Plot summary.

Newlywed Gwenda Reed travels ahead of her husband to find a home for them on the south coast of England. In a short time, she finds and buys Hillside, a large old house that feels just like home. She supervises workers in a renovation, staying in a one-time nursery room while the work progresses. She forms a definite idea for the little nursery. When the workmen open a long sealed door, she sees the very wallpaper that was in her mind. Further, a place that seems logical to her for a doorway between two rooms proves to have been one years earlier. She goes to London for a visit with relatives, the author Raymond West, his wife, and his aunt, Miss Jane Marple. During the play, "The Duchess of Malfi", when the line "Cover her face; mine eyes dazzle; she died young" is spoken, Gwenda screams out; she saw an image of herself viewing a man saying those words strangling a blonde-haired woman named Helen.  Gwenda was born in India where her father was stationed, then raised in New Zealand by her mother's sister from a toddler, once her mother died. Her father died a few years after her mother. She has memories of being on a ship, but it is clearly two ships. Miss Marple suggests that Gwenda lived in England with her father and his second wife, which proves to be the case. Her stepmother, Helen Halliday née Kennedy, met her father travelling from India back to England, where their shipboard romance led to marriage upon arrival in England. They rented a house in Dillmouth, where Helen grew up. The coincidences prove to be memories from Gwenda's stay in that house 18 years ago as a very young child. Now Gwenda ponders her frightening image and the closing words of the play: are they real memories as well? Her husband Giles arrives from New Zealand and the couple decide to pursue this mystery.  Helen was raised mainly by her half brother, Dr Kennedy, now retired from practice and moved to another village. He replies to an advertisement placed by Giles seeking information about Helen.  Miss Marple arranges to visit friends in Dillmouth. Miss Marple is often at the house, pulling out bindweed from the neglected garden. She finds the man who once gardened for the Kennedy family, brother and sister, who supplies several useful descriptions of events then. Miss Marple finds the cook from the Halliday household, Edith, who remembers that time well. The Hallidays were soon to move to a house in Norfolk before Helen disappeared. Helen wanted to get away. The servants presumed this was from her husband, but it was not. She was mainly interested in escaping her brother. She did fall in love with Halliday, and loved his daughter.  The Reeds advertise, seeking the Hallidays' former maid Lily. She writes first to Dr Kennedy, thinking he is a friend. She says that she does not believe that Helen ran off, as the clothes packed in her suitcase made no sense (taking an evening gown but not the shoes and belt that go with it). The Reeds and Dr Kennedy agree he should write back to her to arrange a meeting at his present home. Lily never arrives.  The police find Lily’s body, strangled, in a copse near the train station. She came by an earlier train, but had Dr Kennedy’s letter with her, for the later arrival time. Miss Marple advises Gwenda to tell the police everything. Soon, they are digging up the garden, at the end of the terrace, to find Helen’s body. Gwenda is in the house alone when Dr Kennedy approaches her, ready to kill her by strangling when his attempt to poison her failed. Miss Marple arrives with a container of soapy solution, which she sprays in his eyes to stop the murder attempt.  Dr Kennedy had strangled his sister, saying the closing words from that play, unaware of young Gwenda at the stair railing above. He buried Helen in the garden. He set up her husband to think he had strangled her, but there was no body, so he was taken as insane, and died in a nursing home. His diary from that time showed him to be quite sane, but he could not explain what he had seen, his strangled wife next to him. Kennedy had first given drugs to make Halliday paranoid, and then drugged his drink so Dr Kennedy could pose him next to the strangled Helen. Then Kennedy moved her body again. The letter found with Lily was not the one she received from Kennedy; he switched it after he killed her. He knew the police would see through his scheme. He sent the nanny Leonie home to Switzerland with medicines that killed her. Miss Marple explains all this to the Reeds, the full confession from Kennedy and how they should have seen it from the start, from those words in the play.

Writing and publication process.

Agatha Christie wrote "Curtain" (Hercule Poirot's last mystery, which concludes the sleuth's career and life) and "Sleeping Murder" during World War II to be published after her death, and "Sleeping Murder" was written sometime during the Blitz, which took place between September 1940 and May 1941. Agatha Christie's literary correspondence files indicate "Sleeping Murder" was written early in 1940.  Christie's notebooks are open to interpretation in hindsight; John Curran argues that "Sleeping Murder" was still being planned at the end of the 1940s and the beginning of the 1950s. His basis is the many changes to the title of the novel, as other authors used her first title ideas: One of Christie's notebooks contain references to "Cover Her Face" (second title) under ‘Plans for Sept. 1947’ and ‘Plans for Nov. 1948’, suggesting she was planning to re-read and revise the manuscript. It is on the basis of these dates John Curran argues that Christie had still to write the manuscript.  His argument is not supported by two biographers, who state unequivocally that "Sleeping Murder" was written in 1940. This view is further supported by Jared Cade.  Support for the story being first written in 1940 is found in the correspondence files of Christie's literary agents: Christie's royalty statement for 15 March 1940 states that the secretarial agency hired by Edmund Cork to type up "Murder in Retrospect" (first title of manuscript) charged £19 13s. 9. On 7 June 1940 Edmund Cork wrote to Christie advising her that he would have the necessary 'deed of gift' drawn up so her husband Max would become the owner of the unpublished Miss Marple novel. Christie eventually visited Edmund Cork's offices at 40 Fleet Street, London, on 14 October 1940 and signed the document transferring ownership of the copyright of "Murder in Retrospect" to her husband in consideration of what was termed her "natural love and affection for him".  Christie refers to the last Poirot and Miss Marple novels that she penned during the Second World War in her autobiography. She writes that she had written an extra two books during the first years of the war in anticipation of being killed in the raids, as she was working in London. One was for her daughter, Rosalind Hicks, which she wrote first – a book with Hercule Poirot in it – and the other was for Max – with Miss Marple in it. She adds that these two books, after being composed, were put in the vaults of a bank, and were made over formally by deed of gift to her daughter and husband.  The last Marple novel Christie wrote, "Nemesis", was published in 1971, followed by Christie's last Poirot novel "Elephants Can Remember" in 1972 and then in 1973 by her very last novel "Postern of Fate". Aware that she would write no more novels, Christie authorised the publication of "Curtain" in 1975 to send off Poirot. She then arranged to have "Sleeping Murder" published in 1976, but she died before its publication in October 1976.  By contrast to Poirot, who dies in the final novel, Miss Marple lives on. This last published novel is set in the 1930s, but follows novels that show Miss Marple to have aged. In "Nemesis", Miss Marple does no gardening on the advice of her doctor, showing the effects of her more fragile health; in "Sleeping Murder", Miss Marple is frequently on her knees pulling bindweed from the neglected garden at the home of the Reeds, showing her to be stronger, and in the chronology of the fictional character's life, not working on her truly final case. There is a reference to a wireless set as being a special purchase by Lily were she to receive money by responding to the newspaper notice seeking her, which reinforces the story's setting in the 1930s as the author intended in her final revisions done in 1950.

Title changes.

Christie’s original manuscript of "Sleeping Murder" was entitled "Murder in Retrospect" after one of the chapters in the book. When the Hercule Poirot novel "Five Little Pigs" was later serialized in the US in "Collier's Weekly" from September to November 1941, the magazine’s editing board retitled it "Murder in Retrospect". This was also the title used by Christie’s American publisher Dodd Mead and Company, presumably in order to capitalize on the recent US serialization. Christie's original manuscript of "Sleeping Murder" was duly retitled "Cover Her Face".  Following the publication of P.D. James's début crime novel "Cover Her Face" in 1962, Christie became aware of the need to think up yet another title for the last Miss Marple book. She wrote to Edmund Cork on 17 July 1972, asking him to send her a copy of the unpublished Miss Marple manuscript and a copy of Max's deed of gift. So much time had passed that she was unable to remember if the manuscript was still called "Cover Her Face" or "She Died Young".

Literary significance and reception.

George Thaw in the "Daily Mirror" of 22 October 1976 said, "Agatha Christie's last novel is very good. "Sleeping Murder" is the last of Miss Marple's excursions into detection. But perhaps it is her best. Agatha Christie wrote it years ago but if I was going to pick a swansong book this is certainly the one that I would choose. It's her best for years."  Robert Barnard: "Slightly somniferous mystery, written in the 'forties but published after Christie's death. Concerns a house where murder has been committed, bought (by the merest coincidence) by someone who as a child saw the body. Sounds like Ross Macdonald, and certainly doesn't read like vintage Christie. But why should an astute businesswoman hold back one of her better performances for posthumous publication?"

Adaptations.

Television.

"Sleeping Murder" was filmed by the BBC as a 100-minute film in the sixth adaptation (of twelve) in the series "Miss Marple" starring Joan Hickson as Miss Marple. It was transmitted in two 50-minute parts on Sunday, 11 January and Sunday, 18 January 1987. This adaptation is fairly true to the plot of the novel.  Adapter: Ken Taylor Director: John Davies  Cast:  A second television adaptation, set in 1951, was transmitted on 5 February 2006 as part of ITV's "Marple", starring Geraldine McEwan and Sophia Myles, as Miss Marple and Gwenda, respectively. This adaptation had numerous plot changes. The most significant change is at the end it is revealed that Gwenda's mother and stepmother were one and the same person. Claire was a jewel thief and to escape the Indian Police-Detectives, she faked her death and assumed the identity of "Helen Marsden". Other changes include the deletion of some of Helen's suitors, and the addition of a travelling company of performers called "The Funnybones", which Helen was performing with at the time of her death. Dr Kennedy became the half-brother of Kelvin's first wife, (whose name is changed from Megan to Claire). Gwenda has an absent fiancé, Charles, rather than a husband. At the end, Gwenda leaves him and becomes engaged to a member of his company, Hugh Hornbeam. Dr Kennedy does not try to kill Gwenda and does not appear to be crazy, merely that he was in love with his sister and killed her so no one could have her. Kelvin is not taken to hospital and drugged by Dr Kennedy with Datura. Instead, he is murdered when Dr Kennedy pushes him over a rocky cliff.  Adapter: Stephen Churchett Director: Edward Hall  Cast:  The novel was adapted to a Syrian drama series, "جريمة في الذاكرة" "Crime in the Memory" that was broadcast in 1992.

