Etymology.

The word "cassock" comes from Middle French, meaning a long coat. In turn, the Old French word may come ultimately from Turkish (nomad, adventurer – the source of the word "Cossack"), an allusion to their typical riding coat, or from Persian (padded garment) – (raw silk) + (stuffed). The name was originally specially applied to the dress worn by soldiers and horsemen, and later to the long garment worn in civil life by both men and women. As an ecclesiastical term the word "cassock" came into use somewhat late (as a translation of the old names of subtanea, vestis talaris, toga talaris, or tunica talaris), being mentioned in canon 74 of 1604; and it is in this sense alone that it now survives.  The word "soutane" is a French-derived word, coming from Italian, derived in turn from Latin, the adjectival form of (beneath).

Western Christian practice.

Roman Catholic.

The cassock (or soutane) comes in a number of styles or cuts, though no particular symbolism attaches to these. A Roman cassock often has a series of buttons down the front. In some English-speaking countries these buttons may be merely ornamental, with a concealed fly-front buttoning, known as a Chesterfield front, used to fasten the garment. A French cassock also has buttons sewn to the sleeves after the manner of a suit, and a slightly broader skirt. An Ambrosian cassock has a series of only five buttons under the neck, with a sash on the waist. A Jesuit cassock, in lieu of buttons, has a fly fastened with hooks at the collar and is bound at the waist with a cincture knotted on the right side.  The ordinary Roman cassock worn by Roman Catholic clerics (as distinct from that worn as choir dress) is black except in tropical countries, where because of the heat it is white and usually without shoulder cape (pellegrina). Coloured piping and buttons are added in accordance with rank: black for priests, purple for chaplains of His Holiness; amaranth red for bishops, protonotaries apostolic and Honorary Prelates; and scarlet red for cardinals.  The 1969 Instruction on the dress of prelates stated that for all of them, even cardinals, the dress for ordinary use may be a simple black cassock without coloured trim.  A band cincture or sash, known also as a fascia, may be worn with the cassock. The Instruction on the dress of prelates specifies that the two ends that hang down by the side have silk fringes, abolishing the sash with tassels. A black faille fascia is worn by priests, deacons, and major seminarians, while a purple faille fascia is used by bishops, protonotaries apostolic, honorary prelates, and chaplains of His Holiness, when wearing a cassock with coloured trim. A black watered-silk fascia is permitted for priests attached to the papal household, a purple watered-silk fascia for bishops attached to the papal household (for example, Apostolic Nuncios), and a scarlet watered-silk fascia for cardinals. The Pope wears a white watered-silk fascia, sometimes with his coat of arms on the ends. In choir dress, chaplains of His Holiness wear their purple-trimmed black cassocks with a cotta, but bishops, protonotaries apostolic, and honorary prelates use (with a cotta or, in the case of bishops, a rochet and mozzetta) cassocks that are fully purple (this purple corresponds more closely with a Roman purple and is approximated as fuchsia) with scarlet trim, while those of cardinals are fully scarlet with scarlet trim. Cardinals have the additional distinction of having both choir cassock sleeves and the fascia made of scarlet watered-silk. The "cut" of the choir cassock is still a Roman-cut or French-cut Roman cassock.  In the past, a cardinal's cassock was made entirely of watered silk, with a train that could be fastened at the back of the cassock. This train was abolished by the "motu proprio" "Valde solliciti" of Pope Pius XII with effect from 1 January 1953. With the same "motu proprio", the Pope ordered that the violet cassock (then used in penitential periods and in mourning) be made of wool, not silk, and in February 1965, under Pope Paul VI, a circular of the Sacred Ceremonial Congregation abolished the use of watered silk also for the red cassock.  An elbow-length shoulder cape, open in front, is sometimes worn with the cassock, either fixed to it or detachable. It is known as a pellegrina. It is distinct from the mozzetta, which is buttoned in front and is worn over a rochet.  The general rule of the Roman Catholic Church is that the pellegrina may be worn with the cassock by cardinals and bishops. In 1850, the year in which he restored the Catholic hierarchy in England and Wales, Pope Pius IX was understood to grant to all priests there the privilege of wearing a replica in black of his own white caped cassock. Since then, the wearing of the pellegrina with the cassock has been a sign of a Roman Catholic priest in England and Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, although sometimes imitated by Anglican priests.  In his 1909 book, "Costume of Prelates of the Catholic Church", John Abel Felix Prosper Nainfa proposed the use of the English word "simar", instead of the word "cassock", for the garment with shoulder cape, which he treated as distinct from the cassock proper. Others too have made the same distinction between the "simar" (with pellegrina) and the "cassock" (without), but many scholars disagree with Nainfa's distinction. More particularly, documents of the Holy See make no such distinction, using the term "cassock" or "vestis talaris" whether a pellegrina is attached or is not. Thus the 1969 instruction states that, for cardinals and bishops, "the elbow-length cape, trimmed in the same manner as this "cassock", may be worn over it". "Cassock", rather than "simar", is the term that is usually applied to the dress of Popes and other Catholic ecclesiastics. The instruction also gives no support to Nainfa's claim that the cassock with shoulder cape should not be worn in church services, which moreover would be of difficult application, since the cassock with pellegrina is generally made as a single garment, with a non-detachable pellegrina.  Nainfa wrote that at that time the garment with shoulder cape was in Italian called a "zimarra", a term, however, that in that language is today used rather of a historical loose-fitting overgown, quite unlike the close-fitting cassock with pellegrina worn by Catholic clergy, and similar to the fur-lined that was used in northern Europe. Images of the historical zimarra as worn by women can be seen at "Dressing the Italian Way" and "The Italian Showcase".  In cold weather, the manto, an ankle-length cape with or without shoulder cape, or the greca, also known as the douillette, an ankle-length double-breasted overcoat, is traditionally worn over the cassock. For bishops and priests both the manto and greca are solid black in colour, while for the pope the manto is red and the greca is white.  Cassocks are sometimes worn by seminarians studying for the priesthood, by religious brothers, and by members of choirs (frequently with cotta or, more usually in Anglican churches, surplice).

Anglican.

The Anglican church uses single and double-breasted cassocks. For many this is to indicate tradition (single-breasted in the Anglo-Catholic tradition and double-breasted in the evangelical end of the church).  The double-breasted cassock fastens at the shoulders on the opposing side of the breast and at the waist with one concealed button. The latter usually has a single small stem-button sewn at centre front about 12–15 cm / 41⁄2–6" below the centre-front neck line which is used to secure the academic hood, worn for Choir Dress.  The single-breasted cassock worn by Anglicans traditionally has thirty-nine buttons as signifying the "Thirty-Nine Articles" or as some would prefer Forty Stripes Save One.  Cassocks are often worn without a cinture and some opt for a buckled belt.  Black is the most common colour for priests, readers, vergers, and server cassocks. Lighter colours, such as white are used in tropical countries and some cathedrals have colours specific for their location. Piping is also used in the Anglican church to indicate position held with red being used for Deans, Archdeacons and Cathedral Canons. Bishops and Archbishops often wear purple cassocks. This has been practise since the 19th century. More recently the Archbishops have chosen to wear black, this can be seen in the ministries of Rowan Williams and Justin Welby. Scarlet cassocks are properly worn only by Chaplains to the Queen and by members of Royal foundations such as Westminster Abbey and some Cambridge college chapels. Cassocks are sometimes also worn by readers, altar servers, and choir members, when they do this is the double-breasted style. Readers and altar servers usually wear black cassocks, but those worn by choirs are usually coloured.

Lutheran.

In the Evangelical Lutheran Churches of Denmark, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and the North German Hanseatic cities of Hamburg and Lübeck, clergy wear the cassock with the ruff as vestments.  The Cassock is also worn occasionally in American Lutheran churches. It is customary for a minority of clergy to wear it on special high holidays such as Good Friday and Ash Wednesday. Most commonly, Lutheran pastors wear an alb over a clerical shirt (with clergy collar). Vestments, most commonly a stole, are worn over the alb.

Presbyterian.

In the Church of Scotland, and Presbyterian churches which trace their heritage back to the Scottish church, they typically use the Anglican style of cassock. In addition, it is not uncommon to see full-length cassocks worn in the blue of the Flag of Scotland, which is also tied to the academic dress of the University of St Andrews. As is the custom within the Church of England, ministers of the Church of Scotland who are chaplains to the royal family also wear a scarlet cassock. Over this is typically worn a preaching gown or the academic gown of the minister. During the Edwardian and Victorian era, it was common to see a shortened, double-breasted black silk cassock worn under the gown. It generally reached to the knees and was tied with a simple cincture. However, with the liturgical movement of the 20th century, the classic cassock came back into fashion.  Presbyterians in Canada tend to follow the custom of the Church of Scotland, whereas Presbyterians in the United States typically wear an American Geneva gown over a sleeveless cassock or a non-cuffed gown over an Anglican or Roman style cassock. The American Geneva gown is often supplied with a cuff sewn into the double-bell sleeve (this innovation is a remnant of the cassock sleeve that was formerly worn underneath).  As is the practice in the Anglican churches, cassocks may be worn by others who are not ministers. Ordained elders and deacons, as they serve as worship leaders, readers, and administer communion may also wear cassocks which tend to be black. Those worn by choirs and other worship leaders are usually coloured (for instance, The Shadyside Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) choir is dressed in red cassocks under white surplices).

Eastern Christian practice.

In Eastern Christianity there are two types of cassock: the Inner Cassock and the Outer Cassock or Rason. Monastics always wear a black cassock. There is no rule about colouration for non-monastic clergy, but black is the most common. Blue or grey are also seen frequently, while white is sometimes worn for Pascha. In the Eastern Churches, cassocks are not dress for any lay ministry. Generally, one has to be blessed to wear a cassock usually in the case of exercising a clerical duty.

Non-clerical seventeenth-century garment.

The "cassock" can also refer to a loose-fitting, pullover, hip-length jacket worn by ordinary soldiers in the 17th century. A cassock has attached sleeves and is open down the sides, similar to a mandilion. Such garments are popularly recognized as the formal uniform of the Musketeers of the Guard in "The Three Musketeers" – though this is suspect historically.

