Purpose, geography, and history.

A basement can be used in almost exactly the same manner as an additional above-ground floor of a house or other building. However, the use of basements depends largely on factors specific to a particular geographical area such as climate, soil, seismic activity, building technology, and real estate economics.  Basements in small buildings such as single-family detached houses are rare in wet climates such as Great Britain and Ireland where flooding can be a problem, though they may be used on larger structures. However, basements are considered standard on all but the smallest new buildings in many places with temperate continental climates such as the American Midwest and the Canadian Prairies where a concrete foundation below the frost line is needed in any case, to prevent a building from shifting during the freeze-thaw cycle. Basements are much easier to construct in areas with relatively soft soils and may be foregone in places where the soil is too compact for easy excavation. Their use may be restricted in earthquake zones, because of the possibility of the upper floors collapsing into the basement; on the other hand, they may be required in tornado-prone areas as a shelter against violent winds. Adding a basement can also reduce heating and cooling costs as it is a form of earth sheltering, and a way to reduce a building's surface area-to-volume ratio. The housing density of an area may also influence whether or not a basement is considered necessary.  Historically, basements have become much easier to build (in developed countries) since the industrialization of home building. Large powered excavation machines such as backhoes and front-end loaders have reduced the time and manpower needed to dig a basement dramatically as compared to digging by hand with a spade, although this method may still be used in the developing world.  For most of its early history, the basement took one of two forms. It could be little more than a cellar, or it could be a section of a building containing rooms and spaces similar to those of the rest of the structure, as in the case of basement flats and basement offices.  However, beginning with the development of large, mid-priced suburban homes in the 1950s, the basement, as a space in its own right, gradually took hold. Initially, it was typically a large, concrete-floored space, accessed by indoor stairs, with exposed columns and beams along the walls and ceilings, or sometimes, walls of poured concrete or concrete cinder block.

Types of basement.

English basement.

An English basement, also known as a daylight basement is contained in a house where at least part of the floor goes above ground to provide reasonably-sized windows. Generally, the floor's ceiling should be enough above ground to provide nearly full-size windows. Some daylight basements are located on slopes, such that one portion of the floor is at-grade with the land. A walk-out basement almost always results from this.  Most daylight basements naturally result from raised bungalows and at-grade walk-out basements. However, there are instances where the terrain dips enough from one side to another to allow for 3/4 to full-size windows, with the actual floor remaining below grade.  In most parts of North America, it is legal to set up apartments and legal bedrooms in daylight basements, whether or not the entire basement is above grade.  Daylight basements can be used for several purposes—as a garage, as maintenance rooms, or as living space. The buried portion is often used for storage, laundry room, hot water tanks, and HVAC.  Daylight basement homes typically appraise higher than standard-basement homes, since they include more viable living spaces. In some parts of the US, however, the appraisal for daylight basement space is half that of ground and above ground level square footage. Designs accommodated include split-foyer and split-level homes. Garages on both levels are sometimes possible. As with any multilevel home, there are savings on roofing and foundations.

Walk-out basement.

A walk-out basement is any basement that is partially underground but nonetheless allows egress directly outdoors and has floating walls. This can either be through a stairwell leading above ground, or a door directly outside if a portion of the basement is completely at or above grade.  Many walk-out basements are also daylight basements. The only exceptions are when the entire basement is nearly entirely underground, and a stairwell leads up nearly a floors worth of vertical height to lead to the outdoors.  Generally, basements with only an emergency exit well do not count as walk-out. Walk-out basements with at-grade doors on one side typically are worth a lot more, but are more costly to construct since the foundation is still constructed to reach below the frost line. At-grade walk-out basements are on the door-side often used as livable space for the house, with the buried portion used for utilities and storage.

Subbasement.

A subbasement is a floor below the basement floor. In the homes where there is any type of basement mentioned above, such as a look-out basement, all of the volume of the subbasements from floor to ceiling are located well below ground. Therefore, subbasements have no windows nor an outside door. In the homes that have subbasements, all of the basement can be used as part of the main home where people relax and do recreational things, while all of the subbasement can be used for storage.  Building a subbasement is more difficult, costly, and time-consuming than building a basement as the lowest floor. Subbasements are even more susceptible to flooding and water damage than basements and are therefore rare, except in dry climates and at higher elevations.  Some famous landmarks contain subbasements. The subbasement of the US Capitol Building is used as storage and that in the White House is used to store guest items. The button in the elevator that takes riders to the subbasement when pressed would read "B2" or "SB". The floor below the subbasement would be called a hypobasement, and abbreviated as "B3" or "HB". The floor BELOW that is called a tetrabasement and abbreviated as "B4", "B3" or "TB"

Finished fully underground cellar.

According to the international "Oxford Dictionary of English", a finished fully underground cellar is a room below ground level in a house that is often used for the storage of wine or coal; it may also refer to the stock of wine itself. A cellar is intended to remain at a constant cool (not freezing) temperature all year round and usually has either a small window/opening or some form of air ventilation (air/draught bricks, etc.) in order to help eliminate damp or stale air. Cellars are more common in the United Kingdom in older houses, with most terraced housing built during late 19th and early 20th centuries having cellars. These were important shelters from air raids during World War II. In parts of North America that are prone to tornadoes (e.g. Tornado Alley), cellars still serve as shelter in the event of a direct hit on the house from a tornado or other storm damage caused by strong winds.  Except for Britain, Australia and New Zealand, cellars are popular in most western countries. In the United Kingdom, almost all new homes built since the 1960s have no cellar or basement due to the extra cost of digging down further into the sub-soil and a requirement for much deeper foundations and waterproof tanking. The reverse has recently become common, where the impact of smaller home-footprints has led to roof-space being utilised for further living space and now many new homes are built with third-floor living accommodation. For this reason, especially where lofts have been converted into living space, people tend to use garages for the storage of food freezers, tools, bicycles, garden and outdoor equipment. The majority of continental European houses have cellars, although a large proportion of people live in apartments or flats rather than houses. In North America, cellars usually are found in rural or older homes on the coasts and in the South. However, full basements are commonplace in new houses in the Canadian and American Midwest and other areas subject to tornado activity or requiring foundations below the frost line.

Underground crawl space.

An underground crawl space (as the name implies) is a type of basement in which one cannot stand up—the height may be as little as one foot (30 cm), and the surface is often soil. Crawl spaces offer a convenient access to pipes, substructures and a variety of other areas that may be difficult or expensive to access otherwise. While a crawl space cannot be used as living space, it can be used as storage, often for infrequently used items. Care must be taken in doing so, however, as water from the damp ground, water vapour (entering from crawl space vents), and moisture seeping through porous concrete can create a perfect environment for mould/mildew to form on any surface in the crawl space, especially cardboard boxes, wood floors and surfaces, drywall and some types of insulation.  Health and safety issues must be considered when installing a crawl space. As air warms in a home, it rises and leaves through the upper regions of the house, much in the same way that air moves through a chimney. This phenomenon, called the "stack effect", causes the home to suck air up from the crawl space into the main area of the home. Mould spores, decomposition odours, and fecal material from dust mites in the crawl space can come up with the air, aggravating asthma and other breathing problems, and creating a variety of health concerns.  It is usually desirable to finish a crawl space with a plastic vapour barrier that will not support mold growth or allow humidity from the earth into the crawl space. This helps insulate the crawl space and discourages the habitation of insects and vermin by breaking the ecological chain in which insects feed off the mould and vermin feed on the insects, as well as creating a physical inorganic barrier that deters entrance into the space. Vapour barriers can end at the wall or be run up the wall and fastened to provide even more protection against moisture infiltration. Some pest control agencies recommend against covering the walls, as it complicates their job of inspection and spraying. Almost unheard of as late as the 1990s, vapour barriers are becoming increasingly popular in recent years. In fact, the more general area of conditioned vs. unconditioned crawl spaces has seen much research over the last decade.  Dry rot and other conditions detrimental to buildings (particularly wood and timber structures) can develop in enclosed spaces. Providing adequate ventilation is thought to reduce the occurrence of these problems. Crawl space vents are openings in the wall which allow air movement. Such vents are usually fitted with metal grating, mesh, or louvers which can block the movement of rodents and vermin but generally not insects such as termites and carpenter ants. One common rule is to provide vents in cross sectional area equal to 1/150 of the floor area served.  Modern crawl space thinking has reconsidered the usage of crawl space vents in the home. While crawl space vents do allow outside air to ventilate into the home, the ability of that air to dry out the crawl space is debatable. In areas with humid summers, during the summer months, the air vented into a crawl space will be humid, and as it enters the crawl space, which has been cooled naturally by the earth, the relative humidity of the air will rise. In those cases, crawl space vents can even increase the humidity level of a crawl space and lead to condensation on cool surfaces within, such as metal and wood. In the winter, crawl space vents should be shut off entirely, to keep out the cold winter air which can cool hot water pipes, furnaces, and water heaters stored within. During rainy weather, crawl space vents bring wet air into the crawl space, which will not dry the space effectively.  Crawl space vents also contribute to the "stack effect", a phenomenon by which warm air rises in the home and exits from the upper levels. This creates a vacuum in the lower levels and can pull crawl space air upwards into the home. By sealing off all openings in the crawl space, including the vents, unconditioned outside air is kept out of the home.

