History.

Loudoun County was established in 1757 from Fairfax County. The county is named for John Campbell, Fourth Earl of Loudoun and governor general of Virginia from 1756–59. Western settlement began in the 1720s and 1730s with Quakers, Scots-Irish, Germans and others moving south from Pennsylvania and Maryland, and also by English and African slaves moving upriver from Tidewater. By the time of the American Revolution, it was Virginia's most populous county. It was also rich in agriculture, and the county's contributions of grain to George Washington's Continental Army earned it the nickname "Breadbasket of the Revolution."  During the War of 1812, important Federal documents and government archives were evacuated from Washington and stored at Leesburg. Local tradition holds that these documents were stored at Rokeby House, making Leesburg briefly the capital of the United States.  U.S. president James Monroe treated Oak Hill Plantation as a primary residence from 1823 until his death on July 4, 1831. The Loudoun County coat of arms and flag, granted by the English College of Arms, memorialize the special relationship between Britain and the United States that developed through his Monroe Doctrine.  Early in the American Civil War, the Battle of Balls Bluff took place near Leesburg on October 21, 1861. Future jurist Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. was critically wounded in that battle along the Potomac River. During the Gettysburg Campaign in June 1863, Confederate major general J.E.B. Stuart and Union cavalry clashed in the battles of Aldie, Middleburg, and Upperville. Confederate partisan John S. Mosby based his operations in Loudoun and adjoining Fauquier County (for a more in-depth account of the history of Loudoun County during the Civil War, see Loudoun County in the American Civil War).  During World War I, Loudoun County was a major Breadbasket for supplying provisions to soldiers in Europe. Loudoun farmers implemented new agricultural innovations such as vaccination of livestock, seed inoculations and ensilage. The county experienced a boom in agricultural output, outputting an annual wheat output of 1.04 million bushels in 1917, the largest of any county in Virginia that year. 1.2 million units of home produce were produced at home, much of which went to training sites across the state such as Camp Lee. The Smith–Lever Act of 1914 established increased agricultural education in Virginia counties, increasing agricultural yields. After the war, a plaque was dedicated to the "30 glorious dead" from the county who died in the Great War. Five of the thirty died on the front, while the other twenty five died while in training or in other locations inside the United States.  In 1962, Washington Dulles International Airport was built in southeastern Loudoun County in Sterling. Since then, Loudoun County has experienced a high-tech boom and rapid growth. Accordingly, many have moved to eastern Loudoun and become residents of planned communities such as Sterling Park, Sugarland Run, Cascades, and Ashburn Farm, making that section a veritable part of the Washington suburbs. Others have moved to the county seat or to the small towns and rural communities of the Loudoun Valley.

Government and politics.

The county's official motto, "I Byde My Time", is borrowed from the coat of arms of the Earl of Loudoun.  In the late 20th century, as northerners gradually migrated to Southern suburbs, Loudoun County increasingly shifted to the Republican Party in supporting presidential candidates, and more local ones. But that may be changing with changing demographics. Before the 2008 election of Barack Obama, county voters had not supported a Democratic president since Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964.  In recent years, the county's rapid growth in its eastern portion, settled by educated professionals working in or near Washington, D.C., has changed the demographics, and the Democratic Party has become increasingly competitive in the county. After giving Senator Barack Obama nearly 54% of its presidential vote in 2008, the county supported Republican Bob McDonnell in 2009, who received 61% of the gubernatorial vote. Voters also replaced two incumbent Democratic delegates, making Loudoun's state House delegation all Republican. In 2012 county voters again supported Obama, who took 51.5% of the vote, with Republican challenger Mitt Romney garnering 47%.  Democrats carried the county again in the 2016 presidential election, when Loudoun swung heavily towards Hillary Clinton, giving her 55.1% to Trump's 38.2%.

County board of supervisors.

Like many counties in Virginia, Loudoun is locally governed by a board of supervisors, the Loudoun County Board of Supervisors. The chairman of the board is elected by county voters at-large while the remaining supervisors are elected from eight single-member districts roughly equal in population. All nine members serve concurrent terms of four years. The board handles policy issues and sets the budget; it appoints a county administrator to handle the county government's day-to-day operations. elections, the chairman of the board and two district supervisors are Democrats; the remaining six supervisors are Republican.  The 2003 board, and other officials in Loudoun, was the subject of a federal investigation of possible corruption relating to a land deal involving the Royal Saudi Academy.  In November 2007, voters removed four incumbent, fiscally conservative Republicans from the board of supervisors in a backlash over rapid development in the county's eastern portion. The board's make-up after the election was five Democrats, two Republicans, and two Independents.  In November 2011, Republicans were elected to all nine seats on the board. In 2015 three were replaced by Democrats.  On September 6, 2015, Broad Run supervisor Shawn M. Williams resigned after his arrest for assault.  In November 2017, voters replaced three of the four Republican state delegates with Democrats, leaving only a sole Republican delegate representing the county in Richmond.  In November 2019, Democrats took over the BOS. Voters elected Juli E. Briskman (D) in Algonkian District, with 6,763 votes (54.09%) replacing incumbent Suzanne M. Volpe (R) who polled 5,719 votes (45.74%). Juli Briskman had been fired from her job as a marketing analyst for a United States government and military subcontractor, after an AFP photo of her flipping off the motorcade of Donald Trump went viral on social media in 2017.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Loudoun County has a total area of, of which is land and (1.1%) is water. It is bounded on the north by the Potomac River; across the river are Frederick, Washington and Montgomery counties in Maryland; it is bounded on the south by Prince William and Fauquier counties, on the west by watershed of the Blue Ridge Mountain across which are Jefferson County, West Virginia and Clarke County, and on the east by Fairfax County. The Bull Run Mountains and Catoctin Mountain bisect the county. To the west of the range is the Loudoun Valley. Bisecting the Loudoun Valley from Hillsboro to the Potomac River is Short Hill Mountain.

Street addresses.

Block numbers in the unincorporated areas of Loudoun County, with the exception of older Sterling Park and the community of CountrySide, are assigned in the following manner: on north-south streets, block numbers increase from north to south and range from 10000 to 27000; on east-west streets, block numbers increase from west to east and range from 30000 to 48000.

Economy.

Traditionally a rural county, Loudoun's population has grown dramatically since the 1980s. Having undergone heavy suburbanization since 1990, Loudoun has a full-fledged service economy. It is home to world headquarters for several Internet-related and high tech companies, including Verizon Business, Telos Corporation, Orbital Sciences Corporation, and Paxfire. Like Fairfax County's Dulles Corridor, Loudoun County has economically benefited from the existence of Washington Dulles International Airport, the majority of which is in the county along its border with Fairfax.  Loudoun County retains a strong rural economy. The equine industry has an estimated revenue of $78 million. It is home to the Morven Park International Equestrian Center which hosts national horse trials. In addition, a growing wine industry has produced several internationally recognized wines. Loudoun now has 40 wineries and over 25 active farms. Loudoun has rich soil and was in the mid-19th century a top wheat-producing county in the fourth largest wheat-producing state.  MCI, Inc. (formerly WorldCom), a subsidiary of Verizon Communications, is headquartered in Ashburn, Loudoun County. It announced it would move its headquarters to Ashburn in 2003. AOL had its headquarters at 22000 AOL Way in Dulles in unincorporated Loudoun County. In 2007 AOL announced it would move its headquarters from Loudoun County to New York City; it would continue to operate its Virginia offices. Orbital Sciences Corporation has its headquarters in Dulles.  Loudon County houses over 60 massive data centers, with many housing the cloud operations of Amazon Web Services (AWS). These data centers are estimated to carry 70 percent of global web traffic.  Before its dissolution, Independence Air (originally Atlantic Coast Airlines) was headquartered in Dulles. At one time Atlantic Coast Airlines had its headquarters in Sterling. Before its dissolution, MAXjet Airways was headquartered on the grounds of Washington-Dulles International Airport.

Top employers.

According to the County's 2011 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the county are:

Demographics.

From 1890 to 1940, the county had a decline in population as people moved to cities for more opportunities. The decline was likely highest among African Americans, who had worked in an agricultural economy that was becoming increasingly mechanized. During the first half of the 20th century, African Americans moved out of rural areas to cities in the Great Migration. In the early 21st century, they are a small minority within the county.  As of the census of 2010, there were 312,311 people, 104,583 households, and 80,494 families residing in the county. The population density was 606 people per square mile (234/km2). There were 109,442 housing units at an average density of 212 per square mile (82/km2). The racial makeup of the county was:  According to the 2010 census, 10.5% of residents reported being of German ancestry, while 9.1% reported Irish, 7.7% English, 5.4% Italian and 5.2% American ancestry.  As of 2000 there were 59,900 households out of which 43.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.30% were married couples living together, 7.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.80% were non-families. 18.40% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.82 and the average family size was 3.24.  In the county, the population was spread out with 29.80% under the age of 18, 5.70% from 18 to 24, 38.90% from 25 to 44, 20.00% from 45 to 64, and 5.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.50 males.  In 2011, Census survey data concluded that Loudoun County had the highest median income in the country at $119,134.  From 1980 to 2014, deaths from cancer in Loudoun County decreased by 46 percent, the largest such decrease of any county in the United States.  From 2017 to 2018, Loudoun County saw an increase of 18.5% of households experiencing homelessness, a 21% increase for single adults, and a 36% increase for families. Homelessness for veterans in the county decreased by 16% from 2017 to 2018.

Government and infrastructure.