The cassock or soutane is a Christian clerical clothing coat used by the clergy of the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, in addition to certain Protestant denominations such as Anglicans and Lutherans. "Ankle-length garment" is the literal meaning of the corresponding Latin term, "vestis talaris". It is related to the habit, which is traditionally worn by nuns, monks, and friars.

Klerika (odvozeno od slova "klerik") či sutana (z fr. "soutanne"), v některých jazycích také reverenda (v češtině řidší, od slova "reverend") je označení pro dlouhé splývavé roucho duchovních přiléhající k tělu. Může se používat buď jako spodní součást liturgického oděvu (jako takovou ji používají i ministranti při bohoslužbách), nebo jako svrchní oděv (potom se jí častěji říká také sutana. Její použití je typické pro katolické duchovní, používá se ale i v pravoslavné a anglikánské církvi.


History.

St. George's was founded by the French in 1650 when "La Grenade" (Grenada) was colonised by Jacques Dyel du Parquet, the governor of Martinique. The French began their colonisation with a series of skirmishes that virtually exterminated the island's native Carib population.  In 1666, a wooden fortification was constructed by French colonists on a promontory overlooking Grenada's natural harbour and named "Fort Royale". In 1705, work started on a new star fort on the same site, with four stone-built bastions, to the design of Jean de Giou de Caylus, the Chief Engineer of the "Islands of America" the French West Indies. It was completed in 1710.  Meanwhile, the original colonial settlement at the eastern edge of the harbour called "Saint Louis" after King Louis IX of France, later known as Port Louis, was found to be subject to flooding and malaria, so a new town was constructed called "Ville de Fort Royal" ("Fort Royal Town"). When the island was ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the new administration renamed it Saint George's Town, after the patron saint of England and "Fort Royal" was renamed Fort George, after King George III. On 1 November 1775 there was a fire in the town of St. George's known as the great fire of St George's. After the great fire of 1771, most of the boarding houses on Granby Street were moved to Gouyave.  Following the withdrawal of Bridgetown, Barbados, in the mid-1880s, St. George's went on to become the replacement capital of the former colony of the British Windward Islands.  The Tikal was the first art cater shop in Grenada and it was opened in December 1959. Grenada achieved independence from Britain in 1974. Following a leftist coup in 1983, the island was invaded by U. S. troops and a pro USA government was reinstated. In 2004, St. George's and the rest of Grenada was severely battered by Hurricane Ivan. The hurricane left significant destruction across the island and crippled much of the island's infrastructure. It was estimated that some 90% of the island's homes had sustained damage and the nutmeg trees, which are key to Grenada's economy, were devastated. A year later with the help of international donors (Canada, the United States, China, Venezuela, Trinidad & Tobago, and the European Union) Grenada had experienced a significant turn around in rebuilding efforts. By 2007, Grenada had participated as planned in the hosting of the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Now St. George's is one of the top 10 Yacht destination.

Culture.

Carnival takes place the second week in August. This festival celebrates the emancipation of slaves. The Sunday night celebrations continue into the early morning hours on Monday. On Monday a carnival pageant is held on stage at Queen's Park, where costumes, themes and calypso queens are judged. On Tuesday, St. George's vibrates to the sounds of the calypso steel bands as they parade through the streets.

Climate.

St. George's has a humid tropical monsoon climate. The average temperature is about. There are two seasons: the 'dry' season is from January to April, with only March truly qualifying as a dry season month, and the 'rainy' season lasts for the rest of the year. The wettest period is from July to November. There are short spells of rain in the dry period but they last no more than 5 minutes or so. Gray clouds over the mountains are the first sign of rain. The island in general often seems hotter than it is due to the humid climate and powerful equitorial UV rays.

Spices.

Nutmeg & mace.

Nutmeg and mace come from the fruit of the aromatic Myrristica fragrans tree. The alien tree was adopted as from 3 March 1967 to the Spice Island. The tree is an evergreen with dark green leaves and small yellow flowers, and grows up to 12 meters tall. It starts bearing fruit after seven or eight years and continues to do so for up to 40 years. The fruit looks like an apricot and when ripe, slit to reveal a walnut-sized seed. Covering the shell of the seed are lacy, red-orange strips, which are mace, and inside the shell is the seed itself - nutmeg. It is used extensively for cooking to enhance the flavor of cakes, soups, desserts, drinks and sauces.

Cinnamon.

This comes from the inner bark of the cinnamon tree (Cinnamonum verum). Whole or ground, it is a popular household spice internationally. It is used to flavor beverages and cakes.

Clove.

This dried flavored flower bud, whole or ground (Syzygium aromaticum) is used at home to season hams, sausages, meats, mincemeat pies, fish, turtle preserves and pickles.

Sugar cane.

From June to December, cuttings from the tops of cane are laid in holes about five inches deep by five feet square then covered with soil. As the cane grows taller, fertiliser is used. Between planting and harvesting, bananas, corn, peas, potatoes, and other crops are cultivated. January to May, the ripe cane are cut and delivered to the mill to be ground. Boiling and clarifying the cane juice is the next operation. The juice is strained after grinding and then taken to the clarifying copper to be boiled. (Wood coal is the main source fuel). Lime is added to speed up the operation. The liquid sugar is put into coolers for about 14 hours. The molasses is then drained off and taken to the still house to be made into rum.

Transportation and customs.

Private boats and yachts can complete customs and immigration processing in St. George's and Prickly Bay, Lance Aux Epines as well as in Carriacou. Travellers passing through Grenada are required to have a passport. Those whose travel involves stay over in other countries, should check on entry requirements for those countries. There is also a bus terminal for island wide transport.

Main sites.

St. Margaret's Falls.

So named because it passes by seven of Grand Etang's mountain waterfalls, which are nestled in the emerald vegetation of the rain forest. The trail takes about three hours, even for experienced hikers.

Roman Catholic cathedral.

The tower of St. George's Cathedral was built in 1818. The interior of the church is painted in bright colours.

Anglican church.

St. George's Anglican Church was built in 1825, and a clock was later added in 1904 which plays the Westminster chimes on the hour.

Fort George.

Located on the promontory to the west of the harbour is Fort George. Built in 1705 by the French, many of the buildings are now used by the police. One of the rooms has been converted to a gym and another to a sort of sewing room. Much of the fort is still intact and open to visitors. However, the buildings are very dilapidated, from a combination of Hurricane damage and neglect, and there is little or no information within the fort itself. There's a good view from the battlements. There is a $2.00 per person fee to visit the Fort.

Grenada National Museum.

The Grenada National Museum is housed in French barracks, which date from 1704, and which later served as a prison. The building was also used as the island's first hotel. The museum displays a variety of historical items including Carib and Arawak artefacts, sugar processing machines and equipment, whaling industry items, and Josephine Bonaparte's marble bath.

St. George's (Grenadian Creole French: "Sen Jòj") is the capital of Grenada. The town is surrounded by a hillside of an old volcano crater and is on a horseshoe-shaped harbour.

Saint George's je hlavní město státu Grenada. Leží na jihozápadním pobřeží stejnojmenného ostrova, v přírodní zátoce. Název znamená v překladu "patřící svatému Jiří", patronovi Anglie.


History.

The Yale Babylonian Collection YBC 7289 clay tablet was created between 1800 BC and 1600 BC, showing and /2 = 1/ as 1;24,51,10 and 0;42,25,35 base 60 numbers on a square crossed by two diagonals. (1;24,51,10) base 60 corresponds to 1.41421296 which is a correct value to 5 decimal points (1.41421356...).  The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is a copy from 1650 BC of an earlier Berlin Papyrus and other textspossibly the Kahun Papyrusthat shows how the Egyptians extracted square roots by an inverse proportion method.  In Ancient India, the knowledge of theoretical and applied aspects of square and square root was at least as old as the "Sulba Sutras", dated around 800–500 BC (possibly much earlier). A method for finding very good approximations to the square roots of 2 and 3 are given in the "Baudhayana Sulba Sutra". Aryabhata in the "Aryabhatiya" (section 2.4), has given a method for finding the square root of numbers having many digits.  It was known to the ancient Greeks that square roots of positive whole numbers that are not perfect squares are always irrational numbers: numbers not expressible as a ratio of two integers (that is, they cannot be written exactly as "m/n", where "m" and "n" are integers). This is the theorem "Euclid X, 9" almost certainly due to Theaetetus dating back to circa 380 BC. The particular case is assumed to date back earlier to the Pythagoreans and is traditionally attributed to Hippasus. It is exactly the length of the diagonal of a square with side length 1.  In the Chinese mathematical work "Writings on Reckoning", written between 202 BC and 186 BC during the early Han Dynasty, the square root is approximated by using an "excess and deficiency" method, which says to "...combine the excess and deficiency as the divisor; (taking) the deficiency numerator multiplied by the excess denominator and the excess numerator times the deficiency denominator, combine them as the dividend."  A symbol for square roots, written as an elaborate R, was invented by Regiomontanus (1436–1476). An R was also used for Radix to indicate square roots in Gerolamo Cardano's "Ars Magna".  According to historian of mathematics D.E. Smith, Aryabhata's method for finding the square root was first introduced in Europe by Cataneo in 1546.  According to Jeffrey A. Oaks, Arabs used the letter "jīm/ĝīm" (), the first letter of the word “” (variously transliterated as "jaḏr", "jiḏr", "ǧaḏr" or "ǧiḏr", “root”), placed in its initial form () over a number to indicate its square root. The letter "jīm" resembles the present square root shape. Its usage goes as far as the end of the twelfth century in the works of the Moroccan mathematician Ibn al-Yasamin.  The symbol '√' for the square root was first used in print in 1525 in Christoph Rudolff's "Coss".

Properties and uses.

The principal square root function "f"("x") = (usually just referred to as the "square root function") is a function that maps the set of nonnegative real numbers onto itself. In geometrical terms, the square root function maps the area of a square to its side length.  The square root of "x" is rational if and only if "x" is a rational number that can be represented as a ratio of two perfect squares. (See square root of 2 for proofs that this is an irrational number, and quadratic irrational for a proof for all non-square natural numbers.) The square root function maps rational numbers into algebraic numbers (a superset of the rational numbers).  For all real numbers "x",  For all nonnegative real numbers "x" and "y",  and  The square root function is continuous for all nonnegative "x" and differentiable for all positive "x". If "f" denotes the square root function, its derivative is given by:  The Taylor series of about "x" = 0 converges for ≤ 1 and is given by  The square root of a nonnegative number is used in the definition of Euclidean norm (and distance), as well as in generalizations such as Hilbert spaces. It defines an important concept of standard deviation used in probability theory and statistics. It has a major use in the formula for roots of a quadratic equation; quadratic fields and rings of quadratic integers, which are based on square roots, are important in algebra and have uses in geometry. Square roots frequently appear in mathematical formulas elsewhere, as well as in many physical laws.

