Collision.

Setting.

There are three pairs of running lines through Harrow and Wealdstone station. From east to west these are the slow lines, the fast lines of the West Coast Main Line, and the DC electric lines. In each case the "up" line is southbound towards London Euston; the "down" line is the northbound line towards Watford and Birmingham.  The collisions involved three trains:

Sequence of events.

On 8 October 1952, at around 8:17 a.m., the local train stopped at platform 4 at Harrow and Wealdstone station, approximately seven minutes late because of fog. Carrying about 800 passengers, it was busier than usual because the next Tring-Euston service had been cancelled. As scheduled, it had travelled from Tring on the slow line, switching to the up fast line just before Harrow and Wealdstone to keep the slow lines to the south of the station clear for empty stock movements. At 8:19 a.m, just as the guard was walking back to his brake van after checking doors on the last two carriages, the Perth express crashed into the rear of the local at a speed of. It had passed a colour light signal at caution and two semaphore signals at danger, and had burst through the trailing points of the crossover from the slow lines, which were still set for the local train. The collision drove the entire local train forward, and completely destroyed the rear three coaches, telescoping all three into the length of little more than one coach; shattering the wooden bodies of the last two and crushing the steel body of the next to a third of its length. The leading two vans and three coaches of the Perth train piled up behind and above the locomotive.  The wreckage from the first collision was spread across the adjacent down fast line. A few seconds after the first collision, the northbound express to passed through the station on this line in the opposite direction at approximately. The leading locomotive of this train struck the derailed locomotive of the Perth train, which may still have been moving, and was itself derailed. The two locomotives from the Liverpool train were deflected left, mounting the platform, which they ploughed across diagonally before landing on their side on the adjacent DC electric line, one line of which was short circuited by the wreckage; the other line had its electric current quickly switched off by the signalman, thus preventing any further collisions. The leading seven coaches, plus a kitchen car from the Liverpool train, were carried forward by momentum, overriding the existing wreckage and piling up above and around it. Several of these coaches struck the underside of the station footbridge, tearing away a steel girder.  Sixteen vehicles, including thirteen coaches, two bogie vans and a kitchen car were destroyed or severely damaged in the collisions. Thirteen of these were compressed into a compact heap of wreckage long, wide and high. The Perth locomotive was completely buried under the pile of wreckage.

Aftermath.

The first emergency response arrived at 8:22 a.m. with the fire brigade, ambulance and police services being assisted by doctors and a medical unit of the United States Air Force, based five miles away at RAF West Ruislip. This included Abbie Sweetwine, an African-American nurse who became known as ""The Angel of Platform Six"". Help was accepted from the Salvation Army, the Women's Voluntary Service and local residents. The first loaded ambulance left at 8:27 a.m. and by 12:15 p.m. most of the injured had been taken to hospital. The search for survivors continued until 1:30 the following morning.  All six lines running through the station were closed including the undamaged slow lines to allow the injured access to ambulances that left from the goods yard. The slow lines reopened at 5:32 a.m. the following day. The electric lines were used by cranes to remove the Liverpool locomotives and carriages and reopened 4:30 a.m. on 11 October. The fast lines were reopened, with a speed restriction, at 8:00 p.m. on 12 October and a temporary footbridge was opened the same evening.

Casualties.

There were 112 fatalities, including the driver and fireman of the Perth express and the driver of the lead engine of the Liverpool express. Of these 102 perished at the scene, and the remaining 10 died later in hospital from their injuries. Of the 108 passenger fatalities, at least 64 occurred in the local train, 23 in the Perth train, and 7 in the Liverpool train. The remaining 14 were unclear, but some of the fatalities may have been standing on the platform and hit by the derailed locomotives of the Liverpool train. A total of 340 people reported injury: 183 people were given treatment for shock and minor injury at the station and 157 were taken to hospital, of whom 88 were detained.

Report.

The Ministry of Transport report on the collision was written by Lieut-Col GRS Wilson, a senior member of the Railway Inspectorate and published in June 1953. The local train should have been protected by two semaphore home signals; the Up Fast Inner Home about to its rear, and the Up Fast Outer Home a further back. A colour distant signal (the Up Fast Distant) would show green if the Outer Home was ‘clear’, or yellow if the Outer Home was at ‘danger’ and was positioned before the Up Fast Outer home; this being the full braking distance for an express at, the speed limit for this section of track.  Tests showed no signalling equipment faults and the report was able to dismiss the possibility that the signalman had only changed the route after the Perth train had passed the distant signal at caution. The driver of the Perth train had not slowed his train in response to this signal and had then passed two danger signals before colliding with the Tring train. All the evidence suggested that the driver had made no attempt to stop until the very last moment: Eyewitnesses on board the Perth train reported that an emergency brake application was made a few seconds before the collision.  On this section of line, the local'residential' trains had priority over long-distance expresses at peak time and drivers of late-running expresses would thus often be further delayed, so the Perth express should have been expecting adverse signals. The driver, "a methodical young man" was in good health and there were no signs of a medical emergency or equipment fault that might have distracted the driver from looking for signals. The report discounted the possibility of green colour signals on the adjacent electric lines having been mistaken for the Up Fast Distant, or of signal sighting being seriously impaired by the low sun (9 degrees above the horizon and 17 degrees to the left of the track).  The report noted that while the fog had lifted in the vicinity of Harrow station, with visibility improving to witnesses estimated visibility at the Up Fast Distant to be. At, this would be covered in four seconds or less. In these circumstances I can only suggest that.."the driver".. must have relaxed his concentration on the signals for some unexplained reason, which may have been quite trivial, at any rate during the few seconds for which the Distant signal could have been seen from the engine at the speed he was running in a deceptive patch of denser fog. Having thus missed the Distant he may have continued forward past station (which was not on his own side), underestimating the distance he had run from and still expecting to see the colour light and not the Harrow semaphore stop signals which were at a considerably higher elevation.  The report considered it surprising that there had been only eight deaths in the leading seven passenger coaches of the Liverpool train; some of these coaches were built to a new British Railways standard (all-steel construction, with buck-eye couplings and bodies welded to the underframe) and seemed to have fared better than older stock.  Railway safety depended on obedience to signals, and the report saw no need for more restrictive ways of working to accommodate driver error;...the Rules and Regulations for train working in fog have proved adequate in practice with the aid of the professional skill and care which is displayed by engine drivers throughout the country on the vast majority of occasions. The way to guard against the exceptional case of human failure of the kind which occurred at Harrow does not lie in making the regulations more restrictive, with consequent adverse effect on traffic movement, but in reinforcing the vigilance of drivers by apparatus which provides a positive link between the wayside signals and the footplate. The report considered a system warning drivers that they had passed a signal at caution or danger would have prevented ten percent of the accidents (and 28% of the consequent deaths) in the previous forty-one years, thereby saving 399 lives, including the 112 at Harrow. British Railways was already developing a system that warned drivers that they were approaching a distant signal at caution, and automatically applied the brakes unless this was acknowledged by the driver. By the time the report had been published a five-year plan had been agreed to install the Automatic warning system on of line. The very occasional failures which have occurred give no grounds for loss of confidence in British railway engine drivers as a whole, and there is no reason to believe that the problem has become more urgent in the last few years, notwithstanding the exceptionally tragic results of one such failure at Harrow. All, however, are agreed that enginemen should be given their share of technical aids to safe working, and I consider that at this late stage there should be no reservations on the rate of progress once the apparatus has been approved.

Legacy.

The accident accelerated the introduction of British Railways' Automatic Warning System (AWS), which had received scepticism by some industry expenditure prioritising experts who theorised more lives would be saved by installing more track circuits and colour light signals. By 1977, one third of British Rail tracks had been fitted with AWS.  After the accident experts criticised the local layout of the track: the Tring train had to wait on the fast line; to keep the length of the rods between the points and the signal-box down, the junction between slow and fast lines lay beyond the station. The junction was changed in 1962.  A memorial plaque for the disaster was unveiled in 2002 to mark the 50th anniversary. A mural was painted along the bordering road featuring scenes from Wealdstone's history by children from local schools and dedicated to the victims' memory.  The Dutch pop group The Nits wrote a song titled "Harrow Accident".

Locomotives.

Nameplates from "Windward Islands" and "Princess Anne" were acquired by the Doncaster Grammar School Railway Society, and remain at the school.

The Harrow and Wealdstone rail crash was a three-train collision at Harrow and Wealdstone station in Wealdstone, Middlesex (now Greater London) during the morning rush hour of 8 October 1952. 112 were killed and 340 injured, 88 of these being detained in hospital, and it remains the worst peacetime rail crash in the United Kingdom.

Srážka tří vlaků, k níž došlo 8. října 1952 ve stanici Harrow & Wealdstone, představuje největší železniční neštěstí, které kdy postihlo Spojené království v době míru, a druhé největší vůbec. V důsledku kolize dvou expresů a jednoho osobního vlaku zahynulo 112 lidí a dalších 340 bylo zraněno.


Uses.

Blister packs are used to package products such as toys, hardware, medication, etc.  Many blister packaging machines use heat and pressure via a die to form the cavity or pocket from a roll or sheet of plastic. In recent years, improvements in cold forming—specifically allowing steeper depth/angles during forming, which minimizes the amount of material used for each cavity—have helped this technology increase. The main advantages of the plastic-based blister pack are its more compact size compared to cold formed aluminum and its transparency to see the product.

