History.

Early history.

At the time of European encounter, the inhabitants of the area that became Columbia were a people called the Congaree. In May 1540, a Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto traversed what is now Columbia while moving northward. The expedition produced the earliest written historical records of the area, which was part of the regional Cofitachequi chiefdom.  From the creation of Columbia by the South Carolina General Assembly in 1786, the site of Columbia was important to the overall development of the

19th century.

In 1801, South Carolina College (now the University of South Carolina) was founded in Columbia. The original building survives. The city was chosen as the site of the institution in part to unite the citizens of the Upcountry and the Lowcountry and to discourage the youth from migrating to England for their higher education. At the time, South Carolina sent more young men to England than did any other state. The leaders of South Carolina wished to monitor the progress and development of the school; for many years after the founding of the university, commencement exercises were held in December while the state legislature was in session.  Columbia received its first charter as a town in 1805. An intendant and six wardens governed the town. John Taylor, the first elected intendant,

20th century.

The first few years of the 20th century had Columbia emerge as a regional textile manufacturing center. In 1907, Columbia had six mills in operation: Richland, Granby, Olympia, Capital City, Columbia, and Palmetto. Combined, they employed over 3,400 workers with an annual payroll of $819,000, giving the Midlands an economic boost of over $4.8 million. Columbia had no paved streets until 1908, when 17 blocks of Main Street were surfaced. However, 115 publicly maintained street crossings were placed at intersections to keep pedestrians from having to wade through a sea of mud between wooden sidewalks. As an experiment, Washington Street was once paved with wooden blocks. This proved to be the source of much local amusement when they buckled and floated away during heavy rains. The blocks were replaced with asphalt paving in 1925.  The years 1911 and 1912 were something of a construction boom for Columbia, with $2.5 million worth of

Recent history.

The 1990s and early 2000s saw revitalization in the downtown area. The Congaree Vista district along Gervais Street, once known as a warehouse district, became a thriving district of art galleries, shops, and restaurants. The Colonial Life Arena (formerly known as the Colonial Center) opened in 2002, and brought several big-named concerts and shows to Columbia. EdVenture, the largest children's museum in the Southeast, opened in 2003. The Village at Sandhill shopping center opened in 2004 in Northeast Richland County. The Columbia Metropolitan Convention Center opened in 2004, and a new convention center hotel opened in September 2007. A public-private City Center Partnership has been formed to implement the downtown revitalization and boost downtown growth. In 2009, Columbia's most recent skyscraper, the Tower at Main

Geography.

One of Columbia's more prominent geographical features is its fall line, the boundary between the upland Piedmont region and the Atlantic Coastal Plain, across which rivers drop as falls or rapids. Columbia grew up at the fall line of the Congaree River, which is formed by the convergence of the Broad and Saluda Rivers. The Congaree was the farthest inland point of river navigation. The energy of falling water also powered Columbia's early mills. The city has capitalized on this location, which includes three rivers, by christening itself "The Columbia Riverbanks Region". Columbia is located roughly halfway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Blue Ridge Mountains and sits at an elevation around.  Soils in Columbia are well drained in most cases, with grayish brown loamy sand topsoil. The subsoil may be yellowish red sandy clay loam (Orangeburg series), yellowish brown sandy clay loam (Norfolk series), or strong brown sandy clay (Marlboro series). All belong to the Ultisol soil order.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water (2.01%). Approximately 2⁄3 of Columbia's land area,, is contained within the Fort Jackson Military Installation, much of which consists of uninhabited training grounds. The actual inhabited area for the city is slightly more than.

Climate.

Columbia has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen "Cfa"), with relatively cool to mild winters and hot and humid summers. The area averages 55 nights below freezing and is subject to temporary cold spells during the winter, but extended cold or days where the temperature fails to rise above freezing are both rare. These cold snaps usually result from atmospheric troughs that bring in cold air from Canada across the Eastern part of the country. The USDA places Columbia in the 8a Hardiness Zone.  With an annual average of 5 days with + and 72 days with + temperatures, the city's current promotional slogan describes Columbia as "Famously Hot". In the summer months, Columbia usually has the greatest high temperature in the state. One reason for this is its low elevation in comparison to other cities at similar latitudes. For example, Atlanta has a significantly higher

Metropolitan area.

The metropolitan statistical area of Columbia is the second-largest in South Carolina; it has

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 129,272 people, 52,471 total households, and 22,638 families residing in the city. The population density was 928.6 people per square mile (358.5/km). There were 46,142 housing units at an average density of 368.5 per square mile (142.3/km). The racial makeup of the city was 51.27% White, 42.20% Black, 2.20% Asian, 0.25% Native American, 0.30% Pacific Islander, 1.50% from other races, and 2.00% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.30% of the population.  There were 45,666 households, out of which 22.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.7% were married couples living together, 17.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4% were nonfamilies. 38.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.94.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.1% under the age of 18, 22.9% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 16.6% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.4 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $31,141, and the median income for a family was $39,589. Males had a median income of $30,925 versus $24,679 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,853. About 17.0% of families and 22.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.7% of those under the age of 18 and 16.9% ages 65 or older.

Religion.

The Southern Baptist Convention has 241 congregations and 115,000 members. The United Methodist Church has 122 congregations and 51,000 members. The Evangelical Lutheran Church has 71 congregations and 25,400 members. The PC (USA) has 34 congregations and 15,000 members; the Presbyterian Church in

Economy.

Columbia enjoys a diversified economy, with the major employers in the area being South Carolina state government, the Palmetto Health hospital system, Blue Cross Blue Shield of South Carolina, Palmetto GBA, and the University of South Carolina. The corporate headquarters of Fortune 1000 energy company, SCANA, are located in the Columbia suburb of Cayce. Other major employers in the Columbia area include Computer Sciences Corporation, Fort Jackson, the U.S. Army's largest and most active initial entry training installation, Richland School District One, Humana/TriCare, and the United Parcel Service, which operates its Southeastern Regional Hub at the Columbia Metropolitan Airport. Major manufacturers such as Square D, CMC Steel, Spirax Sarco, Michelin, International Paper, Pirelli Cables, Honeywell, Westinghouse Electric, Harsco Track Tech, Trane, Intertape Polymer Group, Union Switch & Signal, FN Herstal, Solectron, and Bose Technology have facilities in the Columbia area. There are over 70 foreign affiliated companies and fourteen Fortune 500 companies in the region. The gross domestic product (GDP) of the Columbia metropolitan statistical area as of 2010 was $31.97 billion, the highest among MSAs in the state.  Several companies have their global, continental, or national headquarters in Columbia, including Colonial Life & Accident Insurance Company, the second-largest supplemental insurance company in the nation; the Ritedose Corporation, a pharmaceutical industry services company; AgFirst Farm Credit Bank, the largest bank headquartered in the state with over $30 billion in assets (the non-commercial bank is part of the Farm Credit System, the largest agricultural lending organization in the United States which was established by Congress in 1916); South State Bank, the largest commercial bank headquartered in South Carolina; Nexsen Pruet, LLC, a multi-specialty business law firm in the Carolinas; Spectrum Medical, an international medical software company; Wilbur Smith Associates, a full-service transportation and infrastructure consulting firm; and Nelson Mullins, a major national law firm. CSC's Financial Services Group, a major provider of software and outsourcing services to the insurance industry, is headquartered in the Columbia suburb of Blythewood.

Downtown revitalization.

The city of Columbia has recently accomplished a number of urban redevelopment projects and has several more planned. The historic Congaree Vista, a district running from the central business district toward the Congaree River, features a number of historic buildings that have been rehabilitated since its revitalization begun in the late 1980s. Of note is the adaptive reuse of the Confederate Printing Plant on Gervais and Huger, used to print Confederate bills during the American Civil War. The city cooperated with Publix grocery stores to preserve the look. This won Columbia an award from the International Downtown Association. The Vista district is also where the region's convention center and anchor Hilton hotel with a Ruth's Chris Steakhouse restaurant are located. Other notable developments under construction and recently completed include high-end condos and townhomes, hotels, and mixed-use structures. The older buildings lining the Vista's main thoroughfare, Gervais Street, now house art galleries, restaurants, unique shops, and professional office space. Near the end of Gervais is the South Carolina State Museum and the EdVenture Children's Museum. Private student housing and some residential projects are going up nearby; the CanalSide development

Arts and culture.

Movies filmed in the Columbia area include The Program, Renaissance Man, Chasers, Death Sentence, A Guy Named Joe, and Accidental Love/Nailed.

Venues.

Columbia Metropolitan Convention Center.

The Columbia Metropolitan Convention Center, which opened in September 2004 as South Carolina's only downtown convention center, is a, modern, state-of-the-art facility designed to host a variety of meetings and conventions. Located in the historic Congaree

Koger Center for the Arts.

Koger Center for the Arts provides Columbia with theatre, music, and dance performances that range from local acts to global acts. The facility seats 2,256 persons. The center is named for philanthropists Ira and Nancy Koger, who made a substantial donation

Carolina Coliseum.

Carolina Coliseum, which opened in 1968, is a 12,401-seat facility which initially served as the home of the USC Gamecocks' basketball teams. The arena could be easily adapted to serve other entertainment purposes, including concerts, car shows, circuses, ice shows, and other events. The versatility and quality of the coliseum at one time allowed the university to

Township Auditorium.