Radio.

The novel was adapted as a 90-minute play for BBC Radio 4 and transmitted as part of the Saturday Play strand on 8 December 2001. June Whitfield reprised her role as Miss Marple (she played Miss Marple in several radio adaptations in the 20th century). It was recorded on 10 October 2001.  Adapter: Michael Bakewell Producer: Enyd Williams  Cast:

Publication history.

In the US the novel was serialised in "Ladies' Home Journal" in two abridged instalments from July (Volume XCIII, Number 7) to August 1976 (Volume XCIII, Number 8) with an illustration by Fred Otnes.

Sleeping Murder: Miss Marple's Last Case is a work of detective fiction by Agatha Christie and first published in the UK by the Collins Crime Club in October 1976 and in the US by Dodd, Mead and Company later in the same year. The UK edition retailed for £3.50 and the US edition for $7.95.

Zapomenutá vražda, v originále "Sleeping Murder: Miss Marple’s Last Case", je detektivní román od Agathy Christie. Poprvé byl publikován ve Spojeném království v roce 1976.


Anatomy and appearance.

Cichlids span a wide range of body sizes, from species as small as in length (e.g., female "Neolamprologus multifasciatus") to much larger species approaching in length ("Boulengerochromis" and "Cichla"). As a group, cichlids exhibit a similar diversity of body shapes, ranging from strongly laterally compressed species (such as "Altolamprologus", "Pterophyllum", and "Symphysodon") to species that are cylindrical and highly elongated (such as "Julidochromis", "Teleogramma", "Teleocichla", "Crenicichla", and "Gobiocichla"). Generally, however, cichlids tend to be of medium size, ovate in

Taxonomy.

Kullander (1998) recognizes eight subfamilies of cichlids: the Astronotinae, Cichlasomatinae, Cichlinae, Etroplinae, Geophaginae, Heterochromidinae, Pseudocrenilabrinae, and Retroculinae. A ninth subfamily, Ptychochrominae, was later recognized by Sparks and Smith. Cichlid taxonomy is still debated, and classification of genera cannot yet be definitively given. A comprehensive system of assigning species to monophyletic genera is still lacking, and there is not complete agreement on what genera should be recognized in this family.  As an example of the classification problems, Kullander

Distribution and habitat.

Cichlids are one of the largest vertebrate families in the world. They are most diverse in Africa and South America. Africa alone is estimated to host at least 1,600 species. Central America and Mexico have about 120 species, as far north as the Rio Grande in southern Texas. Madagascar has its own distinctive species ("Katria", "Oxylapia", "Paratilapia", "Paretroplus", "Ptychochromis", and "Ptychochromoides"), only distantly related to those on the African mainland. Native cichlids are largely absent in Asia, except for 9 species in Israel, Lebanon, and Syria ("Astatotilapia flaviijosephi", "Oreochromis aureus", "O. niloticus", "Sarotherodon galilaeus", "Coptodon zillii", and "Tristramella" spp.), two in Iran ("Iranocichla"), and three in India and Sri Lanka ("Etroplus" and "Pseudetroplus"). If disregarding Trinidad and Tobago (where the few native cichlids are members of genera that are widespread in the South American mainland), the three species from the genus "Nandopsis" are the only cichlids from the Antilles in the Caribbean, specifically Cuba and Hispaniola. Europe, Australia, Antarctica, and North America north of the Rio Grande drainage have no native cichlids, although in Florida, Hawaii, Japan, northern Australia and elsewhere, feral populations of cichlids have become established as exotics.  Although most cichlids are found at relatively shallow depths, several exceptions do exist.

Ecology.

Feeding.

Within the cichlid family, there are carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, planktivores, and detritivores, meaning Cichlidae encompasses essentially the full range of food consumption possible in the animal kingdom. Various species have morphological adaptations for specific food sources, but most cichlids will consume a wider variety of foods based on availability. Carnivorous cichlids can be further divided into piscivorous and molluscivorous, since the morphology and hunting behavior differs greatly between the two categories. Piscivorous cichlids will eat other fish, fry, larvae, and eggs. Some species eat the offspring of mouthbrooders by head-ramming, wherein the hunter shoves its head into the mouth of a female in order to expel her young and eat them. Molluscivorous cichlids have several hunting strategies amongst the varieties within the group. Lake Malawi cichlids consume substrate and filter it out through their gill rakers to eat the mollusks that were in the substrate. Gill rakers are finger-like structures that line the gills of some fish to catch any food that might escape through their gills. Many cichlids are

Behavior.

Aggression.

Aggressive behavior in cichlids is ritualized and consists of multiple displays used to seek confrontation while being involved in evaluation of competitors, coinciding with temporal proximity to mating. Displays of ritualized aggression in cichlids include a remarkably rapid change in coloration, during which a successfully dominant territorial male assumes a more vivid and brighter coloration while a subordinate or "non-territorial" male assumes a dull-pale coloration. In addition to color displays, cichlids employ their lateral lines

Mating.

Cichlids mate either monogamously or polygamously. The mating system of a given cichlid species is not consistently associated with its brooding system. For example, although most monogamous cichlids are not mouthbrooders, "Chromidotilapia", "Gymnogeophagus", "Spathodus" and "Tanganicodus" all include – or consist entirely of – monogamous mouthbrooders. In contrast, numerous open- or cave-spawning cichlids are polygamous; examples include many "Apistogramma", "Lamprologus", "Nannacara", and "Pelvicachromis" species.  Most adult male cichlids, specifically in the Haplochromini tribe of cichlids, exhibit a unique pattern of oval-shaped, color dots on their anal fins. These phenomena are known as egg-spots and aid in the mouthbrooding mechanisms of cichlids. The egg-spots consist of carotenoid based pigment cells, which indicates a high cost to the organism, when considering that fish are not able to synthesize their own carotenoids.  The mimicry of egg-spots is used by males for the fertilization process. Mouthbrooding females lay eggs and immediately snatch them up with their mouths. Over millions of years, male cichlids

Brood care.

Pit-Spawning in Cichlids.

Pit-spawning, also referred to as substrate breeding, is a behavior in cichlid fish in which a fish will build a pit in the sand or ground where they will court their mate and consequently spawn with them. There are many different factors that go into this behavior of pit-spawning including female choice of the male and pit size, as well as the male defense of the pits once they are dug in the sand. Cichlids are often divided into two

Mouthbrooders Vs. Pit-Spawning.

One of the differences studied in African cichlids is the difference in their reproductive behavior. There are some species who pit-spawn and some who are known as mouthbrooders. Mouthbrooding is a reproduction technique where the fish will scoop up eggs and fry for protection. While this reproductive behavior differs from species to species in the details, the general basis of the behavior is the same. This differs completely from the other reproductive behavior of cichlids, pit-spawning. As stated in the introduction, pit-spawning is when cichlids dig pits for their eggs rather than holding them in their mouths. These two types of behavior differ not only in the way that they care for

How is Pit-Spawning Done?

There are many different species of cichlid that use pit-spawning as reproductive behavior, but one of the less commonly studied species that exhibit this behavior is the Neotropical cichlid fish or the Cichlasoma dimerus. This fish is a substrate-breeder who displays biparental care after the fish have hatched from their eggs. In a study done by Alonso, et al, they studied the reproductive behavior as well as the social behavior of this particular species to see how they accomplished their pit-spawning as well as behaviors associated with the social aspect of these animals. These researchers looked at a variety of different physiological factors

Color Changes.

In Alonso’s study, they noted that color changes were present before and after the pit-spawning occurred. For example, after the larvae were transferred and the pits were beginning to be protected, their fins turned a dark grey color. In another study, done by Brown and Marshall, they studied the Rainbow Cichlid, Herotilapia multispinosa. In

Pit Sizes.

As mentioned previously, a study done by Nelson shows that females prefer a bigger pit size when choosing where to lay eggs. Another study done by York, et al, shows that there are differences in the sizes of pits that

Evolution.

Cichlids are renowned for their recent, rapid evolutionary radiation, both across the entire clade and within different communities across separate habitats. Within their phylogeny, there have been many parallel instances of lineages evolving to the same trait and multiple cases of reversion to an ancestral trait. The Cichlidae family arose between 80 and 100 million years ago within the order Perciformes (perch-like fishes). Cichlidae can be split into a few groups based on their geographic location: Madagascar, Indian, African, and Neotropical (or South American). The most famous and diverse group, the African cichlids, can be further split

Associated behaviors.

Cichlids have a great variety of behaviors associated with substrate-brooding, including courtship and parental care alongside the brooding and nest-building behaviors needed for pit-spawning. Cichlids behavior typically revolves around establishing and defending territories when not courting, brooding, or raising young. Encounters between males and males or females and females result are agonistic, while an encounter between

Brood care.

Cichlids can have maternal, paternal, or biparental care. Maternal care is most common among mouth-brooders, however cichlids' common ancestor is thought to exhibit paternal-only care. Other individuals outside of the parents may also play a role in raising young; in the biparental daffodil cichlid (Neolamprologus pulcher), closely related satellite males, those males who surround other males territories and attempt to mate with female cichlids in the area, help rear the primary male’s offspring

See also.

Mouthbrooders, Cichlids, Parental care Cichlids have highly organized breeding activities. All species show some form of parental care for both eggs and larvae, often nurturing free-swimming young until they are weeks or months old. Communal parental care, where multiple monogamous pairs care for a mixed school of young have also been observed in multiple cichlid species, including "Amphilophus citrinellus", "Etroplus suratensis", and "Tilapia rendalli". Comparably, the fry of "Neolamprologus brichardi",

Open brooding.

