Form and function.

Humans have used jewellery for a number of different reasons:  Most cultures at some point have had a practice of keeping large amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewellery. Numerous cultures store wedding dowries in the form of jewellery or make jewellery as a means to store or display coins. Alternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good; an example being the use of slave beads.  Many items of

Materials and methods.

In creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals. Platinum alloys range from 900 (90% pure) to 950 (95.0% pure). The silver used in jewellery is usually sterling silver, or 92.5% fine silver. In costume jewellery, stainless steel findings are sometimes used.  Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused-glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay; polymer clay; Hemp and other twines have been used as well to create jewellery that has more of a natural feel. However, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will give a British Assay office (the body which gives U.K. jewellery its stamp of approval, the Hallmark) the right to destroy the piece, however it is very rare for the assay office to do so.  Beads are frequently used in jewellery. These may be made of glass, gemstones, metal, wood, shells, clay and polymer clay. Beaded jewellery commonly encompasses necklaces, bracelets, earrings, belts and rings. Beads may be large or small; the smallest type of beads used are known as seed beads, these are the beads used for the "woven" style of beaded jewellery. Seed beads are also used in an embroidery technique where they are sewn onto fabric backings to create broad collar neck pieces and beaded bracelets. Bead embroidery, a popular type of handwork during the Victorian era, is enjoying a renaissance in modern jewellery making. Beading, or beadwork, is also very popular in many African and indigenous North American cultures.  Silversmiths, goldsmiths, and lapidaries use methods including forging, casting, soldering or welding, cutting, carving and "cold-joining" (using adhesives, staples and rivets to assemble parts).

Diamonds.

Diamonds were first mined in India. Pliny may have mentioned them, although there is some debate as to the exact nature of the stone he referred to as "Adamas"; In 2005, Australia, Botswana, Russia and Canada ranked among the primary sources of gemstone diamond production. There are negative consequences of the diamond trade in certain areas. Diamonds mined during the recent civil wars in Angola, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone,

Other gemstones.

Many precious and semiprecious stones are used for jewellery. Among them are:  Some gemstones (like pearls, coral, and amber) are classified as organic, meaning that they are produced by living organisms. Others are inorganic,

Metal finishes.

For platinum, gold, and silver jewellery, there are many techniques to create finishes. The most common are high-polish, satin/matte, brushed, and hammered. High-polished jewellery is the most common and gives the metal a highly reflective, shiny look. Satin, or matte finish reduces the shine and reflection of the jewellery, and this is commonly used to accentuate gemstones such as diamonds. Brushed finishes give the jewellery a textured

Impact on society.

Jewellery has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, only certain ranks could wear rings; later, sumptuary laws dictated who could wear what type of jewellery. This was also based on rank of the citizens of that time. Cultural dictates have also played a significant role. For example, the wearing of earrings by Western men was considered effeminate in the 19th century and early 20th century. More recently, the display of body jewellery, such as piercings, has become a mark of acceptance or seen as a badge of courage within some groups but is completely rejected in others. Likewise, hip hop culture has popularised the slang term bling-bling, which refers to ostentatious display of jewellery by men or women.

History.

The history of jewellery is long and goes back many years, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked.

Prehistory.

The earliest known Jewellery was actually created not by humans ("Homo sapiens") but by Neanderthal living in Europe. Specifically, perforated beads made from small sea shells have been found dating to 115,000 years ago in the Cueva de los Aviones, a cave along the southeast coast of Spain. Later in Kenya, at Enkapune Ya Muto, beads made from perforated ostrich egg shells have been dated to more than 40,000 years ago. In Russia, a stone bracelet and marble ring are attributed to a similar age.  Later, the European early modern humans had crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth, berries, and stone hung on pieces of string or animal

Egypt.

The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was around 3,000–5,000 years ago. The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over other metals. In Predynastic Egypt jewellery soon began to symbolise political and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in

Europe and the Middle East.

Mesopotamia.

By approximately 5,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craft in the cities of Mesopotamia. The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900–2300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabi contained a multitude of artefacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of

Greece.

The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1600 BC, although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. Around 1500 BC, the main techniques of working gold in Greece included casting, twisting bars, and making wire. Many of these sophisticated techniques were popular in the Mycenaean period, but unfortunately this skill was lost at the end of the Bronze Age. The forms and shapes of jewellery in ancient Greece such as the armring (13th century BC), brooch (10th century BC) and pins (7th century BC), have varied widely

Etruscan.

Gorgons, pomegranates, acorns, lotus flowers and palms were a clear indicator of Greek influence in Etruscan jewelry. The modelling of heads, which was a typical practice from the Greek severe period, was a technique that spread throughout the Etruscan territory. An even clearer evidence of new influences is

Rome.

Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewellery was changed as smaller factions developed the Roman designs. The most common artefact of early Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure clothing together. The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery from their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone, and in earlier times, glass beads & pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphires and Indian diamonds and used emeralds

Middle Ages.

Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewellery making skills. The Celts and Merovingians in particular are noted for their jewellery, which in terms of quality matched or exceeded that of the Byzantine Empire. Clothing fasteners, amulets, and, to a lesser extent, signet rings, are the most common artefacts known to us. A particularly striking Celtic example is the Tara Brooch. The Torc was common throughout Europe as a symbol of status and power. By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet rings) seemed to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a 6th–7th century burial near Chalon-sur-Saône are illustrative. A young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae,

Renaissance.

The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewellery in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade led to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precious metal had been at the forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their settings. An example of this is the Cheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London during the Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from Brazil, spinel, iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from India, Afghan lapis lazuli, Persian turquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as

Romanticism.

Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on the development of western jewellery. Perhaps the most significant influences were the public's fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of modern archaeology and a fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing social conditions and the onset of the Industrial Revolution also led to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes led to the development of paste or costume jewellery. Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though superior artistic and technical work. One such artist was the French goldsmith François-Désiré Froment-Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the philosophy

18th Century/Romanticism/Renaissance.

Many whimsical fashions were introduced in the extravagant eighteenth century. Cameos that were used in connection with jewellery were the attractive trinkets along with many of the small objects such as brooches, ear-rings and scarf-pins.

Art Nouveau.

In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing Art Nouveau style and the closely related German Jugendstil, British (and to some extent American) Arts and Crafts Movement, Catalan Modernisme, Austro-Hungarian Sezession, Italian "Liberty", etc.  Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on the female form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling techniques including basse-taille, champleve, cloisonné, and plique-à-jour. Motifs included orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures, and the female silhouette.  René Lalique, working for the Paris shop

Art Deco.

Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the 20th century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco. Walter Gropius and the German Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no barriers between artists and craftsmen" led to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced: plastics and aluminium were first used in jewellery, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian-born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky. Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself. In the West, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German Elizabeth Treskow, although development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s. It is based on the basic shapes.

Asia.

In Asia, the Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere, with a history of over 5,000 years. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization, in what is now predominately modern-day Pakistan and part of northern and western India. Early jewellery making in China started around the same period, but it became widespread with the spread of Buddhism around 2,000 years ago.

China.

The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more than gold. Blue kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. However, jade was preferred over any other stone. The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability, and beauty. The first jade pieces were very simple, but as time progressed, more complex designs evolved. Jade rings from between the 4th and

Indian subcontinent.

The Indian subcontinent has a long jewellery history, which went through various changes through cultural influence and politics for more than 5,000–8,000 years. Because India had an abundant supply of precious metals and gems, it prospered financially through export and exchange with other countries. While European traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5,000 years. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization (encompassing present-day Pakistan and north and northwest India). By 1500 BC, the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces, and metallic bangles. Before 2100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker would need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader. The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole bored through it with primitive drills. The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was often passed down through the family. Children of bead makers often learned how to work beads from a young age. Persian style also played a big role in India's jewellery. Each stone had its own characteristics related to Hinduism.  Jewellery in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who wore numerous clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable ones. In present-day India, bangles are made out of metal or glass. Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers, and gold rings. Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were often crafted to be placed in men and women's hair. The beads were about one millimetre long.  A female skeleton (presently on display at the National

North and South America.

Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish established an empire to seize South American gold. Jewellery making developed in the Americas 5,000 years ago in Central and South America. Large amounts of gold was easily accessible, and the Aztecs, Mixtecs, Mayans, and numerous Andean cultures, such as the Mochica of Peru, created beautiful pieces of jewellery.  With the Mochica culture, goldwork flourished. The pieces are no longer simple metalwork, but are now masterful examples of jewellery making. Pieces are sophisticated in their design, and feature inlays of turquoise, mother of pearl, spondylus shell, and amethyst. The nose and ear ornaments, chest plates, small containers and whistles are considered masterpieces of ancient Peruvian culture. Among the Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power, and wealth. Gold jewellery was most common in the Aztec Empire and was often decorated with feathers from Quetzal birds and others. In general, the more jewellery

Native American.

Native American jewellery is the personal adornment, often in the forms of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, pins, brooches, labrets, and more, made by the Indigenous peoples of the United States. Native American jewellery reflects the cultural diversity and history of its makers. Native American tribes continue to develop distinct aesthetics rooted in their personal artistic visions and cultural traditions. Artists create jewellery for adornment, ceremonies, and trade. Lois Sherr Dubin writes,

Pacific.

Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood, and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins, and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces.  Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, wear certain headdresses once they have killed an enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses.  Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures. Some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be explored by Western nations.

Modern.