Township Auditorium seats 3,099 capacity and is located in downtown Columbia. The Georgian Revival building was designed by the Columbia architectural firm of Lafaye and Lafaye and constructed in 1930. The Township has hosted thousands of events from concerts to conventions to wrestling matches. The auditorium was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on September 28, 2005, and has recently undergone a $12 million extensive interior and exterior renovation.

Sports.

The most popular sports in Columbia are the sports programs at the University of South Carolina. Columbia also offers minor league, semi-pro, and amateur sports. In April 2017 the women's Gamecocks basketball team won the NCAA national championship, defeating Mississippi State 67–55.  Columbia has also hosted the women's U.S. Olympic Marathon Trials in 1996 and 2000 and the 2007 Junior Wildwater World Championships, which featured many European canoe and kayak racers. The Colonial Life Arena has also hosted NBA exhibition games.

Sports venues.

Williams-Brice Stadium is the home of the USC Gamecocks' football team and is the 24th largest college football stadium in the nation. It seats 80,250 people and is located just south of downtown Columbia. The stadium was built in 1934 with the help of federal Works Progress Administration funds, and initially seated 17,600. The original name was Carolina Stadium, but on September 9, 1972, it was renamed to honor the Williams and Brice families. Mrs. Martha Williams-Brice had left much of her estate to the university for stadium renovations and expansions. Her late husband, Thomas H. Brice, played football for the university from 1922 to 1924. Colonial Life Arena, opened in 2002, is Columbia's premier arena and entertainment facility. Seating 18,000 for college basketball, it is the largest arena in the state of South Carolina, and the tenth largest on-campus basketball facility in the nation, serving as the home of

Parks and recreation.

Finlay Park has hosted events from festivals and political rallies to road races and Easter Sunrise services. This park has had two lives; first dedicated in 1859 as Sidney Park, named in honor of Algernon Sidney Johnson, a Columbia City Councilman, the park experienced an illustrious but short tenure. The park fell into disrepair after the Civil War and served as a site for commercial ventures until the late 20th century. In 1990, the park was reopened. It serves as the site for such events as Kids Day, The Summer Concert Series, plus many more activities. In 1992, the park was renamed Finlay Park, in honor of Kirkman Finlay, a past mayor of Columbia who had a vision to reenergize the historic Congaree Vista district, between Main Street and the river, and recreate the site that was formerly known as Sidney Park.  Memorial Park is a tract of land in the Congaree Vista between Main Street and the river. The property is bordered by Hampton, Gadsden, Washington, and Wayne Streets and is one block south of Finlay Park. This park was created to serve as a memorial to those who served their country and presently has monuments honoring the USS Columbia warship and those that served with her during World War II, the China-Burma-India Theater Veterans of WWII, casualties of the Pearl Harbor attack of December 7, 1941, who were from South Carolina, Holocaust survivors who live in South Carolina as well as concentration camp liberators from South Carolina, and the State Vietnam War Veterans. The park was dedicated in November 1986 along with the unveiling of the South Carolina Vietnam Monument. In June 2000, the Korean War Memorial was dedicated at Memorial Park. In November 2014, Columbia native and resident of Boston, Henry Crede, gave a bronze statue and plaza in the park dedicated to his WWII comrades who served in the Navy from South Carolina.  Granby Park opened in November 1998 as a gateway to the rivers of Columbia, adding another access to the many river activities available to residents. Granby is part of the Three Rivers Greenway, a system of green spaces along the banks of the rivers in Columbia, adding another piece to the long-range plan and eventually connecting to the existing Riverfront Park. Granby is a linear park with canoe access points, fishing spots, bridges, and 1⁄2 mile of nature trail along the banks of the Congaree River.  In the Five Points district of downtown Columbia is the park dedicated to the legacy and memory of civil rights leader, Martin Luther King Jr. Formerly known as Valley Park, it

Government.

The city of Columbia has a council-manager form of government. The mayor and city council are elected every four years, with no term limits. Elections are held in the spring of even numbered years. Unlike other mayors in council-manager systems, the Columbia mayor has the power to veto ordinances passed by the council; vetoes can be overridden by a two-thirds majority of the council, which appoints a city manager to serve as chief administrative officer. The current mayor is Stephen K. Benjamin, who succeeded longtime mayor and fellow Democrat Bob Coble in 2010. Teresa Wilson is the current city manager.  The city council consists of six members, four from districts

Education.

Colleges and universities.

Columbia is home to the main campus of the University of South Carolina, which was chartered in 1801 as South Carolina College and in 1906 as the University of South Carolina. The university has 350 degree programs and enrolls 31,964 students throughout fifteen degree-granting

Media.

Columbia's daily newspapers include "The State" and "Cola Daily", and its alternative newspapers include "Free Times", "The Columbia Star", "Carolina Panorama Newspaper", and "SC Black News".  "Columbia Metropolitan Magazine" is a bi-monthly publication about news and events in the metropolitan area. "Greater Columbia Business Monthly" highlights economic development, business, education,

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Mass transit.

The Comet, officially the Central Midlands Regional Transit Authority, is the agency responsible for operating mass transit in the greater Columbia area including Cayce, West Columbia, Forest Acres, Arcadia Lakes, Springdale, Lexington and the St. Andrews area. COMET operates express shuttles, as well as bus service serving Columbia and its immediate suburbs. The authority was established in October 2002 after SCANA released ownership of public transportation back to the city of Columbia. Since 2003, COMET has provided transportation

Roads and highways.

Columbia's central location between the population centers of South Carolina has made it

Air.

The city and its surroundings are served by Columbia Metropolitan Airport. The airport itself is serviced by American Eagle, Delta Connection, and United

Intercity rail.

The city is served daily by Amtrak station, with the Silver Star trains connecting Columbia with New York City, Washington, DC, Savannah, Jacksonville, Orlando, Tampa, and Miami. The station is located at 850 Pulaski St.  Until 1959 the Southern Railway's "Skyland Special" (Asheville, North Carolina - Jacksonville, Florida) made

Intercity bus.

Greyhound Lines formerly operated a station on Gervais Street, in the eastern part of downtown, providing Columbia with intercity bus transportation. The station relocated to 710 Buckner Road in February 2015.  MegaBus began operations in Columbia in 2015. There routes include stops in Atlanta, Fayetteville, North Carolina, Richmond, Virginia, Washington, DC, and New York City, New York. The station is located on Sumter Street.

Health care.

The Sisters of Charity Providence Hospitals is sponsored by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Augustine Health System, a non-profit organization licensed for 304 beds which operates four hospitals, including Providence Hospital in downtown Columbia founded in 1938, Providence Heart Institute, Providence Hospital Northeast, and Providence Orthopaedic and

Renewable energy and climate goals.

Attaining 100 percent clean and renewable energy by 2036 is incorporated into the city's 67 climate goals. Projects

Accolades.

Columbia has been the recipient of several awards and achievements. In October 2009, Columbia was listed in U.S. News & World Report as one of the best places to retire, citing location and median housing price as key

Sister cities.

The city of Columbia has seven sister cities:

Columbia is the capital and second-largest city of the U.S. state of South Carolina, with a population estimate of 131,674 as of 2019. The city serves as the county seat of Richland County, and a portion of the city extends into neighboring Lexington County. It is the center of the Columbia metropolitan statistical area, which had a population of 767,598 as of the 2010 United States Census, growing to 832,666 by July 1, 2018, according to 2018 U.S. Census estimates. This makes it the 70th-largest metropolitan statistical area in the nation, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau as of July 1, 2018. The name Columbia is a poetic term used for the United States, originating from the name of Christopher Columbus. The city is located about northwest of the geographic center of South Carolina, and is the primary city of the Midlands region of the state. It lies at the confluence of the Saluda River and the Broad River, which merge at Columbia to form the Congaree River. Columbia is home to the University of South Carolina, the state's flagship university and the largest in the state, and is also the site of Fort Jackson, the largest United States Army installation for Basic Combat Training. Columbia is also located 20 miles west of the site of McEntire Joint National Guard Base, which is operated by the U.S. Air Force and is used as a training base for the 169th Fighter Wing of the South Carolina Air National Guard. Columbia is also the location of the South Carolina State House, which is the center of government for the state. In 1860, the city was the location of the South Carolina Secession Convention, which marked the departure of the first state from the Union in the events leading up to the Civil War.

Columbia je hlavní město a zároveň největší město amerického státu Jižní Karolína. Columbia je sídlem Richland County, ale malá část města spadá pod Lexington County. Jméno města je odvozeno od jména Kryštofa Kolumba.


Early life.

Avery Brooks was born in Evansville, Indiana, the son of Eva Lydia ("née" Crawford), a choral conductor and music instructor, and Samuel Brooks, a union official and tool and die worker. His maternal grandfather, Samuel Travis Crawford, was also a singer. When Avery was aged eight, his family moved to Gary, Indiana, after his father had been laid off from International Harvester. Brooks has said: "I was born in Evansville... but it was Gary, Indiana that made me."  The Brooks household was filled with music. His mother, who was among the first African-American women to earn a master's degree in music at Northwestern University, taught music wherever the family lived. His father was in the choir Wings over Jordan, performing on CBS radio from 1937 to 1947. His maternal uncle Samuel Travis Crawford was a member of the Delta Rhythm Boys. "Music is all around me and in me, as I am in it," Brooks has said.  Brooks attended Indiana University and Oberlin College. He later completed his B.A., plus an M.F.A. from Rutgers University in 1976, becoming the first African American to receive an MFA in acting and directing from Rutgers.

Television career.