Open- or substrate-brooding cichlids lay their eggs in the open, on rocks, leaves, or logs. Examples of open-brooding cichlids include "Pterophyllum" and "Symphysodon" species and "Anomalochromis thomasi". Male and female parents

Cave brooding.

Secretive cave-spawning cichlids lay their eggs in caves, crevices, holes, or discarded mollusc shells, frequently attaching the eggs to the roof of the chamber. Examples include "Pelvicachromis" spp., "Archocentrus" spp., and "Apistogramma" spp.

Ovophile mouthbrooding.

Ovophile mouthbrooders incubate their eggs in their mouths as soon as they are laid, and frequently mouthbrood free-swimming fry for several weeks.

Larvophile mouthbrooding.

Larvophile mouthbrooders lay eggs in the open or in a cave and take the hatched larvae into the mouth. Examples include some variants of "Geophagus altifrons", and some "Aequidens", "Gymnogeophagus", and "Satanoperca", as well as "Oreochromis mossambicus" and "Oreochromis niloticus". Mouthbrooders, whether of eggs or larvae, are predominantly females. Exceptions that also involve the males include eretmodine cichlids (genera "Spathodus", "Eretmodus", and "Tanganicodus"), some "Sarotherodon" species (such as "Sarotherodon melanotheron"), "Chromidotilapia guentheri", and some "Aequidens" species. This method appears to have evolved independently in several groups of African cichlids.

Speciation.

Cichlids provide scientists with a unique perspective of speciation, having become extremely diverse in the more recent geological past. It is widely believed that one of the contributing factors to their diversification are the various forms of prey processing displayed by cichlid pharyngeal jaw apparatus. These different jaw apparatus allow for a broad range of feeding strategies including: algae scraping, snail crushing, planktivores, piscivores, and insectivores. Some cichlids can also show phenotypic plasticity in their pharyngeal jaws, which can also help lead to speciation. In response to different diets or

Population status.

In 2010, the International Union for Conservation of Nature classified 184 species as vulnerable, 52 as endangered, and 106 as critically endangered. At present, the IUCN only lists "Yssichromis sp. nov. "argens"" as extinct in the wild, and six species are listed as entirely extinct, but it is acknowledged that many more possibly belong in these categories (for example, "Haplochromis aelocephalus", "H. apogonoides", "H. dentex", "H. dichrourus" and numerous other members of the genus "Haplochromis" have not been seen since the 1980s, but are maintained as Critically Endangered in the small chance that tiny –but currently unknown– populations survive).

Lake Victoria.

Because of the introduced Nile perch ("Lates niloticus"), Nile tilapia ("Oreochromis niloticus"), and water hyacinth, deforestation that led to water siltation, and overfishing, many Lake Victoria cichlid species have become extinct or been drastically reduced. By around 1980, lake fisheries yielded only 1% cichlids, a drastic decline from 80% in earlier years.  By far the largest Lake Victoria group are the haplochromine cichlids, with more than 500 species, but at least 200 of these (approximately 40%) have become extinct, and many

Food and game fish.

Although cichlids are mostly small- to medium-sized, many are notable as food and game fishes. With few thick rib bones and tasty flesh, artisan fishing is not uncommon in Central America and South America, as well as areas surrounding the African rift lakes.

Tilapia.

The most important food cichlids, however, are the tilapiines of North Africa. Fast growing, tolerant of stocking density, and adaptable, tilapiine species have been introduced and farmed extensively in many parts of Asia and are increasingly common aquaculture targets elsewhere.  Farmed tilapia production

Game fish.

Many large cichlids are popular game fish. The peacock bass ("Cichla" species) of South America is one of the most popular sportfish. It was introduced in many

Aquarium fish.

Since 1945, cichlids have become increasingly popular as aquarium fish.  The most common species in hobbyist aquaria is "Pterophyllum scalare" from

Hybrids and selective breeding.

Some cichlids readily hybridize with related species, both in the wild and under artificial conditions. Other groups of fishes, such as European cyprinids, also hybridize. Unusually, cichlid hybrids have been put to extensive commercial use, in particular for aquaculture and aquaria. The hybrid red strain of tilapia, for example, is often preferred in aquaculture for its rapid growth. Tilapia hybridization can produce all-male populations to control stock density or prevent reproduction in ponds.

Aquarium hybrids.

The most common aquarium hybrid is perhaps the blood parrot cichlid, which is a cross of several species, especially from species in the genus "Amphilophus". (There are many hypotheses, but the most likely is: "Amphilophus labiatus" x "Vieja synspillus" With a triangular-shaped mouth, an abnormal spine, and an occasionally missing caudal fin (known as the "love heart" parrot cichlid), the fish is controversial among aquarists. Some have called blood parrot cichlids "the Frankenstein monster of the fish world". Another notable hybrid, the flowerhorn cichlid, was very popular in some parts of Asia from 2001 until late 2003, and is believed to bring

Genera.

The genus list is as per FishBase. Studies are continuing, however, on the members of this family, particularly the haplochromine cichlids of the African rift lakes.

Cichlids are fish from the family Cichlidae in the order Cichliformes. Cichlids were traditionally classed in a suborder, Labroidei, along with the wrasses (Labridae), in the order Perciformes but molecular studies have contradicted this grouping. The closest living relatives of cichlids are probably the convict blennies and both families are classified in the 5th edition of "Fishes of the World" as the two families in the Cichliformes, part of the subseries Ovalentaria. This family is both large and diverse. At least 1,650 species have been scientifically described, making it one of the largest vertebrate families. New species are discovered annually, and many species remain undescribed. The actual number of species is therefore unknown, with estimates varying between 2,000 and 3,000.

Vrubozubcovití (Cichlidae, česky též cichlidy) je čeleď ostnoploutvých paprskoploutvých ryb ze sladkých vod Jižní a Střední Ameriky, Afriky a Asie. U cichlid je silně vyvinuta péče o potomstvo.


Description.

They are flowerless, vascular, terrestrial or epiphytic plants, with widely branched, erect, prostrate or creeping stems, with small, simple, needle-like or scale-like leaves that cover the stem and branches thickly. The leaves contain a single, unbranched vascular strand and are microphylls by definition. The kidney-shaped or reniform spore-cases (sporangia) contain spores of one kind only (isosporous, homosporous) and are borne on the upper surface of the leaf blade of specialized leaves (sporophylls) arranged in a cone-like strobilus at the end of upright stems. The club-shaped appearance of these fertile stems gives the clubmosses their common name.  Lycopods reproduce asexually by spores. The plants have an underground sexual phase that produces gametes, and this alternates in the lifecycle with the spore-producing plant. The prothallium developed from the spore is a subterranean mass of tissue of considerable size and bears both the male and female organs (antheridia and archegoniae). However, they are more commonly distributed vegetatively through above- or below-ground rhizomes.

Taxonomy.

The genus "Lycopodium" was first published by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. He placed it in the Musci (mosses) along with genera such as "Sphagnum" and included species such as "Lycopodium selaginoides", now placed in the genus "Selaginella" in a different order to "Lycopodium". Different sources use substantially different circumscriptions of the genus. Traditionally, "Lycopodium" was considered to be the only extant genus in the family Lycopodiaceae, so including all the species in the family, although sometimes excluding one placed in the monotypic genus "Phylloglossum". Other sources divide Lycopodiaceae species into three broadly defined genera, "Lycopodium", "Huperzia" (including "Phylloglossum") and "Lycopodiella". In this approach, "Lycopodium" sensu lato has about 40 species. In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), the broadly defined genus is equivalent to the subfamily Lycopodioideae, and "Lycopodium" is one of 16 genera in the family Lycopodiaceae, with between 9 and 15 species.

Species.

Using the narrow circumscription of "Lycopodium", in which it is one of nine genera in the subfamily Lycopodioideae, the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" recognized the following species :  Using the broader circumscription of the genus, "Plants of the World Online" recognized the following additional "Lycopodium" species. Using the narrow circumscription of the genus "Lycopodium", the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" divided them among eight other genera:

Uses.

The spores of "Lycopodium" species are harvested and are sold as lycopodium powder.  "Lycopodium " sp. herb has been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally as tea or externally as compresses for treatment of disorders of the locomotor system, skin, liver and bile, kidneys and urinary tract, infections, rheumatism, and gout, though claims of efficacy are unproven. It has also been used in some United States government chemical warfare test programs such as Operation Dew. "Lycopodium" powder was also used to determine the molecular size of oleic acid.

Lycopodium (from Greek "lukos", wolf and "podion", diminutive of "pous", foot) is a genus of clubmosses, also known as ground pines or creeping cedars, in the family Lycopodiaceae. Two very different circumscriptions of the genus are in use. In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), "Lycopodium" is one of nine genera in the subfamily Lycopodioideae, and has from 9 to 15 species. In other classifications, the genus is equivalent to the whole of the subfamily, since it includes all the other genera. There are then more than 40 accepted species.

Plavuň ("Lycopodium") je rod plavuní řazených do rostlinné čeledi plavuňovitých ("Lycopodiaceae"). Je úzce příbuzný s rodem plavuník ("Diphasiastrum"). Některé druhy se z vnějšku podobají velmi malým nahosemenným rostlinám a například v angličtině mají tyto podobné druhy lidová jména jako „ground-pine“.


Brief history.