Most modern commercial jewellery continues traditional forms and styles, but designers such as Georg Jensen have widened the concept of wearable art. The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay (PMC), and colouring techniques, has led to increased variety in styles. Other advances, such as the development of improved pearl harvesting by people such as Mikimoto Kōkichi and the development of improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a diamond simulant), has placed jewellery within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population.  The "jewellery as art" movement was spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris and continued by designers such as Gill Forsbrook in the UK. Influence from other cultural forms is also evident. One example of this is bling-bling style jewellery, popularised by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st century, e.g. grills, a type of jewellery worn over the teeth. The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniques such as Mokume-gane. The following are innovations in the decades straddling the year 2000: "Mokume-gane,

Masonic.

Freemasons attach jewels to their detachable collars when in Lodge to signify a Brothers

Body modification.

Jewellery used in body modification can be simple and plain or dramatic and extreme. The use of simple silver studs, rings, and earrings predominates. Common jewellery pieces such as earrings are a form of body modification, as they are accommodated by creating a small hole in the ear.  Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks. From as early as five years old, girls are introduced to their first neck ring. Over the years, more rings are added. In addition to the twenty-plus pounds of rings on her neck, a woman will also wear just as many rings on her calves. At their extent, some necks modified like this can reach long. The practice has health impacts and has in recent years declined from cultural norm to tourist curiosity. Tribes related to the Paduang, as well as other

Jewellery market.

According to a 2007 KPMG study, the largest jewellery market is the United States with a market share of 30.8%, Japan, India, China, and the Middle East each with 8–9%, and Italy with 5%. The authors of the study predict a dramatic change in market shares by 2015, where the market share of the United States will have dropped to around 25%, and China and India will increase theirs to over 13%. The Middle East will remain more or less constant at 9%, whereas Europe's and Japan's marketshare will be halved and become less than 4% for Japan, and less than 3% for the biggest individual European countries, Italy and the UK.

Jewellery or jewelry (American English; see spelling differences) consists of decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the clothes. From a western perspective, the term is restricted to durable ornaments, excluding flowers for example. For many centuries metal such as gold used in different carats from 21, 18, 12, 9 or even lowers, often combined with gemstones, has been the normal material for jewellery, but other materials such as shells and other plant materials may be used. It is one of the oldest type of archaeological artefact – with 100,000-year-old beads made from "Nassarius" shells thought to be the oldest known jewellery. The basic forms of jewellery vary between cultures but are often extremely long-lived; in European cultures the most common forms of jewellery listed above have persisted since ancient times, while other forms such as adornments for the nose or ankle, important in other cultures, are much less common.

Šperk je zpravidla drobný ozdobný předmět, který se nosí na těle nebo na oděvu, obvykle vyrobený z drahých kovů a drahých kamenů, v tom případě se může nazývat "klenot", nebo je zhotoven z obecných kovů (kovová bižuterie) či syntetických materiálů (plasty, syntetické drahokamy) nebo skla (skleněná bižuterie). V poslední době vznikají šperky také spojením drahého kovu se syntetickým kamenem (např. zirkonia).


History.

The Silesian People's Party was founded in summer of 1908 by the principal of an elementary school, Józef Kożdoń, in Skoczów. On February 7, 1909, the party counted about 2,000 members in 30 local groups in the counties of Bielsko, Cieszyn and Fryštát. Local groups in Frydek county formed later. Members and electors of the SPP came from Protestant circles among the citizens of Cieszyn Silesia, so the largest organizations within the party existed in Bielsko and Cieszyn, where large Protestant communities lived. The party's largest local groups, as of 1913, existed in Skoczów (214 members) and Cieszyn (210 members).  The goals of the SPP were not new – similar sentiments had been present in Cieszyn Silesia since the Revolutions of 1848 – but this was the first time that supporters of Silesian independence were organized into a distinct political party. Silesian nationalist positions were first advocated by the Union of Austrian Silesians, which was founded in 1848 by Silesian deputies of the Austrian Parliament: Franz Hein, Hans Kudlich and Johann Demel von Elswehr. Such sentiments were also voiced informally by community institutions, like the paper "Nowy Czas" (New Time), edited by preacher Theodor Haase. "The Szlonzakian movement had expanded in the nineties of the 19th century, collecting Slavic people who didn’t want to vote for Poles or Czechs and chose attachment to a separate Silesian nation". Silesian nationalism achieved successes mainly in the judicial districts of Skoczów, Strumień and Frydek.

Activity in Austria.

In 1909 there were elections to the Silesian Parliament in Opava. The Silesian People's Party and German liberals had established a united election list, the Silesian Progressive Coalition, which included SPP candidates in rural electoral districts and German liberal candidates in urban electoral districts. Finally electors from the rural Bielsko-Strumień-Skoczów electoral district chose one deputy – the leader of Silesian People’s Party, Józef Kożdoń, who defeated Józef Londzin from the Union of Silesian Catholics, who was leader of the Poles in Cieszyn Silesia. In the rural Cieszyn-Fryštát-Jablunkov electoral district, Fraciszek Halfar of the Union of Silesian Catholics won with support from the SPP and Polish parties as well. The second deputy from this circle, Jan Michejda, defeated the SPP candidate, Josef Cichy, thanks to the votes of Polish Catholics and Czechs. Michejda became leader of the Protestant Polish National Party. The third SPP candidate, Edward Quasnitza, won the first round of elections in the rural Bohumín-Slezská Ostrava-Frýdek electoral district, but in the second round he was defeated by the Czech candidate Jan Poppe, mayor of Slezská Ostrava, who was supported by the Poles.  In July 1910, the non-political cultural base of Silesian People's Party was formed: the Union of Silesians (,, ), founded by Kożdoń, Cichy, and Paul Wania, originally under the name Silesian People's Union "Our Homeland" (, ). From 1909 to 1923 the official paper of the Silesian People's Party was the weekly "Ślązak" (Silesian).  In 1911 there were local elections in Austria. The SPP won in 39 municipalities of the counties of Bielsko and Cieszyn: Jaworze and Jasienica in the judicial district of Bielsko; Bładnice Dolne, Cisownica, Goleszów, Godziszów, Górki Wielkie, Harbutowice, Hermanice, Kozakowice Górne, Kozakowice Dolne, Łączka, Międzyświeć, Nierodzim, Simoradz, Wieszczęta, Wilamowice and Ustroń (here with a coalition of Szlonzakians and Germans) in the judicial district of Skoczów; Bąków, Drogomyśl, Pruchna, Zaborze and Rudzica (here with a coalition of Szlonzakians and Poles) in the judicial district of Strumień; Bażanowice, Dzięgielów, Gumna, Konská, Leszna Górna, Komorní Lhotka, Nebory, Puńców, Svibice, Zamarski, Horní Žukov and Šumbark (here with a coalition of Szlonzakians and Poles) in the judicial district of Cieszyn; Lyžbice, Mosty u Jablunkova and Oldřichovice in the judicial district of Jablunkov.  In 1911 there were also elections to the Austrian Parliament in Vienna. SPP candidates lost many socialist votes and were defeated by Polish and Czech candidates. Kożdoń did not even win in majority municipalities that his party had ruled in local elections. Eight municipalities around Bielsko, called a "German language island", which had voted for Kożdoń in the Silesian Parliament elections in 1909, constituted an exception within the rural Bielsko electoral district. Kożdoń won 26% of the votes in the Bielsko electoral district and 19% of the votes in the Cieszyn electoral district. Louis Schindler took 7.5% votes in the Frydek electoral district.  In the period when Cieszyn Silesia belonged to Austria–Hungary, the Silesian People's Party reached the largest popularity in the triangle between Cieszyn, Wisła and Strumień, centering on Skoczów, Jaworze, Ustroń and Goleszów.

In the plebiscite period.

After World War I members of Silesian People's Party hoped to get Austrian Silesia a place as a free state in the federation of Austrian states. When this effort failed, they pushed for the independence of Cieszyn Silesia and probably a union with the formerly Prussian Upper Silesia. Upper Silesia's independence was advocated by the Upper Silesian Committee (which, beginning in January 1919, was called the Union of Upper Silesians).  Kożdoń, along with Richter and Fulda – the leaders of the Delegation of German Parties of East Silesia – wrote "Petition regarding an independent Republic of East Silesia – Cieszyn". During the Paris Peace Conference, this petition was presented by a member of the town council in Bielsko – Robert Piesch – to a member of the Austrian delegation in Paris. The International Commission in Cieszyn had received "Petition regarding the rights of Cieszyn Land’s people to self-determination", whose author, Silesian economist and theoretical lawyer Eduard August Schroeder, supported the independence of Cieszyn Silesia. This option was supported by three members of the International Commission: Dubois from the United States, Tissi from Italy and Coulson from the United Kingdom, but the fourth – Grenard, the representative of France – was opposed to even including independence as an option in the planned plebiscite. The plebiscite was supposed to decide whether Cieszyn Silesia would belong to Poland or Czechoslovakia. Soon the leader of the SPP gained close contacts with leading Czechoslovak politicians: president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, prime minister Karel Kramář, foreign affairs minister Edvard Beneš and future prime minister Vlastimil Tusar. They promised Kożdoń that if Silesia lay within the borders of Czechoslovakia it would have political autonomy.  Even when the SPP officially supported Czechoslovakia, the party did not abandon the option of independence, which was still advocated by its allies, the Germans of Cieszyn Silesia. Kożdoń cooperated with the leader of the Upper Silesian independence advocates, Ewald Latacz, the chairman of the Union of Upper Silesians, which had about half a million members.  In this period the Szlonzakian movement had a broad base of support. The SPP had more than 10,000 members and the Union of Silesians had 52,000. At this time, the Plebiscite Committee of the Silesian People's Party was founded in Karwina, along with 139 communal plebiscite committees in the counties of Bielsko (50 committees), Cieszyn (61 committees) and Fryštát (28 committees). In the winter of 1920 in Fryštat, František Janku and Paweł Bajtek founded the Silesian Social-Democratic Party, formed from Silesian workers, who were mainly former members of the Polish Socialist Party and the Silesian People's Party from Wisła, Ustroń and Goleszów. Karol Smyczek, Kożdoń’s personal secretary, was important in the formation of this new party's local organizations. Taken together, the members and supporters of the Szlonzakian movement numbered about 100,000 in 1920.  In July 1920, the Western allies divided Cieszyn Silesia without holding a plebiscite.