The National Transportation Safety Board operates the Ashburn Aviation Field Office in Ashburn, an unincorporated area of Loudoun County.  Emergency services are provided by the Loudoun County Fire and Rescue Department with the Office of Emergency Management. LCFR is a combination system that utilizes some 500 volunteers and over 600 career firefighters, EMT/paramedics,dispatchers, and support staff. LCFR is one of the largest fire and rescue systems in Virginia.  Law enforcement in Loudoun County is served by the Loudoun County Sheriff's Office, as well as three town police departments: Leesburg Police, Purcellville Police, and Middleburg Police.  The Loudoun County Public Library System has eleven branches in the county. The library's Outreach Department of the Loudoun County Public Library is a resource for those who cannot easily access branch services. The public library system has won many awards, and came in 10th place for libraries serving a comparably sized population in 2006 Hennen's American Public Library Ratings (HAPLR).

Transportation.

Airports.

Loudoun County has two airports: the Washington Dulles International and Leesburg Executive.

Bus.

Loudoun County operates its own bus public transit system, known as Loudoun County Commuter Bus.

Rail.

The Silver Line of the Washington Metro, will extend into Loudoun County. The on-going extension will include stations at the Dulles International Airport, and two stations in Ashburn, Virginia.

Education.

The county is served by Loudoun County Public Schools (LCPS). LCPS serves over 70,000 students from Kindergarten through 12th grade and is Virginia's fifth largest school system. Loudoun County schools recently ranked 11th in the United States in terms of educational achievement versus funds spent. Loudoun County also sends students to its Loudoun Academy of Science, formerly housed within Dominion High School now within the Academies of Loudoun, and is eligible to send students to Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology, a STEM magnet school in Alexandria, Virginia.  Loudoun County is home to ten private schools: Loudoun Country Day School, a Pre-K–8 independent school in Leesburg; Notre Dame Academy, an independent non-denominational day high school in Middleburg; the Foxcroft School, a boarding school for girls located in Middleburg; Dominion Academy, a Non-denominational Christian school, K–8 in Leesburg; Loudoun Classical School, a Protestant classical 7th-12th grade school in Purcellville; Leesburg Christian School, a K–12 school in Leesburg; St. Theresa School, a K–8 Roman Catholic school in Ashburn; Village Montessori School at Bluemont, an accredited Pre-K through Elementary Montessori school in Bluemont; Christian Faith & Fellowship School, a PreK–12 non-denominational Christian school and Loudoun County's only private school accredited by the Association of Christian Schools International; and Ideal Schools High School, an independent non-denominational school in Ashburn.  In terms of post-secondary education, Loudoun County is home to a variety of colleges and universities, including: Patrick Henry College; a branch of Northern Virginia Community College in Sterling; George Washington University (satellite campus); George Mason University (satellite campus); Marymount University (satellite campus); Shenandoah University (satellite campus); and Strayer University (satellite campus). Loudoun is also home to a satellite campus of the Virginia–Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine and the Janelia Farm Research Campus of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

Notable people.

James Monroe constructed and resided at Oak Hill near Aldie after his presidency. American Civil War Brigadier General Robert H. Chilton (Chief of Staff under Robert E. Lee) was a native of Loudoun County. World War II general George C. Marshall resided at Dodona Manor in Leesburg. Essayist and journalist Russell Baker grew up in Morrisonville, Virginia and his book "Growing Up" highlights his childhood in rural Virginia. Entertainer Arthur Godfrey lived near historic Waterford, Virginia. Loudoun County is also the birthplace of Julia Neale Jackson, mother of Stonewall Jackson, and Susan Catherine Koerner, mother of the Wright Brothers.

Loudoun County () is located in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. In 2019, the population was estimated at 413,538, making it Virginia's third-most populous county. Loudoun County's seat is Leesburg. Loudoun County is part of the Washington–Arlington–Alexandria, DC–VA–MD–WV Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Loudoun County je správní jednotkou v severní části amerického státu Virginie. V roce 2010 v něm žilo 312 311 lidí; výrazný nárůst od roku 2000. Okresní město je Leesburg.


Inside the Brothel.

"Le Sphinx" was not a brothel in the usual sense of the word. The main attraction in it was not in the richly decorated rooms with air conditioning and nickel-plated beds, but in the dance bar on the first floor, where you could also make a haircut or a pedicure. There were normally 15 girls, selected by the madame, in the bar. However, no one forced them to have sex with the clients, the girl decided themselves. Some Sphinx workers never engaged in prostitution, but worked in as "hostesses", receiving commission from drinks drunk by guests. Probably, this feature of the Sphinx made it so popular among French bohemians of that time. Unlike the "One Two Two" and "Le Chabanais", the rooms of which were executed in the styles of different countries and eras, the "Le Sphinx" was completely sustained in the Egyptian style. The frescos of Le Sphinx were created by Kees van Dongen (the best brothels of the time attracted the attention of famous artists; for example the walls of Le Chabanais and La Fleur blanche were painted by Toulouse-Lautrec). The greatest commercial success of the Sphinx came in 1937, when the famous Exposition was held in Paris. During the exhibition "Le Sphinx" had 120 girls and in the most successful evenings took up to 1500 customers.

History.

Before World War II.

The initiator and inspiration for the opening of the brothel was "Marthe Lemestre", nicknamed "Madame Martun".  Marthe Lemestre began her career in New York City, where during prohibition she opened a bar illegally selling alcohol. A few months before the Wall Street crash and the beginning of the Great Depression, she sold the bar which gave her start-up capital to start a new business.  Moving to Paris, Madame Martuna decided not to convert an existing building to a brothel, as was done by the owners of "One Two Two" and "Le Chabanais", and built a new five-story mansion in the Art Nouveau style, decorating its facade with a gypsum mask of the Sphinx, from which institution and got its name.  The main investors of the brothel were French criminals Paul Carbone and François Spirito, who already had experience in organizing brothels in Marseilles and on the Cote d'Azur.  The absence of trouble with the law was guaranteed by the secret protection of the Préfet de police Jean Chiappe and Minister Albert Sarraut.  The brothel opened with great pomp on April 24, 1931 at 31 "Boulevard Edgar-Quinet" and was presented as the ""American Bar"". Guests at the opening included the Mayor of Montparnasse and his wife. The public were informed that the bar is located on the site of the former workshop of the cemetery masons, and is connected by an underground passage to the famous Parisian catacombs.

German occupation of Paris.

During the German occupation, Le Sphinx, like several other luxury Parisian brothels, was requisitioned for the use of German officers, in order to prevent their contacts with the local population. The health services of the Wehrmacht were responsible for organizing the sanitary control of these establishments. Captain Haucke, commissioner of Geheime Feldpolizei, was responsible for managing prostitution in Paris.  Eva Braun and her friends were reported to have visited Le Sphinx, and Hitler supposedly ate in the brothel's restaurant in June 1940.

After World War II.

In 1946, after the adoption of the ""Loi Marthe Richard"", the brothel was closed. The building was requisitioned to accommodate convalescent students of the Fondation de France.  In 1962, the building was demolished; the van Dongen frescoes and Egyptian interiors were destroyed. A branch of the "Banque Populaire rives de Paris" now stands on the site.

La Brigade Mondaine.

La Brigade Mondaine (National Police Department responsible for the surveillance of prostitution) monitored "Le Spinx" during the 1930s. Photographs were taken to monitor the clientele, and the phones were tapped. Snapshots of the hygiene record drawn up during a health check on November 10, 1936, show that the house employs 5 sub-mistresses and 65 boarders in fancy outfits. The house opened from 3 pm to 5 am, with 3 passes per woman per day during the week, 2 on Sunday, for a single rate of 30 francs plus tip.

Interesting facts and legends.

Since 1905, opposite "Le Sphinx", at number 16 "Boulevard Edgar-Quinet", Maximilian Voloshin rented a studio. Some sources suggest that Voloshin visited the "Le Sphinx" and hired models there. This is incorrect, Voloshin left Paris long before the opening of the famous brothel.

Le Sphinx was a "maison close" (brothel) in Paris in the 1930s and 1940s. Along with the "Le Chabanais" and "One-Two-Two" it was considered one of the most luxurious and famous Parisian brothels.

Le Sphinx (česky "Sfinga") byl nevěstinec v Paříži. Nacházel se v "Boulevard Edgar Quinet" č. 31 ve 14. obvodu. Tento podnik se vyznačoval architekturou a výzdobou v egyptském stylu a patřil spolu s Le Chabanais a One-two-two k nejznámějším a nejdražším podnikům ve městě.


Description.

The Bridge of the Americas crosses the Pacific approach to the Panama Canal at Balboa, near Panama City. It was built between 1959 and 1962 by the United States at a cost of US$20 million. From its completion in 1962 until the opening of the parallel Centennial Bridge in 2004, the Bridge of the Americas was a key part of the Pan-American Highway. The Bridge of the Americas greatly increases road traffic capacity across the Canal. Two earlier bridges cross the Canal, but they use moveable designs and have limited traffic capacity. These earlier spans include a small swinging road bridge, built into the lock structure at Gatún, and a swinging road/rail bridge constructed in 1942 at Miraflores. The Centennial Bridge was constructed to eliminate the bottleneck of, and reduce traffic congestion on, the Bridge of the Americas.  The bridge is a cantilever design where the suspended span is a tied arch. The bridge has a total length of 1,654 m (5,425 ft) in 14 spans, abutment to abutment. The main span measures and the tied arch (the center part of the main span) is. The highest point of the bridge is above mean sea level; the clearance under the main span is at high tide. Ships must cross under this bridge when traversing the Panama Canal, and are subject to this height restriction. The world's largest cruise ships, "Oasis of the Seas", "Allure of the Seas", "Harmony of the Seas" and the "Symphony of the Seas" will fit within the canal's widened locks, but they are too tall to pass under the Bridge of the Americas, even at low tide, unless the Bridge of the Americas is raised in the future. (The Centennial Bridge is also a fixed obstacle, but its clearance is much higher:.)  The bridge has wide access ramps at each end, and pedestrian walkways on each side.