Mormonism originated in the 1820s in western New York during a period of religious excitement known as the Second Great Awakening. After praying about which denomination he should join, Joseph Smith, Jr. said he received a vision in the spring of 1820. Called the "First Vision", Smith said that God the Father and His son Jesus Christ appeared to him and instructed him to join none of the existing churches because they were all wrong. During the 1820s Smith reported several angelic visitations, and was eventually told that God would use him to re-establish the true Christian church, and that the Book of Mormon would be the means of establishing correct doctrine for the restored church. Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and other early followers, began baptizing new converts in 1829. Formally organized in 1830 as the Church of Christ. Smith was seen by his followers as a modern-day prophet.  Joseph Smith said the Book of Mormon was translated from writing on golden plates in a reformed Egyptian language, translated with the assistance of the Urim and Thummim and seer stones. Both the special spectacles and the seer stone were at times referred to as the "Urim and Thummim". He said an angel first showed him the location of the plates in 1823, buried in a nearby hill, but he was not allowed to take the plates until 1827. Smith began dictating the text of The Book of Mormon around the fall of 1827 until the summer of 1828 when 116 pages were lost. Translation began again in April 1829 and finished in June 1829, saying that he translated it "by the gift and power of God". Oliver Cowdery acted as scribe for the majority of the translation. After the translation was completed, Smith said the plates were returned to the angel. During Smith's supposed possession, very few people were allowed to "witness" the plates.  The book described itself as a chronicle of an early Israelite diaspora, integrating with the pre-existing indigenous peoples of the Americas, written by a people called the Nephites. According to The Book of Mormon, Lehi's family left Jerusalem at the urging of God c. 600 BC, and later sailed to the Americas c. 589 BC. The Nephites are described as descendants of Nephi, the fourth son of the prophet Lehi. The Nephites are portrayed as having a belief in Christ hundreds of years before his birth. Historical accuracy and veracity of the Book of Mormon was and continues to be hotly contested. No archaeological, linguistic, or other evidence of the use of Egyptian writing in ancient America has been discovered.  To avoid confrontation with New York residents, the members moved to Kirtland, Ohio, and hoped to establish a permanent New Jerusalem or City of Zion in Jackson County, Missouri. However, they were expelled from Jackson County in 1833 and fled to other parts of Missouri in 1838. Violence between the Missourians and church members resulted in the governor of Missouri issuing an "extermination order," again forcing the church to relocate. The displaced Mormons fled to Illinois, to a small town called Commerce. The church bought the town, renamed it Nauvoo, and lived with a degree of peace and prosperity for a few years. However, tensions between Mormons and non-Mormons again escalated, and in 1844 Smith was killed by a mob, precipitating a succession crisis.  The largest group of Mormons (LDS Church) accepted Brigham Young as the new prophet/leader and emigrated to what became the Utah Territory. There, the church began the open practice of plural marriage, a form of polygyny which Smith had instituted in Nauvoo. Plural marriage became the faith's most sensational characteristic during the 19th century, but vigorous opposition by the United States Congress threatened the church's existence as a legal institution. Further, polygamy was also a major cause for the opposition to Mormonism in the states of Idaho and Arizona. In the 1890 Manifesto, church president Wilford Woodruff announced the official end of plural marriage.  Because of the formal abolition of plural marriage in 1890, several smaller groups of Mormons broke with the LDS Church forming several denominations of Mormon fundamentalism. Meanwhile, the LDS Church had become a proponent of monogamy and patriotism, has extended its reach internationally by a vigorous missionary program, and has grown in size to a reported membership of over 16 million. The church is becoming a part of the American and international mainstream. However, it consciously and intentionally retains its identity as a "peculiar people," believing their unique relationship with God helps save them from "worldliness" (non-spiritual influences).

Theology.

Nature of God.

Like most other Christian groups, Mormonism teaches that there are the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, but unlike trinitarian faiths, the LDS Church teaches that they are separate and distinct beings with the Father and Son having perfected physical bodies and the Holy Ghost having only a body of spirit. While the three beings are physically distinct, in Mormon theology they are one in thoughts, actions, and purpose and commonly referred to collectively as the "Godhead". Also, Mormonism teaches that God the Father is the literal father of the spirits of all men and women, which existed prior to their mortal existence. The LDS Church also believes that a Heavenly Mother exists. Further, it is believed that all humans as children of God can become exalted, inheriting all that God has, as joint-heirs with Christ, and becoming like him as a God. Lorenzo Snow is quoted as saying "As man now is God once was: As God now is, man may be."

Restoration.

Mormonism describes itself as falling within world Christianity, but as a distinct restored dispensation; it characterizes itself as the only true form of the Christian religion since the time of a Great Apostasy that began not long after the ascension of Jesus Christ. According to Mormons this Apostasy involved the corruption of the pure, original Christian doctrine with Greek and other philosophies, and followers dividing into different ideological groups. Additionally, Mormons claim the martyrdom of the Apostles led to the loss of Priesthood authority to administer the Church and its ordinances.  Mormons believe that God re-established the early Christian Church as found in the New Testament through Joseph Smith. In particular, Mormons believe that angels such as Peter, James, John, and John the Baptist appeared to Joseph Smith and others and bestowed various Priesthood authorities on them. Mormons thus believe that their Church is the "only true and living church" because divine authority was restored to it through Smith. In addition, Mormons believe that Smith and his legitimate successors are modern prophets who receive revelation from God to guide the church. They maintain that other religions have a portion of the truth and are guided by the light of Christ.

Cosmology.

Smith's cosmology is laid out mostly in Smith's later revelations and sermons, but particularly the Book of Abraham, the Book of Moses, and the King Follett discourse. Mormon cosmology presents a unique view of God and the universe, and places a high importance on human agency. In Mormonism, life on earth is just a short part of an eternal existence. Mormons believe that in the beginning, all people existed as spirits or "intelligences," in the presence of God. In this state, God proposed a plan of salvation whereby they could progress and "have a privilege to advance like himself." The spirits were free to accept or reject this plan, and a "third" of them, led by Satan rejected it. The rest accepted the plan, coming to earth and receiving bodies with an understanding that they would experience sin and suffering.  In Mormonism, the central part of God's plan is the atonement of Jesus Christ. Mormons believe that one purpose of earthly life is to learn to choose good over evil. In this process, people inevitably make mistakes, becoming unworthy to return to the presence of God. Mormons believe that Jesus paid for the sins of the world and that all people can be saved through his atonement. Mormons accept Christ's atonement through faith, repentance, formal covenants or ordinances such as baptism, and consistently trying to live a Christ-like life.  According to Mormon scripture, the Earth's creation was not "ex nihilo", but organized from existing matter. The Earth is just one of many inhabited worlds, and there are many governing heavenly bodies, including the planet or star Kolob, which is said to be nearest the throne of God.

Ordinances.

In Mormonism, an ordinance is a religious ritual of special significance, often involving the formation of a covenant with God. Ordinances are performed by the authority of the priesthood and in the name of Jesus Christ. The term has a meaning roughly similar to that of the term "sacrament" in other Christian denominations. Saving ordinances (or ordinances viewed as necessary for salvation) include: baptism by immersion after the age of accountability (normally age 8); confirmation and reception of the gift of the Holy Ghost, performed by laying hands on the head of a newly baptized member; ordination to the Aaronic and Melchizedek priesthoods for males; an endowment (including washing and anointing) received in temples; and marriage (or sealing) to a spouse.  Mormons also perform other ordinances, which include the Lord's supper (commonly called the sacrament), naming and blessing children, giving priesthood blessings and patriarchal blessings, anointing and blessing the sick, participating in prayer circles, and setting apart individuals who are called to church positions.  In Mormonism, the saving ordinances are seen as necessary for salvation, but they are not sufficient in and of themselves. For example, baptism is required for exaltation, but simply having been baptized does not guarantee any eternal reward. The baptized person is expected to be obedient to God's commandments, to repent of any sinful conduct subsequent to baptism, and to receive the other saving ordinances.  Because Mormons believe that everyone must receive certain ordinances to be saved, Mormons perform ordinances on behalf of deceased persons. These ordinances are performed vicariously or by "proxy" on behalf of the dead. In accordance with their belief in each individual's "free agency", living or dead, Mormons believe that the deceased may accept or reject the offered ordinance in the spirit world, just as all spirits decided to accept or reject God's plan originally. In addition, these "conditional" ordinances on behalf of the dead are performed only when a deceased person's genealogical information has been submitted to a temple and correctly processed there before the ordinance ritual is performed. Only ordinances for salvation are performed on behalf of deceased persons.

Scripture.

Mormons believe in the Old and New Testaments, and the LDS Church uses the King James Bible as its official scriptural text of the Bible. While Mormons believe in the general accuracy of the modern day text of the Bible, they also believe that it is incomplete and that errors have been introduced. In Mormon theology, many lost truths are restored in the Book of Mormon, which Mormons hold to be divine scripture and equal in authority to the Bible.  The Mormon scriptural canon also includes a collection of revelations and writings contained in the Doctrine and Covenants which contains doctrine and prophecy and the Pearl of Great Price which addresses briefly Genesis to Exodus. These books, as well as the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, have varying degrees of acceptance as divine scripture among different denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement.

Revelation.

In Mormonism, continuous revelation is the principle that God or his divine agents still continue to communicate to mankind. This communication can be manifest in many ways: influences of the Holy Ghost (the principal form in which this principle is manifest), visions, visitations of divine beings, and others. Joseph Smith used the example of the Lord's revelations to Moses in Deuteronomy to explain the importance of continuous revelation.  Mormons believe that Smith and subsequent church leaders could speak scripture "when moved upon by the Holy Ghost." In addition, many Mormons believe that ancient prophets in other regions of the world received revelations that resulted in additional scriptures that have been lost and may, one day, be forthcoming. In Mormonism, revelation is not limited to church members. For instance, Latter Day Saints believe that the United States Constitution is a divinely inspired document.  Mormons are encouraged to develop a personal relationship with the Holy Ghost and receive personal revelation for their own direction and that of their family. The Latter Day Saint concept of revelation includes the belief that revelation from God is available to all those who earnestly seek it with the intent of doing good. It also teaches that everyone is entitled to "personal" revelation with respect to his or her stewardship (leadership responsibility). Thus, parents may receive inspiration from God in raising their families, individuals can receive divine inspiration to help them meet personal challenges, church officers may receive revelation for those whom they serve.  The important consequence of this is that each person may receive confirmation that particular doctrines taught by a prophet are true, as well as gain divine insight in using those truths for their own benefit and eternal progress. In the church, personal revelation is expected and encouraged, and many converts believe that personal revelation from God was instrumental in their conversion.