"Spenser: for Hire": Hawk.

In 1985, Brooks assumed the role of 'Hawk' on the ABC television detective series "", based on the mystery series published by Robert Parker. Hawk became a popular character and, after three seasons, Brooks in 1989 received his own, short-lived spinoff series, "A Man Called Hawk".  Brooks said of his role as Hawk: "I never thought of myself as the sidekick... I've never been the side of anything. I just assumed that I was equal."  Brooks returned to play Hawk in four "Spenser" television movies: "Spenser: Ceremony", "Spenser: Pale Kings and Princes", "Spenser: The Judas Goat" and "Spenser: A Savage Place".

"Star Trek": Benjamin Sisko.

Brooks is best known in popular culture for his role as Commander—and later Captain—Benjamin Sisko on the syndicated science fiction television series "", which ran for seven seasons from 1993 to 1999.  Brooks won the role of Commander Benjamin Sisko by beating 100 other actors from all racial backgrounds to become the first Black-American captain to lead a "Star Trek" series. In landing the role, Brooks also became the first Black-American male actor in a starring role in a first-run television drama since Clarence Williams III had starred as undercover police detective Linc Hayes in the iconic ABC "hippie" cop drama "The Mod Squad" from 1968 to 1973. Brooks was the second in American television history to do so since Bill Cosby co-starred with Robert Culp in the NBC spy series "I Spy" from 1965 to 1968. Brooks also directed nine episodes of the series, including "Far Beyond the Stars", an episode focusing on racial injustice.  Series producer Ronald D. Moore said of Brooks:

Other roles.

In 1984, Brooks received critical praise for his featured role in PBS's American Playhouse production of "Half Slave, Half Free: Solomon Northup's Odyssey", directed by Gordon Parks. The story chronicled the life of Solomon Northup, a free man from New York kidnapped and sold into slavery in 1841 and held until 1853, when he regained his freedom with the help of family and friends. It was adapted from Northup's memoir, "Twelve Years a Slave" (1853).  Brooks appeared in the 1985 television movie adaptation of "Finnegan Begin Again." In 1987 he starred in the role of Uncle Tom in the Showtime production of "Uncle Tom's Cabin." A third project that allowed Brooks to highlight the history of African Americans was his performance in the 1988 television movie "", which featured his fellow "Star Trek" actors LeVar Burton, Kate Mulgrew, and Tim Russ.  In 1998 he appeared in the motion picture "American History X"; which also stars another "Star Trek" actor, Jennifer Lien. He also played the role of Paris in the 1998 film "The Big Hit".  In animated films, he supplied the voice of King Maximus in "," as well as Nokkar in an episode of "Disney's Gargoyles".  In 2001, Brooks was the voice-over and appeared in a series of IBM commercials for its software business unit.

Other work.

Teaching and cultural work.

Brooks has taught at Oberlin College and Case Western Reserve University. A graduate of Livingston College and Mason Gross School of the Arts at Rutgers University, he accepted an appointment in 1976 as an associate professor of theatre arts with tenure at Mason Gross, and has since been promoted to full professor.  From 1993 to 1996, Brooks was artistic director for the National Black Arts Festival in association with Rutgers University. Held annually since 1988 in Atlanta, Georgia, the internationally renowned festival celebrates African-American culture and people of African descent. In addition, Brooks has done extensive work with the Smithsonian Institution's Program in Black American Culture.

Music.

A deep baritone singer, Brooks has performed on stage with Butch Morris, Lester Bowie, and Jon Hendricks. He also recorded an album with saxophone player James Spaulding, "James Spaulding Plays the Legacy of Duke Ellington" (Storyville, 1977). Brooks had the lead role in the 1985 Anthony Davis opera "X: The Life and Times of Malcolm X". Also, he performed at the Paris Banlieues Bleues Festival in 2005. In his role as Captain Benjamin Sisko, he performed the Frank Sinatra tune "The Best Is Yet to Come" at the conclusion of the "" episode "Badda-Bing Badda-Bang" as a duet with James Darren.  In 2009, Brooks released his debut album, "Here", an album of jazz and blues covers, as well as spoken word.

Theater.

Brooks received critical acclaim in Phillip Hayes Dean's play "Paul Robeson". Brooks portrayed the life of the famous singer, actor, and civil rights activist in a one-man, critically acclaimed biographical drama. He has performed the role since 1982 at the Westwood Playhouse in Los Angeles, the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C., and the Longacre Theater on Broadway. He also portrayed Robeson in "Are You Now Or Have You Ever Been?", both on and Off-Broadway.  Brooks' early theater credits include "The Offering", "A PHOTOGRAPH: A Study of Cruelty", and "Are You Now or Have You Ever Been" in the 1970s. He started to gain recognition after his appearance in "Spell #7" at the Public/Anspache Theater in New York City in 1979. He subsequently starred in "Othello" at the Folger Shakespeare Festival (1985) and "Fences" at the Repertory Theater of St. Louis, Missouri (1990). He reprised the role of "Othello" at the Washington Shakespeare Theater in 1990–1991.  Brooks appeared in the title role of "The Oedipus Plays", a production that traveled to the 2003 Athens Festival in Greece. He also appeared in the title role of "King Lear" at Yale's Repertory Theatre. In 2005, Brooks again starred as "Othello", this time at the Shakespeare Theatre Company in a production directed by the renowned Michael Kahn. Brooks was one of 15 actors of the Shakespeare Theatre Company in Washington to be honored with the William Shakespeare Award for Classical Theatre in 2007. He returned to the Shakespeare Theatre Company in Fall 2007 to play the title role in Christopher Marlowe's "Tamburlaine".  In 2008, Brooks returned to Oberlin College to play the lead in a production of Arthur Miller's "Death of a Salesman".  Once again, Brooks played the title role of Paul Robeson at the Shakespeare Theater from March 24–27 in 2011.

Films.

Brooks played Dr. Bob Sweeney in "American History X" alongside Edward Norton. He also played mob boss Paris in "The Big Hit", co-starring Mark Wahlberg. His last feature film role was in 2001 as Detective Leon Jackson in "15 Minutes", which also starred Robert De Niro and Edward Burns.

Documentary work.

Brooks has also hosted several documentaries and served as narrator in such features as the IMAX film "Africa's Elephant Kingdom". His other documentary credits include narrating "Earthquake!", "A Passion for Faith", covering the history of black Catholics in America, "Eyes on the Prize", "Walking with Dinosaurs", "", "Land of the Mammoth: Ancient Evidence", "The Ballad of Big Al", "The Science of Big Al", "Savage Sun", "Engineering the Impossible" (The Colosseum), "Greatest Places and Echoes from the White House", and "God vs. Satan". He also narrated the three-part series "Heart of Africa", consisting of"Heart of Africa: Jewel of the Rift", about the life cycles of African cichlid fish in Lake Tanganyika, "Heart of Africa: Virunga", about the gorillas of Virunga National Park, and "Heart of Africa: Fire and Ice", about the lowland animals of the Rift Valley.  In May 2007, Brooks recorded the narration for the documentary "The Better Hour", which is about the life of William Wilberforce, the man who led the campaign for the end of slavery in the United Kingdom in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.  Brooks also provided the narration for the BBC series "Walking with Dinosaurs" when it aired in North America on the Discovery Channel. His deep and authoritative voice commanded viewer attention; Brooks was able to draw on his years of training as an opera singer and his extensive stage experience with Shakespeare company actors to not only engage the viewer, but use his vocal abilities to emphasize the events as seen in the show.  In 2009, Brooks narrated a special documentary for the National Geographic channel, titled "Drain the Ocean". Using CGI animation, National Geographic removed the water from the oceans and explored the ocean floor and its vast geography.  In 2011, Brooks was interviewed by William Shatner in the feature-length documentary "The Captains". The film was written and directed by Shatner and features the original "Star Trek" captain interviewing every other actor who had portrayed a prominently recurring captain, upon whom the science-fiction franchise had yet been based. Brooks also served as Musical Supervisor for the project.  In 2013, Brooks began to narrate the Christian or Abrahamic series "The Bible's Greatest Secrets", on the American Heroes Channel, which attempted to use interpretations of events found in the "Bible" to illuminate new archeological findings and interpretations of history, and to use interpretations of new archeological findings to illuminate interpretations of events found in the Bible. IMDb lists the "Storyline" as: "Unlock the mysteries of vanished civilizations of the Holy Land and the people who built them."

Later projects.

Brooks was part of a directors panel at a festival celebrating the work of Ntozake Shange at the New Federal Theatre on February 11, 2007. Brooks has directed Shange's "Boogie Woogie Landscapes" at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts and in London's West End.  In 2006, Trekweb and TrekToday announced that Avery Brooks would take a role in the film "Rambo". Brooks himself later said this was not the case. He said "I've met Mr. Stallone, many years ago — I have great respect for Mr. Stallone, always did. However, "Rambo" is not in my future."  In March 2007, it was confirmed that Brooks would appear in a new production of Christopher Marlowe's play "Tamburlaine".  As part of BBC Audiobooks America's entry into the US market, Brooks narrated an audiobook of Alex Haley's novel "", which won the 2008 Audie Award for Non-Fiction. It is the first time the novel has received an audio adaptation. Brooks himself had starred in the 1988 television film based on the book, "".  Brooks has also completed work on his long-awaited CD. It contains "a selection of ballads and love songs... I speak of my respect for my father, and for artists that I have listened to all my life."  In August 2008, it was announced that Brooks would play Willy Loman in a new production of Arthur Miller's "Death of a Salesman".