History.

The need for a bridge.

From the beginning of the French project to construct a canal, it was recognised that the cities of Colón and Panamá would be split from the rest of the republic by the new canal. This was an issue even during construction, when barges were used to ferry construction workers across the canal.  After the canal opened, the increasing number of cars, and the construction of a new road leading to Chiriquí, in the west of Panama, increased the need for some kind of crossing. The Panama Canal Mechanical Division addressed this in August 1931, with the commissioning of two new ferries, the "Presidente Amador" and "President Washington". This service was expanded in August 1940, with additional barges mainly serving the military.  On June 3, 1942, a road/rail swing bridge was inaugurated at the Miraflores locks; although only usable when no ships were passing, this provided some relief for traffic wishing to cross the canal. Still, it was clear that a more substantial solution would be required. To meet the growing needs of vehicle traffic, another ferry, the "Presidente Porras", was added in November 1942.

The Bridge Project.

The idea of a permanent bridge over the canal had been proposed as a major priority as early as 1923. Subsequent administrations of Panama pressed this issue with the United States, which controlled the Canal Zone; and in 1955 the Remón-Eisenhower treaty committed the United States to building a bridge.  A contract worth $20,000,000 was awarded to John F. Beasly & Company who built the bridge out of steel and reinforced concrete, and the project was initiated in a ceremony which took place on December 23, 1958, in the presence of United States Ambassador Julian Harrington, and Panamanian President Ernesto de la Guardia Navarro. Construction began on October 12, 1959, and took nearly two and a half years to complete.  The inauguration of the bridge took place on October 12, 1962, with great ceremony. The ribbon was cut by Maurice H. Thatcher, after which those present were allowed to walk across the bridge. The ceremony was given full nationwide coverage on radio and television; significant precautions were taken to manage the large crowds of people present. These proved inadequate, however, and pro-Panamanian protesters disrupted the ceremony, even removing the memorial plaques on the bridge.

Post-construction.

When opened, the bridge was an important part of the Pan-American Highway, and carried around 9,500 vehicles per day; however, this expanded over time, and by 2004 the bridge was carrying 35,000 vehicles per day. The bridge therefore became a significant bottleneck on the highway, which led to the construction of the Centennial Bridge, which now carries the Pan-American Highway too. On May 18, 2010, the bulk cargo ship "Atlantic Hero" struck one of the protective bases of the bridge after losing engine power, partially blocking that section of the canal to shipping traffic. The bridge did not receive damage and there were no fatalities. In December 2010, the Centennial Bridge access road collapsed in a mudslide, and commercial traffic was diverted to the Bridge of The Americas.

The "Thatcher Ferry Bridge".

The bridge was originally named "Thatcher Ferry Bridge", after the original ferry which crossed the canal at about the same point. The ferry was, in turn, named after Maurice H. Thatcher, a former member of the Canal Commission, who introduced the legislation which created the ferry. Thatcher cut the tape at the inauguration of the bridge.  The name was unpopular with the government of Panama, however, which preferred the name "Bridge of the Americas". The Panamanian view was made official by a resolution of the National Assembly on October 2, 1962, ten days before the inauguration.  The resolution read as follows:  The bridge over the Panama Canal shall bear the name Bridge of the Americas. Said name will be used exclusively to identify said bridge. Panamanian government officials shall reject any document in which reference is made to the bridge by any name other than "Bridge of the Americas". A copy of this resolution, with the appropriate note on style, shall be forwarded to all legislative bodies of the world, so that all may give the bridge the name chosen by this honorable assembly, complying with the express will of the Panamanian people. Given in the city of Panama on the second day of the month of October of nineteen hundred and sixty-two. During the inauguration ceremony (which was concluded with the playing of the "Thatcher Ferry Bridge March"), U.S. Under Secretary of State George Wildman Ball said in his speech: "we can look today to this bridge as a new and bright step toward the realization of that dream of a Pan-American Highway, which is now almost a reality. The grand bridge we inaugurate today — truly a bridge of the Americas — completes the last stage of the highway from the United States to Panama".  Nonetheless, the official name of the bridge became the "Thatcher Ferry Bridge" and remained so until Panamanian control in 1979.  Postage stamps were issued with the name "Thatcher Ferry Bridge". In the postage stamps and postal history of the Canal Zone they are well known for an error on one sheet where the bridge is missing.

The Bridge of the Americas (; originally known as the Thatcher Ferry Bridge) is a road bridge in Panama, which spans the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal. Designed by Sverdrup & Parcel, it was completed in 1962 at a cost of US$20 million, connecting the north and south American land masses. Two other bridges cross the canal: the Atlantic Bridge at the Gatun locks and the Centennial Bridge.

Puente de las Américas ( "„Most Amerik“") je silniční most v Panamě, který překonává Panamský průplav v místě jeho vyústění do Tichého oceánu. Stojí na místě dřívějšího přívozu a spojuje lokality Balboa (ležící v těsné blízkosti hlavního města Ciudad de Panamá) a okres Arraiján na protější straně. Jeho význam přesahuje lokální měřítko, neboť spojuje pevninu Střední a Jižní Ameriky uměle přerušenou právě průplavem. Výstavba začala v roce 1958, do provozu byl uveden 12. října 1962. Do roku 2004, kdy byl otevřen most Puente Centenario, byl Puente de las Américas jediným pevným mostem přes Panamský průplav.


Early life.

Styrene was born Marianne Joan Elliott-Said in 1957 in Bromley, Kent, England, and raised in Brixton, London. Her mother, who raised her alone, was a Scottish-Irish legal secretary. Her father was a Somali-born dock worker, although Poly Styrene used to tell the press that he was a dispossessed Somali aristocrat.  As a teenager, Styrene was a hippie. At age 15, she ran away from home with £3 in her pocket, and hitchhiked from one music festival to another, staying at hippie crash pads. Thinking of this as a challenge to survive, her adventure ended when she stepped on a rusty nail while bathing in a stream and had to be treated for septicaemia.  Having been, 'an itinerant traveller, alternative fashion designer and a failed pop-reggae singer', after seeing the Sex Pistols performance at the Pier Pavilion Hastings on the south coast of England on 3 July 1976 (her 19th birthday) she decided to form the punk band X-Ray Spex.

Music career.

Demo and first single.

Styrene recorded her first demo album in 1975, when she was 18 years old. Her manager enlisted Ted Bunting to produce the record.  In 1976, Styrene released her first single under her real name, Mari Elliott. Titled "Silly Billy", it was a reggae track, with some touches of the then popular ska style. Her daughter Celeste has called it'similar to Althea and Donna, who she really liked'. She co-wrote the B-side "What A Way" with the record's producer, Falcon Stuart. The single came in a GTO Records sleeve.

X-Ray Spex.

After watching a very early gig by the Sex Pistols in an empty hall on Hastings Pier, playing a set of cover songs, she was inspired to put an ad in the paper for 'young punx who want to stick it together' to form a band. So it was from that, she went as singer with X-Ray Spex, Poly Styrene, a name she chose from the 'Yellow Pages' when she was 'looking for a name of the time, something plastic.' She was described by "Billboard" as the "archetype for the modern-day feminist punk"; because she wore dental braces, stood against the typical sex object female of 1970s rock star, sported a gaudy Dayglo wardrobe, and was of mixed race. She was "one of the least conventional front-persons in rock history, male or female". They launched their debut single in 1977.  In 1978, after a gig in Doncaster, South Yorkshire, Styrene had a vision of a pink light in the sky and felt objects crackling when she touched them. Thinking she was hallucinating, her mother took her to the hospital where Marianne was misdiagnosed with schizophrenia, sectioned, and told she would never work again. Although she missed playing at the time, in hindsight, she felt that getting out of the public eye was good for her. She was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 1991.

Solo career.