Unit dose packaging of pharmaceuticals.

Blister packs are commonly used as unit-dose packaging for pharmaceutical tablets, capsules or lozenges. Blister packs can provide barrier protection for shelf life requirements, and a degree of tamper resistance. In the US, blister packs are mainly used for packing physician samples of drug products or for over-the-counter (OTC) products in the pharmacy. In other parts of the world, blister packs are the main packaging type since pharmacy dispensing and re-packaging are not common. A series of blister cavities is sometimes called a blister card or blister strip as well as blister pack. The difference between a strip pack and blister pack is that a strip pack does not have thermo-formed or cold formed cavities; the strip pack is formed around the tablet at a time when it is dropped to the sealing area between sealing moulds. In some parts of the world the pharmaceutical blister pack is known as a push-through pack (PTP), an accurate description of two key properties (i) the lidding foil is brittle, making it possible to press the product out while breaking the lidding foil and (ii) a semi-rigid formed cavity being sufficiently collapsible to be able to dispense the tablet or capsule by means of pressing it out with the thumb. Breaking the lidding foil with a fingernail for the appropriate tablet will make the pressing out easier.  The main advantages of unit-dose blister packs over other methods of packing pharmaceutical products are the assurance of product/packaging integrity (including shelf-life) of each individual dose and the ability to create a compliance pack or calendar pack by printing the days of the week above each dose.  Blister packs are created by means of a form-fill-seal process at the pharmaceutical company or designated contract packer. A form-fill-seal process means that the blister pack is created from rolls of flat sheet or film, filled with the pharmaceutical product and closed (sealed) on the same equipment. Such equipment is called a blisterline. There are two types of blister machine' design: rotary and flat-plate, depending on the mechanism for sealing the lidding foil.

Consumer goods.

Other types of blister packs consist of carded packaging where goods such as toys, hardware, and electrical items are contained between a specially made paperboard card and clear pre-formed plastic such as PVC. The consumer can visually examine the product through the transparent plastic. The plastic shell is vacuum-formed around a mold so it can contain the item snugly. The card is colored and designed depending on the item inside, and the PVC is affixed to the card using heat and pressure to activate an adhesive (heat seal coating) on the blister card. The adhesive is strong enough so that the pack may hang on a peg, but weak enough so that the package can be easily opened (in theory). Sometimes, with large items, the card (cold seal card) has a perforated window for access.

Clamshell.

A hinged blister is known as a clamshell, used for a variety of products. It can be used as a security package to deter package pilferage for small high-value items, such as consumer electronics. It consists of one sheet folded over onto itself and sometimes fused at the edges. They can be securely heat sealed, making them difficult to open by hand to deter tampering. A pair of scissors or a sharp knife is often required to open them (although these are often sold in similar packages). Trauma shears are also effective at opening packaging of this type. Care must be used to safely open some of these packages, as opening it without care can result in injury; 6,000 Americans are sent to the emergency room each year by injuries suffered in opening such packages. Wrap rage is sometimes the result.

Medical blister trays.

Medical blister trays differ from pharmaceutical blister packs in that these are not push-through packs. The thermoformed base web is made of a thicker plastic sheet, generally between 500 and 1000 μg and can not be collapsed, thus forming a solid tray. The lidding film provides a peel-open feature and is generally porous to allow sterilization (such as the Dupont medical Tyvek material). Such medical blister packs are used for sterile medical devices, used in hospitals.

Methods.

Thermoforming.

In the case of thermoforming, a plastic film or sheet is unwound from the reel and guided though a pre-heating station on the blister line. The temperature of the pre-heating plates (upper and lower plates) is such that the plastic will soften and become pliable. The warm plastic will then arrive in a forming station where a large pressure (4 to 8 bar) will form the blister cavity into a negative mold. The mold is cooled such that the plastic becomes rigid again and maintains its shape when removed from the mold. In case of difficult shapes, the warm film will be physically pushed down partially into the cavity by a "plug-assist" feature. Plug-assist results in a blister cavity with more uniform wall distribution and is typically used when the cavity size and shape is larger than a small tablets and cables.

Cold forming.

In the case of cold forming, an aluminum-based laminate film is simply pressed into a mold by means of a stamp. The aluminum will be elongated and maintain the formed shape. In the industry these blisters are called cold form foil (CFF) blisters. The principal advantage of cold form foil blisters is that the use of aluminum offers a near complete barrier for water and oxygen, allowing an extended product expiry date. The principal disadvantages of cold form foil blisters are: the slower speed of production compared to thermoforming; the lack of transparency of the package (a therapy compliance disadvantage); and the larger size of the blister card (aluminum can not be formed with near 90 degree angles).

Thermo Cold Forming.

In Thermo-Cold Forming process, the first packing is done by thermo forming technique after which the product is re packed with a Cold forming package.

Materials.

PVC.

The most basic material for the forming web is polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The principal advantages of PVC are the low cost and the ease of thermoforming. The main disadvantages are the poor barrier against moisture ingress and oxygen ingress. In the case of blister packaging the PVC sheet does not contain any plasticizer and is sometimes referred to as Rigid PVC or RPVC. In the absence of plasticizers, PVC blisters offer structural rigidity and physical protection for the pharmaceutical dosage form. On the other hand, the blister cavity must remain accessible by the push-through effect and the formed web may not be too hard to collapse when pressed upon; for this reason the PVC sheet thickness is typically chosen between 200μ to 300μ depending on the cavity size and shape. Most PVC sheets for pharmaceutical blisters are 250μ or 0.250 mm in thickness. Typical values for the Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR or MVTR) of a 250μ PVC film are around 3.0 g/m/day measured at 38 °C/90% RH and the Oxygen Transmission Rate (OTR) is around 20 mL/m/day. In order to overcome the lack of barrier properties of PVC film, it can be coated with PVDC or laminated to PCTFE or COC to increase the protective properties. Multi-layer blister films based on PVC are often used for pharmaceutical blister packaging, whereby the PVC serves as the thermoformable backbone of the structure. Also, the PVC layer can be colored with pigments and/or UV filters. The European Pharmacopoeia (Ph Eur) references the requirements for PVC blister packs for pharmaceutical primary packaging in the monograph EP 3.1.11 "MATERIALS BASED ON NON-PLASTICISED POLY(VINYL CHLORIDE) FOR CONTAINERS FOR DRY DOSAGE FORMS FOR ORAL ADMINISTRATION". In order to be suitable for pharmaceutical blister packs, the PVC formulation also needs to comply with the US Pharmacopoeia <661>; EU food legislation; US 21.CFR and Japanese food contact requirements.

PVDC.

Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) can be coated onto a PVC film to obtain very high moisture and oxygen barrier properties depending on the coating weight. PVDC coated blister films are the most common and prevailing barrier films used for pharmaceutical blister packs. PVDC coatings are also the most economical method for adding water barrier and oxygen barrier properties to a PVC film. PVDC blister films are available in 2 or 3 layer specifications referred to as duplex or triplex. Since the PVDC is applied by a coating process, the coating weight is expressed in grams per square meter (gsm). Duplex structures are typically PVC/PVDC films, ranging from 250μPVC/40gsmPVDC to 250μPVC/120gsmPVDC with WVTR from 0,65 to 0,25 g/m2/d and OTR from 1 to 0,1 cc/m2/d. For very deep draw thermoformed cavities, the triplex specifications are used : PVC/PE/PVDC, where the PE layer assists when forming deeper cavities. The PE (polyethylene) forms a soft intermediate layer between the rigid PVC and PVDC layers. Triplex specifications exists in similar coating weights as duplex specifications: 250μPVC/25μPE/40gsmPVDC up to 250μPVC/25μPE/120gsmPVDC. In order to obtain high barrier properties, PVDC is always applied using an emulsion coating process using a PVDC resin dispersed in water. The film producer applies the coating in several steps, drying-off the water between each coating station.  PVDC grades are available in 2 types of polymer: (I) the historic grades offering medium to high barrier properties and (II) a super barrier coating grade offering the highest barrier. The SBC grade has over two times the barrier to moisture and oxygen per gram coating weight compared to the historic grades. The most common structures using the super barrier PVDC are triplex configurations 250μ PVC/25μ PE/120gsm PVDC up to 250μ PVC/25μ PE/180gsm PVDC, with WVTR of 0,11 down to 0,06 g/m2/day and available from various suppliers.

PCTFE.

Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) can be laminated to PVC to obtain very high moisture barrier. Typical constructions used for pharmaceutical products are 250μ PVC film laminated to 15μ-150μ PCTFE film. Duplex structures are PVC/PCTFE and triplex laminates are PVC/PE/PCTFE. Deeper cavities can be formed by using the triplex structures with PE. Typical WVTR values are 0.06–0.40 g/m/day. PCTFE films have the lowest water vapor permeation compared to all other plastic films used in blister packaging and have thermoforming properties similar to plain PVC though it is also the most expensive. Despite narrow thermoforming temperatures and required cooling steps PP is increasingly popular. This popularity is due in part to it not suffering the environmental liability that PVC suffers in discharging hydrochloric acid during incineration. Unplasticised PVC has good thermoforming properties but may not provide good moisture protection for some products. After the forming process a 250 μm film will have a final thickness of 50 to 100 μm in some deep drawn pockets. The reduction in thickness will result in an increase in WVT.

