History.

The concept of probation, from the Latin, "probatio," "testing", has historical roots in the practice of "judicial" "reprieve". In English common law, prior to the advent of democratic rule, the courts could temporarily suspend the execution of a sentence to allow a criminal defendant to appeal to the monarch for a pardon.

United States.

Probation first developed in the United States when John Augustus, a Boston cobbler, persuaded a judge in the Boston Police Court in 1841 to give him custody of a convicted offender, a "drunkard", for a brief period and then helped the man to appear rehabilitated by the time of sentencing. Even earlier, the practice of suspending a sentence was used as early as 1830 in Boston, Massachusetts, and became widespread in U.S. courts, although there was no statutory provision for such a practice. At first, judges, most notably Peter Oxenbridge Thatcher of Boston, used "release on recognizance" or bail and simply refrained from taking any further action. In 1878, the mayor of Boston hired a former police officer, the ironically named "Captain Savage", to become what many recognize as the first official probation officer. By the mid-19th century, however, many Federal Courts were using a judicial reprieve to suspend sentence, and this posed a legal question. In 1916, the United States Supreme Court, in the "Killets" Decision, held that a Federal Judge (Killets) was without power to suspend a sentence indefinitely. This decision led to the passing of the National Probation Act of 1925, thereby, allowing courts to suspend the imposition of incarceration and place an offender on probation. Probation developed from the efforts of a philanthropist, John Augustus, who looked for ways to rehabilitate the behavior of criminals.  Massachusetts developed the first statewide probation system in 1878, and by 1920, 21 other states had followed suit. With the passage of the National Probation Act on March 5, 1925, signed by President Calvin Coolidge, the U.S. Federal Probation Service was established. On the state level, pursuant to the Crime Control and Consent Act of 1936, a group of states entered into an agreement wherein they would supervise probationers and parolees who reside in each other's jurisdictions on each other's behalf. Known as the Interstate Compact For the Supervision of Parolees and Probationers, this agreement was originally signed by 25 states in 1937. By 1951, all the states in the United States of America had a working probation system and ratified the Interstate Compact Agreement. In 1959, the new states of Alaska and Hawaii, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and the territories of the Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa ratified the act as well.

Arming and increased authority.

In the United States, most probation agencies have armed officers. In 39 states, territories and federal probation, such arming is either mandated or optional. Arming is allowed in an increasing number of jurisdictions.  Probation officers are peace officers who possess limited police powers.

Types.

Intensive.

Home detention, GPS monitoring and computer management are highly intrusive forms of probation in which the offender is very closely monitored. It is common for violent criminals, higher-ranking gang members, habitual offenders, and sex offenders to be supervised at this level. Some jurisdictions require offenders under such supervision to waive their constitutional rights under the Fourth Amendment regarding search and seizure, and such probationers may be subject to unannounced home or workplace visits, surveillance, and the use of electronic monitoring or satellite tracking. Under terms of this kind of probation, a client may not change their living address and must stay at the address that is known to probation. GPS monitoring and home detention are common in juvenile cases, even if the underlying delinquency is minor. Some types of supervision may entail installing some form of monitoring software or conducting computer searches to ascertain what an offender is doing online. Cybercrime specialist in corrections, Art Bowker, noted “This is an area more and more community corrections officers are going to have to get up to speed on, learning how to enforce conditions that restrict and/or monitor cyber offenders' computer and internet use.” Bowker, also observed "The use of social media is taking off in the field of community corrections".

Standard.

Offenders under standard supervision are generally required to report to an officer, most commonly between biweekly and quarterly, and are subject to any other conditions as may have been ordered, such as alcohol/drug treatment, community service, and so on.

Unsupervised.

Some probation does not involve direct supervision by an officer or probation department. The probationer is expected to complete any conditions of the order with no involvement of a probation officer, and perhaps within a period shorter than that of the sentence itself. For example, given one year of unsupervised probation, a probationer might be required to have completed community service and paid court costs or fines within the first six months. For the remaining six months, he or she may be required merely to refrain from unlawful behavior. Probationers are allowed to go to their workplaces, educational institutions, or places of worship. Such probationers may be asked to meet with an officer at the onset or near the end of the probationary period, or not at all. If terms are not completed, an officer may file a petition to revoke probation.

Informal.

Informal probation may occur with deferred adjudication, without the defendant's having been convicted of a criminal offense, or may occur following a guilty plea pending the completion of terms set forth in a plea agreement. As with other forms of probation, terms may include drug testing or waiver of Fourth Amendment rights for the duration of the term of probation. At the end of the informal period, the case is typically dismissed. This is usually offered as part of a plea bargain or pre-trial diversion.

Shock.

Some programs give a sentencing judge the power to reconsider an original jail sentence. The judge may recall the inmate from jail and put him or her on probation within the community instead. The courts have a theory that a short term in jail may “shock” a criminal into changing their behavior. Shock probation can be used only between a specific period of 30–120 days after the original sentence, and is not available in all states.

Grant.

Community corrections officials are key personnel in helping decide whether a criminal is granted probation. They determine whether the offender is a serious risk to public and recommend to the court what action to take. Correction officials first go through an investigation process during the pretrial period. They assess the offender's background and history to determine whether he or she can be released safely back into the community. The officers then write a report on the offender. The courts use the report to determine whether the offender shall be put on probation instead of going to jail. After the offender is found guilty, the probation officer puts together a pre-sentence investigation report (PSI). Courts base their sentencing on it. Finally, courts make their decisions as to whether to imprison the convict or to assign him or her probation. If a court decides to grant a person probation, they must then determine how to impose the sentence based on the seriousness of the crime, recidivism, the circumstances of the convict, and the recommendations from the corrections officials.

Violation.

A probation officer may imprison a probationer and petition the court to find that the probationer committed a violation of probation. The court will request that the defendant appear at a show cause hearing at which the prosecutor must demonstrate by a preponderance of the evidence that the defendant committed a probation violation. If the defendant pleads guilty to a probation violation, or is found guilty of a probation violation after the hearing, the officer or prosecutor may request that additional conditions of probation be imposed, that the duration be extended, or that a period of incarceration be ordered, possibly followed by a return to probation. No law specifies when probation violation proceedings must be commenced, although probation violation proceedings are nearly certain to occur following the defendant's conviction of a subsequent offense or failure to report to the probation officer as ordered.  If a violation is found, the severity of the penalties may depend upon the facts of the original offense, the facts of the violation, and the probationer's criminal history. For example, if an offender is on probation for a gang-related offense, subsequent "association with known criminals" may be viewed as a more serious violation than if the person were on probation for driving a car with a suspended license; the reverse may be true if the initial offense were for driving under the influence. Similarly, penalties for violation may be greater if a subsequent offense is of greater severity (such as a felony, following a misdemeanor), or if the original offense and subsequent offense are of the same type (such as a battery following an assault, or retail theft following retail theft).

Revocation.

When a probation violation is extremely severe, or after multiple lesser violations, a probation revocation hearing could be scheduled. A judge at the hearing will consider reports from the probation officer, and if probation is revoked, the probationer will often be incarcerated in jail or prison. However, the term of incarceration might be reduced from the original potential sentence for the alleged crime(s). It is possible that an innocent defendant would choose to accept a deferred sentence rather than incur the risk of going to trial. In such a case, a probation revocation can result in conviction of the original criminal charges and a permanent record of conviction.

Probation in criminal law is a period of supervision over an offender, ordered by the court instead of serving time in prison.

Probace (z lat. "probatio" – zkoušení, ověřování) v trestním právu označuje dohled nad obviněným, obžalovaným nebo odsouzeným, kontrola výkonu těch alternativních trestů, ve kterých byly uloženy nějaké povinnosti nebo omezení, dále sledování chování odsouzeného ve zkušební době podmíněného propuštění z výkonu trestu odnětí svobody, jakož i individuální pomoc obviněnému a působení na něj ve smyslu vedení řádného života. Jde o jeden z projevů konceptu tzv. restorativní justice a v České republice ji vykonává Probační a mediační služba. Probací se také rozumí kontrola výkonu trestů nespojených s odnětím svobody, pozitivní motivování odsouzeného, aby vyhověl soudem nebo státním zástupcem uloženým podmínkám, a tím aby došlo k obnově narušených právních i společenských vztahů.


Location.

Markland has been suggested to have been part of the Labrador coast in Canada, as Labrador lies in the heavily forested taiga region of the Northern Hemisphere north of the location of Vinland on the island of Newfoundland. The area of Cape Porcupine has been suggested as a possible candidate for the site. The climate and the vegetation in this region may have changed significantly since the sagas were conceived, owing to the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age.  The particular part of the Labrador coast is difficult to pinpoint, as Helluland has been placed everywhere from Baffin Island to the northern Labrador coast beyond Groswater Bay to the southern Labrador Coast.

In the sagas.

The "Saga of the Greenlanders" tells that Leif Eriksson set out in the year 1002 or 1003 to follow the route first described by Bjarni Herjólfsson. The first land Eriksson went to was covered with flat rocks (Old Norse: "hella"). He therefore called it Helluland meaning "Land of the Flat Stones". Next Eriksson came to a land that was flat and wooded, with white sandy beaches, which he called Markland ("Forest Land"). Eriksson's crew cut down trees and took them to Greenland, because Greenland possesses only one small forest and normally relies on driftwood or imports for lumber. The Saga of the Greenlanders also tells of 160 men and women who settled in Markland for winter protection led by Thorfinn Karlsefni ("Þorfinnr Karlsefni Þórðarson"), c. 1010.  The "Saga of Erik the Red" indicates that Markland is south of Helluland, north of Vinland off "Kjalarnes", north-west of an island called Bjarney, and with a country that Karlsefni thinks may be Hvítramannaland somewhere opposite its coast.