After the original line-up of X-Ray Spex broke up, Poly Styrene recorded a solo album, "Translucence", in 1980. The album abandoned X-Ray Spex's loud guitar work for a quieter and more jazzy sound that has since been described as anticipating later work by Everything but the Girl. In 1986, she released the EP "God's & Godesses" on the Awesome record label. A New Age solo album, "Flower Aeroplane", followed in 2004.  She described herself as "an observer, not a suffering artist writing from tortured experiences. I was playing with words and ideas. Having a laugh about everything, sending it up."  In 2007, Styrene was invited to the Concrete Jungle festival in Camber Sands, by her friend Goldblade's John Robb where she and the gathering's organiser, Symond Lawes, agreed to initiate a 30-year celebration of X-Ray Spex's debut album, "Germfree Adolescents". They decided to hold a live show at the Camden Roundhouse, which was a sell-out event on 6 September 2008. A live album/DVD of this event, "Live @ The Roundhouse London 2008", was released in November 2009 on the Year Zero label by Future Noise Music.  She made a guest appearance at the 2008 30th anniversary concert of Rock Against Racism in Victoria Park, London, performing "Oh Bondage Up Yours!" with guest musicians Drew McConnell (of Babyshambles and Helsinki) and 'Flash' David Wright playing saxophone. That same year, she dueted with Goldblade's John Robb on a remix of Goldblade's "City of Christmas Ghosts".  In March 2009, Styrene joined other members of PRS for Music in criticising Google for allegedly not paying a fair share of royalties to musicians. This followed Google's removal of millions of videos from YouTube because of a royalties dispute with the organisation.  NME.com announced on 29 October 2010 that Poly Styrene was to release a solo album titled "Generation Indigo", produced by Martin Glover (aka Youth from Killing Joke), in March 2011. She released a free download of "Black Christmas" in November 2010. Inspired by a Los Angeles killing spree of a man dressed as Santa Claus, "Black Christmas" was written in collaboration with her daughter, Celeste.  Styrene announced "Virtual Boyfriend" as the first single from the new album "Generation Indigo" via Spinner Music, as well as the launch of her new website. "Virtual Boyfriend" was released on 21 March 2011, and featured an animated promotional video directed by Ben Wheele. "Generation Indigo" was released on 28 March 2011, via Future Noise Music. The album received critical acclaim, including a perfect 10 out of 10 score in "Artrocker" magazine, and 8 out of 10 in "The Daily Telegraph" newspaper. "Generation Indigo" was also chosen as Album of the Day on UK radio station BBC 6 Music. It was released in the US on 24 April 2011, the day before her death.  "Ghoulish" was the first posthumous single to be released from "Generation Indigo", and was backed by a remix from Hercules and Love Affair.  "New York" magazine's music journalist Nitsuh Abebe described her singing style with X-Ray Spex as "in a bold, keening yelp" and "fierce but fiercely feminine."  The band U2 paid tribute to Styrene during the "HerStory" video tribute to notable women in 2017 for the 30th anniversary of "The Joshua Tree" during a performance of "Ultraviolet (Light My Way)" from the band's 1991 album "Achtung Baby".

Personal life.

In 1983, Styrene was initiated into the Hare Krishna movement and recorded at their recording studios while living as a devotee at Bhaktivedanta Manor. She lived as a Hare Krishna convert in Hertfordshire and London from 1983 to 1988. Styrene was a vegetarian.  In March 2009, Styrene took part in the inaugural Instigate Debate night. The night's theme was modern day consumerism. Other current issues were also discussed.  She lived in St Leonards, East Sussex.

Death.

In February 2011, in an interview published in "The Sunday Times" magazine, which largely focused on her past and present relationship with her daughter Celeste, Styrene revealed that she had been treated for breast cancer, and that it had spread to her spine and lungs. She died of metastatic breast cancer on 25 April 2011, at the age of 53.

Documentary and biography.

Styrene is the subject of an upcoming documentary "Poly Styrene: I Am A Cliché" that is being crowd-funded as of March 2017. The documentary was directed by Paul Sng and was co-written by Styrene's daughter Celeste Bell (who also narrates) and author Zoë Howe. The documentary comes in conjunction with the 40-year anniversary "Germfree Adolescents". "This film will be a celebration of the life and work of my mother, an artist who deserves to be recognized as one of the greatest front women of all time; a little girl with a big voice whose words are more relevant than ever" Bell said. Bell and Howe will also be co-authoring a biography about Styrene that is set for released in November 2018. The book entitled "Day Glo: The Poly Styrene Story" was released in the United States on September 2019.

Marianne Joan Elliott-Said (3 July 1957 – 25 April 2011), known by the stage name Poly Styrene, was a British musician, singer-songwriter, and frontwoman for the punk rock band X-Ray Spex.

Poly Styrene (* jako Marianne Joan Elliott-Said; 3. července 1957, Bromley, Kent, Anglie, UK – 25. dubna 2011, Sussex, Anglie, UK) byla anglická punk rocková zpěvačka a skladatelka, členka skupiny X-Ray Spex. Poly Styrene zemřela na karcinom prsu ve věku 53 let.


Background.

Johnson was born in South Ruislip, Greater London, United Kingdom. He graduated from Park Hills High School (now Fairborn High School), Fairborn, Ohio in 1980. He is an Eagle Scout in the Boy Scouts of America. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the United States Air Force Academy in 1984, a Master of Science in flight structures engineering from Columbia University in 1985, and a Master of Business Administration from the University of Texas at Austin in 2005. Johnson is married to the former Cari M. Harbaugh. They have three children, Matthew, Joseph, and Rachel.

Military career.

Johnson received his commission from the United States Air Force Academy in May 1984 and attended pilot training at Reese Air Force Base, Texas. He was retained as a T-38A instructor pilot until 1989, when he was selected for an F-15E Eagle assignment. After completing initial F-15E training, Johnson was assigned to the 335th Fighter Squadron, at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, North Carolina. In December 1990, Johnson deployed to Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia, flying 34 combat missions in support of Operation Desert Storm. In December 1992, he was again deployed to Saudi Arabia for three months, flying an additional 27 combat missions in support of Operation Southern Watch. In 1993, he was selected for Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base. After graduation, he was assigned to the 445th Flight Test Squadron at Edwards, where he flew and tested F-15C/E, NF-15B, and T-38A/B aircraft. He has logged over 5,000 flight hours in more than 50 different aircraft. The story of the name "Box" has been a mystery. During an interview with a group of Executive Management students at the University of Texas, Johnson stated that the origination of the name "Box Johnson" came from his tour in Desert Storm. Johnson incurred a back injury that led him to being sent home early. He put all of his belongings in a box and then he was taken back to the states. The box was left in the barracks as a reminder to all his fellow soldiers to stare at thinking about how he was at home. So after a while they wrote "Box Johnson" on the box and the name stuck.

NASA career.

Selected by NASA in June 1998, he reported for training in August 1998. He completed Astronaut Candidate Training in 2000. Following initial training and evaluation, astronaut candidates receive technical assignments within the Flight Crew Operations Directorate before being assigned to a space flight. In 2000, Johnson was assigned as a Technical Assistant to the Director, Flight Crew Operations Directorate (FCOD). In conjunction with that position, Johnson was assigned to the Shuttle Cockpit Avionics Upgrade (CAU) council – redesigning cockpit displays for future Space Shuttle missions. His design and evaluation work with CAU has continued to the present.  In 2001, Johnson was reassigned from FCOD to the Space Shuttle Branch, where he has held various positions including direct support to the crews of STS-100 and STS-108, chief of shuttle abort planning and procedures for contingency scenarios, and ascent procedure development. He also was a key player on several "tiger teams" during the investigation into the cause of the Columbia accident in 2003. Johnson was the astronaut representative to the External Tank (ET) foam impact test team that eventually proved that ET foam debris on ascent could critically damage the shuttle's leading edge thermal protection system. In 2004, Johnson was designated as the Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Safety Branch, focusing on all aspects of Space Shuttle, ISS, and T-38 safety, with special emphasis on improving specific operational procedures and techniques to make astronauts safer in all three vehicles. In 2005, Johnson was appointed as a crew representative supporting the design and testing of NASA's newest spacecraft, the Crew Exploration Vehicle. Johnson was the pilot on STS-123. The launch of STS-123 was March 11, 2008. Johnson was picked to be the mission's primary robotic arm operator.  He retired from the Air Force on February 1, 2009 and continued to serve NASA as a civilian.  Johnson was the pilot of STS-134, the final flight of Space Shuttle "Endeavour" and the penultimate flight of the Space Shuttle Program.

Awards and honors.

Johnson has been awarded the 2005 Stephen D. Thorne Top Fox Safety Award, the 2005 Dean's Award for Academic Excellence, McCombs School of Business, NASA Superior Performance Award, and the 1996 Lieutenant General Bobby Bond Award for the top Air Force test pilot. Johnson was a distinguished graduate of U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School and the U.S. Air Force Academy. His military decorations include the Distinguished Flying Cross, Meritorious Service Medal (2), Air Medal (4), Aerial Achievement Medal (3), Air Force Commendation Medal, and the Air Force Achievement Medal (2).

Gregory Harold "Box" Johnson (born May 12, 1962) is a British-Born NASA astronaut and a retired colonel in the United States Air Force. Johnson is a veteran of two space flights, STS-123 and STS-134. He served as pilot on his first mission, which delivered the Kibo logistics module and the Dextre robot arm to the International Space Station. Johnson was also assigned as the pilot to the STS-134 mission, which launched on May 16, 2011 and landed on June 1, 2011. Greg Johnson has also served in numerous roles for NASA including as a Capcom for several missions. At present time Gregory H. Johnson (Colonel, USAF, Ret.) is the President and Executive Director for the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS).

Gregory Harold Johnson (* 12. května 1962 v South Ruislip, Middlesex, Spojené království) je americký zkušební pilot a od roku 1998 astronaut NASA. V roce 2008 se zúčastnil jako pilot montážní mise STS-123 na Mezinárodní vesmírné stanici (ISS). Podruhé se do vesmíru dostal v roce 2011 při letu STS-134 k ISS.


Overview.