Design and structural considerations.

Structurally, for houses, the basement walls typically form the foundation. In warmer climates, some houses do not have basements because they are not necessary (although many still prefer them). In colder climates, the foundation must be below the frost line. Unless constructed in very cold climates, the frost line is not so deep as to justify an entire level below the ground, although it is usually deep enough that a basement is the assumed standard. In places with oddly stratified soil substrata or high water tables, such as most of Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and areas within of the Gulf of Mexico, basements are usually not financially feasible unless the building is a large apartment or commercial structure.  Excavation using a backhoe or excavator is commonly used to dig a basement. If shelf rock is discovered, the need for blasting may be cost prohibitive. Basement walls may need to have the surrounding earth backfilled around them to return the soil to grade. A water stop, some gravel and a french drain may need to be used to prevent water from entering the basement at the bottom of the wall. Walls below grade may need to be sealed with an impervious coating (such as tar) to prevent water seepage. A polyethylene of about 6 mil (visqueen) serves as a water barrier underneath the basement.  Some designs elect to simply leave a crawl space under the house, rather than a full basement due to structural challenges. Most other designs justify further excavations to create a full-height basement, sufficient for another level of living space. Even so, basements in Canada and the northern United States were typically only in height, rather than the standard full of the main floors. Older homes may have even lower basement heights as the basement walls were concrete block and thus, could be customized to any height. Modern builders offer higher basements as an option. The cost of the additional depth of excavation is usually quite expensive. Thus, houses almost certainly never have multi-storey basements though basements heights are a frequent choice among new home buyers. For large office or apartment buildings in prime locations, the cost of land may justify multi-storey basement parking garages.  The concrete floor in most basements is structurally not part of the foundation; only the basement walls are. If there are posts supporting a main floor beam to form a post and beam system, these posts typically go right through the basement floor to a footing underneath the basement floor. It is the footing that supports the post and the footing is part of the house foundation. Load-bearing wood-stud walls rest directly on the concrete floor. Under the concrete floor is typically gravel or crushed stone to facilitate draining. The floor is typically four inches (100 mm) thick and it rests on top of the foundation footings. The floor is typically sloped towards a drain point, in case of leaks.  Modern construction for basement walls typically falls into one of two categories: they will be made of poured-in-place concrete using concrete forms with a concrete pump, or they will use concrete masonry units (block walls). Rock may also be used, but is less common. In monolithic architecture, large parts of the building are made of concrete; in insulating concrete form construction, the concrete walls may be hidden with an exterior finish or siding. Inside the structure, a single Lally column, steel basement jack, wooden column or support post may hold up the floor above in a small basement. A series of these supports may be necessary for large basements; many basements have the support columns exposed.  Since warm air rises, basements are typically cooler than the rest of the house. In summer, this makes basements damp, due to the higher relative humidity. Dehumidifiers are recommended. In winter, additional heating, such as a fireplace or baseboard heaters may be required. A well-defined central heating system may minimize this requirement. Heating ducts typically run in the ceiling of the basement (since there is not an empty floor below to run the ducts). Ducts extending from the ceiling down to the floor help heat the cold floors of the basement. Older or cheaper systems may simply have the heating vent in the ceiling of the basement.  The finished floor is typically raised off the concrete basement floor. In countries such as Canada, laminate flooring is an exception: It is typically separated from the concrete by only a thin foam underlay. Radiant heating systems may be embedded within the concrete floor. Even if unfinished and unoccupied, basements are heated in order to ensure relative warmth of the floor above, and to prevent water supply pipes, drains, etc. from freezing and bursting in winter. It is recommended that the basement walls be insulated to the frost line. In Canada, the walls of a finished basement are typically insulated to the floor with vapor barriers to prevent moisture transmission. However, a finished basement should avoid wood or wood-laminate flooring, and metal framing and other moisture resistant products should be used. Finished basements can be costly to maintain due to deterioration of waterproofing materials or lateral earth movement etc. Below-ground structures will never be as dry as one above ground, and measures must be taken to circulate air and dehumidify the area.

Drainage considerations.

Basement floor drains that connect to sanitary sewers need to be filled regularly to prevent the trap from drying out and sewer gas from escaping into the basement. The drain trap can be topped up automatically by the condensation from air conditioners or high-efficiency furnaces. A small tube from another downpipe is sometimes used to keep the trap from drying out. Health Canada advocates the use of special radon gas traps for floor drains that lead to soil or to a sealed sump pump. In areas where storm and sanitary sewers are combined, and there is the risk of flooding and sewage backing up, backwater valves in all basement drains may be mandated by code and definitely are recommended even if not mandated.  The main water cut-off valve is usually in the basement. Basements often have "clean outs" for the sanitary and storm sewers, where these pipes can be accessed. The storm sewer access is only needed where the weeping tiles drain into the storm sewers.  Other than with walk-out or look-out basements, windows in basements require a well and are below grade. A clear window well cover may be required to keep the window wells from accumulating rain water. There should be drains in the window well, connected to the foundation drains. If the water table outside the basement is above the height of the basement floor, then the foundation drains or the weeping tiles outside the footings may be insufficient to keep the basement dry. A sump pump may be required. It can be located anywhere and is simply in a well that is deeper than the basement floor.  Even with functioning sump pumps or low water tables, basements may become wet after rainfall, due to improper drainage. The ground next to the basement must be graded such that water flows away from the basement wall. Downspouts from roof gutters should drain freely into the storm sewer or directed away from the house. Downspouts should not be connected to the foundation draintiles. If the draintiles become clogged by leaves or debris from the rain gutters, the roof water would cause basement flooding through the draintile. Damp-proofing or waterproofing materials are typically applied to outside of the basement wall. It is virtually impossible to make a concrete wall waterproof, over the long run, so drainage is the key. There are draining membranes that can be applied to the outside of the basement that create channels for water against the basement wall to flow to the foundation drains.  Where drainage is inadequate, waterproofing may be needed. There are numerous ways to waterproof a basement, but most systems fall into one of three categories:  The waterproofing system can be applied to the inside or the outside walls of a basement. When waterproofing existing basements it is much cheaper to waterproof the basement on the inside. Waterproofing on the outside requires the expense of excavation, but does offer a number of advantages for a homeowner over the long term. Among them are:

Basement culture and finishings.

Unfinished basement.

The unfinished design, found principally in spaces larger than the traditional cellar, is common in residences throughout the U.S. and Canada. One usually finds within it a water heater, various pipes running along the ceiling and downwards to the floor, and sometimes a workbench, a freezer or refrigerator, or a washer/dryer set. Boxes of various materials, and objects unneeded in the rest of the house, are also often stored there; in this regard, the unfinished basement takes the place both of the cellar and of the attic. Home workshops are often located in the basement, since sawdust, metal chips, and other mess or noise are less of a nuisance there. The basement can contain all of these objects and still be considered to be "unfinished", as they are either mostly or entirely functional in purpose.

Finished basement.

In this case the space has been designed, either during construction or at a later point by the owners, to function as a fully habitable addition to the house. Frequently most or all of the basement is used as a recreation room or living room, but it is not uncommon as well to find there (either instead of or alongside the living/recreation room) a guest bedroom or teenager's room, a bathroom, a home office, a home gym, a home theater, a basement bar, a sauna, and one or more closets. Occasionally a part of the basement is unfurnished and is used for storage, a workshop, and/or a laundry room; when this is the case the water heater and furnace will also often be located there, although in some cases the entire basement is finished, and the water heater and furnace are boxed off into a closet.

Partially finished basement.