Personal life.

Since 1976, Brooks has been married to Vicki Lenora Brooks, an assistant dean at Rutgers University. Together the couple have three adult children – Ayana, Cabral, and Asante – and live in Princeton, New Jersey.  In January of 2012, Brooks was charged with driving under the influence in Connecticut. He was arrested on Sunday, January 29th, 2012, in Wilton, Connecticut after police received a report of erratic driving.

Avery Franklin Brooks (born October 2, 1948) is an American actor, director, singer, and educator. He is best known for his television roles as Benjamin Sisko on "", as Hawk on "" and its spinoff "A Man Called Hawk", and as Dr. Bob Sweeney in the Academy Award-nominated film "American History X".

Avery Franklin Brooks (* 2. října 1948 Evansville, Indiana) je americký filmový, televizní a divadelní herec, jazzový a operní zpěvák a profesor divadelního herectví. Je známý jako komandér a později kapitán Benjamin Sisko ze sci-fi seriálu "" (1993–1999), jehož několik epizod také režíroval, a jako Hawk z mysteriózního seriálu "Spenser: For Hire" (1985–1988) a jeho spin-offu "A Man Called Hawk" (1989). Dále hrál např. ve filmech "Kult hákového kříže" či "15 minut".


History.

Before independence, Australian coins were used in Kiribati (then called the Gilbert Islands) from 1966 until 1979. Previous to Australia's introduction of the dollar, the Australian pound was chiefly used throughout the islands, though Gilbert and Ellice Islands banknotes issued in the 1940s were also in use and were redeemable for Pound Sterling at face value. During Japanese occupation of the islands during World War II, the Oceanian pound, an all banknote currency created by the Japanese Government to be a universal currency for the pacific, was in use. The Australian pound was restored as the official national currency after the war ended.  A call to issue coinage for an independent Kiribati in 1979 was made to legitimise its new political status, and although Australian banknotes would be used, the decision to issue domestic coins was widely favoured and accepted. A two dollar coin was later introduced to replace the note and celebrate the nation's tenth anniversary.

Coins.

Kiribati's first coins were introduced in 1979 following independence and were directly pegged to the Australian dollar. The coins were issued in denominations of 1-, 2-, 5-, 10-, 20- and 50-cents, and 1 dollar.  Except for the 50 cents and 1 dollar pieces, all of these coins are the same size, weight, and composition as the corresponding Australian coins, with the 1 and 2 cents pieces composed of bronze and the 5, 10, 20, 50 cents pieces, and $1 being composed of cupro-nickel. As usual for other pacific island states, only the lower denominations (1-20 cents) share any commonality, with the largest denominations being unique to their respective countries. The 50-cents piece is round with reeded edges, unlike the dodecagonal (twelve sided) Australian equivalent. The Kiribati 1 dollar is the same twelve sided shape as Australia's 50 cents coin, but it is smaller and weighs about 41⁄2 grams less than both the Australian and Kiribati half dollars.  In 1989, nickel-brass 2 dollar coins were introduced coinciding with Kiribati's tenth anniversary of independence, and followed Australia's issuance of its 2 dollar coin and withdrawal of the 2 dollar note in 1988. The Kiribati $2 piece is round and much larger than Australia's comparatively tiny $2 piece, with the same circumference of the 20-cents coin and a thickness similar to the British 1 Pound coin.  Most Kiribati coins are dated 1979, marking an event to coincide with independence, but with some exception. In 1992, Kiribati began producing 1 and 2 cents pieces in copper-plated steel and 5 cents pieces in nickel-plated steel re-struck off of 1979 planchets. These coins are distinct in their lustre and obvious attraction to a magnet and were produced to compensate for Australia's discontinuation of the two lowest denominations. However, a small mintage of the 1992 issue 1 cent was struck in bronze. 10-, 20-, 50-cents, and $1 coins have yet to appear as later issues and do not appear to be restrike coins. So most of the denominations remain as a single date issue. Although Kiribati retained 1 and 2 cents coins well after Australia demoted theirs, redundancy and devaluation has slowly removed these coins from general circulation.  Kiribati no longer issues local coinage and hasn't now for quite some time, so most examples are either uncirculated from the bank or heavily used. Australian coinage has also become more frequent than local coinage in more populated regions for these reasons as the government feels it more practical and cost effective to use Australian coins rather than mint additional Kiribati coins.  The primary side of all Kiribati coins depicts the national crest, while the obverse depict flora, fauna, and items of cultural importance to the islands. The coins were designed by sculptor and engraver Michael Hibbit.  Reverse depictions are as follows:

Banknotes.

Australian pound Sterling banknotes were introduced to the region in 1914 shortly before the Gilbert Islands gained status from a protectorate to a crown colony of Great Britain in 1916. These continued to be the main source of exchange until the decimalisation of 1966.  In 1942, local banknotes were issued under the authority of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Government and were locally produced with a primitive and austere design. These notes were valued on parity with sterling and issued in denominations of 1, 2, 5, and 10 shillings and 1 pound. After the wartime emergency had passed these notes were discontinued and gradually phased out. Due to their scarcity, these notes are highly collectable.  In 1966, the new Australian dollar became the new official currency of The Gilbert and Ellice islands, replacing the pound notes. Only 1, 2, 5, 10 dollars were used at first, but 20, 50, and 100 dollars were later sent for use. This continued to be the official currency after the break-up of the joint Gilbert and Ellice colonies and following independence of the Gilberts and annexed territories as Kiribati. The 1 dollar notes circulated alongside a local coin.  The 1 and 2 dollar notes were later withdrawn in favour of Kiribati- and Australian-issued coins.

The dollar is the currency of Kiribati. It is pegged at 1:1 ratio to the Australian dollar. Coins were issued in 1979 and circulate alongside banknotes and coins of the Australian dollar.

Kiribati je nezávislý ostrovní stát v Pacifiku. Svoji nezávislost vyhlásil v roce 1979. Oficiálním platidlem je zde australský dolar (AUD).


Coins.

In 1976, corresponding with its slated independence, Tuvalu's first coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 cents and 1 dollar. The set, designed by John Donald features an aquatic theme. The bronze 1 and 2 cents and the cupro-nickel 5, 10 and 20 cents were the same size, weight, and composition as the corresponding Australian coins they were set to constitute. However, the cupro-nickel 50 cent piece was distinct from the dodecagonal (twelve-sided) Australian 50 cent coin in that it was round with plain edges. The nonogonal (nine-sided) cupro-nickel 1 dollar piece was unique not only by its odd shape but it also predated the Australian 1 dollar coin by eight years. It was also issued long before the trend toward larger denomination coins became much more widespread in many countries. The nine sides on the dollar are meant to represent each of the nine islands and atolls composing the Tuvalu chain. Each of the coins depicts a sea animal that is native to the area, with the only exception to that being the 1 cent, which depicts an empty spider conch shell washed up on the shore.  The 1976 series also included the introduction of Tuvalu's first silver and gold proof bullion coins. A silver 5 dollar piece and a gold 50 dollar piece. They are considered an official release and legal tender within Tuvalu.  Although Australia withdrew their 1 and 2 cent coins from circulation in 1991 there was still demand for the two lower denominations in Tuvalu so these continued to be retained well after Australia discontinued use. However, as prices and shipping costs have progressively risen the 1 and 2 cent coins have since been withdrawn from circulation.  Australia introduced a $2 coin to replace the note in 1988, but Tuvaluan $2 coins have never been introduced. Instead, the Australian piece circulates in place. In recent years, Tuvaluans have also taken a preference to Australia's smaller, round, brass dollar over their own large, clumsy nonogonal ones, and are thus seen a little less often.  In 1994, the Queen's profile was changed in tandem with many other Commonwealth states to the more recent Raphael Maklouf design. Older coins dated 1976-1985 feature the Arnold Machin design. After the 1994 issue, Tuvaluan coins ceased to be produced and Australian coins sent in their stead. However, Tuvalu coins remain as legal tender and continue to circulate alongside Australian ones.  Tuvalu also issues a fair number of non-circulating bullion type coins and colourised commemoratives, which earns the country a small portion of its limited income.  Queen Elizabeth II is depicted on all coins issued by Tuvalu. There have been calls from some politicians to abolish Tuvalu's monarchy and remove the sovereign's image from all future coins, however, a majority vote decided otherwise.  The reverse of each coin depicts as follows:

Banknotes.

In 1942, local banknotes were issued by the colonial government of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands in denominations of 1, 2, 5, and 10 shillings and £1 with equivalent value to the Australian pound.  Since 1966, the official currency of Tuvalu is the Australian dollar, with Australian banknotes having been in use prior to and after independence. $1, $2, $5, and $10 notes were originally the only denominations sent, but higher denominations have since come into use. However, after independence was achieved, the $1 note was withdrawn from circulation to encourage the use of the $1 coin.

The Tuvaluan dollar is the currency of Tuvalu, whose official international currency code is TVD. Tuvalu has never had banknotes of its own, and has been issuing coins since 1976. However, the Tuvaluan dollar is used as a unit of account, and is pegged to the Australian dollar at parity. From 1966 to 1976, Tuvalu officially used the Australian dollar. In 1976, Tuvalu began issuing its own coins, which continue to circulate alongside Australian coins. Tuvalu continues to use Australian banknotes. Tuvaluan coins are not legal tender in Australia. Similar to the Faroese króna's relationship to the Danish krone and the Panamanian balboa's relationship to the United States dollar, the Tuvaluan dollar is not an independent currency, but a variation of the Australian dollar.