COC.

Cyclic olefin copolymers (COC) or polymers (COP) can provide moisture barrier to blister packs, typically in multilayered combinations with polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), or glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate (PETg). Cyclic olefin resins are generally amorphous and are noted for good thermoforming characteristics even in deep cavities, leading some to use COC in blister packaging as a thermoforming enhancer, particularly in combination with semicrystalline resins such as PP or PE. Films can be manufactured via coextrusion or lamination. WVTR values of commercial cyclic olefin-based pharmaceutical blister films typically range from 0.20 to 0.35 g/m/day at 38 °C/90% RH. Unlike PVC and other common pharmaceutical barrier resins, cyclic olefin resins do not contain chlorine or other halogens in their molecular structure, being composed solely of carbon and hydrogen. Cyclic olefin resins are available which comply with pharmaceutical packaging guidelines in the US, Europe, and Japan.

Cold form foil.

Cold form foil film (or cold-formed foil) is made of a 3-layer laminate: PVC/Aluminum/Polyamide. The PVC side is on the inside in contact with the product.

Lidding foils.

Pharmaceutical blister packs are mostly closed by a push-through or peel-open lidding foil. The most common lidding foil with push-through features is 20μ hard tamper aluminum, which can be supplied pinhole-free from the producers. The lidding foil is coated with a heat-seal lacquer on the inside and a print primer on the outside.

Benefits.

Cost savings.

Blister packaging is a cost-effective way of showcasing a product. Due to the nature of the material and design, it makes it more cost-effective than other types of packages that are on the market. There are several different types of blister packaging – Face Seal, Trap, Mock, Slide and Interactive. Each one has its unique qualities and price points, from entry level to high end.

Advertising space.

There is a wide range of colors and finishes that blister packaging can be constructed to feature. Manufacturers can use that to help make their products stand out on shelves. Blister packaging allows either the manufacturer or retailer to include promotional materials or advertisements to help build a brand and increase customer loyalty.

Clear product display.

Blister packaging helps shoppers see product, further aiding in their purchase decision. More than half of shoppers believe it is important to see a product through its packaging.

Theft deterrent packaging.

To prevent retail theft, packages are specifically designed so that the customer cannot “touch and feel” the product. Clear, protective, and durable thermoformed plastic packaging enables the customer to fully view the product while maintaining the security of the product. Blister packaging can easily be sealed using heat sealing machinery.

Tamper evident.

A tamper-evident package, according to the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (21 CFR § 211.132), “is one having one or more indicators or barriers to entry which, if breached or missing, can reasonably be expected to provide visible evidence to consumers that tampering has occurred.” In addition, the indicator or barrier must be “distinctive by design,” which means the tamper-evident feature is designed from material not readily available to the public. Therefore, it cannot be easily duplicated. The labeling must also include a description of the safety feature. For blister packaging, each tablet or capsule is individually sealed, so any form of tampering is immediately visible. The product label needs to include a statement similar to the following: “Do not use if blister is cut or broken.”

Blister pack is a term for several types of pre-formed plastic packaging used for small consumer goods, foods, and for pharmaceuticals.

Blistr (z angl. "blister", puchýřek) je balení drobných výrobků pomocí tvarované průhledné fólie proti lepenkové kartě nebo protlačovací hliníkové fólii (typicky u léků). Tvarovaná fólie může být k lepenkové podložce přilepena, termoplasticky přivařena, připevněna sponkami atd. Podložka bývá potištěna údaji o výrobku a výrobci, o datu použitelnosti nebo reklamou a stručným návodem k použití. Používá se pro maloobchodní prodej zejména v samoobsluhách a obchodních domech, u léků jako standardní způsob balení, i když se blistry často ještě vkládají do krabiček po dvou, pěti, deseti atd. kusech.


Geology.

The Ekofisk field is a north-south trending anticline, with a central graben, forming a structure that is in area, with of vertical closure and a hydrocarbon column long, formed by Permian Zechstein salt movement in the form of salt pillows. The production zones at a depth of about 3 km, include the Paleocene Ekofisk Formation and the Upper Cretaceous Tor Formation, both Chalk Group rocks containing porosities of 30-40%. "The reservoir rock...is a true chalk-a fine-grained limestone composed of the skeletal remains of pelagic unicellular golden-brown algae or coccolithophores". The source rocks are the Upper Jurassic Kimmeridgian shales.  The structure was discovered using seismic reflection data in the 1960s, although the initial interpretations were distorted due to zones of high gas saturation in the overlying Cenozoic rocks causing low seismic velocities. However, the high porosity of the reservoir rock does cause an increase in seismic amplitude which can be used with an isopach map to determine net pay.

Subsidence.

In the mid-1980s the Ekofisk field as a whole and the platforms in particular were found to be suffering from an unexpected degree of subsidence. Detailed geological investigation showed that it was the result of delayed compactional diagenesis of the Chalk Formation reservoir rocks. As hydrocarbons were produced the pore pressure declined and the effective stress increased leading to subsidence. Water injection was initiated to repressurize the reservoir, but due to the lower compaction strength of water-saturated chalk compared with oil-saturated chalk the seafloor continued subsiding and displacements of several metres were recorded. It was calculated that the total subsidence would almost be at the end of the concession of Phillips Petroleum, too much to keep the platforms secure.  The Norwegian government pressed Phillips to take action and the French company Technip was ordered to find a solution. As 5 of 7 platforms were interconnected, they had to be jacked-up by about at the same time. The solution was that the steel tubular legs of the platforms would be extended. Subsequently large flanges were welded to these legs and when all flanges were welded and the legs cut, five platforms would be lifted simultaneously in one operation then extension pipes would be mounted in between the flanges. After bolting all flanges the platforms would be safe again.  The four days lifting was completed on 17 August 1987, at 11:30 p.m. thanks to 108 hydraulic cylinders synchronised with a network of 14 NUM 760FCNCs. The position tolerance of the cylinders with each other (+/- for a extension per platform and +/- between platforms) was to be kept for 38 hours. During the welding of the flanges to the legs, these hydraulic cylinders took over the entire load. A couple of days before this great jack-up, the hotel platform was lifted, as it was not interconnected with the others. The total lifting capacity of all these cylinders was approximately and was published in the "Guinness World Records" as being the largest jack-up.

Bravo blowout.

In April 1977, an oil well blowout occurred at the Ekofisk Bravo platform, due to an incorrectly installed downhole safety valve. At an estimated total, it was the largest blowout in the North Sea. Red Adair and his crew assisted with capping the blowout.

Ekofisk is an oil field in block 2/4 of the Norwegian sector of the North Sea about southwest of Stavanger. Discovered in 1969 by Phillips Petroleum Company, it remains one of the most important oil fields in the North Sea. This was the first discovery of oil after the drilling of over 200 exploration wells in the North Sea "triggered" by the Groningen gas field discovery. In 1971, Phillips started producing directly to tankers from four subsea wells. Oil production is planned to continue until at least 2050.

Ekofisk je ropné pole v Severním moři. Nachází se v norském sektoru 320 km jihozápadně od Stavangeru a má rozlohu 49 km2. Práva na těžbu vlastní firma ConocoPhillips, která zde provozuje dvacet devět plošin. Hloubka moře na Ekofisku činí okolo sedmdesáti metrů, ropa se nachází v pórovité křídě zhruba tři kilometry pod zemským povrchem. V důsledku těžby dochází v oblasti k poklesu mořského dna. Ekofisk je připojen na rozvodnou soustavu Norpipe, která odvádí ropu do Teasside v Anglii a zemní plyn do Emdenu v Německu.


Disease and mortality.

Some diseases and ailments were more common in prehistory than they are today; there is evidence that many people suffered from osteoarthritis, probably caused by the lifting of heavy objects which would have been a daily and necessary task in their societies. For example, the transport of latte stones, though this practice only started during the neolithic era which involved hyper extension and torque of the lower back, while dragging the stones, may have contributed to the development of micro fractures in the spine and subsequent spondylolysis. Things such as cuts, bruises, and breakages of bone, without antiseptics, proper facilities, or knowledge of germs, would become very serious if infected, as they did not have sufficient ways to treat infection. There is also evidence of rickets, bone deformity and bone wastage (Osteomalacia), which is caused by a lack of Vitamin D.  The life expectancy in prehistoric times was low, 25–40 years, with men living longer than women; archaeological evidence of women and babies found together suggests that many women would have died in childbirth, perhaps accounting for the lower life expectancy in women than men. Another possible explanation for the shorter life spans of prehistoric humans may be malnutrition; also, men as hunters may have sometimes received better food than the woman, who would consequently have been less resistant to disease.

Treatments for disease.

Plant materials.

Plant materials (herbs and substances derived from natural sources) were among the treatments for diseases in prehistoric cultures. Since plant materials quickly rot under most conditions, historians are unlikely to fully understand which species were used in prehistoric medicine. A speculative view can be obtained by researching the climate of the respective society and then checking which species continue to grow in similar conditions today and through anthropological studies of existing indigenous peoples. Unlike the ancient civilisations which could source plant materials internationally, prehistoric societies would have been restricted to localised areas, though nomadic tribes may have had a greater variety of plant materials at their disposal than more stationary societies.  The effects of different plant materials could have been found through trial and error. Gathering and dispensing of plant materials was in most cultures handled by women, who cared for the health of their family. Plant materials were an important cure for diseases throughout history. This fund of knowledge would have been passed down orally through the generations. The "birch polypore" fungus, commonly found in alpine environments, may have been used as a laxative by prehistoric people living in Northern Europe, since it is known to bring on short bouts of diarrhoea when ingested, and was found among the possessions of a mummified man.

