IM and IRC.

Some bots communicate with users of Internet-based services, via instant messaging (IM), Internet Relay Chat (IRC), or another web interface such as Facebook Bots and Twitter bots. These chatbots may allow people to ask questions in plain English and then formulate a response. Such bots can often handle reporting weather, zip code information, sports scores, currency or other unit conversion, etc. Others are used for entertainment, such as SmarterChild on AOL Instant Messenger and MSN Messenger.  An additional role of an IRC bot may be to listen in on a conversation channel, commenting on certain phrases uttered by the participants (based on pattern matching). This is sometimes used as a help service for new users, or to censor profanity.

Social bots.

Social networking bots are sets of algorithms that take on the duties of repetitive sets of instructions in order to establish a service or connection among social networking users. Various designs of networking bots vary from chat bots, algorithms designed to converse with a human user, to social bots, algorithms designed to mimic human behaviors to converse with behavioral patterns similar to that of a human user. The history of social botting can be traced back to Alan Turing in the 1950s and his vision of designing sets of instructional code that passes the Turing test. From 1964 to 1966, ELIZA, a natural language processing computer program created by Joseph Weizenbaum, is an early indicator of artificial intelligence algorithms that inspired computer programmers to design tasked programs that can match behavior patterns to their sets of instruction. As a result, natural language processing has become an influencing factor to the development of artificial intelligence and social bots as innovative technological advancements are made alongside the progression of the mass spreading of information and thought on social media websites.  Reports of political interferences in recent elections, including the 2016 US and 2017 UK general elections, have set the notion of botting being more prevalent because of the ethics that is challenged between the bot's design and the bot's designer. According to Emilio Ferrara, a computer scientist from the University of Southern California reporting on Communications of the ACM, the lack of resources available to implement fact-checking and information verification results in the large volumes of false reports and claims made on these bots in social media platforms. In the case of Twitter, most of these bots are programmed with searching filter capabilities that target key words and phrases that reflect in favor political agendas and retweet them. While the attention of bots is programmed to spread unverified information throughout the social media platform, it is a challenge that programmers face in the wake of a hostile political climate. Binary functions are designated to the programs and using an Application Programing Interface embedded in the social media website executes the functions tasked. The Bot Effect is what Ferrera reports as when the socialization of bots and human users creates a vulnerability to the leaking of personal information and polarizing influences outside the ethics of the bot's code. According to Guillory Kramer in his study, he observes the behavior of emotionally volatile users and the impact the bots have on the users, altering the perception of reality.

Commercial bots.

There has been a great deal of controversy about the use of bots in an automated trading function. Auction website eBay has taken legal action in an attempt to suppress a third-party company from using bots to traverse their site looking for bargains; this approach backfired on eBay and attracted the attention of further bots. The United Kingdom-based bet exchange Betfair saw such a large amount of traffic coming from bots that it launched a WebService API aimed at bot programmers, through which it can actively manage bot interactions.  Bot farms are known to be used in online app stores, like the Apple App Store and Google Play, to manipulate positions or to increase positive ratings/reviews.  A rapidly growing, benign, form of internet bot is the chatbot. From 2016, when Facebook Messenger allowed developers to place chatbots on their platform, there has been an exponential growth of their use on that forum alone. 30,000 bots were created for Messenger in the first six months, rising to 100,000 by September 2017. Avi Ben Ezra, CTO of SnatchBot, told Forbes that evidence from the use of their chatbot building platform pointed to a near future saving of millions of hours of human labour as 'live chat' on websites was replaced with bots.  Companies use internet bots to increase online engagement and streamline communication. Companies often use bots to cut down on cost, instead of employing people to communicate with consumers, companies have developed new ways to be efficient. These chatbots are used to answer customers' questions. For example, Domino's has developed a chatbot that can take orders via Facebook Messenger. Chatbots allow companies to allocate their employees' time to more important things.

Malicious bots.

A malicious use of bots is the coordination and operation of an automated attack on networked computers, such as a denial-of-service attack by a botnet. Internet bots or webbots can also be used to commit click fraud and more recently have seen usage around MMORPG games as computer game bots. Nowadays such kind of bots are also being used in video games such as PUBG. PUBG mobile bots are also related to the family of malicious bots. A spambot is an internet bot that attempts to spam large amounts of content on the Internet, usually adding advertising links. More than 94.2% of websites have experienced a bot attack.  The most widely used anti-bot technique is the use of CAPTCHA, which is a form of Turing test used to distinguish between a human user and a less-sophisticated AI-powered bot, by the use of graphically-encoded human-readable text. Examples of providers include Recaptcha, and commercial companies such as Minteye, Solve Media, and NuCaptcha. Captchas, however, are not foolproof in preventing bots as they can often be circumvented by computer character recognition, security holes, and even by outsourcing captcha solving to cheap laborers.

Helpful bots.

The interaction between humans and social robots is very common in day-to-day life. We see these bots in school, the workplace, video games, social media, and many more places. There are several advantages to using bots. Bots are always available, thus providing quick and convenient customer service. Bots also can be used for multiple purposes. Chatting/answering questions and advertising to name a few. Bots also reduce labor costs and in results produces more profit for the company  Companies and customers can benefit from internet bots. Internet bots are allowing customers to communicate with companies without having to communicate with a person. KLM Royal Dutch Airlines has produced a chatbot that allows customers to receive boarding passes, check in reminders, and other information that is needed for a flight. Companies have made chatbots that can benefit customers. Customer engagement has grown since these chatbots have been developed.  Chat bots are used on a daily basis. Google Assistant and Siri are considered forms of chat bots. Google Assistant and Siri allow people to ask questions and get a response using an AI system. These technological advances are positively benefiting people's daily lives.  Bots are also used when people want to purchase large quantities of sneakers. Bots alleviate the stress of having to wake up early for sneaker releases, having to worry about your browser shutting down, or putting a shoe in your cart and it not working. In short, bots allow you to check out sneakers much faster than someone without. In that of the sneaker world, a bot uses a "code" to access footwear websites, thus ensuring quick and easy purchase. They take away human interaction and it becomes complete computerized. There are five different commonly used sneaker bots. Easycop bot, forecop bot, yeezy bot, another nike bot, and aio bot. These bots are versatile and work on several different sneaker websites. Often, a person will use a bot to either get a rare/limited shoe or to get multiple pair of shoes and resell them to make a rather large profit.

Human interaction with social bots.

Around the world, there are two main concerns with bots. They are clarity and face-to-face support. The culture/background of human beings affect the way they communicate with social bots. Many people believe that bots are vastly less intelligent than humans and so they are not worthy of our respect.  Min-Sun Kim proposed five concerns or issues that may arise when communicating with a social robot, and they are as follows: (1) avoiding the damage of peoples' feelings, (2) minimizing impositions, (3) disproval from others, (4) clarity issues, and (5) how effective their messages may come across.  Social robots also take away from the genuine creations of human relationships

An Internet bot, web robot, robot or simply bot, is a software application that runs automated tasks (scripts) over the Internet. Typically, bots perform tasks that are simple and repetitive, much faster than a person could. The most extensive use of bots is for web crawling, in which an automated script fetches, analyzes and files information from web servers. More than half of all web traffic is generated by bots.

Internetový bot (zkrácenina slova "robot") je počítačový program, který pro svého majitele opakovaně vykonává nějakou rutinní činnost na internetu - obvykle sbírá data, odesílá a zpracovává požadavky na služby vzdálených serverů.


History.

From 1855 to 1938, Paris was served by an extensive tramway network, predating the metro by nearly a half-century. In 1925 the network had a length, with 122 lines. In the 1930s, the oil and automobile industry lobbies put pressure on the Paris Police Prefecture to remove tram tracks and make room for cars. The last of these first generation tram lines inside of Paris, that connected Porte de Saint-Cloud to Porte de Vincennes, was closed in 1937, and the last line in the entire Paris agglomeration, running between Le Raincy and Montfermeil, ended its service on 14 August 1938.  Originally horse-powered, Paris trams used steam, and later pneumatic engines, then electricity. The funicular that operated in Belleville from 1891 to 1924 is sometimes erroneously thought of as a tramway, but was actually a cable car system. The first of the new generation of trams in Paris, the current line T1, opened in 1992, with Line T2 opening in 1997 and Lines T3 and T4 in 2006. Lines T5 and T7, opened in 2013 while T6 and T8 opened in 2014. T11 opened in 2017, while T9 & T10, held back into paper projects for many years, are still under preparative works, now joined by lines T12 & T13, the last parts of the former Grande Ceinture line that aren't covered by T11.

Lines.

T1.

Line T1 currently connects Asnières and Gennevilliers to Noisy-le-Sec, parallel to the Paris city's northern limit. It opened in 1992 from Saint Denis' train/RER station to Bobigny — Pablo Picasso subway station, where is located the Prefecture for the Seine-Saint-Denis department. The extension from Bobigny to Noisy-le-Sec was completed in December 2003. An extension west to Asnières and Gennevilliers, connecting to western branch of subway line 13, opened in November 2012, and a continuation towards Nanterre is planned. An eastwards extension to Montreuil and to the Val de Fontenay "RER" station is planned.

T2.

Line T2 ("Trans Val-de-Seine") connects the bridge of Bezons (Pont de Bezons) to the Porte de Versailles (Paris's main exhibit grounds) via La Défense and Issy-les-Moulineaux business districts. It opened in 1997 between La Défense and Issy Val-de-Seine train stations, mostly on a former SNCF line, the Moulineaux line (which closed in 1993). An extension south, from Issy Val-de-Seine to Porte de Versailles opened in 2009, while the second extension, to the north this time, opened in 2012 from La Défense to Pont de Bezons.

T3a and T3b.

Line T3 is the first modern tramway line to actually enter Paris itself. It is divided into two sections, called "T3a" and "T3b", separated at the Porte de Vincennes in order not to cut the road traffic there, despite rail and electrical infrastructure being present and operational. The line is also known as the "tramway des Maréchaux" because it follows the "boulevards des maréchaux", a series of boulevards that encircle Paris along the route of the former Thiers Wall (built 1841–44). The boulevards are, with three exceptions, named for Napoleon's First Empire marshals (maréchaux).  T3a connects Boulevard Victor – Pont du Garigliano "RER" station in the western part of the 15th arrondissement with Porte de Vincennes metro station in the 12th arrondissement. T3b connects Porte de Vincennes with Porte de la Chapelle in the 18th arrondissement, this with an extension to Porte d'Asnières (17th arrondissement), mostly built and set to open in November 2018. The extension opened on 24 November 2018.