Tuvalu je nezávislý ostrovní stát v Pacifiku. Svoji nezávislost vyhlásil v roce 1978. Oficiálním platidlem je zde australský dolar (AUD).


Development.

Background.

The development of the turbojet-powered E.28/39 was the product of a collaboration between the Gloster Aircraft Company and Sir Frank Whittle's firm, Power Jets Ltd. Whittle formed Power Jets Ltd in March 1936 to develop his ideas of jet propulsion, Whittle himself serving as the company's chief engineer. For several years, attracting financial backers and aviation firms prepared to take on Whittle's radical ideas was difficult; in 1931, Armstrong-Siddeley had evaluated and rejected Whittle's proposal, finding it to be technically sound but at the limits of engineering capability. Securing funding was a persistently worrying issue throughout the early development of the engine. The first Whittle prototype jet engine, the Power Jets WU, began running trials in early 1937; shortly afterwards, both Sir Henry Tizard, chairman of the Aeronautical Research Committee, and the Air Ministry gave the project their support.  On 28 April 1939, Whittle made a visit to the premises of the Gloster Aircraft Company, where he met several key figures, such as George Carter, Gloster's chief designer. Carter took a keen interest in Whittle's project, particularly when he saw the operational Power Jets W.1 engine; Carter quickly made several rough proposals of various aircraft designs powered by the engine. Independently, Whittle had also been producing several proposals for a high-altitude jet-powered bomber; following the start of the Second World War and the Battle for France, a greater national emphasis on fighter aircraft arose. Power Jets and Gloster quickly formed a mutual understanding around mid-1939.  In September 1939, the Air Ministry issued a specification to Gloster for an aircraft to test one of Frank Whittle's turbojet designs in flight. The E.28/39 designation originates from the aircraft having been developed in conformance with the 28th "Experimental" specification issued by the Air Ministry in 1939. The E.28/39 specification required the aircraft to carry a pair of 0.303 in (7.62 mm) Browning machine guns in each wing, along with 2,000 rounds of ammunition, but these were never fitted. The second paragraph of the contract for the first aeroplane stated: "The primary object of this aeroplane will be to flight test the engine installation, but the design shall be based on requirements for a fixed gun interceptor fighter as far as the limitations of size and weight imposed by the power unit permit. The armament equipment called for in this specification will not be required for initial trials but the contractor will be required to make provision in the design for the weight and space occupied by these items..."

Design effort.

Early on, Gloster's chief designer, George Carter, worked closely with Whittle, and laid out a small low-wing aircraft of conventional configuration. The jet intake was located in the nose, while the single tail-fin and elevators were mounted above the jet-pipe, although due to uncertainty about the spinning characteristics of a jet aircraft, at an earlier design stage an alternative arrangement using twin fins and rudders was considered. A pair of jet pipe/rear fuselage arrangements were also originally considered due to the potential loss of thrust through the jet pipe itself: a'short jet' with a cutaway rear fuselage and short exhaust, necessitating the tailplane to be carried on booms, and a 'long jet' with a fully enclosed jet pipe; the 'long jet' was selected. On 3 February 1940, a contract for two prototypes was signed by the Air Ministry.  Manufacture of the E.28/39 commenced at Brockworth near Gloucester and then moved to Regent Motors in Regent Street, Cheltenham (now the site of Regent Arcade), which was considered safer from bombing. Whittle was dissatisfied with the speed at which production took place, probably caused by the Battle of Britain as the area around nearby Coventry was subject to high levels of German bomber activity. In April 1941, the first of the E.28/39 prototypes was completed but a flight-worthy W.1A engine was not available and a non-flight capable W.1X unit was assembled and installed instead.  While only a pair of prototypes had been ordered, the operational philosophy was that, once the prototypes had proved the capabilities of the design, a more substantial programme would begin; even before the first flight of the E.28/39, this 'production' combat aircraft had been envisioned as being a considerably more elaborate twin-engined design, with all of the equipment necessary to produce a fighter aircraft. This aircraft, also produced by Gloster, became the Meteor, the first production jet-propelled aircraft to enter service with the Allies.

Design.

The E.28/39 was a low-wing monoplane designed around the new jet engine. It was described as possessing a slightly tubby appearance as a result of a round fuselage. Due to the elimination of any risk that would have been posed by conventional propeller tips striking the ground, the E.28/39 could be outfitted with an unusually short undercarriage for the era. It had a retractable undercarriage which was actuated via a hydraulic accumulator, with a manually-operated hand-pump to serve as a backup. An emergency compressed air arrangement was also present. The flaps were also hydraulically-actuated, driven directly by the manual hand-pump. Unusually, the nose wheel was steerable by the rudder, which aided in ground manoeuvring. The E.28/39 was powered by a Power Jets W.1 turbojet engine behind the pilot and the fuel tank. The engine exhaust was directed through the centre of the fuselage, the jetpipe terminating about two feet behind the rudder. A nose air-intake led the air through bifurcated ducts around the cockpit. A fuel tank, containing up to 82 Imp gal (372.8 litres), was behind the cockpit, supposed to have been adopted as a countermeasure against the impact of negative g, which posed the risk of causing the engine to flame out, which was hard to re-light during flight.  The E.28/39 lacked features that would be considered key to a fighter, such as a radio. The original engine was started by an Austin Seven car engine, connected by a flexible drive; this arrangement was replaced by an electrical starter system that used a ground booster battery instead. The cockpit, which was entered past a sliding canopy, lacked pressurisation or any form of climate control, such as heating. Pilots were intended to wear electrically-heated flight suits but the lack of a generator and limited battery capacity, the latter being devoted to the automated sensors and recording devices that captured the results of each flight, meant this was not possible; pilots had to put up with the cold.  John Grierson said:  and

Testing.

Although the initial flight tests were relatively early in the Second World War, the German Heinkel He 178 had been first test-flown on 27 August 1939, at Rostock-Marienehe on the Baltic Coast, days before the outbreak of the war.  The E.28/39 was delivered to Brockworth for ground tests beginning on 7 April 1941, using a non-flightworthy version of the Power Jets W.1 engine. Some short "hops" of about 6 ft in height from the grass airfield were made. The prototype was incapable of high speed taxi runs because the jet engine was highly inefficient when moving at slow speeds. Raising the engine's governor from 12,000 rpm to 16,000 rpm more than tripled the ground speed that the prototype could attain.  Following the completion of these ground tests, the aircraft was fitted with a flightworthy engine rated for 10 hours use, and then transferred to Cranwell which had a long runway. On 15 May 1941, Gloster's Chief Test Pilot, Flight Lieutenant Gerry Sayer flew the aircraft under jet power for the first time from RAF Cranwell, near Sleaford in Lincolnshire, in a flight lasting 17 minutes. In this first series of test flights, a maximum true speed of 350 m.p.h. was attained, in level flight at 25,000 ft. and 17,000 turbine revolutions per minute. Tests continued with increasingly refined versions of the engine. Small, auxiliary fins were added near the tips of the tailplanes to provide additional stability in high-speed flight. John Grierson, in 1971, called these "end-plates" and wrote that their purpose was to increase the fin area due to the problem of rudder blanking in a side-slip. On 21 October 1942, Sayer disappeared during an acceptance test flight in a Hawker Typhoon, presumed killed in a collision and his assistant, Michael Daunt, took over testing of the E.28/39. The oil system had been changed before he flew; after it was proven, the aircraft was handed over to the RAE for testing by service pilots.  The second prototype E.28/39 ("W4046") – initially powered by a Rover W2B engine – joined the test programme on 1 March 1943. Flying of "W4046" was by Gloster test pilots John Grierson and John Crosby Warren, because Michael Daunt was then involved with the F.9/40 (later known as the Gloster Meteor) testing revealed problems with engine oil and lubricants. In April 1943, "W4046" flew to Hatfield for a demonstration in front of the Prime Minister and members of the Air Staff. It was taken to Farnborough and fitted with a W2.B and achieved 466 mph. On 30 July 1943, while on a high-altitude test flight, the second prototype was destroyed in a crash resulting from an aileron failure. The accident was attributed to the use of the wrong type of grease in the aileron controls; one aileron had "stuck in position, sending the aircraft out of control". The test pilot, Squadron Leader Douglas Davie, bailed out from 33,000 ft, suffering frostbite on the way down.  The first prototype was fitted with the thrust W2/500 and was flown to 42,000 ft, but level speed at altitude was not attempted due to fuel shortage. The pilot commented in his report on a need for cockpit heating and a larger fuel tank. The aircraft continued flight tests until 1944. By that time, more advanced turbojet-powered aircraft were available. The Gloster E.28/39 was later able to achieve high speeds, highest being 505 mph at 30,000 feet with a W.2/700 engine and it proved to be a capable experimental platform and exhibited a "good climb rate and ceiling". Experience with the E.28/39 paved the way for Britain's first operational jet fighter aircraft, the Gloster Meteor. The Meteor was powered by the Rolls-Royce Welland engine, which was the next stage in development from the Power Jets W.1.

Surviving aircraft.