The use of earth and clays.

Earths and clays may have provided prehistoric peoples with some of their first medicines. This is related to geophagy, which is extremely widespread among animals in the wild as well as among domesticated animals. In particular, geophagy is widespread among contemporary non-human primates. Also, early humans could have learned about the use of various healing clays by observing animal behaviour. Such clay is used both internally and externally, such as for treating wounds, and after surgery (see below). Geophagy, and the external use of clay are both still quite widespread among aboriginal peoples around the world, as well as among pre-industrial populations.

Surgery.

"Trepanning" (sometimes "Trephining") was a basic surgical operation carried out in prehistoric societies across the world, although evidence shows a concentration of the practice in Peru. Several theories question the reasoning behind trepanning; it could have been used to cure certain conditions such as headaches and epilepsy.. There is evidence discovered of bone tissue surrounding the surgical hole partially grown back, so therefore survival of the procedure did occur at least on occasion.  Many prehistoric peoples, where applicable (geographically and technologically), were able to set broken or fractured bones using clay materials. An injured area was covered in clay, which then set hard so that the bone could heal properly without interference. Also, primarily in the Americas, the pincers of certain ant species were used to close up wounds from infection; the ant was held above the wound until it bit, where its head would be removed allowing the pincers to remain and hold closed the wound.

Magic and medicine men.

"Medicine men" (also witch-doctors, shamans) maintained the health of their tribe by gathering and distributing herbs, performing minor surgical procedures, providing medical advice, and supernatural treatments such as charms, spells, and amulets to ward off evil spirits. In Apache society, as would likely have been the case in many others, the medicine men initiate a ceremony over the patient, which is attended by family and friends. It consists of magic formulas, prayers, and drumming. The medicine man then, from patients' recalling of their past and possible offenses against their religion or tribal rules, reveals the nature of the disease and how to treat it.  They were believed by the tribe to be able to contact spirits or gods and use their supernatural powers to cure the patient, and, in the process, remove evil spirits. If neither this method nor trepanning worked, the spirit was considered too powerful to be driven out of the person. Medicine men would likely have been central figures in the tribal system, because of their medical knowledge and because they could seemingly contact the gods. Their religious and medical training were, necessarily, passed down orally.

Dentistry.

Archaeologists in Mehrgarh in Balochistan province in the present day Pakistan discovered that the people of Indus Valley Civilization from the early Harappan periods (c. 3300 BC) had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist who carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men. Later research in the same area found evidence of teeth having been drilled dating to 7,000 B.C.E.

The problem of evidence.

There is no written evidence which can be used for investigation into the prehistoric period of history by definition. Historians must use other sources such as human remains and anthropological studies of societies living under similar conditions. A variety of problems arise when the aforementioned sources are used.  Human remains from this period are rare and many have undoubtedly been destroyed by burial rituals or made useless by damage. The most informative archaeological evidence are mummies, remains which have been preserved by either freezing or in peat bogs; no evidence exists to suggest that prehistoric people mummified the dead for religious reasons, as Ancient Egyptians did. These bodies can provide scientists with subjects' (at the time of death): weight, illnesses, height, diet, age, and bone conditions, which grant vital indications of how developed prehistoric medicine was.  Not technically classed as 'written evidence', prehistoric people left many kinds of paintings, using paints made of minerals such as lime, clay and charcoal, and brushes made from feathers, animal fur, or twigs on the walls caves. Although many of these paintings are thought to have a spiritual or religious purpose, there have been some, such as a man with antlers (thought to be a medicine man), which have revealed some part of prehistoric medicine. Many cave paintings of human hands have shown missing fingers (none have been shown without thumbs), which suggests that these were cut off for sacrificial or practical purposes, as is the case among the Pygmies and Khoikhoi.  The writings of certain cultures (such as the Romans) can be used as evidence in discovering how their contemporary prehistoric cultures practiced medicine. People who live a similar nomadic existence today have been used as a source of evidence too, but obviously there are distinct differences in the environments in which nomadic people lived; prehistoric people who once lived in Britain for example, cannot be effectively compared to aboriginal peoples in Australia, because of the geographical differences.

Prehistoric medicine is any use of medicine from before the invention of writing and the documented history of medicine. Because the timing of the invention of writing per culture and region, the term "prehistoric medicine" encompasses a wide range of time periods and dates.

Pravěké lékařství je datováno do doby před vznikem písma a dokumentací dějin lékařství. Začíná samoléčením jedince, poté léčbou za pomoci ostatních a končí u pomoci od „profesionála“. K léčení se využívala voda – oplachování ran, chladivý zábal, minerální voda a spolu s léčivými bylinami výroba mastí. Léčeny byly také úrazy jako těžké krvácení a zlomeniny (fixací a zabalením do sádry z jílu). K operativním zákrokům patřilo vytržení zubu či trepanace (otevření lebky, možná bylo prováděno lidem s bolestmi hlavy a epilepsií).


"The logic of conflict in the grammar of commerce".

Luttwak argues that the same logic that underlies military conflict also pertains to international commerce:

Geo-economics vs mercantilism.

Geo-economics is not to be confused with mercantilism or neo-mercantilism. Under mercantilism, the goal of which was to maximize national gold stocks, when commercial quarrels evolved into political quarrels, which could then lead to military conflicts. Therefore, mercantilist competition was subordinate to military competition, as the former modality was governed by the ever-present possibility that the ‘loser’ in a commercial quarrel could then challenge the outcome militarily. For example:"Spain might decree that all trade to and from its American colonies could only travel in Spanish bottoms through Spanish ports, but British and Dutch armed merchantmen could still convey profitable cargoes to disloyal colonists in defiance of Spanish sloops; and, with war declared, privateers could seize outright the even more profitable cargoes bound for Spain. Likewise, the Dutch sent their frigates into the Thames to reply to the mercantilist legislation of the British Parliament that prohibited their cabotage, just as much earlier the Portuguese had sunk Arab ships with which they could not compete in the India trade."In the new era of geo-economics, however, there is no superior modality: Both the causes and the instruments of conflict can be economic. When commercial disagreements do lead to international political clashes, the disputes must be resolved with the weapons of commerce.

The "Weapons" of geoeconomics.

States engage in geo-economic competition through both through assisting or directing domestic private entities, or through direct action opposing foreign commercial interests:  According to Luttwak, offensive weapons are more important in geo-economics, as they are in war. Moreover, state-sponsored research and development is the most important of these weapons. "Just as in war the artillery conquers territory by fire, which the infantry can then occupy, the aim here is to conquer industries of the future by achieving technological superiority."The “infantry” in this analogy corresponds to commercial production, which can also be supported by the state through various forms of subsidies.  Yet another geo-economic weapon is predatory finance. If operation subsidies are insufficient to allow domestic exporters to overcome strong competitors, states can offer loans at below-market interest rates. The United States’ Export-Import, for example, provides loan guarantees to finance exports, and equivalent institutions exist across all major industrial countries."Thus foreigners routinely pay lower interest rates than local borrowers, whose taxes pay for the very concessions that foreigners receive. That already amounts to hunting for exports with low-interest ammunition, but the accusation of predatory finance is reserved for cases where interest rates are suddenly reduced in the course of a fought-over sale. Naturally, the chief trading states have promised to each other that they will do no such thing. Naturally, they frequently break that promise."

“The laws of geo-economic gravity”.

World Pensions Council economist M. Nicolas J. Firzli has argued that “adhering to the laws of geo-economic gravity” including financial self-sufficiency and the existence of advanced, diversified transportation infrastructure are now essential to ensure the effective sovereignty of a state: "the government of Qatar is now paying an incommensurate price for having thought it could defy forever the laws of geo-economic gravity "  From that perspective, investment attractiveness and the capacity to project soft power across considerable distance as China has done through its Belt and Road Initiative are also viewed as a key determinants of geo-economic strength.  Here, large private sector asset owners such as pension funds are expected to play an increasingly important part, alongside US and Chinese state actors:

Geoeconomics superseding geopolitics?

At the end of the Cold War, Richard Nixon predicted that geoeconomic considerations could eventually supersede classical geopolitics amongst US policy makers, a trend he viewed as problematic: “Still others contend that, as the cold war weaned, the importance of economic power and ‘geo-economics’ has surpassed military power and traditional geopolitics. America, they conclude, must beat its swords not into plowshares, but into microchips.” (Nixon 1992)."

Broadly, geoeconomics (sometimes geo-economics) is the study of the spatial, temporal, and political aspects of economies and resources. The formation of geoeconomics as a branch of geopolitics is often attributed to Edward Luttwak, an American economist and consultant, and Pascal Lorot, a French economist and political scientist. Azerbaijani economist Vusal Gasimli defines geo-economics as the study of the interrelations of economics, geography and politics in the "infinite cone" rising from the center of the earth to outer space (including the economic analysis of planetary resources).