In Poland.

On the Polish side, where about 80% of the Szlonzakian movement's organization was located, its activity was prohibited. "Members of the Silesian People’s Party and Union of Silesians were subject to persecution and arrests".  In January 1934, Konrad Markiton, Jan Pokrzyk, Paweł Teda, Alfons Pośpiech, Jerzy Jeleń and Waleska Kubistowa re-formed the Silesian People's Party in Katowice. These people were also members of other Silesian organizations: the Association of Regional Writers, which edited the "Trybuna Śląska" (Silesian Tribune), the Cultural-Economic Association of Silesia and the Union of Upper Silesian Defence. They connected with the former electors Jan Kustos from the former Prussian Upper Silesia and Józef Kożdoń from the Polish part of Cieszyn Silesia. On April 15, 1934, Polish police confiscated the first issue of the party's bilingual paper, "Śląska Straż Ludowa – Schlesische Volkswacht" (Silesian People’s Watch) and stamped its editorial office. This act marked the end of the organization's activities in Katowice.

Activity in Czechoslovakia.

In 1923 there was a schism in the Silesian People's Party. Three factions appeared: one German-speaking (including Rudolf Francus, Walter Harbich, Karol Sikora, Arthur Wohrizek, Emmanuel Harbich, Otto Wohlman, Karl Kordula and Hans Peschke); a second Polish-speaking (including Karol Folwartschny, Gustaw Wałach, Józef Santarius, Adam Broda and Paweł Tomanek); and a third pro-Czech (including Karol Smyczek, Karol Pawlas and Alfred Farnik). The German-language faction started in some communal and all-district elections in a coalition with the German-minority election community. The Polish-language faction formed election coalitions with Polish minority parties. Kożdoń, as leader of all the party, linked these two factions. In some communes he stood for election alone. The pro-Czech faction cut ties with Kożdoń and became a separate organization, closely affiliated with the Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People. In communal elections it stood for election alone or entered Czech coalitions.  Sometimes in one commune started all three factions of the SPP, which competed among themselves. In communal elections the SPP gained various success. Its two candidates (Rudolf Francus and Karol Sikora) were members in the Český Těšín county council, and the number of its members in the town council of Český Těšín was still expanding (five in 1923, ten in 1927, twelve in 1931), and from 1923 to 1928, Kożdoń served four terms as mayor of Český Těšín. The SPP dominated the commune of Svibice too, and it had a large number of communal council members, starting in various political configurations (alone as the Silesian People's Party, in a separate Polish-language faction, in a separate German-language faction, in a broad German and Polish coalition, and in various communal and citizens committees).  The newspaper of the Polish-language faction was "Nasz Lud" (Our People). ""Ślązak w Czechosłowacji"" (Silesian in Czechoslovakia) and "Nasz Ślązak" (Our Silesian) were the pro-Czech papers. The Czechs founded the organization Czech-Szlonzakian Unity ("Česko-šlonzacká jednota"), which incorporated weak SPP organizations in Frydek county and connected it to the Czech political camp. The leading members of the Silesian People's Party in Czechoslovakia were: Józef Kożdoń, Rudolf Pierniczek, Karol Malina, Rudolf Francus, Walter Harbich in Český Těšín, Ludwik Niedoba i Alojzy Kuchejda in Jablunkov, Oswald Bayer in Třinec, Gustaw Wałach in Orlová, Robert Wallach in Komorní Lhotka, Karol Sikora and Jan Pasterny in Šumbark, Karol Kubik in Lyžbice, Bruno Kappel in Třanovice, Karol Bruck in Svibice and Józef Pellar in Bystrzyca.  In the 1925 parliamentary elections in Czechoslovakia, the SPP formed a coalition with the Polish minority parties: the Union of Silesian Catholics, the Polish People's Party and the Polish Socialist Workers Party. Gustaw Wałach, a member of the Szlonzakian movement, took third place, after Leon Wolf from the Union of Silesian Catholics and Wiesław Wójcik from the Polish Socialist Workers Party. The election slogan of the Polish coalition was "Silesia for Silesians", which was originally an SPP slogan that all Polish organizations had opposed in the Austrian period. Leon Wolf was elected deputy.  In 1927 the Czechoslovak authorities, against their own guarantees to the SPP, decided to connect Czech Silesia with Moravia. In response the mayor of Opava, Ernst Franz, founded the Committee for the Protection of Silesian Rights, which opposed this decision. The committee produced a German-language brochure by Kożdoń, "Right of our Silesian homeland for administration unhabitance", in which he argued that the merging of Czech Silesia with Moravia was irrational, based on historical, social and economic issues. The SPP, the Union of Silesians and all the organizations of Polish and German minorities protested the decision, but authorities in Prague ignored them.  In the 1928f elections to the Silesia–Moravia regional assembly, the SPP formed a coalition with the Poles again. A Szlonzakian–Polish–Jewish election list included Gustaw Wałach from the SPP, but nobody from this list was elected.  In the National Assembly elections in 1929 and elections to Silesian-Moravian Regional Assembly in 1935, the SPP supported the Polish-Jewish list. In the National Assembly elections of 1935, the SPP supported Polish candidate Karol Junga from a Polish-Slovak-Ruthenian list, the Autonomy Bloc. On the other hand, Walter Harbich, leader of the German-language faction, supported Sudetendeutsche Partei.  In 1938 Nazi Germany claimed the Opava Silesia and other Czechoslovak territories inhabited by ethnic German majorities. Poland claimed the Zaolzie region. In this situation, on September 8, 1938, the Silesian People's Party, as "representative of the Silesian nationality", sent a messeage to the representative of the United Kingdom, Sir Walter Runciman, in which it reminded him of the question of the plebiscite in 1920. In this new emergency, the SPP demanded four allied powers to execute a plebiscite regarding the future of Cieszyn Silesia. The petition, to which was attached Kurt Witt's work "Die Teschener Frage" ("The Cieszyn question"), was signed by Kożdoń as mayor of Český Těšín, along with Bruno Kappel, Karol Kubik, Robert Wallach, Walter Harbich and Český Těšín county council member Rudolf Francus. On September 18, 1938 Walter Harbich as leader of the "assembly of the Silesian nationality" sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler, requesting the independence of Cieszyn Silesia under the protection of Nazi Germany. A petition about this issue was sent to the British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, too.

Decline.

On October 2, 1938 Polish Army incorporated Zaolzie into Poland, and eventually the Wehrmacht incorporated Silesian territory near Opava and other territories into Nazi Germany. On October 2, 1938, Rudolf Francus and Walter Harbich, the leaders of the German-language faction of the Silesian People's Party sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler, speaking for the Silesian people and German people from Bohumín in protest of the cession of the Zaolzie to Poland. All the telegrams were sent without Kożdoń's knowledge. On October 6, 1938, Polish authorities banned all non-Polish organizations in Zaolzie. German and Czechoslovak organizations were banned, as well as the Silesian People's Party and the Union of Silesians. Kożdoń was deposed as mayor of Český Těšín and authorities forced him to leave Cieszyn Silesia and go to Opava. At this time, Walter Harbich, in cooperation with Paul Lamatsch but without Kożdoń's knowledge, subordinated the illegal Silesian People's Party to the "Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle" ("Central office of ethnic Germans living abroad") in Berlin.  Two weeks after the invasion of Poland by Germany, Kożdoń "was welcomed by ovation" back to Cieszyn. In December 1939, Nazi Germans organized a police census, in which 157,000 citizens of Cieszyn Silesia declared themselves members of the "Szlonzakian nationality" ("Volk der Schlonsaken") and 184,000 declared Szlonzakian ("Schlonsakisch") to be their native language. The Germans did not legalise the activities of the Silesian People's Party or reinstate Kożdoń as mayor. The Germans used the immense popularity of party's ideals for the purpose of Germanization.

The Silesian People’s Party (,,, ) was a political organization in Cieszyn Silesia that existed from 1909 to 1938 in Austrian Silesia, which later became international plebiscite territory and finally part of Czechoslovakia. The party included mainly Slavic people, who saw themselves as members of a Silesian nation. The party is seen as part of the Szlonzakian movement (,, ) or Silesian Separatist Movement.

Slezská lidová strana (pol.: Śląska Partia Ludowa) – politická strana působící v Rakousku-Uhersku od roku 1909 a poté v Československu v letech 1921–1938. Byla založena ředitelem skočovské školy Josefem Koždoněm a sdružovala obyvatele Těšínského Slezska, kteří se hlásili ke slezské národnosti.


Easter Island.