T4.

Line T4 is an, 11-stop tram-train line, operating in part on SNCF lines, connecting Bondy Train/RER station with Aulnay-sous-Bois Train/RER station. It opened on November 18, 2006. Unlike the other tramways in Île-de-France, T4 is operated by SNCF. A new branch of this tram-train line, heading east towards Montfermeil; will open in 2020.

T5.

Tramway T5 is a Translohr tram-on-tyres running along a mainly segregated "track" on the busy Route Nationale 1 (similar to the systems in Nancy or Caen), replacing the often busy bus lines 168 and 268. The route serves 16 stops between Saint-Denis, Pierrefitte-sur-Seine, Sarcelles and Garges-lès-Gonesse. It has an interchange with T1 at its southerly terminus marché de Saint-Denis and with RER D at its northern terminus, the Garges-Sarcelles RER station. Line T5 opened in July 2013.

T6.

Tramway line 6 is a Translohr tram-on-tyres serving 21 stations, from Châtillon – Montrouge subway station (the southern terminus of metro line 13) to Viroflay-Rive-Droite Transilien station. The serving at the western (Viroflay) end, is in a tunnel crossing the city from south to north, including 2 stops, namely the two Train stations the city has, "Rive Gauche" (train lines C & N) and "Rive Droite" (line L). The majority of the current line opened in 2014, with said tunnel section opening in 2016. Replaced bus line 295, that became too crowded and slow for proper use.

T7.

Tramway line 7 is an route serving 18 stations between Villejuif — "Louis Aragon" (southwestern terminus of Paris Métro Line 7) and Athis-Mons, via Rungis International Market and Orly airport ; which opened on November 16, 2013. in order to both allow a supplemental rail service from Paris to the Orly airport and replace bus line 285, that also became crowded beyond reason.

T8.

Formerly known as "Tram'y" due to its opening day Y-shape, this line goes from "Saint-Denis — Porte de Paris" subway station to "Épinay-sur-Seine — Orgemont", with a branch to the university of Villetaneuse"," where it connects to the new T11 line. An extension is also planned south, to Paris itself, at the Rosa Parks RER station. Construction began in 2010, and service began in 2014.

T11 Express.

First "Express" tram line of the parisian network — due to reusing the long-closed Grande Ceinture, with only a handful of stations in —, Tramway line 11 is actually the most recent tramway line of the Parisian network, serving as the first of 3 lines to cover the former Grande Ceinture rail line and offering in fine a second circular railroad service around Paris, something the Paris public transport system sorely lacked for many years  T11 line opened in 2017 between Épinay-sur-Seine and Le Bourget RER/Train stations, the middle part of its expected full route between Sartrouville & Noisy-le-Sec RER/Train Stations.

Planned lines.

T9.

T9 is a tram line currently under construction between "Porte de Choisy" Paris Métro station and the centre of Orly with a length of and 19 stops.

T10.

T10 is a planned tram route from Antony to Clamart in the southwestern suburbs of Paris with a length of and 14 stops.

T12 Express.

T12 Express is a tram-train line currently under construction between Évry-Courcouronnes station (RER D) and Massy-Palaiseau station (RER B and C) via Épinay-sur-Orge station (RER C), with a length of and 16 stops.

T13 Express.

T13 Express is a tram-train line currently under construction between Saint-Germain-en-Laye station (RER A) and Saint-Cyr station (RER C and Transilien lines N and U) with a length of and 11 stops.

TVM.

The "Trans-Val-de-Marne" bus line, which runs in a designated bus lane and is intended to provide high-capacity, rapid transit southeast of Paris in the department of Val-de-Marne, is operated by RATP unlike most suburban bus lines. Despite beginning with a T, it is not a tramway. The RATP however considers it to be part of the T network, and is currently drawing plans for more BRT lines.

The Île-de-France tramways () consists of a network of modern tram lines in the Île-de-France region of France. Ten lines are currently operational (counting Lines 3a and 3b as separate lines), with extensions and additional lines in the planning and construction stage. Although the system mainly runs in the suburban regions of Paris, lines T3a and T3b run entirely within Paris city limits (although line T3b also runs in Pantin), and line T2 also does so for part of its route. While the lines operate independently of each other and are generally unconnected, some connections do exist: between lines T2 and T3a (at the Porte de Versailles station, since 2009), T3a and T3b (at the Porte de Vincennes station, since 2012), T1 and T5 (at the Marché de Saint-Denis station, since 2013), T1 and T8 (at the Saint-Denis train station, since 2014) and T8 and T11 Express (at two stations : Villetaneuse-Université and Épinay-sur-Seine, since 2009). However, the final design of the entire planned tram network is fairly integrated.

Pařížský dopravní podnik RATP provozuje v regionu Île-de-France od roku 1992 tramvajovou dopravu na několika tratích. Částečně tak navazuje na předchozí provozování tramvajové dopravy v Paříži v letech 1855 - 1957. Koncem roku 2014 bylo v provozu 9 tratí a délka sítě činila 103,8 km se 184 stanicemi.


Overview.

The city was founded in the early 20th century, and until recently it was a small fishing village. But since the 1980s, it has been continually enlarged by Egyptian and foreign investors to become the leading coastal resort on the Red Sea. Holiday resorts and hotels provide aquatic sport facilities for windsurfers, kitesurfers, yachtsmen, scuba divers and snorkelers. Hurghada is known for its watersports activities, nightlife and warm weather. Daily temperature hovers round most of the year, during July and August temperatures reach over. Many Europeans head to Hurghada for their regular Holidays, especially during the Winter season and spend their Christmas and New Year holidays in the city. Tourism from Russia dropped drastically after the Metrojet Flight 9268 plane crash in November 2015.  Hurghada stretches for about along the seashore, and it does not reach far into the surrounding desert. The resort is a destination for Egyptian tourists from Cairo, the Delta and Upper Egypt, as well as package holiday tourists from Europe. Today Hurghada counts 248,000 inhabitants and is divided into:  Along the El Mamsha you find many of Hurghada's new hotels, restaurants, and shops. Most of the newest and biggest hotel resorts located in the area between Mamsha to Sahl Hasheesh (Village road). After Sahl Hasheesh you find Makadi Bay with its hotels. Dahar is the oldest part of the town, where the town's traditional bazaar, the post office and the long-distance bus stations, Go Bus and Upper Egypt Bus are situated. The busiest area is its "city center" Sakala, which is spread along Sheraton Road. There are some hotels, shops and restaurants along Sheraton Road.  The city is served by the Hurghada International Airport with scheduled passenger traffic connecting to Cairo and directly with several cities in Europe. A new terminal was opened in 2015 to accommodate rising traffic.

History.

The village, which later evolved into what is now the city of Hurghada, was settled in 1905. It acquired its name from a plant which has grown naturally since ancient times. By then it was only a fishing village. Oil was discovered in the area in 1913, but actual production and export only began in 1921 under British oil magnates. During the reign of King Farouk a recreational center was built in the city, but after President Nasser's nationalization of Egypt's industries it was turned over to the armed forces.  During the War of Attrition between Israel and Egypt, Shadwan island east of the city in the Red Sea, was fortified and held by Egyptian troops and used as a radar post. On 22 January 1970, it was the site of Operation Rhodes, a heliborne assault by Israeli troops which occupied the island for 36 hours.  During the October War of 1973, Hurghada harbor was target for. Israeli forces also occupied Shadwan Island with over 32 casualties to the Egyptian army, and only 7 to the Israeli army.  On September 27, 1994 drive-by shooters killed two Egyptians and a German tourist; another German man was wounded in the attack and died of his injuries after returning to Germany. The 2016 Hurghada attack was caused by two terrorists inspired by IS. Three tourists were wounded. On 14 July 2017, in the 2017 Hurghada attack a man proclaiming, that he wanted to kill only non-Egyptians, attacked and stabbed five German, one Czech and one Armenian tourists, all women, killing two German women. The Czech tourist later died on July 27 in the hospital. The attack occurred at two separate resort hotels.

Tourism.

Although a town in its own right, Hurgada's current major industry is foreign and domestic tourism, owing to its dramatic landscape, year-round dry and temperate climate and long stretches of natural beaches. Its waters are clear and calm for most of the year and have become popular for various water-sports, particularly recreational scuba diving and snorkelling.  Dive sites around Abu Ramada Island, Fanadir, Giftun Kebir, and Giftun Soraya are popular. Tourists also visit shipwrecks such as the El Mina or the Rosalie Moller. The beach at Hurghada is not secluded, out to Sigala the beach is then followed by coastal holiday villages and then desert.  In a 2016 attack and again in a 2017 attack foreign tourists at Hurghada's beach resorts were targeted by terrorists attacks.

Demographics.

Russian residents  Hurghada has 4 schools for Russian children, which are: Galaxy (Созвездие), Our Traditions (Наши Традиции), Dina (Дина) and The World of Knowledge (Мир знаний) (the Russian School Hurghada); as well as the newsletter "MK in Egypt". Much of the signage in the city, as of 2015, is in Russian. In June 2015 "MK in Egypt" publisher Yulia Shevel stated that there were about 20,000 Russians in Hurghada, giving it Egypt's largest Russian population, though only about 3,000 were officially documented. Russian women staying in Hurghada often marry Egyptian men through an "<nowiki>'</nowiki>urfi" (non-shariah) process.  In 2017 the Russian Consulate was open in Hurghada.

Climate.

Hurghada has a subtropical-desert climate (Köppen climate classification: BWh), with mild-warm winters and hot to very hot summers. Temperatures in the period December–January–February are warm, but in the evenings temperature may drop from an average 20 Celsius degrees to 10. November, March and April are comfortably warm. May and October are hot and the period from June to September is very hot. The average annual temperature of the sea is, ranging from in February and March to in August.  The highest temperature recorded occurred on June 12, 2013 and was, while the lowest record temperature was recorded on February 2, 1993 and was.  "Climate Charts" shows different averages and cooler day temperatures in summer.

Resorts near Hurghada.

Sahl Hasheesh.

Sahl Hasheesh is a newly-developed resort located south of Hurghada on the Red Sea.

El Qoseir.