Markland is the name given to one of three lands on North America's Atlantic shore discovered by Leif Eriksson around 1000 AD. It was located south of Helluland and north of Vinland.

Markland je lesnatou zemí vystupující v islandských ságách, která je identifikována ve starších pramenech jako Nový Foundland, nověji pak jako jihovýchodní Labrador.


Name.

The name Kopimism derives from the words "copy" and "me" which are the fundamental roots of the Church's beliefs and calls for an invitation to copy information. The work "Kopimi" first showed up on a pirate Agency Forum. Isak Gerson, one of the core founders saw something beautiful and theological in this concept of "copy me" and argued that the digital sharing of data is a fundamental act in our universe through the reproduction and copying of cells, DNA, and genes and that the entirety of the internet is essentially for sharing.  Gerson has been credited with once saying, "The only thing we can do as Christians now, I suppose, is to do what Jesus tried doing – and do it better."

Tenets.

The followers of the religion are called "Kopimists" from "copy me". A "Kopimist" or "Kopimist intellectual" is a person who has the philosophical belief that all information should be freely distributed and unrestricted. This philosophy opposes the monopolization of knowledge in all its forms, such as copyright, and encourages file sharing of all types of media including music, movies, TV shows, and software. In fact, the act of withholding and economizing information through copyright is against the sacredness of information. In its spiritual emphasis on copying as an ideal, Kopimism shares values with Chinese aesthetic traditions, in which "copying is valued not only as a learning tool (as it is in the West) but as artistically satisfying in its own right," a concept also called "duplitecture".  According to the church, "In our belief, communication is sacred." No belief in gods or supernatural phenomena apart from Kopimi itself is mentioned on their web site. "CTRL+C" and "CTRL+V", the common computer shortcut keys for "Copy" and "Paste," are considered sacred symbols. Some groups believe that Kopimi is considered to be a god, and others believing it to be a sacred symbol and spirit residing within every living being.  The community also holds a religious service known as "kopyacting" in which information is distributed to the believers using photocopiers.  According to the Kopimist constitution:  On January 5, 2012, Kopimism was accepted by Sweden as a legitimate religion with an estimated 4,000 members. The religion's association with illegal file sharing has been said not to be a sign that illegal file-sharing will be excused from Sweden's zero-tolerance approach to the controversial matter.

International locations.

Kopimism has also taken root in multiple nations, including:

First wedding.

On April 28, 2012, the Missionary Church of Kopimism held their first wedding. The wedding took place in Belgrade, Serbia, between a Romanian woman and an Italian man. The holy ceremony was conducted by a Kopimistic Op, wearing a Guy Fawkes mask, while a computer read vows and some of Kopimism's central beliefs aloud.  The church declared: "We are very happy today. Love is all about sharing. A married couple shares everything with each other. Hopefully, they will copy and remix some DNA-cells and create a new human being. That is the spirit of Kopimism. Feel the love and share that information. Copy all of its holiness."  Gerson, the missionary leader of the Church of Kopimism, attended as a witness during the wedding.

Controversies.

Both founders, Gerson and Nipe have had an extensive background in online activism and served as major players in the Swedish Piracy Movement which caused many journalists and government officials in Sweden to speculate on the real goals of the creation of this organization.  There was severe backlash amongst the media and Christian journals in 2011 after the founders first submitted their application for registering as a religion as journalists condemned the Missionary Church of Kopimism as "a political adventure", "a PR stunt", and "a devaluation of religion".

The Missionary Church of Kopimism (in Swedish "Missionerande Kopimistsamfundet"), is a congregation of file sharers who believe that copying information is a sacred virtue and was founded by Isak Gerson, a 19-year-old philosophy student, and Gustav Nipe in Uppsala, Sweden in the autumn of 2010. The Church, based in Sweden, has been officially recognized by the Legal, Financial and Administrative Services Agency as a religious community in January 2012, after three application attempts.

Misionářská kopimistická církev, ve švédštině Missionerande Kopimistsamfundet, v angličtině Missionary Church of Kopimism, je náboženská společnost, v jádru jejího náboženského přesvědčení leží volné kopírování a sdílení digitálních dat. K náboženským symbolům patří klávesové zkratky CTRL+C, CTRL+V a pyramida s písmenem K. Založil ji v roce 2010 student filosofie Isak Gerson. Věří, že když z kopírování učiní náboženské přesvědčení, ztíží soudní stíhání jeho praktikujících vyznavačů majiteli autorských práv. Švédský stát uznal 5. ledna 2012 kopimismus jako novou víru.


Overview.

Drought conditions in California facilitated acceptance of the leaf blower as the use of water for many garden clean-up tasks was prohibited. Leaf blowers also save time compared to a broom. By 1990, annual sales were over 800,000 in the U.S., and the tool had become a ubiquitous gardening implement.  Other functions beyond the simple use of garden maintenance have been demonstrated by Richard Hammond on the television series, in which a man sized hovercraft was constructed from a leaf blower. Being both portable and able to generate wind speeds of between and air volumes of 14 m per minute, the leaf blower has many potential uses in amateur construction projects.  The origin of the leaf blower originated in 1947 as a backpack fogger apparatus, invented by Japanese-based Kyoritsu Noki Company. Kyoritsu followed that design with a backpack/blower/misting machine in 1955. in 1968, Kyoritsu applied for patent on a backpack blower mister design, and in 1972 established themselves in the United States as Kioritz Corporation of America, and is said to have invented the first leaf blower in 1977. The company changed their name to Echo in 1978.  Amongst such rival manufacturers as Stihl, Weed Eater, and Husqvarna, Echo saw the sales of leaf blowers in the 70's explode. It is estimated that the sale of leaf blowers in the U.S., had exceeded 1 million units by 1989.

Leaf Blower Opposition.

While the invention of leaf blowers created a buzz amongst commercial and residential homeowners, environmental groups were not as impressed. Namely, due to the only available power source derived for the leaf blower being the combustion engine. Besides producing known air pollutants, gas-powered leaf blowers were also identified as a major source of noise pollution.

Quieter Solution.

To meet the 1995 California regulations for noise and air pollution, leaf blower manufacturers modified the current engine designs to comply, however, 1999 regulations were far more stringent, forcing the engineering of a quieter, more compliant 2-stroke engine design. While leaf blowers were becoming more tolerable in U.S. suburban neighborhoods, many communities had by now in fact, banned their use. In the mid 2000s and to further answer critics, manufacturers once again evolved the leaf blower, with the use of NICad (nickel-cadmium) powered tool design to create the first cordless leaf blower. The new NiCad battery-powered leaf blower designs, were to further improved by way of the more powerful, and longer run time lithium-ion batteries, which incorporate most cordless leaf blowers marketed today. Cordless leaf blowers today operate with zero emissions, and operate at an estimated 70% reduction, compared to the noise level produced by its predecessors.

Environmental and occupational impact.

Emissions from gasoline-powered grounds-keeping equipment in general are a source of air pollution and more immediately (when powered by internal combustion engines, rather than by electricity), noise pollution. In the United States, US emission standards prescribe maximum emissions from small engines. The two-stroke engines used in most leaf blowers operate by mixing gasoline with oil, and a third of this mixture is not burned, but is emitted as an aerosol exhaust. These pollutants have been linked to cancer, heart disease, and asthma. A 2011 study found that the amount of NMHC pollutants emitted by a leaf blower operated for 30 minutes is comparable to the amount emitted by a Ford F-150 pickup truck driving from Texas to Alaska.  In addition to the adverse health effects of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulates generated in the exhaust gas of the gasoline-powered engines, leaf blowers pose problems related to dust raised by the powerful flow of air. Dust clouds caused by leaf blowers contain potentially harmful substances such as pesticides, mold, and animal fecal matter that may cause irritation, allergies, and disease.  Noise pollution is also a concern with leaf blowers, as they can emit noise levels above those required to cause hearing loss to both the operator and those nearby.  Leaf blowers also present an occupational hearing hazard to the nearly 1 million people who work in lawn service and ground-keeping. A recent study assessed the occupational noise exposure among groundskeepers at several North Carolina public universities and found noise levels from leaf blowers averaging 89 decibels (A-weighted) and maximum sound pressure levels reaching 106 dB(A), both far exceeding the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Recommended Exposure Limit of 85 dB(A)

Bans.

Soon after the leaf blower was introduced into the U.S., its use was banned in two California cities, Carmel-by-the-Sea in 1975 and Beverly Hills in 1978, as a noise nuisance. There are currently twenty California cities that have banned leaf blowers, sometimes only within residential neighborhoods and usually targeting gasoline-powered equipment. Another 80 cities have ordinances on the books restricting either usage or noise level or both.

A leaf blower, commonly known as blower, is a gardening tool that propels air out of a nozzle to move debris such as leaves and grass cuttings. Leaf blowers are powered by electric or gasoline motors. Gasoline models have traditionally been two-stroke engines, but four-stroke engines were recently introduced to partially address air pollution concerns. Leaf blowers are typically self-contained handheld units, or backpack mounted units with a handheld wand. The latter is more ergonomic for prolonged use. Larger units may rest on wheels and even use a motor for propulsion. These are sometimes called "walk behind leaf blowers" because they must be pushed by hand to be operated.

Fukar je zemědělský či zahradní stroj, elektrické, benzínové či akumulátorové nářadí. Užívá se pro různé účely, malé stroje nejčastěji pro rychlý úklid venkovních prostor. Standardně se využívá pro vysávání a shrnování spadaného listí a rozfoukání sněhu. Fukary využívají zemědělské podniky k foukání sypkých produktů, sena či slámy. Při úklidu měst je využívají městské technické služby a k úklidu na zahradě i běžné domácnosti. Fukary nachází uplatnění i v truhlářských a jiných provozech, kde je třeba směrovaným proudem vzduchu uklidit, třísky, piliny, špony apod.