In 1910 the Routledges decided to organize their own expedition to Easter Island/Rapa Nui. They had a state-of-the-art long Schooner built and named it "Mana". They affiliated with the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the British Museum and the Royal Geographical Society, recruited a crew and borrowed an officer from the Royal Navy. The Mana departed Falmouth on 25 March 1913.  They arrived on Easter Island on 29 March 1914. They established two base camps, one in the area of Mataveri and the other at the statue quarry, Rano Raraku and also explored Orongo and Anakena. With the help of an islander named Juan Tepano, Routledge proceeded to interview the natives and catalogue the moai (giant statues) and the Ahus they had once stood on. They excavated over 30 moai, visited the tribal elders in their leper colony north of Hanga Roa and recorded various legends and oral histories including that of Hotu Matua, the Birdman cult, clan names and territories and data on the enigmatic rongorongo script; Van Tilburg credits her with a primary role in assisting preservation of Rapa Nui's indigenous Polynesian culture.  One of her findings was the cultural continuity between the statue carvers and the Polynesian Rapa Nui people resident on the island in her time; the designs carved on the backs of the statues she excavated included the same designs tattooed on the backs and posteriors of elderly islanders in the island's leper colony. As the tattooing tradition had been suppressed by missionaries in the 1860s this particular primary evidence was unavailable to later expeditions except through her records. During their stay, the German East Asia Squadron, including the armored cruisers "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau", and the light cruisers "Dresden", "Leipzig", "Emden", rendezvoused off Hanga Roa. While the expedition covered up their main discoveries to hide them from the Germans, the Germans converted their fleet to a fighting trim. By the time the Germans landed 48 British and French merchant seamen from sunken prizes it had become clear to all that World War I had broken out, and Routledge complained sharply of this infringement of neutral Chilean territory to the schoolmaster in his capacity as representative of the Government of Chile; whilst her husband sailed the "Mana" to Valparaiso to pass on a similar complaint to the British Consul in Santiago.  There is no record of what steps the schoolmaster took to persuade the German fleet to leave Chilean waters, but they did depart, most of them to Coronel and the Falklands. Some of the stranded French merchant seamen were recruited as labourers by the expedition. Routledge also decided to mediate in the native rebellion against the sheep ranch that was led by local medicine woman and visionary named Angata.  The Routledges departed the island in August, 1915 returning home via Pitcairn and San Francisco. She published her findings in a popular travel book, "The Mystery of Easter Island", in 1919. Hundreds of the objects that she and her husband found are now in the Pitt Rivers Museum and the British Museum whilst her paper records are held by the Royal Geographical Society in London. Most of her scientific conclusions are accepted to this day.

Health.

Routledge suffered from early childhood with what is today believed to have been the developing stages of paranoid schizophrenia. However, she was able to carry out anthropological research (often under arduous conditions involving living in close quarters with others for years) with no sign of the condition. Her brother, Harold Pease, also suffered from mental illness, although whether he also suffered from schizophrenia is unclear. Routledge became involved with Spiritualism during her Oxford years and practised automatic writing.  After 1925, her schizophrenia got worse and displayed itself in the form of delusional paranoia. She threw Scoresby out of her Hyde Park, London mansion and locked herself inside. She also hid many of her field notes. In 1929 Scoresby and her family had her confined to a mental institution.  She died institutionalized in 1935. Her husband gave the field notes he found to the Royal Geographical Society. One of his executors found photographs of the Easter Island expedition ten years after his death. Maps of the expedition were found in Scoresby's house in Cyprus in 1961. Family papers and photographs, previously unpublished, including details of her illness, were made public through a biography of her. Archaeology on Easter Island continues to make use of her field notes and ethnographic research.

Katherine Maria Routledge (), née Pease (11 August 1866 – 13 December 1935), was an English archaeologist and anthropologist who, in 1914, initiated and carried out much of the first true survey of Easter Island.

Katherine Maria Routledge, rodným jménem Pease, (1866 – 1935) byla britská archeoložka. Byla prvním vědcem, který se pokusil provést systematický archeologický průzkum Velikonočního ostrova.


Structure.

Human catalase forms a tetramer composed of four subunits, each of which can be conceptually divided into four domains. The extensive core of each subunit is generated by an eight-stranded antiparallel b-barrel (b1-8), with nearest neighbor connectivity capped by b-barrel loops on one side and a9 loops on the other. A helical domain at one face of the b-barrel is composed of four C-terminal helices (a16, a17, a18, and a19) and four helices derived from residues between b4 and b5 (a4, a5, a6, and a7). Alternative splicing may result in different protein variants.

History.

Catalase was first noticed in 1818 when Louis Jacques Thénard, who discovered HO (hydrogen peroxide), suggested its breakdown is caused by an unknown substance. In 1900, Oscar Loew was the first to give it the name catalase, and found it in many plants and animals. In 1937 catalase from beef liver was crystallised by James B. Sumner and Alexander Dounce and the molecular weight was found in 1938.  The amino acid sequence of bovine catalase was determined in 1969, and the three-dimensional structure in 1981.

Function.

Reaction.

The presence of catalase in a microbial or tissue sample can be demonstrated by adding hydrogen peroxide and observing the reaction. The production of oxygen can be seen by the formation of bubbles. This easy test, which can be seen with the naked eye, without the aid of instruments, is possible because catalase has a very high specific activity, which produces a detectable response, as well as the fact that one of the products is a gas.

Molecular mechanism.

While the complete mechanism of catalase is not currently known, the reaction is believed to occur in two stages:  Here Fe()-E represents the iron center of the heme group attached to the enzyme. Fe(IV)-E(.+) is a mesomeric form of Fe(V)-E, meaning the iron is not completely oxidized to +V, but receives some stabilising electron density from the heme ligand, which is then shown as a radical cation (.+).  As hydrogen peroxide enters the active site, it interacts with the amino acids Asn148 (asparagine at position 148) and His75, causing a proton (hydrogen ion) to transfer between the oxygen atoms. The free oxygen atom coordinates, freeing the newly formed water molecule and Fe(IV)=O. Fe(IV)=O reacts with a second hydrogen peroxide molecule to reform Fe(III)-E and produce water and oxygen. The reactivity of the iron center may be improved by the presence of the phenolate ligand of Tyr358 in the fifth coordination position, which can assist in the oxidation of the Fe(III) to Fe(IV). The efficiency of the reaction may also be improved by the interactions of His75 and Asn148 with reaction intermediates. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by catalase proceeds according to first-order kinetics, the rate being proportional to the hydrogen peroxide concentration.  Catalase can also catalyze the oxidation, by hydrogen peroxide, of various metabolites and toxins, including formaldehyde, formic acid, phenols, acetaldehyde and alcohols. It does so according to the following reaction:  The exact mechanism of this reaction is not known.  Any heavy metal ion (such as copper cations in copper(II) sulfate) can act as a noncompetitive inhibitor of catalase. Furthermore, the poison cyanide is a noncompetitive inhibitor of catalase at high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide. Arsenate acts as an activator. Three-dimensional protein structures of the peroxidated catalase intermediates are available at the Protein Data Bank.

Cellular role.

Hydrogen peroxide is a harmful byproduct of many normal metabolic processes; to prevent damage to cells and tissues, it must be quickly converted into other, less dangerous substances. To this end, catalase is frequently used by cells to rapidly catalyze the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into less-reactive gaseous oxygen and water molecules.  Mice genetically engineered to lack catalase are initially phenotypically normal., however, catalase deficiency in mice may increase the likelihood of developing obesity, fatty liver, and type 2 diabetes. Some humans have very low levels of catalase (acatalasia), yet show few ill effects.  The increased oxidative stress that occurs with aging in mice is alleviated by over-expression of catalase. Over-expressing mice do not exhibit the age-associated loss of spermatozoa, testicular germ and Sertoli cells seen in wild-type mice. Oxidative stress in wild-type mice ordinarily induces oxidative DNA damage (measured as 8-oxodG) in sperm with aging, but these damages are significantly reduced in aged catalase over-expressing mice. Furthermore, these over-expressing mice show no decrease in age-dependent number of pups per litter. Overexpression of catalase targeted to mitochondria extends the lifespan of mice.  Catalase is usually located in a cellular organelle called the peroxisome. Peroxisomes in plant cells are involved in photorespiration (the use of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide) and symbiotic nitrogen fixation (the breaking apart of diatomic nitrogen (N) to reactive nitrogen atoms). Hydrogen peroxide is used as a potent antimicrobial agent when cells are infected with a pathogen. Catalase-positive pathogens, such as "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", "Legionella pneumophila", and "Campylobacter jejuni", make catalase to deactivate the peroxide radicals, thus allowing them to survive unharmed within the host.  Like alcohol dehydrogenase, catalase converts ethanol to acetaldehyde, but it is unlikely that this reaction is physiologically significant.

Distribution among organisms.

The large majority of known organisms use catalase in every organ, with particularly high concentrations occurring in the liver in mammals. Catalase is found primarily in peroxisomes and the cytosol of erythrocytes (and sometimes in mitochondria)  Almost all aerobic microorganisms use catalase. It is also present in some anaerobic microorganisms, such as "Methanosarcina barkeri". Catalase is also universal among plants and occurs in most fungi.  One unique use of catalase occurs in the bombardier beetle. This beetle has two sets of liquids that are stored separately in two paired glands. The larger of the pair, the storage chamber or reservoir, contains hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide, while the smaller, the reaction chamber, contains catalases and peroxidases. To activate the noxious spray, the beetle mixes the contents of the two compartments, causing oxygen to be liberated from hydrogen peroxide. The oxygen oxidizes the hydroquinones and also acts as the propellant. The oxidation reaction is very exothermic (ΔH = −202.8 kJ/mol) and rapidly heats the mixture to the boiling point.  Long-lived queens of the termite "Reticulitermes speratus" have significantly lower oxidative damage to their DNA than non-reproductive individuals (workers and soldiers). Queens have more than two times higher catalase activity and seven times higher expression levels of the catalase gene RsCAT1 than workers. It appears that the efficient antioxidant capability of termite queens can partly explain how they attain longer life.  Catalase enzymes from various species have vastly differing optimum temperatures. Poikilothermic animals typically have catalases with optimum temperatures in the range of 15-25 °C, while mammalian or avian catalases might have optimum temperatures above 35 °C, and catalases from plants vary depending on their growth habit. In contrast, catalase isolated from the hyperthermophile archaeon "Pyrobaculum calidifontis" has a temperature optimum of 90 °C.

