History.

The medieval custom of new crowned monarchs dubbing knights at their coronations as a way of specially honoring particular noblemen was apparently accompanied in Sweden with the gift of a chain apparently specially designed for the occasion. These chains did not indicate the initiation into an order of chivalry as this is usually understood, since the bestowal of a chain of a particular design only occurred at a particular coronation and was not repeated at any other coronations or royal event. The description of some of these chains from the some of pre-Vasa coronations states that they consisted of alternating link of seraphim heads and patriarchal crosses, thus perhaps creating the later impression that there had been an earlier order of the Seraphim of which the 1748 order was seen as a revival. It seems reasonable to assume, at very least, that the accounts of these earlier knightly collars influenced the choice of design for the collar of the 1748 order.  This medieval custom survived into the period of the Vasa dynasty as well, for Eric XIV is known to have bestowed the Order of the Saviour at his coronation in 1561. Similarly, John III had bestowed the Order of the Lamb of God (Agnus Dei) in 1569. It is noteworthy that a contemporary representation of this order shows a collar of alternating red-enameled seraphim heads and gold patriarchal crosses from which hangs as pendant an oval badge enameled blue and bearing the Greek letters of the Christogram IHS (the initials of the name of Jesus in Greek) with a cross above and the three nails of the Passion below between the three crowns of the Swedish royal arms—the same as the central medallion of the latter Order of the Seraphim. Charles IX bestowed the Royal Order of Jehova or Jehova Order at his coronation in 1606—perhaps as Calvinist alternative or reaction to the Catholic devotion to the Name of Jesus implied in his brother's coronation order. Charles X Gustav's Order of the Name of Jesus took the form of a similar circular medallion bearing the letters IHS in diamonds surrounded by a border of diamonds in the center of a cross formed of four enameled Vasa sheaves and hanging from a pink ribbon worn around the neck, of which one example survives in the collections of the Royal Armory. Queen Christina founded an Order of the Amaranth, although apparently not at her coronation, but it also did not survive her reign. Because of these previous orders the first set of statutes described the Order as "revived".  The French Order of the Holy Spirit may have inspired the idea of placing the earlier medallion of the Name of Jesus in the center of a white enameled Maltese cross with gold Seraphim heads between the arms of this cross guarding this medallion with their wings, just as the French order bore the white dove of the Holy Spirit surrounded by green flames on similar white Maltese cross. Also like the French royal orders of chivalry the breast stars of the Swedish orders similarly took the form of silver crosses.  Associated with the Order was the Seraphim Medal awarded to people who made significant contributions to Swedish charities, especially to the hospitals and mental asylums patronized by the Order. This medal consisted a gold coin-like representation of the bust of the Order's founder, King Frederick I, beneath a royal crown hanging by eight small chains from a suspension bar ornamented with a design of acanthus leaves.

Royal family.

Until 1975 the sons of the Swedish monarch received a miniature version of the order's insignia at their baptism. As part of a reform on orders and decorations, a law was passed in 1974 restricting the conferral of orders to foreign citizens. This law was revised in 1995 to allow members of the Swedish Royal Family to receive the order. That year, on her 18th birthday, Crown Princess Victoria became a member of the order. Prince Carl Philip and Princess Madeline likewise became a knight/member of the order on their 18th birthday. The tradition of conferring the order upon the baptism of a member of the royal family returned when Princess Estelle, the first-born of Crown Princess Victoria and Prince Daniel, received a miniature Grand Cross of the Order's insignia from her grandfather, King Carl Gustaf at her baptism on 22 May 2012. Princess Leonore, daughter of Princess Madeleine and Christopher O'Neill, was also conferred the order at her baptism on 8 June 2014.

Insignia and habits.

Knights and Members of the Order wear the badge on a collar (chain) or on a sash from the right shoulder, and the star on the left chest:

Habits of the Order.

Formerly Knights of the Order also had two distinctive habits, worn on special and formal occasions such as coronations, chapters, etc. They were called the Great Habit and the Lesser Habit.

Former investiture ceremony.

The nomination of new members took place once a year in the Seraphim Chamber of the Stockholm Palace, usually on the Monday after the first Sunday of Advent, to remind the Knights that faith was due to the King of Zion.  The actual reception into the Order, however, was fixed at 28 April, the birthday of King Frederick I, the founder of the Order. In the interval between the nomination and the reception, the newly elected member could only wear the star, but not the cross with the ribbon. The reception of new knights into the Order took place at Stockholm in the Riddarholmen Church or in the royal chapel in the Stockholm Palace, in the presence of all the Knights and functionaries of the Order, as also of the Commanders of all the other orders. The ceremonies were as follows:  The king was seated under a canopy to the right of the altar and the Knights assembled occupied benches to the right and the left, while the newly elected Knight was placed before the altar between two senior Knights, who acted, as it were, as sponsors. After the hymn, "Come, Holy Spirit", was chanted, the chief preacher of the Court briefly addressed those assembled on the duties of the subjects towards God, the King and the country. The Chancellor, who stood to the left of the sovereign, then explained in a few words the object of the order, the honour attached to it, and the reasons which had induced His Majesty to elect the new Knight. The two sponsors, thereupon, conduct the postulant before the King, where he kneels down, and replies affirmatively, with a simple "Yes," to all the following questions:  Did he promise before God and the King:  On these questions being answered, the King handed the diploma to the Secretary from whom the Chancellor received the document and read it aloud to the assembly, after which the new Knight swore to defend with his life and property the Christian faith, to remain true to the King and the State, to protect the poor, widows and orphans, and to promote their welfare to the best of his power. The King then took from the Treasurer the chain of the Order, hung it round the neck of the new knight and, dubbed him with the coronation sword, saying:  "We, N., King of the Swedes, the Goths and the Wends, receive thee as are brave and honourable Swedish and Gothic Knight of our Order of the Seraphim. Be worthy of it," and embracing him amid the sound of drums and trumpets, he concluded with the words: "May the Lord protect thee!" The new Knight, then thanked His Majesty, kissed his hand, and embraced all his new colleagues, whereupon each of them repeated the words: "May the Lord protect thee!" With this the ceremony concluded.  The practice of dubbing ceased in 1902.

Coats of arms.

Each new knight or member has their coat of arms, surrounded with the collar or sash of the order, painted on a copper plate. A selection of these plates is exhibited in Seraphim room at the Royal Palace in Stockholm. When a knight of the Order dies, his coat of arms is hung in the former royal burial church "Riddarholmskyrkan" in Stockholm, and when the funeral takes place the church bells are rung constantly from 12:00 to 13:00, a practice known as the "Serafimerringningen".  and http://www.ordersandmedals.net/Sweden/Seraphim/S206.htm.

The Royal Order of the Seraphim (Swedish: "Kungliga Serafimerorden"; "Seraphim" being a category of angels) is a Swedish order of chivalry created by King Frederick I on 23 February 1748, together with the Order of the Sword and the Order of the Polar Star. The order has only one class with the dignity of "Knight" ("Member" for women and "Member of the Cloth" for clergymen), and is the foremost order of Sweden.

Řád Serafínů () je švédský řád. Založil ho 23. dubna 1748 švédský král Frederik I. Švédský ke svým 73. narozeninám jako dynastický a záslužný řád. Podle F. Lobkowicze (1995) je v současné době je Řád Serafínů nejvyšším švédským řádem, který se uděluje hlavám států a nejvyšším státním hodnostářům království v jediné třídě. Katalog "Krása evropské faleristiky" (2009) uvádí, že se řád dnes vrátil k původnímu statusu dynastického řádu a uděluje se jen členům panovnických rodin.


Background.

Located on the crossroads of protracted Roman–Persian wars, the early Georgian kingdoms disintegrated into various feudal regions by the early Middle Ages. This made it easy for the remaining Georgian realms to fall prey to the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century.  In struggle against the Arab occupation, Iberian princes of Bagrationi dynasty came to rule over Tao-Klarjeti, the former southern provinces of Iberia, and established Kouropalatate of Iberia as a nominal vassal of the Byzantine Empire. Bagrationi's continued fighting for the central Georgian land, known as Kartli, contested also by the Kingdom of Abkhazia, the Arab emirs of Tbilisi

History.

Unification of the Georgian State.

At the end of the 10th century David III of Tao invaded the Kartli and gave it to his foster-son Bagrat III and installed his father Gurgen as his regent, who was also crowned as "King of the Iberians" in 994. Through his mother Gurandukht, sister of the childless Abkhazian king Theodosius III ( 975-978), Bagrat was a potential heir to the realm of Abkhazia.  Kingdom of Abkhazia was engulfed into complete chaos and feudal warfare under the rule of Bagrat's uncle Theodosius the Blind, a weak and inauspicious king. In 978, the former duke of Kartli, Ivane Marushisdze, aided by David III, forced Theodosius to abdicate the throne in favour of his nephew Bagrat. The latter proceeded to Kutaisi to be crowned King of the Abkhazia. Bagrat's descent from both Bagratid and Abkhazian dynasties made him an acceptable choice for the nobles of the realm who were growing weary of internecine quarrels. In

War and peace with Byzantium.