El Qoseir is one of the Egyptian gateways, and one of the oldest cities on the western coast of the Red Sea. In the past it was known by various names, such as "Thagho" in the pharonic period, "Leucos Limen" (white port in Greek) in the Hellenistic and Ptolemaic period, and "Portus Albus" in the Roman period. In the Islamic period it was given the name "El Qoseir", which means "a small palace or fortress".  Located between Hurghada and Marsa Alam, El Quseir used to be an important port. Many people traveled from there to the land of Punt to buy ivory, leather and incense. During the Ottoman and the Islamic periods, Egyptians and Muslims from North Africa traveled from El Quseir as pilgrims to Mecca. It was also the only port importing coffee from Yemen. During the French occupation of Egypt, El Qoseir was the arrival point for Arabs and Muslims from Hegaz coming to fight beside the Mamalic against the French army. The most important sites in El Qoseir are the fort and the water reservoir. The water reservoir was El Qoseir's only source of drinking water 100 years ago.  El Qoseir El Adima is another important site as well. It was the old Roman port where hundreds of amphora and old pottery artifacts were found. Even the police station is located at a historical site. There are now many bazaars here, as well as cafes, coffee shops and restaurants offering sea food. There are several 300-year-old buildings here: the Ottoman fort and the old mosques El Farran, El Qenawi and El Senousi.

Makadi Bay.

A Tourist Resort located 30 km south of Hurghada dedicated only to hotels, shops and clubs. There are no settlements with locals. The place features good sandy beach.

Sharm El Naga.

A village, around 40 km (25 mi) south of Hurghada. Its beach contains a beautiful reef cliff.

Soma Bay.

Soma Bay A tourist resort situated 45 km (28 mi) south of Hurghada, with various hotels including Palm Royale Soma Bay, La Residence des Cascades, Robinson Club, Sheraton (Kempinski – opening August 2008) & Caribbean World Resort Soma Bay ( opened December 7).

El Gouna.

A privately owned luxury hotel town, about 25 km north of Hurghada. Quiet and clean, the town consists of several islands separated by channels and connected by bridges. Besides 14 hotels and 3 marinas, there are also 2200 private villas and apartments, while many more are under construction. It is promoted by some as Egypt's Venice. It is built on 10 km of beachfront and has unique and diverse architecture.  El Gouna provides diving and watersports centers, horse stables, go-karting, shopping arcades, bazaars, a wide selection of restaurants and bars, night clubs, an internet cafe, four bank branches, many automated teller machines (ATMs), two pharmacies, the El Gouna international school, El Gouna national school, a nursery, a private hospital, three marinas, a library, an airport, one of several casinos on the Red Sea coast, a private radio station, a post office, a museum, real estate offices and an 18-hole golf course designed by Gene Bates with a unique aqua driving range.

El Mahmya.

A tourist beachfront camp on the protected Giftun island, 45 minutes by boat from Hurghada.

Education.

International schools include:

Hurghada (; ", " "" ) is a city in the Red Sea Governorate of Egypt. It is one of the country's main tourist centres located on the Red Sea coast.

Hurghada (arabsky: الغردقة – Al Ghardaqah) je egyptské město a přístav na pobřeží Rudého moře, v němž žije asi 262 000 obyvatel. Město je největším egyptským turistickým centrem v oblasti Rudého moře.


Life.

Born in Černová (today part of the city of Ružomberok) in the Liptov County of the Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Slovakia), Hlinka graduated in theology from Spišská Kapitula and was ordained priest in 1889. He tried to improve the social status of his parishioners, fought against alcoholism and organized educational lectures and theater performances. He founded credit and food bank associations to help ordinary people and wrote a manual how to found further.  In his political views he was a strong defender of Catholic ethics against all secularizing tendencies connected with economic and political liberalism of the Kingdom of Hungary at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. This was a similar position to that of the Hungarian "Katolikus Néppárt" (Catholic People's Party), led by Count Zichy, so Hlinka became an activist of this party. However, as the party disregarded Slovak demands Hlinka left and along with František Skyčák founded the Slovak People's Party.  He gained widespread popularity thanks to his social activities. In 1905, he was elected parson in Ružomberok against the wishes of his Hungarian bishop Alexander Párvy. In the Hungarian parliamentary elections of 1906, he supported Slovak candidate Vavro Šrobár and featured in favor of the Slovak national movement. His activities met with disapproval from the church hierarchy, which suspended him as a priest. On June 27, 1906, he was imprisoned and later convicted of sedition. While Hlinka was suspended and waited for admission to prison, Bishop Sándor Párvy ordered the consecration of a church in Černová, in the construction of which Hlinka had been instrumental, by Hungarian-speaking priests. This was met with protests and resistance from the local population and led to the Černová massacre, which brought international attention to the situation of the Slovak minority in the Kingdom of Hungary. In prison, Hlinka led the translation of the Old Testament into the Slovak language. His friends worked on his rehabilitation and Hlinka, who complained of his suspension to the Holy See, finally won the case against the bishop.  In 1907, he founded the "Ľudová banka" (People's Bank) and became the chairman of the board three years later.  The Slovak People's Party was separated from the Slovak National Party in 1913. Hlinka became party chairman and remained in this position for the rest of his life.  At the end of World War I, Hlinka significantly contributed to the creation of Czechoslovakia. On the confidential meeting of the Slovak National Party on 24 May 1918, he took a clear position and ended a prolonged discussion of undecided participants (""Thousand years old marriage with the Hungarians goes wrong. We have to divorce."") He became a member of the Slovak National Council and signed the Martin Declaration, which advocated a political union with the Czech nation. In the early period of Czechoslovakia, when a part of the Church hierarchy still preferred the Kingdom of Hungary, he intensively lobbied for the new state.  Hlinka quickly became disappointed by the undemocratic methods of his ex-colleague Vavro Šrobár (Minister-plenipotentiary for Slovakia affairs), some anti-religious actions and the unequal position of Slovakia. He complained to the Prime Minister and warned him that he would escalate these problems to the Paris peace conference. Hlinka believed that the problems could be solved on the basis of the Pittsburgh Agreement which promised autonomy of Slovakia within Czechoslovakia. On 28 August 1918, he really traveled to Paris under the influence of František Jehlička, whom Hlinka blindly trusted. Hlinka then distributed a memorandum about Slovakia to journalists and diplomats but failed to meet with key decision makers. Hlinka, who arrived on a false passport, was arrested and hustled out of Paris by French police. This poorly timed and organized journey could have seriously harmed the interests of Czechoslovakia at the conference and damaged the image of Slovak autonomists. Except Hlinka, all participants stayed abroad and later worked for Hungarian irredentism. Even the Slovak People's Party distanced itself from the actions of its leader. Hlinka was imprisoned and politically isolated and the ability of SĽS to act was limited.  Regardless of the mistake, Hlinka remained popular among voters of the Slovak People's Party. In April 1920, he was elected to the Czechoslovak Parliament and released from prison. Thereafter, he led the struggle for autonomy and for acknowledgment of an independent Slovak nation for almost 20 years. His motivation was based on religious and language grounds. Hlinka accepted the idea of the common Czechoslovak political nation but believed that centralism and ethnic Czechoslovakism threatened Slovak interests and their national and cultural identity (""We are for the common state of Czechs and Slovaks, but we are for the application of national individuality of both constituent nations."") His party quickly became the most popular party in Slovakia with potential around 25%–35%. Hlinka was known for his charisma, temperament, stubbornness and sharp tongue. The same qualities made him a difficult partner for negotiation. Hlinka regularly insulted his opponents and was often criticized for primitivism. The lack of higher education led him to an uncritical admiration of some of his questionable coworkers. This was especially the case of Vojtech Tuka who several times undermined the interests of the party, but preserved Hlinka's trust regardless of the resistance of the HSLS.  At the end of his life, Hlinka was more a living symbol of the party than a real policymaker. In the 1930s, the party gradually moved closer to authoritative and undemocratic political ideas. Hlinka sympathized with authoritarian regimes like Salazar's Portugal or Dollfuss' Austria, both states in which catholic clericalism played a central role. During the final years of his life, his party was internally divided into two wings – the "conservatives" led by Catholic priest Jozef Tiso and the "radicals", mostly young dissatisfied members. Hlinka tried to balance them and for tactical reasons supported them alternately. Hlinka, who never well understood foreign policy, was in favor of cooperation with Konrad Henlein and János Esterházy. In February 1938, he refused closer cooperation with German minority parties, criticized the persecution of Christians in Germany and declared that Hilter is a "cultural beast", despite his alleged sympathy with him.  On June 5, 1938, Hlinka made a speech at a demonstration in Bratislava where he again raised a demand for Slovak autonomy. He signed the third proposal for the autonomy but died before he reached his goal. Only after the Munich Agreement when Czechoslovakia got into Nazi sphere of influence, loss of the Czech borderland and under the threat of territorial demands of Hungary, HSLS exploited the weakness of the state and declared autonomy on October 6, 1938, less than two months after Hlinka's death.

Legacy.

During the first Slovak Republic, client state of Nazi Germany (1939–1945), Hlinka was considered by the regime as a national hero. Josef Tiso, his deputy and successor in Hlinka's Slovak People's Party, became the president of the fascist first Slovak Republic. Hlinka Guard, militia maintained by the Hlinka's Slovak People's Party created shortly before Hlinka's death, later participated in The Holocaust in Slovakia.  In Communist Czechoslovakia Hlinka was portrayed as a "clerofascist".  After the fall of Communism, Hlinka became again a respected person, mostly to nationalist sympathisers and to Christian democratic organisations, while the rest of current Slovak society seems mostly indifferent towards Hlinka's memory. Hlinka's image could be found on the Slovak 1000-crown banknote, before Slovakia's adoption of the Euro in 2009. A motion in the Parliament of Slovakia to proclaim him "father of the nation" nearly passed in September 2007.  Now Andrej Hlinka, is mostly commemorated in his native Černová, where his House can be found. The exhibit is open to the public. Recently, the Mausoleum of Andrej Hlinka in Ružomberok was reopened.

Andrej Hlinka (27 September 1864 – 16 August 1938) was a Slovak Catholic priest, journalist, banker and politician, one of the most important Slovak public activists in Czechoslovakia before Second World War. He was the leader of the Hlinka's Slovak People's Party (since 1913), papal chamberlain (since 1924), inducted papal protonotary (since 1927), member of the National Assembly of Czechoslovakia (the parliament) and chairman of the St. Vojtech Fellowship (a religious publication organization).