Geoekonomika (z angl. "Geo" – zeměpisný, "economics" – ekonomika) je věda, která se co možná nejpřesněji pokouší shrnout a sjednotit odpovědi na veškeré otázky ekonomické, hospodářské, teritoriální, a dokonce zčásti ekologické. Nelze tedy říci, že se jedná pouze o ekonomickou situaci jednotlivých států světa. Geoekonomika je velmi úzce spjatá s geografií, demografií a z jistého hlediska také s historií. Tato věda zblízka zkoumá skutečnosti, jenž v podstatě ovlivňují životy nás všech nebo které se nás nějakým způsobem dotýkají. Ať už jde o změny na ekonomických či politických mapách, změny v rozmístění obyvatelstva – perspektivy vývoje, globální změny v rozmístění energetiky, teritoriální struktury těžby a spotřeby ropy nebo může jít o dokumentaci globálních problémů světa aj.


History.

La Moneda, originally a colonial mint house, was designed by Italian architect Joaquín Toesca. Construction began in 1784 and was opened in 1805, while still under construction. The production of coins in Chile took place at La Moneda from 1814 to 1929.  In June, 1845 during president Manuel Bulnes's administration, the palace became the seat of government and presidential residence. In 1930, a public square—named "Plaza de la Constitución" ("Constitution Square")—was built in front of the palace. After the presidency of Gabriel González Videla it ceased to serve as a presidential residence.  During the military coup d'état on September 11, 1973, the Chilean Air Force bombed the palace at the request of the army. The president Salvador Allende committed suicide in the palace at this time. Reconstruction and restoration projects of the damage caused were completed in March 1981, although some bullet marks have been preserved and can still be seen today. During the 1973–1980 restorations, an underground office complex (the so-called "bunker") was built under the front square to provide a safe escape for General Augusto Pinochet in case of an attack.  During President Ricardo Lagos's administration, the palace's inner courtyards were opened to the public during certain hours of the day. Lagos also re-opened Morandé 80—a gate used by Chilean presidents to enter the palace since the early 20th century. It was eliminated during the restoration of the palace as not being in the original plans, but was restored because of the heavy symbolism attached to it as being the gate through which Chilean Presidents entered La Moneda skipping the main's gate guard protocol or, in other words, as ordinary citizens of the country. It was also the gate through which the body of President Allende was taken out after the 1973 coup. A traditional changing of the guard ceremony takes place every two days on odd-numbered days in odd-numbered months, even-numbered days in even-numbered months, including Sundays, at 10 a.m. weekdays and 11 a.m. on weekends (as of June 2015). A formal ceremony dating back to the 1850s, it lasts about 30 minutes and includes a band playing, troops with horses parading into the square, and much pomp and circumstance. The Carabineros de Chile provides the guard unit and band for the ceremony, the guard unit being composed of a Foot Guards battalion and a Horse Guards squadron.

Architecture.

Construction.

Joaquín Toesca had worked on many public buildings in colonial Chile, including the Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral, before he was engaged to design the new royal mint that would become the Palacio de la Moneda.  Works on the building started in 1784, with building materials arriving the following year from around Chile and the world: limestone from the Polpaico country estate; sand from the Maipo River; red stones from a quarry at the Cerro San Cristóbal in Santiago; white stone from the neighbouring Cerro Blanco; oak and cypress wood from Valdivia; Spanish metal works from Vizcaya. Twenty varieties of brick were baked in Santiago for the construction of lintels, comers, floors, moldings, and of the solid walls more than a meter thick.  Toesca died in 1799, before seeing his work finished, and military engineer Agustin Cavallero took over the project. The “Mint House of Santiago de Chile” finally opened in 1805.

Architectural style.

The Palacio de la Moneda is built in a pure neoclassical style with Roman Doric influences. The building’s wide, horizontal shape and rectangular composition conveys strength and stability, according to the palace’s listing on the UNESCO website. Its main façade faces Moneda street, and its rooms are distributed along the transverse and longitudinal axes forming several patios.  Behind this façade lie three patios: the Patio de los Cañones, which functions as an entrance hall; a covered patio; and finally the Patio de los Naranjos, where presidential ceremonies take place.  The architecture website ARQHYS.com states that the Palacio de la Moneda is “the only structure in the pure Italian neoclassical style that exists in Latin America.”  The building has been subject to several modifications throughout the years, made by different presidents. The last great restoration of the building was carried out after the 1973 military coup, when large portions of the building were destroyed or damaged.

Plaza de la Ciudadanía.

To celebrate the bicentenary of Chile’s independence in 2010, a new public square called the Plaza de la Ciudadanía (‘’Citizenry Square’’ in Spanish) was constructed on the south side of the palace stretching down to the Avenida Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins or “Alameda”. Construction began in May 2004 and the plaza was inaugurated in December 2005.  Designed by Undurraga Devés Arquitectos, the Plaza de la Ciudadanía has been called “one of the most important public works in the last century” by Chile’s Plataforma Arquitectura website. Paths leading down from the plaza give access to the underground Palacio de La Moneda Cultural Center, which hosts a range of exhibitions on Chilean culture and history.

Palacio de La Moneda (, "Palace of the Mint"), or simply La Moneda, is the seat of the President of the Republic of Chile. It also houses the offices of three cabinet ministers: Interior, General Secretariat of the Presidency and General Secretariat of the Government. It occupies an entire block in downtown Santiago, in the area known as Civic District between Moneda (North Side), Morandé (East), Alameda del Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins (South) and Teatinos street (West).

La Moneda je neoklasicistní palác v chilském hlavním městě Santiago de Chile. Nachází se v centru města, na jeho severní straně leží náměstí Ústavy (Plaza de la Constitución) a na jižní náměstí Občanství (Plaza de la Ciudadanía). Patří chilskému státu a slouží jako sídlo prezidenta, prezidentské kanceláře, ministerstva vnitra a úřadu vlády.


Facilities.

The main buildings of the Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club are located on the former Kellett Island. The former island and the reclaimed land form the western boundary of the Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter. The southern entrance to the Cross-Harbour Tunnel is located on the Island.

History.

The island was ceded to Britain together with Hong Kong Island. A small fort was built on it in 1841 for the protection of the eastern section of Victoria Harbour, and a battery with three cannons was added in 1854. The island was renamed in the 1860s (some sources mention 1842) after the naval officer Sir Henry Kellett. Kellett Bay and Mount Kellett were also named after him. After Kowloon Peninsula was ceded to Britain in 1860, the defense position of Kellett Island declined in importance, and it was used by British armed forces for ammunition and gunpowder storage.  The island remained for the use of the Navy until 1938, when the Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club, formerly located in North Point, moved to Kellett Island. The Clubhouse was built in 1939 on the foundations of the old Naval Powder Magazine. The new premises were formally opened on October 26, 1940 by the then Acting Governor, Lieutenant General Sir E. F. Norton.  After the fall of Hong Kong in 1941, occupying Japanese forces kept military supplies there, including fuel, gunpowder, artillery and ammunition. After the War, the Yacht Club was reopened there on September 17, 1945.  A causeway completed in 1952 was built to give access to the island by means other than water. Following reclamation work in the 1960s and the completion of the Cross Harbour Tunnel in 1972, Kellett Island was connected to Causeway Bay and its original outline disappeared, although the name remained.  In October 1991, a pottery jar containing large quantity of Chinese copper coins was discovered at the island by The Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club. The coins were dated to Sui, Tang and Song dynasties (589-1279). The coins and the pottery jar were then handed over by the Club to the Antiquities and Monuments Office.

Kellett Island is a former island of Victoria Harbour, off East Point in Hong Kong. It is now connected to Hong Kong Island at Causeway Bay following land reclamation in 1969.

Kellett Island (č"ínsky" 奇力島 / 奇力岛 ", pchin-jin Qílì") je bývalý ostrov v přístavu Victoria v Hongkongu. Od výstavby tunelu Cross-Harbour je ostrov Kellett spojen s pobřežím ostrova Hongkong.


Biography.

Mansour was born in Bowden in England, to Jewish-Egyptian parents and lived in Cheshire for a month before her parents moved the family to Cairo, Egypt. During her youth, Mansour excelled as a runner and a high jumper. She also competed in equestrian competitions.  Mansour first came in contact with Parisian surrealism while still living in Cairo. She moved to Paris in 1953 at the age of 20. In 1947, her first marriage at the age of 19 ended after six months when her husband died. Her second marriage was to Samir Mansour in 1949 and they divided their time between Cairo and Paris. Mansour began to write in French.  She died of cancer in Paris in 1986.

Career.

Mansour’s first published collection of poems, titled: "Cris", was published in Paris in 1953 by Pierre Seghers. This collection of work references male and female anatomy in explicit language that was unusual for the time. Religious language can also be found. However, it is inverted, replacing what would be Christ with the lover. References of Egyptian mythology are also present in "Cris." Mansour references the White Goddess as well as Hathor.  In 1954, Joyce Mansour became involved with the surrealist movement after Jean-Louise Bédouin wrote a review praising "Cris" in "Médium: Communication surréaliste" that May. Joyce Mansour actively participated in the second wave of surrealism in Paris. Her apartment was a popular meeting place for members of the surrealist group. "L'exécution du testament du Marquis de Sade," the performance piece by Jean Benoît took place in Mansour’s apartment.  She collaborated with representatives such as Pierre Alechinsky, Enrico Baj, Hans Bellmer, Gerardo Chávez, Jorge Camacho, Ted Joans, Pierre Molinier, Reinhoud d'Haese and Max Walter Svanberg.