The major political and military event during George I’s reign, a war against the Byzantine Empire, had its roots back to the 990s, when the Georgian prince David III of Tao, following his abortive rebellion against Emperor Basil II, had to agree to cede his extensive possessions in Tao to the emperor on his death. All the efforts by David’s stepson and George’s father, Bagrat III, to prevent these territories from being annexed to the empire went in vain. Young and ambitious, George launched a campaign to restore the Curopalates’ succession to Georgia and occupied Tao in 1015–1016. Byzantines were at that time involved in a relentless war with the Bulgar Empire, limiting their actions to the west. But as soon as Bulgaria was conquered, Basil II led his army against Georgia in 1021. An exhausting war lasted for two years, and ended in a decisive

Great Turkish Invasion.

The second half of the 11th century was marked by the strategically significant invasion of the Seljuq Turks, who by the end of the 1040s had succeeded in building a vast empire including most of Central Asia and Persia. The Seljuk threat prompted the Georgian and Byzantine governments to seek a closer cooperation. To secure the alliance, Bagrat's daughter Maria married, at some point between 1066 and 1071, to the Byzantine co-emperor Michael VII Ducas.  The Seljuqs made their first appearances in Georgia in the 1060s, when the sultan Alp Arslan laid waste to the south-western provinces of the Georgian kingdom and reduced Kakheti. These intruders were part of the same wave of the Turkish movement which inflicted a crushing defeat on the Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071. Although the Georgians were able to recover from Alp Arslan's

Georgian Reconquista.

David IV.

Watching his kingdom slip into chaos, George II ceded the crown to his 16-year-old son David IV in 1089. King David IV proved to be a capable statesman and military commander. As he came of age under the guidance of his court minister, George of Chqondidi, David IV suppressed dissent of feudal lords and centralized the power in his hands to effectively deal with foreign threats. In 1089–1100, he organized small detachments to harass and destroy isolated Seljuk troops and began the resettlement of desolate regions. By 1099 David IV's power was considerable enough that he was able to refuse paying tribute

The reign of Demetrius I and George III.

The kingdom continued to flourish under Demetrius I, the son of David. Although his reign saw a disruptive family conflict related to royal succession, Georgia remained a centralized power with a strong military. In 1139, he raided the city of Ganja in Arran and brought the iron gate of the defeated city to Georgia and donated it to Gelati Monastery at Kutaisi, western Georgia. Despite this brilliant victory, Demetrius could hold Ganja only for a few years. A talented poet, Demetrius also continued his father's contributions to Georgia's religious polyphony. The most famous of his hymns is Thou Art a Vineyard.  Demetrius was succeeded by his son George III in 1156, beginning a stage of more offensive foreign policy. The same year he ascended to the throne, George launched a successful campaign against the Seljuq sultanate of Ahlat. He freed the important Armenian town of Dvin from Eldiguzid vassalage and was thus welcomed

Golden age.

The unified monarchy maintained its precarious independence from the Byzantine and Seljuk empires throughout the 11th century, and flourished under David IV the Builder ( 1089–1125), who repelled the Seljuk attacks and essentially completed the unification of Georgia with the re-conquest of Tbilisi in 1122. In spite of repeated incidents of dynastic strife, the kingdom continued to prosper during the reigns of Demetrios I (1125–1156), George III (1156–1184), and especially, his daughter Tamar (1184–1213).  With the decline of Byzantine power and the dissolution of the Great Seljuk Empire, Georgia became one

Queen Tamar's reign.

The successes of his predecessors were built upon by Queen Tamar, daughter of George III, who became the first female ruler of Georgia in her own right and under whose leadership the Georgian state reached the zenith of power and prestige in the Middle Ages. She not only shielded much of her Empire from further Turkish invasions but successfully pacified internal tensions, including a coup organized by her Russian husband Yury Bogolyubsky, prince of Novgorod.  In 1199, Tamar's armies led by two Christianised Armenian-Kurdish generals, Zakare and Ivane Mkhargrzeli, dislodged the Shaddadid dynasty from Ani. At the beginning of the 13th century Georgian armies overran fortresses and cities towards the Ararat Plain, reclaiming one after another fortresses and districts from local Muslim rulers: Bjni, Amberd and all the towns on their way in 1201. Alarmed by the Georgian successes, Süleymanshah II, the resurgent Seljuqid sultan of Rûm, rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia, but his camp was attacked and destroyed by Tamar's husband David Soslan at the Battle of Basian in 1203 or 1204. Exploiting her success in this battle, between 1203-1205 Georgians seized the town of Dvin and entered Akhlatshah possessions twice and subdued the emirs of Kars, Akhlatshahs, Erzurum and Erzincan.  In 1206 the Georgian army, under the command of David Soslan, captured Kars (vassal of the Saltukids in Erzurum) and other fortresses and strongholds along the Araxes. This campaign was evidently started because the ruler of Erzerum refused to submit to Georgia. The emir of Kars requested aid from the Akhlatshahs, but the latter was unable to respond, it was taken over by the Ayyubids In 1207. By 1209 Georgia challenged Ayyubid rule in eastern Anatolia. Georgian

Nomadic invasions.

The reign of George IV and Rusudan.

George IV continued Tamar's policy of strengthening of the Georgian feudal state. Georgia's largely isolationist policies had allowed it to accumulate a powerful army and a very large concentration of knights. He put down the revolts in neighbouring Muslim vassal states in the 1210s and began preparations for a large-scale campaign against Jerusalem to support the Crusaders in 1220. However, the Mongol approach to the Georgian borders made the Crusade plan unrealistic, the reconnaissance force under the Mongols Jebe and Subutai destroyed the entire Georgian army in two successive battles, in 1221–1222, most notably the Battle of Khunan.Georgians suffered heavy losses in this war and the King George IV, himself was severely wounded. The Kingdom of Georgia itself was torn by internal dissent and was unprepared for such an ordeal. The struggle between the nobility and the crown increased. In 1222, King George appointed his sister Rusudan as a co-regent and died later that year. Queen Rusudan ( 1223–1245) proved a less capable ruler, and domestic discord intensified

Mongol yoke.

The Mongols created the "Vilayet of Gurjistan", which included Georgia and the whole South Caucasus, where they ruled indirectly, through the Georgian monarch, the latter to be confirmed by the Great Khan upon his/her ascension. Following the death of Queen Rusudan in 1245, an interregnum began during which the Mongols divided the Caucasus into eight tumens.  Exploiting the complicated issue of succession, the Mongols had the Georgian nobles divided into two rival parties, each of which advocated their own candidate to the crown. These were David VII "Ulu", an illegitimate son of George IV, and his cousin David VI "Narin", son of Rusudan. After a

George V the Brilliant.

Demetrius was executed by the Mongols in 1289, and the little prince George was carried to Samtskhe to be reared at the court of his maternal grandfather, Beka I Jaqeli. In 1299, the Ilkhanid khan Ghazan installed him as a rival ruler to George's elder brother, the rebellious King David VIII. However, George's authority did not extend beyond the Mongol-protected capital Tbilisi, so George was referred to during this period as "The Shadow King of Tbilisi". In 1302, he was replaced by his brother, Vakhtang III. After the death of both his elder brothers – David and Vakhtang – George became a regent for David's son, George VI, who died underage in 1313, allowing George V to be crowned king for a second time. Having initially pledged his loyalty to the Il-khan Öljaitü, he began a program of reuniting the Georgian lands. In 1315, he led the Georgian auxiliaries to suppress an anti-Mongol revolt in Asia Minor, an expedition that would prove to be the last in which the Georgians fought in the Mongol ranks. In 1320, he drove the marauding Alans out of the town Gori and forced them back to the

Black Death.

One of the primary reasons of Georgian political and military decline was the bubonic plague. It was first introduced in 1346 by the soldiers of George the Brilliant returning from

Timurid invasions.

There was a period of reunion and revival under George V the Brilliant, but the eight onslaughts of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur between 1386 and 1403 dealt a great blow to the Georgian kingdom. Timur's first appearance in the Caucasus was a response to Khan Tokhtamysh’s marauding inroad into Northern Iran through the Caucasian lands in 1385. In late autumn 1386, a huge army of Timur attacked Georgia. Timur officially proclaimed his invasions to be jihad against the region's non-Muslims. Tbilisi was besieged and taken on 22 November 1386, after a fierce fight. The city

Turkmen invasions.

After the devastating invasions by Timur and subsequent enfeeblement of the Kingdom of Georgia, it soon faced a new threat. Timur's death in 1405 marked the beginning of the end of his Empire, unified only by fear and blood of the subjected peoples. Turkomans, particularly the Kara Koyunlu clan, were among the first to rebel against Shah Rukh who ruled most of the Persia and Mawerannahr. Qara Yusuf, ruler of the Kara Koyunlu, defeated Shah Rukh, captured Baghdad, and repulsed Timurids from western Persia. After they established themselves as the new leading power in the middle east. They took advantage of the temporary weakness of Georgians and launched attacks against them, apparently in which, George VII of Georgia was killed. Constantine I of Georgia, fearing further encroachment, allied himself with the Shirvanshah Ibrahim I to counter Turkoman advance and engaged them in the Battle of Chalagan, in which he was defeated and taken captive. In captivity Constantine behaved very proudly, which infuriated Qara Yusuf to such an extent, that he ordered his, his half-brother David's and 300 Georgian nobles' execution. Kara Yusuf put Constantine to death by his own hand.  Alexander I of Georgia who sought to strengthen and restore his declining Kingdom, faced constant invasions by the tribal Turkomans. Alexander re-conquered Lori from the Turkomans in 1431, which was of great importance in securing of the Georgian borders. Around 1434/5,

Final disintegration.