Square roots of positive integers.

A positive number has two square roots, one positive, and one negative, which are opposite to each other. So, when talking of "the" square root of a positive integer, this is the positive square root that is meant.  The square roots of an integer are algebraic integers and, more specifically, quadratic integers.  The square root of a positive integer is the product of the roots of its prime factors, because the square root of a product is the product of the square roots of the factors. Since, only roots of those primes having an odd power in the factorization are necessary. More precisely, the square root of a prime factorization is

As decimal expansions.

The square roots of the perfect squares (0, 1, 4, 9, 16, etc.) are integers. In all other cases, the square roots of positive integers are irrational numbers, and therefore their decimal representations are non-repeating decimals. Decimal approximations of the square roots of the first few natural numbers are given in the following table.

As expansions in other numeral systems.

The square roots of the perfect squares (1, 4, 9, 16, etc.) are integers. In all other cases, the square roots of positive integers are irrational numbers, and therefore their representations in any standard positional notation system are non-repeating.  The square roots of small integers are used in both the SHA-1 and SHA-2 hash function designs to provide nothing up my sleeve numbers.

As periodic continued fractions.

One of the most intriguing results from the study of irrational numbers as continued fractions was obtained by Joseph Louis Lagrange 1780. Lagrange found that the representation of the square root of any non-square positive integer as a continued fraction is periodic. That is, a certain pattern of partial denominators repeats indefinitely in the continued fraction. In a sense these square roots are the very simplest irrational numbers, because they can be represented with a simple repeating pattern of integers.  The square bracket notation used above is a short form for a continued fraction. Written in the more suggestive algebraic form, the simple continued fraction for the square root of 11, [3; 3, 6, 3, 6,...], looks like this:  where the two-digit pattern {3, 6} repeats over and over again in the partial denominators. Since, the above is also identical to the following generalized continued fractions:

Computation.

Square roots of positive numbers are not in general rational numbers, and so cannot be written as a terminating or recurring decimal expression. Therefore in general any attempt to compute a square root expressed in decimal form can only yield an approximation, though a sequence of increasingly accurate approximations can be obtained.  Most pocket calculators have a square root key. Computer spreadsheets and other software are also frequently used to calculate square roots. Pocket calculators typically implement efficient routines, such as the Newton's method (frequently with an initial guess of 1), to compute the square root of a positive real number. When computing square roots with logarithm tables or slide rules, one can exploit the identities  where and are the natural and base-10 logarithms.  By trial-and-error, one can square an estimate for and raise or lower the estimate until it agrees to sufficient accuracy. For this technique it is prudent to use the identity  as it allows one to adjust the estimate "x" by some amount "c" and measure the square of the adjustment in terms of the original estimate and its square. Furthermore, ("x" + "c") ≈ "x" + 2"xc" when "c" is close to 0, because the tangent line to the graph of "x" + 2"xc" + "c" at "c" = 0, as a function of "c" alone, is "y" = 2"xc" + "x". Thus, small adjustments to "x" can be planned out by setting 2"xc" to "a", or "c" = "a"/(2"x").  The most common iterative method of square root calculation by hand is known as the "Babylonian method" or "Heron's method" after the first-century Greek philosopher Heron of Alexandria, who first described it. The method uses the same iterative scheme as the Newton–Raphson method yields when applied to the function y = "f"("x") = "x" − "a", using the fact that its slope at any point is "dy"/"dx" = ""("x") = 2"x", but predates it by many centuries. The algorithm is to repeat a simple calculation that results in a number closer to the actual square root each time it is repeated with its result as the new input. The motivation is that if "x" is an overestimate to the square root of a nonnegative real number "a" then "a"/"x" will be an underestimate and so the average of these two numbers is a better approximation than either of them. However, the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means shows this average is always an overestimate of the square root (as noted below), and so it can serve as a new overestimate with which to repeat the process, which converges as a consequence of the successive overestimates and underestimates being closer to each other after each iteration. To find "x":  That is, if an arbitrary guess for is "x", and, then each x is an approximation of which is better for large "n" than for small "n". If "a" is positive, the convergence is quadratic, which means that in approaching the limit, the number of correct digits roughly doubles in each next iteration. If, the convergence is only linear.  Using the identity  the computation of the square root of a positive number can be reduced to that of a number in the range. This simplifies finding a start value for the iterative method that is close to the square root, for which a polynomial or piecewise-linear approximation can be used.  The time complexity for computing a square root with "n" digits of precision is equivalent to that of multiplying two "n"-digit numbers.  Another useful method for calculating the square root is the shifting nth root algorithm, applied for.  The name of the square root function varies from programming language to programming language, with codice_1 (often pronounced "squirt" ) being common, used in C, C++, and derived languages like JavaScript, PHP, and Python.

Square roots of negative and complex numbers.

The square of any positive or negative number is positive, and the square of 0 is 0. Therefore, no negative number can have a real square root. However, it is possible to work with a more inclusive set of numbers, called the complex numbers, that does contain solutions to the square root of a negative number. This is done by introducing a new number, denoted by "i" (sometimes "j", especially in the context of electricity where ""i"" traditionally represents electric current) and called the imaginary unit, which is "defined" such that. Using this notation, we can think of "i" as the square root of −1, but we also have and so −"i" is also a square root of −1. By convention, the principal square root of −1 is "i", or more generally, if "x" is any nonnegative number, then the principal square root of −"x" is  The right side (as well as its negative) is indeed a square root of −"x", since  For every non-zero complex number "z" there exist precisely two numbers "w" such that : the principal square root of "z" (defined below), and its negative.

Principal square root of a complex number.

To find a definition for the square root that allows us to consistently choose a single value, called the principal value, we start by observing that any complex number "x" + "iy" can be viewed as a point in the plane, ("x", "y"), expressed using Cartesian coordinates. The same point may be reinterpreted using polar coordinates as the pair formula_14), where "r" ≥ 0 is the distance of the point from the origin, and formula_15 is the angle that the line from the origin to the point makes with the positive real ("x") axis. In complex analysis, the location of this point is conventionally written formula_16 If  then we define the principal square root of "z" as follows:  The principal square root function is thus defined using the nonpositive real axis as a branch cut. The principal square root function is holomorphic everywhere except on the set of non-positive real numbers (on strictly negative reals it isn't even continuous). The above Taylor series for remains valid for complex numbers "x" with.  The above can also be expressed in terms of trigonometric functions:

Algebraic formula.

When the number is expressed using Cartesian coordinates the following formula can be used for the principal square root: where the sign of the imaginary part of the root is taken to be the same as the sign of the imaginary part of the original number, or positive when zero. The real part of the principal value is always nonnegative.  For example, the principal square roots of are given by:

Notes.

In the following, the complex "z" and "w" may be expressed as:  where formula_24 and formula_25.  Because of the discontinuous nature of the square root function in the complex plane, the following laws are not true in general.  A similar problem appears with other complex functions with branch cuts, e.g., the complex logarithm and the relations or which are not true in general.  Wrongly assuming one of these laws underlies several faulty "proofs", for instance the following one showing that :  The third equality cannot be justified (see invalid proof). It can be made to hold by changing the meaning of √ so that this no longer represents the principal square root (see above) but selects a branch for the square root that contains ()·(). The left-hand side becomes either  if the branch includes +"i" or  if the branch includes −"i", while the right-hand side becomes  where the last equality,, is a consequence of the choice of branch in the redefinition of √.

Square roots of matrices and operators.

If "A" is a positive-definite matrix or operator, then there exists precisely one positive definite matrix or operator "B" with ; we then define. In general matrices may have multiple square roots or even an infinitude of them. For example, the identity matrix has an infinity of square roots, though only one of them is positive definite.

In integral domains, including fields.

Each element of an integral domain has no more than 2 square roots. The difference of two squares identity is proved using the commutativity of multiplication. If and are square roots of the same element, then. Because there are no zero divisors this implies or, where the latter means that two roots are additive inverses of each other. In other words if an element a square root of an element exists, then the only square roots of are and. The only square root of 0 in an integral domain is 0 itself.  In a field of characteristic 2, an element either has one square root or does not have any at all, because each element is its own additive inverse, so that. If the field is finite of characteristic 2 then every element has a unique square root. In a field of any other characteristic, any non-zero element either has two square roots, as explained above, or does not have any.  Given an odd prime number, let for some positive integer. A non-zero element of the field with elements is a quadratic residue if it has a square root in. Otherwise, it is a quadratic non-residue. There are quadratic residues and quadratic non-residues; zero is not counted in either class. The quadratic residues form a group under multiplication. The properties of quadratic residues are widely used in number theory.

In rings in general.

Unlike in an integral domain, a square root in an arbitrary (unital) ring need not be unique up to sign. For example, in the ring formula_36 of integers modulo 8 (which is commutative, but has zero divisors), the element 1 has four distinct square roots: ±1 and ±3.  Another example is provided by the ring of quaternions formula_37 which has no zero divisors, but is not commutative. Here, the element −1 has infinitely many square roots, including,, and. In fact, the set of square roots of −1 is exactly  A square root of 0 is either 0 or a zero divisor. Thus in rings where zero divisors do not exist, it is uniquely 0. However, rings with zero divisors may have multiple square roots of 0. For example, in formula_39 any multiple of is a square root of 0.

Geometric construction of the square root.