Clinical significance and application.

Catalase is used in the food industry for removing hydrogen peroxide from milk prior to cheese production. Another use is in food wrappers where it prevents food from oxidizing. Catalase is also used in the textile industry, removing hydrogen peroxide from fabrics to make sure the material is peroxide-free.  A minor use is in contact lens hygiene – a few lens-cleaning products disinfect the lens using a hydrogen peroxide solution; a solution containing catalase is then used to decompose the hydrogen peroxide before the lens is used again.

Bacterial identification (catalase test).

The catalase test is one of the three main tests used by microbiologists to identify species of bacteria. If the bacteria possess catalase (i.e., are catalase-positive), when a small amount of bacterial isolate is added to hydrogen peroxide, bubbles of oxygen are observed. The catalase test is done by placing a drop of hydrogen peroxide on a microscope slide. An applicator stick is touched to the colony, and the tip is then smeared onto the hydrogen peroxide drop.  While the catalase test alone cannot identify a particular organism, it can aid identification when combined with other tests such as antibiotic resistance. The presence of catalase in bacterial cells depends on both the growth condition and the medium used to grow the cells.  Capillary tubes may also be used. A small sample of bacteria is collected on the end of the capillary tube, without blocking the tube, to avoid false negative results. The opposite end is then dipped into hydrogen peroxide, which is drawn into the tube through capillary action, and turned upside down, so that the bacterial sample points downwards. The hand holding the tube is then tapped on the bench, moving the hydrogen peroxide down until it touches the bacteria. If bubbles form on contact, this indicates a positive catalase result. This test can detect catalase-positive bacteria at concentrations above about 10 cells/mL, and is simple to use.

Bacterial virulence.

Neutrophils and other phagocytes use peroxide to kill bacteria. The enzyme NADPH oxidase generates superoxide within the phagosome, which is converted via hydrogen peroxide to other oxidising substances like hypochlorous acid which kill phagocytosed pathogens. In individuals with chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) there is a defect in producing peroxide via mutations in phagocyte oxidases such as myeloperoxidase. Normal cellular metabolism will still produce a small amount of peroxide and this peroxide can be used to produce hypochlorous acid to eradicate the bacterial infection. However, if individuals with CGD are infected with catalase-positive bacteria, the bacterial catalase can destroy the excess peroxide before it can be used to produce other oxidising substances. In these individuals the pathogen survives and becomes a chronic infection. This chronic infection is typically surrounded by macrophages in an attempt to isolate the infection. This wall of macrophages surrounding a pathogen is called a granuloma. Many bacteria are catalase positive, but some are better catalase-producers than others. The mnemonic "cats Need PLACESS to Belch their Hairballs" can be used to memorise the catalase-positive bacteria (and Candida and Aspergillus, which are fungi): nocardia, pseudomonas, listeria, aspergillus, candida, E. coli, staphylococcus, serratia, B. cepacia and H. pylori.

Acatalasia.

Acatalasia is a condition caused by homozygous mutations in CAT, resulting in a lack of catalase. Symptoms are mild and include oral ulcers. A heterozygous CAT mutation results in lower, but still present catalase.

Gray hair.

Low levels of catalase may play a role in the graying process of human hair. Hydrogen peroxide is naturally produced by the body and broken down by catalase. If catalase levels decline, hydrogen peroxide cannot be broken down so well. The hydrogen peroxide interferes with the production of melanin, the pigment that gives hair its color.

Interactions.

Catalase has been shown to interact with the "ABL2" and "Abl" genes. Infection with the murine leukemia virus causes catalase activity to decline in the lungs, heart and kidneys of mice. Conversely, dietary fish oil increased catalase activity in the heart, and kidneys of mice.

Catalase is a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms exposed to oxygen (such as bacteria, plants, and animals). It catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. It is a very important enzyme in protecting the cell from oxidative damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Likewise, catalase has one of the highest turnover numbers of all enzymes; one catalase molecule can convert millions of hydrogen peroxide molecules to water and oxygen each second.

Kataláza (též katalasa) je běžný enzym vyskytující se téměř ve všech živých organismech vystavených kyslíku. Funguje jako katalyzátor rozkladu peroxidu vodíku na vodu a kyslík. Kataláza má jedno z nejvyšších čísel přeměny ze všech enzymů. Jediná molekula katalázy může převést na vodu a kyslík miliony molekul peroxidu vodíku za sekundu.


Format.

The format for the announcement when a cardinal is elected pope is:  <poem> Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum; habemus Papam:  Eminentissimum ac Reverendissimum Dominum, Dominum [first name] Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalem [surname] qui sibi nomen imposuit [papal name]. </poem>  In English, it can be translated as:  <poem> I announce to you a great joy; we have a pope:  The most eminent and most reverend lord, Lord [first name] Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church [surname] who has taken the name [papal name]. </poem>  In the "Habemus papam" announcement given by Cardinal Jorge Arturo Medina Estévez on April 19, 2005, upon the election of Pope Benedict XVI, the announcement was preceded by an identical greeting in several languages, respectively, Italian, Spanish, French, German and English:  <poem>  Dear brothers and sisters. </poem>

History.

The text of the announcement is partly inspired by the Gospel of Luke (2:10–11), which records the words of the angel announcing to the shepherds the birth of the Messiah:  "Fear not; for, behold, I bring thee good tidings of great joy, that shall be to all the people: For unto thee is born, this day, in the city of David a Saviour, which is Christ the Lord."  Note that, in the Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible by St. Jerome), the words used are ""Evangelizo vobis gaudium magnum"", while the word ""annuntio"" was used in previous translations.  The adoption of this formula is dated from the election of Odo Colonna as Pope Martin V (1417), who was chosen as the new pope by the cardinals and representatives from different countries at the Council of Constance. In this context, prior to Martin V, there were three claimants to the papal throne: Antipope John XXIII (who had called for the council, and appointed most of the cardinal electors), Antipope Benedict XIII (the only one to have been named cardinal before the outbreak of the Western Schism) and Pope Gregory XII. The first two were deposed by the Council itself, and Gregory XII abdicated after formally convoking the already convened council and authorizing its acts including the act of electing his successor. Two years after the first two contenders were deposed and the resignation of the third, the council elected the new pope. The announcement, therefore, could be interpreted as: "(Finally) we have a pope (and only one!)".  The adoption of the "Habemus papam" formula took place prior to 1484, the year in which it was used to announce the election of Giovanni Battista Cybo, who took the name of Innocent VIII.

Announcement.

In announcing the name of the newly elected pontiff, the new pontiff's birth first name is announced in Latin in the accusative case (e.g. "Carolum", "Iosephum", "Georgium Marium"), but the new pontiff's surname is announced in the undeclined form (e.g. "Wojtyła", "Ratzinger", "Bergoglio"). The new papal name has usually been given in the genitive case in Latin, corresponding to the translation "who takes the name of..." (e.g. "Ioannis vigesimi tertii", "Ioannis Pauli primi"), although it can also be declined in the accusative case, corresponding to the translation "who takes the name...", as was the case in 1963 and in 2013, when Pope Paul VI's and Pope Francis's regnal names were announced as "Paulum sextum" and "Franciscum", respectively. In the situation where the name is declined in the genitive, the name is considered as a complement of the noun ""nomen"" while in the instance where the name is declined in the accusative, it is considered as an apposition of the direct object complement "nomen" in the accusative. Both forms are equally correct. According to certain Latin grammarians though, like Nicola Fiocchini, Piera Guidotti Bacci and the "Maiorum Lingua" Manual, the accusative is the more correct form.  During the announcement of Pope Paul VI's election, protodeacon Alfredo Ottaviani used the conjunction "et" (which also means "and") instead of "ac", the word usually used for "and" within the formula (he said "Eminentissimum et reverendissimum" instead of "Eminentissimum ac reverendissimum").  During the announcement of Pope Benedict XVI's election, his regnal name was declined by Cardinal Medina in the genitive case (he said "Benedicti decimi sexti"), but in the Holy See website, the page announcing his election with a copy of the Habemus Papam formula has Benedict's regnal name declined in the accusative case (i.e., "Benedictum XVI")  If a papal name is used for the first time, the announcement may or may not use the numeral "the first". In John Paul I's election, the numeral "primi" (the first) was used (Cardinal Pericle Felici announced the papal name as "Ioannis Pauli primi") but in Pope Francis' election, no numeral was uttered (Cardinal Jean-Louis Tauran simply gave the papal name as "Franciscum").  The numeral in the papal name if it exists can be omitted if the new regnal name is the same as the one used by the immediate predecessor, as was the case in October 1978, when Pope John Paul II's regnal name was announced simply as "Ioannis Pauli" without the numeral, since his immediate predecessor was Pope John Paul I. It also happened in 1939, when Pope Pius XII's regnal name, following his election, was announced simply as "Pium" since his immediate predecessor was Pope Pius XI. In the announcement of Pope Pius XII's election, his regnal name was declined in the accusative, like the later announcements for Paul VI's and Francis's elections.

Actual examples.

The following are examples of how the names were announced as noted on existing videos and recordings. The case and inclusion or exclusion of numeral for the papal names are noted.