The political split of the kingdom was sped up by the Eristavs of Samtskhe. In 1462 Kvarkvare II Jaqeli called against the king of Georgia Uzun Hasan, the leader of the Aq Qoyunlu. His invasion was used by the viceroy of the western Georgia – Bagrat VI. In 1463 Bagrat VI defeated Giorgi VIII at Chikhori. "Dadiani, Gurieli, Abkhazians and Svans came to the conqueror and expressing the wish of all the Imerians (westerners) blessed him to be King. From that time Imereti turned into one kingdom and four Duchies or satavado.  Bagrat was the king of only west Georgia for a short period.

Government and society.

Georgian monarchs followed a policy of religious tolerance and their Christian, Muslim and Jewish subjects could feel quite comfortable. Medieval Georgia, in its political and cultural development and social structure, resembled Europe, "all the familiar terms of Western feudalism had their equivalents in the social system of medieval Georgia" obviously influenced by Byzantium. In the medieval period, Georgian feudalism or "Batonqmoba" went through three distinct phases. In the first period, taken to have lasted from the 8th to the 11th centuries, Georgian society was organized as a network of personal ties, tying the king with the nobles of various classes. By the early 9th century, Georgia had already developed a system in which homage was exchanged for benefices. Unlike the countries of medieval Europe, where the three elements of political compromise – towns, feudal lords and the church – divided power among themselves and consequently promoted the development of strong centralized nation-States, in Georgia the towns were too weak and were deprived of rights, the feudal lords were too strong, and the church was nominally subjugated to the crown and politically less active.  The aristocratic élite of this period was divided into two major classes: an upper noble whose dynastic dignity and feudal quality was expressed in the terms Tavadi and Didebuli, respectively; both of these terms were synonymous, from the 11th to the 14th centuries, with Eristavi, and all three terms referred to one of the upper nobles, "a Prince". Lesser nobles, the Aznauri, were either "nobles of race" or "of patent" who acquired their status in specific charters issued by the king or a lord. The power of the feudal nobles over the peasantry also increased and the cultivators began to loss a degree of personal freedom they had formerly enjoyed.

Administration.

"Eristavi"'s (dukes) were in charge of local governing. Saeristavo (duchy) was divided into Khevi ruled by "Khevistavi" (in mountainous regions - "Khevisberi"). List of duchies at the time of reign Tamar the Great: Svaneti, Racha-Takveri; Tskhumi, Artgveti, Odishi, Kartli, Kakheti, Hereti and Samtskhe.  The frontier regions were granted exceptional privileges and autonomous rights, and were governed by monapire eristavi (frontier governor). There were

Religion and Culture.

Between the 11th and the early 13th centuries, Georgia experienced a political, economical and cultural golden age, as the Bagrationi dynasty managed to unite western and eastern halves of the country into a single kingdom. To accomplish that goal, kings relied much on the prestige of the Church, and enrolled its political support by giving it many economical advantages, immunity from taxes and large appanages. At the same time, the kings, most notably David the Builder (1089–1125), used state power to interfere in church affairs. Notably, he summoned the 1103 council of Ruisi-Urbnisi, which condemned Armenian Miaphysitism in stronger terms than ever before, and gave unprecedented power, second only to the Patriarch, to his friend and advisor George of Chqondidi. For the following centuries, the Church would remain a crucial feudal institution, whose economical and political power would always be at least equal to that of the main noble families.  During the Middle Ages, Christianity was the central element of Georgian culture. Specific forms of art were developed in Georgia for religious purposes. Among them, calligraphy, polyphonic church singing, cloisonné enamel icons, such as the Khakhuli triptych, and the "Georgian cross-dome style" of architecture, which characterizes most medieval Georgian churches. The most celebrated examples of Georgian religious architecture of the time include the Gelati Monastery and Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi, the Ikalto Monastery complex and Academy, and the Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta.  Outstanding Georgian representatives of Christian culture include Euthymius of Athos (Ekvtime Atoneli, 955–1028), George of Athos (Giorgi Atoneli, 1009–1065), Arsen Ikaltoeli (11th century), and Ephrem Mtsire, (11th century). Philosophy flourished between the 11th and 13th century, especially at the Academy of Gelati Monastery, where Ioane Petritsi attempted a synthesis of Christian, aristotelician and neoplatonic thought.  Tamar's reign also marked the continuation of artistic development in the country commenced by her predecessors. While her contemporary Georgian chronicles continued to enshrine Christian morality, the religious theme started to lose its earlier dominant position to the highly original secular literature. This trend culminated in an epic written by Georgia's national poet Rustaveli - "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" ("Vepkhistq'aosani"). Revered in Georgia as the greatest achievement of native literature, the poem celebrates the Medieval humanistic ideals of chivalry, friendship and courtly love.

Missionary activities.

From the 10th century, Georgians had started to play a significant role in preaching Christianity in the mountains of the Caucasus. "Wherever the missions of the patriarchs of Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem failed, the Georgian Church succeeded in bringing Jesus's Cross and preaching His Gospels". This is corroborated not only by old written sources, but also by Christian architectural monuments bearing Georgian inscriptions, which are still to be seen throughout the North Caucasus in Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, North Ossetia, Kabardino-Balkaria. The golden age of Georgian monasticism lasted from the 9th to the 11th century. During that period, Georgian monasteries were founded outside the country, most notably on Mount Sinai, Mount Athos (the Iviron monastery, where the Theotokos Iverskaya icon is still located), and in Palestine.

The Kingdom of Georgia (), also known as the Georgian Empire, was a medieval Eurasian monarchy which emerged circa 1008 AD. It reached its Golden Age of political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar the Great from 11th to 13th centuries. Georgia became one of the pre-eminent nations of the Christian East, her pan-Caucasian empire stretching, at its largest extent, from Eastern Europe and the North Caucasus to the northern portion of Iran and Anatolia, while also maintaining religious possessions abroad, such as the Monastery of the Cross in Jerusalem and the Monastery of Iviron in Greece. It was the principal historical precursor of present-day Georgia. Lasting for several centuries, the kingdom fell to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century, but managed to re-assert sovereignty by the 1340s. The following decades were marked by the Black Death, as well as numerous invasions under the leadership of Timur, who devastated the country's economy, population, and urban centers. The Kingdom's geopolitical situation further worsened after the fall of the Byzantine and then Empire of Trebizond. As a result of these processes, by the end of the 15th century Georgia turned into a fractured entity. Renewed incursions by Timur from 1386, and the later invasions by the Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu led to the final collapse of the kingdom into anarchy by 1466 and the mutual recognition of its constituent kingdoms of Kartli, Kakheti and Imereti as independent states between 1490 and 1493 – each led by a rival branch of the Bagrationi dynasty, and into five semi-independent principalities – Odishi, Guria, Abkhazia, Svaneti, and Samtskhe – dominated by their own feudal clans.

Gruzínské království (gruzínsky საქართველოს სამეფო) byla dědičná monarchie (království) přibližně na území dnešní Gruzie a obývaná z velké části Gruzínským národem. Gruzínské království vzniklo přibližně roku 888, kdy byl Ardanase II. korunován „králem Gruzínců“, jeho syn Bagrat III. k tomu již jako král Gruzínců připojil v letech 1001–1010 zbývající rozdrobená knížectví Abcházii a Kachetii. Gruzínské království se definitivně rozpadlo v roce 1466 po mongolských nájezdech a smrti krále Jiřího VIII., jeho tři synové si zemi rozdělili, dále se odtrhla další malá knížectví. V letech 1762–1801 byla Gruzie opětovně, i když jen částečně sjednocena jako Království Kartli-Kakheti, které ovšem bylo v roce 1801 připojeno k území Ruského impéria.


Zog's kingdom.

In 1928, Zogu secured the parliament's consent to its own dissolution. A new constituent assembly amended the constitution making Albania a kingdom and transforming Zogu into Zog I, "King of the Albanians". International recognition arrived forthwith. The new constitution abolished the Albanian Senate creating a unicameral Assembly. Although nominally a constitutional monarch, in practice King Zog retained the dictatorial powers he had held as President Zogu. Civil liberties remained more or less nonexistent, and political opponents were frequently imprisoned and killed. Thus, for all intents and purposes Albania remained a military dictatorship.  Soon after his coronation, Zog broke off his engagement to Shefqet Vërlaci's daughter, and Verlaci withdrew his support for the king and began plotting against him. Zog had accumulated a great number of enemies over the years, and the Albanian tradition of blood vengeance required them to try to kill him. Zog surrounded himself with guards and rarely appeared in public. The king's loyalists disarmed all of Albania's tribes except for his own Mati tribesmen and their allies, the Dibra. Nevertheless, on a visit to Vienna in 1931, Zog and his bodyguards fought a gun battle with would-be assassins on the Opera House steps (see ).  Zog remained sensitive to steadily mounting disillusion with Italy's domination of Albania. The Albanian army, though always 15,600 strong, sapped the country's funds, and the Italians' monopoly on training the armed forces rankled public opinion. As a counterweight, Zog kept British officers in the Royal Albanian Gendarmerie despite strong Italian pressure to remove them. In 1931 Zog openly stood up to the Italians, refusing to renew the 1926 First Treaty of Tirana.  During the crisis of 1929–1933, Zog asked the Italians for a loan of 100 million gold francs in 1931, and the request was approved by the Italian government. In 1932 and 1933, Albania could not make the interest payments on its loans from the Society for the Economic Development of Albania. In response, Rome turned up the pressure, demanding that Tirana name Italians to direct the Gendarmerie, join Italy in a customs union, grant Italy control of the country's sugar, telegraph, and electrical monopolies, teach the Italian language in all Albanian schools, and admit Italian colonists. Zog refused. Instead, he ordered the national budget slashed by 30 percent, dismissed the Italian military advisers, and nationalized Italian-run Roman Catholic schools in the northern part of the country.  By June 1934, Albania had signed trade agreements with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Greece, and Benito Mussolini had suspended all payments to Tirana. An Italian attempt to intimidate the Albanians by sending a fleet of warships to Albania failed because the Albanians only allowed the forces to land unarmed. Mussolini then attempted to buy off the Albanians. In 1935 he presented the Albanian government 3 million gold francs as a gift.  Zog's success in defeating two local rebellions convinced Mussolini that the Italians had to reach a new agreement with the Albanian king. Relations with Italy were improved in 1936. A government of young men led by Mehdi Frashëri, an enlightened Bektashi administrator, won a commitment from Italy to fulfill financial promises that Mussolini had made to Albania, and to grant new loans for harbor improvements at Durrës and other projects that kept the Albanian government afloat. Soon Italians began taking positions in Albania's civil service, and Italian settlers were allowed into the country.