Club career.

Early career in Argentina.

Ayala began his career in his native Argentina, playing for Ferro Carril Oeste. After three seasons, he moved to River Plate where his good form attracted the attention of clubs in Europe.

Move to Europe.

Parma, Napoli and Milan.

Italian side Parma brought the Argentine defender to Europe. However, the club, having already used their quota of three non-EU players, loaned him to Napoli, who purchased 50% of his rights on a co-ownership deal. Ayala was bought by Milan at the end of the 1997–98 season and played there for two seasons until Valencia purchased him for £6.25 million.

Valencia.

After signing with Valencia in the summer of 2000, Ayala made 275 appearances during a seven-year spell at the club.  On 24 September 2000, Ayala made his debut for Valencia in a 3–0 La Liga win over Numancia. He soon established himself as a first choice central defender for "Los Che" and started alongside compatriot Mauricio Pellegrino in the 2001 UEFA Champions League final, where Valencia lost 5–4 to Bayern Munich after a penalty shootout. He was later named best defender for the 2000–01 tournament.  The following season, Ayala was part of the Valencia team that won the 2001–02 La Liga title. He scored the opening goal of a 2–0 defeat of Málaga which secured the championship on 5 May 2002. In 2003–04, Valencia again won the La Liga title and beat Marseille 2–0 in Gothenburg to win the UEFA Cup.  During the 2004–05 season, injuries kept Ayala from much of the La Liga campaign as well as the UEFA Super Cup victory over Porto.  During his time with Valencia, he was widely regarded as one of the finest central defenders in the world and is considered to be one of the club's all-time legends.

Villarreal and Real Zaragoza.

In August 2006, Ayala was not offered a new contract by sporting director Amedeo Carboni. On 7 February 2007, he announced he would join regional rivals Villarreal at the end of the season, however before having played for Villarreal, he joined Real Zaragoza on a three-year deal on 14 July 2007. The buy-out clause in his contract with Villarreal was €6 million (£4.8 million) which was paid in full by Real Zaragoza.  On 3 May 2008, Ayala scored his first goal for Real Zaragoza in the 94th minute against Deportivo de La Coruña to lead Zaragoza to a 1–0 victory. Zaragoza, however, were relegated to the Segunda División. On 22 November 2008, Ayala scored his second goal for Zaragoza, in the 73rd of a 3–0 win over Eibar. On 29 February 2009, he scored his third goal coming in the 54th minute against Real Murcia as Zaragoza won the match 4–1.  In January 2010, Ayala's contract with Zaragoza was terminated by mutual consent.

Racing Avellaneda.

On 2 February 2010, Argentine side Racing Club signed Ayala on a free transfer.

International career.

Ayala made his debut for Argentina on 16 November 1994 against Chile under coach Daniel Passarella.  Ayala played for Argentina at the 1996 Summer Olympics, winning the silver medal. He played for Argentina in the 1998 FIFA World Cup and was a non-playing squad member in the 2002 competition due to a last minute injury moments before their first match against Nigeria. He was then selected as an over-age player as Argentina won the gold medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Ayala played an integral part in the Argentine squad for the 2006 World Cup in Germany. He played brilliantly throughout the tournament and was picked as a member of the All Star Team. In the quarter-final against Germany, he scored a header that gave Argentina the 1–0 lead, although his side lost the penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw, with Ayala's spot kick being saved by Jens Lehmann.  On 30 May 2006, In a friendly match against Angola, Ayala earned his 100th cap for Argentina. One of the best defenders in Argentina's history, on 7 February 2007 Ayala became the most capped player of the national team (most as captain), beating his friend Diego Simeone, in a friendly victory 1–0 against France played in the Stade de France in Paris.  On 5 June 2007, in a friendly against Algeria, Ayala captained Argentina for a record 58th international, having equalled Diego Maradona's mark of 57 in the 1–1 draw against Switzerland in Basel on 2 June.  On 17 July 2007, two days after playing in the 2007 Copa América final, which ended in a 3–0 defeat to Brazil, and during which he scored an own goal, Ayala announced his retirement from international football. Ayala stated, "it has nothing to do with what happened in the final of the Copa América." Javier Zanetti took over from him as captain.

After retiring.

Racing Club.

On 30 December, Ayala retired from professional football. On 21 December 2011, Ayala was hired as a football coordinator at Racing Club. In September 2013, a new management arrived, and Ayala was released on 19 September 2013.

Valencia CF.

In December 2013, Ayala was hired as a technical director / sport director for Valencia, where he was going to be the responsible for the whole South American area. The role also involved him scouting in that area to find young talents. He left the club in the middle of 2015.

Argentina.

On 10 January 2019, Ayala joined the technical staff of the Argentina national football team as a field assistant of manager Lionel Scaloni.

Style of play.

Regarded as one of the best and most accomplished defenders of his generation, Ayala was mainly known for his ability in the air and tenacious tackling, and also stood out for his leadership and consistency throughout his career. A complete defender, he was also noted for his speed, ability on the ball, and passing accuracy as a centre-back.

Personal life.

Ayala is married to Veronica, and has four children: Francisco, Sofía, Pilar and Martina.

Honours.

River Plate  Milan  Valencia  Argentina U23  Individual

Roberto Fabián Ayala (; born 14 April 1973), nicknamed "El Ratón" (English: "The Mouse"), is an Argentine former footballer who played as a centre back for the Argentina national football team, as well as Valencia and Real Zaragoza in Spain, Milan and Napoli in Italy and River Plate in his native Argentina.

Roberto Fabián Ayala (* 14. dubna 1973, Paraná, Argentina) je bývalý argentinský fotbalový obránce, který hrál za špičkové kluby CA River Plate, AC Milan a Valencia CF, se kterými získal mnoho úspěchů.


Description.

The main features of the Type XXI were the hydrodynamically streamlined hull and conning tower and the large number of battery cells, roughly triple that of the German Type VII submarine. This gave these boats great underwater range and dramatically reduced the time spent on or near the surface. They could travel submerged at about for about 75 hours before recharging batteries, which took less than five hours using the snorkel. Being designed primarily for submerged use, the Type XXI's maximum surface speed (15.6 knots) was slightly lower than that of the Type IX (18.2 knots) but its submerged speed was twice that of the Type IX's (15.2 knots versus 7.7 knots), thanks to new turbo-supercharged diesel engines and the more hydrodynamically streamlined hull.  The Type XXI was also much quieter than the VIIC, making it more difficult to detect when submerged and the design eliminated protruding components that created drag with earlier models. The new, streamlined hull design allowed submerged speed of, versus for the Type VIIC. The ability to outrun many surface ships while submerged, combined with improved dive times (also a product of the new hull form), made the Type XXI much more difficult to pursue and destroy. It also provided a'sprint ability' when positioning itself for an attack. Older boats had to surface to sprint into position. This often revealed a boat's location, especially after aircraft became available for convoy escort. The Type XXI was also equipped with a creep motor for occasions when silent running was necessary.  Type XXI was equipped with six bow torpedo tubes (instead of the more common four) and carried 23 torpedoes. It featured an electric torpedo-reloading system that allowed all six bow torpedo tubes to be reloaded faster than a Type VIIC could reload one tube. The Type XXI could fire 18 torpedoes in less than 20 minutes. The class also featured a very sensitive passive sonar for the time, housed in the "chin" of the hull.  The Type XXIs also had better facilities than previous U-boat classes, with much roomier crew berths, and a freezer to prevent food spoilage. The increased capacity allowed for a crew of 57.  A post-war assessment of the Type XXI by the United States Navy concluded that while the design had some admirable features, it was seriously flawed. The submarines' engines were underpowered, which limited the surface speed and increased the time required to charge the batteries. The hydraulic system was over-complex, and its main elements were located outside the pressure hull. This made the system highly vulnerable to corrosion and damage. The snorkel was also badly designed, and difficult to use in practice.

Construction.

This was the first U-boat to be constructed of modular components to allow for the manufacture of the various components in different factories and subsequent assembly at the shipyard.  Between 1943 and 1945, 118 boats were assembled by Blohm & Voss of Hamburg, AG Weser of Bremen and Schichau-Werke of Danzig. Each hull was constructed from nine prefabricated sections with final assembly at the shipyards. This new method allowed for a hypothetical construction time of less than six months per vessel, but in practice all the assembled U-boats were plagued with severe quality problems that required extensive post-production work and time to rectify. One of the reasons for these shortcomings was that sections were made by companies having little experience with shipbuilding, after a decision by Albert Speer. As a result, of 118 Type XXIs constructed, only four were fit for combat before the Second World War ended in Europe. Of these, only two conducted combat patrols and neither sank any Allied ships. Post-war assessments by the US Navy and British Royal Navy also found that the completed submarines had poor structural integrity due to the manufacturing problems. This rendered the submarines highly vulnerable to depth charges, and gave them a lower maximum diving depth than earlier U-boat designs.  It was planned that final assembly of Type XXI boats would eventually be carried out in the Valentin submarine pens, a massive, bomb–hardened concrete bunker built at the small port of Farge, near Bremen. The pens were constructed between 1943 and 1945, using about 10,000 concentration camp prisoners and prisoners of war as forced labour. The facility was 90% completed when, during March 1945, it was heavily damaged by Allied bombing with Grand Slam "earthquake" bombs and abandoned. A few weeks later the area was captured by the British Army.  Due to the combination of design and construction problems, historian Clay Blair judged that "the XXI could not have made a big difference in the Battle of the Atlantic.

Sensors.

Radar detector.

The FuMB Ant 3 "Bali" radar detector and antenna was located on top of the snorkel head.

Radar transmitter.

The Type XXI boats were fitted with the FuMO 65 "Hohentwiel" U1 with the Type F432 D2 radar transmitter.