In 1946, the first prototype ("W4041") was placed in the Science Museum in Central London, where it is exhibited today in the Flight Gallery. A full-size replica has been placed on an obelisk on a roundabout near the northern perimeter of Farnborough Airfield in Hampshire, as a memorial to Sir Frank Whittle. A similar full-size model is on display in the middle of a roundabout at Lutterworth in Leicestershire, where the aircraft's engine was produced.  A full-scale model taken from the same moulds, with authentic paint scheme and detailing, has been built by members of the Jet Age Museum in Gloucestershire. It has recently been on display in Brockworth, Gloucester, Kemble (at both the Kemble Air Day and the MVT Show), and formed part of the display for the Sir Frank Whittle Centenary commemorations at RAF Cranwell in June 2007.

The Gloster E.28/39, (also referred to as the Gloster Whittle, Gloster Pioneer, or Gloster G.40) was the first British jet-engined aircraft and first flew in 1941. It was the fourth jet to fly after the German Heinkel He 178 (1939), the Italian Caproni Campini N.1 motorjet (1940), and the German Heinkel He 280 (1941).

Gloster E.28/39 (někdy uváděný jako Gloster Whittle, Gloster Pioneer, nebo Gloster G.40) byl britský jednomístný experimentální proudový letoun. Byl vyvinut k testování možností proudového motoru W.1 britského průkopníka v této oblasti Franka Whittlea a jednalo se o první britský letoun poháněný proudovým motorem. Byl také létající laboratoři pro vývoj proudových motorů a zkoumání aerodynamických jevů, s novým typem pohonu souvisejících. Zkušenosti s testy tohoto typu byly důležité při vývoji prvního britského proudového stíhacího letounu Gloster Meteor.


Context.

This destructive season should be seen against a backdrop of the American Revolution, which involved hostilities in the Caribbean by the fleets of Spain, France and the Dutch Republic operating against British fleets with the concomitant greater risk of loss of life due to increased exposure of warships and transports to hazardous weather conditions. This critical coincidence is at least partially responsible for the unprecedented losses of life inflicted, especially in the three fierce hurricanes that struck in quick succession during October.

Systems.

San Antonio Hurricane.

The San Antonio Hurricane is also known as the St. Lucia Hurricane. On June 13, a hurricane "caused deaths and losses" on Puerto Rico, after having also struck St. Lucia, where it killed around 4,000 to 5,000 people. It later went on to the Dominican Republic.

Louisiana Hurricane.

New Orleans experienced a powerful hurricane on August 24, with winds gusting over 160 mph. The hurricane completely destroyed 39 of the 43 buildings on Grand Isle, Louisiana. The eye then passed over New Orleans and severely damaged structures in what is now known as the French Quarter. The hurricane also caused harvest-ruining crop damage, severe flooding, and tornadoes across southeast Louisiana. It is believed that the hurricane killed around 25 people.

St. Kitts Tropical Storm.

On August 25, St. Kitts in the Leeward Islands was struck by a storm.

Savanna-la-Mar Hurricane.

A strong storm formed in the southern Caribbean Sea on October 1. Shortly after, it sank the British transport ship "Monarch" with all hands, including several hundred Spanish prisoners. The hurricane began to move northwest towards Jamaica, where it destroyed the port of Savanna-la-Mar on October 3. Many of the town's residents gathered at the coast to watch, but the 20 foot storm surge engulfed the onlookers in addition to the docked ships and many of the town's buildings. In the nearby port village of Lucea, 400 people perished and all but two structures were destroyed; 360 people were killed in the nearby town of Montego Bay. The hurricane would later sink the British frigate "Phoenix," killing 200 crew members, and ships-of-the-line "Victor", "Barbadoes", and "Scarborough" among others. It continued its direction, and made landfall in Cuba on October 4, followed by a pass over the Bahamas. The storm is believed to have caused 3,000 deaths.

The Great Hurricane.

The second hurricane of October 1780 formed before or on October 10. It is still referred to as "The Great Hurricane" or "Great Hurricane of the Antilles" in some places, but its official name is "San Calixto Hurricane." The hurricane devastated the island of Barbados on October 10 with 200+ mph wind gusts, killing 4,300 and creating an economic depression. St. Vincent suffered a 20-foot (6 meter) storm surge. The storm went on to kill 6,000 people on the island of St. Lucia and 9,000 on Martinique, with its capital city, St. Pierre, becoming almost completely demolished. It later moved northwestward toward the island of St. Eustatius, killing 4,000 to 5,000 and devastating Puerto Rico, Dominique, and Bermuda. In total, the hurricane caused a record 22,000 deaths in the eastern Caribbean Sea and rates as the all-time deadliest hurricane in the Atlantic. The high number of fatalities is due in part to "the presence of the powerful fleets of Britain and France, both maneuvering on nearby islands to strike blows at each other's rich possessions in the Antilles." The storm dissipated on or after October 18.

Solano's Hurricane.

A powerful hurricane in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico struck a Spanish war fleet of 64 vessels under José Solano en route from Havana, Cuba to attack Pensacola, Florida, the capital of British West Florida. The ships had 4,000 men aboard under the military command of Bernardo de Gálvez, and 2,000 died. The slow-moving hurricane, known to history as "Solano's hurricane", was first noted near Jamaica on October 15. Progressing northwestwards it likely crossed the western end of Cuba, before shifting northeastwards to Apalachee Bay. It struck Solano's fleet on October 20. The hurricane's dissipation is disputed as some claim it dissipated somewhere over the southeastern United States around October 22, while others claim that it crossed the U.S. and finally dissipated over the North Atlantic on October 26.

Lesser Antilles Hurricane.

In late October, a tropical cyclone struck Barbados and then St. Lucia on October 23.

New England Hurricane.

Around November 17, a tropical cyclone moved up the east coast of the United States disrupting the British blockade of the New England states. It is unknown whether this storm was fully tropical.

The 1780 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and fall in 1780. The 1780 season was extraordinarily destructive, and was the deadliest Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history with over 28,000 deaths. Four different hurricanes, one in June and three in October, caused at least 1,000 deaths each; this event has never been repeated and only in the 1893 and 2005 seasons were there two such hurricanes. The season also had the strongest and deadliest Atlantic hurricane of all time, the Great Hurricane of 1780. Only one of the storms was not a hurricane.

Atlantická hurikánová sezóna v roce 1780 byla nejničivější a nejsmrtonosnější sezónou ve známé historii. V historických análech bylo v souvislosti s ní zaznamenáno pět hurikánů, z nich u tří přesáhl počet zabitých lidí tisícovku, přičemž nejstrašnější z nich, Velký hurikán, měl na svědomí více než 22 tisíc lidí a je jednoznačně hodnocen jako nejsilnější a nejsmrtonosnější lidmi zaznamenaný hurikán v historii. Celkový počet lidí usmrcených hurikány v roce 1780 je odhadován na více než 25 tisíc.


Geography.

The territory consists mainly of an extensive plain at an altitude up to above sea level, with a number of depressions and highlands (Sultanuizdag, Bukantau). Most of the area is covered with dunes (barchans); in the northwest large areas are covered with takirs (clay coatings); there are also some oases. There are agricultural settlements along the rivers and in the oases. Temperatures can be very high during the summer months, from mid-May to mid-September. Kerki, one extreme inland city located on the banks of the Amu Darya River, recorded in July 1983. It is mainly located in Uzbekistan.

Fauna.

Desert fauna include the Russian tortoise ("Testudo horsfieldii") and a large lizard known as the Transcaspian or desert monitor ("Varanus griseus"), which can reach lengths of. The saiga antelope ("Saiga tatarica") also occasionally migrates through the northern part of the desert.  Kyzylkum Nature Reserve in Bukhara Province was established in 1971. The area of the reserve amounts to and it is located on flood-land (tugai) drained by the Amudarya close to the settlement Dargan Ata. Fauna include: Bactrian deer ("Cervus elaphus bactrianus"), wild boar ("Sus scrofa"), common pheasant ("Phasianus colchicus"), golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetus").  Djeyran Reserve is located south of Bukhara. The total area of this reserve is. It is a breeding centre for rare species such as goitered gazelle ("Gazella subgutturosa"), Przewalski's horse ("Equus ferus przewalskii"), Turkmenian kulan ("Equus hemionus kulan") and MacQueen's bustard ("Chlamydotis macqueenii"). The reserve was founded in 1977 on the enclosed area in.

Paleontology.

The Kyzylkum Desert has exposed rock formations that have yielded a number of fossils. Of particular interest is the Bissekty Formation of Uzbekistan, from the early Late Cretaceous, which has produced several species of early birds: "Incolornis martini", "Explorornis walkeri", "Kizylkumavis cretacea", "Kuszholia mengi", "Lenesornis kaskarovi", "Sazavis prisca", "Zhyraornis kaskarovi" and "Z. logunovi" are recognized as valid species. Tyrannosaurid, therizinosaurid, ornithomimosaur, oviraptorosaurian, troodontid, ankylosaur, hadrosaur, and ceratopsian dinosaurs are also known from this rock unit. Other fossils from the Cretaceous rocks of the Kyzylkum include tree trunks, pelecypods, beetles, sharks, rays, bony fish, frogs, salamanders, turtles, crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs, and a varied fauna of small early mammals. Paleontologists that have worked in this area include J. David Archibald, Alexander Averianov, Sergei Kurzanov, Lev Nesov, Anatoly Riabinin, Anatoly Rozhdestvensky, and Hans-Dieter Sues.

Economy.