This province has traditionally been focused on commerce (through the Colón Free Zone, Panama Canal, and its banking activities), but also has natural resources that are being developed as a tourist attraction, such as coral reefs and rainforests. During the Spanish colonial period, the Colon region of Panama was the center of trade, commerce, and overall economy for the Spanish. They imported many black African slaves to this area to work in Panama and to ship to other Spaniard colonies.  Most of the black population in Panama is centered in the Province of Colon. Panama has two distinct groups of blacks. The first and earliest blacks were those who came as slaves as early as the fifteenth century, through much of the nineteenth century. They are of mixed African and Spanish descent. This group is known as Cimarrones, Afro Colonials, Nativos, Playeros, Congos. These terms have proven crucial in establishing that these are the first and original blacks of the Republic of Panama. Afro Colonials have held on to their culture and adopted Hispanic customs, traits, and cultures. They took and assumed Spanish names and surnames. They also developed the beginning of Panama's black population and culture, in pure and mixed forms. They have been incorporated into Panamanian and Spanish-speaking society, as a result.  In the nineteenth century, beginning as early as the 1840s, blacks from the Caribbean and West Indies immigrated to Panama to assist to build the Panama Railway and the Panama Canal. Later many blacks from all over the Caribbean and West Indies, especially from Jamaica and Barbados, settled here between the years of 1880 and 1920 to build the Panama Canal. Many later settled in the Colon Province. This group of Caribbean and/or West Indian origin are called Afro Antillanos by the Hispanic Panamanians. They have assimilated to the Hispanic culture and Panama as well as holding on to aspects of their descent and culture. They have influenced the cuisine and music of Panama. Most importantly, their influence on music, especially from those of Jamaican descent invented and created Reggae en Español.

Administrative divisions.

Colón Province is divided into 5 "distritos" (districts) and subdivided into 40 "corregimientos".

Colón () is a province of Panama. The capital is the city of Colón. It covers an area of 4,575.5 sq.km, and the latest estimate of population (for 2019) is 294,060.

Colón je jedna z 10 panamských provincií. Nachází se ve středu státu na pobřeží Karibiku. Zabírá 6,17 % rozlohy celé Panamy a žije zde 7,10 % panamské populace. Při sčítání obyvatelstva v roce 2010 se 7 050 obyvatel provincie přihlásilo k indiánskému původu a 70 073 lidí k africkému původu. Provincie je rozdělena na dvě části Panamským průplavem (přes který od roku 2019 vede most Puente Atlántico), nachází se zde přehradní hráz Gatúnského jezera na řece Chagres.


Place names.

The name originates from the language spoken by the indigenous Cueva, an Indian tribe destroyed by the conquistadors during the 16th century. The Tanela River, which flows toward Atrato, was Hispanicized to Darién; the region and its communities took the same name. Santa María la Antigua del Darién, the first city founded in Tierra Firme, also took its name from the river. Subsequently, the region's boundaries were defined by the Gulf of Urabá.

History.

Darién Province has been inhabited by indigenous people for thousands of years. Evidence based on soil erosion suggest Slash-and-burn agriculture at the latest 4000 years ago. Disappearance of paleobotanical evidence of this culture coincides with the arrival of European colonists, which likely decimated this population.  In 1508, the Spanish Crown decided to colonize the mainland, the chosen area extending from Cabo Gracias a Dios in western Central America (in the present boundary between Nicaragua and Honduras) to Cabo de la Vela, Venezuela in the east. The provinces on the mainland were Nueva Andalucía, between the Atrato River in the Gulf of Uraba and the Cabo de la Vela in Venezuela and Castilla del Oro (or Veragua), which stretched from the Atrato River to Cabo Gracias a Dios in Central America.  The Governor of Nueva Andalucía was Alonso de Ojeda and the mayor of Castilla del Oro was Diego de Nicuesa, who became the first governor of the Isthmus of Panama. Diego de Nicuesa founded Nombre de Dios in 1510. Martin Fernandez de Enciso founded Santa Maria la Antigua del Darién, west of the Gulf of Urabá, in September 1510 on the advice of Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who had arrived at those lands earlier with Rodrigo de Bastidas.  On September 1, 1513, Balboa went in search of the South Sea with 190 Spaniards and 1,000 Indians. He sighted the sea on September 25, 1513, and took possession of it on September 29 in the Gulf of San Miguel.  During the late 17th century there was a Scottish colonization project in the Isthmus of Panama (specifically in Darien), from which William Paterson emerged as the center of the unsuccessful attempt. The attempt to colonize by the Company of Scotland, which traded with Africa and the Indies, was part of the conflict between Spain and other 16th-century European powers in reaction to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas.  On July 14, 1698 Paterson left with an expedition of about 1,200 on five ships ("Saint Andrew", "Caledonia", "Unicorn", "Dolphin" and "Endeavour") from Leith, Scotland. The expedition landed October 30, 1698 in Anachucuna, a sandy bay in the north of Darien near Golden Island. It forged a "treaty of alliance and friendship" with an Indian leader, and founded in Acla a colony known as New Caledonia.  Paterson and his expedition withstood a Spanish force which attempted to confront them. However, diseases related to the climate and unsanitary conditions soon decimated the expedition. In June 1699 the Scots were forced to leave New Caledonia, despite protests from Paterson, and retreated to Jamaica.  A second expedition left Scotland on September 24, 1699 from Port Clyde River with four ships: the "Rising Sun", "Hamilton", "Hope of Boroughstonness" and "Company's Hope"). Paterson had a total crew of 1,300 men. On November 30, 1699 they arrived safely at the port of Caledonia, but met greater resistance from Spanish forces; they were besieged, outnumbered and without external support. On March 28, 1700, they requested that the Spanish commander set conditions for surrender.

Government and politics.

The Constitution of Panama of 1972, amended by the Reform Acts of 1978 and the Constitutional Act of 1983, has a unitary, republican, democratic and representative government. Three branches of government exist in all provinces of the Republic of Panama.

Administrative divisions.

Darién Province is divided into 2 districts and 25 "corregimientos".  The "comarca indígena" of Kuna de Wargandí, established in 2000, lies within Pinogana District and constitutes a separate corregimiento.

Other subdivisions formerly part of Darién.

The "comarca indígena" (indigenous territory) of Emberá-Wounaan was established from the province on November 8, 1983. It consists of two districts:

Geography.

Darién Province covers an area of, comparable to the island of Jamaica. In the centre is an undulating plain, fed by the rivers Chucunaque and Tuira and framed by steep areas of the highlands of San Blas, Bagre, Pirre, and the Saltos. Among the highest mountains in the province are Tacarcuna at, Piña at, Pirre at, Nique at, Chucantí at, Tanela at and Upper Quia at.  Eight percent of the province's land is suitable for intensive cultivation, 60 percent is suitable for pasture, permanent crops and forestry production and 25 percent is protected forest reserves. The dominant natural vegetation is forests which, according to the topographic elevation and rainfall patterns, are classified as tropical moist, subtropical moist and cloud forest.

Climate.

Rainfall reaches near the inlet of Garachiné, with a marked dry period between January and April (a tropical savanna climate, "Aw" on the Köppen climate classification). However, in the foothills and valleys of the province's interior precipitation can exceed per year with virtually no dry season (a tropical rainforest climate, Köppen "Af"); this ranks the area among the rainiest regions on earth. The temperature varies, by altitude, between. The soil types and their suitability for use are primarily associated with topographic variations and geological-material generators.

Hydrology.

In Darién Province watersheds form extensive sedimentary waterways, pouring their waters into rivers such as the Rio Chucunaque and the 230-km Tuira (the longest, most treacherous rivers in Panama). The hydrographic system in the province shows a minimum flow in March and April and a maximum in November.  The use of water resources is largely limited to the provision of potable water to 15 towns. The lack of detailed information on topography and hydrometeorology makes it difficult to estimate hydropower potential, but possible candidates are the Pirre, Antad, Tuira, Chico and Yape Rivers.

Demographics.

The province's population is small, dispersed and heterogeneous, located in small towns linked to waterways. Significant migration flows to and from the province have been recorded.  In 1970 the population totaled 22,685, primarily mulattoes, blacks, indigenous Colombian Chocoanos and settlers from other areas of Panama. Approximately 60 percent of the population is located in 523 towns of less than 500 inhabitants each.  In 2000 the Census of Population and Housing indicated that the May population of Darién was 40,284 inhabitants living in 11,514 dwellings in 613 towns.  Preliminary data from the XI National Census of Population and Housing VI show that as of May 16, 2010 Darién has a population of 46,951 inhabitants, of which 25,764 are men and 21,187 women. There were a total of 15,310 homes.

Culture.

The population is primarily indigenous, Afro-Descendants, and settlers who migrated from other provinces (mainly Santeña, Herrerano and Veraguas) in search of land and opportunity.  The characteristic music of the people of Darién is the "bullerengue", a drum dance from Africa.  Groups who have migrated to the province are trying to preserve their customs and traditions which are distinct from Colombian culture.  Radio stations play "bullerengue"; stations nearer the Colombian border favor "vallenato" music.  Common foods include "guacho de mariscos" (fish with coconut rice) and "serendengue". "Choca'o" (stewed plantain) is a traditional drink.  Women usually wear hand-sewn dresses, while men dress for business. Primary crops grown in the province are maize, rice, plantains, bananas, cassava, yams and beans. In the Gulf of San Miguel shrimp, fish and lobster are abundant; a fishing fleet operates from Panama City. In the inland rivers of the province, fishing is mainly for sustenance. The lumber industry yields valuable woods such as cedar, balsa, balsam, mahogany and cocobolo.

Darién (,, ) is a province in Panama whose capital city is La Palma. With an area of, it is located at the eastern end of the country and bordered to the north by the province of Panamá and the region of Kuna Yala. To the south, it is bordered by the Pacific Ocean and Colombia. To the east, it borders Colombia; to the west, it borders the Pacific Ocean and the province of Panama.

Darién je jedna z 10 panamských provincií. Nachází se na východě státu a hraničí s Kolumbií. Zabírá 16 % rozlohy celé Panamy a žije zde 1,42 % panamské populace. Při sčítání obyvatelstva v roce 2010 se 15 693 obyvatel provincie přihlásilo k indiánskému původu a 8 064 lidí k africkému původu. V provincii se nachází největší panamský národní park Darién.