Wartime and post-war service.

Germany.

and were the only Type XXIs used for war patrols, and neither sank any ships. The commander of "U-2511" claimed the U-boat had a British cruiser in her sights on 4 May when news of the German cease-fire was received. He further claimed she made a practice attack before leaving the scene undetected.  During 1957,, which had been scuttled at the end of the war, was raised and refitted as research vessel "Wilhelm Bauer" of the "Bundesmarine". It was operated by both military and civilian crews for research purposes until 1982. During 1984, it was made available for display to the public by the "Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum" (German Maritime Museum) in Bremerhaven, Germany.

France.

became. It was used for active service during the Suez Crisis in 1956, and remained in commission until 1967. It was scrapped in 1969.

Soviet Union.

Four Type XXI boats were assigned to the USSR by the Potsdam Agreement; these were,,, and, which were commissioned into the Soviet Navy as,,, and (later "B-100") respectively. However, Western intelligence believed the Soviets had acquired several more Type XXI boats; a review by the U.S. Joint Intelligence Committee for the Joint Chiefs of Staff during January 1948 estimated the Soviet Navy then had 15 Type XXIs operational, could complete construction of 6 more within 2 months, and could build another 39 within a year and a half from prefabricated sections, since several factories producing Type XXI components and the assembly yard at Danzig had been captured by the Soviets at the end of World War II. "U-3538" — "U-3557" (respectively "TS-5" – "TS-19" and "TS-32" – "TS-38") remained incomplete at Danzig and were scrapped or sunk during 1947. The four boats assigned by Potsdam were used in trials and tests until 1955, then scuttled or used for weapon testing between 1958 and 1973. The Type XXI design formed the basis for several Soviet design projects, Projects 611, 613, 614, 633, and 644. These became the submarine classes known by their NATO codes as, and submarine classes.

United Kingdom.

was commissioned into the Royal Navy as. It was used for tests until being scrapped during November 1949.

United States.

The United States Navy acquired and, operating them both in the Atlantic Ocean. During November 1946 President Harry S. Truman visited "U-2513"; the submarine dived to with the President aboard. "U-2513" was sunk as a target in 1951; "U-3008" was scrapped in 1956.

Survivor.

The only boat to survive intact is (ex-"U-2540"). Records indicate that this sub was scuttled by the crew in 1945, salvaged in 1957 and refurbished for use by the West German Bundesmarine until retirement in 1983. It was then modified to appear in wartime configuration for exhibit purposes.

Notable wrecks.

The wrecks of several Type XXI boats are known to exist. During 1985, it was discovered that the partially scrapped remains of,, and were still in the partially demolished "Elbe II" U-boat bunker in Hamburg. The bunker has since been filled in with gravel, although even that did not initially deter many souvenir hunters who measured the position of open hatches and dug down to them to allow the removal of artifacts. The wrecks now lie beneath a car park (parking lot), making them inaccessible.

Influences.

The Type XXI design directly influenced advanced post-war submarines, the Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program (GUPPY) improvements to the United States,, and -class submarines, and the Soviet submarine projects designated Whiskey, Zulu and Romeo by NATO. The Chinese built Romeo-class submarines, and subsequent, were based on Soviet blueprints.

Type XXI submarines were a class of German diesel–electric "Elektroboot" (German: "electric boat") submarines designed during the Second World War. One hundred and eighteen were completed, with four being combat ready. During the war only two were put into active service and went on patrols, but these were not used in combat.

Typ XXI je třída oceánských diesel-elektrických ponorek vyvinutých pro německou Kriegsmarine na sklonku druhé světové války. Ponorky typu "XXI", které měly pomoci zvrátit druhou bitvu o Atlantik, představují díky svým vynikajícím nautickým vlastnostem, vysoké rychlosti pod hladinou a vysoké kapacitě akumulátorů, nejlepší druhoválečnou třídu ponorek. Po válce se tyto ponorky staly, pro svou vyspělou technickou koncepci, vítanou kořistí Spojenců a ovlivnily vývoj ponorek hluboko do 50. let.


Plot.

Kristine Kochanski (Chloë Annett) is having a hard time on "Starbug" with no bath, poor food, and squeaking pipes in her sleeping quarters. Dave Lister (Craig Charles) arranges for her to have a bath in his quarters, and finds some extra clothing for her – gestures that worry Kryten (Robert Llewellyn) considerably. But before she can bathe, an engine failure leaves the crew trapped in Lister's quarters, and the ship is on a collision course with a meteor shower. The only way to re-fire the backup generator is by going through the service ducts.  As they navigate through the narrow ducts, Kochanski helps Lister with his claustrophobia, while Kryten and Cat (Danny John-Jules) look for any hatches that they can use to get back into "Starbug". After dealing with water flushing through the vents, and hurricane-force winds to dry the ductways, Kryten admits that he planned the whole situation. He adjusted the thermosettings so it would overload and locked them in Lister's quarters. They eventually exit the ducts but end up back in Lister's quarters. Kryten makes another admission – the doors to Lister's quarters aren't locked after all; he excluded them from the shutdown override in case anything happened. Lister goes off to steer the ship away from disaster, while Kochanski asks Kryten to repeat the squeak noises that the pipes make while repeatedly hitting his head with a spanner (which she had been doing earlier to the squeaking pipes).

Production.

The episode overran by three minutes, and had to be cut down. Rather than lose vital scenes, it was decided that the opening titles would be replaced by a caption slide, to save precious time. The scenes would be reinstated for the "X-tended" edition on VHS release. This is the third episode of "Red Dwarf" to forfeit the opening titles for the purposes of time and episode pacing (the others being series II closer "Parallel Universe" and previous series VII episode "Ouroboros").  Being the last episode written, and the fact that the series had stretched the budget at that point, "Duct Soup" turned out to be the 'bottle show', a cheap production script that replaced the initially more expensive story that was written, Identity Within.  In Series 7's bonus features, Craig Charles mentions one word has been dubbed over in the scene where he tells his story about him developing claustrophobia, as it turns out this word was left un-dubbed on the first VHS release of Series 7 and is, in fact, 'Fuck'.

Cultural and historical references.

Lister's claustrophobia is only mentioned one other time within the Red Dwarf series, in the episode "Confidence and Paranoia" when Lister and his Confidence are outside in space suits. Any other time, though, Lister is shown in closed spaces, without any fear. When the Cat questions Lister as to why he's never shown any signs of claustrophobia in other instances when they've been trapped in small places, Lister responds he only'sometimes' suffers with it, thereby avoiding a continuity error. It is also alluded to in a deleted scene for "Krytie TV" wherein Lister is sneaking through a duct to get to Warden Ackerman's quarters.  The title is a reference to the famous Marx Brothers comedy "Duck Soup".

Reception.

"Duct Soup" has received some mixed reviews. DVDActive complained that "the comedy is just not funny enough and, barring a few wonderful moments from the Cat, it's all a bit of a disappointment." Sci-Fi Online, on the other hand, called it "the best episode of the eight in this series" claiming that "as well as being a character study on a par with Series 3's Marooned, it boasts loads of great lines."

"Duct Soup" is the fourth episode of science fiction sit-com "Red Dwarf" Series VII and the 40th in the series run. It was first broadcast on the British television channel BBC2 on 7 February 1997. It was written by Doug Naylor and directed by Ed Bye.

Zkouška kanálem (v anglickém originále Duct Soup) je čtvrtá epizoda sedmé série (a celkově čtyřicátá) britského sci-fi sitcomu "Červený trpaslík".


Biography.

Eadgifu was the daughter of Sigehelm, Ealdorman of Kent, who died at the Battle of the Holme in 902. She married Edward in about 919 and became the mother of two sons, Edmund I of England, later King Edmund I, and Eadred of England, later King Eadred, and two daughters, Saint Eadburh of Winchester and Eadgifu. She survived Edward by many years, dying in the reign of her grandson Edgar.  According to a narrative written in the early 960s, her father had given Cooling in Kent to a man called Goda as security for a loan. She claimed that her father had repaid the loan and left the land to her, but Goda denied receiving payment and refused to surrender the land. She got possession of Cooling six years after her father's death, when her friends persuaded King Edward to threaten to dispossess Goda of his property unless he gave up the estate. Edward later declared Goda's lands forfeit and gave the charters to Eadgifu, but she returned most of the estates to Goda, although retained the charters. Some time after this her marriage to Edward took place. After his death King Æthelstan required Eadgifu to return the charters to Goda, perhaps because the king was on bad terms with his stepmother.  She disappeared from court during the reign of her step-son, King Æthelstan, but she was prominent and influential during the reign of her two sons. As queen dowager, her position seem to have been higher than that of her daughter-in-law; In a Kentish charter datable between 942 and 944, her daughter-in-law Ælfgifu of Shaftesbury subscribes herself as the king's concubine ("concubina regis"), with a place assigned to her between the bishops and ealdormen. By comparison, Eadgifu subscribes higher up in the witness list as "mater regis", after her sons Edmund and Eadred but before the archbishops and bishops"."  Following the death of her younger son Eadred in 955, she was deprived of her lands by her eldest grandson, King Eadwig, perhaps because she took the side of his younger brother, Edgar, in the struggle between them. When Edgar succeeded on Eadwig's death in 959 she recovered some lands and received generous gifts from her grandson, but she never returned to her prominent position at court. She is last recorded as a witness to a charter in 966.  She was known as a supporter of saintly churchmen and a benefactor of churches.

Eadgifu of Kent (also Edgiva or Ediva) (in or before 903 – in or after 966) was the third wife of Edward the Elder, King of Wessex.

Edgiva z Kentu († 25. srpna 968), někdy také označovaná jako Eadgifu či Ediva, byla třetí manželka anglického krále Eduarda Staršího.


Early career.

