, faded into near obsolescence, and serves only as a reminder that some URIs act as addresses by having schemes implying network accessibility, regardless of any such actual use. As URI-based standards such as Resource Description Framework make evident, resource identification need not suggest the retrieval of resource representations over the Internet, nor need they imply network-based resources at all.  The Semantic Web uses the HTTP URI scheme to identify both documents and concepts in the real world, a distinction which has caused confusion as to how to distinguish the two. The TAG published an e-mail in 2005 on how to solve the problem, which became known as the "httpRange-14 resolution". The W3C subsequently published an Interest Group Note titled "Cool URIs for the Semantic Web", which explained the use of content negotiation and the HTTP 303 response code for redirections in more detail.

Relation to XML namespaces.

In XML, a namespace is an abstract domain to which a collection of element and attribute names can be assigned. The namespace name is a character string which must adhere to the generic URI syntax. However, the name is generally not considered to be a URI, because the URI specification bases the decision not only on lexical components, but also on their intended use. A namespace name does not necessarily imply any of the semantics of URI schemes; for example, a namespace name beginning with "http:" may have no connotation to the use of the HTTP.  Originally, the namespace name could match the syntax of any non-empty URI reference, but the use of relative URI references was deprecated by the W3C. A separate W3C specification for namespaces in XML 1.1 permits internationalized resource identifier (IRI) references to serve as the basis for namespace names in addition to URI references.

A Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is a string of characters that unambiguously identifies a particular resource. To guarantee uniformity, all URIs follow a predefined set of syntax rules, but also maintain extensibility through a separately defined hierarchical naming scheme (e.g. codice_1).

URI (celým názvem Uniform Resource Identifier – „jednotný identifikátor zdroje“) je textový řetězec s definovanou strukturou, který slouží k přesné specifikaci zdroje informací (ve smyslu dokument nebo služba), hlavně za účelem jejich použití pomocí počítačové sítě, zejména Internetu.


Biography.

Stanisław Wielgus was born in Wierzchowiska, in what is today Lublin Region. At the age of 23 he was ordained a priest on 10 June 1962 by Bishop Piotr Kałwa. An expert in Polish philosophy and medieval philosophy, he spent thirty years teaching in the faculty of philosophy of the Catholic University of Lublin, serving three terms as rector. He taught at the University of Munich, from 1973 to 1975 and again in 1978, where Professor Joseph Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict XVI, was teaching as an associate. From 1990 to 1993 he was the vice-chairman of the Conference of Rectors of Polish Universities. He served as a member and consultant on the Sacred Congregation for Catholic Education, and a member of the Humanities section of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts.  Wielgus was appointed Bishop of Płock on 24 May 1999 by Pope John Paul II, and was consecrated by Cardinal Józef Glemp on 1 August of that year. He was Bishop of Płock from 1 August 1999 until 2006, when he was named Archbishop of Warsaw by Benedict XVI on 6 December 2006.  On 29 December 2006 Wielgus was given the special title of Honorary Resident of Płock. During his last religious ceremony in Płock the congregation exclaimed "Thank you".  Archbishop Wielgus took the "oath of fidelity" to the Holy See on 5 January 2007, and in the same evening, he took canonical possession of the archdiocese in a private ceremony in which his bull of appointment was formally read before the chapter of Canons of the Cathedral of Warsaw. From that point, according to Canon Law, he was Archbishop of Warsaw. His public installation was scheduled for 7 January 2007; however, he resigned from the position the day of the scheduled installation as the result of a scandal connected to his cooperation with the Służba Bezpieczeństwa under the dictatorship.

Cooperation with the secret police.

On 20 December 2006, journalists found documents from the dictatorship's archives according to which Archbishop Wielgus collaborated—or at least conversed—with the secret police during communist rule in Poland. This development was considered to be particularly significant in the context of post-communist Polish politics, because public figures, particularly politicians, can be officially censured and barred from holding public office if found to have collaborated with the Security Services (Polish: Służba Bezpieczeństwa) of the People's Republic of Poland (Polish: PRL, Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa). The process of review of the Security Service's files, known in Poland as lustration (Pol: Lustracja) has been the source of many political scandals in recent years. The Polish human rights ombudsman, Janusz Kochanowski, said on 4 January 2007 that there was evidence in the secret police archives that Archbishop Wielgus knowingly cooperated with the dictatorship.  Archbishop Wielgus acknowledged that he signed a cooperation statement in 1978, but insisted that he did so only under coercion and disputed the length and characterization of his contact as described in the published reports. He made a public statement on 4 January 2007 indicating that he only provided information concerning his own academic work, and that the reports seriously distorted the truth. However, according to the Polish national newspaper "Rzeczpospolita", Wielgus had a more extensive role than he admitted, and alleged that he provided information about student activities as far back as 1967, when he was a philosophy student at the Catholic University of Lublin. Archbishop Wielgus only acknowledged a relationship beginning in 1978. Wielgus asked the Polish Bishops' Conference to examine the files pertaining to him.  The day after the discovery of the incriminating documents on 20 December 2006, the Catholic News Service announced that the Vatican Press Office had issued a statement of support regarding Wielgus: "The Holy See, in deciding the nomination of the new archbishop of Warsaw, took into consideration all the circumstances of his life, including those regarding his past... (Pope Benedict XVI) has every confidence in Monsignor Stanisław Wielgus and in full conscience entrusted him the mission of pastor of the Archdiocese of Warsaw."