The main point of distinction between this type of basement and the two others lies in its being either entirely unmodified (unlike the finished basement) beyond the addition of furniture, recreational objects and appliances, and/or exercise equipment on the bare floor, or slightly modified through the installation (besides any or all of the aforementioned items) of loose carpet and perhaps simple light fixtures. In both cases, the objects found there—many of which could be found in a finished basement as well—might include the following: weight sets and other exercise equipment; the boom boxes or entertainment systems used during exercise; musical instruments (which are not in storage, as they would technically be in an unfinished basement; an assembled drum set would be the most easily identified of these); football tables, chairs, couches and entertainment appliances of lesser quality than those in the rest of the house; refrigerators, stand-alone freezers, and microwaves (the first and the second being also sometimes used as supplementary storage units in an unfinished basement); and sports pennants and/or other types of posters which are attached to the walls.  As the description suggests, this type of basement, which also might be called "half-finished", is likely used by teenagers and children. The entire family might utilize a work-out area. It is also common to have a secondary (or primary) home office in a partially finished basement, as well as a workbench and/or a space for laundry appliances.  Toilets and showers sometimes exist in this variety of basement, as many North American basements are designed to allow for their installation.

Fully finished basement – retro fit.

In London the construction of finished retrofit basements is big business with a large number of projects in the 100–200 square meter bracket. There are a smaller number of projects in the 200–500 square meter bracket under construction. It is also not unusual to see multi-level retrofit basements. These are considerable works of civil engineering and require some skill and intuitive understanding as well as good engineering. Some of the more grandiose of these basement projects have been widely reported in the national media, notably the "Witanhurst" project in the Highgate area of London. and the huge iceberg-like homes which are beginning to be constructed in prime London areas such as Kensington and Chelsea.

Use in hospitals.

Hospitals often place their nuclear chemistry and radiation therapy and diagnostic resources in basements to utilize the shielding from the earth.

Real estate floorspace measures.

In Canada, historically the basement area was excluded from advertised square footage of a house as it was not part of the living space. For example, a "2,000-square-foot bungalow" would, in reality, have of floor space. More recently, finished space has become increasingly acceptable as a measure which includes the developed basement areas of a home. Due to fire code requirements, most jurisdictions require an emergency egress (through either egress-style windows, or, in the case of a walk-out basement, a door) to include the basement square footage as living space.

A basement or cellar is one or more floors of a building that are completely or partly below the ground floor. It generally is used as a utility space for a building, where such items as the boiler, water heater, breaker panel or fuse box, car park, and air-conditioning system are located; so also are amenities such as the electrical distribution system and cable television distribution point. In cities with high property prices, such as London, basements are often fitted out to a high standard and used as living space.

Sklep, případně i sklepy či sklepení, je prostor, jehož podlaha se celá nebo z větší části nachází pod úrovní terénu. Sklep může být umístěn pod budovou nebo stát samostatně. Sklepy jsou vhodné pro uskladnění potravin, případně nápojů (pivo, víno, medovina aj.), protože se v nich drží stálá, poměrně nízká teplota. Užívají se též k uskladnění materiálu, topiva, přebytečných věcí apod. Při bombardování nebo během přírodní pohromy (tornádo) mohou sloužit též jako úkryt.


Early life and family.

Henri Cochet was born on 14 December 1901 in Villeurbanne to Gustave Cochet and Antoinette Gailleton. His father was a groundkeeper at a Lyonnaise tennis club where Henri worked as a ball boy and thus had a chance to practise for free. He began playing at the age of eight along with his sister. The president of the club, a silk-factory owner and French-ranked player Georges Cozon, recognized his talent and volunteered to coach him. He entered his first local tournament in 1920 where he

Tennis career.

First Amateur career (1922-1933).

1922.

In February 1922 Cochet traveled to the World Covered Court Championships in Saint Moritz in Switzerland where he defeated Borotra in a five-set final and formed a team with him to gain the doubles trophy against Jacques Brugnon and Marcel Dupont. He clinched a triple crown feat at the 1922 World Hard Court Championships in Brussels defeating Count Manuel de Gomar in the singles final and triumphing in the doubles events, partnering Jean Borotra and Suzanne Lenglen respectively. After his success abroad

1923.

In February 1923 Cochet retained his World Covered Court Championships title, defeating John B. Gilbert in the final

1924.

On 1 April 1924 Cochet met René Lacoste in the championships match for the Beausite trophy of Cannes and beat his compatriot in straight sets. At the 1924 Summer Olympics Cochet won the silver medal in both the singles

1925.

Due to his business affairs and injuries Cochet missed some of the 1925 season, while he kept his French first place shared with Borotra. The French International Championships of that year marked the

1926.

In January Cochet defeated Henry Mayes for the New Courts of Cannes Championships and repeated this feat on the first day of February in the final of the Gallia L.T.C. of Cannes tournament. In March for his first Menton crown he engaged in a five set battle against Hungarian champion Béla von Kehrling and prevailed. Cochet again came short to win a triple crown the following week at the Parc Impérial where despite winning both doubles with Julie Vlasto and Italian champion Umberto de Morpurgo he dropped the singles to his latter doubles partner. A week later at the Côte d'Azur Championships

1927.

Cochet began his 1927 training in Cannes in January by collecting back-to-back series of French Riviera cups, including a triple crown victory at the Métropole Club and Carlton Club, and a doubles at the New Courts L.T.C. He continued with a triple crown at Gallia L.T.C. also in Cannes and a second triple feat at the Nice Lawn Tennis Club. Cochet triumphed at the doubles events at the Hotel Bristol of Beaulieu in mid-February. In Marseilles he was upset by Christian Boussus in the semi-finals. In April at the Championnats de la Côte Basque of Pau he overcame Eduardo Flaquer in singles, and with Jacques Brugnon finished second behind the Spanish duo of Flaquer and Raimundo Morales-Marquez, while the mixed went also to Cochet and Germaine le Conte. In June the Four Musketeers held their second all-French doubles final of the 1927 French Championships where Cochet and Brugnon beat Borotra and Lacoste.  All these achievements were a prelude to the 1927 Wimbledon Championships where in successive rounds fourth-seeded Cochet defeated two leading Americans Frank Hunter and Bill Tilden and finally Jean Borotra in

1928.

1928 was the first year of Cochet's hegemony of the world rankings. He was listed first followed by René Lacoste and Bill Tilden. This was the result of his overall season, that as usual commenced on the French Riviera. Prior to that he was drafted into a Queen's Club – Sporting Club de Paris warm-up team challenge. He contributed to the Parisian victory with two mixed and a singles win. The following month he swept almost all available Riviera titles from February to March. He kicked off the tour by winning his first mixed New Courts L.T.C title with his U.S. Championships partner Eileen Bennett. In February he successfully defended his Métropole Club and Gallia L.T.C. singles titles by defeating Henry Mayes twice in a row. In the Monaco Cup at the La

1929.

The 1929 season did not begin as flawless as the previous one; on 20 January Jean Borotra beat Cochet in their first ever Belgian Covered Courts tournament final, which took five sets to decide. Cochet won the Gallia tournament for the fourth time and the Monte Carlo Cup for the second time, eliminating Italian aces Giorgio de Stefani in the semi-final and Umberto de Morpurgo for the former championships and de Morpurgo again for the latter. He also defended his Monaco mixed title for the first time and the Butler Cup for the third. But he lost in Roubaix and in Biarritz to Christian Boussus (5th in French rankings) and Pierre Henri Landry (7th in French rankings) respectively, which raised concerns and let to newspaper speculation about a loss of form. In Berlin at the Rot-Weiss Club Tournament he defeated Roderich Menzel in the singles event and clinched the doubles with Jacques Brugnon. His only loss

1930.

In early 1930 Cochet decided to rest and only compete in doubles contests. He won at Gallia L.T.C., Carlton L.T.C. (also in mixed doubles with Elizabeth Ryan), Biarritz, La Baule mixed doubles with Ryan. His only singles loss came at the Belgian International Championship to Jean Borotra. His most successful French Championships came in this year when he was close to winning a triple crown after being victorious in singles over Bill Tilden, in doubles with Jacques Brugnon over Harry Hopman and James Willard and was a finalist in the mixed tournament as well. At the 1930 Wimbledon Championships he was seeded first but made an early exit after his straight-set loss to Wilmer Allison in the quarterfinals. In the doubles Cochet—Brugnon

1931.

In 1931 Cochet retained the Carlton L.T.C. doubles with Brugnon. In March he defeated George Lyttleton-Rogers for his third Monaco Cup crown. With Eileen Bennett Whittingstall they were crowned the mixed victors. Cochet became the Danish Covered Courts champion for the first time after defeating Danish national champion Einer Ulrich in Copenhagen. He won the mixed contest as well with Simone Barbier. He was invited by his hometown club F.C. Lyon to an interclub match with German Uhlenhorster Klipper. Cochet won all three of his matches. In the Moncean Club

1932.