Evolution of the formula.

From the beginning, the "Habemus papam" did not follow a strict formula, but varied in considerable form for many years. The table shows selected announcements given since the 1484 papal conclave.

Habemus papam ('We have a pope') is the announcement traditionally given by the Protodeacon of the College of Cardinals (the senior cardinal deacon in the College) or by the senior cardinal deacon participating in the papal conclave, in Latin, upon the election of a new pope of the Catholic Church.

Habemus Papam je oznámení, které je řečeno v latině a oznamuje, že konkláve zvolilo nového papeže. Ohlášení je učiněno kardinálem-protojáhnem z centrálního balkonu Baziliky sv. Petra ve Vatikánu (tzv. "lodžie požehnání"). Po tomto ohlášení nově zvolený papež přijde před věřící, kteří jsou shromážděni na náměstí sv. Petra a očekávají jeho první požehnání Urbi et Orbi.


Biography.

Avraham Granat was born in Petah Tikva, Israel. His father, Meir Granat, was born into a firmly Orthodox Jewish family in Mława, Poland. Meir's family fled to the Soviet Union in 1941, during the Holocaust; there they were exiled to Kolyma, Siberia, where most of the family died. In a 2008 interview his father recalled burying his grandfather, Avraham Granat—after whom Grant was named—with his own hands. After being repatriated to Poland after the war's end in 1945, Meir emigrated to the British Mandate of Palestine in violation of the policy of that time, and was arrested and detained in Cyprus. He ultimately settled in Petah Tikva, where he and Grant's mother Aliza Nisan, an Iraqi-Jewish immigrant to Israel, met.  Grant shortened his surname from Granat in the late 1980s. He was married to Israeli television personality Tzufit Grant. They have a son and a daughter. The couple have announced they split up in September 2014.  In October 2009, Grant's father died aged 82 from complications following surgery to remove a kidney stone. Grant had flown to Israel and was by his side.  On 20 February 2008, Chelsea Football Club announced that Grant had received anti-Semitic death threats from unknown sources. One of the packages sent to Grant's home was said to have contained a white powder that, after investigation, proved to be harmless.  On 4 February 2010, it was reported that Grant was facing police questioning over an incident on 18 December 2009 at a Thai brothel in Horton Heath, Hampshire.  On 13 June 2016, following extensive research into his father's Polish-Jewish heritage, Avram Grant received his Polish passport from the Polish Embassy in London. He said afterwards: "Feeling Polish comes natural to me."- His Polish passport has his name written as Abraham Grant.

Career.

Israel.

Grant's professional coaching career started at age 18, in 1972, as youth coach of his home-town team, Hapoel Petah Tikva. In 1986, after a 14-year spell in this job, he was promoted to first team coach, leading the club to two Toto Cup victories, in 1990 and 1991, thus bringing Hapoel Petah Tikva back to the top of Israeli football after nearly 25 years. During this era Petah Tikva fought regularly for the championship against Shlomo Scharf's Maccabi Haifa. In his last season in Petah Tikva, Grant lost both the championship and the Israel State Cup within 3 days to Maccabi Haifa, in a chain of events which is commonly known in Israel as "the Double robbery". The next year the club won its first major title in 30 years, by winning its second-ever Israeli Cup.  The following season Grant moved to coach Maccabi Tel Aviv winning Liga Leumit (then the top division) in his first season with them, with a 13-point advantage over the second place team. Maccabi Tel Aviv lost out closely in the final of the Israeli Cup and was thus denied a historic double. The cup was won by Maccabi Tel Aviv under Grant's control, however, in 1994, followed with another championship in 1995.  Following this, Grant moved to Hapoel Haifa for what has been described as a short and unsuccessful spell, finishing fourth in the Israeli championship. Grant returned to Maccabi Tel Aviv between 1997 and 2000, although this period was less successful than his previous one at the club, winning just the Toto Cup in 1999.  Grant moved to Maccabi Haifa in 2000, where he coached until 2002. There, he led the team to great success, winning the Israeli Premier League in 2001 and 2002, as well as the Toto Cup in 2002, whilst narrowly missing out on the Israeli Cup, to miss winning the treble. In 2001 the club participated in the 2nd qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League competition against the Finnish team FC Haka. Despite winning both legs (1–0 and 4–0) with an aggregate score of 5–0 the club did not progress further. The use of Walid Badir as a substitute in the final ten minutes of the second leg while under suspension caused disqualification on the grounds of "culpable negligence" and FC Haka proceeded to the next round against Liverpool.

Israeli national team.

After leaving Haifa in 2002, Grant became the youngest team coach of Israel, replacing the former Denmark coach Richard Møller Nielsen. The team participated in Group 1 of the UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying round but finished third and so did not take part in the finals in Portugal.  Although not qualifying for the 2006 World Cup, Israel finished third in their qualifying group behind winners France and runners-up Switzerland. Israel missed on qualification to the finals, despite remaining undefeated in the group with four wins and six draws.

Management style.

Grant is known in Israel for giving a chance to young players in almost every club he coached, such as Alon Hazan and goalkeeper Raffi Cohen at Petah Tikva, Avi Nimni and Itzik Zohar at Maccabi Tel Aviv, Gal Alberman in the Israeli team, and many more. Grant famously did not include Israeli star Eyal Berkovic in the national squad during 2005, saying he wanted to create "a younger team", but, nonetheless, retaining 34-year-old Avi Nimni. In 2007, Berkovic described the way Grant became Chelsea's manager as "disgusting" and "disrespectful". Another known critic of Grant in Israel is Shlomo Scharf, who was Israel's coach during most of the 1990s.  Grant, as is also the case with another coach from Petah Tikva, past Israel coach Dror Kashtan, is considered one of the most successful Israeli coaches. He has a reputation of a lucky winner in Israel, which caused the invention of the frequently used humorous term 'Hatachat shel Avram'. This means 'Avram's Ass', a reference to the allegedly large amount of luck Grant enjoyed during the 2006 World Cup campaign.  Congolese forward Lomana LuaLua, presently with Blackpool of the English Premier League, stated that it was Grant's encouragement and emotional support that kept him from ending his career after the loss of his son Yoshuha to pneumonia. Grant was director of football at Portsmouth during LuaLua's stint at the club.

England.

In October 2005, Grant announced that he would step down from the national team as his contract was due to expire in June of the following year. Subsequently, he took up the position of Technical Director at Portsmouth in June 2006, overseeing Harry Redknapp's side.

Chelsea.

A personal friend of Roman Abramovich, on 8 July 2007 Avram Grant was appointed Director of Football at Chelsea FC. After the departure of José Mourinho from Chelsea on 20 September 2007, Grant was assigned the manager's role, with Steve Clarke, and later Henk ten Cate (on 11 October 2007) as his assistants, and becoming the first Israeli to manage an English football club.  When he took the helm at Chelsea, Grant did not hold the required top-flight coaching certification from UEFA. In fact, he had never received the lower-level coaching certifications from UEFA for "B" and "A" level coaching in Europe. Many Chelsea fans did not take well to Grant's appointment. They protested Mourinho's departure, holding banners at games, which read "Mourinho – The Special One", and chanting Mourinho's name. Chelsea stated that some of the protests directed towards Grant constituted abuse of a racist nature. Bruce Buck, chairman of Chelsea, claimed they had received points of view which are racist and anti-semitic. Buck stated: "[This] unfairly smears the reputation of the vast majority of the Chelsea fans who rightly do not want to be associated with such activity.". However, many Chelsea fans felt their objections against Grant being appointed as the team's manager are justified, citing his "lack of expertise at the highest levels of football" and Grant's lack of a formal UEFA qualification as manager.  Several unnamed Chelsea players were quoted as saying Grant's methods were "25 years behind the times" and "Chelsea deserve a bigger coach than him. Grant does not have the quality to coach a team like this. When we play big opponents we will suffer because of him." At least one of Grant's staff told friends that they considered leaving the club.  Grant faced his first game only 3 days after taking up the manager's role, losing 2–0 to Manchester United on 24 September. At his first UEFA Champions League match as a coach (with Chelsea and in general) he led Chelsea to a 2–1 away win over Valencia, replicating one of Mourinho's most celebrated wins. Chelsea went on to register a 16-game unbeaten run under Grant, including beating Manchester City 6–0 in one of Chelsea's biggest wins. Subsequently, Grant was offered and signed a four-year contract with Chelsea in December 2007.  In January 2008, Nicolas Anelka from Bolton Wanderers, Branislav Ivanović from Lokomotiv Moscow, and Franco Di Santo from Audax Italiano were added to Grant's Chelsea squad.  In February, Chelsea reached the 2008 League Cup Final, their first competition final under Grant's management. They lost 2–1 to Tottenham Hotspur at Wembley Stadium on 24 February, with an extra time winner from centre-back Jonathan Woodgate. On 8 March, at Barnsley, Chelsea were eliminated from the FA Cup 1–0. On 23 March, Grant secured his first win against one of the other big four clubs when Chelsea came from behind after two substitutions that were ridiculed by Chelsea fans to beat Arsenal 2–1. On 26 April, Grant got his second big win when Chelsea beat Manchester United 2–1, to move Chelsea into second place in the Premier League level on points with first place Manchester United with two games remaining in the season. They eventually finished the season in second place, as the team had done the previous year.  Grant was chosen as Premier League Manager of the Month in April in his first season as Chelsea's manager.  On 30 April 2008, Grant's Chelsea beat Liverpool 3–2 (4–3 on aggregate) to advance to the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final, something they failed to achieve under former manager José Mourinho. Chelsea drew 1–1 with Manchester United in the final, only to lose out on the European Cup in a penalty shootout which United won 6–5. In the heavy rain, John Terry slipped on his team's fifth penalty, clipping the ball off the post and wide. Had he scored, Chelsea would have won the tournament.  Three days later, at around 6 pm on 24 May 2008, Chelsea announced in a statement on its website that Grant's contract had been terminated with immediate effect. Grant later revealed that he turned down the opportunity to return to the club in his former role as director of football. Just as his predecessor José Mourinho had done, Grant completed his period as Chelsea manager without losing a single home game in the Premier League.