Economy.

The eleven-year rule of King Zog I is noted for a great wave of modernization of the country, which had suffered five centuries of harsh Turkish rule. To fulfill the modernization of a backward country, a great amount of money was needed. The money was obtained from Italian loans of 1.837 billion Italian Liras.  In 1928, the Basic Statute was adopted, along with a Civil Code and agrarian reform was instituted, removing ferexhesë. The Islamic law was replaced by the Swiss Civil Code, following the model of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Turkey. King Zog supported the introduction of modern architecture, and sought to improve welfare, the balance of trade, and the education of Albanian youth.  In 1929, the world was caught by a major crisis caused by overproduction. Its effects were very damaging to Albania. During this year, Zog saw the first signs of the crisis, mainly in the financial and monetary system; they became more sensitive in 1930. The peak of the crisis was between 1934 and 1935. Most industries were paralyzed or went bankrupt. The crisis deeply affected all credit systems. At this time, due to the ongoing budget deficit, and financial difficulties evident in many areas and sectors of the country, loans were taken from Western countries, but the majority were from Italy.  In 1931, Albanian agriculture was affected by a major drought which caused serious consequences in the national food supply. In 1932, as a result of this situation, 33% more wheat and corn was imported.  The crisis of 1930–1934 differs in many ways: the percentage of the population living with non-agricultural employment was reduced from 15.9% in 1930 to 15.4% in 1938. Albanian exports grew from 2 million gold francs to 12 million between 1923 and 1931, but fell back to 1923 levels within the next two years. A difficult situation occurred between 1935 and 1936 when the government was forced to distribute emergency food aid in poor areas. Places that sold Albanian goods placed tariffs on imports of cheese and butter. The crisis affected the livestock industry, which accounted for 70% of total national exports. Another significant impact was the establishment of the so-called "tax xhelepit", which applied to head/livestock. In 1933, the state cut the taxes by 50%.  Peasant farmers accounted for the vast majority of the Albanian population. Albania had practically no industry, and the country's potential for hydroelectric power was virtually untapped. Oil was the country's main extractable resource. The Italians took over the oil-drilling concessions of all other foreign companies in 1939 by creating the company "Sveja". A pipeline between the Kuçovë oil field and Vlorë's port expedited shipments of crude petroleum to Italy's refineries. This company dealt with Albania's natural resources. Albania also possessed: bitumen, lignite, iron, chromite, copper, bauxite, manganese, and some gold. Shkodër had a cement factory; Korçë, a brewery; and Durrës and Shkodër, cigarette factories that used locally grown tobacco.  In 1934, the price of the grain reached the lowest level, at about 7.5 gold francs. A strong decline in prices, mainly in the agricultural and livestock industry, affected the monetary and credit policies of the National Commercial Bank. During the years of the crisis, the bank reduced the amount of currency in circulation, which worsened the deflation. The artificially increased value of the franc lowered the prices of products. In mid-1935, Albania entered a recovery phase. Industry recovered, and Zogu created tax incentives, especially for cement factories, which were made exempt from taxes for three years.  Between 1933 and 1935, economic development emerged in the agriculture, livestock and industrial capital industries. Construction of roads and bridges began, along with fifty-three telegraph post links.  During much of the interwar period, Italians held most of the technical jobs in the Albanian economy. Albania had four ports: Durrës, Shëngjin, Vlorë, and Sarandë. Albania's main exports were petroleum, animal skins, cheese, livestock, and eggs. Primary imports were grain and other foodstuffs, metal products, and machinery. In 1939, the value of Albania's imports was four times that of its exports. About seventy percent of Albania's exports went to Italy. Italian factories furnished about forty percent of Albania's imports, and the Italian government paid for the rest.  In 1938 there was a general activation of the national capital in industry. During this period the number of enterprises reached 244, while the number of employees at State administration rose up to 7.435. Industrial production rose, while agriculture declined. In 1938, the total area of agricultural land estimated at, about 39.5% of the occupied state and private property, while smallholders owned 60%.  Cereal production in Albania did not meet its needs. Wheat production was estimated at about 38,000 tons, while production of maize was 143,000 tons. After the crisis, the production of industrial crops rose. Tobacco accounted for about. Cereal crops were also grown. Framers planted about 1.2 million roots for cereal crops, 100,000 citrus roots, 41.5 million vineyard roots, and 1.6 million olive trees roots.  During the period between 1936–1938 the economy recovered. Trade amounted to 32.7 million gold francs, with 65% growth. Exports grew by 61.5% and imports by 67.3%. Exports in 1938 represented 66.3% of the 1928 level. During the 1936–1938 period the state budget had increased. The Albanian kingdom period was characterized by the growing number of utility works; in 1939 there were thirty-six enterprises in the construction industry.  During this eleven-year period serious efforts were made to create a national road network using an investment of sixty million gold francs borrowed from the Italian Kingdom. During the ten-year period between 1929–1939 850 km of main roads, 456 km of secondary roads, 4,062 small bridges 10,250 miles long, and seventy-six major bridges 2,050 miles in length were constructed. This period also introduced the construction of a sewage network, and, for the first time, money was invested to build segments of roads in the northern part of Albania. The most important roads were: Shkodër-Puka, Mat-Bishop Bridge, Krujë-Mat, Tirana-Elbasan, Lushnjë-Mbrostar, Korçë-Burrel, Burrel-Dibër, Tiranë-Shijak-Durrës, Tiranë-Ndroq-Durrës, and Tiranë-Krrabë-Elbasan. Engineers from Europe were employed to complete these projects. In 1938, the value of investments reached 150 million Albanian Lek (1961 currency prices). On the eve of the fascist invasion, Albania had 300 trucks, 20 buses, and 200 cars and pickups.  During 1938, 95,000 tons of cargo were transported, equal to 1 million tons per kilometer. During the same period, the total turnover of goods in retail trade amounted to 3,900 million in 1947 prices. On 28 November 1938, Radio Tirana, the national radio station began broadcasting. Construction of the port of Durrës began. The construction of brace works, irrigation canals, etc., was interrupted by the beginning of World War II (1939–1945).

Military.

The Royal Albanian Army was the army of the Albanian Kingdom and King Zogu from 1928 until 1939. Its commander-in-chief was King Zog; its commander was General Xhemal Aranitasi; its Chief of Staff was General Gustav von Myrdacz. The army was financed mainly by Italy during period between 1936–1939. The army had 15,600 deployed personnel and 29,860 reserve personnel.

Social conditions.