During 1932 Cochet restricted his schedule to appearances at Monaco Cups, the French Championships, Wimbledon, U.S. National Championships and the Davis Cup and a minor tournament in Paris. In Monaco the Butler Trophy were won by Cochet and Jacques Brugnon over the Czechoslovakian duo of Roderich Menzel and Ferenc Marsalek. The mixed doubles was granted to Cochet and Colette Rosambert following the retirement of Béla von Kehrling and Elizabeth Ryan prior to the match due to the leg pain of Ryan. After that good start Cochet was ranked number one by Pierre Gillou right ahead of Ellsworth Vines and Bunny Austin.  In early June he won his fifth and last French Championships, beating Giorgio de Stefani in the final in four sets. Cochet also won his third doubles French Championships, this time with Jacques Brugnon. In the mixed event he reached the last four partnering Eileen Whittingstall and came up short against Fred Perry and Betty Nuthall. His combined record-breaking ten French titles of the 17 title matches are the most possessed by a male player.

1933.

In June 1933 Cochet, seeded first, relinquished his French Championships title to Australian Jack Crawford, who overwhelmed him in the final in three straight sets, becoming the first non-French player to possess it. In July the French team lost the Davis Cup for the first time since 1927. In front of their home crowd on the clay courts of Roland Garros, but without Lacoste and Borotra, the French team lost 3–2 to Great Britain. Cochet was defeated by Fred Perry and won against Bunny Austin, both in five sets. At the 1933 Wimbledon Championships first-seeded Vines conquered Cochet, who was seeded third, in straight sets in the semi-final. It was the third time in a row that Vines beat Cochet. These events marked the end of the Four Musketeers era.

Professional career (1933–1939).

1933.

On 9 September 1933 Cochet turned professional, signing a contract with the Tilden Tennis Tour for a guaranteed annual payment of £25,000 and he joined the team of Bill Tilden and Martin Plaa. Although he was still featured on the amateur world rankings published on the 20th of the month, where he was listed one spot behind

1934.

In early 1934 Cochet went on to showcase in Santiago and Vina del Mar, where he was challenged by the Pilo Facondi and Perico Facondi brothers, Chile's leading professionals, who both lost two matches each against Cochet. Plaa and Cochet returned in February to the Madison Square Garden where Vines and Tilden were already practising and waiting for them. In New York, Vines and Tilden outclassed Cochet in a four and five-set match respectively and the Americans were victorious in the doubles over the French pair as well. During the ten-city tour across the United States and Canada, the Tilden-Cochet match was always the main fixture. Tilden finished the tour as winner by an eight to two head-to-head margin against Cochet. In April in Providence Cochet was drawn to play Vincent Richards in singles and with Plaa played Barnes and Richards, both matches resulted in a French two straight

1935.

Cochet spent most of 1935 with a promotional tour across the globe, sponsored by the French government, which included Egypt, India, East Indies, Singapore, the Philippines, Vietnam, China and its final destination Australasia. At the Milton Courts in Brisbane his invited opponent

1936.

In 1936 Cochet had a second chance to regain his spotlight when he was first seeded French Pro Championship after Bill Tilden and Bruce Barnes failed to show up due to travel issues. Cochet had a clean march to the final beating Martin Plaa on the way and faced Robert Ramillon for the title. In the end he celebrated his first Pro Major triumph since leaving the amateur class.

1937.

In June 1937 he did not succeed in defending his French Pro title as Hans Nüsslein took it from him in three sets. The doubles final was played between Stoefen–Tilden and Cochet-Ramillon with the former team crowned champions in the end. Cochet then repeated the Soviet tour and

1938.

1938 was spent mostly with Cochet-Tilden headlined trips to Asia and Ireland. Cochet also returned to the Soviet Union

1939.

In the last pre-World War II year Cochet's pro status allowed him to accept the request of the Hungarian Davis Cup team to become its trainer. He was then invited to the World Pro Championships, which was held at the Roland Garros in June–July. Cochet and Tilden were on the same half of the draw and it set up a quarter-final clash which Cochet was forced out of the tournament in five sets. He and Ramillon had a shot at the doubles title but they came short against pro newcomer Don Budge and veteran Ellsworth Vines.

During Second World War (1939–1945).

In 1940 France was overrun by Nazi Germany and for a brief period of time Cochet fell into war captivity. After his release he was not allowed to leave the country. He launched his own sporting goods store in Paris and lived on a farm in the outskirts. He gave tennis broadcasts, and accepted the Vichy government's offer to head its youth tennis program and after that to become a sports commissioner, who organized sport programmes for the deported French armament workers. In December 1940 the first open tennis tournament, combining amateur and professional players, was organized in Paris where Cochet lost to Paul Féret. In December 1941 he regained his amateur status granted

Last amateur years (1945–1958).

Post-war tennis life resumed at the 1945–46 International Christmas Tournament of Barcelona where Yvon Petra dismissed Cochet in four sets. They reunited for the doubles event, which went to the home favorite duo of Jaime Bartroli and Pedro Masip. At the time Cochet was the coach of Petra. In January the following year he reached the doubles final of the Estoril International Tournament partnering Robert Abdesselam. They met in singles competition in March at the Egypt International Championships where Cochet outplayed Abdesselam in straight sets. In July he celebrated his first Dutch championships title at Noordwijk with an overwhelming victory over Eustace Fannin. In 1948 a rivalry emerged between him and Spaniard Masip. They met in the French Covered Court Championship final where it took five sets to decide the outcome in favor of Masip. Also in Paris in April

Personal life.

Cochet married Germaine Desthieux on 16 April 1926. He taught her how to play tennis and later entered minor tournaments together. Apart from playing tennis Cochet was an amateur ice-hockey player. He ran a sporting goods store in Paris. Cochet

Pro Slam finals.

French

Singles performance timeline.

Cochet was banned from competing in the amateur Grand Slams when he joined the professional tennis circuit in 1933.

Henri Jean Cochet (; 14 December 1901 – 1 April 1987) was a French tennis player. He was a world No. 1 ranked player, and a member of the famous "Four Musketeers" from France who dominated tennis in the late 1920s and early 1930s.

Henri Cochet (14. prosince 1901, Villeurbanne – 1. dubna 1987 v Paříži) byl francouzský tenista. Mezi jeho největší úspěchy patří tituly ve dvouhře na grandslamových turnajích French Open (1922, 1926, 1928, 1930, 1932), Wimbledonu (1927, 1929) a US Open (1928), zisk titulu ve čtyřhře na French Open (1927, 1930, 1932 v mužské čtyřhře, 1928, 1929 ve smíšené), Wimbledonu (1927, 1929) a U.S. Open (1928 v mužské, 1927 ve smíšené). Na olympijských hrách v Paříži v roce 1924 získal stříbro ve dvouhře i mužské čtyřhře.


Background and recording.

The album was recorded from January to June 1984. Sessions typically ran from 10:30 a.m. to around 7 p.m. each day.  The album contains a number of pop songs, which Oldfield had been encouraged by Virgin Records to write, following the success of "Moonlight Shadow" from his previous album, "Crises".  The first track of the album, "To France", features Maggie Reilly on vocals. The second track, "Poison Arrows", seamlessly continues from the ending of "To France" and features Barry Palmer on vocals. According to Oldfield "The Lake" was inspired by his time in time in Switzerland and around Lake Geneva. The rear cover of some issues of the album are titled "Discovery and The Lake".  During 1984 Oldfield and his band embarked on a Europe wide tour in promotion of the album.

2016 reissue.

"Discovery" was re-released in a deluxe edition format on 29 January 2016, as per all previous albums which were originally released on the Virgin label.  The reissue features 2 CDs ("Discovery" and the "1984 Suite") and a DVD featuring 5.1 surround sound mixes. The "1984 Suite" is a compilation album of "Discovery" and Oldfield's other 1984 album, "The Killing Fields". It also features two previously unreleased tracks: "The Royal Mile", which is claimed in some places to be a "newly rediscovered" track from the 1984 period but is simply a slight reworking of "Afghan", which has been available since 1984; and "Zombies (Halloween Special)", a reworking of the song "Poison Arrows" with the original vocals replaced by robotic "Stephen Hawking" style vocals with the lines "Somebody's out to get you" replaced with "Zombies are out to get you".

Recording and instruments.