Portsmouth.

On 7 October 2009, Grant returned to Portsmouth as their new Director of football, following the purchase of the club by Ali al-Faraj. On 26 November 2009, following the release of Paul Hart, Grant was confirmed as the new manager of the club. His first game as manager was a 4–1 defeat at home to Manchester United on 28 November 2009. This was followed by a 4–2 home defeat to Aston Villa in the League Cup. His first win with Pompey arrived in the Premier League on 5 December 2009, with a 2–0 win over Burnley Following this he led Portsmouth to a 2–0 win over Liverpool to bring his new side level on points at the foot of the table. Although Portsmouth went into administration in March 2010 and had nine points deducted as a result (contributing to their eventual relegation in bottom place), Grant oversaw a run to the FA Cup final which saw them narrowly beaten by his old club Chelsea at Wembley Stadium. On 20 May 2010, Grant resigned as the manager of Portsmouth. He announced his decision to leave in an open letter to fans on the club's website, stating that "it was the hardest decision I have ever had to make". He went on to say that Portsmouth's fans had brought tears to his eyes with their loyalty, devotion and passion for the club.

West Ham United.

On 3 June 2010, Grant signed a four-year deal with West Ham subject to a work permit which was secured on 8 June. Grant said: "I am proud and honoured to be the manager of West Ham. It will be an exciting challenge and I'm ready to do my best". On 5 June 2010, Thomas Hitzlsperger became Grant's first signing at the club on a free transfer. At the beginning of the 2010–11 season, Grant led West Ham to its worst-ever start in the Premier League. Their first point being gained on 18 September with Grant unable to take charge of the team for a game at Stoke City in respect to his Jewish holy day, Yom Kippur and assistant coach Paul Groves, Kevin Keen and assistant manager Željko Petrović taking charge of the game.  A dismal start to the 2010–11 season saw Grant come under fire after the Hammers had won just two Premier League games by the end of November and stood bottom of the table. However, there was some much needed cause for celebration on 30 November 2010 when his side beat Manchester United 4–0 in the Football League Cup quarter-final. West Ham became the first side to beat Sir Alex Ferguson's team in any competition this season, and were semi-finalists in the competition for the first time since the 1989–90 season.  However, the dismissal of Blackburn Rovers manager Sam Allardyce on 13 December 2010 was followed by media reports that West Ham were on the verge of dismissing Grant and offering Allardyce his job. Indeed, it was reported Grant was handed an unusual ultimatum: win one of the next three games or face losing his job.  A 3–1 win at Fulham on Boxing Day—West Ham's first away win of the season—appeared to ease the pressure on Grant, as did a 2–0 home win over fellow strugglers Wolverhampton Wanderers on New Year's Day, which lifted the Hammers out of the relegation zone. However, a 5–0 defeat at Newcastle United on 5 January put Grant's position in further doubt as the Hammers slid back to the bottom of the table. The pressure became intense with another defeat on 15 January, as many media sources reported that Martin O'Neill would replace him as manager, only to later find that O'Neill ruled himself out of the job.  West Ham won only seven Premier League games, under Grant, from 37 played in a season where they won more cup games than league fixtures. During an away game to Wigan Athletic on 15 May 2011 (a match which West Ham had to win to have any chance of avoiding relegation) a plane flew over the ground trailing a reading ""Avram Grant – Millwall legend"", a sarcastic reference to West Ham's fierce local rivalry with Millwall. West Ham lost 3–2 ensuring their relegation from the Premier League. Grant was sacked that day, hours after the end of the match.

Partizan Belgrade.

On 13 January 2012, Partizan Belgrade's board of directors announced in an official statement to the public that Avram Grant was named the new manager of the club. As Grant was set to have his first match as manager of Partizan in a friendly match against Sepahan Isfahan, the friendly match was cancelled because Grant is Israeli. This was due to the fact that the Iranian government does not recognise Israel as a country and refers to its government as the 'Zionist regime'. Grant's response was:  After guiding Partizan to their fifth consecutive Serbian championship, Grant resigned on 14 May 2012, making use of the release clause in his 18-month contract.

Ghana.

On 27 November 2014, Grant was appointed as coach of the Ghana national football team. At the 2015 Africa Cup of Nations, he led Ghana to the final, where they were beaten on a penalty shoot-out by Ivory Coast, ending the tournament as runners-up.  On 2 February 2017, Grant resigned as the coach of Ghana after losing the semi-finals against Cameroon and Burkina Faso.

NorthEast United.

Grant joined Indian Super League side NorthEast United FC as a technical advisor on 4 January 2018 and later became the head coach. Under him, NorthEast won their first home match of the season, thus, ending their losing streak. Under him, NorthEast scored their first hat-trick. He is also the first head coach from an Asian country in the history of Indian Super League.

Honours.

Hapoel Petah Tikva  Maccabi Tel Aviv  Maccabi Haifa  Partizan Belgrade  Individual

Avraham "Avram" Grant (; born 6 May 1955) is an Israeli football manager. Grant has spent the majority of his career coaching and managing in Israel, winning a number of national league and cup victories with different teams, and also managing the Israeli national team for four years. Grant moved to England in 2006 to become Technical Director of Portsmouth before being appointed director of football at Chelsea in July 2007. Two months later, in September 2007, following the departure of José Mourinho, Grant was appointed as Chelsea's manager. Despite steering the team into the Champions League and League Cup finals, as well as contesting the Premier League title to the last day, his contract was terminated at the end of the season.

Avram Grant, narozen jako Avraham Granat (* 6. května 1955) je izraelský fotbalový trenér. Do roku 2002 trénoval postupně izraelské celky Hapoel Petah Tikva FC, Maccabi Tel Aviv FC a Maccabi Haifa FC.


Early life.

Adele Laurie Blue Adkins was born on 5 May 1988 in Tottenham, London, to an English mother, Penny Adkins, and a Welsh father, Marc Evans. Evans left when Adele was two, leaving her mother to raise her. She began singing at the age of four and asserts that she became obsessed with voices. In 1997, at the age of nine, Adele and her mother, who by then had found work as a furniture maker and an adult-learning activities organiser, relocated to Brighton on the south coast of England.  In 1999, she and her mother moved

Career.

2006–2010: Career beginnings and "19".

Four months after graduation, she published two songs on the fourth issue of the online arts publication "PlatformsMagazine.com." She had recorded a three-song demo for a class project and given it to a friend. The friend posted the demo on Myspace, where it became very successful and led to a phone call from Richard Russell, boss of the music label XL Recordings. She doubted if the offer was real because the only record company she knew was Virgin Records, and she took a friend with her to the meeting.  Nick Huggett, at XL, recommended Adele to manager Jonathan Dickins at September Management, and in June 2006, Dickins became her official representative. September was managing Jamie T at the time and this proved a major draw for Adele, a big fan of the British singer-songwriter. Huggett then signed Adele to XL in September 2006.

2011–2014: "21", worldwide recognition and hiatus.

Adele released her second studio album, "21", on 24 January 2011 in the UK and 22 February in the US. She said that the album was inspired by the break-up with her former partner. The album's sound is described as classic and contemporary country and roots music. The change in sound from her first album was the result of her bus driver playing contemporary music from Nashville when she was touring the American South, and the title reflected the growth she had experienced in the prior two years. Adele told "Spin Magazine:" "It was really exciting for me because I never grew up around [that music]." "21" hit number 1 in 30 countries, including the UK and the US.  An emotional performance of "Someone Like You" at the 2011 Brit Awards on 15 February propelled the song to number one in the UK. Her first album, "19," re-entered the UK album chart alongside "21," while first and second singles "Rolling in the Deep" and "Someone Like You" were in the top 5 of the UK singles chart, making Adele the first living artist to achieve the feat of two top-five hits in both

2015–2017: "25" and "Adele Live 2016".

On the eve of her 26th birthday in May 2014, Adele posted a cryptic message via her Twitter account which prompted media discussion about her next album. The message, "Bye bye 25... See you again later in the year," was interpreted by some in the media, including Capital FM, as meaning that her next album would be titled "25" and released later in the year. In 2014, Adele was nominated for nine World Music Awards. In early August, Paul Moss suggested that an album would be released in 2014 or 2015. However, in the October 2014 accounts filed with Companies House by XL Recordings, they ruled out a 2014 release. On 27 August 2015, "Billboard" reported that Adele's label, XL Recordings, had intentions of releasing her third studio album sometime in November 2015. Danger Mouse was revealed to have contributed a song, while Tobias Jesso Jr. had written a track, and Ryan Tedder was "back in the mix after producing and co-writing "Rumour Has It" on "21"." At the 72nd Venice International Film Festival in early September 2015, Sia announced that her new single "Alive" was co-written by Adele, and had originally been intended for Adele's third album. On 18 October, a 30-second clip of new material from Adele was shown on UK television during a commercial break on "The X Factor". The commercial teases a snippet from a new song from her third album, with viewers hearing a voice singing accompanied by lyrics on a black screen.  In a statement released

2018–present: Upcoming fourth studio album.