Andrej Hlinka (27. září 1864, Černová, dnes část Ružomberku – 16. srpna 1938, Ružomberok) byl slovenský katolický kněz, politik, vůdčí osobnost slovenského národního hnutí, signatář Martinské deklarace a zakladatel a vůdčí osobnost Hlinkovy slovenské ľudové strany (tzv. Ľuďáků).


Early life.

Josef Bryks was born in 1916 in Lašťany, a village about northeast of Olomouc in Moravia. His parents František and Anna ("née" Nesvetrové) were farmers. Bryks was the seventh of eight children, but only four survived to adulthood. Bryks studied at the Commercial Academy in Olomouc and passed his "Matura" (final exam of secondary education) in June 1935.  In October 1935 Bryks joined the Czechoslovak Army. He started his service in a cavalry regiment in Košice. At the same time he studied at a school for cavalry officers in Pardubice until July 1936. From October 1936 to August 1937 he was trained at the Military Academy in Hranice, where he transferred from the cavalry to the air force. He was promoted to lieutenant and specialized as an aerial observer. After his training he was posted to the 5th Observation Squadron of the 2nd "Dr Edvard Beneš" Aviation Regiment, stationed in Prague. From October 1937 he was trained as a pilot in Prostějov. On 30 September 1938 he graduated and was posted to the 33rd Fighter Squadron at Olomouc, where he flew Avia B-534 fighter aircraft. On the same day as Bryks qualified as a fighter pilot, the United Kingdom and France signed the Munich Agreement that forced Czechoslovakia to cede the Sudetenland to Nazi Germany. On 15 March 1939 Germany occupied the remainder of Bohemia and Moravia and the resulting Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was forced to dissolve its army and air force.  In the meantime Bryks' girlfriend, Marie Černá, became pregnant. On 18 April 1939 Bryks and Černá got married and her father, a butcher, gave Bryks a job as his assistant. The baby, a daughter, died two days after being born. Until the German Invasion of Poland Bryks secretly helped Czechoslovak pilots to escape to Poland. In December 1939 Bryks got a job as a civil servant at the Ministry of the Interior, but after three days he resigned.

Second World War.

Escape from the Reich Protectorate.

On 20 January 1940 Bryks escaped from Bohemia and Moravia. He passed illegally through Slovakia and into Hungary. He was arrested in Hungary on 26 January and held in jail in Budapest until 4 April, when he was extradited to Slovakia. He escaped, went through Hungary again, reached Yugoslavia, and on 17 April 1940 he reported to the French Consulate in Belgrade.  From there Bryks travelled through Greece and Turkey to French-ruled Syria, where he embarked on a ship to France. The ship reached France on 10 May, the day Germany began its invasion of France, The Netherlands and Belgium. Bryks and other Czechoslovak Air Force personnel were sent to Agde on the coast of Languedoc. But the Armée de l'air was fully occupied resisting the German advance and repeatedly having to retreat to different airfields. It had neither the instructors, equipment nor time to retrain the Czechoslovaks to operate French aircraft. On 22 June France surrendered and on 27 June Bryks was evacuated by ship.

Royal Air Force 1940–41.

Bryks reached Britain, where he was commissioned into the RAF Volunteer Reserve as a Pilot Officer. He was retrained at RAF Cosford in Shropshire, where he learnt to fly the Hawker Hurricane. On 4 August he was posted to the recently formed No. 310 Squadron RAF, which was the RAF's first squadron formed of exiled Czechoslovak personnel. However, on 17 August he was posted for further fighter training with No. 6 Operational Training Unit at RAF Sutton Bridge in Lincolnshire.  Then on 1 October Bryks was posted to No. 12 Operational Training Unit at RAF Benson in Oxfordshire, which taught light bomber aircrew. On 11 November he was posted to the Headquarters Ferry Pool at RAF Kemble in Gloucestershire, which worked with the non-combatant Air Transport Auxiliary. On 1 January 1941 he was transferred to No. 6 Maintenance Unit at RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire as a test pilot.

Hurricane pilot with 242 Squadron.

On 23 April 1941 Bryks was at last posted to a combat squadron. He spoke good English thanks to his secondary school studies in Olomouc. He was posted not to one of the RAF's Czechoslovak squadrons but to No. 242 Squadron RAF, which was commanded by Douglas Bader and had a large Canadian contingent. At the time it flew Hurricane Mk IIb aircraft as night fighters, so Bryks was trained in night flying and navigation.  When Bryks joined 242 Squadron it was based at RAF Stapleford Tawney in Essex. While he was with the squadron it was transferred to RAF North Weald, also in Essex. Bryks became friends with a WAAF, Gertrude "Trudie" Dellar, who was the widow of an RAF pilot. 242 Squadron's rôle was changed to Circus offensives over German-occupied Europe, escorting RAF bombers with the purpose of drawing a "Luftwaffe" fighter attack. On 17 June 1941 the squadron took part in Circus 14. This was a late afternoon attack on Lille in northern France by 23 Bristol Blenheim bombers of 18, 105 and 110 Squadrons escorted by 19 Hurricanes and Supermarine Spitfires. A large force of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters from I, II and III/Jagdgeschwader 26 led by flying ace Lt Col Adolf Galland plus Bf 109s from III/Jagdgeschwader 2 attacked the formation, shooting down 13 of the 40 RAF aircraft that took part.  The RAF raiders managed to shoot down only three Bf 109s. One of these was downed by Bryks, but then three Bf 109s attacked his Hurricane, hitting its fuel tank and setting it afire. Bryks suffered burns to his face and ankle and his cockpit filled with smoke. He bailed out at an altitude of, about west of Saint-Omer-en-Chaussée, losing one of his flying boots as he did so.

Prisoner of war 1941–45.

Bryks landed safely and started to bury his parachute. Frenchmen who had seen him descend gave him a civilian coat to hide his RAF uniform and told him to come to a safe house in a nearby hamlet. Bryks hid in a barn until nightfall, then went to the hamlet where he asked at a house for a doctor to treat his burns. The occupants betrayed him by calling the Germans, but when Bryks heard their motorised patrol coming he fled the house and hid in a garden. The patrol caught him, beat him up and took him to St Omer.  The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was subject to Nazi Germany, whose authorities deemed anyone from the Protectorate who served in Allied forces to be a traitor. He could therefore be executed and his family would suffer reprisals. Therefore, Bryks assumed the identity of "Joseph Ricks", born in 1918 in Cirencester, a Gloucestershire market town about from where he had been spent two months at RAF Kemble.  But when he was shot down Bryks was wearing the Mae West lifejacket of a Polish colleague from 242 Squadron, F/O Henry Skalsky. Therefore, the Germans who questioned him at St Omer suspected he was Polish, and sent him to Dulag Luft at Oberursel in Hesse for interrogation by a Polish-speaking German officer. There he was accused of shooting a "Luftwaffe" fighter pilot who was parachuting from his Bf 109 in the air battle near St Omer on 17 June. For this he was threatened with being court-martialled in Berlin. After the war no such shooting was found in German records for that day. The accusation seems to have been a false one to put pressure on Bryks. On 22 June Bryks was transferred from Dulag Luft to Oflag IX-A/H in Spangenberg castle in Hesse-Nassau. Here he advised the Senior British Officer (SBO), Maj Gen Victor Fortune, of his true identity. Fortune knew the threat to Czechoslovak pilots in captivity, and supported Bryks' assumed identity. And "via" the Red Cross Bryks, posing as "Joseph Ricks", started writing to Gertrude Dellar.

Escape from Oflag VI-B.

On 8 October 1941 Bryks was transferred to Oflag VI-B at Dössel in Westphalia. There again he advised the SBO of his true identity. The PoWs' Escape Committee authorised a team of four men, including Bryks, to dig a escape tunnel through frozen clay. On the night of 19/20 April 1942 three Poles and three Czechoslovaks escaped through the tunnel in pairs. Bryks was one of them, paired with a fellow Czechoslovak, Flt Lt Otakar Černý. Bryks and Černý aimed to reach Switzerland. Around midnight on 28 April Černý was recaptured near Marburg in Hesse-Nassau, but Bryks was not caught. Near Giessen in Hesse-Darmstadt he stole a bicycle. He passed Offenbach am Main. A German guard shot at him as he crossed a bridge near Stuttgart in Württemberg. After this, short of food and water, Bryks fell ill with dysentery. He hid in a wood near Eberbach in Baden. There on 31 April a group of Hitler Youth captured him.  Bryks had been on the run for 11 days and had travelled south from Dössel before being caught. On 5 May 1942 he was taken to Darmstadt and held by the Gestapo. He was returned to Oflag VI-B at Dössel where he was treated in the camp's infirmary from 8 May to 10 June.

Escape from Oflag VI-A.

By 20 July 1942 Bryks had been transferred to Oflag VI-A near Soest in Westphalia. From 12 August he was held in solitary confinement, but fellow-prisoners smuggled razor blades to him hidden inside bread. With these he cut a hole in the wooden floor of his cell and tunnelled to the German quarters. On 17 August he escaped through the tunnel, wearing only pyjamas, a sweater and a blanket.  Again Bryks headed south. About south of Frankfurt he found a "Luftwaffe" airfield where Bf 109 night fighters were based. He planned to steal one and fly to Britain, until a patrol with guard dogs approached. He fled and waded along a river to put the dogs off the scent. He reached Mannheim in Baden, where on the night of 8 September he was captured by German air defence troops who handed him to the local Gestapo. He had been on the run for 22 days and once again had travelled south before being caught.  Bryks was returned to Oflag VI-B again but soon afterwards he and other RAF PoWs were transferred to Oflag XXI-B at Szubin in German-occupied Poland. There he told the SBO, Wg Cdr Harry Day, of his true identity.

Escape from Oflag XXI-B.