The local population uses the large spaces of the Kyzylkum Desert as a pasture for livestock (mostly sheep, Bactrian camels and dromedaries).  The desert is well known for its deposits of gold, uranium, copper, aluminium and silver, natural gas and oil. The development of the most famous gold-field at Muruntau began in the early 1970s. The centres for the mining and smelting industry at the region are Navoi, Zarafshan city, Uchkuduk. The major industrial enterprises are: НГМК (Navoi Mining and Smelting Complex) and the Uzbek U.S.A. Joint Venture "Zarafshan-Newmont". The centres of the gas-production industry are Gazli and Mubarek.

The Kyzylkum Desert (, قىزىلقۇم;, قىزىلقۇم; ) is the 15th largest desert in the world. Its name means "Red Sand" in Turkic languages. It is located in Central Asia in the doab between the rivers Amu Darya and Syr Darya, a region historically known as Transoxania or Sogdiana. Today it is divided between Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. It covers about.

Kyzylkum (v českém překladu Červená poušť,, ) je poušť ve Střední Asii v meziříčí Amudarji a Syrdarji. Má rozlohu 298 000 km2, a je tak jedenáctou největší pouští na světě. Jihozápadně od ní na levém břehu Amudarji se rozprostírá poušť Karakum.


History.

Most documents about him vanished at the Lőcse fire in 1550. So, neither his surname, nor dates or places of birth and death are known. It is assumed that he was born between 1470 and 1480. He must have died between 1537 (when he is still mentioned on record) and 1542 (when his widow is mentioned).  He probably started working in Kraków (from the connections of this city with Lőcse at that time and from similarity of styles he could be a student of Veit Stoss), Sabinov (), Banská Bystrica () until he settled in Lőcse around 1500 and married a daughter of an influential citizen. In 1506 he established a carving workshop. A list of some of his works includes an altar of St. Barbara in Banská Bystrica from 1509, an altar of St. George in Spišská Sobota (; today a part of Poprad) from 1516, and his most famous work, completed in 1517, an altar in the Basilica of St. James in Lőcse. This late Gothic altar is the highest in Europe, with 18.62 meters of height. It is carved in wood and decorated with gold. The Madonna from this altar was also depicted in the former issue of 100 SKK banknotes (before Slovakia's adoption of the Euro on 1 January 2009).  In 1527 he became a member of the Lőcse town council, but he became famous only after his death. Even art historians started to mention his name only in the 1870s in discussions about the creator of the altar in Lőcse.

Master Paul of Levoča (, ) was a medieval carver and sculptor of the 15th and 16th century, active mostly in the town of Levoča () in the Kingdom of Hungary (today in Slovakia).

Mistr Pavel z Levoče (c. 1465/1470–1480 – 1537–1542) byl spišský řezbář a sochař v období pozdní gotiky, tvůrce nejvyššího dřevěného oltáře na světě, který se nachází v levočském Chrámu sv. Jakuba.


History.

Württemberg-Baden consisted of the northern halves of the former states of Württemberg and Baden. The southern border of this part of the US-administered zone was set so that the autobahn connecting Karlsruhe and Munich (today the A8) was completely contained within the American zone. The three major subdivisions of the American zone (Greater Hesse, Bavaria and Württemberg-Baden) were declared on 19 September 1945.  On 24 November 1946, a new constitution was enacted and Württemberg-Baden's first parliament was elected. On 23 May 1949, the state became a founding member of the Federal Republic of Germany. A straw poll was held on 24 September 1950 in Württemberg-Baden, Württemberg-Hohenzollern and Baden regarding a merger of the three states, followed by a public referendum on 16 December 1951. On both occasions, voters in Württemberg-Baden returned a clear majority in favour of a merger. All three states were merged and the modern German state of Baden-Württemberg was founded on 25 April 1952.

Politics.

The only minister-president of Württemberg-Baden was Reinhold Maier (DVP, then FDP; 1946–1952). Maier went on to become the first minister-president of Baden-Württemberg upon its formation in 1952.  Württemberg-Baden was subdivided into two administrative districts, known as "Landesbezirke". The boundaries for these two districts were taken from two former state sections that comprised Württemberg-Baden. These two districts remain largely unchanged today as the Regierungsbezirke of Stuttgart (Württemberg) and Karlsruhe (Baden) within Baden-Württemberg.

Flag and coat of arms.

The flag of Württemberg-Baden, adopted in 1947, was the black-red-gold tricolour flag of Germany which was later also adopted again by the new German states founded in 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic.  The coat of arms merges elements from the two predecessor states: the red stripe on a golden field of the coat of arms of Baden and the three deer antlers of the coat of arms of Württemberg.

Württemberg-Baden was a state of the Federal Republic of Germany. It was created in 1945 by the United States occupation forces, after the previous states of Baden and Württemberg had been split up between the US and French occupation zones. Its capital was Stuttgart. In 1952, Württemberg-Baden merged with Württemberg-Hohenzollern and Baden into the present state of Baden-Württemberg.

Württembersko-Bádensko (německy "Württemberg-Baden") byla spolková země v Německu vytvořená po druhé světové válce v roce 1945 v americké okupační zóně ze severních částí dosavadních zemí Bádenska a Württemberska. Jejím hlavním městem byl Stuttgart. V roce 1952 bylo Württembersko-Bádensko sloučeno s Württembersko-Hohenzollernskem a Jižním Bádenskem do současné spolkové země Bádensko-Württembersko.


History.

The community was founded in 1799 by New Englanders who built mills along its creeks. The first settlement was established around 1790 and was called "Chester Four Corners."  The Chestertown Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.

Geography.

Chestertown is located at (43.6525664, -73.8009597) and its elevation is. The ZIP code is 12817 and it is in the Eastern Time Zone. The nearest city is Glens Falls.  According to the 2010 United States Census, Chestertown has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Education.

Children from Chestertown, along with children from the neighboring communities of Adirondack, Brant Lake and Pottersville, attend North Warren Central School.

Community and economy.

The old school in the center of the village was transformed into the community center, with public library, town hall and Sheriff's office. There are also a theater and a medical center in the town. Main Street (U.S. Route 9) is lined with many stores, including Glens Falls National Bank. There are several hotels in the area.  The town has one public beach at Loon Lake.  Peckham Materials Corp., a manufacturer of asphalt and crushed stone, operates a large quarry at the southern end of the town.  Lincoln Logs Ltd., a manufacturer of log, timber, and cedar homes, which operates a large mill near the junction of Route 8 and U.S. Route 9.

Religion.

There are three churches in the center of Chestertown: the St. John the Baptist Roman Catholic Church of the St. Isaac Jogues Parish Community, the Community United Methodist Church, and the Faith Bible Church. There are also many other churches in the area.

Lakes.

There are three lakes in Chestertown, Friends Lake, Loon Lake, and Forest Lake. Friends and Loon Lakes are surrounded by vacation homes. Forest Lake is privately owned by Forest Lake Camp - a traditional overnight summer camp since 1926.

Chestertown is a hamlet of the Town of Chester, in Warren County, New York, United States. It is located by the junction of Route 8 and U.S. Route 9, in the Adirondack Mountains. The population was 677 at the 2010 census, which lists the community as a census-designated place.

Chestertown je městečko v okrese Warren, státě New York ve Spojených státech, v Adirondackém pohoří. Populace byla v roce 2000 kolem 2187. Městečko se nachází na křižovatce Cesty 8 ("Route 8") a Státní Cesty 9 ("U.S. Route 9").


Legal requirements.

For legal and official purposes, evidentiary documents and other official documentation are usually required in the official language(s) of a jurisdiction.  In some countries, it is a requirement for translations of such documents that a translator swear an oath to attest that it is the legal equivalent of the source text. Often, only translators of a special class are authorized to swear such oaths. In some cases, the translation is only accepted as a legal equivalent if it is accompanied by the original or a sworn or certified copy of it.  Even if a translator specializes in legal translation or is a lawyer in their country, this does not necessarily make them a sworn translator. The procedure for translating to legal equivalence differs from country to country.

Argentina.

In compliance with Law #20,305, all public documents (including personal papers and some commercial contracts) have to be translated and signed by a certified "public translator" ("traductor público"), whose seal and signature have to be legalized on each document by the Translators' professional body of their jurisdiction. All private persons, companies, the judiciary and other government departments are subject to this law regarding documents or depositions in a foreign language. In order to be certified as a public translator for a major European language, candidates have to attend university courses leading to the professional degree of "traductor público".

Austria.

Pursuant to section 14 of the Sworn and Certified Experts, Interpreters and Translators Act #137/1995 (SDG) as amended, regional courts are entitled to appoint sworn translators for translations between German and any language (including sign language), who have sworn an oath at court after having passed an official exam. To be admitted to the exam, candidates must present evidence of at least 5 years of professional experience as a translator or interpreter or of at least 2 years of such professional experience if they have graduated in translation studies at a University. Although mostly referred to as "Gerichtsdolmetscher", the correct name of their status is "allgemein beeidete/r und gerichtlich zertifizierte/r Dolmetscher/in". Sworn translators are entitled to create public instruments by signing and sealing of translations attached to originals. No further notarization of their signature on translations is needed, and sworn translators can apply at court for the adding of an apostille. Police are advised to involve sworn interpreters to overcome language barriers whenever this is possible. Most public authorities in Austria accept translations of documents as legally equivalent only when sealed and signed by a sworn interpreter for the given language. Authorization will lapse if a sworn interpreter will not attend regular professional training.

Belgium.