Adele was reportedly working on her fourth studio album by 2018. On 5 May 2019, the date of her 31st birthday, Adele posted several black-and-white photographs of herself celebrating her birthday along with a message on her Instagram account

Artistry.

Influences and favourite musicians.

Adele has cited the Spice Girls as a major influence in regard to her love and passion for music, stating that "they made me what I am today". Adele impersonated the Spice Girls at dinner parties as a young girl. She stated she was left "heartbroken" when her favourite Spice Girl, Geri Halliwell aka "Ginger Spice", left the group. Growing up she also listened to Sinéad O'Connor, the Cranberries, Bob Marley, the Cure, Dusty Springfield, Celine Dion, and Annie Lennox. One of Adele's earliest influences was Gabrielle, who Adele has admired since the age of five. During Adele's school years, her mother made her an eye patch with sequins which

Musical style.

Adele's first album, "19", is of the soul genre, with lyrics describing heartbreak and relationship. Her success occurred simultaneously with several other British female soul singers, with the British press dubbing her a new Amy Winehouse. This was described as a third British Musical Invasion of the US. However, Adele called the comparisons between her and other female soul singers lazy, noting "we're a gender, not a genre". AllMusic wrote that "Adele is simply too magical to compare her to anyone."  Her second album, "21", shares the folk and soul influences of her debut album, but was further

Voice.

Adele is a mezzo-soprano with a range spanning from B to C. However Classic FM state she is often mistaken for a contralto due to the application of a tense chest mix to achieve her lower notes, while also noting that her voice becomes its clearest as she ascends the register, particularly from C to C. "Rolling Stone" reported that following throat surgery her voice had become "palpably bigger and purer-toned", and that she had added a further four notes to the top of her range. Initially, critics suggested that her vocals were more developed and intriguing than her songwriting, a sentiment with which Adele agreed. She has stated: "I taught myself how to sing by listening to Ella Fitzgerald for acrobatics and scales, Etta James for passion and Roberta Flack for

Personal life.

Adele began dating charity entrepreneur and Old Etonian Simon Konecki in the summer of 2011. In June 2012, Adele announced that she and Konecki were expecting a child. Their son Angelo James was born on 19 October 2012. On the topic of becoming a parent, Adele observed that she "felt like I was truly living. I had a purpose, where before I didn't". Adele and Konecki brought a privacy case against a UK-based photo agency that published intrusive paparazzi images of their son taken during family outings in 2013. Lawyers working on their behalf accepted damages from the company in July 2014. Adele has also stated that she has suffered from postnatal depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and panic attacks.  In early 2017, tabloids started speculating that Adele and Konecki had secretly married when they were spotted wearing matching rings on their ring fingers. During her acceptance speech at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards for Album of the Year, Adele confirmed these reports of their marriage by calling Konecki her husband when thanking him. She repeated this in March 2017, telling the audience at a concert in Brisbane,

Philanthropy.

Adele has performed in numerous charity concerts throughout her career. In 2007 and 2008 she performed at the Little Noise Sessions held at London's Union Chapel, with proceeds from the concerts donated to Mencap which works with people with learning disabilities. In July and November 2008, Adele performed at the Keep a Child Alive Black Ball in London and New York City respectively. On 17 September 2009 she performed at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, for the VH1 "Divas" event, a concert to raise money for the Save The Music Foundation charity. On 6 December, Adele opened with a 40-minute set at John Mayer's 2nd Annual Holiday Charity Revue held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles. In 2011, Adele gave a free concert for Pride London, a registered charity which arranges LGBT events in London. The same year, Adele took part in the UK charity telethon Comic Relief for Red

Awards and achievements.

At the 51st Annual Grammy Awards in 2009, Adele won awards in the categories of Best New Artist and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. She was also nominated in the categories of Record of the Year and Song of the Year. The success of her debut album "19" saw Adele nominated for three Brit Awards in the categories of British Female Solo Artist, British Single of the Year and British Breakthrough Act. Then British Prime Minister Gordon Brown sent a thank-you letter to Adele that stated "with the troubles that the country's in financially, you're a light at the end of the tunnel."  Adele's second album, "21", earned her a record-tying six Grammy Awards, including Album of the Year; two Brit Awards, including British Album of the Year. The success of the album saw her receive numerous mentions in the "Guinness Book of World Records." With 21 non-consecutive weeks at number 1 in the US, Adele broke the record for the longest number-1 album by a woman in "Billboard" history, beating the record formerly held by Whitney Houston's soundtrack "". "21" spent its 23rd week at number one in March 2012, making it the longest-running album at number one since 1985, and it became the fourth best-selling album of the past 10 years in the US. The best selling album in the UK of the 21st century, and the best selling album by a female in UK chart history, "21" is also the fourth best-selling album in the UK of all time. "21" was her first album certified diamond in the US. On 6 March, "21" reached 30 non-consecutive weeks at number one on the Australian ARIA Chart, making it the longest-running number one album in Australia in the 21st century, and the second longest-running number one ever.  In February 2012, Adele was listed at number five on VH1's 100 Greatest Women in Music. In April 2012, "Time" magazine named Adele one of the 100 most influential people in the world. "People" named her one of 2012 Most Beautiful at Every Age. On 30 April 2012, a tribute to Adele was held at New York City's (Le) Poisson Rouge called "Broadway Sings Adele", starring various Broadway actors such as Matt Doyle. In July 2012, Adele was listed at number six in "Forbes" list of the world's highest-paid celebrities under the age of 30, having earned £23 million between May 2011 and May 2012.  On the week ending 3 March 2012, Adele became the first solo female artist to have three singles in the top 10 of the "Billboard" Hot 100 at the same time with "Rolling in the Deep", "Someone Like You", and "Set Fire to the Rain" as well as the first female artist to have two albums in the top 5 of the "Billboard" 200 and two singles in the top 5 of the "Billboard" Hot 100 simultaneously. Adele topped the 2012 "Sunday Times Rich List" of musicians in the UK under 30 and made the Top 10 of "Billboard" magazine's "Top 40 Money Makers". "Billboard" also announced the same day that Adele's "Rolling in the Deep" is the biggest crossover hit of the past 25 years, topping pop, adult pop and adult contemporary charts and that Adele is one of four female artists to have an album chart at number one for more than 13 weeks (the other three artists being Judy Garland, Carole King, and Whitney Houston).  At the 2012 Ivor Novello Awards in May, Adele was named Songwriter of the Year, and "Rolling in the Deep" won the award for Most Performed Work of 2011. At the 2012 BMI Awards held in London in October, Adele won Song of the Year (for "Rolling in the Deep") in recognition of the song being the most played on US television and radio in 2011. In 2013, Adele won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for the James Bond theme "Skyfall". This is the first James Bond song to win and the fifth to be nominated (after "For Your Eyes Only" (1981), "Nobody Does It Better" (1977), "Live and Let Die" (1973), and "The Look of Love" (1967)). "Skyfall" won the Brit Award for Best British Single at the 2013 Brit Awards.  In June 2013, Adele was appointed a MBE in the Queen's Birthday Honours list for services to music, and she received the award from Prince Charles at Buckingham Palace on 19 December 2013. In February 2013 she was named one of the 100 most powerful women in the UK by "Woman's Hour" on BBC Radio 4. In April 2016, Adele appeared for the second time on the "Time" 100 list of most influential people. In 2014, Adele was already being regarded as a British cultural icon, with young adults from abroad naming her among a group of people that they most associated with UK culture, which included William Shakespeare, Queen Elizabeth II, David Beckham, J. K. Rowling, The Beatles, Charlie Chaplin and Elton John.  Released in 2015, Adele's third album, "25", became the year's best-selling album and broke first week sales records in a number of markets, including the UK and the US. "25" was her second album to be certified diamond in the US and earned her five Grammy Awards, including her second Grammy Award for Album of the Year, and four Brit Awards for British Female Solo Artist, British Album of the Year, British Single of the Year for "Hello", and British Global Success. Adele's seven weeks at the top of the UK Albums Chart took her total to 31 weeks at number one in the UK with her three albums, surpassing Madonna's previous record of most weeks at number one for a female act in the UK. The lead single, "Hello", became the first song in the US to sell over one million digital copies within a week of its release. At the 2016 Ivor Novello Awards Adele was named Songwriter of the Year by the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers, and Authors. As of 6 August 2019, despite releasing just two albums in the decade ("21" and "25"), at 36 weeks she has the second most weeks at number one in the UK Album Charts in the 2010s, five weeks behind Ed Sheeran (who has released four albums). In December 2019, Israel's largest TV and Radio stations named her singer of the 2010s.

Adele Laurie Blue Adkins (; born 5 May 1988) is an English singer-songwriter. After graduating from the BRIT School in 2006, Adele signed a recording contract with XL Recordings. In 2007, she received the Brit Awards Critics' Choice Award and won the BBC Sound of 2008 poll. Her debut album, "19", was released in 2008 to commercial and critical success. It is certified eight times platinum in the UK, and three times platinum in the US. The album contains her first song, "Hometown Glory", written when she was 16, which is based on her home suburb of West Norwood in London. An appearance she made on "Saturday Night Live" in late 2008 boosted her career in the US. At the 51st Grammy Awards in 2009, Adele won the awards for Best New Artist and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.

Adele Laurie Blue Adkins, MBE (* 5. května 1988 Londýn) je britská zpěvačka a skladatelka známá jen jako Adele. V roce 2008 převzala cenu BRIT Awards v kategorii Cena kritiků, která je udílená umělcům, kteří v té době ještě nevydali album.