Playing career.

Eriksson started playing for Lerums BK at a young age and excelled beyond others his age quickly. By age 11, he was already playing with the older under-16 team. His talent was recognized at various tournaments and he finally landed on the junior team for Frölunda HC.  Eriksson's professional career began in the top-tier Elitserien, where he played for Frölunda, sometimes facing his future fellow Boston Bruins forward Carl Söderberg when playing against the Malmö Redhawks during his first two seasons with Frölunda. Eriksson won Rookie of the Year honours in 2004 at the age of 18 after posting eight goals and five assists in 46 games. A year later, Eriksson would post five goals and nine assists in 39 games, helping Frölunda win the Swedish ice hockey championship ("SM-guld").

Dallas Stars.

In the 2003 NHL Entry Draft, the Dallas Stars drafted Eriksson in the second round with the 33rd overall pick. After playing in his second season with Frölunda, Eriksson moved to North America and appeared in two pre-season games for Dallas in 2005. His professional debut in North America came on 6 October 2005, with the Stars' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Iowa Stars, in a game where Eriksson posted his first assist and point of the season.  Eriksson's first NHL goal came in his debut, 4 October 2006, against the Colorado Avalanche. Two years later, he had a break-out season in 2008–09, where he led the Stars with 36 goals, placing him fifth in the West and 12th overall in goal-scoring. He was one of only three Stars to play in all 82 games of the season. Prior to the following season, on 2 October 2009, he was recognized as a significant offensive force of the Stars attack by re-signing to a six-year contract extension worth $25.5 million.  Eriksson participated in his first NHL All-Star Game in 2011. He had a goal and two assists as well as the eventual game-winning empty-net goal to lead all players with four points (matched only by Shea Weber with four assists).

Boston Bruins.

On 4 July 2013, Eriksson, along with prospects Joseph Morrow, Reilly Smith and Matt Fraser, was traded by the Stars to the Boston Bruins in exchange for Tyler Seguin, Rich Peverley and Ryan Button. In an injury-marred first season in Boston, after two concussions on separate hits from John Scott of the Buffalo Sabres and Brooks Orpik of the Pittsburgh Penguins, Eriksson would finish the 2013–14 season with 10 goals and 27 assists for 37 points in 61 games, finding chemistry with centre and fellow Swede Carl Söderberg.  During the 2015–16 season, on 13 February 2016, Eriksson scored his 200th NHL goal, as the third Bruins goal going towards a 4–2 road win against the Minnesota Wild.

Vancouver Canucks.

On 1 July 2016, Eriksson signed a six-year, $36 million deal with the Vancouver Canucks. Eriksson has previously had success with Henrik and Daniel Sedin in international tournaments. He made his Canucks debut on 15 October 2016, against the Calgary Flames where he scored an own goal. With the Vancouver net empty due to a delayed penalty by the Flames and facing pressure from attack players, Eriksson attempted to dump the puck into his own zone, however, a miscalculation in the heat of the moment lead to the puck entering the Canuck's net. Nevertheless, Vancouver would win 2–1 in the shootout, with Eriksson earning an assist on the game-tying goal. On 5 March 2017 Eriksson suffered a season-ending knee injury after a collision with Anaheim Ducks forward Chris Wagner. Eriksson ended a disappointing first season with the Canucks with 11 goals and 13 assists in 65 games. Eriksson would have another dismal and injury plagued season with the Canucks in 2017-18 finishing with 23 points in 50 games. During the 2018-19 NHL season, Eriksson was able to stay healthy, but only scored 29 points in 81 games.

Loui William Eriksson (born 17 July 1985) is a Swedish professional ice hockey forward currently playing for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League (NHL). Eriksson was selected by the Dallas Stars in the second round, 33rd overall, at the 2003 NHL Entry Draft.

Loui Eriksson (* 17. července 1985, Göteborg, Švédsko) je švédský hokejový útočník hrající v týmu Vancouver Canucks v severoamerické lize NHL.


Etymology.

Qantara is the Arabic word for arched bridge. Quneitra means small arch or bridge, and the name is derived from the small-arches bridge around which the town has been built.

Political status.

Quneitra is the capital of the Quneitra Governorate, a district of southwestern Syria that incorporates the whole of the Golan Heights. The city of Quneitra is within the portion of the Golan Heights controlled by Syria. Madinat al-Baath (Baath City), also known as New Quneitra, replaced Quneitra as the administrative centre of Quneitra Governorate.

Geography and demographics.

Quneitra is situated in a high valley in the Golan Heights at an altitude of above sea level. It is overshadowed to the west by the Israeli-held portion of the Golan Heights and the peak of Har Bental. The surrounding area is dominated by ancient volcanic lava flows interspersed by a number of dormant volcanic cones which rise some above the surrounding plain. The volcanic hills of the region have played a key role as observation points and natural firing positions in the conflicts over the region, most notably in the Yom Kippur War. In more peaceful times, the fertile volcanic soil has supported agricultural activities such as wheat growing and pastoralism.  Writing during the inter-war period, the American traveller Harriet-Louise H. Patterson recorded that Quneitra was  The city's position on an important trade route gave it a varied population for much of its history. By the start of the 20th century it was dominated by Muslim Circassians from the Caucasus, accompanied by Turkmen and Arabs. Its population grew to some 21,000 people, mostly Arabs, followed by Turkmen and Circassians, following Syrian independence from France in 1946. After its abandonment in 1967 and subsequent destruction, its population was dispersed to other parts of Syria. The city remains abandoned apart from a residual Syrian security presence. Due to frequent and large population movements within Syria and across borders caused by war, there are no reliable population estimates available post-2011. The impact of the crisis has led to massive displacements and a gradual deterioration of access to basic services. Quneitra has also been the destination for many internally displaced persons (IDPs) from neighbouring Daraa and Rif Dimashq governorates. In August 2013, many of the estimated 75,000 IDPs from Nawa and Al-Harra in Daraa Governorate reportedly fled to Quneitra.

History.

Prehistory.

The surrounding area has been inhabited for millennia. Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers are thought to have lived there, as evidenced by the discovery of Levallois and Mousterian flint tools in the vicinity.

Hellenistic to Byzantine periods.

A settlement was established at least as early as the late Hellenistic period, and continued through the Roman and Byzantine times; it was known by the name "Sarisai". The settlement served as a stop on the road from Damascus to western Palestine. Saint Paul is said to have passed through the settlement on his way from Jerusalem to Damascus. The site of the Conversion of Paul was traditionally identified with the small village of Kokab, north-east of Quneitra, on the road to Damascus.

Late Ottoman period.

For much of the 18th and 19th centuries Quneitra was abandoned. In 1868 a travel handbook reported that the site was a "ruined village of about 80 or 100 houses" and that a large "caravanserai" also stood in ruins. Semi-nomadic pastoral groups such as the Arab Al Fadl and Banu Nu'aym tribes and several Turkmen tribes grazed their flocks in Quneitra's rocky lands.  In 1873, a group of Circassians from Sivas in Anatolia settled in Quneitra. This initial group did not cultivate the area for a number of years. A second wave of Circassians, numbering about 2,000, arrived in the Golan in 1878 via Acre after fleeing Bulgaria due to the Russo-Turkish War. Along with Quneitra, they settled or built number of other villages in the vicinity. The Circassians began farming the area and each family was given title to 70 to 130 dunams of land by the government depending on the family's size. The Ottomans encouraged Circassian settlement in the Golan as a means to drive a wedge between the frequently rebellious Druze villages of Mount Hermon and those in Jabal Hauran. The Circassians of Quneitra engaged in sustained conflicts with the Druze and the Al Fadl through the remainder of the 19th century.  Modern Quneitra grew around the nucleus of the old Ottoman caravanserai, which had been built using the stones of a ruined ancient settlement. By the mid-1880s, Quneitra had become the main city and seat of government of the Golan. Gottlieb Schumacher wrote in 1888 that it "consists of 260 buildings, which are mostly well and carefully constructed of basalt stones, and contains, excluding the soldiers and officials, 1,300 inhabitants, principally Circassians." Circassians moved away from the Golan began after the Six-Day War and again after the fall of the Soviet Union.  During World War I, the Australian Mounted Division and 5th Cavalry Division defeated the Ottoman Turks at Quneitra on 29 September 1918, before they took Damascus (see also Battle of Megiddo (1918)).

Second World War.

Quneitra saw several battles during the Syria-Lebanon Campaign of the Second World War, including the Battle of Damascus and Battle of Kissoué.

Arab-Israeli conflict.

When the modern states of Syria and Israel gained their independence from France and Britain respectively after the Second World War, Quneitra gained a new strategic significance as a key road junction some from the border. It became a prosperous market town and military garrison, with its population tripling to over 20,000 people, predominately Arabs.

Six-Day War.