Around the time of "Discovery" Oldfield had been seen using a Gibson SG Junior and a Les Paul Junior (including a modified 24 fret fretboard), along with a pair of Fender Stratocasters (red and sunburst). Oldfield also used guitar synthesizers on the album, utilising Roland's GR-300 and G-808 controller. The Roland G-88 bass synth controller is heavily used for bass guitar sounds on the album. It is likely that a mandolin made by Scottish-based luthier Mike Vanden is used in "To France". Among the acoustic guitars on the album, an Ovation Adamas was used. Oldfield's main compositional tool for the album was the Fairlight CMI. In addition to using its sequencing abilities he also used it as a sampler, for example with Maggie Reilly's voice on "The Lake".  Barry Palmer and Maggie Reilly did not meet until the album was finished even though they share vocal duties on "Tricks of the Light"; they recorded their vocals separately.

Sleeve photos.

The inner sleeve of the original vinyl LP featured candid photographs taken during the recording sessions. One of the photos, titled "Simon's notes", shows a handwritten list of tracks recorded during the sessions, some of which - such as "T'Sword" - may either have been released under different names or remain unreleased to this day.

Charts.

The album peaked at #3 on Norway's album chart, spending 13 weeks on it. It also peaked at #15 in the UK Albums Chart.

Track listing.

Original LP.

Side one  Side two

2016 Deluxe Edition.

Disc 1 - "Discovery" Remastered  Disc 2 - "The 1984 Suite" CD  Disc 3 - DVD

Cover versions.

The German electronic project Meteor Seven released the track "Signs of Life" featuring a vocal sample from the track "Talk About Your Life". The German techno hard dance band Scooter released a cover of the album track "Talk About Your Life" on their album "Music for a Big Night Out".

Discovery (printed as Discovery & the Lake on the back cover and spine) is the ninth studio album by English multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Mike Oldfield, released on 25 June 1984 on Virgin Records. After his 1983 tour, Oldfield relocated to Villars-sur-Ollon, Switzerland for tax purposes and started work on a new album. While living in Villars, Oldfield also composed the soundtrack to The Killing Fields (1984). Selections from the two were released as "The 1984 Suite", in 2016.

Discovery je deváté studiové album britského multiinstrumentalisty Mika Oldfielda. Vydáno bylo v létě 1984 (viz 1984 v hudbě) a v britském žebříčku v prodejnosti alb se v červenci téhož roku umístilo na 15. příčce. Album bylo nahráno ve Švýcarských Alpách nad Ženevským jezerem poblíž Oldfieldova tehdejšího domova, kde tehdy nějaký čas žil kvůli daním.


Title.

Creator Scott Peters has stated that the series was originally titled "A Light in the Sky", but looking for something unique he decided to "play around with numbers" instead and arrived at "4400" because it "just sounded cool" and "was a very round number with two 4s and two 0s".

Synopsis.

The National Threat Assessment Command (NTAC), a division of the Department of Homeland Security, is in charge of dealing with the return of the 4400. Dennis Ryland is the head of NTAC. Ryland assigns Tom Baldwin and Diana Skouris as the lead team to investigate the 4400. In season 2, Ryland goes to Washington and is replaced by Nina Jarvis. In Season 4 Meghan Doyle takes over as the head of NTAC.  Many of the returnees have trouble getting their lives back on track after being gone from the world for years. More significantly, a small number of the returnees begin to manifest paranormal abilities, such as telekinesis, telepathy and precognition, as well as other "gifts". For example, in the pilot, Shawn Farrell manifests an ability to heal the broken neck of a dead bird, bringing it back to life. In addition, one of the 4400, Lily Moore, has become pregnant between her disappearance and return.  The first-season finale, "White Light", reveals that the 4400 were abducted not by aliens, but by humans from the Earth's future, that Kyle Baldwin was to be their "messenger", and that they were returned to avert a catastrophe.  By the second season, it is revealed that all 4400 have a fictional neurotransmitter, promicin, in their brains, which gives them their powers. The government, afraid of what this large group would do with such power, had secretly been dosing all of the 4400 with a promicin inhibitor, which had worked on most, but not all, of the 4400. One of the inhibitor's side effects is a potentially fatal immune deficiency. The inhibitor is ultimately removed from the 4400 by a dose of promicin extracted by Kevin Burkhoff from the blood of the infant Isabelle, who was never given the inhibitor.  At the beginning of the third season, the Nova Group, a terrorist faction made up of 4400s, emerges. Originally formed as a "defensive" group in the aftermath of the promicin-inhibitor scandal, the Nova Group eventually carries out numerous terrorist attacks against the government and NTAC. The group is responsible for many terrorist attacks including the assassination of the men involved with the promicin-inhibitor conspiracy; the attempted assassination of Ryland; the framing of Baldwin for murder; and the driving of another person to insanity.  During the third and fourth season, it is revealed that only a certain faction from the future wants to see history changed. Another faction, which prefers the status quo, opposes the 4400, and has sent their own operatives, including Isabelle Tyler and "the Marked", into the past. The exact motives of both factions have not yet been revealed.  Eventually, Jordan Collier, a returnee who declares himself the savior of humanity, makes promicin shots available to the general public. However, only half of the human population can actually tolerate promicin, and thus develop superhuman abilities, while the other half die upon taking the shot. Although the government outlaws promicin use, thousands of previously ordinary people have developed superhuman abilities, severely complicating NTAC's task. Collier later annexes a part of Seattle and transforms it into "Promise City", a self-proclaimed paradise open to all people with superhuman abilities. The US government attempts to reclaim Promise City but meets with little success.  At the conclusion of the series, Danny Farell's uncontrolled ability exposed some of the residents of Seattle to promicin, resulting in about 9,000 deaths and as many newly empowered humans, while at the same time forcing the remains of NTAC (now themselves mostly promicin-positive) to ask Jordan Collier and his followers (as the only group immune to the 50% chance of death from exposure) to become the "de facto" government of Seattle. The series ended with a cliffhanger, with Collier pledging to build the future he had promised, while the government watches uneasily as Collier's militia remains in control of Seattle, now known as Promise City.

Promicin.

In the series, promicin is a fictional neurotransmitter the human body produces that controls and regulates bodily functions. In the 4400, it enables every member to use parts of the cerebellum no human has previously used. This is the cause of the new abilities in each returnee. Promicin's behavior and effects are unpredictable, potentially giving any ability. However, as part of a government conspiracy, every 4400 is regularly injected with a promicin-inhibitor, suppressing their potential new abilities.  Since the government ceases injecting promicin inhibitor, every 4400 develops an ability.  Dr. Kevin Burkhoff devises a way to artificially create 4400 abilities through a series of promicin injections, using himself as a test subject, giving him regenerative abilities. However, the government finds out about this breakthrough and builds up its own stockpile of a much purer promicin (extracted from Isabelle Tyler), which they in turn use to create at least one group of soldiers with 4400 abilities, as demonstrated by the government's attack on Promise City. Jordan Collier steals the government's supply, and begins distributing it via human couriers to anyone who wants the shot.  An injection of promicin has a 50% chance of either killing the person taking the injection (by way of an aneurysm) or giving them a 4400 ability. In the fourth season, Dr. Burkhoff claims to have discovered how promicin interacts with the body, thus being able to predict whether a person will survive the shot or not. It is explained that nine out of ten left-handed people who take the shot survive. In the brain there is a small part called the corpus callosum. It is essentially a bundle of neural fibres that connects the two hemispheres and it is usually slightly larger in left-handed people than it is in right-handed people. That is why left-handed people survive; the size of that part of the brain helps determine whether or not a person will be able to integrate a new neurotransmitter. With further research, Dr. Burkhoff believes a simple CAT scan will be able to tell how anyone's body will react to a promicin shot.  There exists a substance that can eliminate all traces of promicin in the human body, effectively robbing the injected individual of any 4400 powers and in addition making this person allergic to promicin. The identity and makeup of this substance is not stated, and the only known source of it so far is from the future. A second method also exists for removing promicin from non-4400 humans, through the promicin-neutralizing ability of Jordan Collier.  There also appears to be a substance that can counteract the anti-promicin's effects as Tom Baldwin, during his time as a member of the "Marked", uses this substance to help Isabelle Tyler regain her powers by removing her promicin allergy. Like the anti-promicin, this substance appears to be from the future.  As discovered by Marco in the episode The Starzl Mutation; Seattle Presbyterian Hospital started using a flawed radiation machine to treat their cancer patients in 1969. The microswitches that controlled the machine were not functioning properly, so the doses were incorrect. This went on for just under five years. Once the hospital figured out what they were doing they tested everyone who had ever been exposed to it and in some cases the radiation induced a small mutation. This mutation was a slight alteration of the eleventh chromosome, named the "Starzl mutation" after the manufacturer of the faulty machine.  The mutation is hereditary, meaning people that got it passed it onto their children. The Starzl mutation is both harmless and conserved in those offspring; they live normal healthy lives. While the offspring of a returnee normally do not retain the ability to generate promicin, a second-hand report from John Shaffner (an ex-special ops soldier) suggested that the offspring of a 4400 and a Starzl mutant will be "promicin-positive", meaning they will have abilities. This is believed by Tom Baldwin and Diana Skouris to be the reason why the abductees were returned to the Seattle area - it is the only place they are likely to encounter individuals who possess the Starzl mutation and therefore the only place they are likely to produce children with 4400 abilities.  The promicin-inhibitor "piggybacks on glucose", after entering the brain through facilitated diffusion. It is a binding protein; that is, it binds itself to promicin in the body and neutralizes it. However, if there is no promicin for it to bind to, it remains in the body. Eventually, it builds up to toxic levels in the lymph nodes, damaging the immune system. The result is a chemically induced immunodeficiency.  To counteract the promicin inhibitor, Dr. Burkhoff develops a serum containing Isabelle's pure promicin. This serum neutralizes the charge so the inhibitor is not able to cross membranes and can be flushed out of the body.