Bloodrock initially formed in Fort Worth in 1963, under the name the Naturals. This first lineup featured Jim Rutledge – drums/vocals, Nick Taylor (1946-2010) – guitar/vocals, Ed Grundy – bass/vocals, and Dean Parks – guitar. They released their first single in 1965 "Hey Girl" b/w "I Want You" (Rebel MME 1003). Shortly thereafter they changed their name to Crowd + 1 and released three more singles: "Mary Ann Regrets” b/w "Whatcha Tryin’ to Do to Me" (BOX 6604), "Don’t Hold Back" b/w "Try," and "Circles" b/w “Most Peculiar Things."  In 1967, Parks left Crowd +1 to become the musical director for "The Sonny & Cher Show" (the beginning of a long career as a session musician). He was replaced by Lee Pickens on guitar. It was also at this time that Stevie Hill joined the group on keyboards and vocals. They continued as Crowd + 1 until 1969 when they changed their name to Bloodrock, conceived by Grand Funk Railroad manager/producer Terry Knight. They also recorded their first album under Knight, "Bloodrock" (Capitol ST-435). The album, released in March 1970, peaked at 160 on the "Billboard" 200 chart.  In 1970, Rutledge moved from behind the drum set to take on lead vocal duties exclusively. Rick Cobb took over the percussive duties and added his voice to the group as well. This lineup recorded their next four albums: "Bloodrock 2" (ST-491), "Bloodrock 3" (ST-765), "Bloodrock USA" (SMAS 645), and "Bloodrock Live" (SVBB-11038).  Bloodrock opened for Grand Funk on the 1970 tour.

"Bloodrock 2" and "D.O.A.".

"Bloodrock 2" was their most successful album peaking at number 21 on the "Billboard" Pop Album Chart in 1971, mostly on the strength of their single "D.O.A.", which reached number 36 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart on March 6, 1971. "D.O.A." also gave the band considerable regional exposure throughout the Southwest and West, particularly in Texas and Southern California. "D.O.A." was probably the band's most well-known and well-remembered single. However, some radio stations would not play the song because of the use of sirens. The concern was that the siren sound would confuse motorists.The motivation for writing this song was explained in 2005 by guitarist Lee Pickens. “When I was 17, I wanted to be an airline pilot,” Pickens said. “I had just gotten out of this airplane with a friend of mine, at this little airport, and I watched him take off. He went about 200 feet in the air, rolled and crashed.” The band decided to write a song around the incident and include it on their second album.

Style and personnel change.

In 1972 Lee Pickens left to form the Lee Pickens Group and released the album "LPG" in 1973 on Capitol Records. Jim Rutledge also left Bloodrock in 1972, later releasing a solo album in 1976 on Capitol Records titled "Hooray for Good Times". Bloodrock replaced Rutledge on vocals and guitar with Warren Ham on vocals, flute and saxophone. Stevie Hill on keyboards adjusted to Ham's presence by shifting his own style. These changes to personnel and style moved the hard rock sound of the band in a lighter direction, more toward progressive rock, pop and jazz, alienating some fans. The subsequent album, "Passage" was the last time Bloodrock visited the charts. It peaked at number 104 on the Billboard 200 in 1972.  1973 brought another personnel change: Rick Cobb vacated the drums to be replaced by Randy Reader. This line up recorded one album: "Whirlwind Tongues" (1974).  The end of the road for Bloodrock came in 1975. Randy Reader left the group and an album, "Unspoken Words", remained unreleased until 2000, when it was included as part of the CD release "Triptych" (along with "Passage" and "Whirlwind Tongues"). "Unspoken Words" featured Bill Ham (Warren's Brother) and Matt Betton.

2005 reunion concert.

A reunion concert featuring all five members of the original lineup (Jim Rutledge, Lee Pickens, Ed Grundy, Nick Taylor, and Stevie Hill), plus Chris Taylor (Nick's son) in place of drummer Rick Cobb III from the classic six-member lineup, was held on March 12, 2005, in Fort Worth, for the benefit of their keyboardist Stevie Hill, to help with medical costs related to his combating leukemia. The reunion concert was filmed and released on DVD. Stevie Hill died on September 12, 2013, from leukemia.

Music.

Bloodrock's music has been categorized primarily as hard rock. Bloodrock's 1970 self-titled debut album was described in the context of hard rock and early heavy metal by AllMusic's Donald A. Guarisco. "Bloodrock 2" was not as morbid and heavy, and more of a chart success, while "Bloodrock 3" and "Bloodrock U.S.A." saw the band introduce progressive rock elements. The band's 1972 personnel changes shifted them toward prog rock, jazz and pop music.

Bloodrock was an American rock band based in Fort Worth, Texas, that had success in the 1970s. The band emerged from the Fort Worth club and music scene during the early to mid-1970s.

Bloodrock byla americká progresivní rocková skupina, založená v texaském Fort Worthu v roce 1969. V roce 1975 se skupina rozpadla. V roce 2005 byla skupina obnovena pro jeden koncert.


History.

Origins.

Toward the end of February 1910, the Wright Brothers decided to open one of the world's earliest flying schools at the site that would subsequently become Maxwell AFB. The Wrights taught the principles of flying, including take-offs, balancing, turns, and landings. The Wright Flying School closed on May 26, 1910.  The field served as a repair depot during World War I. In fact, the depot built the first plane made in Montgomery and exhibited it at the field on September 20, 1918. Repair activity at the depot was sharply curtailed at the end of the war.

Interwar Years.