Quneitra was the Syrian headquarters for the Golan Heights. The Israeli capture of the city occurred in chaotic circumstances on 10 June 1967, the last day of the Six-Day War. Israeli forces advancing towards Quneitra from the north-west prompted Syrian troops to deploy north of the city, under heavy bombardment, to defend the road to Damascus. At, Syrian radio broadcast an announcement that the city had fallen, though it actually had not. Alarmed, the Syrian Army's redeployment turned into a chaotic retreat along the Damascus road.  According to 8th Brigade Commander Ibrahim Isma'il Khahya: We received orders to block the roads leading to Quneitra. But then the fall of the city was announced and that caused many of my soldiers to leave the front and run back to Syria while the roads were still open. They piled onto vehicles. It further crushed our morale. I retreated before I ever saw an enemy soldier. Although a correction was broadcast two hours later, the Israelis took advantage of the confusion to seize Quneitra. An armoured brigade under Colonel Albert Mandler entered Quneitra at and found the city deserted and strewn with abandoned military equipment. One of the Israeli commanders later commented:  We arrived almost without hindrance to the gates of Quneitra... All around us there were huge quantities of booty. Everything was in working order. Tanks with their engines still running, communication equipment still in operation had been abandoned. We captured Quneitra without a fight.  "Time" magazine reported: "In an effort to pressure the United Nations into enforcing a ceasefire, Damascus Radio undercut its own army by broadcasting the fall of the city of El Quneitra three hours before it actually capitulated. That premature report of the surrender of their headquarters destroyed the morale of the Syrian troops left in the Golan area."  A ceasefire was agreed later in the afternoon, leaving Quneitra under Israeli control. In June 1967, "Time" magazine wrote that: "The city of El Quneitra was a ghost town, its shops shuttered, its deserted streets patrolled by Israelis on house-to-house searches for caches of arms and ammunition. The hills echoed with explosions as Israeli sappers systematically destroyed the miniature Maginot line from which the Syrians had shelled kibbutzim across the Sea of Galilee."  The United Nations Special Representative, Nils-Göran Gussing, visited it in July and reported that "nearly every shop and every house seemed to have been broken into and looted" and that some buildings had been set on fire after they had been stripped. Although Israeli spokesmen told Gussing that Quneitra had actually been looted by the withdrawing Syrians, the UN representative viewed this as unlikely given the extremely short space of time between the erroneous radio announcement and the fall of the city a few hours later. He concluded that "responsibility for this extensive looting of the town of Quneitra lay to a great extent with the Israeli forces."  Circassians dispersion from the Golan began after the Six-Day War, then additional numbers moved to the Caucasus after the fall of the Soviet Union.

Israeli occupation.

The deserted city remained in Israeli hands for the next six years. However, Israel and Syria remained in a state of war throughout this period (and, indeed, to the present day). The town gained a fresh symbolic value; it was seen by the Syrians as "the badge of Syria's defeat, an emblem of hatred between Syria and Israel and a cross [Syrian President Hafez al-Assad] had to bear." Syria shelled the city several times during the early 1970s; in June 1970 a Syrian armored unit launched an attack, and in November 1972, Damascus radio announced that Syrian artillery had again shelled Quneitra.

Yom Kippur War.

During the first few days of the Yom Kippur War in 1973, Quneitra was briefly recaptured by the Syrian Army before it was repulsed in an Israeli counter-offensive. In the middle of October 1973 the Israeli counter-offensive started. The Syrians had massed nearly 1,000 tanks along a front. With a massive concentration of tanks, the Israelis lashed into the Syrian forces. The Syrians at first fell back, but then managed to counterattack and drive back into occupied territory. Quneitra changed hands several times. Finally, Israeli armored units, closely supported by Phantoms and Skyhawks performing close air support with napalm strikes against the forward Syrian units, halted the Syrian drive and turned the Syrian Army back.

Destruction of Quneitra and return to Syrian control.

Israel continued to control the city until early June 1974, when it was returned to Syrian civilian control following the signature of a United States-brokered disengagement agreement signed on 31 May 1974. The surrender of Quneitra was controversial, with Israeli settlers and the Likud and National Religious Party opposing it. According to Michael Mandelbaum, the agreement provided that the city was to be repopulated to serve as evidence of peaceful Syrian intentions, by doing so it would encourage the Israelis to pull back further.  In an attempt to block the withdrawal, a group of settlers from Merom Golan – a settlement established in 1967 – took over an abandoned bunker in Quneitra and declared it to be a new settlement called Keshet (Quneitra in Hebrew). The settlers also set about razing the existing town to the ground. The leader of Merom Golan, Yehuda Harel, and another Merom Golan member, Shimshon Wollner, initiated the destruction of Quneitra, which was carried out by the Land Development Administration of the Jewish National Fund. Harel later described what happened:  Wollner and Harel asked the Jewish National Fund to carry out the work, ostensibly to prepare an area for agricultural cultivation, but were refused as they did not have permission from the Israeli army. They then approached the Assistant to the Head of Northern Command and asked him to mark on a map which buildings the army needed. According to Harel,  The buildings were systematically stripped, with anything movable being removed and sold to Israeli contractors, before they were pulled apart with tractors and bulldozers.  The disengagement went into force on 6 June. On 26 June, the Syrian president Hafez al-Assad travelled to Quneitra where he pledged to return the rest of the occupied territories to Syrian control. Western reporters accompanied Syrian refugees returning to the city in early July 1974 and described what they saw on the ground. "Time" magazine's correspondent reported that "Most of its buildings are knocked flat, as though by dynamite, or pockmarked by shellfire." "Le Monde"'s Syria correspondent, in a report for "The Times", gave a detailed eyewitness description of the destruction:  Today the city is unrecognisable. The houses with their roofs lying on the ground look like gravestones. Parts of the rubble are covered with fresh earth furrowed by bulldozer tracks. Everywhere there are fragments of furniture, discarded kitchen utensils, Hebrew newspapers dating from the first week of June; here a ripped-up mattress, there the springs of an old sofa. On the few sections of wall still standing, Hebrew inscriptions proclaim: "There'll be another round"; "You want Quneitra, you'll have it destroyed."  Israel asserted that most of the damage had been caused in the two wars and during the artillery duels in between. Several reports from before the withdrawal did refer to the city as "ruined" and "shell-scarred". "The Times"' correspondent saw the city for himself on 6 May, a month before the Israeli withdrawal, and described it as being "in ruins and deserted after seven years of war and dereliction. It looks like a wild west city struck by an earthquake and if the Syrians get it back they will face a major feat of reconstruction. Nearly every building is heavily damaged and scores have collapsed."  Direct evidence of the city's condition was provided when it was filmed on 12 May 1974 by a British television news team which included the veteran journalist Peter Snow, who was reporting for Independent Television News on the disengagement negotiations. His report was broadcast on ITN's "News at Ten" programme. According to "The Times"' correspondent Edward Mortimer, "viewers were thus afforded a panoramic view of the city, which had stood almost completely empty since the Syrian army evacuated it in 1967. It could be seen that many of the buildings were damaged, but most of them were still standing." After it was handed over, "very few buildings were left standing. Most of those destroyed did not present the jagged outline and random heaps of rubble usually produced by artillery or aerial bombardment. The roofs lay flat on the ground, 'pancaked' in a manner which I am told can only be achieved by systematic dynamiting of the support walls inside." Mortimer concluded that the footage "establishes beyond reasonable doubt that much of the destruction took place after 12 May—at a time when there was no fighting anywhere near Kuneitra."  The United Nations established a "Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Population of the Occupied Territories", which engaged a Swiss engineer Edward Gruner to investigate the damage. Gruner and a team of surveyors spent four months in Quneitra, documenting every building and its condition. His report concluded that Israeli forces had deliberately destroyed the city prior to their withdrawal, including almost 4,000 buildings and a large amount of infrastructure, of value estimated at 463 million Syrian pounds. The report's conclusions were subsequently adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. It passed a resolution on 29 November 1974 describing the destruction of Quneitra as "a grave breach of the [Fourth] Geneva Convention" and "condemn[ing] Israel for such acts," by a margin of 93 votes to 8, with 74 abstentions. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights also voted to condemn the "deliberate destruction and devastation" of Quneitra in a resolution of 22 February 1975, by a margin of 22 votes to one (the United States) with nine abstentions.

As a city ruin.

The city remains in a destroyed condition. Syria has left the ruins in place and built a museum to memorialize its destruction. It maintains billboards at the ruins of many buildings and effectively preserves it in the condition that the Israeli army left it in. The former residents of the town have not returned and Syria discourages the re-population of the area. However, in the 2004 census by the Central Bureau of Statistics, a small population of 153 people living in 28 households was recorded, all living in the neighborhood of Rasm al-Rawabi. The "Rough Guide to Syria" describes the appearance of the city in 2001: "The first sight of the flattened houses on Quneitra's outskirts is the most dramatic; many of the unscathed roofs simply lie on top of a mass of rubble, leaving the impression of a building that has imploded."  The city has often been used as a stop for foreign VIPs, ranging from the Soviet foreign minister Alexei Kosygin in June 1976 to Pope John Paul II in May 2001. Only a handful of families now live in the town, making a living by providing services for the United Nations troops patrolling the demilitarized zone. According to "The Times", "the carefully preserved ruined city has become a pilgrimage site for a generation of Syrians."  The city can be visited by tourists, but a permit from the Syrian Ministry of the Interior is required, and sight-seeing is supervised by a military guide. The principal sights on the standard tour are the remains of Quneitra's hospital, mosque and Greek Orthodox church. A "Liberated Quneitra Museum", displaying artifacts from the city's ancient and medieval past, is housed in the former Ottoman Turkish caravanserai in the city centre. The western edge of the city marks the start of "no-man's land" beyond which lies Israeli-controlled territory. It is not possible to visit Quneitra directly from Israel.

Syrian Civil War.

On 13 November 2012, during the ongoing Syrian Civil War, which had begun in March 2011, Syria′s president Bashar al-Assad issued a decreed establishment of a branch of the University of Damascus in Quneitra.  On 6 June 2013, the nearby Quneitra border crossing was attacked by rebel forces and temporarily occupied, with Syrian army later retaking the crossing; In July 2013, opposition forces attacked a military checkpoint in Quneitra, and by the next day were attacking several Syrian Arab Army positions in Quneitra.  In August 2014, rebel forces captured the crossing. A Filipino peacekeeper of the UNDOF was wounded during the fighting. As a result the Austrian government announced the withdrawal of its troops from the UN mission.  On 26 July 2018, the Syrian Army took back the town of Quneitra after rebels surrendered and handed over the heavy and medium weapons to army.