Joyce Mansour nee Joyce Patricia Adès, (25 July 1928 – 27 August 1986), was an Egyptian-French author, notable as a surrealist poet. She became the best known surrealist female poet, author of 16 books of poetry, as well as a number of important prose and theatre pieces.

Joyce Mansourová, rozená Joyce Patricia Adèsová (25. července 1928, Bowden – 27. srpna 1986), byla francouzská básnířka egyptského původu, hlásící se k surrealismu.


Winners and nominees.

1960s.

1968: "" – Winston Ryder  1969: "Oh! What a Lovely War" – Don Challis and Simon Kaye

1970s.

1970: "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid" – Don Hall, David Dockendorf, and William Edmondson  1971: "Death in Venice" – Vittorio Trentino and Giuseppe Muratori  1972: "Cabaret" – David Hildyard, Robert Knudson, and Arthur Piantadosi  1973: "Jesus Christ Superstar" – Les Wiggins, Gordon McCallum, and Keith Grant  1974: "The Conversation" – Art Rochester, Nat Boxer, Michael Evje, and Walter Murch  1975: "Nashville" – William A. Sawyer, James Webb, Chris McLaughlin, and Richard Portman  1976: "Bugsy Malone" – Les Wiggins, Clive Winter, and Ken Barker  1977: "A Bridge Too Far" – Peter Horrocks, Gerry Humphreys, Simon Kaye, Robin O'Donoghue, and Les Wiggins  1978: "Star Wars" – Sam Shaw, Robert Rutledge, Gordon Davidson, Gene Corso, Derek Ball, Don MacDougall, Bob Minkler, Ray West, Michael Minkler, Les Fresholtz, Richard Portman, and Ben Burtt  1979: "Alien" – Derrick Leather, Jim Shields, and Bill Rowe

1980s.

1980: "Fame" – Christopher Newman, Les Wiggins, and Michael J. Kohut  1981: "The French Lieutenant's Woman" – Don Sharpe, Ivan Sharrock, and Bill Rowe  1982: "Pink Floyd – The Wall" – James Guthrie, Eddy Joseph, Clive Winter, Graham V. Hartstone, and Nicolas Le Messurier  1983: "WarGames" – Willie D. Burton, Michael J. Kohut, and William Manger  1984: "The Killing Fields" – Ian Fuller, Clive Winter, and Bill Rowe  1985: "Amadeus" – John Nutt, Christopher Newman, and Mark Berger  1986: "Out of Africa" – Tom McCarthy Jr., Peter Handford, and Chris Jenkins  1987: "Cry Freedom" – Jonathan Bates, Simon Kaye, and Gerry Humphreys  1988: "Empire of the Sun" – Charles L. Campbell, Louis Edemann, Robert Knudson, and Tony Dawe  1989: "Mississippi Burning" – Bill Phillips, Danny Michael, Robert J. Litt, Elliot Tyson, and Rick Kline

1990s.

1990: "The Fabulous Baker Boys" – J. Paul Huntsman, Stephan von Hase, Chris Jenkins, Gary Alexander, and Doug Hemphill  1991: "" – Lee Orloff, Tom Johnson, Gary Rydstrom, and Gary Summers  1992: "JFK" – Tod A. Maitland, Wylie Stateman, Michael D. Wilhoit, Michael Minkler, and Gregg Landaker  1993: "The Fugitive" – John Leveque, Bruce Stambler, Becky Sullivan, Scott D. Smith, Donald O. Mitchell, Michael Herbick, and Frank A. Montaño  1994: "Speed" – Stephen Hunter Flick, Gregg Landaker, Steve Maslow, Bob Beemer, and David MacMillan  1995: "Braveheart" – Per Hallberg, Lon Bender, Brian Simmons, Andy Nelson, Scott Millan, and Anna Behlmer  1996: "Shine" – Jim Greenhorn, Toivo Lember, Livia Ruzic, Roger Savage, and Gareth Vanderhope  1997: "L.A. Confidential" – Terry Rodman, Roland N. Thai, Kirk Francis, Andy Nelson, Anna Behlmer, and John Leveque  1998: "Saving Private Ryan" – Gary Rydstrom, Ron Judkins, Gary Summers, Andy Nelson, and Richard Hymns  1999: "The Matrix" – David Lee, John T. Reitz, Gregg Rudloff, David E. Campbell, and Dane Davis

2000s.

2000: "Almost Famous" – Jeff Wexler, Doug Hemphill, Rick Kline, Paul Massey, and Michael D. Wilhoit  2001: "Moulin Rouge!" – Andy Nelson, Anna Behlmer, Roger Savage, Guntis Sics, Gareth Vanderhope, and Antony Gray  2002: "Chicago" – Michael Minkler, Dominick Tavella, David Lee, and Maurice Schell  2003: "" – Richard King, Doug Hemphill, Paul Massey, and Art Rochester  2004: "Ray" – Karen Baker Landers, Per Hallberg, Steve Cantamessa, Scott Millan, Greg Orloff, and Bob Beemer  2005: "Walk the Line" – Paul Massey, Doug Hemphill, Peter Kurland, and Donald Sylvester  2006: "Casino Royale" – Chris Munro, Eddy Joseph, Mike Prestwood Smith, Martin Cantwell, and Mark Taylor  2007: "The Bourne Ultimatum" – Kirk Francis, Scott Millan, Dave Parker, Karen Baker Landers, and Per Hallberg  2008: "Slumdog Millionaire" – Glenn Freemantle, Resul Pookutty, Richard Pryke, Tom Sayers, and Ian Tapp  2009: "The Hurt Locker" – Ray Beckett and Paul N. J. Ottosson

2010s.

2010: "Inception" – Richard King, Lora Hirschberg, Gary Rizzo, and Ed Novick  2011: "Hugo" – Philip Stockton, Eugene Gearty, Tom Fleischman, and John Midgley  2012: "Les Misérables" – Simon Hayes, Andy Nelson, Mark Paterson, Jonathan Allen, Lee Walpole, and John Warhurst  2013: "Gravity" – Glenn Freemantle, Skip Lievsay, Christopher Benstead, Niv Adiri, and Chris Munro  2014: "Whiplash" – Thomas Curley, Ben Wilkins, and Craig Mann  2015: "The Revenant" – Lon Bender, Chris Duesterdiek, Martin Hernández, Frank A. Montaño, Jon Taylor, and Randy Thom  2016: "Arrival" – Claude La Haye, Bernard Gariépy Strobl, and Sylvain Bellemare  2017: "Dunkirk" – Alex Gibson, Richard King, Gregg Landaker, Gary Rizzo, and Mark Weingarten  2018: "Bohemian Rhapsody" – John Casali, Tim Cavagin, Nina Hartstone, Paul Massey, and John Warhurst  2019: "1917" – Scott Millan, Oliver Tarney, Rachael Tate, Mark Taylor, and Stuart Wilson

This is a list of winners and nominees for the BAFTA Award for Best Sound, which is presented to sound designers, sound editors, sound engineers, and sound mixers, given out by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts since 1968.

Cena BAFTA za nejlepší zvuk je ocenění každoročně udělované Britskou akademií filmového a televizního umění ("British Academy of Film and Television Arts", BAFTA). Jedná se o obdobu amerických cen Oscar. Ocenění je udělováno od roku 1968 (první kategorie vznikly už v roce 1948).


Registered partnerships.

Denmark's registered partnership law had been in operation since 1 October 1989. A bill to expand its application to Greenland was approved by the Greenlandic Parliament on 14 May 1993 (15 votes to 0 with 12 abstentions) and by the Danish Parliament on 28 March 1996 (104 votes to 1) and was given royal assent on 26 April 1996. It took effect on 1 July 1996. The law gave registered partners nearly identical rights to married couples, with these notable exceptions:  In 2002, the first same-sex couple registered under the law. Registered partnerships are called "nalunaarsukkamik inooqatigiinneq" in Greenlandic and "registreret partnerskab" in Danish.  The law was repealed on 1 April 2016.

Same-sex marriage.

A resolution, expressing Greenland's wish to opt in the current version of Denmark's "Marriage Act" (; ), had its first reading in the Parliament of Greenland on 25 March 2015, and was approved unanimously on second and final reading on 26 May 2015.  Approval by the Danish Parliament was required before the law could go into effect, however. A bill to this effect was submitted to the Parliament of Denmark on 28 January 2015 and had its first reading on 26 May 2015. It was planned to come into effect on 1 October 2015. However, it lapsed due to the 2015 parliamentary elections. A nearly identical bill with only minor formal changes was submitted to Parliament on 29 October 2015 and had its first reading on 5 November 2015. The second reading happened on 14 January 2016 and the bill was approved in its final reading on 19 January 2016. The bill was given royal assent on 3 February, taking effect on 1 April 2016, which was the day the first same-sex couple in Greenland were married. The couple were married at the Hans Egede Church.

Same-sex marriage in Greenland, an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark, has been legal since 1 April 2016. The territory had previously recognised registered partnerships from 1 July 1996 until 1 April 2016.

Stejnopohlavní manželství je v Grónsku, autonomní součásti Dánského království, legální od 1. dubna 2016. Teritorium předtím umožňovalo od 1. července 1996 homosexuálním párům uzavřít registrované partnerství.


Overview.