Resignation.

Wielgus took formal canonical possession of the See of Warsaw as Archbishop in a private ceremony on 5 January 2007, and was due to be publicly installed on 7 January at a Solemn Mass in St. John's Cathedral in Warsaw. However, less than an hour before the ceremony, he resigned. Some reports indicate that his resignation followed consultations within the Vatican and with the Polish government involving Pope Benedict and Polish president Lech Kaczyński. Giovanni Battista Re, Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops, explained to the Italian daily "Corriere della Sera" that Pope Benedict himself decided on the dismissal of the Archbishop, adding that "...when Monsignor Wielgus was nominated, we did not know anything about his collaboration with the secret services," The Vatican spokesman, Jesuit Father Federico Lombardi, stated that "The behaviour of (Archbishop) Wielgus during the years of the communist regime in Poland seriously compromised his authority, even with the faithful."  Prior to the disclosure of his involvement with the Communist-era secret police, Wielgus, like most archbishops of Warsaw, had been widely expected to be appointed a Cardinal after the death of his predecessor.

Aftermath.

Archbishop Wielgus was one of the successors to the legendary Cardinal and Archbishop of Warsaw, Stefan Wyszyński, who was jailed by the Communist government for years during the 1950s. He was also designated to serve in the city whose clergy were symbolised by Father Jerzy Popiełuszko, who was murdered by the same communist secret police with whom Wielgus collaborated; thus the revelations concerning Wielgus were particularly shocking in Polish religious and political contexts.  A day after the Wielgus resignation, Father Janusz Bielanski resigned as rector of Wawel Cathedral in Krakow. According to a local church spokesman, Bielanski's resignation was "in connection with repeated allegations about his cooperation with the secret services" of the Communist era. He added that Krakow's archbishop, Cardinal Stanislaw Dziwisz, accepted the resignation.  Archbishop Wielgus was then appointed as titular archbishop of Viminacium, as tradition did so for bishop who resigned from his see under special circumstance as pre-Vatican II practice.

Archbishop Emeritus.

In early 2007 Wielgus' relevant awareness that several priests in his former diocese of Płock were sexually abusing minors came to light.  In February 2007 it emerged that Archbishop Wielgus was preparing a court case to at least partially clear his name and was to be defended by Marek Małecki, the same lawyer who was recently successful in getting a clearing verdict for Małgorzata Niezabitowska, press aide for Poland’s first government after 1989 round table compromise agreement with the communists. The verdict for Niezabitowska said that while she had been a registered spy for the communists, there is no evidence to prove that she was fully aware of the fact. Now the vetting court will examine the case of Archbishop Wielgus, whose guilt was pronounced as beyond doubt by two independent historical committees".  On 12 February 2007 Stanisław Wielgus received a letter from Pope Benedict XVI, in which the Pope wrote: "I hope you will be working again for the Church in Poland".

Stanisław Wojciech Wielgus (born 23 April 1939) is a former Roman Catholic archbishop of Warsaw. After his appointment to the position of archbishop by Pope Benedict XVI on 6 December 2006, he assumed the office in a private installation ceremony on 5 January 2007, only to resign one day later, less than an hour before his public installation ceremony, because of scandals connected with his cooperation with the Służba Bezpieczeństwa, the Polish communist secret police.

Stanisław Wojciech Wielgus [staňisuav vojčěch vjelgus] (* 23. dubna 1939 Wierzchowiska Drugie) je polský duchovní, řádný profesor filozofie, doktor teologie. V lednu 2006 byl po dvou dnech výkonu funkce donucen rezignovat na úřad arcibiskupa varšavského z důvodu své spolupráce s tajnou policií komunistického Polska.