Relations to other faiths.

Relation to mainstream Christianity.

Mormonism categorizes itself within Christianity, and nearly all Mormons self-identify as Christian. For some who define Christianity within the doctrines of Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism, Mormonism's differences place it outside the umbrella of Christianity.  Since its beginnings, the faith has proclaimed itself to be Christ's Church restored with its original authority, structure and power; maintaining that existing denominations believed in incorrect doctrines and were not acknowledged by God as his church and kingdom. Though the religion quickly gained a large following of Christian seekers, in the 1830s, many American Christians came to view the church's early doctrines and practices as politically and culturally subversive, as well as doctrinally heretical, abominable, and condemnable. This discord led to a series of sometimes-deadly conflicts between Mormons and others who saw themselves as orthodox Christians. Although such violence declined during the twentieth century, the religion's unique doctrinal views and practices still generate criticism, sometimes vehemently so. This gives rise to efforts by Mormons and opposing types of Christians to proselytize each other.  Mormons believe in Jesus Christ as the literal Son of God and Messiah, his crucifixion as a conclusion of a sin offering, and subsequent resurrection. However, Latter-day Saints (LDS) reject the ecumenical creeds and the definition of the Trinity. (In contrast, the second largest Latter Day Saint denomination, the Community of Christ, is Trinitarian and monotheistic.) Mormons hold the view that the New Testament prophesied both the apostasy from the teachings of Christ and his apostles as well as the restoration of all things prior to the second coming of Christ.  Some notable differences with mainstream Christianity include: A belief that Jesus began his atonement in the garden of Gethsemane and continued it to his crucifixion, rather than the orthodox belief that the crucifixion alone was the physical atonement; and an afterlife with three degrees of glory, with hell (often called spirit prison) being a temporary repository for the wicked between death and the resurrection. Additionally, Mormons do not believe in creation "ex nihilo", believing that matter is eternal, and creation involved God organizing existing matter.  Much of the Mormon belief system is geographically oriented around the North and South American continents. Mormons believe that the people of the Book of Mormon lived in the western hemisphere, that Christ appeared in the western hemisphere after his death and resurrection, that the true faith was restored in Upstate New York by Joseph Smith, that the Garden of Eden was located in North America, and that the New Jerusalem would be built in Missouri. For this and other reasons, including a belief by many Mormons in American exceptionalism, Molly Worthen speculates that this may be why Leo Tolstoy described Mormonism as the "quintessential 'American religion'".

Relation to Judaism.

Although Mormons do not claim to be part of Judaism, Mormon theology claims to situate Mormonism within the context of Judaism to an extent that goes beyond what most other Christian denominations claim. The faith incorporates many Old Testament ideas into its theology, and the beliefs of Mormons sometimes parallel those of Judaism and certain elements of Jewish culture. In the earliest days of Mormonism, Joseph Smith taught that the Indigenous peoples of the Americas were members of some of the Lost Tribes of Israel. Later, he taught that Mormons were Israelites, and that they may learn of their tribal affiliation within the twelve Israelite tribes. Members of the LDS Church receive Patriarchal blessings which declare the recipient's lineage within one of the tribes of Israel. The lineage is either through true blood-line or adoption. The LDS Church teaches that if one is not a direct descendant of one of the twelve tribes, upon baptism he or she is adopted into one of the tribes. Patriarchal blessings also include personal information which is revealed through a patriarch by the power of the priesthood.  The Mormon affinity for Judaism is expressed by the many references to Judaism in the Mormon liturgy. For example, Smith named the largest Mormon settlement he founded "Nauvoo", which means "to be beautiful" in Hebrew. Brigham Young named a tributary of the Great Salt Lake the "Jordan River". The LDS Church created a writing scheme called the Deseret Alphabet, which was based, in part, on Hebrew. The LDS Church has a Jerusalem Center in Israel, where students focus their study on Near Eastern history, culture, language, and the Bible.  There has been some controversy involving Jewish groups who see the actions of some elements of Mormonism as offensive. In the 1990s, Jewish groups vocally opposed the LDS practice of baptism for the dead on behalf of Jewish victims of the Holocaust and Jews in general. According to LDS Church general authority Monte J. Brough, "Mormons who baptized 380,000 Holocaust victims posthumously were motivated by love and compassion and did not understand their gesture might offend Jews... they did not realize that what they intended as a 'Christian act of service' was'misguided and insensitive'". Mormons believe that when the dead are baptized through proxy, they have the option of accepting or rejecting the ordinance.

Relation to Islam.

Since its origins in the 19th century, Mormonism has been compared to Islam, often by detractors of one religion or the other. For instance, Joseph Smith was referred to as "the modern mahomet" by the "New York Herald", shortly after his murder in June 1844. This epithet repeated a comparison that had been made from Smith's earliest career, one that was not intended at the time to be complimentary. Comparison of the Mormon and Muslim prophets still occurs today, sometimes for derogatory or polemical reasons but also for more scholarly (and neutral) purposes. While Mormonism and Islam have many similarities, there are also significant, fundamental differences between the two religions. Mormon–Muslim relations have been historically cordial; recent years have seen increasing dialogue between adherents of the two faiths, and cooperation in charitable endeavors, especially in the Middle and Far East.  Islam and Mormonism both originate in the Abrahamic traditions. Each religion sees its founder (Muhammad for Islam, and Joseph Smith for Mormonism) as being a true prophet of God, called to re-establish the truths of these ancient theological belief systems that have been altered, corrupted, or lost. In addition, both prophets received visits from an angel, leading to additional books of scripture. Both religions share a high emphasis on family life, charitable giving, chastity, abstention from alcohol, and a special reverence for, though not worship of, their founding prophet. Before the 1890 Manifesto against plural marriage, Mormonism and Islam also shared in the belief in and practice of plural marriage, a practice now held in common by Islam and various branches of Mormon fundamentalism.  The religions differ significantly in their views on God. Islam insists upon the complete oneness and uniqueness of God (Allah), while Mormonism asserts that the Godhead is made up of three distinct "personages." Mormonism sees Jesus Christ as the promised Messiah and the literal Son of God, while Islam insists that the title "Messiah" means that Jesus (or "Isa") was a prophet sent to establish the true faith, not that he was the Son of God or a divine being. Despite opposition from other Christian denominations, Mormonism identifies itself as a Christian religion, the "restoration" of primitive Christianity. Islam does not refer to itself as "Christian", asserting that Jesus and all true followers of Christ's teachings were (and are) Muslims–a term that means "submitters to God". Islam proclaims that its prophet Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets", and that no further prophets would come after him. Mormons, though honoring Joseph Smith as the first prophet in modern times, see him as just one in a long line of prophets, with Jesus Christ being the premier figure of the religion. For these and many other reasons, group membership is generally mutually exclusive: both religious groups would agree that a person cannot be both Mormon and Muslim.

Theological divisions.

Mormon theology includes three main movements. By far the largest of these is "mainstream Mormonism", defined by the leadership of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The two broad movements outside mainstream Mormonism are Mormon fundamentalism, and liberal reformist Mormonism.

Mainstream Mormon theology.

Mainstream Mormonism is defined by the leadership of the LDS Church which identifies itself as Christian. Members of the LDS Church consider their top leaders to be prophets and apostles, and are encouraged to accept their positions on matters of theology, while seeking confirmation of them through personal study of the Book of Mormon and the Bible. Personal prayer is encouraged as well. The LDS Church is by far the largest branch of Mormonism. It has continuously existed since the succession crisis of 1844 that split the Latter Day Saint movement after the death of founder Joseph Smith, Jr.  The LDS Church seeks to distance itself from other branches of Mormonism, particularly those that practice polygamy. The church maintains a degree of orthodoxy by excommunicating or disciplining its members who take positions or engage in practices viewed as apostasy. For example, the LDS Church excommunicates members who practice polygamy or who adopt the beliefs and practices of Mormon fundamentalism.

Mormon fundamentalism.

One way Mormon fundamentalism distinguishes itself from mainstream Mormonism is through the practice of plural marriage. Fundamentalists initially broke from the LDS Church after that doctrine was discontinued around the beginning of the 20th century. Mormon fundamentalism teaches that plural marriage is a requirement for exaltation (the highest degree of salvation), which will allow them to live as gods and goddesses in the afterlife. Mainstream Mormons, by contrast, believe that a single Celestial marriage is necessary for exaltation.  In distinction with the LDS Church, Mormon fundamentalists also often believe in a number of other doctrines taught and practiced by Brigham Young in the 19th century, which the LDS Church has either abandoned, repudiated, or put in abeyance. These include:  Mormon fundamentalists believe that these principles were wrongly abandoned or changed by the LDS Church, in large part due to the desire of its leadership and members to assimilate into mainstream American society and avoid the persecutions and conflict that had characterized the church throughout its early years. Others believe that it was a necessity at some point for "a restoration of all things" to be a truly restored Church.

Liberal reformist theology.

Some LDS Church members have worked towards a more liberal reform of the church. Others have left the LDS Church and still consider themselves to be cultural Mormons. Others have formed new religions (many of them now defunct). For instance the Godbeites broke away from the LDS Church in the late 19th century, on the basis of both political and religious liberalism, and in 1985 the Restoration Church of Jesus Christ broke away from the LDS Church as an LGBT-friendly denomination, which was formally dissolved in 2010.

Criticism.