The Aviation Repair Depot's land was leased by the U.S. Army during World War I, and later purchased on January 11, 1920 for $34,327. Diminished postwar activity caused the U.S. War Department in 1919 to announce that it planned to close thirty-two facilities around the country, including the Aviation Repair Depot. In 1919, the Aviation Repair Depot had a $27,000 monthly civilian payroll, and was a vital part of the city's economy. The loss of the field would have been a serious blow to the local Montgomery economy. The field remained open into the early 1920s only because the War Department was slow in closing facilities. After this initial reprieve, the War Department announced in 1922 that facilities on the original closure list would indeed close in the very near future. City officials were not surprised to hear that Aviation Repair Depot remained on the list, because 350 civilian employees had been laid off in June 1921. On November 8, 1922, the War Department redesignated the depot as Maxwell Field in honor of Atmore, Alabama native, Second Lieutenant William C. Maxwell. On 12 August 1920, engine trouble forced Lieutenant Maxwell to attempt to land his DH-4 in a sugarcane field in the Philippines. Maneuvering to avoid a group of children playing below, he struck a flagpole hidden by the tall sugarcane and was killed instantly. On the recommendation of his former commanding officer, Major Roy C. Brown, the Montgomery Air Intermediate Depot, Montgomery, Alabama, was renamed Maxwell Field. In 1923, it was one of three U.S. Army Air Service aviation depots. Maxwell Field repaired aircraft engines in support of flying training missions such as those at Taylor Field, southeast of Montgomery.  Maxwell Field, as most Army air stations and depots developed during World War I, was on leased properties with temporary buildings being the mainstay of construction. These temporary buildings/shacks were built to last two to five years. By the mid-1920s, these dilapidated wartime buildings had become a national disgrace. Congressional investigations also showed that the manning strength of the U.S. Army's air arm was seriously deficient. These critical situations eventually led to the Air Corps Act of 1926 and the two major programs that dramatically transformed Army airfields. The Air Corps Act changed the name and status of the Army Air Service to the U.S. Army Air Corps and authorized a five-year expansion program. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, this program and its companion, the 1926 Army Housing Program, produced well-designed, substantial, permanent buildings and infrastructure at all Army airfields retained after World War I.  Taking up the cause of Maxwell Field was freshman Congressman J. Lister Hill, a World War I veteran who served with the 17th and 71st U.S. Infantry Regiments. He, as well as other Montgomery leaders, recognized the historical significance of the Wright Brother's first military flying school and the potential of Maxwell Field to the local economy. In 1925 Hill, a member of the House Military Affairs Committee, affixed an amendment to a military appropriations bill providing $200,000 for the construction of permanent buildings at Maxwell Field. This amendment did not have the approval of the War Department nor the Army Air Corps, but as a result of this massive spending on Maxwell Field, the War Department kept it open. Hill recognized that to keep Maxwell Field open, it needed to be fiscally or militarily valuable to the War Department.  In September 1927, Hill met with Major General Mason M. Patrick, chief of the Army Air Corps, and his assistant, Brigadier General James E. Fechet, to discuss the placement of an attack group at Maxwell Field. Both made it clear that Maxwell Field was too close to Montgomery and was not a suitable location for an attack group. In fact, they asked Hill as "a friend of the Air Corps" not to "embarrass" the Corps by asking that the group be placed there. They warned that if he persisted, they would "very much oppose" the effort. However, General Patrick not wanting to alienate the new and up and coming Congressman (who was also a member of the House Military Affairs Committee) sought to appease Hill by offering to create an observation squadron at Maxwell Field. Hill welcomed the gesture; however, the creation of an observation squadron fell short of the long term on-going mission sought by Hill for Maxwell Field.  Hill continued to argue for the attack group to be placed at Maxwell Field. He argued that because of the permanent buildings scheduled to be built, it would be fiscally advantageous for the placement of the attack group at Maxwell Field. Hill's arguments were an extension of ones that had been presented to him by Major Roy S. Brown, former commandant of Maxwell Field from 1922-1925. In 1927, Major Brown was the commander of the Air Corps Tactical School located at Langley Field, Virginia. Major Brown urged Hill to keep his name out of it because of the easily traceable insider information. Hill, frustrated with the lack of positive response from Generals Patrick and Fechet, moved up the chain of command and passed on the correspondence he had with General Fechet to Secretary of War Dwight Davis, Assistant Secretary of War for Air F. Trubee Davison, and Army Chief of Staff Charles P. Summerall. His request to them was given the answer: that they would give the matter "full consideration."  The depot's first official flying mission was carried out after that. Observation missions originated there in 1927–1929. Pilots from the field were also involved in completing the first leg of a test designed to establish an airmail route between the Gulf Coast and the northern Great Lakes area. The successful test played a major role in the eventual establishment of permanent airmail service in the Southeast.  By early 1928, the decision of basing a new Army Air Corps attack group had come down to Shreveport, Louisiana, and Montgomery. Both cities vied for the federal money to be spent in their respective local areas, but Shreveport the more economically developed city than its counterpart Montgomery won the day. In April 1928 Hill, via his contacts in the War Department, found out that Montgomery would not be getting the attack group. Flexing his congressional muscle, Hill persuaded Assistant Secretary Davidson and now chief of the Air Corps Major General Fechet to hold off the official announcement until Montgomery had a second look by the War Department. During the interim Montgomery leaders had set forth actions to acquire over for Maxwell Field's expansion in hopes of wooing the War Department into placing the attack group in Montgomery.  In May 1928 General Benjamin Foulois, General Fechet's assistant, during an inspection visit with Third Army commander General Frank Parker to Maxwell Field mentioned that the Air Corps Tactical School would be moving from Langley Field to a still undecided location. During his stay General Foulois met with local Chamber of Commerce chairman Jesse Hearin and Maxwell Field post commandant, Major Walter R. Weaver. Hearin and Weaver touted the feasibility of Maxwell Field and the Montgomery area for the placement of the attack group at Maxwell Field. However, General Foulois guided the conversation towards the impending movement of the Air Corps Tactical School and he favored Maxwell Field for the new home. Hearin immediately worked up an option on another one thousand acres (4 km2) for the Air Corps Tactical School should Montgomery not be favored with the attack group.  In July 1928, word "via rumor" of the decision for the establishment of an attack group came out that Shreveport was indeed the victor of the final decision. In December 1928, after much debate and political maneuvering it was announced officially by the Assistant Secretary of War that Shreveport would be getting the attack group and that the Army Air Corps Tactical School (ACTS) would be coming to Maxwell Field. The move to Maxwell Field from Langley Field was initially expected to increase Maxwell Field's population by eighty officers and 300 enlisted. It was expected that the ACTS would be to the Army Air Corps what Fort Benning, Georgia was to the infantry.  On January 15, 1929, it was announced that the ACTS would be twice as large as originally planned. On February 11, it was announced that $1,644,298 had been allowed for ACTS construction. This was not including an additional $324,000 the Secretary of War had approved previously for non-commissioned officer barracks and a school building after a conference with Congressman Hill. On March 12, a conference between a Major Kennedy, Chief of Buildings and Grounds of the Army Air Corps and commandant of the ACTS, and Congressman Lister Hill to determine the locations of the buildings and types of construction. In March 1929, personnel at Maxwell provided flood relief to citizens of Montgomery. This was the first time at which food and supplies were airdropped by U.S. military forces during a major civilian emergency.  On July 9, 1929, Captain Walter J. Reed and a battery of attorneys checked titles for the land. The War Department also announced the same day that the plan had changed to where the ACTS would now be four times as large as originally planned with 200 officers and 1,000 enlisted men. At the time, this made Maxwell Field the largest (as far as personnel) Army Air Corps installation in the southeast. Approximately 300 signatures to the deed of the land occupied by the Air Corps Tactical School were signed, of which one was signed by a minor. Chairman of the Montgomery Chamber of Commerce James Hearin said, "...several cases had to be taken to court." Despite the obvious rush for signatures, by October 5, deeds to the land were signed and mailed to the War Department.  On December 17, 1929, Congressman Lister Hill introduced a bill to appropriate $320,000 for the acquiring of of land in Montgomery County as a part of an expansion program for Maxwell Field. This was a particularly bold move at the time by Hill because of the stock market crash. Effects of the crash had yet to take place; however, the panic caused by the crash had certainly captured Montgomery's attention. On January 25, 1930, President Herbert Hoover asked Congress to re-appropriate an additional $100,000 for the main school building at Maxwell Field. President Hoover's policy was to speed public works to offset unemployment. In February 1930, Congressman Hill's resolution was passed in the House of Representatives and were to be added to Maxwell Field for expansion purposes. George B. Ford and Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., were hired by the Army Quartermaster Corps and they designed the overall layout of ACTS at Maxwell. Ford used an approach that clustered similar functions together. This technique provided plenty of open space and gave each cluster a distinct appearance.  On September 17, 1931, the first ACTS training occurred at Maxwell Field. Forty-one students met at 8:40 a.m. in the operations office conference room for general instruction. Classes were divided into sections, with some pilots sent on check flights, while others were sent out to become familiar with the surrounding countryside to become familiar with emergency landing field locations.  On the morning of September 22, 1931, opening exercises of the Air Corps Tactical School were held. On September 24, the Air Corps Tactical School was officially launched. The address was made by Major General James E. Fechet, chief of the Army Air Corps also attending were Congressman Lister Hill and commandant of the Air Corps Tactical School, Major John F. Curry. General Fechet, along with announcing his impending retirement, declared that the forty-one student officers could be future generals of the Air Corps. At a later luncheon, General Fechet also lauded Montgomery's attitude toward the Air Corps.The 1931-1932 faculty included Army Air Corps (AC), Army Infantry (Inf), Army Chemical Warfare Service (CWS), and Army Field Artillery (FA) instructors. Initially, the school's curriculum reflected the dominating influence of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell. Mitchell was a strong believer in the importance of gaining and maintaining air superiority during a conflict. He argued strongly for pursuit (e.g., "fighter") aircraft in combination with bombers and regarded enemy pursuit forces as the most serious threat to successful bombing operations and felt that the task of American pursuit was not necessarily to escort bombers, but to also seek out and attack enemy fighters. During the first five years of the school's operation, Mitchell's beliefs formed the basis for instruction at the tactical school. However, by the mid-1930s the school's emphasis had shifted from pursuit to bombardment aviation.  On July 16, 1933, Congressman Lister Hill secured approval from the War Department for $1,650,075 for immediate spending at Maxwell Field. Hill's request was justified by increased enrollment at the Air Corps Tactical School and the desperate need for employment for the local Montgomery population. At the start of October 1933 bids opened for four construction projects that were to start immediately; 1933-1934 construction at Maxwell Field later employed an average of more than 500 workers.  The Air Corps Tactical School opened July 15, 1931. The school evolved into the Army Air Corps (later, U.S. Air Force's) first tactical center until the imminence of American involvement in World War II forced a suspension of classes in June 1940 that resulted in permanent closure of the school. One of the school's notable achievements was its development of two aerial acrobatic teams: the "Three Men on a Flying Trapeze", put together by then-Captain Claire L. Chennault in 1932, and the Skylarks in 1935.

World War II.

In 1940, it was announced that the installation was to be converted into a pilot-training center. On 8 July 1940 the Army Air Corps redesignated its training center at Maxwell Field, Alabama as the Southeast Air Corps Training Center. The Southeast Air Corps Training Center at Maxwell handled flying training (basic, primary and advanced) at airfields in the Eastern United States. An Air Force Pilot School (preflight) was also activated which instructed Aviation Cadets in the mechanics and physics of flight and required the cadets to pass courses in mathematics and the hard sciences. Then the cadets were taught to apply their knowledge practically by teaching them aeronautics, deflection shooting, and thinking in three dimensions. In June 1941, the Army Air Corps became the U.S. Army Air Forces, and on 8 January 1943, the War Department constituted and redesignated the school as the 74th Flying Training Wing (preflight).  During following years, Maxwell was home to six different schools that trained U.S. military aviators and their support teams for wartime service. As World War II progressed, the number of required pilot trainees declined, and the Army Air Forces decided not to send more aircrew trainees to Maxwell Field. The following known sub-bases and auxiliaries were constructed to support the flying school:  On 31 July 1943, the Southeast Air Corps Training Center was redesignated as the Eastern Flying Training Command. Also in July, the Army Air Forces announced a specialized school for pilots of four-engine aircraft. The first B-24 Liberator landed at the field later that month and in early 1945, B-29 Superfortress bomber training replaced the B-24 program.

Cold War.

Training at Maxwell continued until 15 December 1945, when the Eastern Flying Training Command was inactivated and was consolidated into the Central Flying Training Command at Randolph Field, Texas.  Air University, an institution providing continuing military education for Army Air Forces personnel, was established at Maxwell in 1946, prior to the U.S. Air Force becoming an independent service the following year. Today, it remains the main focus of base activities at Maxwell. In 1992, the 3800th Air Base Wing (3800 ABW) was disbanded and the 502d Air Base Wing (502 BW) took over as the host wing, which two years later gave way to the current 42d Air Base Wing.  As home of the Air University, Maxwell became the postgraduate academic center of the U.S. Air Force. Air University evolved first as an institution influenced by air power as shaped in World War II, then by the Cold War under the threat of nuclear annihilation, and by air power as applied during the Cold War's Korean and Vietnam conflicts. In the early twenty-first century, the emphasis shifted to air power's role in confronting international and transnational terrorism by both state-sponsored and non-state actors. AU grew materially from inadequate quarters, classrooms, and instructional technology into a campus that is as modern and up-to-date as those of any other in the U. S. armed forces. Construction of Maxwell's Academic Circle, Air University's primary education complex, began in the 1950s. Its centerpiece was the Air University Library, eventually one of several major libraries on a military installation.  Over the years, other activities were established or relocated to Maxwell AFB, to include Headquarters, Civil Air Patrol - USAF; the Air Force Reserve's 908th Tactical Air Support Group (908 TASG), which evolved into the present day 908th Airlift Wing; the Ira C. Eaker Center for Professional Development; the Air Force Financial Systems Operation office (SAF/FM); the Center for Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education (CADRE); and the Air Force Historical Research Agency, a support organization and repository for air power scholars and AU students. In 1994, Air Force Officer Training School (OTS) was also relocated from Lackland AFB/Medina Annex, Texas to Maxwell AFB, joining the national headquarters of the Air Force's other non-Academy officer accession source, Air Force ROTC.