Setting.

"The 4400" is set in Seattle, Washington, United States, but actually filmed in the Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, area. Settings include:

Cast and characters.

Recurring guest stars.

In order of first appearance:

Episodes.

"The 4400" ran for four seasons. The first season is presented as a miniseries of five episodes, which aired weekly from July 11, 2004 to August 8, 2004, with a two-hour premier. Seasons two, three and four are each 13-episode seasons (counting the two hour premiers in seasons two and three as two episodes). A special episode, "The 4400: Unlocking the Secrets", aired between seasons two and three, on June 3, 2006, originally on NBC.  Production of the third season was shot in Vancouver until July 26, 2006. The third season premiered June 11, 2006, with 4.2million viewers tuning in. Executive Producer Ira Steven Behr described season three as "bigger and more mythic. It feels like 26 episodes instead of 13 because we're cramming so much stuff in". Billy Campbell, the actor who plays Collier, took most of season three off to sail around the world, returning in the final four episodes.  Production of the fourth and final season began in early 2007 for a mid-year premiere, returning with the episode "The Wrath of Graham".

Production.

On September 14, 2000, "Variety" reported that American Zoetrope, an independent film production company owned by the family of filmmaker Francis Ford Coppola, had made two television production deals; one of them being made with Viacom to produce full-length television series, having themselves been in the television production industry before with miniseries and made-for-television films like "Dark Angel" and "Moby Dick" and already produced their first full-length series "First Wave" for Space in Canada and the Sci-Fi Channel in the United States. "The 4400" was the only product to ever come out of the American Zoetrope/Viacom deal, as Viacom would split at the start of 2006 into CBS Corporation and a new Viacom, the former of which took over Viacom's place as co-producer of the series.  The theme song of the show is "A Place in Time", written by Robert Phillips and Tim Paruskewitz and performed by Amanda Abizaid. All seasons are filmed in high-definition with closed captioning. USA Network broadcast episodes after season one in fullscreen 480i; the DVD releases contain the episodes in their native widescreen format.  NBC/Universal created several sites targeted at fictional members of the 4400 universe:  Subsequent to the cancellation of the series, these web sites were allowed to lapse and none of them are active any further. Most of them have now been parked.

Cancellation.

Writer and co-creator Scott Peters announced on December 18, 2007, that due to the ongoing Writers Guild of America strike, budgetary problems, and lower-than-anticipated ratings, "The 4400" had been cancelled and would not be returning for a fifth season, despite the fourth season's cliffhanger ending.

Soundtrack.

The soundtrack to "The 4400" was released on May 8, 2007 by Milan Records and includes music from the first three seasons, as follows: "Note: The last track does not appear in the series. Although not included on the soundtrack, "Life for Rent" by Dido was used in the episode "The Gospel According to Collier". The song "Where Is My Mind?" by the Pixies was later used in the series finale."

Home media.

The first season was released on blu-ray in Germany during August 2017, with the remaining seasons releasing in the subsequent months.

Reception.

"The 4400" received positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 95% approval rating.

Reboot.

In November 2018, it was announced that a reboot of "The 4400" was in development at The CW. Taylor Elmore and Craig Sweeny, the latter having worked on the original series throughout its entire run as a writer and later as a supervising producer, will write and serve as executive producers of the "reimagined" series through their deals with the original series' producer, CBS Television Studios. Elmore will serve as showrunner should the project move forward. In February 2019, it was reported that the project would roll over to the next development cycle to allow Elmore and Sweeny to finish the pilot script.

The 4400 (pronounced "the forty-four hundred") is a science fiction television series produced by CBS Paramount Network Television in association with BSkyB, Renegade 83, and American Zoetrope for USA Network in the United States and Sky One in the United Kingdom. The show was created and written by Scott Peters and René Echevarria, and it starred Joel Gretsch and Jacqueline McKenzie. The series ran for four seasons from 2004 until its cancellation in 2007.

4400 (v anglickém originále The 4400) je americký sci-fi seriál stanice USA Network. Premiéry epizod byly vysílány od roku 2004 do ukončení seriálu v roce 2007.


Biography.

Van Aelst was born in Delft to a family of prominent city magistrates. He learned to paint from his uncle, the still-life painter Evert van Aelst. On 9 November 1643 he enrolled as a master of the Guild of Saint Luke at Delft.  Between 1645 and 1649 he lived in France. In 1649 Van Aelst travelled to Florence, where he served as court painter to Ferdinando II de' Medici, grand duke of Tuscany. Here he was known as "Guillielmo d'Olanda". At this time, the grand duke also employed two fellow Dutchmen Matthias Withoos and Otto Marseus van Schrieck, the latter also a still-life painter who probably influenced Van Aelst's style. Ferdinando II publicly presented Van Aelst with a gold chain and medal, as a testimony of his approbation and an acknowledgement of his talents.  It has been conjectured that Van Aelst visited Rome where he became a member of the Bentvueghels, an association of mainly Dutch and Flemish artists active in Rome. This conjecture is based, not very convincingly, on his practice during the years 1657/58 to sign his works with his name followed by: ‘alias (and a drawn stick figure)'. Some interpreted this as a reference to a Bent name (the nickname that a member of the Bentvueghels would adopt) – De Vogelverschrikker (Dutch for'scarecrow')- but there are no documents confirming this.  In 1656 he returned to the Netherlands to settle permanently in Amsterdam. He became one of the most prominent still-life painters of his generation, which allowed him to live on the Prinsengracht. He must have at Amsterdam died in 1683 or shortly thereafter, as his latest dated work is from that year. Van Aelst taught Rachel Ruysch, Isaac Denies, Maria van Oosterwijck, and Ernst Stuven.

Legacy.

Van Aelst has paintings in public collections including thirteen paintings in public collections in the United Kingdom.

Willem van Aelst (16 May 1627 – buried 22 May 1683) was a Dutch Golden Age artist who specialized in still-life painting with flowers or game.

Willem van Aelst (16. května 1627, Delft – 1683 nebo později, Amsterdam) byl nizozemský malíř, který se specializoval na zobrazení nejrůznějších zátiší.


Biography.

The major part of the biographical information known about Dominic Savio comes from his biography written by John Bosco, in addition to the testimonies given by Savio's family and friends.

Early life.

On 2 April 1842 in the village of Riva, from the town of Chieri, in Piedmont, northern Italy a son was born to Carlo and Brigitta Savio. He was given the name Domenico at baptism. The name "Domenico" means "of the Lord" and the surname "Savio" means "wise". His parents had ten children in all. His father was a blacksmith and his mother, a seamstress. They were poor, hardworking and pious.  When he was two years old, his parents returned to their native place at Murialdo on the outskirts of Castelnuovo d'Asti and from where they had gone to Riva in 1841. His parents took great care to give him a Christian upbringing. By the age of four, Dominic was able to pray by himself and was occasionally found in solitude, praying. John Bosco records that Savio's parents recollect how he used to help his mother around the house, welcome his father home, say his prayers without being reminded, (even reminding others when they forgot) and say Grace at mealtimes unfailingly.

At the village school.

Fr. Giovanni Zucca from Murialdo, who was then the chaplain at Murialdo when Dominic was five years old, notes in a statement to John Bosco that he came to notice Dominic due to his regular church attendance with his mother, and his habit of kneeling down outside the church to pray (even in the mud or snow) if he happened to come to Church before it had been unlocked in the morning. The chaplain also notes that Savio made good progress at the village school not merely due to his cleverness, but also by working hard. He would not join the other boys in doing something that he believed to be morally wrong and would explain "why" he thought a particular deed was wrong.  At the age of five, he learned to serve Mass, and would try to participate at Mass every day as well as go regularly to Confession. Having been permitted to make his First Communion at an early age, he had much reverence for the Eucharist.