Twins Jason and Michelle are spending summer with their British Grandmum in The Poconos region of Pennsylvania. Grandmum has a collection of kitschy ceramic figurines, the most prized of which is four penguins in a rocket ship (a honeymoon gift from her deceased husband). In the first video, the twins accidentally drop the ship, but instead of breaking, it flies into the air and reveals the four penguins are actually the crew of a real spaceship. One of the twins is then pulled into the ship, using the crew's Galeezle (shrinking) device, and taken on a galactic adventure. The adventure that ensues then ties into whatever moral dilemma that Jason and Michelle had struggled with in the show's opening scene. For example, in the debut episode, "Trouble on Planet Wait-Your-Turn", the twins are struggling with taking turns playing a new video game and looking through their Granddad's telescope before Jason is transported to a whole planet of aliens who similarly have trouble taking turns.

Episodes.

Season 1 (2000–03).

The first season was only released on direct-to-video from November 14, 2000 to July 1, 2003, before broadcasting on Qubo from September 9, 2006 to December 2, 2006.

Season 2 (2007–08).

After airing the original videos as season, Big Idea released new stories that were first aired on television (without releasing them first on video) for Season 2 and 3.

Broadcast.

After originally being released exclusively on direct-to-home videos, "3-2-1 Penguins" first aired on the Qubo blocks on NBC, Ion Television, and Telemundo, as well as on the Qubo channel with the airing of the original videos. This was soon followed with new episodes that debuted on television. The show has since aired on Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN) and its children's block Smile of a Child on Saturdays until 2018.

Home media.

The first six videos were released in direct-to-video format from November 14, 2000 to July 1, 2003 prior to debuting on the Qubo television block.  The first DVD compilation of the TV series "Save the Planets!" was released on September 1, 2008, including three episodes from the second season "The Green-eyed Monster", "More is More" and "Give and Let Give". The second DVD compilation "Blast in Space!" was released on February 1, 2009, including three episodes from the second season "Wiki Tiki", "Lazy Daze" and "Compassion Crashin'". The third compilation "Escape from Planet Hold-A-Grudge!" was released on October 20, 2009, including three episodes from the third and final season "Do Unto Brothers", "Oh, Mercy!" and "Between an Asteroid and a Hard Place".  The first video, "Trouble on Planet Wait-Your-Turn", was released as a bonus episode in the two "VeggieTales" DVD re-issues of "Lyle the Kindly Viking Special Edition" and "Where's God When I'm S-Scared? 15th Anniversary Collector's Edition". The fourth video, "Runaway Pride at Lightstation Kilowatt", was also released in the re-issue of "King George and the Ducky Special Edition".  On September 18, 2012, a 2-disc complete DVD set contained thirteen episodes from the first two seasons.

3-2-1 Penguins! is a sci-fi computer-animated children's television series, initially launched on November 14, 2000 as a direct-to-video episode. The series was originally produced direct-to-video similar to the Big Idea Entertainment's flagship title, "VeggieTales", with videos released between 2000 and 2003. The direct-to-video series held the top spot on the Soundscan kid video sales charts for its first 18 weeks of release, was the #1 seller on Christian Booksellers Association's video list in 2001, and had sold 1.5 million videos as of February 2009.

3-2-1 Tučňáci! (v anglickém originále 3-2-1 Penguins!) je americký animovaný televizní seriál, který vytvořili Jeff Parker, Phil Lollar a Nathan Carlson a produkovala společnost Big Idea Productions. První řada seriálu byla v letech 2000–2003 vydávána přímo na DVD, až posléze se objevila na televizních obrazovkách na stanici Qubo (součást NBC). Druhá a třetí série byly odvysílány v letech 2007 a 2008 na stanici Qubo. V České republice byl seriál vysílán na Minimax a TV Nova v roce 2007, posléze byl vydán na DVD společností Intersonic. Obě televize však vysílaly seriál se dvěma různými dabingy.


History.

Ibagué was founded by Spaniard Andrés López de Galarza on October 14, 1550, as "Villa de San Bonifacio de Ibagué del Valle de las Lanzas" ("Town of Saint Boniface of Ibagué of the Valley of the Spears") in a nearby location which now contains the urban area of the neighboring municipality of Cajamarca about to the west of the modern city of Ibagué. The indigenous Pijaos commanded by cacique Ibagué were not fond of Spaniards colonizing the area so the city was re-founded in its current location on February 7, 1551. From April to December 1854, Ibagué was briefly the capital of the New Granada following a coup d'etat promoted by José María Melo, a general and politician born in Chaparral, Tolima. In 1908, when the department of Tolima was created, Ibagué became the departmental capital. The University of Tolima was founded in 1945, and was raised to state university status in 1954. The city is also the home of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Ibagué.

Geography.

Ibagué is located in the Colombian Andean region, in the center of the department of Tolima, surrounded by mountains on all sides with the exception of a plateau which extends to the east.

Volcanism.

Ibagué lies within the Andean Volcanic Belt. It has two active volcanoes in its immediate vicinity: the Nevado del Tolima, NW of the city, and the Cerro Machín, west of the city center but still within the Municipality of Ibagué. The city is one access point to Los Nevados National Park, the other being Manizales.  Cerro Machín has been dormant for the last 800 years, but seismological activity has been registered recently causing several earthquakes. The volcano is classified as "III – Changes in behavior of volcanic activity" by Ingeominas, the Colombian Institute for Geology and Mining. A map of menaced areas has been published indicating that in the event of an eruption the city of Ibagué would not be affected despite its proximity to the volcano.

Demographics.

The total population of the municipality of Ibagué (including urban and rural areas), according to the 2018 census, was 529,635 inhabitants, of which 492,554 resided in the urban area.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Municipal transport is managed by several local bus companies that operate minibuses throughout the city and to neighboring villages.  Ibagué lies at the intersection of national roads 40 and 43, connecting the city to Magdalena River Valley and Bogotá to the east, Armenia and the Valle del Cauca to the west, and Honda to the north. There is a long distance bus terminal with connections to most big cities in Colombia. There are frequent connections to Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, and several overnight buses to Cartagena, Barranquilla, and seasonal services to Santa Marta.  About east of the city lies Perales Airport which has several flights a day to Bogotá and Medellín.

Climate.

Ibagué features a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification, albeit a relatively cooler version of the climate due to the high altitude. Although the city does experience noticeably drier conditions during the months of January and July, the city has no true dry season month, as all twelve months see on average more than of precipitation. As is commonplace in areas with this climate, temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the course of the year in Ibagué, with average high temperatures of about 28 degrees Celsius and average low temperatures of about 18 degrees Celsius. On average Ibagué sees of precipitation annually.

Notable people.

Ibagué is the birthplace of painter Darío Ortiz Robledo, boxer Óscar Escandón, singer Jairo Alberto Bocanegra Pena, soprano Patricia Caicedo, actress Estefanía Gómez, and novelist James Cañón.

Sports.

The Colombian Football Association announced that Ibagué will be one of the venue cities to host the 2016 FIFA Futsal World Cup.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Ibagué is twinned with:

Ibagué () is the capital of Tolima and also part of The Colombian coffee Region (), one of the 32 departments that make up the Republic of Colombia. The city is located in the center of the country, on the central mountain range of the Colombian Andes, near Nevado del Tolima. It is one of the most populous cities in the country, with about 529,635 (according to the 2018 census) inhabitants, making it the seventh (7th) most populous in Colombia. It was founded on October 14, 1550, by the Spanish captain Andrés López de Galarza. The city of Ibagué is divided into 13 communes and the rural area has 17 corregimientos. As the capital of the department of Tolima the city hosts the Government of Tolima, the Departmental Assembly, and the Attorney General's Office. It is the main epicenter of political, economic, administrative, business, art, culture, and tourism activities in the area.

Ibagué je město v Kolumbii se zhruba půl milionem obyvatel (498 401 podle sčítání z roku 2005, 564 076 podle odhadu pro rok 2017). Leží v Centrálních Kordillerách v nadmořské výšce 1285 m n. m. a je správní centrem departementu Tolima. V okolí se nachází sopka Nevado del Tolima a národní park Los Nevados. Podle města je pojmenována orchidej "Epidendrum ibaguense".


Definition.

As originally defined by Arthur Michael, the reaction is the addition of an enolate of a ketone or aldehyde to an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound at the β carbon. A newer definition, proposed by Kohler, is the 1,4-addition of a doubly stabilized carbon nucleophile to an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound. Some examples of nucleophiles include beta-ketoesters, malonates, and beta-cyanoesters. The resulting product contains a highly useful 1,5-dioxygenated pattern.  Classical examples of the Michael reaction are the reaction between diethyl malonate (Michael donor) and diethyl fumarate (Michael acceptor), that of mesityl oxide and diethyl malonate, that of diethyl malonate and methyl crotonate, that of 2-nitropropane and methyl acrylate, that of "ethyl phenylcyanoacetate" and acrylonitrile and that of nitropropane and methyl vinyl ketone.  The Michael addition is an important atom-economical method for diastereoselective and enantioselective C–C bond formation. A classical tandem sequence of Michael and aldol additions is the Robinson annulation.  Some authors have broadened the definition of the Michael addition to essentially refer to any 1,4-addition reaction of α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. Others, however, insist that such a usage is an abuse of terminology, and limit the Michael addition to the formation of carbon–carbon bonds through the addition of carbon nucleophiles. The terms "oxa-Michael reaction" and "aza-Michael reaction" have been used to refer to the 1,4-addition of oxygen and nitrogen nucleophiles, respectively.