Based units.

Flying and notable non-flying units based at Maxwell Air Force Base.

United States Air Force.

Air Education and Training Command (AETC)  Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC)  Air Combat Command (ACC)

Popular culture.

Maxwell AFB appears in the video game "Tom Clancy's EndWar" as a possible battlefield.

Maxwell Air Force Base, officially known as Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base, is a United States Air Force (USAF) installation under the Air Education and Training Command (AETC). The installation is located in Montgomery, Alabama, US. Occupying the site of the first Wright Flying School, it was named in honor of Second Lieutenant William C. Maxwell, a native of Atmore, Alabama.

Maxwellova letecká základna ( Maxwell Air Force Base nebo též Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base; kód IATA je MXF, kód ICAO KMXF, kód FAA LID MXF) je vojenská letecká základna letectva Spojených států amerických nacházející se ve městě Montgomery ve státě Alabama. Spadá pod Letecké výukové a tréninkové velitelství (AETC).


History.

Siskiyou County was created on March 22, 1852, from parts of Shasta and Klamath Counties, and named after the Siskiyou mountain range. Parts of the county's territory were given to Modoc County in 1855.  The county is the site of the central section of the Siskiyou Trail, which ran between California's Central Valley and the Pacific Northwest. The Siskiyou Trail followed Native American footpaths, and was extended by Hudson's Bay Company trappers in the 1830s. Its length was increased by "Forty-Niners" during the California Gold Rush.  After the discovery of an important gold strike near today's Yreka, California, in 1851, prospectors flooded the area. This was described in detail by Joaquin Miller in his semi-autobiographical novel "Life Amongst the Modocs."  In the mid 1880s, the construction of the Central Pacific Railroad along the Siskiyou Trail brought the first wave of tourism. Visitors were drawn by the county's many summer resorts, and to hunt or fish in the largely untouched region. The Southern Pacific railroad, the successor to the Central Pacific, called its rail line “The Road of A Thousand Wonders.”  In the early 1940s, Siskiyou County was home to the semi-serious State of Jefferson movement, which sought to create a new state from several counties of northern California and the adjoining counties of southern Oregon. The movement has seen a revival in recent years.  The origin of the word "Siskiyou" is not known. It may be Chinook word for a "bob-tailed horse", or as was argued before the State Senate in 1852, from the French "Six Cailloux" (six stones), a name given to a ford on the Umpqua River by Michel LaFrambois and his Hudson's Bay Company trappers in 1832. Others claim the "Six Cailloux" name was appropriated by Stephen Meek, another Hudson's Bay Company trapper who discovered Scott Valley, for a crossing on the Klamath River near Hornbrook.  The County is home to the Black Bear Ranch, a commune started in 1968 with the slogan "Free Land for free people."  On September 4, 2013, the Siskiyou County Board of Supervisors voted 4 to 1 to secede from the State of California.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (1.1%) is water. It is the fifth-largest county by area in California.  Siskiyou County is geographically diverse. From towering Mount Shasta (elev. 14,179 ft/(4,322 m)) near the center of the county, to lakes and dense forests, as well as desert, chaparral, and memorable waterfalls, the county is home to world-famous trout-fishing rivers and streams, such as the Sacramento and McCloud rivers. The county is dotted as well with lakes and reservoirs, such as Castle Lake and Lake Siskiyou. Mount Shasta itself has a winter sports center. Pastoral Scott Valley in the western part of the county has many wide, tree-lined meadows, supporting large cattle ranches. The basins of northeastern Siskiyou County, including Butte Valley, Lower Klamath and Tule Lake basins, have some of the deepest and richest soils in the state, producing alfalfa, potatoes, horseradish, and brewing barley. Butte Valley nurseries are the leading source of premium strawberry plants in North America. Much of the county is densely forested with pine, fir, incense-cedar, oak, and madrone; Siskiyou County is also home to the rare Baker's Cypress Tree, Cupressus bakeri, which grows in only eleven scattered locations in the world, five of which are in Siskiyou County. The county's natural resources are most often used these days for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, mountain biking, camping, and wilderness recreation, as historic logging practices have been largely discontinued due to Federal and State environmental regulations. The county's water is viewed as sufficiently pure and abundant that the county is a source of significant amounts of bottled water, distributed throughout the country. A large Crystal Geyser plant is at the base of Mt. Shasta, near Weed.

Flora and fauna.

Substantial amounts of the county are forested within the Siskiyou and Cascade Ranges, including significant oak woodland and mixed conifer forests. Siskiyou County is the northern extent of the range for California Buckeye, a widespread California endemic. The Klamath National Forest occupies of land which includes elements in Siskiyou County as well as Jackson County, Oregon.

Transportation.

Public transportation.

Siskiyou Transit And General Express (STAGE) operates buses connecting the more populated areas of the county. Amtrak trains stop in Dunsmuir. Amtrak California motorcoaches operate from Sacramento and Medford, OR, with stops in Yreka, Weed, Mount Shasta, and Dunsmuir, for passengers connecting to and from Amtrak trains in Sacramento or Stockton.

Airports.

Siskiyou County owns and operates Butte Valley Airport, Happy Camp Airport, Scott Valley Airport, Siskiyou County Airport and Weed Airport (all general aviation). Dunsmuir Municipal-Mott Airport and Montague-Yreka Rohrer Field are also within the county.  The closest airports for commercial domestic plane departures are Rogue Valley International-Medford Airport north of the county in Medford, Oregon, Crater Lake–Klamath Regional Airport, northeast of the county in Klamath Falls, Oregon, and Redding Municipal Airport south of the county in Redding, California.

Politics.

Overview.

Siskiyou is a strongly Republican county in Presidential and congressional elections. The last Democrat to win a majority in the county was Lyndon Johnson in 1964. However, Democrat Bill Clinton won a plurality of votes in 1992.  Siskiyou County is in.  In the state legislature Siskiyou is in, and.  On November 4, 2008, Siskiyou County voted 60.1% for Proposition 8 which amended the California Constitution to ban same-sex marriages. Dunsmuir and Mount Shasta voted against Prop 8.  On September 3, 2013, the Siskiyou County Board of Supervisors voted 4–1 in favor of secession from California to form a proposed state named Jefferson. A similar move was made in 1941, but was shelved due to the attack on Pearl Harbor.

Crime.

The following table includes the number of incidents reported and the rate per 1,000 persons for each type of offense.

Demographics.

2010.

The 2010 United States Census reported Siskiyou County had a population of 44,900. The racial makeup of Siskiyou County was 38,030 (84.7%) White, 571 (1.3%) African American, 1,814 (4.0%) Native American, 540 (1.2%) Asian, 80 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 1,491 (3.3%) from other races, and 2,374 (5.3%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4,615 persons (10.3%).

2000.

As of the census of 2000, there were 44,301 people, 18,556 households, and 12,228 families residing in the county. The population density was 7/sq mi (3/km). There were 21,947 housing units at an average density of 4/sq mi (1/km). The racial makeup of the county was 87.1% White, 1.3% Black or African American, 3.9% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.8% from other races, and 3.7% from two or more races. 7.6% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 13.5% were of German, 12.0% English, 9.8% Irish, 9.5% American and 7.1% Italian ancestry according to Census 2000. 91.7% spoke English and 5.7% Spanish as their first language. As of March 2012, the largest self-reported ancestry groups in Siskiyou County are 15% German, 13% English, 12% Irish and 6% Italian.  There were 18,556 households out of which 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.7% were married couples living together, 10.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.1% were non-families. 28.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.87.  In the county, the population was spread out with 24.0% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 28.4% from 45 to 64, and 18.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 96.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.1 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $29,530, and the median income for a family was $36,890. Males had a median income of $31,936 versus $22,650 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,570. About 14.0% of families and 18.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.6% of those under age 18 and 7.3% of those age 65 or over.

Communities.

Population ranking.

The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Siskiyou County.  † "county seat"

Siskiyou County ( ) is a county in the northernmost part of the U.S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 44,900. Its county seat is Yreka and its highest point is Mount Shasta.

Siskiyou County je okres na severu státu Kalifornie v USA. K roku 2010 zde žilo 44 900 obyvatel. Správním městem okresu je Yreka. Celková rozloha okresu činí 16 438,7 km2.


History.