First Communion.

At that time, it was customary for children to receive their First Communion at the age of twelve. (Pope Pius X would later lower this age to seven) After initial hesitation, and subsequent consultation with other priests, the parish priest agreed to permit Dominic to receive his First Communion at the age of seven, since he knew the catechism and understood something of the Eucharist. He spent much time praying and reading in preparation, asking his mother's forgiveness for anything he might have done to displease her and then went to Church. In his biography of Dominic Savio, John Bosco devotes a chapter to tell of Dominic's First Communion. He says that several years later, whenever Dominic talked of the day of his First Communion, he said with joy: ""That was the happiest and most wonderful day of my life."" John Bosco records that on the day of his First Communion, Dominic made some promises which he wrote in a "little book", and re-read them many times. John Bosco once looked through Dominic's book, and he quotes from it the promises that he made:

At the county school.

For secondary education, Dominic had to go to another school and it was decided that he would go to the County School at Castelnuovo, three miles (5 km) from his home. (Castelnuovo d' Asti, now Castelnuovo John Bosco, was the birthplace of another contemporary of John Bosco, Joseph Cafasso, also a saint. He was four years the senior of John Bosco, and was Bosco's mentor and advisor.)  Now ten years old, Dominic walked daily to and from school. In his biography of Dominic Savio, John Bosco records how a local farmer once asked Dominic, on a hot sunny day, if he was not tired from walking, and received the reply: "Nothing seems tiresome or painful when you are working for a master who pays well." Don Bosco also notes that Dominic refused to go swimming with his friends since Dominic considered that in such a situation, it would be "also easy to offend God", he believed that on a previous occasion his friends behaved in, what was to him, a vulgar manner. In his biography Bosco records that Fr. Allora, the head of this school, had this to say about Dominic: "...Hence it may very well be said that he was Savio (wise), not only in name, but in fact, viz., in his studies, in piety, in conversation and his dealing with others, and in all his actions...."

Under John Bosco's mentorship.

Meeting with John Bosco.

It was Fr. Giuseppe Cugliero, Dominic's teacher at school, who gave a high account of him to John Bosco and recommended that Bosco meet him during the Feast of the Rosary, when he would take his boys to Murialdo. Accordingly, accompanied by his father, Dominic met John Bosco on the first Monday in the month of October 1854. John Bosco records this conversation in some detail. He notes that Dominic was eager to go to Turin with John Bosco, and that he wished to become a priest after completing his studies in that town.  To test Dominic's intelligence, Don Bosco gave him a copy of "The Catholic Readings" (pamphlets on the subject of Catholic Apologetics), asking him to recite a particular page by heart and explain its meaning the next day, and then spoke for a while with Dominic's father. Ten minutes later, he found Dominic was beside him reciting the page and explaining its meaning satisfactorily. This meeting was the beginning of their relationship, the result of which was that John Bosco agreed to take Dominic to Turin with him.

At the Oratory of St. Francis de Sales.

John Bosco records that when Dominic arrived at the Oratory, he at once placed himself under his guidance. He also notes that Dominic worked diligently and followed the school rules. He would happily listen to talks and sermons (even if they tended to be lengthy at times), and would, without hesitation, ask for clarification on points that were not clear to him. John Bosco also notes how Dominic was obedient to his teachers and chose his companions carefully.  This happened in 1854, when, in Rome, the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary was being defined. Preparations for the observation of this feast were thus going on at the Oratory. Don Bosco records that, at the advice of his confessor, Dominic renewed his First Communion promises at the altar of Mary at the Oratory. Bosco says that, from this point the result of Dominic's attempts towards holy life were so apparent, that he (John Bosco) took to recording the various incidents that occurred for future reference.  John Bosco's mother, who was called "Mamma Margaret" remarked to him of Dominic, ""You have many good boys, but none can match the good heart and soul of Dominic Savio. I see him so often at prayer, staying in church after the others; every day he slips out of the playground to make a visit to the Blessed Sacrament. When he is in church he is like an angel living in Paradise.""

Resolve to become a saint.

Around six months after Dominic had come to the Oratory, he had the occasion to listen to a talk on sainthood. John Bosco records that the talk had three main points that impressed Dominic:  This inspired Dominic to take a conscious decision to become a saint. The immediate result of this was that, not being sure how to live a saintly life, and worried about it, he was quiet and worried for the next few days. Noticing this, John Bosco spoke to Dominic and advised him to resume his customary cheerfulness, persevere in his regular life of study and religious practices, and especially not neglect being with his companions in games and recreation. On learning that his first name meant "belonging to God", his desire to be a saint intensified. Dominic's spiritual growth progressed under the guidance of Don Bosco. Clifford Stevens says in his biography of Savio, ""In other circumstances, Dominic might have become a little self-righteous snob, but Don Bosco showed him the heroism of the ordinary and the sanctity of common sense.""

Attempts to do penances.

In his desire to become a saint, Dominic attempted to perform physical penances, like making his bed uncomfortable with small stones and pieces of wood, sleeping with a thin covering in winter, wearing a hair shirt, and fasting on bread and water. When his superiors (i.e., John Bosco, or his Rector, or his confessor) came to know this, they forbade him from doing bodily mortification, as it would affect his health.  John Bosco told Dominic that as a schoolboy, the best penance would be to perform all his duties with perfection and humility, and that obedience was the greatest sacrifice. Thus, Dominic formed an important aspect of his philosophy of life, which was, in his words, "I can't do big things but I want everything to be for the glory of God." Don Bosco notes that from that time on, Dominic did not complain about the food or the weather, unlike some other boys at the Oratory, bore all suffering cheerfully, and practised custody of his eyes and tongue. Eugenio Ceria, a Salesian commentator on the autobiography of John Bosco, ("Memoirs of the Oratory of Saint Francis de Sales") notes that by this time, owing to his experience as an educator, John Bosco's ideas on several pedagogical and spiritual principles were well developed and linked and this led him to associate the fulfillment of daily duties with holiness in his advice to Savio.

The Immaculate Conception Sodality.

The definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary influenced Dominic and he was anxious to create at the school a lasting reminder of this event. He now felt that he had not long to live. With the help of his friends, he started a group called the "Sodality of Mary Immaculate", the main aim of which was to be to obtain the special protection of Mary during life and at the time of death. The means Dominic proposed to this end were: (1) to honour, and to bring others to honour, Mary by different means, and (2) to encourage frequent Communion. On 8 June, he and his friends read out together before the altar of Mary at the Oratory, the set of rules they had drawn up. There were twenty-one articles (which were recorded by John Bosco in his biography), ending with an appeal to Mary for her assistance. These were submitted to the rector, and, after careful perusal, he gave his approval, under certain conditions. One of the members of this Sodality, Giuseppe Bongioanni, (who was later ordained a priest) was later to found the "Sodality of the Blessed Sacrament", which became a traditional sodality in Catholic schools.

Preparation for a holy death.

All the pupils under John Bosco observed a monthly event called "The Exercise of a Happy Death"; this practice continues under the name "The Monthly Day of Recollection". This practice was encouraged by Pope Pius IX. Part of this was to make a Confession and Communion as though they were the last ones to be made before death. Bosco notes that Dominic observed this practice devoutly, and that one day, Dominic said that he would be the first amongst the group to die. During the month of May, before his death, the intensity of his spiritual practices increased. John Bosco notes that he said, "Let me do what I can this year; if I am here next year I'll let you know what my plans are."

Failing health.

Dominic's health was steadily deteriorating, but he spent most of his time with his friends, talking with them, and encouraging those who were experiencing troubles. He also helped at the school infirmary whenever his companions were admitted. On the recommendation of doctors, Dominic was sent home to recover from his ill health, but a few days later Bosco found him back at the Oratory. Despite his affection for Dominic, and his wish to allow Dominic to remain at the Oratory, John Bosco decided to follow the recommendation of the doctors, especially since Dominic had developed a severe cough and he wrote to Dominic's father, fixing the date of his departure on 1 March 1857. Though Dominic said that he wanted to spend his last days at the Oratory, he accepted this decision and spent the evening before his departure at John Bosco's side, discussing spiritual matters. (Bosco recorded a part of this conversation in his biography of Dominic). On the morning of his departure, Don Bosco notes that Dominic made the "Exercise of a Happy Death" with great zeal, even saying that this would be his final such devotion. He said his farewell to John Bosco, asking as a keepsake that Bosco add his name to the list of those who would participate in the Plenary Indulgence that John Bosco had received from the Pope, to which John Bosco readily agreed. He then took leave of his friends with great affection, which surprised them, for his illness was not considered by many of his companions to be serious.