Mechanism.

In the reaction mechanism, there is 1 (with R an alkoxy group) as the nucleophile:  Deprotonation of 1 by base leads to carbanion 2 stabilized by its electron-withdrawing groups. Structures 2a to 2c are three resonance structures that can be drawn for this species, two of which have enolate ions. This nucleophile reacts with the electrophilic alkene 3 to form 4 in a conjugate addition reaction. Proton abstraction from protonated base (or solvent) by the enolate 4 to 5 is the final step.  The course of the reaction is dominated by orbital, rather than electrostatic, considerations. The HOMO of stabilized enolates has a large coefficient on the central carbon atom while the LUMO of many alpha, beta unsaturated carbonyl compounds has a large coefficient on the beta carbon. Thus, both reactants can be considered soft. These polarized frontier orbitals are of similar energy, and react efficiently to form a new carbon–carbon bond.  Like the aldol addition, the Michael reaction may proceed via an enol, silyl enol ether in the Mukaiyama–Michael addition, or more usually, enolate nucleophile. In the latter case, the stabilized carbonyl compound is deprotonated with a strong base (hard enolization) or with a Lewis acid and a weak base (soft enolization). The resulting enolate attacks the activated olefin with 1,4-regioselectivity, forming a carbon–carbon bond. This also transfers the enolate to the electrophile. Since the electrophile is much less acidic than the nucleophile, rapid proton transfer usually transfers the enolate back to the nucleophile if the product is enolizable; however, one may take advantage of the new locus of nucleophilicity if a suitable electrophile is pendant. Depending on the relative acidities of the nucleophile and product, the reaction may be catalytic in base. In most cases, the reaction is irreversible at low temperature.

Asymmetric Michael reaction.

In recent years researchers have endeavoured to expand the scope of asymmetric Michael additions. The most common methods involve chiral phase transfer catalysis, such as asymmetric quaternary ammonium salts derived from the Cinchona alkaloids; or organocatalysis, which uses enamine or iminium activation with chiral secondary amines, usually derived from proline.  In the reaction between cyclohexanone and β-nitrostyrene sketched below, the base proline is derivatized and works in conjunction with a protic acid such as "p"-toluenesulfonic acid:  Syn addition is favored with 99% ee. In the transition state believed to be responsible for this selectivity, the enamine (formed between the proline nitrogen and the cycloketone) and β-nitrostyrene are co-facial with the nitro group hydrogen bonded to the protonated amine in the proline side group.  A well-known Michael reaction is the synthesis of warfarin from 4-hydroxycoumarin and benzylideneacetone first reported by Link in 1944:  Several asymmetric versions of this reaction exist using chiral catalysts.

Mukaiyama–Michael addition.

In the Mukaiyama–Michael addition the nucleophile is a silyl enol ether and the catalyst usually titanium tetrachloride:

History.

The research done by Arthur Michael in 1887 at Tufts University was prompted by an 1884 publication by Conrad & Kuthzeit on the reaction of "ethyl 2,3-dibromopropionate" with "diethyl sodiomalonate" forming a cyclopropane derivative (now recognized as involving two successive substitution reactions).  Michael was able to obtain the same product by replacing the propionate by "2-bromacrylic acid ethylester" and realized that this reaction could only work by assuming an addition reaction to the double bond of the acrylic acid. He then confirmed this assumption by reacting diethyl malonate and the ethyl ester of cinnamic acid forming the very first Michael adduct:  In the same year Rainer Ludwig Claisen claimed priority for the invention. He and T. Komnenos had observed addition products to double bonds as side-products earlier in 1883 while investigating condensation reactions of malonic acid with aldehydes. However, according to biographer Takashi Tokoroyama, this claim is without merit.

The Michael reaction or Michael addition is the nucleophilic addition of a carbanion or another nucleophile to an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound containing an electron withdrawing group. It belongs to the larger class of conjugate additions. This is one of the most useful methods for the mild formation of C–C bonds. Many asymmetric variants exist.

Michaelova reakce je nukleofilní adiční reakce karbaniontu nebo jiného nukleofilu s α,β nenasycenou karbonylovou sloučeninou. Jedná se o jeden z nejvhodnějších způsobů tvorby vazeb C–C; tato reakce má mnoho variant.


Discovery and naming.

In 2014, it was reported in the scientific literature that Sérgio Luis Simonatto with a team of the "Museu de Paleontologia "Prof. Antonio Celso de Arruda Campos"" had found the front of a theropod axis near São José do Rio Preto. Several years later Fabiano Vidoi Iori uncovered the rear part of the same vertebra.  In 2018, the type species "Thanos simonattoi" was named and described by Rafael Delcourt and Fabiano Vidoi Iori. The generic name refers to the Marvel Comics character Thanos, invented by Jim Starlin. The character's name is itself derived from the Greek θάνατος, "thanatos", "death". The specific name honours Simonatto.  The holotype specimen, MPMA 08–0016/95, was found in the São José do Rio Preto Formation, part of the Bauru Group and dating from the Santonian; in 2014 it had been dated to the Maastrichtian. It consists of an almost complete axis fused with an axial intercentrum. It is missing several processes at the front, rear and sides. The specimen is currently housed at the Museu de Paleontologia de Monte Alto, Brazil.

Description.

The length of "Thanos" has been estimated at.  Despite the incompleteness of the material, a number of diagnostic features are present; a well-developed keel becoming wider and deeper posteriorly on the ventral surface; two lateral small foramina separated by a relatively wide wall on each lateral surface of the centrum; and well-developed and deep prezygapophyseal spinodiapophyseal fossae. In view of these features, "Thanos" may have been more derived than other abelisaurids at the time.

Phylogeny.

In their phylogenetic analysis, Delcourt and Iori (2018) recovered "Thanos" in a large polytomy with other brachyrostrans within the Abelisauridae. Their resulting cladogram is shown below:  "Thanos" shared only two synapomorphies with the Brachyrostra. The front articular facet of the axis is more than twice as high as the rear articular facet. The rear facet is inclined to the front under an angle of less than 75°.

Paleoecology.

"Thanos" shared its environment with an undescribed larger theropod believed to be a megaraptoran of which a vertebra, specimen MPMA 08–0003/94, has been found at Ibirá. This would imply that "Thanos" was not the apex predator of its habitat.

References.

[[Category:Fossils of Brazil [[Category:Paraná Basin]] [[Category:Fossil taxa described in 2018]]

Thanos (named for the Marvel Comics character) is a genus of carnivorous brachyrostran abelisaurid dinosaur that lived in Brazil during the Santonian stage of the late Cretaceous Period. It contains a single species, T. simonattoi.

Thanos (podle komiksové postavy řady "Marvel") byl rod abelisauridního teropoda, žijícího v období pozdní křídy (geologický stupeň santon, asi před 85 miliony let) na území dnešní Brazílie.


Discovery.

"Macrocollum" was discovered in southern Brazil, in the Wachholz site, in 2012, and announced in a press conference on Wednesday, November 21, 2018. The generic name combines the Greek word μακρός (long) and the Latin word "collum" (neck), referring to the animal's elongated neck. The specific epithet honours José Jerundino Machado Itaqui, one of the main persons behind the creation of CAPPA/UFSM.

Description.

Like most early dinosaurs, "Macrocollum" was relatively small, and walked on two legs. It was only long, tall, and weighed about.  The known remains of "Macrocollum" are relatively well preserved. The holotype specimen consists of an almost complete and articulated skeleton. The two paratype specimens are both articulated skeletons with one missing a skull and its cervical series.  "Macrocollum itaquii" differs from all other known sauropodomorphs based on a unique combination of characters such as those found on the skull, which include an antorbital fossa perforated by a promaxillary fenestra, and a medial margin of the supratemporal fossa with a simple smooth curve at the frontal/parietal suture.

Classification.

"Macrocollum", alongside "Jaklapallisaurus" and "Unaysaurus", was found to belong to the clade Unaysauridae.

Paleoecology.

"Macrocollum" lived between about 225.42 to 225 million years ago, in the Norian age of the late Triassic period. It was found in the south of Brazil, which at the time was connected to northwest Africa. At the time, most of the Earth's landmass was united into the supercontinent Pangaea, which was just starting to divide into Laurasia in the north, and Gondwana in the south. U-Pb (Uranium decay) dating found that the Caturrita Formation dates to around 225.42 million years ago, making it fewer than 10 million years younger than the Santa Maria and Ischigualasto Formations, from where the earliest dinosaurs are known.

Studies.

The ilia of one of the paratypes of "Macrocollum" (CAPPA/UFSM 0001b) were used as a model in a study on the taphonomical effects of sedimentary compression on the iliac morphology of early sauropodomorphs.

Macrocollum is a genus of unaysaurid sauropodomorph dinosaur that lived during the Late Triassic period (early Norian) in what is now Brazil. It is one of the oldest dinosaurs known.

Macrocollum („velký krk“) byl rod starobylého sauropodního dinosaura, žijícího v období pozdního triasu (asi před 225 miliony let) na území dnešní jižní Brazílie (stát Rio Grande do Sul). Typový druh "M. itaquii" byl formálně popsán trojicí paleontologů v listopadu roku 2018. Byly objeveny výborně zachované a relativně kompletní exempláře tohoto dinosaura.