Poor and remote, Albania remained decades behind the other Balkan countries in educational and social development. Only some 13% of the population lived in towns. Illiteracy plagued almost the entire population. About 90% of the country's peasants practiced subsistence agriculture, using ancient methods and tools, such as wooden plows. Much of the country's richest farmland lay under water in malaria-infested coastal marshlands. Albania lacked a banking system, a railroad, a modern port, an efficient military, a university, or a modern printing press. The Albanians had Europe's highest birthrate and infant mortality rate, and life expectancy for men was about thirty-eight years.  The American Red Cross opened schools and hospitals at Durrës and Tirana, and one Red Cross worker founded an Albanian chapter of the Boy Scouts that all boys between twelve and eighteen years old were subsequently required to join by law. Although hundreds of schools opened across the country, in 1938 only 36% of all Albanian children of school age were receiving education of any kind.  During the reign of Zog primary education became necessary. Despite meager educational opportunities, literature flourished in Albania between the two world wars. Substantial progress had been achieved in literature, and art publishing operations. Distinguished writers included: Fan Stilian Noli, Alexander Drenova, Esad Mekuli, Ndre Mjeda, Haki Stermilli, Lasgush Poradeci, Faik Konica, Sterjo Spasse, Ndoc Nikaj, Foqion Postoli, Migjeni and others. A Franciscan priest and poet, Gjergj Fishta, dominated the literary scene with his poems about the Albanians' perseverance during their quest for freedom. During this period 600 night schools were opened in an attempt to eradicate illiteracy, but in 1939 80% of the adult population was still illiterate.  In 1939 Albania had 643 primary schools and 18 high schools. The most important high schools were: Pedagogical school of Elbasan, Lyceum of Korçë, Shkodër Gymnasium, and the Trade school of Vlorë with an enrollment of 5,700 pupils. Those who wanted to continue their education often went abroad to Italy, Austria, France etc... In 1939 about 420 Albanians were studying abroad. Among the literate population 446 people had a university degree and 1,773 had secondary schooling.  Daily newspapers started publishing, including: "Demokracia", "Liria Kombëtare", "Besa", "Hylli i Dritës", and "Leka" along with a large number of pedagogical and scientific publications. Organizations such as Gruaja Shqiptare attempted to modernize Albanian society and in 1938 the first national Radio station went on-air. These were the first steps toward modernization of the country, but Albania remained Europe's most backward nation in many respects.  The lack of economic development prompted several strikes. In 1936, Albanian workers working for foreign companies in the Kuçovë Oil field held a strike that was organized by Puna. Another was held in Vlorë and in February 1936 a strike was held by workers and craftsmen in Korçë which grew into a demonstration that was known as the "Hunger Strike". Migjeni's works describe the poverty and the social situation of that period. In 1929 a communist society was established but was not supported by Orthodox, Catholic or the Islamic because of its atheistic ideology.

Religion.

Originally, under the monarchy, religious institutions were put under state control. In 1923, the Albanian Muslim congress convened at Tirana and decided to break with the Caliphate establishing a new form of prayer (standing, instead of the traditional salah ritual), banishing polygamy, and doing away with the mandatory use of veil (hijab) by women in public, which had been forced on the urban population by the Ottomans during the occupation.  In 1929 the Albanian Orthodox Church was declared autocephalous (self-headed).  A year later, in 1930, the first official religious census was carried out. Reiterating conventional Ottoman data from a century earlier which previously covered double the new state's territory and population, 50% of the population was grouped as Sunni Muslim, 20% as Orthodox Christian, 20% as Bektashi Muslim. and 10% as Catholic Christian.  The monarchy was determined that religion should no longer be a foreign-oriented master dividing Albanians, but a nationalized servant uniting them. It was at this time that newspaper editorials began to disparage the almost universal adoption of Muslim and Christian names, suggesting instead that children be given neutral Albanian names.  Official slogans began to appear everywhere. "Religion separates, patriotism unites." "We are no longer Muslim, Orthodox, Catholic, we are all Albanians." "Our religion is Albanism." The national hymn characterized neither Muhammad nor Jesus Christ, but King Zogu as "Shpëtimtari i Atdheut" (Savior of the Fatherland). The hymn to the flag honored the soldier dying for his country as a "Saint". Increasingly the mosque and the church were expected to function as servants of the state, the patriotic clergy of all faiths preaching the gospel of Albanism.  Monarchy stipulated that the state should be neutral, with no official religion and that the free exercise of religion should be extended to all faiths. Neither in government nor in the school system should favor be shown to any one faith over another. Albanism was substituted for religion, and officials and schoolteachers were called "apostles" and "missionaries." Albania's sacred symbols were no longer the cross and the crescent, but the Flag and the King. Hymns idealizing the nation, Skanderbeg, war heroes, the king and the flag predominated in public-school music classes to the exclusion of virtually every other theme.  The first reading lesson in elementary schools introduced a patriotic catechism beginning with this sentence, "I am an Albanian. My country is Albania." Then there follows in poetic form, "But man himself, what does he love in life?" "He loves his country." "Where does he live with hope? Where does he want to die?" "In his country." "Where may he be happy, and live with honor?" "In Albania."

Italian occupation.

As Germany annexed Austria and moved against Czechoslovakia, Italy saw itself becoming a second-rate member of the Axis. The imminent birth of an Albanian royal child meanwhile threatened to give Zog a lasting dynasty. After Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia (March 15, 1939) without notifying Mussolini in advance, the Italian dictator decided to proceed with his own annexation of Albania. Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III criticized the plan to take Albania as an unnecessary risk.  Rome, however, delivered Tirana an ultimatum on March 25, 1939, demanding that it accede to Italy's occupation of Albania. Zog refused to accept money in exchange for countenancing a full Italian takeover and colonization of Albania, and on April 7, 1939, Mussolini's troops invaded Albania. Despite some stubborn resistance, especially at Durrës, the Italians made short work of the Albanians.  Unwilling to become an Italian puppet, King Zog, his wife, Queen Geraldine Apponyi, and their infant son Leka fled to Greece and eventually to London. On April 12, the Albanian parliament voted to unite the country with Italy. Victor Emmanuel III took the Albanian crown, and the Italians set up a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci and soon absorbed Albania's military and diplomatic service into Italy's.  After the German army defeated Poland, Denmark, and France, a still-jealous Mussolini decided to use Albania as a springboard to invade Greece. The Italians launched their attack on October 28, 1940, and at a meeting of the two fascist dictators in Florence, Mussolini stunned Hitler with his announcement of the Italian invasion. Mussolini counted on a quick victory, but Greek resistance fighters halted the Italian army in its tracks and soon advanced into Albania. The Greeks took Korçë and Gjirokastër and threatened to drive the Italians from the port city of Vlorë. The presence of the Greek troops fighting in Albania cooled the Albanians' enthusiasm for fighting the Italians and the Greeks, and Mussolini's forces soon established a stable front in central Albania. In April 1941, Germany and its allies crushed both Greece and Yugoslavia, and a month later the Axis gave Albania control of Kosovo. Thus Albanian nationalists ironically witnessed the realization of their dreams of uniting most of the Albanian-populated lands during the Axis occupation of their country.

Legacy.

Zog, King of the Albanians was still the legitimate monarch of the country, but he would not get the throne back. The communist partisans during and after the war, backed by Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, suppressed the Albanian nationalist movements and installed a Stalinist regime that would last for about 46 years. King Zog was banned from entering Albania by the communists and lived in exile for the rest of his life.

The Albanian Kingdom (Gheg Albanian: "Mbretnija Shqiptare", Standard Albanian: "Mbretëria Shqiptare") was the official name of Albania between 1928 and 1939. Albania was declared a monarchy by the Constituent Assembly, and President Ahmet Bej Zogu was declared King Zog I. The kingdom was supported by the fascist regime in Italy, and the two countries maintained close relations until Italy's sudden invasion of the country in 1939. Zog fled into exile and never saw his country again. The Communist Party of Labor of Albania gained control of the country toward the end of World War II, established a communist government, and formally deposed Zog.

Albánské království (albánsky "Mbretëria Shqiptare", italsky "Regno albanese") byl stát na území dnešní Albánie existující od 1. září 1928 do 11. ledna 1946. V letech 1928-1939 vládl královskou diktaturou král Zog I., v letech 1939-1943 bylo království obsazeno fašistickou Itálií a byl to její loutkový stát a protektorát, zatímco vládu vedli italští guvernéři. Albánie v této době neexistovala jako nezávislý stát, ale jako autonomní součást Italské říše. Po německo-italské invazi do Jugoslávie se součástí tohoto „státu“ stala i Albánci osídlená okolní území: většina území moderního Kosova a okrajové části moderní Černé Hory, Severní Makedonie a Srbska. Záhy poté byla připojena i malá Albánci osídlená část řeckého Epiru. Po spojenecké Invazi na Sicílii v roce 1943 se Italové z Albánie stáhli a zemi na rok obsadili Němci. V letech 1944-1945 již zemi ovládali velitelé albánských partyzánských skupin pod velením komunistů. Ti 11. ledna 1946 zrušili monarchii a vyhlásili lidovou republiku.


Early life.

Osment was born in Los Angeles to actor Michael Eugene Osment, and Theresa Osment ("née" Seifert), an English teacher. She was raised as a Roman Catholic. Her father has appeared in various films, including her film "Soccer Mom", and her older brother is Academy Award-nominated actor Haley Joel Osment.

Career.

1997–2005: Career beginnings.

Osment's entry into the entertainment industry began in 1997, when she was cast in a commercial for flower delivery company FTD. From there she went to play the role of Biba in the children's preschool television series Biba Bear in 1998. She featured in many commercials, after which she made her acting debut in the 1999 film "The Secret Life of Girls", starring Eugene Levy and Linda Hamilton. The same year, she co-starred with Glenn Close in the Hallmark Classic television film "", a role that would lead a Young Artist Award nomination. Emily also made a brief appearance in the Smash Mouth music video All Star as the girl in the referee uniform. Since then, she has gone on to do a number of roles, such as appearances on television shows like "Touched by an Angel", "Friends", and "3rd Rock from the Sun". She also did the role of Tara Sparkler in Goosebumps. Osment made her film debut in 2002 as "Gerti Giggles" in "", a role for which she won the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a Feature Film. In 2003, she reprised her role in the third film of the "Spy Kids" series, "", which grossed $197 million worldwide. Osment did a voice-over role in the Disney movie "" and also a voice role in "Edward Fubbwupper Fibbed Big".

2006–2009: "Hannah Montana".