The square root of a positive number is usually defined as the side length of a square with the area equal to the given number. But the square shape is not necessary for it: if one of two similar planar Euclidean objects has the area "a" times greater than another, then the ratio of their linear sizes is.  A square root can be constructed with a compass and straightedge. In his Elements, Euclid (fl. 300 BC) gave the construction of the geometric mean of two quantities in two different places: Proposition II.14 and Proposition VI.13. Since the geometric mean of "a" and "b" is, one can construct simply by taking.  The construction is also given by Descartes in his "La Géométrie", see figure 2 on page 2. However, Descartes made no claim to originality and his audience would have been quite familiar with Euclid.  Euclid's second proof in Book VI depends on the theory of similar triangles. Let AHB be a line segment of length with and. Construct the circle with AB as diameter and let C be one of the two intersections of the perpendicular chord at H with the circle and denote the length CH as "h". Then, using Thales' theorem and, as in the proof of Pythagoras' theorem by similar triangles, triangle AHC is similar to triangle CHB (as indeed both are to triangle ACB, though we don't need that, but it is the essence of the proof of Pythagoras' theorem) so that AH:CH is as HC:HB, i.e., from which we conclude by cross-multiplication that, and finally that. When marking the midpoint O of the line segment AB and drawing the radius OC of length, then clearly OC > CH, i.e. (with equality if and only if ), which is the arithmetic–geometric mean inequality for two variables and, as noted above, is the basis of the Ancient Greek understanding of "Heron's method".  Another method of geometric construction uses right triangles and induction: can, of course, be constructed, and once has been constructed, the right triangle with legs 1 and has a hypotenuse of. Constructing successive square roots in this manner yields the Spiral of Theodorus depicted above.

In mathematics, a square root of a number is a number such that ; in other words, a number whose "square" (the result of multiplying the number by itself, or ⋅ ) is. For example, 4 and −4 are square roots of 16 because. Every nonnegative real number has a unique nonnegative square root, called the "principal square root", which is denoted by, where the symbol is called the "radical sign" or "radix". For example, the principal square root of 9 is 3, which is denoted by, because and 3 is nonnegative. The term (or number) whose square root is being considered is known as the "radicand". The radicand is the number or expression underneath the radical sign, in this example 9.

Druhá odmocnina je speciálním typem obecné odmocniny. Často se označuje pouze jako odmocnina. Je-li definováno umocňování nějakých matematických objektů (čísel, matic, funkcí...), pak druhá odmocnina z a, označovaná jako formula_1, je definována jako objekt b, pro který platí formula_2.


Biography.

He was born in an area of Ukraine largely inhabited by ethnic Hungarians. He was born into a musical family and by the age of four was already learning the violin from his parents. He was eight years old when accepted into that alma mater for the most talented musicians of the Soviet Union, the Central Tchaikowsky Music School in Moscow to study under Leo Lundstrem.  He continued his studies with Eugenia Tchougaeva. He gave his first important concert at the age of twelve, with the Moscow Symphony Orchestra. At the age of seventeen he became a student at the Liszt Ferenc Academy of Music Budapest, in the class of Géza Kapás. He took part in a masterclass given by Ruggiero Ricci, where he won the prize for the best participant. He was also the Grand Prize winner of the International Course Competition in Berlin, after having been invited by Ruggiero Ricci. Since 1993 he has been a "young soloist" for the National Philharmonic Concert Agency in Hungary.  He has performed with almost all the main Hungarian orchestras, and given concerts in Austria, Italy, Germany and Switzerland. In May 1994 the famous violin teacher Dorothy DeLay invited him to the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado. where he gave a concert with Rohan de Silva. In New York he won a scholarship and was admitted to the class of Dorothy Delay at the Juilliard School of Music. His studies in New York City at the Juilliard School of Music brought professional contacts which meant changes in his musical style. There, in one of the most revered classical music environments of Juilliard, he mingled with DJs and jumped from high level classical to what is referred today as crossover.  While still in his twenties, Marton had traveled to more than thirty countries and played in such renowned concert halls as the "Berliner Philharmonie" and Vienna's "Konzerthaus". But he was looking for a change. A former classmate said of him, "After he graduated from the music academy the talented, jovial and rotund Lajos disappeared, only to return as a slim, easy listening, music playing Edvin Marton."

Discography.

Five (5) albums to date:

Edvin Marton (born Lajos Edvin Csűry, February 17, 1974, Vylok, Ukraine) is a Ukrainian-born Hungarian composer and violinist. He became known as the violinist of the skaters, mainly because Evgeni Plushenko, Stéphane Lambiel, Yuzuru Hanyu (as a tribute to Plushenko), and other famous skaters often skated to his music.

Edvin Marton (17. února 1974 Ujlak, Ukrajina) vlastním jménem "Lajos Edvin Csüry" je maďarský hudební skladatel a houslista. Proslavil se především spoluprací se známým krasobruslařem Jevgenijem Pljuščenkem.


Etymology.

The word "galactose" was coined by Charles Weissman in the mid 19th century and is derived from Greek "galaktos" (milk) and the generic chemical suffix for sugars "-ose". The etymology is comparable to that of the word "lactose" in that both contain roots meaning "milk sugar". Lactose is a disaccharide of galactose plus glucose.

Structure and isomerism.

Galactose exists in both open-chain and cyclic form. The open-chain form has a carbonyl at the end of the chain.  Four isomers are cyclic, two of them with a pyranose (six-membered) ring, two with a furanose (five-membered) ring. Galactofuranose occurs in bacteria, fungi and protozoa, and is recognized by a putative chordate immune lectin intelectin through its exocyclic 1,2-diol. In the cyclic form there are two anomers, named alpha and beta, since the transition from the open-chain form to the cyclic form involves the creation of a new stereocenter at the site of the open-chain carbonyl. In the beta form, the alcohol group is in the equatorial position, whereas in the alpha form, the alcohol group is in the axial position.

Relationship to lactose.

Galactose is a monosaccharide. When combined with glucose (monosaccharide), through a condensation reaction, the result is the disaccharide lactose. The hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose is catalyzed by the enzymes lactase and β-galactosidase. The latter is produced by the "lac" operon in "Escherichia coli".  In nature, lactose is found primarily in milk and milk products. Consequently, various food products made with dairy-derived ingredients can contain lactose. Galactose metabolism, which converts galactose into glucose, is carried out by the three principal enzymes in a mechanism known as the Leloir pathway. The enzymes are listed in the order of the metabolic pathway: galactokinase (GALK), galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT), and UDP-galactose-4’-epimerase (GALE).  In human lactation, glucose is changed into galactose via hexoneogenesis to enable the mammary glands to secrete lactose. However, most lactose in breast milk is synthesized from galactose taken up from the blood, and only 35±6% is made from galactose from "de novo" synthesis. Glycerol also contributes some to the mammary galactose production.

Metabolism.

Glucose is the primary metabolic fuel for humans. It is more stable than galactose and is less susceptible to the formation of nonspecific glycoconjugates, molecules with at least one sugar attached to a protein or lipid. Many speculate that it is for this reason that a pathway for rapid conversion from galactose to glucose has been highly conserved among many species.  The main pathway of galactose metabolism is the Leloir pathway; humans and other species, however, have been noted to contain several alternate pathways, such as the De Ley Doudoroff Pathway. The Leloir pathway consists of the latter stage of a two-part process that converts β-D-galactose to UDP-glucose. The initial stage is the conversion of β-D-galactose to α-D-galactose by the enzyme, mutarotase (GALM). The Leloir pathway then carries out the conversion of α-D-galactose to UDP-glucose via three principal enzymes: Galactokinase (GALK) phosphorylates α-D-galactose to galactose-1-phosphate, or Gal-1-P; Galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT) transfers a UMP group from UDP-glucose to Gal-1-P to form UDP-galactose; and finally, UDP galactose-4’-epimerase (GALE) interconverts UDP-galactose and UDP-glucose, thereby completing the pathway.  Galactosemia is an inability to properly break down galactose due to a genetically inherited mutation in one of the enzymes in the Leloir pathway. As a result, the consumption of even small quantities is harmful to galactosemics.

Sources.

Galactose is found in dairy products, avocados, sugar beets, other gums and mucilages. It is also synthesized by the body, where it forms part of glycolipids and glycoproteins in several tissues; and is a by-product from the third-generation ethanol production process (from macroalgae).

Clinical significance.

Chronic systemic exposure of mice, rats, and "Drosophila" to D-galactose causes the acceleration of senescence (aging). It has been reported that high dose exposure of D-galactose (120 mg/Kg) can cause reduced sperm concentration and sperm motility in rodent and has been extensively used as an aging model. Two studies have suggested a possible link between galactose in milk and ovarian cancer. Other studies show no correlation, even in the presence of defective galactose metabolism. More recently, pooled analysis done by the Harvard School of Public Health showed no specific correlation between lactose-containing foods and ovarian cancer, and showed statistically insignificant increases in risk for consumption of lactose at 30 g/day. More research is necessary to ascertain possible risks.  Some ongoing studies suggest galactose may have a role in treatment of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (a kidney disease resulting in kidney failure and proteinuria). This effect is likely to be a result of binding of galactose to FSGS factor.  Galactose is a component of the antigens present on blood cells that determine blood type within the ABO blood group system. In O and A antigens, there are two monomers of galactose on the antigens, whereas in the B antigens there are three monomers of galactose.  A disaccharide composed of two units of galactose, galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal), has been recognized as a potential allergen present in mammal meat. Alpha-gal allergy may be triggered by lone star tick bites.

History.

In 1855, E. O. Erdmann noted that hydrolysis of lactose produced a substance besides glucose.  Galactose was first isolated and studied by Louis Pasteur in 1856 and he called it "lactose". In 1860, Berthelot renamed it "galactose" or "glucose lactique". In 1894, Emil Fischer and Robert Morrell determined the configuration of galactose.

Galactose (, "galacto-" + "-ose", "milk sugar") sometimes abbreviated Gal, is a monosaccharide sugar that is about as sweet as glucose, and about 65% as sweet as sucrose. It is a C-4 epimer of glucose. A galactose molecule linked with a glucose molecule forms a lactose molecule.

Galaktóza (v chemickém názvosloví sacharidů galaktosa, zkr. Gal) (z řeckého "[του] γάλακτος, [tou] gálaktos", „z mléka“) je monosacharid s šesti uhlíky (hexóza) a aldehydovou skupinou (aldóza). Nejvýznamnějším zdrojem galaktosy v přírodě je laktóza ("mléčný cukr") – disacharid β--galaktopyranosyl-(1→4)-β--glukopyranosa. Galaktóza a ještě častěji její deriváty se vyskytují v mnoha oligo- a polysacharidech (N-vázané oligosacharidy laktosaminového a hybridního typu, keratansulfát, chondroitin sulfáty...). Fyziologicky důležitým derivátem je fukóza, systematicky 6-deoxy--galaktosa. Galaktóza se vyskytuje v různých sliznicích těla.