In 1528 Spanish Explorers: Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Estevanico, and Fray Marcos de Niza survived a shipwreck off the Texas coast. Captured by Native Americans, they spent eight years finding their way back to Mexico City, via the San Pedro Valley. Their journals, maps, and stories led to the Cibola, seven cities of gold myth. The Expedition of Francisco Vásquez de Coronado in 1539 using it as his route north through what they called the Guachuca Mountains of Pima (Tohono O'odham) lands and later part of the mission routes north, but was actually occupied by the Sobaipuri descendants of the Hohokam. They found a large Pueblo (described as a small city) between present-day Benson and Whetstone, and several smaller satellite villages and smaller pueblos including ones on Fort Huachuca, Huachuca City and North Eastern Fry. About 1657 Father Kino visited the Sobaipuris just before the Apache forced most from the valley, as they were struggling to survive due to increasing Chiricahua Apache attacks as they moved into the area of Texas Canyon of the Dragoon Mountains. In 1775, Presidio Santa Cruz de Terrenate was founded on the west bank of the San Pedro River to protect the natives as well as the Spanish settlers who supplied the mission stations. The presidio was chronically short on provisions due to raids, however, and lacked personnel to adequately patrol the eastern route due to wars with France and England, so the main route north shifted west to the Santa Cruz valley, farther from the range of the Chiricahua Apache who almost exclusively controlled the area by 1821.  Cochise County was created on February 1, 1881, out of the eastern portion of Pima County. It took its name from the legendary Chiricahua Apache war chief Cochise. The county seat was Tombstone until 1929 when it moved to Bisbee. Notable men who once held the position of County Sheriff were Johnny Behan, who served as the first sheriff of the new county, and who was one of the main characters during the events leading to and following the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. Later, in 1886, Texas John Slaughter became sheriff. Lawman Jeff Milton and lawman/outlaw Burt Alvord both served as deputies under Slaughter.  A syndicated television series which aired from 1956 to 1958, "Sheriff of Cochise" starring John Bromfield, was filmed in Bisbee. The Jimmy Stewart movie "Broken Arrow" and subsequent television show of the same name starring John Lupton, which also aired from 1956 to 1958, took place (but was not filmed) in Cochise County.  J.A. Jance's Joanna Brady mystery series takes place in Cochise County, with Brady being the sheriff.  Beginning in the late 1950s, the small community of Miracle Valley was the site of a series of bible colleges and similar religious organizations, founded by television evangelist A. A. Allen. In 1982, Miracle Valley and neighboring Palominas were the site of a series of escalating conflicts between a newly arrived religious community and the county sheriff and deputies that culminated in the Miracle Valley shootout.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.9%) is water. Cochise County is close to the size of the States of Rhode Island and Connecticut combined.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the 2000 census, there were 117,755 people, 43,893 households, and 30,768 families residing in the county. The population density was 19 people per square mile (7/km2). There were 51,126 housing units at an average density of 8 per square mile (3/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 76.66% White, 4.52% Black or African American, 1.15% Native American, 1.65% Asian, 0.26% Pacific Islander, 12.05% from other races, and 3.72% from two or more races. 30.69% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 25.35% reported speaking Spanish at home, while 1.31% speak German.  There were 43,893 households out of which 32.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.10% were married couples living together, 11.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.90% were non-families. 25.30% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.07.  In the county, the population was spread out with 26.30% under the age of 18, 9.30% from 18 to 24, 26.00% from 25 to 44, 23.70% from 45 to 64, and 14.70% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 101.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.20 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $32,105, and the median income for a family was $38,005. Males had a median income of $30,533 versus $22,252 for females. The per capita income for the county was $15,988. About 13.50% of families and 17.70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.80% of those under age 18 and 10.40% of those age 65 or over.  In 2000, the largest denominational group was the Catholics (with 25,837 adherents) and Evangelical Protestants (with 12,548 adherents). The largest religious bodies were The Catholic Church (with 25,837 members) and The Southern Baptist Convention (with 5,999 members).

2010 census.

As of the 2010 census, there were 131,346 people, 50,865 households, and 33,653 families residing in the county. The population density was. There were 59,041 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 78.5% white, 4.2% black or African American, 1.9% Asian, 1.2% American Indian, 0.3% Pacific islander, 9.9% from other races, and 4.0% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 32.4% of the population. The largest ancestry groups were:  Of the 50,865 households, 30.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were married couples living together, 11.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 33.8% were non-families, and 28.2% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.02. The median age was 39.7 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $44,876 and the median income for a family was $53,077. Males had a median income of $42,164 versus $31,019 for females. The per capita income for the county was $23,010. About 11.8% of families and 15.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.2% of those under age 18 and 10.7% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Cochise County leans strongly towards the Republican Party in Presidential elections. Although Bill Clinton carried the county narrowly in 1992, it has supported the Republican candidate by large margins in every other election since 1968, except for 1996 and 1976 when Clinton and Jimmy Carter each lost only narrowly. Although the county includes the relatively liberal town of Bisbee, as well as the city of Douglas, which has a large Latino population, this is outweighed by the heavily Republican tilt of the more populous Sierra Vista, which is adjacent to Fort Huachuca and thus has a heavy military presence.  In the United States House of Representatives, the county is part of Arizona's 2nd congressional district, which is represented by Democrat Ann Kirkpatrick; the majority of the district's population is in Tucson and its suburbs, which are far more liberal than Cochise County. In the Arizona Legislature, the county is part of the 14th district and is represented by Republican David Gowan in the State Senate and Republicans Gail Griffin and Becky Nutt in the State House of Representatives. This district also includes the entirety of Graham County and Greenlee County, as well as portions of Pima County.

Transportation.

Airports.

Bisbee Municipal Airport is owned by the City of Bisbee and located five nautical miles (9 km) southeast of its central business district  Sierra Vista Municipal Airport (IATA: FHU, ICAO: KFHU, FAA LID: FHU), a joint-use civil-military airport which shares facilities with Libby Army Airfield, is located on Fort Huachuca in Sierra Vista, a city and U.S. Army installation in Cochise County, Arizona, United States. The airport has three runways and one helipad. It is mostly used for military aviation for the surrounding military base.  There are no commercial flights out of Cochise County; the nearest commercial airport is at Tucson approximately 70 miles from Sierra Vista.

Communities.

County population ranking.

The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Cochise County.  † county seat

Cochise County is located in the southeastern corner of the U.S. state of Arizona. The population was 131,346 at the 2010 census. The county seat is Bisbee.

Cochise County je okres na jihovýchodě státu Arizona v USA. K roku 2010 zde žilo 131 346 obyvatel. Správním městem okresu je Bisbee. Celková rozloha okresu činí 16 107 km2. Na jihu sousedí s Mexikem a na východě s Novým Mexikem.


History.

The county was formed from parts of Maricopa County and Pinal County on February 8, 1881. The boundary was then extended eastward to the San Carlos River by public petition in 1889. The original county seat was in the mining community of Globe City, now Globe, Arizona.  Popular theory says that the word "Gila" was derived from a Spanish contraction of Hah-quah-sa-eel, a Yuma word meaning "running water which is salty".  In the 1880s, a long range war broke out in Gila County that became the most costly feud in American history, resulting in an almost complete annihilation of the families involved. The "Pleasant Valley War" (also sometimes called the "Tonto Basin Feud" or "Tonto Basin War") matched the cattle-herding Grahams against the sheep-herding Tewksburys. Once partisan feelings became tense and hostilities began, Frederick Russell Burnham, who later became a celebrated scout and the inspiration for the boy scouts, was drawn into the conflict on the losing side. Burnham shot many men in the feud, and was himself nearly killed by a bounty hunter. Tom Horn, a famous assassin, was also known to have taken part as a killer for hire, but it is unknown as to which side employed him, and both sides suffered several murders to which no suspect was ever identified. In the 1960s, it was home of Gerald Gault, who was the subject of the 1967 U.S. Supreme Court ruling, "in re Gault", that stated juveniles have the same rights as adults when arrested to be notified of the charges against them, the rights to attorneys, for family members to be notified of their arrests and to confront their accusers and to not be punished harsher than adults who are convicted of the same crime, especially if an adult's penalty for the crime would be less than a juvenile convict's.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.8%) is water.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 51,335 people, 20,140 households, and 14,098 families living in the county. The population density was 11 people per square mile (4/km2). There were 28,189 housing units at an average density of 6 per square mile (2/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 77.82% White, 0.38% Black or African American, 12.92% Native American, 0.43% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 6.59% from other races, and 1.80% from two or more races. 16.65% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 9.84% reported speaking Spanish at home, while 6.29% speak Western Apache.  There were 20,140 households out of which 26.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.10% were married couples living together, 10.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.00% were non-families. 25.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 2.99.  In the county, the population was spread out with 25.10% under the age of 18, 6.40% from 18 to 24, 22.30% from 25 to 44, 26.40% from 45 to 64, and 19.80% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 96.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.20 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $30,917, and the median income for a family was $36,593. Males had a median income of $31,579 versus $22,315 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,315. About 12.60% of families and 17.40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.90% of those under age 18 and 7.90% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 census, there were 53,597 people, 22,000 households, and 14,294 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 32,698 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 76.8% white, 14.8% American Indian, 0.5% Asian, 0.4% black or African American, 0.1% Pacific islander, 5.3% from other races, and 2.0% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 17.9% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 17.4% were German, 13.3% were English, 11.4% were Irish, and 3.4% were American.  Of the 22,000 households, 25.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.6% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 35.0% were non-families, and 29.3% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.94. The median age was 47.9 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $37,580 and the median income for a family was $46,292. Males had a median income of $41,698 versus $30,023 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,600. About 11.6% of families and 18.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.4% of those under age 18 and 10.0% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Historically Gila County has been a Democratic-leaning county in largely Republican Arizona – for instance it voted for Adlai Stevenson II in 1952, Hubert Humphrey in 1968 and (very narrowly in a three-way contest) for John W. Davis in 1924. In much of the “dealignment” period from 1960 to 1980, when Arizona was the only state never carried by a Democrat, Gila was the second most-Democratic county in Arizona behind massively unionized Greenlee. Only during very large Presidential landslides was Gila County carried by Republicans before 2000: indeed, apart from Ronald Reagan and Richard Nixon in 1972 no Republican before 2000 ever carried the county by more than seven percentage points.  Since 2000, however, like Greenlee County, Gila County has trended heavily towards the Republican Party, and Hillary Clinton’s 2016 performance was the worst ever by a Democratic presidential nominee.

Transportation.

Airports.

The following public-use airports are located in the county:

Communities.

County population ranking.

The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Gila County.  † county seat

Gila County is a county in the central part of the U.S. state of Arizona. As of the 2010 census its population was 53,597. The county seat is Globe.

Gila County je okres ve státě Arizona v USA. K roku 2010 zde žilo 53 597 obyvatel. Správním městem okresu je Globe. Celková rozloha okresu činí 12 421 km2.