In 2006, Osment got the role of Lilly Truscott in the Disney Channel series "Hannah Montana", the best friend of Miley Stewart and girlfriend to Oliver Oken on seasons 3 and 4. When Miley was Hannah, Lilly was under the alias Lola Luftnagle. The series premiere scored record ratings for the Disney Channel with 5.4 million viewers, a response "beyond our wildest expectations", according to the president of Disney Channel Entertainment. The show earned her a nomination for Young Artist Award in 2007 for Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama). In addition, Osment helped to design some of the pieces from the collection of clothing Hannah Montana Disney, which released the last part in the summer of 2006. She also had a voice over role in a movie called "". She performed several songs for the movie, including "Don't Ya Just Love Christmas" and "One Day". Emily sings the chorus of the Billy Ray Cyrus song "You've Got a Friend", from his album 2007 "Home at Last". Osment has also recorded a song titled "I Don't Think About It" in "", for which they made a music video. The video was released in Haunting Hour DVD and premiered at Cartoon Network.  On December 25, Osment hosted the Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade with "Hannah Montana" co-star Mitchel Musso. The parade featured Miley Cyrus and the "High School Musical" cast. She and Musso performed a sketch based on a "Hannah Montana" episode. Osment also had a voice-over role in a movie called "Holidaze: The Christmas That Almost Didn't Happen", which also featured the voices of fellow Disney Channel stars Brenda Song and Dylan and Cole Sprouse. Osment performed several songs for the film, including "Don't Ya Just Love Christmas" and "One Day". She also starred as a goth in R. L. Stine's "". It earned her a Young Artist Award nomination in 2008 for "Best Performance in a TV Movie, Miniseries or Special Leading Young Actress". She recorded the song "I Don't Think About It" for the movie's soundtrack.  Osment recorded a remake version of the song "If I Didn't Have You" with Mitchel Musso for the "DisneyMania 6" CD. The song was produced by Bryan Todd. The two also filmed a music video for their remake. She recorded a song, released in 2008, with "The Disney Channel Circle of Stars". She recorded a remake of "Once Upon A Dream", released on September 12, 2008. She recorded a song called "Hero in Me" for the Disney Channel original movie, "Dadnapped" and also filmed a music video to accompany it. In 2008 she starred in the film "Soccer Mom", and was ranked on No. 1 on "Parade" magazine and "Forbes" to "Hot Kid Stars To Watch" list. She also starred in the Disney Channel original movie, "Dadnapped" which premiered in February 2009.

2009–2012: "All the Right Wrongs" and "Fight or Flight".

In June 2009 Osment signed with Wind-Up Records and announced that she was writing and recording tracks with Eve 6. She has collaborated on tunes with Tom Higgenson, Max Collins, Tony Fagenson, Toby Gad and Mandi Perkins. "All the Way Up" was released as the lead single on August 25, 2009. The song debuted at No. 77 in the Canadian Hot 100 then a week later peaked at No. 76. On October 26, 2009, Osment release her debut extended play, "All The Right Wrongs", with six songs in the standard edition and eight songs in the deluxe. The EP peaked at No. 117 at "Billboard" Top 200 and No. 1 at Top Heatseekers About the album, Osment said: "The songs on the album are from four different people, I wrote with four different people, and they all had to fit on the album together...I kind of just did my own thing. I listen to a lot of Alanis Morissette, I kind of got inspired from her and her song "Jagged Little Pill"...There's a lot of edge to (Emily's album)...I love hearing the guitars and the drums in the songs". "You Are the Only One" was released as second single on February 27, 2010. It failed to make an impact on any charts, but enjoyed some success on Radio Disney. Originally, "You Are the Only One" was intended to be released as the lead single from the album, but was dropped due to Osment wanting to release "All the Way Up" instead. Osment confirmed through her Twitter account that she would be on tour: the Clap Your Hands Tour included nine dates in the United States. On March 24, 2010, Osment confirmed on Good Day NY that her debut album would be released in the summer of 2010. "Let's Be Friends" was released as the album's lead single on June 8, 2010. The single debuted and peaked at No. 24 on the "Billboard" Japan Hot 100 chart and No. 67 at Germany. In addition, the single became her first to chart on an official US singles chart, when it peaked at No. 31 on the "Billboard" Hot Dance Club Play chart. In October 5 she released her first album, "Fight or Flight", focused on electropop and synthpop. The album peaked at No. 170 at "Billboard" Top 200 and No. 2 at Top Heatseekers The second single, "Lovesick", was released on February 4, 2011. Due to the strong digital downloads the song received, the song debuted at No. 165 on the UK Singles Chart. During the week of April 17, 2011, the single entered the Top 100 in the UK, reaching a peak of 67 on the chart. The single also became her second to achieve success on the Canadian Hot 100, where it debuted at No. 71, and later rose to a peak of 66.  In October, Osment made her second tour "Fight or Flight Tour" to promote her first album Fight or Flight. It included concerts in North America, Europe and Latin America. It began on October 30, 2010 in São Paulo, Brazil, and ended on December 8, 2010 in Appleton, Wisconsin. Osment presented at the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards on November 7 in Madrid, Spain, presenting an award to Justin Bieber for best male artist. In March 2010, Osment lent her voice to the secondary character, Kendall Perkins for the animated series of Disney XD. On May 10, 2011, she released the duet single "Hush" with Josh Ramsay of Marianas Trench, and the song peaked at No. 90 in Canada. In 2011, Osment starred in the ABC Family movie about a young woman who suffers cyberbullying, called "Cyberbully", released on July 17, 2011. ABC worked with "Seventeen Magazine" to make the film with the hope that it would help eliminate Internet harassment. It was filmed in Montreal and was released on DVD on February 7, 2012. The film received generally positive reviews and had 3.4 million viewers on its premiere. To promote the film, she released her single, "Drift".

2013–present: "Cleaners," "Young & Hungry," and return to music as "Bluebiird".

In 2013, Osment starred in the TV series "Cleaners", which in 2014 was announced for a second season. Osment had a cameo in "Life with Boys", and appeared in four episodes of "Family Guy". She reprised her voice role as Pep for the third "Beverly Hills Chihuahua" film, which was released on DVD September 18, 2012, and was one of her last works at Disney. Emily Osment confirmed through her official Facebook account that she had left her label Wind-Up Records and has launched an independent project with airs folk, indie and country in a band called Ramshackle, consisting of Osment and her friend Dan Schechter, performing in bars such as the Troubadour and at the Spiedie Fest 2013, performing covers of The Beatles, R. Kelly and "Lullaby". In 2013, Osment made a special participation in the episode "Bazinga! That's From a TV Show" for the comedy series "Two And A Half Men" where she played the role of Ashley. Osment starred in the short film called "Seasick Sailor" led by "Devon Bostick" and "Torre Catalano". The film has been presented in some film festivals and won the award for "Best Narrative Short" at the Los Angeles Film Festival.  Osment also participated in the drama, "Kiss Me", directed by Jeff Probst in which she starred opposite Irish actress Sarah Bolger. In October, Osment filmed a new movie "No Way Jose". In October 2013, the third movie in the Nightmare franchise started filming, called "A Daughter's Nightmare", which premiered on Lifetime in 2014. Osment recorded the song "In Case Of Fire" for the soundtrack of the film. Osment also finished recording the second season of the web series "Cleaners".  In 2014, she debuted as the lead role in the new ABC Family TV series "Young & Hungry", produced by Ashley Tisdale. Osment plays Gabi, a feisty young blogger hired as the personal chef to a young San Francisco tech entrepreneur. The pilot episode, which aired on June 25, 2014, garnered 1.08 million views in the U.S.  In 2015, one of the projects Osment is involved in is the movie "Love Is All You Need?" The film, which also stars Briana Evigan, is an independent drama set in a world where being gay is normal and heterosexual people are intimidated. In August 2015, Osment was booked for a recurring role on the third season of the CBS series "Mom". She played Jodi, a girl living on the street who was a drug addict; Christy (Anna Faris) and Bonnie (Allison Janney) helped her stay clean and find a job. The third season premiered on November 5, 2015. But Jodi died from a drug overdose in midseason, a decision made with the creation of the character.  Emily Osment confirmed through her official Facebook account that on March 8, 2019, International women's day, she released her first single as a new musical alias "Bluebiird", "Black Coffee Morning", followed by "Sailor" on April 26 and "Good Girl" on June 21, respectively. She released an EP under the alias titled "When I Loved You" on September 27.

Other ventures.

Image and products.

In 2007, Osment signed a deal to appear in a nationwide campaign called "Smart Girls Rock" by the New York-based denim brand Vanilla Star. "It's a new line for girls, the clothes are really denim and girly with an edge of punk." She promoted her song "I Don't Think About It" with the release of the campaign and commercial. Late that summer, Disney released a "Hannah Montana" clothing collection. Osment helped to design some of the pieces from the collection. Her image was used in some of these pieces, as well as other "Hannah Montana" merchandise (such as dolls and DVDs).

Philanthropy.