Location.

The area is located eight kilometers west of Drogheda in County Meath, Ireland, in a bend of the River Boyne. It is around 40 kilometers north of Dublin.  Brú na Bóinne is surrounded on its southern, western and eastern sides by the Boyne; additionally, a small tributary of the Boyne, the River Mattock, runs along the northern edge, almost completely surrounding Brú na Bóinne with water. All but two of the prehistoric sites are on this river peninsula.

Description.

The area has been a centre of human settlement for at least 6,000 years, but the major structures date to around 5,000 years ago, from the Neolithic period.  The site is a complex of Neolithic mounds, chamber tombs, standing stones, henges and other prehistoric enclosures, some from as early as 35th century BC - 32nd century BC. The site thus predates the Egyptian pyramids and was built with sophistication and a knowledge of science and astronomy, which is most evident in the passage grave of Newgrange. The site is often referred to as the "Bend of the Boyne" and this is often (incorrectly) taken to be a translation of "Brú na Bóinne". The associated archaeological culture is often called the Boyne culture.  The site covers 780 ha (1,927 acres) and contains around 40 passage graves, as well as other prehistoric sites and later features. The majority of the monuments are concentrated on the north side of the river. The most well-known sites within "Brú na Bóinne" are the passage graves of Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth, all known for their collections of megalithic art. Each stands on a ridge within the river bend and two of the tombs, Knowth and Newgrange, appear to contain stones re-used from an earlier monument at the site. Newgrange is the central mound of the Boyne Valley passage grave cemetery, the circular cairn in which the cruciform burial chamber is sited having a diameter of over 100 metres. Knowth and Dowth are of comparable size. There is no "in situ" evidence for earlier activity at the site, save for the spotfinds of flint tools left by Mesolithic hunters.  The passage tombs were constructed beginning in around 3,300 BC and work stopped around 2,900 BC. The three largest tombs of Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth may have been constructed to be visible from each other and from northern and southern approaches along the River Boyne, as part of a scheme to "bind the previously disparate elements of the extended passage tomb cemetery into a more clearly defined prehistoric numinous precinct". The area continued to be used for habitation and ritual purposes until the early Bronze Age, during which a number of embanked, pit and wooden post circles (collectively referred to as "henges") were built. Artifacts from the later Bronze Age are comparatively inconspicuous: some cist and ring ditch burials and burnt mounds. For the Iron Age there is only evidence of sporadic activity, such as burials near Knowth and at Rosnaree. Valuable items from the Roman period such as coins and jewelry were found as votive offerings near Newgrange.  Numerous other enclosure and megalith sites have been identified within the river bend and have been given simple letter designations, such as the M Enclosures. In addition to the three large tombs, several other ceremonial sites constitute the complex including:

Astronomical alignments.

Each of the three main megalith sites have significant archaeoastronomical significance. Newgrange and Dowth have Winter solstice solar alignments, while Knowth is oriented towards the spring and autumn Equinox. In addition, the immediate environs of the main sites have been investigated for other possible alignments. The layout and design of the Brú na Bóinne complex across the valley has also been studied for astronomical significance.

Visitor centre.

All access to Newgrange and Knowth is by guided tour only, with tours beginning at the Visitor Centre, opened in 1997 in Donore, County Meath. The tourist visitor centre is located on the south side of the river Boyne, and the historical site is located on the north side of the river and is accessed via a shuttle with a tour guide.

Public transport access.

Bus Éireann route 163 operates between Drogheda and the Brú na Bóinne Visitor Centre via Donore. The nearest railway station is Drogheda railway station approximately 9 kilometres distant.

Since 1993, the site has been a World Heritage Site designated by UNESCO, known since 2013 as "Brú na Bóinne - Archaeological Ensemble of the Bend of the Boyne".

Brú na Bóinne je oblast vzdálená asi 8 km od města Drogheda, v hrabství Meath v Irsku, která je známá pro své megalitické památky. Nachází se zde zejména hrobky (Newgrange, Knowth a Dowth) a množství menhirů, jejich počátky spadají do neolitického období, pravděpodobně do 4. tisíciletí př. n. l.


Early life and education.

Pieczenik was born in Cuba of Jewish parents from Russia and Poland and was raised in France. His father, a doctor from Dombrovicz who studied and worked in Toulouse, France, fled Poland before World War II. His mother, a Russian Jew from Białystok, Poland, fled Europe after many of her family members were killed. The couple met in Portugal, where both had fled ahead of the Nazi invaders. Pieczenik was born in Cuba in 1943. After living in Toulouse for six years, Pieczenik's family migrated to the United States, where they settled in the Harlem area of New York City, New York. Steve Pieczenik was 8 years old when his parents received their entry visa to the United States.  Pieczenik is a classical pianist and wrote a full-length musical at the age of 8.  Pieczenik is a Harvard University-trained psychiatrist and has a doctorate in international relations from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After being drafted, Pieczenik says the navy assigned him to St. Elizabeth's Hospital insane asylum where he oversaw several wards of criminally insane patients. After he ordered a lobotomy which ended up killing a man, who was also born in the asylum, an autopsy revealed the man had only half his brain.  Pieczenik's autobiography notes that he attended Booker T. Washington High School in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City. Pieczenik received a full scholarship to Cornell University at the age of 16. According to Pieczenik, he received a BA degree in Pre-Medicine and Psychology from Cornell in 1964, and later received his M.D. from Cornell University Medical College. He attained his PhD in international relations from MIT while studying at Harvard Medical School. Pieczenik claims to be the first psychiatrist ever to receive a PhD focusing on international relations.  While performing his psychiatry residency at Harvard, he was awarded the Harry E. Solomon award for his paper titled: "The hierarchy of ego-defense mechanisms in foreign policy decision making".  An article written by Pieczenik, "Psychological dimensions of international dependency", appears in the "American Journal of Psychiatry", Vol 132(4), Apr 1975, 428–431.

Professional life.

Pieczenik was Deputy Assistant Secretary of State under Henry Kissinger, Cyrus Vance and James Baker. His expertise includes foreign policy, international crisis management and psychological warfare. He served the presidential administrations of Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush in the capacity of deputy assistant secretary.  In 1974, Pieczenik joined the United States Department of State as a consultant to help in the restructuring of its Office for the Prevention of Terrorism.  In 1976, Pieczenik was made Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for management.  At the Department of State, he served as a "specialist on hostage taking". He has been credited with devising successful negotiating strategies and tactics used in several high-profile hostage situations, including the 1976 TWA Flight 355 hostage situation and the 1977 kidnapping of the son of Cyprus' president.  As a renowned psychiatrist, he was utilized as a press source for early information on the mental state of the hostages involved in the Iran hostage crisis after they were freed. In 1977, Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Mary McGrory described Stephen Pieczenik as "one of the most 'brilliantly competent' men in the field of terrorism". He worked "side by side" with Police Chief Maurice J. Cullinane in the Washington, D.C. command center of Mayor Walter Washington during the 1977 Hanafi Siege.  In 1978, Pieczenik was known as "a psychiatrist and political scientist in the U.S. Department of State whose credentials and experiences are probably unique among officials handling terrorist situations".  In 1978 Pieczenik was a special envoy for President Jimmy Carter to Italy to assist in the search for Italy's Prime Minister Aldo Moro. Pieczenik, as an international crisis manager and hostage negotiator in the State Department, was sent to Italy on March 16, 1978, the day that Moro was kidnapped, and was involved in the negotiations for the release of Moro. He was part of a "crisis committee" headed by Francesco Cossiga, the interior minister. Moro was held for 54 days, Pieczenik said the committee was jolted into action by the fear that Moro would reveal state secrets in an attempt to free himself. Moro's widow, Eleonora, later said Henry Kissinger had warned her husband against his strategy of Historic Compromise (Italian: Compromesso storico). "You will pay dearly for it," he is alleged to have said. A false statement, attributed to the Red Brigades, was leaked saying that Moro was dead. Pieczenick revealed that this had a dual purpose; to prepare the Italian public for the worst, and to let the Red Brigades know that the state would not negotiate for Moro, and considered him already dead. Moro was shot and placed in the back of a car in central Rome, midway between the headquarters of the Communist Party and the Christian Democrats. In a documentary Cossiga admitted the committee had taken the decision to release the false statement. Pieczenik said that Moro had been "sacrificed" for the "stability" of Italy.  On September 17, 1978 the Camp David Accords were signed. Pieczenik was at the secret Camp David negotiations leading up to the signing of the Accords. He worked out strategy and tactics based on psychopolitical dynamics. He correctly predicted that given their common backgrounds, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin would get along.  In 1979, he resigned as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State over the handling of the Iranian hostage crisis.  In the early 1980s, Pieczenik wrote an article for "The Washington Post" in which he claimed to have heard a senior U.S. official in the Department of State Operations Center give permission for the attack that led to the death of U.S. Ambassador Adolph Dubs in Kabul, Afghanistan, in 1979.  Pieczenik got to know Syrian President Hafez al-Assad well during his 20 years in the Department of State.  In 1982, Pieczenik was mentioned in an article in "The New York Times" as "a psychiatrist who has treated C.I.A. employees".  In 2001, Pieczenik operated as chief executive officer of Strategic Intelligence Associates, a consulting firm.  Pieczenik has been affiliated in a professional capacity as a psychiatrist with the National Institute of Mental Health.  Pieczenik has consulted with the United States Institute of Peace and the RAND Corporation.  Pieczenik began mentorship of Drew Paul, founder of Blabor.com. Blabor.com is now the production company responsible for Pieczenik's web and media releases.  As recently as October 6, 2012, Pieczenik was listed as a member of the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR). According to Internet Archive, his name was removed from the CFR roster sometime between October 6 and November 18, 2012. Publicly, Pieczenik no longer appears as a member of the CFR.  Pieczenik is fluent in five languages, including Russian, Spanish and French.  Pieczenik has lectured at the National Defense University.

Writing ventures.