As the largest denomination within Mormonism, the LDS Church has been the subject of criticism since it was founded by Joseph Smith in 1830.  Perhaps the most controversial, and a key contributing factor for Smith's murder, is the claim that plural marriage (as defenders call it) or polygamy (as critics call it) is biblically authorized. Under heavy pressure — Utah would not be accepted as a state if polygamy was practiced — the church formally and publicly renounced the practice in 1890. Utah's statehood soon followed. However, plural marriage remains a controversial and divisive issue, as despite the official renunciation of 1890, it still has sympathizers, defenders, and semi-secret practitioners within Mormonism, though not within the LDS Church.  More recent criticism has focused on questions of historical revisionism, homophobia, racism, sexist policies, inadequate financial disclosure, and the historical authenticity of the Book of Mormon.

Mormonism is the predominant religious tradition of the Latter Day Saint movement of Restorationist Christianity started by Joseph Smith in Western New York in the 1820s and 30s.

Mormonismus je duchovní směr několika různých společenství na pomezí křesťanství, spojených s postavou proroka Josepha Smithe a jeho dílem Knihou Mormonovou. Členové těchto skupin se nazývají mormoni. V současné době jsou dominantní především 3 mormonská společenství.


Contrasting Westermarck and Freud.

Sigmund Freud argued that as children, members of the same family naturally lust for one another (see Oedipus complex), making it necessary for societies to create incest taboos, but Westermarck argued the reverse, that the taboos themselves arise naturally as products of innate attitudes.

Criticism.

Some sociologists and anthropologists have criticized the validity of research presented in support of the Westermarck effect and the contention that it serves as an ultimate demonstration for the viability of natural selection theory in explaining human behaviour. For example, a 2009 study by Eran Shor and Dalit Simchai demonstrated that although most peers who grew up closely together in the Israeli kibbutzim did not marry one another, they did report substantial attraction to co-reared peers. The authors conclude that the case of the kibbutzim actually provides little support for the Westermarck effect and that childhood proximity cannot in itself produce sexual avoidance without the existence of social pressures and norms.  However, Austrian historian Walter Scheidel argues that recent research has raised some support for Westermarck's hypothesis, arguing that studies show that cousin-marriage in Lebanon has a lower success rate if the cousins were raised in sibling-like conditions, first-cousin unions being more successful in Pakistan if there was a substantial age difference, as well as reduced marital appeal for cousins who grew up sleeping in the same room in Morocco. Evidence also indicates that siblings separated for extended periods of time since childhood were more likely to report having engaged in sexual activity with one another.  American psychologist Jesse Bering cites several studies that seem to contradict the standard view of the Westermarck effect as an innate learning process; instead, it may be a cultural phenomenon. People seem to have sexual preferences toward faces that resemble their parents' or their own. If correct, this would suggest that Freud's idea of the Oedipus complex had some merit to it.

The Westermarck effect, also known as reverse sexual imprinting, is a psychological hypothesis that people who live in close domestic proximity during the first few years of their lives become desensitized to sexual attraction. This hypothesis was first proposed by Finnish anthropologist Edvard Westermarck in his book "The History of Human Marriage" (1891) as one explanation for the incest taboo.

Westermarckův efekt (někdy též kibucový efekt podle původních studií v izraelských kibucech) je psychologický efekt popisující jev, kdy si vzájemně nejsou sexuálně přitažlivé osoby, které spolu prožily své útlé dětství (zhruba do 30 měsíců věku). Podmínkou projevení efektu není příbuzenská spřízněnost, protože se mezi těmito osobami i tak vytvoří sourozenecký či kvazisourozenecký vztah. Tento efekt souvisí s jevem exogamie, tj. faktu, že lidé si obvykle hledají sexuálního partnera jinde než v komunitě, ve které vyrostli. Efekt popsal finský antropolog Edvard Westermarck a postavil jej proti názoru Sigmunda Freuda, že sklon k incestu je univerzální. Westermarckův efekt je pozorován u všech druhů sociálních primátů. Je pozorován i u pedofilů; praví pedofilové se proto zpravidla nedopouštějí incestního zneužití vlastních dětí, pokud o ně pečovali v raném věku.


Biography.

Yitzhak Levy was born in Casablanca in Morocco in 1947, the son of Daniel-Yitzhak Levy, who later served as a member of the Knesset for the National Religious Party. The family immigrated to Israel in 1957. He studied at Yeshivat Kerem B'Yavneh and Yeshivat Hakotel, where he received rabbinical ordination. He served as an officer in the IDF, achieving the rank of major. He was a member of the Bnei Akiva Executive and World Secretariat, and Secretary-General of the National Religious Movement from 1986 to 1995.  He was the Rabbi of the Bnei Akiva Talmudic College in Kfar Maimon, and was among the initiators of the establishment of the Jewish quarter in Jerusalem, and one of the founders of the Israeli settlement of Elon Moreh in the West Bank.  Levy is married, with five children, and lives in Kfar Maimon.

Political career.

He was elected to the Knesset in 1988 on the National Religious Party list. He was a member of the House Committee from 1988 to 1996, and the Labor and Social Welfare Committee from 1988 to 1992. He was also chairman the Ethics Committee and the children welfare lobby, as well as the Israel-Argentina Parliamentary Friendship League. Since 1988, he has been a member of the Committee on Constitution, Law, and Justice.  In June 1996, he was appointed Minister of Transportation by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. In February 1998, after the death of Zevulun Hammer, he became the leader of the NRP, and served as Minister of Education until July 1999. He also served as Minister of Religious Affairs, a position he held in rotation.  In July 1999, he was appointed Minister of Housing and Construction. Following his appointment, he resigned from the Knesset in order to allow the next person on the NRP list, Nahum Langental, to enter the Knesset. In July 2000, following the Camp David Summit, he resigned from the government.  On November 2, 2000, his 28-year-old daughter, Ayelet Hashahar Levy, was killed by a Palestinian car bomb in Jerusalem.  In April 2002, during Operation Defensive Shield, he resigned as leader of the NRP to make way for Effi Eitam, and was made Minister without Portfolio. From September 2002 until February 2003, he served as Minister of Tourism. In March 2003, he was appointed Deputy Minister in the Prime Minister's Office. However, in June 2004, he and Eitam resigned in protest against the disengagement plan. He and Eitam subsequently left the NRP, and founded a new religious-Zionist party, Ahi, which joined the National Union alliance.  In December 2008, Levy announced that he was retiring from politics, stating that the decision was made due to the new Jewish Home party not holding traditional primary elections, but instead relying on an internet-based vote.

Yitzhak Levy (, born 6 July 1947) is an Israeli Orthodox rabbi and politician who served as a member of the Knesset for the National Religious Party (NRP) and the Ahi faction of the National Union between 1988 and 2009. Between 1998 and 2002, he was NRP leader, and also held several ministerial portfolios.

Jicchak Levy (: יצחק לוי, narozen 6. července 1947) je izraelský rabín a bývalý politik. V letech 1988 až 2009 byl poslancem Knesetu za Národní náboženskou stranu a Achi (frakci někdejší strany Národní jednota). V letech 1998 až 2002 byl předsedou Národní náboženské strany a během své politické kariéry zastával řadu ministerských funkcí v izraelské vládě. Šlo o post ministra dopravy, školství, energetiky a infrastruktury, bydlení a výstavby, náboženských záležitostí, turismu a ministra bez portfeje.


Biography.

Yosef (Yossi) Sarid was born in Rehovot, Sarid served in the Artillery Corps and as a Military Correspondent during his national service in the IDF. He earned an MA in political science from New School for Social Research in New York City. He was a resident of Margaliyot in the Upper Galilee.  Sarid was married to Dorit, with whom he had three children, including the writer Yishai Sarid. He died on the evening of 4 December 2015 from an apparent heart attack. He is buried in Kibbutz Givat Hashlosha cemetery, on the outskirts of Tel Aviv.

Political and journalism career.

Sarid worked as a media aide to Prime Minister Levi Eshkol. He was first elected to the Knesset in 1973 on the Alignment list. He was re-elected in 1977, 1981 and 1984. After the Alignment agreed to join a national unity government with Likud in 1984, Sarid left the party on 22 October to join Shulamit Aloni's Ratz. He was re-elected on the Ratz list in 1988.  In 1992, Ratz merged with Shinui and Mapam to form Meretz. The new party won 12 seats in the elections that year and joined Yitzhak Rabin's coalition. Sarid was appointed Minister of the Environment, a position he kept when Shimon Peres formed a new government after Rabin's assassination in 1995.  In 1996, Sarid replaced Aloni as Meretz leader. Although the Labor Party won the most seats in elections that year, Likud leader Benjamin Netanyahu won the special election for Prime Minister and formed a right-wing government.  In the 1999 elections, Meretz won 10 seats. Although Sarid had vowed not to join a coalition that included the ultra-Orthodox Shas, Ehud Barak persuaded Sarid to join the government, making him Minister of Education. Sarid explained the breaking of his vow in the need to promote the peace process. However, in 2000 Sarid resigned from the government and Meretz quit the coalition after failing to agree on authority to be given for Shas deputy minister of education.  In the 2003 elections, Meretz was reduced to 6 seats, after which Sarid resigned as party leader, to be replaced by Yossi Beilin. He remained a member of the Knesset until the 2006 elections, when Meretz was reduced to 5 seats, after which he retired from politics, a plan he had announced the previous year. In 2009, Meretz's presence was further reduced to three seats in the Knesset.  Sarid wrote a weekly column for "Haaretz" newspaper.

Yossi Sarid ( ; 24 October 1940 – 4 December 2015) was an Israeli politician and news commentator. He served as a member of the Knesset for the Alignment, Ratz and Meretz between 1974 and 2006. A former Minister of Education and Minister of the Environment, he led Meretz between 1996 and 2003 and served as Leader of the Opposition from 2001 to 2003. Known for his determined moral stance and his willingness to pay the political price for that determination, Sarid was often referred to as Israel's moral compass.

Josi Sarid (:, 24. října 1940 – 4. prosince 2015) byl izraelský politik a zpravodajský komentátor. Více než třicet let byl poslancem Knesetu za levicové strany (Ma'arach, Rac a Merec) a zastával dva ministerské posty v izraelské vládě. Konkrétně šlo o funkci ministra životního prostředí a ministra školství.