She agreed to sign with CosmoGIRL! shirts for the president of an online charity auction. In 2007, Osment designed a line of shirts for 2lovecollection.com, whose proceeds went to the Make-a-Wish Foundation and St. Jude Research Hospital.  In early 2008, Osment participated in the "Disney Channel Earth Day", where she and other Disney stars met with TreePeople to teach children how to care for the environment with small changes in their homes and neighborhoods. Osment was also part of the green project, Disney's Friends for Change, an initiative for the environment created in 2009. The campaign wants young people aware of the current environmental situation and engage with it in around them. Children had the opportunity to choose how Disney will invest one million dollars in various environmental programs.  Osment is a Global Ambassador for STOMP Out Bullying, the leading national Anti-Bullying/Cyberbullying organization in the country for kids and teens. She for was voted the U.G.L.Y celebrity of 2011 at the seventh annual Celebrity of the Year Award, thanks to the votes of young Americans impressed with the performance of the actress in her TV movie "Cyberbully". Preventing bullying is the fundamental mission of Hey UGLY international nonprofit organization that sponsors the annual award.

Tours.

Headlining

Emily Jordan Osment (born March 10, 1992) is an American actress, singer, and songwriter. Born and raised in Los Angeles, Osment began her career as a child actress, appearing in numerous television shows and films, including Biba from "Biba Bear" (1998-2002), before co-starring as Gerti Giggles in "" (2002) and "" (2003). She went onto play the role of Lilly Truscott in the Disney Channel television series "Hannah Montana" (2006–2011) and appeared in the theatrical film based on the series, "" (2009).

Emily Jordan Osmentová, nepřechýleně "Osment", (* 10. března 1992, Los Angeles, Kalifornie, USA) je americká herečka a zpěvačka. Nejvíce se proslavila rolí Gerti Giggles ve filmu "" a "" a rolí Lilly Truscott v seriálu stanice Disney Channel "Hannah Montana", stejně tak ve filmu "". V roce 2014 získala roli Gabi Diamond v seriálu stanice Freeform "Mladí a hladoví", za kterou získala tři nominace na cenu Teen Choice Awards.


Early life.

The son of Marko and Anđelija (née Martinović), Petar followed the footsteps of his relatives, becoming a monk and a deacon. He spent four years in Imperial Russia, finishing the Military School (1765–69). In 1778, archimandrite Petar was in Russia with "guvernadur" Jovan Radonjić and "serdar" Ivan Petrović. Metropolitan Sava Petrović (s. 1735–1781), who died in 1781, chose his nephew and co-adjutor Arsenije Plamenac the successor, which was met with opposition from the Montenegrin tribes at the beginning, later switching in favour after Sava gained the support of Šćepan Mali, the false tsar and ruler of Montenegro. Plamenac was inactive and had little power, serving as metropolitan between 1781 and his death in 1784. The "guvernadur" family of Radonjić, which had Venetian support and then Austrian, increased their power and sought to push aside the Petrović metropolitans. The chieftains had suggested Petar the bishop seat already in 1783, and he was then sent to the Habsburg Monarchy to be ordained.

Office.

1784–99.

Petar was made a bishop (ordained) by Mojsije Putnik of the Metropolitanate of Karlovci at Sremski Karlovci on 13 October 1784. He then returned to Vienna where he met Russian chancellor Potemkin, and also Austrian general Zorić and Ragusan emigre Frano Dolci. Petar was, under unclear circumstances, kicked out of St. Petersburg in November 1785. During his trip, Montenegro was threatened by Kara Mahmud Pasha, the Pasha of Scutari. Mahmud Pasha attacked in June 1785. The Montenegrin army of 8,000 was reduced by 3,000 Crmničani, and they were followed by many more surrenders. Mahmud Pasha crossed Bjelice, and burnt down Njeguši, and received help from Nikšići, then crossed Paštrovići to return to Scutari.  The Metropolitan Petar I and "guvernadur" Jovan Radonjić were the two head chiefs of Montenegro, one by title, the other according to actual position. Jovan sought to rule Montenegro by himself; he appropriated secular rights for himself, and wanted the Metropolitan to exercise only his spiritual leadership; that the "guvernadur" was the master of the people and the Metropolitan the master of the church. The two clashed in international politics: the Metropolitan held to Russia, while Jovan relied on Austria. Hence, there were two parties in the land, one "Russophile" and the other "Austrophile", led by the Metropolitan and Jovan, respectively. On the question whether to support Austria or not, the two sides conflicted during the Austro-Turkish War (1787–91) and Russo-Turkish War (1787–92). During this period, Montenegro was divided into the following districts: "Katunska nahija", "Riječka nahija", "Crmnička nahija", "Lješanska nahija" and "Pješivačka nahija". These were governed by the officials, Jovan Radonjić and the Metropolitan, with the help of 5 serdars, 9 vojvodas and 34 knezes (a synthesis of secular and theocratic government which will cause strife and struggle for supremacy until 1832–33).  In July 1788, Jovan Radonjić asked Queen Catherine II to send Sofronije Jugović, whom he promised the throne of Montenegro; Jovan sought to bring him to the land and replace Petrović, then get rid of him too, securing the rule for himself. He sent another letter in 1789, then made a trip to Austria seeking to retrieve his reputation with the help of the Austrian court. Radonjić requested that the Austrian army be sent into Montenegro, which was declined. On Radonjić's re-request, the Austrian Emperor decided to send munition to Montenegro in February 1790, provided that the Montenegrins "come under the wings of the Emperor in war-time, as much as in peace-time, with the Ottoman Empire". Austrian support looked unpromising.  In 1794, the Kuči and Rovčani (tribes outside Montenegro) were devastated by the Ottomans. In 1796, Kara Mahmud Pasha was defeated at the Battle of Martinići. Mahmud Pasha later returned and was defeated and killed at the Battle of Krusi on 22 September. Half of the Montenegrin army was led by Metropolitan Petar I, the other by Jovan. Petar I's army was assisted by the Piperi. Mahmud Pasha's army, allegedly made up of 30,000, including seven French officers, fought a Montenegrin force of 6,000, and had heavy casualties. The Montenegrin victory resulted in territorial expansion, with the tribes of Bjelopavlići and Piperi being joined into the Montenegrin state. The Rovčani, as other highlander tribes, subsequently turned more and more towards Montenegro.  The tribe of Njeguši to which the Petrović-Njegoš belonged was involved in the one of the most long-standing blood feuds in Montenegro against the tribe of Ceklin in the 18th century. The feud lasted for 32 years and ended in 1797 in a joint meeting of all tribes of Old Montenegro under Petar Petrović. The pacification of the feud between two of the strongest tribes of the region is considered as an important step in Petar Petrović's strategy of uniting Old Montenegro.  Metropolitan Petar I sent letters in 1799 to the Moračani and Rovčani, advising them to live peacefully and in solidarity. In 1799, Montenegro was guaranteed a subsidy by Russia, which assured that it would defend its interest.

1800–09.

During the First Serbian Uprising Petar I began cooperating with Karađorđe, the Serbian rebel leader. Petar I had by that time distinguished himself in international relations, as the bishop and ruler of Montenegro. It was known that Petar was ready to revolt as soon as a favourable opportunity came along. Russian ambassador in Vienna, Razumovski, informed Interior Minister Czartoryski of a secret message received on 13 December 1803 that Petar I had 2,000 armed men, and that he "had taken off his bishop clothes and dressed in military clothing, a general uniform" and that he planned to raise his army to 12,000 men. Knowing that his army would not be able to fight the stronger Ottomans, he sought to unite with the "rebels of Šumadija", and together, with the help of the Russian, turn on the Turks. He messaged Visoki Dečani of his intentions. Petar I was a pen pal of Dositej Obradović. In 1806, the troops of Napoleonic France advanced toward the Bay of Kotor in Montenegro. The Montenegrin army led by Petar I, aided by several Russian battalions and the fleet of Admiral Dmitry Senyavin pushed them back to Dubrovnik. But soon after, Russian Tsar Alexander I asked Montenegrins to relinquish control of Boka to Austria. However, after Montenegrins retreated to Herceg Novi, Alexander changed his mind again, and with a help of Montenegrins conquered Brač and Korčula. In the meantime, France encouraged Turkey to attack Russia, which withdrew its fleet from the Adriatic to defend the Ionian islands. The Treaty of Tilsit (1807) between Russia and France granted the control of the Bay of Kotor to France. In early 1807, Petar had plans to unite several Serb-inhabited regions into a renewed Serbian Empire. In February 1807, Petar I planned an invasion of Herzegovina and asked for Karađorđe's aid. After the Battle of Suvodol and Serbian rebel advance, Karađorđe managed connecting the rebel forces to Montenegro (1809). However, Karađorđe was unable to hold lasting ties with the Serbs of Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, as after 1809 the uprising waned.

1810–20.

Petar I waged a successful campaign against the Bosnia Eyalet in 1819. In 1820, in the north of Montenegro, the highlanders from Morača led by "serdar" Mrkoje Mijušković won a major battle against the Ottoman Bosnian forces. The repulse of an Ottoman invasion from Albania during the Russo-Turkish War (1828–29) led to the recognition of Montenegrin sovereignty over Piperi. Petar I had managed to unite the Piperi and Bjelopavlići with Montenegro, and when Bjelopavlići and the rest of "the Hills" (Seven hills) were joined into the Montenegrin state, the polity was officially called "Black Mountain (Montenegro) and the Hills".

Pan-Serbism.