Pieczenik has made a number of ventures into fiction, as an author and as a business partner of Tom Clancy for several series of novels.  He studied medicine and writing, beginning with drama and poetry. But eventually "I turned to fiction because it allows me to address reality as it is or could be."  Pieczenik received a listed credit as co-creator for both "Tom Clancy's Op-Center" and "Tom Clancy's Net Force", two best-selling series of novels, as a result of a business relationship with Tom Clancy. He was not directly involved in writing books in these series, but "assembled a team" including the ghost-writer who did author the novels, and someone to handle the "packaging" of the novels. The Op-Center series alone had earned more than 28 million dollars in net profit for the partnership by 2003.  He's also credited under the pseudonym Alexander Court for writing the novels "Active Measures" (2001), and "Active Pursuit" (2002).  Pieczenik has had at least two articles published in the "American Intelligence Journal", a peer-reviewed journal published by the National Military Intelligence Association.  In September 2010, John Neustadt was recognized by Elsevier as being one of the Top Ten Cited Authors in 2007 and 2008 for his article, "Mitochondrial dysfunction and molecular pathways of disease." This article was co-authored with Pieczenik.

Controversies.

In 1992, Pieczenik told "Newsday" that in his professional opinion, President [George H. W.] Bush was "clinically depressed." As a result, he was brought up on an ethics charge before the American Psychiatric Association and reprimanded. He subsequently quit the APA.  He calls himself a "maverick troublemaker. You make your own rules. You pay the consequences."  The role he played in the negotiations to bring about the release of Aldo Moro, an Italian politician kidnapped by the Red Brigades, is fraught with controversy.  In 2017, Pieczenik spoke on Alex Jones's radio show denying the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting occurred as reported, labeling it a "false flag" operation.

Steve R. Pieczenik (; born Havana, Cuba, December 7, 1943) is an American writer, former United States Department of State official, psychiatrist, and publisher.

Steve Pieczenik (* 7. prosince 1943) je kritiky uznávaný autor psychologicko-politických napínavých knih a také spolutvůrce bestsellerů v sérii knih Tom Clancy's Op-Center a Tom Clancy's Net Force. Je také jeden z nejzkušenějších krizových manažerů a vyjednavačů při zajmutí rukojmích na světě. Jeho knihy jsou napsány na základě jeho dvacetiletých zkušeností při řešení mezinárodních krizí pro 4 U.S. ministerstva.


Symbolism.

According to "World Flags 101":

Historical flags.

Mahdist Revolt.

In 1881, at the beginning of the Mahdist War, the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad appointed Abdallahi ibn Muhammad as one of his four caliphs ("Khalifa") and handed him a black flag. Abdallahi used his black flag to recruit Baggara Arabs and other tribes from the west. The other caliphs used differently coloured flags. The black horizontal stripe in the current Sudanese flag is a reference to this Mahdist-era black flag.

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

Between 1899 and 1956, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was administered jointly as a condominium by Egypt and the United Kingdom. The condominium did not have its own flag; instead the flag of Egypt and the flag of the United Kingdom were always flown together, with the British flag taking precedence.  A flag did exist as a rank flag for the British Governor General of the Sudan. In common with the rank flags of governors and commissioners of other British overseas territories, it consisted of a Union Flag defaced with a white disk bearing the territory's badge or coat of arms, surrounded by a wreath of laurel. As no badge or coat of arms existed for Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, the disk instead contained the words "GOVERNOR GENERAL OF THE SUDAN".  At the Afro–Asian Conference held between 18 and 24 April 1955, Sudan was represented by a white flag bearing the name "SUDAN" in red capital letters.

Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969).

Upon independence from Egypt and the United Kingdom on 1 January 1956, Sudan adopted a blue-yellow-green tricolour as its national flag. This flag was designed by the poet Macki Sufi and remained in use until 1970, when the current flag was adopted. The colours of the flag represented the River Nile (blue), the Sahara (yellow) and farmlands (green). They were chosen as they were neutral between ethnic groups and political parties.  Use of this flag resurfaced during the 2018–19 Sudanese protests.

Democratic Republic of the Sudan (1969-1985).

Following a coup d'état in May 1969, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Sudan and a competition was held to design a new flag. The winning entry was designed by artist Abdel Rahman Ahmed Al-Jali and was adopted as the national flag in May 1970.

The current flag of Sudan () was adopted on 20 May 1970 and consists of a horizontal red-white-black tricolour with a green triangle at the hoist. The flag is based on the Arab Liberation Flag shared by Palestine, Egypt, Iraq, Syria and Yemen that uses a subset of the Pan-Arab colours in which green is less significant. Prior to the 1969 military coup of Gaafar Nimeiry, a blue-yellow-green tricolour design was used.

Vlajka Súdánu (arabsky: علم السودان ) sestává ze tří vodorovných pruhů (které současně tvoří trikolóru) a to červené, bílé a černé (seshora dolů); a zeleného klínu, sahajícího do 1/3 vlajky. Poměr stran je 1:2. Byla přijata 20. května 1970, po převratu Gaafara Muhammada an-Nimeiry. Předtím měla podobu modro-žluto-zelených vodorovných pruhů.


History.

Early years.

Starting life as the 'African Cup of Champions Clubs' in 1964, the first team to lift the trophy was Cameroonian side Oryx Douala, who beat Stade Malien of Mali 2–1 in a one-off final.  There was no tournament held the following year, but the action resumed again in 1966, when the two-legged ‘home and away’ final was introduced, which saw another Malian team AS Real Bamako take on Stade d'Abidjan of the Côte d'Ivoire. Bamako won the home leg 3–1 but it all came apart for them in the away game in Abidjan as the Ivorians went on to win 4–1 to take the title 5–4 on aggregate.  In 1967 when Ghana's Asante Kotoko met the DRC's TP Mazembe, both matches ended in draws (1–1 and 2–2 respectively). CAF arranged a play-off, but the Ghanaians failed to appear and the title was handed to Mazembe, who went on to win the title again the following year.  However, the Ghanaians got their revenge in 1970, when Kotoko and Mazembe once again met in the final. Once again, the first game ended 1–1, but against expectation the Ghanaians ran out 2–1 winners in their away game to lift the title that had eluded them three years earlier.  The 1970s saw a remarkable rise in the fortunes of Cameroonian club football, which created the platform of success enjoyed by Cameroonian football at international level today.  Between 1971 and 1980 Cameroonian teams won the cup four times, with Canon Yaoundé taking three titles (1971, 1978 and 1980) and US Douala lifting the cup in 1979. In between the Cameroonian victories the honor was shared with another team enjoying a golden age, Guinean side Hafia Conakry, who won it three times during this period (1972, 1975 and 1977).

Developments since 1997.

Apart from the introduction of the away goals rule (in which the team wins which has scored more goals playing ‘away’ if there is a tie in the aggregate score line over the two legs), very little changed in this competition until 1997. In this year, CAF took the bold step to follow the lead established a few years earlier in UEFA by creating a league stage in the tournament and changing the name to the CAF Champions League. CAF also introduced prize money for participants for the first time. With a purse of US$1 million on offer to the winners and US$750,000 to the losing finalist, the new Champions League became the richest club competition in Africa.  In the new format, the league champions of the respective CAF member countries went through a series of preliminary rounds until a last 16 stage. The 8 winners of this round were then drawn into two mini-leagues of 4 teams each, with each team playing each other on a home and away basis. At the end of the league stage, the top two teams in each group meet in the semifinals, with the winners going through to contest the finals. In 2017, the group phase was expanded from 8 to 16 teams and the mini-leagues from 2 to 4 and the addition of one extra knock-out round.  Since its inception, clubs from North Africa have been more dominant in the competition, with nearly 80% of Champions League's title in Africa went to this region. Nonetheless, in 2010, TP Mazembe of the Democratic Republic of the Congo became the first club ever to repeat as champions on two separate occasions. Their first pair of wins came in 1967 and 1968, before repeating the feat again in 2009 and 2010.

Structure and qualification.

In 1997 the CAF Champions League replaced the previous pan-African competition, the "African Cup of Champions Clubs"; this had run from 1964–1996.  The competition is open to the winners of all CAF-affiliated national leagues, as well as the holder of the competition from the previous season. From the 2004 competition the runner-up of the league of the 12 highest-ranked countries also entered the tournament creating a 64-team field. This was in response to the merging of the CAF Cup, the secondary pan-African club competition where the league runners-up would previous play, with the CAF Cup Winners' Cup to create the CAF Confederation Cup. The 12 countries would be ranked on the performance of their clubs in the previous 5 years.  The Champions League operates as a knockout competition, with a final group stage, with each tie (including the final) played over two legs – home and away. There are 2 knockout stages: the preliminary stage and the first round (32 teams). The 16 teams knocked out of the first round are entered into the Confederation Cup to play against the final 16 teams in that competition. After the first round, the last 16 teams are split into four groups of 4. The winner and runner-up in these groups are sent to play in a quarter-final and the possibility to play semi-finals, in chase of victory, for the chance of contesting the final.

Sponsorship.

In October 2004, MTN has contracted a four-year deal to sponsor African football's major competitions. This agreement, which worthed US$12.5 million, was the biggest sponsorship deal in African sporting history at that time.  In July 2009, Orange has signed an eight-year deal to sponsor African football's major competitions. Terms of the deal were not disclosed but CAF previous year put a value of €100 million for a comprehensive and long-term package of its competitions when it opened tenders for a new sponsor. The deal included the African Nations Cup, the CAF Champions League, the CAF Confederation Cup, the CAF Super Cup, the African Nations Championship and the African Youth Championship.  In July 2016, Total secured an eight-year sponsorship package from the Confederation of African Football (CAF) to support ten of its principal competitions, including the Africa Cup of Nations (renamed the Total Africa Cup of Nations).  Current Sponsors:

Prize money.

1997–2008.

In 1997, the CAF introduced prize money for the eight participants in group stage for the first time in a club competition in Africa.

2009–2016.

In 2009, the CAF had increased prize money to be shared between the Top 8 clubs as follows:

2017–2020.

The CAF has increased prize money to be shared between the Top 16 clubs starting from 2017 to 2020.

Controversies.

Since the inception, the rising successes of North African football clubs have been subject of criticisms by the clubs from the remaining regions of Africa with controversies surrounding football intimidation and violence by North African supporters, its football style which is accused of not fair-play, and its strong financial muscles which have let the region's clubs to be extremely powerful than the rest of Africa in the competition.