""Sworn Translators"" (singular Dutch: beëdigd vertaler, French: traducteur assermenté) or ""Sworn Interpreter"" (singular Dutch: beëdigd tolk, French: interprète assermenté) swear an oath before the President of the tribunal of first instance of the judicial district in which they have their place of residence. In the past translators and interpreters in all judicial districts aspiring to "sworn" status were screened for suitability by the Crown Prosecutor. The candidate has to state the language combinations for he or she wishes to be sworn. A diploma of translator/interpreter is usually regarded as adequate proof of competence. There is no limitation on the language combinations which can be recognized.  However, following a scandal involving an illegal immigrant who obtained sworn translator status, The president of the tribunal of first instance at Antwerp, launched an experimental scheme whereby aspiring sworn translators and interpreters have to undergo training organized by the Ministry of Justice and submit to examination. The same President, based on his interpretation of the language laws, also ruled that the only language combinations that could be recognized for sworn translator/interpreter status were those in which Dutch was either the original language or the target language. This view has not yet been adopted by other judicial districts in Belgium.

Brazil.

Official documents can only be translated by Public Sworn Translators and Interpreters, who are certified and accredited by the registry of commerce of each state. The applicants must pass highly demanding oral and written examinations for specific language pairs. They undergo background checks before receiving a registration number, which must be informed in the heading of every translation. "Ad hoc" (temporary) translators can also be appointed by the Registry of Commerce to do a single translation job, when there is no Public Translator registered for that specific language pair. The registry of commerce of each state also sets the translation fees.  Although the public sworn translator/interpreter must reside in the state of registration, his translations are valid in the entire country. Institutions and government agencies in cities and states different from those of residence of the public sworn translator may require the notarial verification of the translator's signature.  Foreign documents must be verified by a Brazilian consulate or embassy in the country they were issued before translation. Official documents translated into a foreign language need to have the public sworn translator's signature verified by the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs if the institution or government agency of the foreign country so requires.

Canada.

Official translation of documents can be produced in one of two ways. Certified translations are those completed by a certified translator and accompanied by the translator's declaration, signature and seal. The title of "certified translator" is a protected title in Canada, and only those individuals who are members in good standing of a provincial translators' association and have passed a certification exam can use this title and produce certified translations. An alternative method for producing official translations in Canada is by attaching a sworn affidavit signed by the translator in the presence of a notary public or commissioner for taking affidavits to the translation.

Germany.

German regional courts ("Landgerichte") have the power to appoint "sworn translators". The specific title and the appointment procedure are different in each state. In most cases, the candidates are required to pass an examination. Germany maintains an official database online at www.justiz-uebersetzer.de that lists all translators sworn-in in all federal states.

Hungary.

There are five qualification types for translators and interpreters in Hungary: technical translator, technical translator-proofreader, interpreter, technical interpreter and conference interpreter. These qualifications can be acquired in BA and MA programmes, postgraduate courses and in institutions accredited by the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice.  Anyone regardless of age and qualification may apply for a qualifying examination in interpretation. Qualifications for technical translation, technical translation proofreading, technical interpretation and conference interpretation can be obtained in the following fields: social science, natural science, technology and economics. Anyone with a degree in one of the above fields may apply for a qualifying examination in technical translation and technical interpretation in the given field. Qualified technical interpreters and technical translators may be further qualified for conference interpretation and technical translation proofreading, respectively.  The National Office for Translation and Attestation ("Országos Fordító és Fordításhitelesítő Iroda", OFFI) is a company in Hungary that has the exclusive right to certify translations both from and to Hungarian created by the office itself or a third party, and to make certified copies of documents written in a foreign language. Interpretation in courts of Budapest is provided by OFFI.  If the Office cannot provide an interpreter, and for courts outside Budapest, an interpreter registered by the local authorities will be appointed. If no official interpreter is available, a suitable person with a good command of the required language will be appointed.

India.

There is less documentation and sources known. A sworn-in Interpreter or Translator as per Maharashtra Courts Civil Law Chapter 26 of OATHS AND AFFIDAVITS prescribed under section 6 of the Oaths Act, 1969 (point 515) may with help of Form No.3 make an affidavit that he shall well and truly interpret evidences given by witnesses and translate correctly and accurately all documents given to him or her for translation.

Indonesia.

In Indonesia, sworn translators are persons having attended and passed legal translation examination organized by the School of Linguistics and Cultural Sciences, University of Indonesia (FIB, UI). After passing the exam, they will be sworn in by the Governor of DKI Jakarta, provided that they have a Jakarta ID card. For other regions, each has to write to their respective Governor to take oath by their governor, thus obtain the status'sworn'.  Alternatively, the Association of Indonesian Translators or HPI also have exams for members who wants to have a certification as a competent, professional translator or interpreter. Upon passing, the certification will expire in 5 years.

Italy.

Both Italian courts and consulates have the power to appoint as "official translators" ("traduttori giurati" or "ufficiali") candidates who pass an examination or show proof of language proficiency (usually a university degree).

Mexico.

There are, in Mexico, two certifications for sworn translators: the local certification granted by the Superior Court of Justice corresponding to each of the 32 states and the one of the Superior Court of Justice corresponding to the federation. Both institutions establish that a written and oral examination shall be passed for a translator to be recognized as an expert or "sworn" (certified) translator ("perito traductor"); this type of translator does not swear before the court to be authorized. Although the local certification is officially valid for only one of the 32 states, a translator from any of the states may work for a client from any of the states, provided that the client accepts the translator.

Netherlands.

The Bureau for Sworn Interpreters and Translators, a department of the Dutch Legal Aid Council that has been entrusted by the Ministry of Justice with various implementation tasks in respect of the Sworn Interpreters and Translators Act. They have two levels of accreditation however only the highest level has legal validity.

Norway.

Candidates are certified by the Association of Government Authorized Translators, after they pass a very demanding examination. Successful candidates are then authorized by the Norwegian government to sign their translations, after the phrase "True Translation Certified." The Association was founded in 1913.

Poland.

The standards of translation in Poland are regulated by a relevant department of the Ministry of Justice, and every translator wishing to provide such services must pass a state examination. Afterwards such a person is entered on an official list, issued with a stamp and recognized as a sworn translator. However, for ordinary translations (business, administration, correspondence) it is enough to have an independent expert in the field.

South Africa.

In South Africa, the translator must be authorized by the High Court, and must use an original (or a sworn copy of an original) in his physical presence as his source text. The translator may only swear by his own translation. There is no requirement for an additional witness (such as a notary) to attest to the authenticity of the translation.

Spain.

In Spain, a sworn translation is a translation by a translator appointed by the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, European Union and Cooperation. To become a sworn translator in Spain for a combination of Castilian and another language, the candidate has to be certified by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation as a "sworn translator and interpreter" ("traductor-intérprete jurado"). Then, the translator is required to register their stamp and signature with the Ministry, who includes the translator's data in a public list of sworn interpreters.  Sworn translators are professional translators (normally individuals who hold a degree in translation and interpretation) who have passed an exam given by the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation and are therefore authorized to translate from Spanish into another language and vice versa. Eligibility can be achieved either through a state exam or by completing the degree studies of Translation and Interpretation in a Spanish University, provided that the translator has passed certain law-related subjects.  Sworn translators for combinations including the other three co-official languages of Spain (Basque, Catalan and Galician) are certified by regional authorities following a similar procedure as the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.  As a rule, all documents submitted in Spain must be translated by a translator certified by the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation; however, in many cases, documents translated internationally and submitted to various consulates and embassies can be translated within the respective country by translators certified within the country of submission. In other words, a certified translator in the United States is able to translate documents for one of the Spanish Consulates located in the United States, but not if the documents are to be presented in Spain.

Sweden.

The Legal, Financial and Administrative Services Agency is an official agency that authorizes interpreters and translators, who must pass a stringent examination arranged by the organization. Authorized translators hold a protected professional title, and their translations are considered legal and binding for all legal purposes.

United Kingdom.

In the UK, a certified translation is simply one which comes with a statement made by the translator or translation agency guaranteeing its accuracy, along with the date, the translator's credentials and contact details. They are often signed and stamped and should be proofread for an added guarantee of accuracy. This is the type of certification that is required by UK government bodies such as the Home Office, Passport Office and the UK Border Agency, as well as by universities and most foreign embassies in the UK. A certified translation guarantees its accuracy and contains the name and contact number of the translator or project manager, who can vouch for that accuracy and may be contacted by the requesting organisation in order to do so.

United States of America.

The U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics states: ""There is currently no universal form of certification required of interpreters and translators in the United States, but there are a variety of different tests that workers can take to demonstrate proficiency.""

A certified translation is one which fulfills the requirements in the country in question, enabling it to be used in formal procedures, with the translator accepting responsibility for its accuracy. These requirements vary widely from country to country. While some countries allow only state-appointed translators to produce such translations, others will accept those carried out by any competent bilingual individual. Between these two extremes are countries where a certified translation can be carried out by any professional translator with the correct credentials (which may include membership of specific translation associations or the holding of certain qualifications).

Soudní překlad (někdy nazývaný úřední překlad, překlad s kulatým razítkem aj.) je typ překladu dokumentu, který vyžadují zejména úřady (české i zahraniční) a jiné instituce. Soudní překlad je nejčastěji požadován u dokumentů jako jsou diplomy, rodné a oddací listy, výpisy z rejstříku trestů atd. Překlad může vyhotovit pouze překladatel, který byl jmenován soudem k vyhotovování soudních překladů.