Influencing factors.

Tenderness is perhaps the most important of all factors impacting meat eating quality, with others being flavor, juiciness, and succulence.  Tenderness is a quality complex to obtain and gauge, and it depends on a number of factors. On the basic level, these factors are meat grain, the amount and composition of connective tissue, and the amount of fat. In order to obtain a tender meat, there is a complex interplay between the animal's pasture, age, species, breed, protein intake, calcium status, stress before and at killing, and how the meat is treated after slaughter.  Meat with the fat content deposited within the steak to create a "marbled" appearance has always been regarded as more tender than steaks where the fat is in a separate layer. Cooking causes melting of the fat, spreading it throughout the meat and increasing the tenderness of the final product.

Testing.

The meat industry strives to produce meat with standardized and guaranteed tenderness, since these characteristics are sought for by the consumers. For that purpose a number of objective tests of tenderness have been developed, gauging meat resistance to shear force, most commonly used being "Slice Shear Force" test and "Warner–Bratzler Shear Force" test.

Tenderising.

Techniques for breaking down collagens in meat to make it more palatable and tender are referred to as "tenderizing" or "tenderization".  There are a number of ways to tenderize meat:

Research.

Efforts have been made since at least 1970 to use explosives to tenderize meat and a company was founded to try to commercialize the process; as of 2011 it was not yet scalable.

Tenderness is a quality of meat gauging how easily it is chewed or cut. Tenderness is a desirable quality, as tender meat is softer, easier to chew, and generally more palatable than harder meat. Consequently, tender cuts of meat typically command higher prices. The tenderness depends on a number of factors including the meat grain, the amount of connective tissue, and the amount of fat. Tenderness can be increased by a number of processing techniques, generally referred to as "tenderizing" or "tenderization".

Křehčené maso je termín pro výrobek z masa, které je v rámci zpracování napuštěno vodou se solí a polyfosfáty (např. E 452). Smyslem úpravy je zejména snížit výrobní náklady na kilogram výsledného masového produktu, protože voda, sůl i fosfáty jsou podstatně levnější než maso samotné. Takový výrobek bývá tímto způsobem běžně nastaven o více než 20 % a konzumentům, kteří zároveň jí i jiné potraviny s fosfáty (například tavené sýry), může způsobit odvápnění zubů a kostí a ohrozit tak jejich zdraví.


Biography.

Tom Paris is the son of Starfleet Admiral Owen Paris and a scion of a family with a long history of illustrious service in Starfleet. Following in his family's tradition, Paris attended Starfleet Academy sometime in the 2350s and majored in astrophysics. A gifted pilot, he earned an assignment to the Academy's honor squadron.  His relationship with his father was not a good one; while Tom wanted to join the Federation Naval Patrol, Owen wanted him to enlist at Starfleet Academy. Admiral Paris often disapproved of his son's tendency to get into fights and his resulting punishments.  Soon after his graduation from Starfleet Academy, Tom crashed a shuttle he was piloting near Caldik Prime, killing three other Starfleet officers. Afraid he would lose his commission, Paris falsified records that would later reveal the cause of the accident as pilot error. His efforts to cover up the error succeeded, but overwhelmed by guilt and regret, he confessed. He was court martialed for his actions and dishonorably discharged from Starfleet. This caused a major rift between Paris and his father.  Following his discharge, Paris left San Francisco for Marseille, where he started spending his time drinking and playing pool in Sandrine's, a waterfront bar. There, Chakotay, a former Starfleet officer now serving with the Maquis, recruited him to serve as a mercenary pilot for the Maquis Rebellion against the Federation. This adventure went no better than his earlier stint in Starfleet as Paris was captured by Starfleet while piloting his first mission for the Maquis.  Tried and convicted of treason for aiding the Maquis Rebellion, Paris was sentenced to serve time in the Federation penal settlement near Auckland, New Zealand. Kathryn Janeway, captain of the starship USS "Voyager", obtained Paris's temporary release from the penal colony. Janeway, charged with finding and capturing the Maquis ship commanded by Chakotay, offered Paris early parole in exchange for serving as her informant on Chakotay and the Maquis.  Janeway and the crew of "Voyager", while searching for the Maquis ship, were thrown into the Delta Quadrant by a massive energy wave created by an alien known as the Caretaker. Once there, they successfully located the Maquis ship docked at the Caretaker's array. The survivors of the incident became stranded about 70,000 light-years from Earth. The Maquis ship was destroyed and its crew joined the Federation crew on "Voyager".  The marooning of "Voyager" in the Delta Quadrant provided Paris with a new beginning. Janeway gave Paris a field commission as a Starfleet lieutenant and made him chief helmsman of "Voyager". He had a rough start, however, as Starfleet and Maquis alike viewed Paris with suspicion. Paris worked hard to earn his crewmates' respect. During this time, he became best friends with Ensign Harry Kim, a young officer on his first mission who defied his crewmates to befriend Paris. Eventually Paris was accepted by the crew and became one of Janeway's valued officers.  Paris's duties were not limited to piloting "Voyager". On Janeway's orders, he trained as a field medic and assisted until the Doctor recruited Kes as his primary assistant. Following Kes's departure ("") Paris once again served regular duty shifts in sickbay. In the episode "", while disobeying direct orders in order to do what he felt was morally right, Paris was reduced to ensign and thrown in "Voyager"s brig for 30 days. About a year later, after working diligently at his duties, he regained his former rank. This occurred just before the events of "Unimatrix Zero", during which it is revealed that he is fourth in the chain of command.  While serving on "Voyager", Paris nurtured a long-hidden talent for holo-programming, devising several programs for the entertainment of his fellow crewmembers. His most popular programs included a re-creation of Sandrine's bar, an Irish town called Fair Haven, and a 1930s-era sci-fi movie serial titled "Captain Proton".  Paris married Lieutenant B'Elanna Torres, "Voyager"s half-Klingon/half-Human chief engineer, in 2377. She gave birth to their daughter Miral Paris during the events that led to "Voyager"s return to the Alpha Quadrant and Earth.

Personality.

Tom Paris at times displayed resentment toward his father, Owen Paris. This situation improved substantially over the course of the journey, due to Janeway's willingness to offer him redemption, and later to his relationship with B'Elanna Torres.  Paris also has a deep interest in 20th-century Earth pop culture, often utilizing such in his holo-programs. The knowledge helped the crew during time-travel incidents.  He became good friends with Harry Kim from the start and at times displayed protectiveness in the face of Harry's customary naiveté. In the first episode he rescues the ensign from Quark, a manipulative Ferengi. The only member of the crew with whom Paris initially had a somewhat difficult relationship was Chakotay because of their history in the Maquis. However, throughout "Voyager"s seven-year journey home, Paris and Chakotay reconciled (in part due to Paris having earned Chakotay's trust) and became good friends.  Paris was a full lieutenant at the very beginning of the series, then a lieutenant junior grade in the first-season episode "".

Character background.

The writers planned to use the character of Nicolas Locarno as a template for Tom Paris, who was played by McNeill in the "" episode "The First Duty". "Voyager"s writers created an entirely new character sharing many of Locarno's attributes.  The Tom Paris character has two backstories. The original backstory, and the only one acknowledged onscreen, cast Paris as a disgraced officer dishonorably discharged from Starfleet for covering up pilot error following a shuttle accident on Caldik Prime. In her published novel, "Pathways", "Voyager" producer Jeri Taylor provided an alternative story much more similar to Locarno's, moving the accident to Paris' Starfleet Academy years and making his fellow cadets the victims of his recklessness.  An unproduced "Voyager" script was to have had a flashback to his time attending Starfleet Academy, and shown that Ro Laren, the Bajoran character from "Star Trek: The Next Generation" was among his classmates.

"Voyager" relaunch novels.

In the non-canonical "Voyager" relaunch novels, written by Christie Golden, Paris was promoted two steps in rank, like many of the "Voyager" crew, and is now a lieutenant commander. He serves as First Officer of "Voyager", under the command of now-Captain Chakotay.

Reception.

In 2018, CBR ranked Tom Paris the 19th best Starfleet character of "Star Trek". In 2016, Tom Paris was ranked as the 26th most important character of Starfleet within the "Star Trek" science fiction universe by Wired magazine.

Thomas Eugene "Tom" Paris, played by Robert Duncan McNeill, is a character in the American science fiction television series "". In that show, which aired on UPN between 1995 and 2001, Paris serves as the chief helmsman and an auxiliary medic aboard the United Federation of Planets starship USS "Voyager", which must make its way home after being stranded on the opposite of the Galaxy as Earth with a motley collection of Starfleet, Maquis, and aliens as crew. The character's middle name, "Eugene", is a tribute to "Star Trek" creator Gene Roddenberry.

Thomas Eugene Paris je fiktivní postava v televizním sci-fi seriálu. "Tom Paris" je důstojník Hvězdné flotily s hodností poručíka, který sedm let sloužil na lodi USS Voyager pod velením kapitána Janewayové na pozici kormidelníka.


Prepaid mobile phones.