Petar I conceived a plan in 1807 to revive a Serbian Empire ("Slaveno–Serb empire"), which he informed the Russian court. Earlier, in June 1804, Habsburg Serb metropolitan Stefan Stratimirović informed the Russian court of the same plan. Petar I's plan was to unite Podgorica, Spuž, Žabljak, the Bay of Kotor, Herzegovina, Dubrovnik and Dalmatia with Montenegro. The title of Serbian emperor would be held by the Russian emperor. The French–Russian peace treaty thwarted the plan. After the French conquered Dalmatia, they offered Petar I the title of "Patriarch of all of the Serb nation or all Illyricum" under the condition that he stop cooperation with Russia and accept a French protectorate, which he declined, fearing eventual Papal jurisdiction. The Metropolitanate of Cetinje began exerting influence towards Brda and Old Herzegovina, which considered Montenegro as the leader for liberation. While his reputation and influence reached the surrounding lands, he increasingly directed himself to Revolutionary Serbia as the backbone for liberation and unification. The project is included in several historiographical works.

Canonisation.

He was canonised as Saint Peter of Cetinje by his successor Petar II Petrović-Njegoš. The Serbian Orthodox Church celebrates him on October 31, Gregorian calendar, which is October 18 in the Julian calendar.

Petar I Petrović-Njegoš (; 1748 – 31 October 1830) was the ruler of the Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro as the Metropolitan ("vladika") of Cetinje, and Exarch (legate) of the Serbian Orthodox Church in Montenegro. He was the most popular spiritual and military leader from the Petrović dynasty. During his long rule, Petar strengthened the state by uniting the often quarreling tribes, consolidating his control over Montenegrin lands, introducing the first laws in Montenegro ("Zakonik Petra I"). His rule prepared Montenegro for the subsequent introduction of modern institutions of the state: taxes, schools and larger commercial enterprises. He was canonized by the Serbian Orthodox Church as Saint Peter of Cetinje ().

Petr I. Černohorský (1747 – 1830) byl třetí černohorský vladyka z dynastie Petrović-Njegoš. Jeho předchůdcem byl Sava II., po Petrově smrti zemi vládl Petar II. Srbská pravoslavná církev jej prohlásila za svatého, získal tedy světecké jméno Svatý Petr Cetinjský.


Early life.

John Graham McVie was born in Ealing, then in Middlesex (now in west London), to Reg and Dorothy McVie and attended Walpole Grammar School. He says that he did have a sister, but she died when she was very young. John McVie started playing the trumpet at an early age then at age 14, McVie began playing the guitar in local bands, covering songs by The Shadows. He soon realised that his friends were learning lead guitar so he decided to play the bass guitar instead. Initially he just removed the bottom two (E and B) strings from his guitar to play the bass parts until his father bought him a pink Fender bass guitar, the same as that used by McVie's major early musical influence Jet Harris, The Shadows' bass player. McVie was in 3J class with Roger Warwick, a baritone sax player who had studied under Don Rendell and was to emerge in the London rock-jazz scene. Their teacher, Mr Howell (a pianist), although not really appreciating this "funny" music, was intelligent and open-minded enough to give pupils space and time to use school facilities to practise and listen to the new wave.  Soon after leaving school at 17, McVie trained for 9 months to be a tax inspector. This coincided with the start of his musical career.

Career.

McVie's first experience making music with a group of like minds was in the back room of a house in Lammas Park Road, Ealing with his long term friends John Barnes and Peter Barnes who later went on to form a group called The Strangers performing Shadows covers.  McVie's first job as a bass player was in a band called the Krewsaders, formed by boys living in the same street as McVie in Ealing, West London. The Krewsaders played mainly at weddings and parties, covering songs from The Shadows.

John Mayall's Bluesbreakers.

Around the time of McVie's tenure as a tax inspector, John Mayall began forming a Chicago-style blues band, John Mayall's Bluesbreakers. Initially Mayall wanted to recruit bass player Cliff Barton of the Cyril Davies All Stars for the rhythm section of his new band. Barton declined, however, but gave him McVie's phone number, urging Mayall to give the talented young bass player a chance in the Bluesbreakers. Mayall contacted McVie, and asked him to audition for his band. Soon thereafter, McVie got an offer to play bass in the Bluesbreakers. McVie accepted while still holding down his daytime job for a further nine months before becoming a musician full-time. Under Mayall's tutelage, McVie, not having had any formal training in music, learned to play the blues mainly by listening to B.B. King and Willie Dixon records given to him by Mayall. Also John McVie was the band's bassist for four and a half years. During that time John McVie was fired and re- hired several times. One of his temporary replacements was Jack Bruce.

Peter Green and Mick Fleetwood.

In 1966, a young Peter Green was asked to join Mayall's Bluesbreakers as the band's new lead guitar player, after Eric Clapton, the third guitarist with the band (after Bernie Watson and then Roger Dean), had left. Some time later, after the recording of "A Hard Road", drummer Aynsley Dunbar was replaced by Mick Fleetwood. Green, McVie, and Fleetwood quickly forged a strong personal relationship, and when John Mayall gave Green some free studio time for his birthday, Green asked McVie and Fleetwood to join him for a recording session. Produced by Mike Vernon, they recorded three tracks together, "Curly", "Rubber Duck", and an instrumental called "Fleetwood Mac". Later the same year, after having been replaced by Mick Taylor in the Bluesbreakers, Green opted to form his own band, which he called "Fleetwood Mac" after his preferred rhythm section (Fleetwood and McVie). Mick Fleetwood immediately joined Green's new band, having been dismissed earlier from the Bluesbreakers for drunkenness. However, McVie initially was reluctant to join Fleetwood Mac, not wanting to leave the security and well-paid job in the Bluesbreakers, forcing Green to temporarily hire a bassist named Bob Brunning. A few weeks later McVie changed his mind, however, as he felt that The Bluesbreakers musical direction were shifting too much towards jazz, and he joined Fleetwood Mac in September 1967.

Fleetwood Mac.

With McVie now in Fleetwood Mac, the band recorded its first album, the eponymous "Fleetwood Mac" in the following months. The album was released in February 1968, and became an immediate national hit, establishing Fleetwood Mac as a major part in the English Blues movement. Fleetwood Mac started playing live gigs in blues clubs and pubs throughout England, and became a household name in the national blues circuit. In the next three years, the band scored a string of hits in the UK and also enjoyed success in continental Europe.

Christine Perfect.

While on tour, Fleetwood Mac would often share venues with fellow blues band Chicken Shack. It was on one such occasion that McVie met his future wife, the lead singer and piano player of Chicken Shack, Christine Perfect. Following a brief romance of, it has been said, only two weeks, McVie and Perfect got married with Peter Green as best man. With the couple being unable to spend much time together because of the constant touring with their bands, Christine (now McVie) quit Chicken Shack to become a housewife to spend more time with John. However, following the departure of Peter Green from Fleetwood Mac in 1970, McVie successfully persuaded Christine to join him in Fleetwood Mac.

International success and personal life.

After 1970, Fleetwood Mac went through several different line-ups, which occasionally became the source of friction and unease within the band. In addition, frequent touring as well as his heavy drinking began to put some strain on his marriage to Christine. In 1974, the McVies, along with the other members of Fleetwood Mac, moved to Los Angeles, where they lived briefly with John Mayall. In 1975, Fleetwood Mac achieved enormous worldwide success after recruiting American singer-songwriter duo Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham. However, on the heels of the band's success followed serious marital problems for the McVies, and in 1976, during the recording of "Rumours", John and Christine McVie's marriage unravelled and the couple divorced the same year. As a way to put behind the hurt and final dissolution, several of Christine's songs on this album were about John McVie, particularly "Don't Stop". John McVie remarried in 1978 to Julie Ann Reubens, but still continued to drink heavily. In 1981, McVie agreed to go on the road with the Bluesbreakers again for their reunion tour with John Mayall, Mick Taylor, and Colin Allen. During 1982 the band toured America, Asia and Australia (John McVie did not take part in the European Tour in 1983 and was replaced by Steve Thompson).  An alcohol-induced seizure in 1987 finally prompted McVie to stop drinking altogether and he has been sober ever since. In 1989, McVie's wife Julie Ann gave birth to their first child, a daughter, Molly Elizabeth McVie. In his spare time, McVie is a sailing enthusiast, and he nearly got lost at least once on a Pacific voyage. His involvement with Fleetwood Mac has been constant but notably low-key, despite the fact that the band takes the "Mac" part of its name from him.  On 27 October 2013, Fleetwood Mac announced on their Facebook Page that McVie had been diagnosed with colon cancer and would be undergoing treatment. He continued to play with the band during their 2014 On With The Show tour following an improvement in his condition. In 2017, it was revealed that McVie's colon cancer was completely cleared.

John Graham McVie (born 26 November 1945) is a British bass guitarist, best known as a member of the rock bands John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers from 1964 to 1967 and Fleetwood Mac since 1967. His surname, combined with that of Mick Fleetwood, was the inspiration for the band's name. He joined Fleetwood Mac shortly after its formation by guitarist Peter Green in 1967, replacing temporary bass guitarist Bob Brunning. McVie and Fleetwood are the only two members of the group to appear on every Fleetwood Mac release, and for over forty years have been the group's only remaining original members.

John Graham McVie (* 26. listopadu 1945 Ealing, Anglie) je britský baskytarista známý jako člen rockové skupiny Fleetwood Mac. Jeho příjmení, zkombinované s příjmením Micka Fleetwooda, bylo inspirací pro jméno této skupiny. Ke skupině Fleetwood Mac se připojil krátce po jejím založení, kdy v roce 1967 nahradil baskytaristu Boba Brunninga.