The CAF Champions League is an annual continental club football competition run by the Confederation of African Football (CAF). The top club sides from Africa's football leagues are invited to participate in this competition, which is the premier club football competition in the continent and the equivalent to the UEFA Champions League. Due to sponsorship reasons, the official name is Total CAF Champions League, with Total Champions League also in use.

Liga mistrů CAF ( CAF Champions League) je každoroční fotbalová soutěž pořádaná africkou konfederací CAF pro nejlepší kluby afrických lig. Postupují do ní mistři všech 53 členských států CAF a týmy z druhých míst 12 nejlepších zemí. Její vítěz postupuje na Mistrovství světa ve fotbale klubů.


History.

The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make extensive use of the Semitic alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is the oldest verified consonantal alphabet, or "abjad." It has become conventional to refer to the script as "Proto-Canaanite" until the mid-11th century BC, when it is first attested on inscribed bronze arrowheads, and as "Phoenician" only after 1050 BC. The Phoenician phonetic alphabet is generally believed to be at least the partial ancestor of almost all modern alphabets.  From a traditional linguistic perspective, Phoenician was composed of a variety of dialects. However, the very slight differences in language and the insufficient records of the time make it unclear whether Phoenician formed a separate and united dialect or was merely a superficially defined part of a broader language continuum. Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Northwest Africa and Europe, where it was adopted by the Greeks. Later, the Etruscans adopted a modified version for their own use, which, in turn, was modified and adopted by the Romans and became the Latin alphabet.  Punic colonisation spread Phoenician to the western Mediterranean, where the distinct Punic language developed. Punic also died out, but it seems to have survived far longer than Phoenician, perhaps into the 9th century AD.

Writing system.

Phoenician was written with the Phoenician script, an abjad (consonantary) originating from the Proto-Canaanite alphabet that also became the basis for the Greek alphabet and, via an Etruscan adaptation, the Latin alphabet. The Punic form of the script gradually developed somewhat different and more cursive letter shapes; in the 3rd century BC, it also began to exhibit a tendency to mark the presence of vowels, especially final vowels, with an aleph or sometimes an ayin. Furthermore, around the time of the Second Punic War, an even more cursive form began to develop, which gave rise to a variety referred to as Neo-Punic and existed alongside the more conservative form and became predominant some time after the destruction of Carthage (c. 149 BC). Neo-Punic, in turn, tended to designate vowels with matres lectionis ("consonantal letters") more frequently than the previous systems had and also began to systematically use different letters for different vowels, in the way explained in more detail below. Finally, a number of late inscriptions from what is now Constantine, Algeria dated to the first century BC make use of the Greek alphabet to write Punic, and many inscriptions from Tripolitania, in the third and fourth centuries AD use the Latin alphabet for that purpose.  In Phoenician writing, unlike that of abjads such as those of Aramaic, Biblical Hebrew and Arabic, even long vowels remained generally unexpressed, regardless of their origin (even if they originated from diphthongs, as in bt 'house'; Hebrew spelling has byt). Eventually, Punic writers began to implement systems of marking of vowels by means of "matres lectionis". In the 3rd century BC appeared the practice of using final 'ālep to mark the presence of any final vowel and, occasionally, of yōd to mark a final long.  Later, mostly after the destruction of Carthage in the so-called "Neo-Punic" inscriptions, that was supplemented by a system in which wāw denoted, yōd denoted, 'ālep denoted and, ʿayin denoted and hē and could also be used to signify. This latter system was used first with foreign words and was then extended to many native words as well.  A third practice reported in the literature is the use of the consonantal letters for vowels in the same way as had occurred in the original adaptation of the Phoenician alphabet to Greek and Latin, which was apparently still transparent to Punic writers: hē for and 'ālep for.  Later, Punic inscriptions began to be written in the Latin alphabet, which also indicated the vowels. Those later inscriptions, in addition with some inscriptions in Greek letters and transcriptions of Phoenician names into other languages, represent the main source of knowledge about Phoenician vowels.

Phonology.

Consonants.

The Phoenician orthography (see "Phoenician alphabet") distinguishes the following consonants (the standard transliteration of the corresponding Phoenician graphemes is marked in bold):  The system reflected in the abjad above is the product of several mergers. From Proto-Northwest Semitic to Canaanite, and have merged into, and have merged into, and, and have merged into * ṣ. Next, from Canaanite to Phoenician, the sibilants and were merged as, and were merged as, and * and * were merged as *. These latter developments also occurred in Biblical Hebrew at one point or another.

Sibilants.

The original value of the Proto-Semitic sibilants, and accordingly of their Phoenician counterparts, is disputed. Recent scholarship argues that was, was, was, and was, against the traditional sound values of,,, and as reflected in the transcription.  On the other hand, it is debated whether šīn and sāmek, which are mostly well distinguished by the Phoenician orthography, also eventually merged at some point, either in Classical Phoenician or in Late Punic. Krahmalkov suggests that *z may have been [dz] or even [zd] based on Latin transcriptions such as "esde" for the demonstrative "z."

Postvelars.

In later Punic, the laryngeals and pharyngeals seem to have been entirely lost. Neither these nor the emphatics could be adequately represented by the Latin alphabet, but there is also evidence to that effect from Punic script transcriptions.

Lenition.

There is no consensus on whether Phoenician-Punic ever underwent the lenition of stop consonants that happened in most other Northwest Semitic languages such as Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic (cf. Hackett vs Segert and Lyavdansky). The consonant may have been "generally" transformed into in Punic and in late Phoenician, as it was in Proto-Arabic. Certainly, Latin-script renditions of late Punic include many spirantized transcriptions with "ph", "th" and "kh" in various positions (although the interpretation of these spellings is not entirely clear) as well as the letter "f" for the original *p. However, in Neo-Punic, *b lenited to v contiguous to a following consonant, as in the Latin transcription "lifnim" for *lbnm "for his son".

Vowels.

Knowledge of the vowel system is very imperfect because of the characteristics of the writing system. During most of its existence, Phoenician writing showed no vowels at all, and even as vowel notation systems did eventually arise late in its history, they never came to be applied consistently to native vocabulary. It is thought that Phoenician had the short vowels,, and the long vowels,,,,. The Proto-Semitic diphthongs and are realized as and. That must have happened earlier than in Biblical Hebrew since the resultant long vowels are not marked with the semivowel letters ("bēt" "house" was written bt, in contrast to Biblical Hebrew byt).  The most conspicuous vocalic development in Phoenician is the so-called Canaanite shift, partly shared by Biblical Hebrew, but going further in Phoenician. The Proto-Northwest Semitic and became not merely as in Tiberian Hebrew, but. Stressed Proto-Semitic became Tiberian Hebrew ( in other traditions), but Phoenician. The shift is proved by Latin and Greek transcriptions like "rūs" for "head, cape" (Tiberian Hebrew "rōš", ), "samō" for "he heard" (Tiberian Hebrew "šāmāʻ", ); similarly the word for "eternity" is known from Greek transcriptions to have been "ʻūlōm", corresponding to Biblical Hebrew "ʻōlām" and Proto-Semitic "ʻālam". The letter Y used for words such as "ys" "which" and "yth" (definite accusative marker) in Greek and Latin alphabet inscriptions can be interpreted as denoting a reduced schwa vowel that occurred in pre-stress syllables in verbs and two syllables before stress in nouns and adjectives, while other instances of Y as in "chyl" and even "chil" for /kull/ "all" in "Poenulus" can be interpreted as a further stage in the vowel shift resulting in fronting () and even subsequent delabialization of and. Short in originally-open syllables was lowered to and was also lengthened if it was accented.

Suprasegmentals.

Stress-dependent vowel changes indicate that stress was probably mostly final, as in Biblical Hebrew. Long vowels probably occurred only in open syllables.

Grammar.

As is typical for the Semitic languages, Phoenician words are usually built around consonantal roots and vowel changes are used extensively to express morphological distinctions. However, unlike most Semitic languages, Phoenician preserved numerous uniconsonantal and biconsonantal roots inherited from Proto-Afro-Asiatic: compare the verbs kn "to be" vs Arabic kwn, mt "to die" vs Hebrew and Arabic mwt and sr "to remove" vs Hebrew srr.

Nominal morphology.