Recent statistics (OECD "Communications Outlook" 2005) indicate that 40% of the total mobile phone market in the OECD region consists of prepaid accounts. This service was invented by Portuguese provider TMN, while researching for a means to increase penetration of mobile technology by allowing anyone to buy a fully working (usually requiring a quick and simple activation process) mobile phone on any supermarket or electronics store. By removing the complications inherent to the contract system, this allowed the mobile communications user base to grow incredibly fast. In many countries this type of service became the predominant one, shortly after introduction, by providing both consumers and service providers with considerable advantages over the traditional method. In some countries, such as Italy or Mexico, market share of prepaid can be as high as 90%. In other countries, such as Finland or South Korea, the figure drops to about 2%.  A Prepaid Call (or even Calling Card) is actually established through two calls, and the first is either through an 800 Toll Free Number, and even some from the big telephone companies have them available with international toll free numbers, or you will find many that offer calling through a local phone number, usually printed on the back that offer cheaper rates but the first call costs are passed on to you, the consumer.  You place this first call to get to the providers platform, and once connected you are authenticated via a PIN or as seen in Europe or around other parts of the world the card may have an electronic chip on it, like you may have seen on the American Express Blue card. If you use the local number provided from your home or cell phone you pay for the cost of the first call, you can see this on your bills even if you don't get connected. The reason that 800 toll free is more expensive is because the Prepaid Calling Card Company pays for the attempts and even when you just call to check your balance, you only pay when you are actually connected. Many Local Telephone Companies don't show local usage so you may not see that you are paying for a local call every time you make an attempt. This is not true when you call a toll free number from a land line but with Cell phones you do use air time. With most local phone companies you can get call detail to support this.  Once you are authenticated you are usually presented with your balance then prompted for your destination number (the second call), and usually given the time left on your card based on the number you just dialed. Then you are connected.  With smaller companies beware the hidden charges when the rates are too low to be true. They may have hidden fees or poorly advertised fees, like 3 minute rounding, connection fees, monthly, weekly, daily, or even maintenance fees. Look around when you buy these smaller name brands to make sure you know what you are buying.  The pseudonymity enabled by prepaid services has recently become a concern with law enforcement agencies that consider it a safe haven for criminals and terrorists. As a result, a number of countries including Australia, Germany, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mozambique, Norway, Singapore, South Africa, Switzerland, and Thailand have passed laws to require that all prepaid customers register their personal information with their mobile carrier.  In some countries the law requires that customers notify their mobile carrier when transferring ownership of a prepaid phone or SIM card.  In Australia, the prepaid registration policy is part of a larger law enforcement initiative that includes the creation and maintenance of an Integrated Public Number Database.

Energy.

In 1999, Texas deregulated the energy industry by allowing third-party affiliates to offer electricity services. As a result, a handful of Texas companies are offering the ability to prepay your electricity, with the balance going toward the posted kilowatt hours rate. This system is now common in China and Indonesia, as a way to forestall non-payment of bills.

Insurance.

Insurance premiums are usually paid at or before the start of the insurance period, the period of cover, but the premium may at times be payable in instalments during the insurance period.

Prepaid refers to services paid for in advance. Examples include postage stamps, attorneys, tolls, public transit cards like the Greater London Oyster card, pay as you go cell phones, and stored-value cards such as gift cards and preloaded credit cards.

Předplacená karta se v obecném smyslu používá pro karty, které se kupují (nebo darují jako dárek), a jsou za ně poskytovány konkrétní služby (již předplacené). Stačí je jen použít podle návodu nebo dojít na místo služby, kde tuto kartu lze využít.


Biography.

Early years.

Moisei Markovich Goldstein (later V. Volodarsky) was born to an ethnic Jewish family in Ostropol, in the Volhynian Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine).

Revolutionary politics.

In 1905, he became involved in revolutionary activity within the General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia, but soon joined Spilka, the Ukrainian Social Democratic organisation which aligned itself with the Menshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. He was briefly imprisoned in 1908 and then was politically active in Volhynia. Then in 1911 he was exiled by the government to Arkhangelsk, but was included in the general amnesty of 1913. Continued persecution led him to emigrate to the United States, settling in Philadelphia. Here he became active in the International Trade Union of Tailors and the Socialist Party. During World War I, Volodarsky sided with the internationalist Mensheviks and moved to the left. In 1916-1917, he was a contributor to the New York-based newspaper of the Russian Socialist Federation, "Novy Mir" (New World), edited by Nikolai Bukharin.

Return to Russia.

In May 1917, Volodarsky returned to Russia, joined the Mezhraiontsy group and was elected to the Petrograd City Duma. Along with the rest of the "mezhraiontsy", he joined the Bolsheviks at the 6th Party Congress in July–August 1917 and soon became one of their best known public speakers and agitators. He focused his activity in the Petergof area, including the Putilov factory.  In mid-October 1917, while the Bolsheviks were debating whether to try to overthrow the Russian Provisional Government, Volodarsky sided with Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, who were against the insurrection. At the Second Congress of Soviets during the October Revolution of 1917, Volodarsky was elected to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK). He was appointed editor of the "Red Gazette" in Petrograd and chief of the Press Division of the Executive Committee of the Union of Northern Communes. This gave him broad censorship powers.  His colleague Anatoly Lunacharsky wrote:  He was against the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, but remained silent on the topic in order to maintain party discipline.

Death.

Volodarsky was assassinated on June 20, 1918 by Grigory Ivanovich Semyonov, a member of the Central Battle Unit of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, during labor unrest at the Obukhov Works in Petrograd. He was buried at the Monument to the Fighters of the Revolution on St Petersburg's Field of Mars.

Honors.

In 1918, the town of Poshekhonye was renamed Poshekhonye-Volodarsk (Пошехо́нье-Волода́рск). It reverted to its original name in 1992. The town Volodarsk was named after him in 1920. The sewing factory established at the seized Esders and Scheefhaals department store in 1919 was named in Goldstein's honor in 1922. Streets throughout the USSR were named in his honor; see a. The Volodarsky Bridge, located near where he was killed, was named after him. The munitions works in Ulyanovsk was briefly renamed for him ("Zavod Volodarskogo" - "Volodarsky's Factory") from 1928 to 1941.

V. Volodarsky (; December 11, 1891 – June 20, 1918) was a Marxist revolutionary and early Soviet politician. He was assassinated in 1918.

V. Volodarskij (rusky "В. Володарский", 11. prosince 1891, Ostropol, Ruské impérium – 20. června 1918, Petrohrad, Rusko), narozen jako Moisej Markovič Goldštejn ("Моисей Маркович Гольдштейн"), byl ruský revolucionář a politik.


Geography.

Ein HaShofet is located on the Menashe Heights, 5 kilometers south of the city of Yokneam Illit. Other places near Ein HaShofet include the kibbutzim of Ramat HaShofet, Dalia and the hill of Jo'ara. The kibbutz is accessed through the 6954 and 6953 roads, connected to Highway 66 and regional route 672.

History.

Prior to the establishment of the settlement.

The founders of the kibbutz came from two groups. The first group was called "Banir" and consisted of Hashomer Hatzair graduates from Poland. The group formed in 1931 in Częstochowa and arrived to Mandatory Palestine in 1935. It received training in Ein HaHoresh. The other group also consisted of Hashomer Hatzair graduates from Highland Mills, New York. The group formed in 1922 and arrived to Mishmar HaEmek in 1931, where it received agricultural training. Their number was 17 in 1931 and it rose to 30 in 1933. In 1934 they moved to Hadera. In May 1934 both groups united in Hadera under the name "Banir-America" and worked together in the town.  The initial location of the kibbutz was the hill of Jo'ara, about one kilometer from the current location of the kibbutz. It was owned by an Effendi from a family called Salah, residing in Haifa, and was populated by Arab tenant farmers. In 1936, the Jewish National Fund bought the land from the effendi and paid each sharecropper for their evacuation. The funds for the deal were raised by Louis D. Brandeis, a United States Supreme Court Justice lawyer, and a prominent Zionist figure. The Americans donated 70,000 USD for the cause, with 50,000 coming from Brandeis himself. The kibbutz was named in his honor.

Early years.

On 5 July 1937 some of the members departed from Mishmar HaEmek, escorted by the Haganah, and arrived to the hill of Jo'ara. The kibbutz was established a part of the Tower and Stockade settlement drive. Built on JNF land with the help of the Keren Hayesod company, it was the first Jewish settlement on the Menashe Heights. Their departure was celebrated in Mishmar HaEmek, from where they brought dismantled structures, equipment for building a wall, and trees for planting. The climb was done on foot, as there was no paved road to the top of the hill. During the following winter the way to the hill was blocked and the members paved a new access road.  The members stayed on the hill for one year before moving to the current and final location of the kibbutz. They left the hill of Jo'ara after realizing it was too small. It was handed to the Haganah militia. The construction of the first permanent building took place in June 1938 and in October the rest of the members from Hadera and Jo'ara joined the kibbutz in its final location. Many members joined the Haganah paramilitary organization and the Notrim Jewish police force.  In 1945, Ein HaShofet had a population of 320, all Jews. It was noted that it was the village formerly named Ji'ara (i.e. Jo'ara). Despite a lack of water and hilly difficult reclamation, in 1948, with a population of 450, they "were a successful mixed hill farm with orchards, dry cereals, dairy products, sheep herding and chicken farming."  During the Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine, Ein HaShofet housed a factory for explosives used by the Jewish militia against the British.  During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, the Ein HaShofet villagers helped to defeat Fawzi al-Qawuqji's forces after their April 1948 attack on Mishmar HaEmek.

After the establishment of Israel.

Until 1962, the kibbutz absorbed five other groups. Two of them were made of Holocaust survivors and the other are youth groups from Israel.

Economy.

The primary component of Ein HaShofet's economy is its industry with three working factories in the kibbutz. According to the 2008 national census, 43% of the workers in the kibbutz in the industrial sector. The secondary component and historically the center of the kibbutz life is the agriculture, which employs 20 members of the kibbutz in five different sectors.

Industry.

The kibbutz owns three industrial companies through the Ein-Hashofet Industries Group.

Ein HaShofet (, "lit." Spring of the Judge) is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located in the Menashe Heights region around 30 km from the city of Haifa, close to Yokneam, it falls under the jurisdiction of Megiddo Regional Council. In it had a population of.

Ejn ha-Šofet ( עֵין הַשּׁוֹפֵט, doslova „"Soudcův pramen"“,v oficiálním přepisu do angličtiny En HaShofet, přepisováno též Ein HaShofet) je vesnice typu kibuc v Izraeli, v Severním distriktu, v Oblastní radě Megido.