On 4 March 1943 Polish workers in the camp helped Bryks and a British officer, Sqn Ldr Morris, to escape. The pair hid in a sewage tank that was mounted on a cart to empty the camp's latrines, wearing masks to try to protect them from the sewage. Members of the secret "Armia Krajowa" ("Home Army" or AK) hid them in a farmhouse.There they met Flt Lt Černý, who had escaped "via" a tunnel the night before. Their plan was to travel "via" Warsaw to Danzig, and there board a ship to neutral Sweden.  Morris fell ill but Bryks and Černý set off on foot. In three weeks they covered the to Warsaw, where on 6 April they reported to an address that the AK had given them. Bryks assumed a Polish identity, calling himself "Josef Brdnisz". He and Černý spent four weeks in Warsaw disguised as a pair of stove fitters and chimney sweeps. They drove a horse and cart around Warsaw, supplying arms to resistance groups and bringing in food from the countryside.  On 19 April Jewish resistance groups began the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Bryks and Černý helped to smuggle weapons and food to the rebels. The Germans crushed the ghetto uprising on 16 May. A fortnight later Bryks and Černý were lodging with a Polish widow, Mrs Błaszkiewiczowá, who had two young children and lived in a village several kilometres outside Warsaw. A collaborator told the German authorities, so on 2 June 1943 the Gestapo surrounded Mrs Błaszkiewiczowá's house and arrested everyone inside. They took Bryks, Černý and Mrs Błaszkiewiczowá to Pawiak prison, and hanged Mrs Błaszkiewiczowá for helping enemy pilots.  Bryks and Černý were interrogated, beaten and threatened with execution. On 5 June a "Scharführer" called Grunnem kicked Bryks in the stomach, beat him about the head and left him unconscious. The Gestapo held him for 63 days. He suffered ruptured intestines and a punctured eardrum. Bryks was sentenced to death for helping the AK, but the sentence was commuted.  Bryks was then taken to Stalag Luft III, near Sagan in Lower Silesia. The camp's SBO, Gp Capt Herbert Massey, sent a medical report to the UK authorities. On 10 October 1943 Bryks was transferred to the British military hospital at Stalag VIII-B in Upper Silesia. He underwent surgery on 7 November and was returned to Stalag Luft III on 23 December.

Stalag Luft III and the Great Escape.

Months before Bryks was first sent to Stalag Luft III, preparations had been started for a mass escape of 200 PoWs, now commemorated as The Great Escape. Bryks joined in the preparations, which included completing a long tunnel code named "Harry". On the night of 23/24 March 1944 "Harry" was completed, and PoWs started leaving through it in pairs. Bryks was one of the men listed to escape, but before his turn came the guards discovered the tunnel exit just outside the perimeter fence.  Only three days later, on 27 March, Bryks and an RAAF officer, Gp Capt Douglas Wilson, tried to escape. Guards saw them and opened fire, so the pair surrendered and were put in solitary confinement.

Unmasked and interrogated.

In July 1944 the RAF promoted Bryks to Flight Lieutenant. Unfortunately the official letter sent from the UK "via" the Red Cross to tell Bryks of his promotion revealed his real name and nationality.  The Gestapo interrogated Bryks, told him his family in Bohemia and Moravia had been arrested and that he would be executed for treason. On 1 September 1944 he was brought to a Gestapo headquarters in Petschek Palace in Prague. In due course he was also held at Pankrác Prison and Loreta military prison. 23 other Czechoslovak members of the RAFVR were also being held in these prisons. They were repeatedly interrogated and told that under German military law they were traitors and would be executed.  Through the Red Cross the UK Government was told that Germany was threatening to execute the Czechoslovak airmen. The United Kingdom replied through the same channel. As the Czechoslovak airmen were UK armed forces personnel, the UK demanded that Germany afford them the same rights and protections as any other PoWs from the UK. And Winston Churchill threatened that if Germany executed any of them, the Allies would execute 10 "Luftwaffe" airmen for each Czechoslovak killed.  Germany did not revoke the threat of execution, but the Gestapo did return the Czechoslovaks to PoW camps. On 22 September 1944 Bryks was brought to Stalag Luft I near Barth in Western Pomerania.

Oflag IV-C, Colditz Castle and liberation.

Because of his injuries from Gestapo interrogations, Bryks appeared before an international medical board on 6 November. The board deemed that he should be repatriated to the UK on medical grounds, but the German authorities refused because he was still accused of treason.  The next day he was moved to Oflag IV-C at Colditz Castle in Saxony. This was a high-security prison for PoWs who had repeatedly escaped from other camps. There he remained until the United States Army liberated the camp on 16 April 1945.  Bryks was returned to RAF Cosford in England to recover from his captivity and Gestapo torture. He learnt that his wife Marie in Czechoslovakia had divorced him in his absence, had remarried, and in April 1945 had committed suicide. After Germany surrendered in May 1945 Bryks went to see Gertrude Dellar and proposed to her. They were married on 18 June.  In August 1945 Bryks underwent further surgery for injuries from his Gestapo interrogation. In June 1946 he had surgery to remove a piece of shrapnel that had been embedded in the floor of his mouth when he was shot down in June 1941.

In Czechoslovakia from 1945.

On 6 October 1945 Bryks returned to Czechoslovakia and his second wife Gertrude came with him. He resumed his Czechoslovak Air Force career but his injuries, and particularly his hearing loss, prevented him from continuing as a pilot. He was posted to the Military Aviation Academy at Olomouc, where he taught English and the theory of flight. He was promoted to Captain in September 1945, Staff Captain in December 1945 and Major in May 1946. Also in 1946, Gertrude bore Bryks a daughter, Sonia.  In April 1946 Ealing Studios released Basil Dearden's film drama "The Captive Heart". In it Michael Redgrave is a Czechoslovak officer based on Bryks, Rachel Kempson is a young widow based on Gertrude Dellar, and Basil Radford is the PoW camp's Senior British Officer (SBO) who protects the Czechoslovak officer.

Persecution.

Bryks' air force career continued while a democratic coalition ruled the Third Czechoslovak Republic. But in February 1948 the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) seized power in the 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état. Bryks was deemed "politically unreliable" and on 9 March was sent on enforced leave and transferred to the military reserve force. His political opinions made his superior officer Colonel Václav Fuksa to write that Bryks was "untrustworthy for his political irresponsibility and for the lack of understanding of the ideology of People's Democracy". The UK Government informed Bryks that he was to be made a Member of Order of the British Empire (MBE) in recognition of his escapes as a PoW and the help he gave to other escapees. He was invited to Buckingham Palace in London to be decorated. But the Communist authorities refused to grant him a visa to leave Czechoslovakia. Therefore, the UK Ambassador to Czechoslovakia presented Bryks with his MBE at the UK Embassy in Prague.

Three trials.

Just after midnight on the night of 2–3 May 1948 the StB secret police arrested Bryks at his home in Olomouc. He was charged with involvement in an alleged attempt by other former RAF airmen, including Air Marshal Karel Janoušek, to escape to the West. Bryks was court-martialled in Prague between 14 and 16 July 1948 and was found not guilty, because Communists did not yet control these courts. But the prosecutor appealed and Bryks remained in prison.  Bryks was retried on 2 September 1949. By now the Communists controlled the courts. He was found guilty and sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment. He was stripped of his rank and medals and expelled from the air force. His wife obtained an exit visa for herself and their young daughter, stating that it was to pay her parents in England in short visit. In fact she left Czechoslovakia for the duration of the Communist era, and did not return until 2009. After his conviction Bryks was held first in Pankrác, in the same prison where the Gestapo had held him in 1944. On 17 August 1949 he was transferred to Bory prison in Plzeň. On 18 April the prison authorities announced that they had uncovered a plan for a prison uprising and mass escape. Bryks was among those accused of the allaged plot. He was tried on 11 May 1950 and found guilty. His sentence was extended with 20 years' hard labour and he was fined Kčs 20,000. His wife protested to the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, Rudolf Slánský, but got no answer. On 6 November 1950 Bryks was transferred to a prison at Opava in Czech Silesia. There other former RAF political prisoners included Karel Janoušek. Bryks was insubordinate and resisted the prison authorities. On 18 June 1952 he was transferred to Leopoldov Prison, a converted 17th-century fortress in Slovakia. There he continued to resist the prison authorities, and he was again accused of planning to escape.

Uranium mine and death.

Finally he was moved to a prison in Ostrov nad Ohří in western Bohemia and made to work in a uranium mine called "Rovnost" (The Czech word for "Equality"). Here prisoners were paid a small wage for their work. Bryks worked hard, exceeding his work quotas, and sent his wage to help support his sick father and his wife and daughter. But in December 1955 the Communists banned Bryks from sending money to his family. Bryks resumed his resistance of prison authorities, but his health worsened. On 11 August 1957 he suffered a massive heart attack. He died in the prison hospital at Ostrov nad Ohří. The Communist authorities notified his wife in England by a brief telephone call, in which they gave her no further details.  Bryks' remains were not released to his family. The Communists secretly cremated him. Eight years later, in 1965, they buried his ashes in a cemetery in the Motol district of Prague.

Rehabilitation and monuments.

Bryks was rehabilitated after the November 1989 Velvet Revolution. On 29 May 1991 the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic posthumously promoted Bryks to Colonel. A memorial plaque to him in front of the local war memorial at his birthplace in Lašťany was unveiled on 4 June 1994. In 2004 Bryks was honoured with the "Award of the City of Olomouc" for "bravery and courage during the Second World War". A memorial plaque was unveiled outside 5 Hanáckého pluku, Olomouc, where Bryks was living with his wife and daughter when the StB arrested him in 1948.  In 2006 a court in Prague finally exonerated him of his false convictions.  On 28 October 2006 the Czech Republic gate Bryks its highest award, the Order of the White Lion, military division, 2nd class. In 2007 the Czech television made a documentary film "Muž, který přecenil českou duši aneb Útěky Josefa Brykse" (English: "A Man Who Overestimated the Czech Soul" or "Escapes of Josef Bryks"). The film includes an interview with his widow Gertrude. In 2008 the Czech Republic posthumously promoted Bryks to Brigadier General.  Two streets are named after Bryks: one in the Černý Most suburb of Prague and the other in Slavonín on the edge of Olomouc.  In 2009 two historians found out about the secret burial in Motol in 1965 of the urn containing Bryks' ashes. With this information, his British widow Gertrude Bryksová was able to visit his grave, 52 years after his death.

Honours and awards.

Bryks was awarded numerous UK and Czechoslovak honours.  UK honours:  Czechoslovak honours:

Josef Bryks, MBE, (; 18 March 1916, Lašťany – 11 August 1957, Ostrov nad Ohří) was a Czechoslovak cavalryman and fighter pilot who escaped the German occupation of Czechoslovakia and became a Flight Lieutenant in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve. He flew a Hawker Hurricane with No. 242 Squadron RAF until he was shot down over German-occupied France in 1941.

Major (brigádní generál in memoriam) Josef Bryks (18. března 1916 Lašťany – 11. srpna 1957 Ostrov) byl československý voják a letec, účastník československého protinacistického odboje a oběť komunistického teroru.


Nomenclature.