Nouns are marked for gender (masculine and feminine), number (singular, plural and vestiges of the dual) and state (absolute and construct, the latter being nouns that are followed by their possessors) and also have the category definiteness. There is some evidence for remains of the Proto-Semitic genitive grammatical case as well. While many of the endings coalesce in the standard orthography, inscriptions in the Latin and Greek alphabet permit the reconstruction of the noun endings, which are also the adjective endings, as follows:  In late Punic, the final of the feminine was apparently dropped:'"son of the queen" or'"brother of the queen" rendered in Latin as HIMILCO. was also assimilated to following consonants: e.g. "year" for earlier.  The case endings in general must have been lost between the 9th century BC and the 7th century BC: the personal name rendered in Akkadian as ma-ti-nu-ba-a-li "Gift of Baal", with the case endings -u and -i, was written ma-ta-an-baa-al two centuries later. However, evidence has been found for a retention of the genitive case in the form of the first-singular possessive suffix:'/abiya/ "of my father" vs'/abī/ "my father". If true, this may suggest that cases were still distinguished to some degree in other forms as well.  The written forms and the reconstructed pronunciations of the personal pronouns are as follows:  Singular:
 1st: //'(Punic sometimes '), also attested as //
 2nd masc. //
 2nd fem. //
 3rd masc. // ', also [] (?)'and //
 3rd fem. //  Plural:
 1st: //
 2nd masc. unattested
 2nd fem. unattested
 3rd masc. //,
 3rd fem. //  Enclitic personal pronouns were added to nouns (to encode possession) and to prepositions, as shown below for "Standard Phoenician" (the predominant dialect, as distinct from the Byblian and the late Punic varieties). They appear in a slightly different form depending on whether or not they follow plural-form masculine nouns (and so are added after a vowel). The former is given in brackets with the abbreviation a.V.  Singular:
 1st: // ', also'(a.V. // )
 2nd masc. //
 2nd fem. //
 3rd masc. // ', Punic, (a.V. // ')
 3rd fem. // ', Punic (a.V. // ')  Plural:
 1st: //
 2nd masc. unattested
 2nd fem. unattested
 3rd masc. //'(a.V. // ')
 3rd fem. //'(a.V. // ')  In addition, according to some research, the same written forms of the enclitics that are attested after vowels are also found after a singular noun in what must have been the genitive case (which ended in, whereas the plural version ended in ). Their pronunciation can then be reconstructed somewhat differently: first-person singular // ', third-person singular masculine and feminine //'and // '. The third-person plural singular and feminine must have pronounced the same in both cases, i.e. //'and //.  These enclitic forms vary between the dialects. In the archaic Byblian dialect, the third person forms are h and w // for the masculine singular (a.V. w //), h // for the feminine singular and hm // for the masculine plural. In late Punic, the 3rd masculine singular is usually //.  The same enclitic pronouns are also attached to verbs to denote direct objects. In that function, some of them have slightly divergent forms: first singular // and probably first plural //.  The near demonstrative pronouns ("this") are written, in standard Phoenician, z for the singular and'for the plural. Cypriot Phoenician displays'instead of z. Byblian still distinguishes, in the singular, a masculine'/'from a feminine'/ '. There are also many variations in Punic, including st and zt for both genders in the singular. The far demonstrative pronouns ("that") are identical to the independent third-person pronouns. The interrogative pronouns are or perhaps'"who" and'"what". An indefinite pronoun "anything" is written mnm. The relative pronoun is a, either followed or preceded by a vowel.  The definite article was, and the first consonant of the following word was doubled. It was written h but in late Punic also'and'because of the weakening and coalescence of the gutturals. Much as in Biblical Hebrew, the initial consonant of the article is dropped after the prepositions b-, l- and k; it could also be lost after various other particles and function words, such the direct object marker and the conjunction w- "and".  Of the cardinal numerals from 1 to 10, 1 is an adjective, 2 is formally a noun in the dual and the rest are nouns in the singular. They all distinguish gender: ','(construct state '), ', ', ', ', ', ', ','vs ', unattested, ', ', ', ', ', ', unattested, '. The tens are morphologically masculine plurals of the ones: ', ', ', ', ', ', ', '. "One hundred" is ', two hundred is its dual form ', whereas the rest are formed as in'(three hundred). One thousand is '. Ordinal numerals are formed by the addition of *iy '. Composite numerals are formed with w- "and", e.g. for "twelve".

Verbal morphology.

The verb inflects for person, number, gender, tense and mood. Like for other Semitic languages, Phoenician verbs have different "verbal patterns" or "stems", expressing manner of action, level of transitivity and voice. The perfect or suffix-conjugation, which expresses the past tense, is exemplified below with the root q-t-l "to kill" (a "neutral", G-stem).  Singular:
 1st: //
 2nd masc. //
 2nd fem. //
 3rd masc. //
 3rd fem. // ', also ', Punic  Plural:
 1st: //
 2nd masc. unattested
 2nd fem. unattested
 3rd masc. / ', Punic '
 3rd fem. unattested  The imperfect or prefix-conjugation, which expresses the present and future tense (and which is not distinguishable from the descendant of the Proto-Semitic jussive expressing wishes), is exemplified below, again with the root q-t-l.  1st: //
 2nd masc. //
 2nd fem. //
 3rd masc. //
 3rd fem. //
 Plural: 1st: *//?
 2nd masc. // ', Punic '
 2nd fem. //
 3rd masc. /
 3rd fem. unattested  The imperative endings were presumably, and for the second-person singular masculine, second-person singular feminine and second-person plural masculine respectively, but all three forms surface in the orthography as ': '. The old Semitic jussive, which originally differed slightly from the prefix conjugation, is no longer possible to separate from it in Phoenician with the present data.  The non-finite forms are the infinitive construct, the infinitive absolute and the active and passive participles. In the G-stem, the infinitive construct is usually combined with the preposition l- "to", as in "to kill"; in contrast, the infinitive absolute (qatōl) is mostly used to strengthen the meaning of a subsequent finite verb with the same root: "you will indeed open!", accordingly // "you will indeed kill!".  The participles had, in the G-stem, the following forms:
 Active:
 Masculine singular // or //, plural // or //
 Feminine singular, plural *
 Passive:
 Masculine singular // or //, plural //
 Feminine singular, plural //  The missing forms above can be inferred from the correspondences between the Proto-Northwest Semitic ancestral forms and the attested Phoenician counterparts: the PNWS participle forms are *.  The derived stems are:  Most of the stems apparently also had passive and reflexive counterparts, the former differing through vowels, the latter also through the infix -t-. The G stem passive is attested as qytl, < *.; t-stems can be reconstructed as /yitqatil/ ytqtl (tG) and /yiqtattil/ (Dt) yqttl.

Prepositions and particles.

Some prepositions are always prefixed to nouns, deleting, if present, the initial of the definite article: such are b- "in", l- "to, for", k- "as" and m- // "from". They are sometimes found in forms extended through the addition of -n or -t. Other prepositions are not like that: "upon",. "until", "after", "under", "between". New prepositions are formed with nouns: lpn "in front of", from l- "to" and pn "face". There is a special preposited marker of a definite object (//?), which, unlike Hebrew, is clearly distinct from the preposition (//).  The most common negative marker is (//), negating verbs but sometimes also nouns; another one is (//), expressing both nonexistence and the negation of verbs. Negative commands or prohibitions are expressed with (//). "Lest" is. Some common conjunctions are (originally perhaps //, but certainly // in Late Punic), "and" (), "when", and (), "that; because; when". There was also a conjunction ("also". (//) could (rarely) be used to introduce desiderative constructions ("may he do X!"). could also introduce vocatives. Both prepositions and conjunctions could form compounds.

Syntax.

The basic word order is verb-subject-object. There is no verb "to be" in the present tense; in clauses that would have used a copula, the subject may come before the predicate. Nouns precede their modifiers, such as adjectives and possessors.

Vocabulary and word formation.

Most nouns are formed by a combination of consonantal roots and vocalic patterns, but they can formed also with prefixes (, expressing actions or their results, and rarely ) and suffixes. Abstracts can be formed with the suffix -t (probably, ). Adjectives can be formed following the familiar Semitic nisba suffix y (e.g. ṣdny "Sidonian").  Like the grammar, the vocabulary is very close to Biblical Hebrew, but some peculiarities attract attention. For example, the copula verb "to be" is kn (as in Arabic, as opposed to Hebrew and Aramaic hyh) and the verb "to do" is pʿl (as in Aramaic pʿl and Arabic fʿl, as opposed to Hebrew ʿśh, though in Hebrew pʿl has the similar meaning "to act").

Survival and influences of Punic.

The significantly-divergent later form of the language that was spoken in the Tyrian Phoenician colony of Carthage is known as Punic and remained in use there for considerably longer than Phoenician did in Phoenicia itself by arguably surviving into Augustine of Hippo's time. The Punic throughout its existence co-existed with the Berber language which is native to Tunisia (Including Carthage) and North Africa. Punic disappeared some time after the destruction of Carthage by the Romans and the Berbers. It is possible that Punic may have survived the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in some small isolated area: the geographer al-Bakri describes a people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin or Coptic in the city of Sirte in rural Ifriqiya, a region in which spoken Punic survived well past its written use. However, it is likely that arabization of the Punics was facilitated by their language belonging to the same group (both being Semitic languages) as that of the conquerors and thus having many grammatical and lexical similarities. Most Punic speakers may have been linguistically Berberized and/or Latinized after the fall of Carthage.  The ancient Libyco-Berber alphabet that is still in irregular use by modern Berber groups such as the Tuareg is known by the native name Tifinagh, possibly a derived form of a cognate of the name "Punic". Still, a direct derivation from the Phoenician-Punic script is debated and far from established since the two writing systems are very different. As far as language (not the script) is concerned, some borrowings from Punic appear in modern Berber dialects: one interesting example is "agadir" "wall" from Punic "gader".  Perhaps the most interesting case of Punic influence is that of the name of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising Portugal and Spain), which, according to one of the theories, is derived from the Punic "I-Shaphan" meaning "coast of hyraxes", in turn a misidentification on the part of Phoenician explorers of its numerous rabbits as hyraxes. Another case is the name of a tribe of hostile "hairy people" that Hanno the Navigator found in the Gulf of Guinea. The name given to those people by Hanno the Navigator's interpreters was transmitted from Punic into Greek as "gorillai" and was applied in 1847 by Thomas S. Savage to the western gorilla.

Surviving examples.

Phoenician, together with Punic, is primarily known from approximately 10,000 surviving inscriptions, supplemented by occasional glosses in books written in other languages. In addition to their many inscriptions, the Phoenicians are believed to have left numerous other types of written sources, but most have not survived.  Roman authors, such as Sallust, allude to some books written in the Punic language, but none have survived except occasionally in translation (e.g., Mago's treatise) or in snippets (e.g., in Plautus' plays). The Cippi of Melqart, a bilingual inscription in Ancient Greek and Carthaginian discovered in Malta in 1694, was the key which allowed French scholar Jean-Jacques Barthélemy to decipher and reconstruct the alphabet in 1758. Even as late as 1837 only 70 Phoenician inscriptions were known to scholars. These were compiled in Wilhelm Gesenius's "Scripturae linguaeque Phoeniciae monumenta", which comprised all that was known of Phoenician by scholars at that time. Some key surviving inscriptions of Phoenician are:  Since bilingual tablets with inscriptions in both Etruscan and Phoenician dating from around 500 BC were found in 1964, more Etruscan has been deciphered through comparison to the more fully understood Phoenician.

Phoenician was a language originally spoken in the coastal (Mediterranean) region, then called ""Pūt"" (in Phoenician and Egyptian), "Canaan" (in Biblical Hebrew, Old Arabic, and Aramaic), and "Phoenicia" (in Greek and Latin). It is a part of the Canaanite subgroup of the Northwest Semitic languages. Other members of the family are Hebrew, Ammonite, Moabite, and Edomite.

Féničtina (také foiničtina) byla jazyk, kterým se ve starověku hovořilo ve středomořské oblasti Fénicie neboli Kanaánu. Bývá řazena mezi semitské jazyky, do kanaánské podskupiny; z živých jazyků je jejím nejbližším příbuzným hebrejština. V oblasti výskytu féničtiny se v dnešní době nachází Libanon, pobřežní část Sýrie a severní Izrael.