Quneitra (also Al Qunaytirah, Qunaitira, or Kuneitra; "al-Qunayṭrah") is the largely destroyed and abandoned capital of the Quneitra Governorate in south-western Syria. It is situated in a high valley in the Golan Heights at 1,010 metres (3,313 feet) above sea level. Since 1974, pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 350 and the Agreement on Disengagement between Israel and Syria, the city is inside the UN-patrolled buffer zone.

Kunejtra (: القنيطرة, doslova „Malý most“) je z velké části zničené a opuštěné hlavní město guvernorátu Kunejtra v jihozápadní Sýrii. Nachází se ve vysoce položeném údolí na Golanských výšinách v nadmořské výšce 1010 m n. m. Město bylo založeno za dob Osmanské říše jako stanice karavanové stezky vedoucí do Damašku a následně se stalo posádkovým městem s 20 tisíci obyvateli, ležící strategicky poblíž hranic příměří s Izraelem.


5. kongres Komunistické strany Jugoslávie

Background.

It was the first Congress of Yugoslav communists held after World War II, takeover of power in the country and establishment of the SFR Yugoslavia, but also the first major gathering of Yugoslav communists held since the 5th Territorial Conference, held in October 1940. Although 20 years have passed since the previous, the 5th Congress, was held in November 1928, and 8 years have passed since the 5th Territorial Conference, the main reason for conveying the Congress was the "Resolution of the Informbiro", adopted by Soviet–dominated Cominform on 28 June 1948 in Bucharest, SR Romania.

The Congress.

The main topic of the Congress was the "Resolution of the Informbiro" and supporting the Yugoslav leadership in resisting Cominform. The broadest publicity to the Congress was given by direct radio broadcasting and extensive press coverage. Reports to the Congress were submitted by Josip Broz Tito, Aleksandar Ranković, Milovan Đilas, Edvard Kardelj, Boris Kidrič, Moša Pijade and Blagoje Nešković.  The Congress gave political support to the Central Committee in "defending the independence" of Yugoslavia. The decision was made unanimously, by which the unity of the party was "confirmed". The Congress also adopted the "Resolution on the position of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia towards Cominform", which concluded that decisions of Cominform were inaccurate and unjust, but it was emphasized that the Central Committee should do everything to overcome the conflict.  At the end of the Congress, a new Central Committee consisting of 63 members, and a new Politburo consisting of 9 members, were elected. Josip Broz Tito was re-elected as the Secretary General of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia.

The 5th Congress of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (Serbo-Croatian Latin:, Cyrillic: ) was held from 21 to 28 July 1948, in the House of the Guard in Topčider, Belgrade. The Congress was attended by 2,344 delegates out of the 468,175 members of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia.

5. kongres KPJ (Komunistické strany Jugoslávie) se konal v červenci 1948 v Bělehradě, nedlouho po roztržce mezi Titem a Kominformou. Ta zaslala vedení Komunistické strany Jugoslávie celkem několik dopisů, ve kterých byla strana ostře napadána. Cílem sjezdu bylo zajistit podporu vedení, neboť členstvo bylo stále ještě velmi prosovětsky naladěné. Na sjezdu získali představitelé jugoslávských komunistů podporu; vyjádření Informbyra byla shledána jako nepravdivá, ale komunisté se oficiálně zavázali učiniti vše proto, aby současný spor překonali. Zvoleno bylo také nové politbyro strany a Tito byl potvrzen ve funkci jejího předsedy.


Final standings.

The 1992 tournament was a round-robin format, with the top three teams winning gold, silver and bronze medals respectively.  The day the tournament began, the Soviet Union formally dissolved. In the week that followed the team continued to play as the Soviet Union, but on January 1, 1992, the team was renamed the Commonwealth of Independent States. However, three players on the team, Sergejs Žoltoks and Sandis Ozoliņš (from Latvia) and Darius Kasparaitis (from Lithuania) were from nations not part of the Commonwealth.  "Switzerland was relegated to Pool B for 1993."

Pool B.

Eight teams contested the second tier this year in Tychy and Oswiecim Poland from December 27 to January 5. It was played in a simple round robin format, each team playing seven games. This tournament offered a rather improbable result; four of the eight teams finished tied for first.  "Japan was promoted to Pool A and North Korea was relegated to Pool C for 1993."

Pool C.

Pool C was contested by nine teams from December 28, to January 4, in Marino and Rome Italy. In the first round the nine teams were divided into three groups of three. The second round pitted the three first place teams against each other, likewise for the second place teams. Greece was disqualified for using an ineligible player, so they did not participate in the final round.

Final Round.

"Italy was promoted to Pool B for 1993."  1 - 1

The 1992 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships ("1992 WJHC") was the 16th edition of the Ice Hockey World Junior Championship and was held from December 26, 1991, until January 4, 1992. It was held in Füssen and Kaufbeuren, Germany. The Commonwealth of Independent States won gold, while Sweden won silver, and the United States took home the bronze medal.

Mistrovství světa juniorů v ledním hokeji 1992 se konalo 26. prosince 1991 až 4. ledna 1992 v německých městech Füssen a Kaufbeuren.


Features.

The salt flat encompasses, is about long and wide, which makes it the third largest in the world, after Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia (). and Salinas Grandes in Argentina (). Its average elevation is about 2,300 m above sea level. The topography of the core portion of the "salar" exhibits a high level of roughness, the result of evaporation and ephemeral surface water, unlike the most other salt flats, as for example the Salar de Uyuni, which is periodically covered with shallow water.  Some areas of the salt flat form part of Los Flamencos National Reserve. The Laguna Cejar is a sink hole lake in the Salar de Atacama, 18 km from San Pedro, Chile. It has a salt concentration that ranges from 5 to 28% (50 to 280 parts per thousand), producing at the higher end of the range an effect of floating like the Dead Sea.

Tectonic setting.

Salar de Atacama is part of a larger depression hosting other salt flats. This depression, called "La gran fosa" by Reinaldo Börgel is bounded by north-south structures. At present this larger depression conforms a subsiding sedimentary basin. Comparing with neighboring areas of the Andes the depression is a major topographical anomaly thought to be caused by a lithospheric block that due to its high density has remained at lower position than the rest of the Andes. The high density would derive from the times the Salar de Atacama depression was a westward rift arm of the Salta Rift Basin located further east in Argentine territory.

Hydrology.

Salar de Atacama basin is bordered on the north by the Salado River basin, which is a sub-basin of the Loa River basin. To the east, the drainage divide approximately coincides with the international border with Bolivia until the Portezuelo del Cajón. The dividing range includes the volcanoes Cerros de Tocorpuri, Sairecabur, Curiquinca, Licancabur and Juriques. Going southward, the water divide runs along a chain of volcanoes that lie entirely in Chilean territory. To the west, the Cordillera Domeyko separates the Salar de Atacama basin from arheic areas.  Its main tributaries are the San Pedro and Vilama rivers, which originate to the north of the salt flat.  The volcanoes east of Salar de Atacama may be responsible for contaminating the incoming streams with salts.

Lithium production.

Salar de Atacama is the world's largest and purest active source of lithium, containing 27% of the world's lithium reserve base, and as of 2017 provided about 36% of the world's lithium carbonate supply, followed by China with 23%. High lithium concentration in its brine (2,700 parts per million), a high rate of evaporation (3,500 mm per year), and extremely low annual rainfall (<30 mm average per year) make Atacama's finished lithium carbonate easier and cheaper to produce than from the neighboring Salar de Uyuni, which is estimated to have half of the lithium reserves in the world. Salar de Atacama's evaporation rate is the highest in the lithium industry, followed by Puna de Atacama, Argentina (2,600 mm per year), and the Salar de Uyuni (1,300–1,700 mm per year). Extraction of lithium-rich brines is causing conflict with water use by local communities and is damaging the ecosystem, including the Andean flamingo.  In the Salar di Atacama, boron is also extracted from brines as boric acid (up to 0.85 g/l as B). The natural removal of boron and lithium from present-day brines possibly occurs as ulexite and lithium-sulfate, this latter as double and/or triple salts.

Salar de Atacama is the largest salt flat in Chile. It is located south of San Pedro de Atacama, is surrounded by mountains, and has no drainage outlets. In the east it is enclosed by the main chain of the Andes, while to the west lies a secondary mountain range of the Andes called Cordillera de Domeyko. Large volcanoes dominate the landscape, including the Licancabur, Acamarachi, Aguas Calientes and the Láscar. The last is one of the most active volcanoes in Chile. All of them are located along the eastern side of the Salar de Atacama, forming a generally north-south trending line of volcanoes that separate it from smaller endorheic basins.

Salar de Atacama je největší solná pláň v Chile. Nachází se 55 km na jih od města San Pedro de Atacama, nemá žádný odtok a je obklopena horami. Na východě ji ohraničuje hlavní horský hřeben And, zatímco na západě k ní přiléhá vedlejší andský hřeben zvaný Cordillera Domeyko. Oblasti dominují velké sopky jako Licancabur, Acamarachi, Aguas Calientes a Láscar, který patří k nejaktivnějším chilským sopkám. Všechny se nacházejí na východním okraji pláně a tvoří obecně severo-jižní sopečný pás, který ji odděluje od menších bezodtokých oblastí.