The convention for designating exoplanets is an extension of the system used for designating multiple-star systems as adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). For exoplanets orbiting a single star, the IAU designation is formed by taking the designated or proper name of its parent star, and adding a lower case letter. Letters are given in order of each planet's discovery around the parent star, so that the first planet discovered in a system is designated "b" (the parent star is considered to be "a") and later planets are given subsequent letters. If several planets in the same system are discovered at the same time, the closest one to the star gets the next letter, followed by the other planets in order of orbital size. A provisional IAU-sanctioned standard exists to accommodate the designation of circumbinary planets. A limited number of exoplanets have IAU-sanctioned proper names. Other naming systems exist.

History of detection.

For centuries scientists, philosophers, and science fiction writers suspected that extrasolar planets existed, but there was no way of knowing whether they existed, how common they were, or how similar they might be to the planets of the Solar System. Various detection claims made in the nineteenth century were rejected by astronomers.  The first evidence of a possible exoplanet, orbiting Van Maanen 2, was noted in 1917, but was not recognized as such. The astronomer Walter Sydney Adams, who later became director of the Mount Wilson Observatory, produced a spectrum of the star using Mount Wilson's 60-inch telescope. He interpreted the spectrum to be of an F-type main-sequence star, but it is now thought that such a spectrum could be caused by the residue of a nearby exoplanet that had been pulverized into dust by the gravity of the star, the resulting dust then falling onto the star.  The first suspected scientific detection of an exoplanet occurred in 1988. Shortly afterwards, the first confirmation of detection came in 1992, with the discovery of several terrestrial-mass planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. The first confirmation of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence star was made in 1995, when a giant planet was found in a four-day orbit around the nearby star 51 Pegasi. Some exoplanets have been imaged directly by telescopes, but the vast majority have been detected through indirect methods, such as the transit method and the radial-velocity method. In February 2018, researchers using the Chandra X-ray Observatory, combined with a planet detection technique called microlensing, found evidence of planets in a distant galaxy, stating "Some of these exoplanets are as (relatively) small as the moon, while others are as massive as Jupiter. Unlike Earth, most of the exoplanets are not tightly bound to stars, so they're actually wandering through space or loosely orbiting between stars. We can estimate that the number of planets in this [faraway] galaxy is more than a trillion.

Early speculations.

In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that Earth and other planets orbit the Sun (heliocentrism), put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets.  In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in the "General Scholium" that concludes his "Principia". Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of "One"."  In 1952, more than 40 years before the first hot Jupiter was discovered, Otto Struve wrote that there is no compelling reason why planets could not be much closer to their parent star than is the case in the Solar System, and proposed that Doppler spectroscopy and the transit method could detect super-Jupiters in short orbits.

Discredited claims.

Claims of exoplanet detections have been made since the nineteenth century. Some of the earliest involve the binary star 70 Ophiuchi. In 1855 William Stephen Jacob at the East India Company's Madras Observatory reported that orbital anomalies made it "highly probable" that there was a "planetary body" in this system. In the 1890s, Thomas J. J. See of the University of Chicago and the United States Naval Observatory stated that the orbital anomalies proved the existence of a dark body in the 70 Ophiuchi system with a 36-year period around one of the stars. However, Forest Ray Moulton published a paper proving that a three-body system with those orbital parameters would be highly unstable. During the 1950s and 1960s, Peter van de Kamp of Swarthmore College made another prominent series of detection claims, this time for planets orbiting Barnard's Star. Astronomers now generally regard all the early reports of detection as erroneous.  In 1991 Andrew Lyne, M. Bailes and S. L. Shemar claimed to have discovered a pulsar planet in orbit around PSR 1829-10, using pulsar timing variations. The claim briefly received intense attention, but Lyne and his team soon retracted it.

Confirmed discoveries.

As of, a total of confirmed exoplanets are listed in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia, including a few that were confirmations of controversial claims from the late 1980s. The first published discovery to receive subsequent confirmation was made in 1988 by the Canadian astronomers Bruce Campbell, G. A. H. Walker, and Stephenson Yang of the University of Victoria and the University of British Columbia. Although they were cautious about claiming a planetary detection, their radial-velocity observations suggested that a planet orbits the star Gamma Cephei. Partly because the observations were at the very limits of instrumental capabilities at the time, astronomers remained skeptical for several years about this and other similar observations. It was thought some of the apparent planets might instead have been brown dwarfs, objects intermediate in mass between planets and stars. In 1990, additional observations were published that supported the existence of the planet orbiting Gamma Cephei, but subsequent work in 1992 again raised serious doubts. Finally, in 2003, improved techniques allowed the planet's existence to be confirmed.  On 9 January 1992, radio astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of two planets orbiting the pulsar PSR 1257+12. This discovery was confirmed, and is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of exoplanets. Follow-up observations solidified these results, and confirmation of a third planet in 1994 revived the topic in the popular press. These pulsar planets are thought to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation, or else to be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that somehow survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.  On 6 October 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence star, nearby G-type star 51 Pegasi. This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, ushered in the modern era of exoplanetary discovery, and was recognized by a share of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the rapid detection of many new exoplanets: astronomers could detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their host stars. More extrasolar planets were later detected by observing the variation in a star's apparent luminosity as an orbiting planet transited in front of it.  Initially, most known exoplanets were massive planets that orbited very close to their parent stars. Astronomers were surprised by these "hot Jupiters", because theories of planetary formation had indicated that giant planets should only form at large distances from stars. But eventually more planets of other sorts were found, and it is now clear that hot Jupiters make up the minority of exoplanets. In 1999, Upsilon Andromedae became the first main-sequence star known to have multiple planets. Kepler-16 contains the first discovered planet that orbits around a binary main-sequence star system.  On 26 February 2014, NASA announced the discovery of 715 newly verified exoplanets around 305 stars by the "Kepler" Space Telescope. These exoplanets were checked using a statistical technique called "verification by multiplicity". Before these results, most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they are more easily detected, but the "Kepler" planets are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth.  On 23 July 2015, NASA announced Kepler-452b, a near-Earth-size planet orbiting the habitable zone of a G2-type star.  On 6 September 2018, NASA discovered an exoplanet about 145 light years away from Earth in the constellation Virgo. This exoplanet, Wolf 503b, is twice the size of Earth and was discovered orbiting a type of star known as an "Orange Dwarf". Wolf 503b completes one orbit in as few as six days because it is very close to the star. Wolf 503b is the only exoplanet that large that can be found near the so-called Fulton gap. The Fulton gap, first noticed in 2017, is the observation that it is unusual to find planets within a certain mass range. Under the Fulton gap studies, this opens up a new field for astronomers, who are still studying whether planets found in the Fulton gap are gaseous or rocky.  In January 2020, scientists announced the discovery of TOI 700 d, the first Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone detected by TESS.

Candidate discoveries.

As of January 2020, NASA's "Kepler" and TESS missions had identified 4374 planetary candidates yet to be confirmed, several of them being nearly Earth-sized and located in the habitable zone, some around Sun-like stars.

Methodology.

  About 97% of all the confirmed exoplanets have been discovered by indirect techniques of detection, mainly by radial velocity measurements and transit monitoring techniques.
 Recently the techniques of singular optics have been applied in the search for exoplanets.

Formation and evolution.

Planets may form within a few to tens (or more) of millions of years of their star forming. The planets of the Solar System can only be observed in their current state, but observations of different planetary systems of varying ages allows us to observe planets at different stages of evolution. Available observations range from young proto-planetary disks where planets are still forming to planetary systems of over 10 Gyr old. When planets form in a gaseous protoplanetary disk, they accrete hydrogen/helium envelopes. These envelopes cool and contract over time and, depending on the mass of the planet, some or all of the hydrogen/helium is eventually lost to space. This means that even terrestrial planets may start off with large radii if they form early enough. An example is Kepler-51b which has only about twice the mass of Earth but is almost the size of Saturn which is a hundred times the mass of Earth. Kepler-51b is quite young at a few hundred million years old.

Planet-hosting stars.

There is at least one planet on average per star. About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an "Earth-sized" planet in the habitable zone.  Most known exoplanets orbit stars roughly similar to the Sun, i.e. main-sequence stars of spectral categories F, G, or K. Lower-mass stars (red dwarfs, of spectral category M) are less likely to have planets massive enough to be detected by the radial-velocity method. Despite this, several tens of planets around red dwarfs have been discovered by the "Kepler" spacecraft, which uses the transit method to detect smaller planets.  Using data from "Kepler", a correlation has been found between the metallicity of a star and the probability that the star host planets. Stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets, especially giant planets, than stars with lower metallicity.  Some planets orbit one member of a binary star system, and several circumbinary planets have been discovered which orbit around both members of binary star. A few planets in triple star systems are known and one in the quadruple system Kepler-64.

General features.

Color and brightness.

In 2013 the color of an exoplanet was determined for the first time. The best-fit albedo measurements of HD 189733b suggest that it is deep dark blue. Later that same year, the colors of several other exoplanets were determined, including GJ 504 b which visually has a magenta color, and Kappa Andromedae b, which if seen up close would appear reddish in color. Helium planets are expected to be white or grey in appearance.  The apparent brightness (apparent magnitude) of a planet depends on how far away the observer is, how reflective the planet is (albedo), and how much light the planet receives from its star, which depends on how far the planet is from the star and how bright the star is. So, a planet with a low albedo that is close to its star can appear brighter than a planet with high albedo that is far from the star.  The darkest known planet in terms of geometric albedo is TrES-2b, a hot Jupiter that reflects less than 1% of the light from its star, making it less reflective than coal or black acrylic paint. Hot Jupiters are expected to be quite dark due to sodium and potassium in their atmospheres but it is not known why TrES-2b is so dark—it could be due to an unknown chemical compound.  For gas giants, geometric albedo generally decreases with increasing metallicity or atmospheric temperature unless there are clouds to modify this effect. Increased cloud-column depth increases the albedo at optical wavelengths, but decreases it at some infrared wavelengths. Optical albedo increases with age, because older planets have higher cloud-column depths. Optical albedo decreases with increasing mass, because higher-mass giant planets have higher surface gravities, which produces lower cloud-column depths. Also, elliptical orbits can cause major fluctuations in atmospheric composition, which can have a significant effect.  There is more thermal emission than reflection at some near-infrared wavelengths for massive and/or young gas giants. So, although optical brightness is fully phase-dependent, this is not always the case in the near infrared.  Temperatures of gas giants reduce over time and with distance from their star. Lowering the temperature increases optical albedo even without clouds. At a sufficiently low temperature, water clouds form, which further increase optical albedo. At even lower temperatures ammonia clouds form, resulting in the highest albedos at most optical and near-infrared wavelengths.

Magnetic field.

In 2014, a magnetic field around HD 209458 b was inferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the planet. It is the first (indirect) detection of a magnetic field on an exoplanet. The magnetic field is estimated to be about one tenth as strong as Jupiter's.  Exoplanets magnetic fields may be detectable by their auroral radio emissions with sensitive enough radio telescopes such as LOFAR. The radio emissions could enable determination of the rotation rate of the interior of an exoplanet, and may yield a more accurate way to measure exoplanet rotation than by examining the motion of clouds.  Earth's magnetic field results from its flowing liquid metallic core, but in massive super-Earths with high pressure, different compounds may form which do not match those created under terrestrial conditions. Compounds may form with greater viscosities and high melting temperatures which could prevent the interiors from separating into different layers and so result in undifferentiated coreless mantles. Forms of magnesium oxide such as MgSiO could be a liquid metal at the pressures and temperatures found in super-Earths and could generate a magnetic field in the mantles of super-Earths.  Hot Jupiters have been observed to have a larger radius than expected. This could be caused by the interaction between the stellar wind and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up causing it to expand. The more magnetically active a star is the greater the stellar wind and the larger the electric current leading to more heating and expansion of the planet. This theory matches the observation that stellar activity is correlated with inflated planetary radii.  In August 2018, scientists announced the transformation of gaseous deuterium into a liquid metallic form. This may help researchers better understand giant gas planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn and related exoplanets, since such planets are thought to contain a lot of liquid metallic hydrogen, which may be responsible for their observed powerful magnetic fields.  Although scientists previously announced that the magnetic fields of close-in exoplanets may cause increased stellar flares and starspots on their host stars, in 2019 this claim was demonstrated to be false in the HD 189733 system. The failure to detect "star-planet interactions" in the well-studied HD 189733 system calls other related claims of the effect into question.  In 2019 the strength of the surface magnetic fields of 4 hot Jupiters were estimated and ranged between 20 and 120 gauss compared to Jupiter's surface magnetic field of 4.3 gauss.

Plate tectonics.

In 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-Earths even if the planet is dry.  If super-Earths have more than 80 times as much water as Earth then they become ocean planets with all land completely submerged. However, if there is less water than this limit, then the deep water cycle will move enough water between the oceans and mantle to allow continents to exist.

Volcanism.

Large surface temperature variations on 55 Cancri e have been attributed to possible volcanic activity releasing large clouds of dust which blanket the planet and block thermal emissions.

Rings.

The star 1SWASP J140747.93-394542.6 is orbited by an object that is circled by a ring system much larger than Saturn's rings. However, the mass of the object is not known; it could be a brown dwarf or low-mass star instead of a planet.  The brightness of optical images of Fomalhaut b could be due to starlight reflecting off a circumplanetary ring system with a radius between 20 and 40 times that of Jupiter's radius, about the size of the orbits of the Galilean moons.  The rings of the Solar System's gas giants are aligned with their planet's equator. However, for exoplanets that orbit close to their star, tidal forces from the star would lead to the outermost rings of a planet being aligned with the planet's orbital plane around the star. A planet's innermost rings would still be aligned with the planet's equator so that if the planet has a tilted rotational axis, then the different alignments between the inner and outer rings would create a warped ring system.

Moons.

In December 2013 a candidate exomoon of a rogue planet was announced. On 3 October 2018, evidence suggesting a large exomoon orbiting Kepler-1625b was reported.

Atmospheres.

Atmospheres have been detected around several exoplanets. The first to be observed was HD 209458 b in 2001.  In May 2017, glints of light from Earth, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere. The technology used to determine this may be useful in studying the atmospheres of distant worlds, including those of exoplanets.

Comet-like tails.

KIC 12557548 b is a small rocky planet, very close to its star, that is evaporating and leaving a trailing tail of cloud and dust like a comet. The dust could be ash erupting from volcanos and escaping due to the small planet's low surface-gravity, or it could be from metals that are vaporized by the high temperatures of being so close to the star with the metal vapor then condensing into dust.  In June 2015, scientists reported that the atmosphere of GJ 436 b was evaporating, resulting in a giant cloud around the planet and, due to radiation from the host star, a long trailing tail long.

Insolation pattern.

Tidally locked planets in a 1:1 spin-orbit resonance would have their star always shining directly overhead on one spot which would be hot with the opposite hemisphere receiving no light and being freezing cold. Such a planet could resemble an eyeball with the hotspot being the pupil. Planets with an eccentric orbit could be locked in other resonances. 3:2 and 5:2 resonances would result in a double-eyeball pattern with hotspots in both eastern and western hemispheres. Planets with both an eccentric orbit and a tilted axis of rotation would have more complicated insolation patterns.

Habitability.

As more planets are discovered, the field of exoplanetology continues to grow into a deeper study of extrasolar worlds, and will ultimately tackle the prospect of life on planets beyond the Solar System. At cosmic distances, life can only be detected if it is developed at a planetary scale and strongly modified the planetary environment, in such a way that the modifications cannot be explained by classical physico-chemical processes (out of equilibrium processes). For example, molecular oxygen () in the atmosphere of Earth is a result of photosynthesis by living plants and many kinds of microorganisms, so it can be used as an indication of life on exoplanets, although small amounts of oxygen could also be produced by non-biological means. Furthermore, a potentially habitable planet must orbit a stable star at a distance within which planetary-mass objects with sufficient atmospheric pressure can support liquid water at their surfaces.

An exoplanet or extrasolar planet is a planet outside the Solar System. The first possible evidence of an exoplanet was noted in 1917, but was not recognized as such. The first confirmation of detection occurred in 1992. This was followed by the confirmation of a different planet, originally detected in 1988.

Exoplaneta, též extrasolární planeta, je planeta obíhající kolem jiné hvězdy než kolem Slunce. První exoplaneta byla objevena v roce 1988, na své potvrzení musela počkat až do roku 2002; první potvrzená exoplaneta byla objevena v roce 1992. Od prvního objevu do 1. října 2019 bylo objeveno 4 118 exoplanet. Nalézají se v 3 063 planetárních soustavách, z nichž 669 je vícenásobných.


Early history.

Amun and Amaunet are mentioned in the Old Egyptian "Pyramid Texts". The name "Amun" (written ) meant something like "the hidden one" or "invisible".  Amun rose to the position of tutelary deity of Thebes after the end of the First Intermediate Period, under the 11th Dynasty. As the patron of Thebes, his spouse was Mut. In Thebes, Amun as father, Mut as mother and the Moon god Khonsu formed a divine family or "Theban Triad".

Temple at Karnak.

The history of Amun as the patron god of Thebes begins in the 20th century BC, with the construction of the Precinct of Amun-Re at Karnak under Senusret I. The city of Thebes does not appear to have been of great significance before the 11th Dynasty.  Major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the 18th Dynasty when Thebes became the capital of the unified ancient Egypt. Construction of the Hypostyle Hall may have also begun during the 18th Dynasty, though most building was undertaken under Seti I and Ramesses II. Merenptah commemorated his victories over the Sea Peoples on the walls of the Cachette Court, the start of the processional route to the Luxor Temple. This "Great Inscription" (which has now lost about a third of its content) shows the king's campaigns and eventual return with items of potential value and prisoners. Next to this inscription is the "Victory Stela", which is largely a copy of the more famous Israel Stela found in the funerary complex of Merenptah on the west bank of the Nile in Thebes. Merenptah's son Seti II added two small obelisks in front of the Second Pylon, and a triple bark-shrine to the north of the processional avenue in the same area. This was constructed of sandstone, with a chapel to Amun flanked by those of Mut and Khonsu.  The last major change to the Precinct of Amun-Re's layout was the addition of the first pylon and the massive enclosure walls that surrounded the whole Precinct, both constructed by Nectanebo I.

New Kingdom.

Identification with Min and Ra.

When the army of the founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty expelled the Hyksos rulers from Egypt, the victor's city of origin, Thebes, became the most important city in Egypt, the capital of a new dynasty. The local patron deity of Thebes, Amun, therefore became nationally important. The pharaohs of that new dynasty attributed all of their successes to Amun, and they lavished much of their wealth and captured spoil on the construction of temples dedicated to Amun.The victory against the "foreign rulers" achieved by pharaohs who worshipped Amun caused him to be seen as a champion of the less fortunate, upholding the rights of justice for the poor. By aiding those who traveled in his name, he became the "Protector of the road". Since he upheld Ma'at (truth, justice, and goodness), those who prayed to Amun were required first to demonstrate that they were worthy, by confessing their sins. Votive stelae from the artisans' village at Deir el-Medina record:  Subsequently, when Egypt conquered Kush, they identified the chief deity of the Kushites as Amun. This Kush deity was depicted as ram-headed, more specifically a woolly ram with curved horns. Amun thus became associated with the ram arising from the aged appearance of the Kush ram deity, and depictions related to Amun sometimes had small ram's horns, known as the Horns of Ammon. A solar deity in the form of a ram can be traced to the pre-literate Kerma culture in Nubia, contemporary to the Old Kingdom of Egypt. The later (Meroitic period) name of Nubian Amun was "Amani", attested in numerous personal names such as Tanwetamani, Arkamani, and Amanitore. Since rams were considered a symbol of virility, Amun also became thought of as a fertility deity, and so started to absorb the identity of Min, becoming Amun-Min. This association with virility led to Amun-Min gaining the epithet "Kamutef", meaning "Bull of his mother", in which form he was found depicted on the walls of Karnak, ithyphallic, and with a scourge, as Min was.  As the cult of Amun grew in importance, Amun became identified with the chief deity who was worshipped in other areas during that period, namely the sun god Ra. This identification led to another merger of identities, with Amun becoming Amun-Ra. In the "Hymn to Amun-Ra" he is described as

Atenist heresy.

During the latter part of the eighteenth dynasty, the pharaoh Akhenaten (also known as Amenhotep IV) disliked the power of the temple of Amun and advanced the worship of the Aten, a deity whose power was manifested in the sun disk, both literally and symbolically. He defaced the symbols of many of the old deities, and based his religious practices upon the deity, the Aten. He moved his capital away from Thebes, but this abrupt change was very unpopular with the priests of Amun, who now found themselves without any of their former power. The religion of Egypt was inexorably tied to the leadership of the country, the pharaoh being the leader of both. The pharaoh was the highest priest in the temple of the capital, and the next lower level of religious leaders were important advisers to the pharaoh, many being administrators of the bureaucracy that ran the country.  The introduction of Atenism under Akhenaten constructed a monotheist worship of Aten in direct competition with that of Amun. Praises of Amun on stelae are strikingly similar in language to those later used, in particular, the Hymn to the Aten:  When Akhenaten died, the priests of Amun-Ra reasserted themselves. Akhenaten's name was struck from Egyptian records, all of his religious and governmental changes were undone, and the capital was returned to Thebes. The return to the previous capital and its patron deity was accomplished so swiftly that it seemed this almost monotheistic cult and its governmental reforms had never existed. Worship of Aten ceased and worship of Amun-Ra was restored. The priests of Amun even persuaded his young son, Tutankhaten, whose name meant "the living image of Aten"—and who later would become pharaoh—to change his name to Tutankhamun, "the living image of Amun".

Theology.

In the New Kingdom, Amun became successively identified with all other Egyptian deities, to the point of virtual monotheism (which was then attacked by means of the "counter-monotheism" of Atenism). Primarily, the god of wind "Amun" came to be identified with the solar god Ra and the god of fertility and creation Min, so that Amun-Ra had the main characteristic of a solar god, creator god and fertility god. He also adopted the aspect of the ram from the Nubian solar god, besides numerous other titles and aspects.  As Amun-Re, he was petitioned for mercy by those who believed suffering had come about as a result of their own or others' wrongdoing.  In the Leiden hymns, Amun, Ptah, and Re are regarded as a trinity who are distinct gods but with unity in plurality. "The three gods are one yet the Egyptian elsewhere insists on the separate identity of each of the three." This unity in plurality is expressed in one text:  Henri Frankfort suggested that Amun was originally a wind god and pointed out that the implicit connection between the winds and mysteriousness was paralleled in a passage from the Gospel of John: "The wind blows where it wishes, and you hear the sound of it, but do not know where it comes from and where it is going."  A Leiden hymn to Amun describes how he calms stormy seas for the troubled sailor:

Third Intermediate Period.

Theban High Priests of Amun.

While not regarded as a dynasty, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes were nevertheless of such power and influence that they were effectively the rulers of Egypt from 1080 to 943 BC. By the time Herihor was proclaimed as the first ruling High Priest of Amun in 1080 BC—in the 19th Year of Ramesses XI—the Amun priesthood exercised an effective hold on Egypt's economy. The Amun priests owned two-thirds of all the temple lands in Egypt and 90 percent of her ships and many other resources. Consequently, the Amun priests were as powerful as the pharaoh, if not more so. One of the sons of the High Priest Pinedjem would eventually assume the throne and rule Egypt for almost half a decade as pharaoh Psusennes I, while the Theban High Priest Psusennes III would take the throne as king Psusennes II—the final ruler of the 21st Dynasty.

Decline.

In the 10th century BC, the overwhelming dominance of Amun over all of Egypt gradually began to decline. In Thebes, however, his worship continued unabated, especially under the Nubian Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, as Amun was by now seen as a national god in Nubia. The Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal, founded during the New Kingdom, came to be the center of the religious ideology of the Kingdom of Kush. The Victory Stele of Piye at Gebel Barkal (8th century BC) now distinguishes between an "Amun of Napata" and an "Amun of Thebes". Tantamani (died 653 BC), the last pharaoh of the Nubian dynasty, still bore a theophoric name referring to Amun in the Nubian form "Amani".

Iron Age and classical antiquity.

Nubia and Sudan.

In areas outside Egypt where the Egyptians had previously brought the cult of Amun his worship continued into classical antiquity. In Nubia, where his name was pronounced "Amane" or "Amani", he remained a national deity, with his priests, at Meroe and Nobatia, regulating the whole government of the country via an oracle, choosing the ruler, and directing military expeditions. According to Diodorus Siculus, these religious leaders were even able to compel kings to commit suicide, although this tradition stopped when Arkamane, in the 3rd century BC, slew them.  In Sudan, excavation of an Amun temple at Dangeil began in 2000 under the directorship of Drs Salah Mohamed Ahmed and Julie R. Anderson of the National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM), Sudan and the British Museum, UK, respectively. The temple was found to have been destroyed by fire and Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) and C14 dating of the charred roof beams have placed the construction of the most recent incarnation of the temple in the 1st century AD. This date is further confirmed by the associated ceramics and inscriptions. Following its destruction, the temple gradually decayed and collapsed.

Libya.

In Libya there remained a solitary oracle of Amun in the Libyan Desert at the oasis of Siwa. The worship of Ammon was introduced into Greece at an early period, probably through the medium of the Greek colony in Cyrene, which must have formed a connection with the great oracle of Ammon in the Oasis soon after its establishment. Iarbas, a mythological king of Libya, was also considered a son of Hammon.  According to the 6th century author Corippus, a Libyan people known as the Laguatan carried an effigy of their god Gurzil, whom they believed to be the son of Ammon, into battle against the Byzantine Empire in the 540s AD.

Levant.

Amun is mentioned as a deity in the Hebrew Bible, and in the Nevi'im, texts presumably written in the 7th century BC, the name occurs in reference to Thebes:

Greece.

Amun, worshipped by the Greeks as "Ammon", had a temple and a statue, the gift of Pindar (d. 443 BC), at Thebes, and another at Sparta, the inhabitants of which, as Pausanias says, consulted the oracle of Ammon in Libya from early times more than the other Greeks. At Aphytis, Chalcidice, Amun was worshipped, from the time of Lysander (d. 395 BC), as zealously as in Ammonium. Pindar the poet honored the god with a hymn. At Megalopolis the god was represented with the head of a ram (Paus. viii.32 § 1), and the Greeks of Cyrenaica dedicated at Delphi a chariot with a statue of Ammon.  Such was its reputation among the Classical Greeks that Alexander the Great journeyed there after the battle of Issus and during his occupation of Egypt, where he was declared "the son of Amun" by the oracle. Alexander thereafter considered himself divine. Even during this occupation, Amun, identified by these Greeks as a form of Zeus, continued to be the principal local deity of Thebes.  Several words derive from Amun via the Greek form, "Ammon", such as "ammonia" and "ammonite". The Romans called the ammonium chloride they collected from deposits near the Temple of Jupiter-Amun in ancient Libya "sal ammoniacus" (salt of Amun) because of proximity to the nearby temple. Ammonia, as well as being the chemical, is a genus name in the foraminifera. Both these foraminiferans (shelled Protozoa) and ammonites (extinct shelled cephalopods) bear spiral shells resembling a ram's, and Ammon's, horns. The regions of the hippocampus in the brain are called the cornu ammonis – literally "Amun's Horns", due to the horned appearance of the dark and light bands of cellular layers.  In "Paradise Lost", Milton identifies Ammon with the biblical Ham (Cham) and states that the gentiles called him the Libyan Jove.

Amun (also "Amon, Ammon, Amen",, "reconstructed" ; Greek "Ámmōn", "Hámmōn") was a major ancient Egyptian deity who appears as a member of the Hermopolitan Ogdoad. Amun was attested from the Old Kingdom together with his wife Amaunet. With the 11th dynasty ( 21st century BC), Amun rose to the position of patron deity of Thebes by replacing Montu.

Amon (zpravidla překládáno jako „Skrytý“, v transliteraci z hieroglyfického písma "jmnw", řecky Αμμων – Ammón, event. Άμμων – Hammón, do češtiny méně často přepisováno podle jinojazyčných verzí odvozených z koptštiny jako Amun), po svém ztotožnění se slunečním bohem Reem označovaný také jako Amon-Re (přepisováno také jako Amenre, Amunre apod.), je významný staroegyptský bůh se složitým a prozatím ne zcela srozumitelným teologickým vývojem, jehož podstata byla podle starověkých Egypťanů tajemná, neproniknutelná a nepřístupná nejen lidem, ale i ostatním bohům. V této roli, třebaže ještě nikoli ve vystupňované podobě, nejspíše už ve starší době vystupuje např. v chemenské nauce o Osmeru.


Origins.

The Italian word "scherzo" means 'joke' or 'jest'. More rarely the similar-meaning word "badinerie" (also spelled "battinerie"; from French, 'jesting') has been used. Sometimes the word "scherzando" ('joking') is used in musical notation to indicate that a passage should be executed in a playful manner. An early use of the word "scherzo" in music is in light-hearted madrigals of the early baroque period, which were often called "scherzi musicali", for example:  Later, composers applied the term "scherzo" and sometimes "badinerie" to certain instrumental works in fast tempos in duple meter time signature, for example:  The scherzo, as most commonly known today, developed from the minuet, and gradually came to replace it as the third (sometimes second) movement in symphonies, string quartets, sonatas, and similar works. It traditionally retains the triple meter time signature and ternary form of the minuet, but is considerably quicker. It is often, but not always, of a light-hearted nature.

Form.

The scherzo itself is a rounded binary form, but, like the minuet, is usually played with the accompanying trio followed by a repeat of the scherzo, creating the ABA or ternary form. This is sometimes done twice or more (ABABA). The "B" theme is a trio, a contrasting section not necessarily for only three instruments, as was often the case with the second minuet of classical suites (the first Brandenburg Concerto has a famous example).

Appearance/examples in compositions.

Scherzi occasionally differ from this traditional structure in various ways.  The scherzo remained a standard movement in the symphony and related forms through the 19th century and beyond. Composers also began to write scherzi as pieces in themselves, stretching the boundaries of the form. In present-day compositions, the scherzo has also made appearances.

A scherzo (,, ; plural scherzos or scherzi), in western classical music, is a short composition – sometimes a movement from a larger work such as a symphony or a sonata. The precise definition has varied over the years, but scherzo often refers to a movement that replaces the minuet as the third movement in a four-movement work, such as a symphony, sonata, or string quartet. The term can also refer to a fast-moving humorous composition that may or may not be part of a larger work.

Scherzo je hudební skladba, pro niž je typický žertovný ráz (scherzo = italsky žert), rychlé tempo a živý rytmus. Od doby klasicisimu vystřídala tato forma v cyklických skladbách typu sonát a symfonií jednu z jejích běžných součástí, kterou byl menuet. Může však být i samostatnou skladbou.