Death.

In his first four days at home his appetite decreased and his cough worsened; this prompted his parents to send him to the doctor, who, at once, ordered bed rest. Inflammation was diagnosed, and as was the custom at that time, the doctor decided to perform bloodletting. The doctor cut Dominic's arm ten times in the space of four days and it is now considered that this probably hastened his death. In his biography, John Bosco records that Dominic was calm throughout the procedure. The doctor assured his parents that the danger had passed and now it only remained for him to recuperate. Dominic, however, was sure that his death was approaching, and asked that he be allowed to make his Confession and receive Communion. Though they thought it unnecessary, his parents sent for the parish priest who heard Dominic's confession and administered the Eucharist.  After four days, despite the conviction of the doctor and his parents that he would get better, Dominic asked that he be given the Anointing of the Sick in preparation for death. Again, his parents agreed, to please him. On 9 March, he was given the papal blessing and he said the "Confiteor". Don Bosco records that throughout these days, he stayed serene and calm. On the evening of 9 March 1857, after being visited by his parish priest, he asked his father to read him the prayers for the "Exercise of a Happy Death" from his book of devotions. Then he slept a while, and shortly awakened and said in a clear voice, "Goodbye, Dad, goodbye... what was it the parish priest suggested to me... I don't seem to remember... Oh, what wonderful things I see...". With these words, Dominic died, though, at first, it appeared to his father that he was asleep. Dominic's father wrote in a letter to John Bosco, conveying the news of the death of his son,  With my heart full of grief I send you this sad news. Dominic, my dear son and your child in God, like a white lily, like Aloysius Gonzaga, gave his soul to God on 9 March after having received with the greatest devotion the Last Sacraments and the Papal Blessing.

Notable incidents in the life of Dominic Savio.

In order to give the reader a well rounded picture of Dominic's personality Don Bosco recorded several incidents from Dominic's life in his biography.

Before he joined the Oratory.

At the school at Mondonio.

Don Bosco records this from the testimony of Fr Giuseppe Cugliero. One day, in the absence of his teacher, two of Dominic's classmates stuffed the room-heating iron stove with snow and rubbish as a prank. Fearing expulsion, they blamed Dominic. Fr. Cugliero soundly berated Dominic in front of the class and Dominic bore this silently. The following day, the true culprits were discovered. On being asked why he had remained silent, Dominic replied that he had thought that he would be let off with a scolding whereas the other boys might have been expelled. Dominic added that Jesus had remained silent when blamed unjustly and that he was trying to imitate him. Mary Reed Newland, in her book, suggests that, since Dominic was yet to meet John Bosco, this incident is indicative of the upbringing his parents had given him.

At the Oratory.

Resolves a conflict.

At the Oratory, two of his friends had a disagreement and decided to fight each other by throwing stones. As they were older and stronger than Dominic (he had been promoted from first form to second form ) physical intervention was not possible. He tried to reason with them but with no positive result. Thus, on the day of the fight, he went with them to the site where the fight was to take place, and just before they could start, he placed himself between them, and holding up his crucifix, requested that they throw their first stones at him. Ashamed, the two boys gave up their fight. Dominic then persuaded them to go to Confession.

Custody of the eyes.

John Bosco records that once a boy who was visiting had brought with him a "magazine with bad pictures", and a group of fascinated boys were looking. On finding out, Dominic snatched the magazine and tore it up, saying, "You know well enough that one look is enough to stain your souls, and yet you go feasting your eyes on this."

Influence over his friends.

John Bosco records that Dominic spent a lot of time with his friends, encouraging them in their devotions, discouraging those with a habit of swearing, and teaching Catechism at Sunday School. Bosco also records that he would encourage his friends to make frequent use of the sacrament of confession and take Communion regularly, even giving them encouragement and advice in spiritual practices during games. John Bosco makes particular mention of two of Dominic's friends, Camillo Gavio of Tortona, and John Massaglia of Marmorito. (These two friends were dead by the time John Bosco wrote the biography, as he thought it best not to write about the friends of Dominic who were still alive.)

Devotions practised by Dominic.

Don Bosco narrates that before he came to the Oratory, Dominic made his Confession and took Communion once a month. After hearing a homily on the Sacraments, he chose a priest as his regular Confessor, (to whom Dominic made his Confessions until the end of his stay at the Oratory). The regularity with which Dominic approached the sacraments increased and, at the end of that year, as per the advice of his confessor, Dominic was taking Communion daily. He had a special intention for the Eucharist each day of the week. John Bosco notes that, whenever permitted, Dominic eagerly accompanied the priest when he took the Viaticum, and that he also kept the habit of kneeling down in the street if he encountered the Eucharist being carried by a priest, as was the custom in Catholic countries.

Incidents with special spiritual significance.

"Distractions".

John Bosco records that Dominic occasionally had intense experiences during prayer, which Dominic described as such: ""It is silly of me; I get a distraction and lose the thread of my prayers and then I see such wonderful things that the hours pass by like minutes”". On one occasion, he was missing from breakfast and the rector finally found him in the chapel, standing motionless and gazing at the tabernacle. He was not aware that the morning Mass had ended. On another occasion, John Bosco records that he saw Dominic in the chapel, speaking to God, and then waiting, as though listening to a reply.

Special knowledge.

John Bosco narrates how Dominic came to his room one day and urged him to accompany him. He led Bosco through many streets to a block of flats, rang the doorbell, and at once, went away. When the door opened, John Bosco found that within, there was a dying man who was desperately asking for a priest to make his last confession. Later, John Bosco asked Dominic how he had known about that man. However, since the question made Dominic uncomfortable, John Bosco did not press the matter.

The vision of England.

John Bosco records that Dominic once recounted to him a vision he had:  At his last goodbyes, Dominic requested John Bosco to tell the pope of his vision, which he did in 1858. The pope felt that this confirmed the plans he had already made concerning England.

His mother's pregnancy.

On 12 September 1856, Dominic asked John Bosco permission to go home, saying that his mother was ill, though he had received no communication. Dominic's mother was then expecting a baby and was in great pain, and when Dominic reached the house, he hugged and kissed his mother, and then left. His mother felt her pain leave her and Dominic's baby sister, Catherine, was born. The women assisting at the birth found that Dominic had left a green scapular around his mother's neck. His sister Theresa later wore this same scapular when she was in labour. She testified that it had been passed around to several other pregnant women and was later lost.

Charles Savio's vision of Dominic after his death.

The veneration of Dominic Savio grew with an event narrated by his father:

"The Life of Dominic Savio".

Soon after the death of Dominic, John Bosco wrote his biography, "The Life of Dominic Savio", which contributed to his canonisation. The original Italian edition was considered so well written during the time of Don Bosco that, along with his "History of Italy" and "Ecclesiastical History", it was used in many public schools as part of the course materials on the Italian language. Among the other writings of John Bosco are the "Biography of Fr. Joseph Cafasso", "The Life of Francis Besucco" and "The Life of Michael Magone".

Veneration.

Though some were of an opinion that Dominic was too young to be canonised, Pope Pius X insisted that this was not so, and started the process of his canonisation. Dominic Savio was declared Venerable in 1933 by Pope Pius XI, was beatified in 1950 by Pope Pius XII, and declared a saint in 1954. Pope Pius XI described him as "small in size, but a towering giant in spirit."

Memorials.

Schools and other.

United States.

In the saint's honour, there are several schools with his namesake. These include Dominic Savio High School in Austin, Texas, a middle school in Niagara Falls, New York, and in East Boston, Massachusetts, a college preparatory school, Savio Preparatory High School, which closed in 2008. In Tempe, Arizona, St. Dominic Savio Academy is a school for children with autism and related disorders. In Bellflower, CA, St. Dominic Savio School is a Salesian elementary school. In St. Louis, MO, the St. Dominic Savio campus of Holy Cross Academy serves Pre-K through 5th Grade.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, there is a primary school named after him, in Woodley, Berkshire, a secondary school, Savio Salesian College, in Bootle, Merseyside, and Savio House Retreat Centre in Bollington, Cheshire, there is also a special educational needs school in Hambledon, Surrey that is named after Dominic Savio. A former Catholic church in Farnborough, Hampshire (registered between 1967 and 2003) was dedicated to him.

Hong Kong.

In Hong Kong, there is a kindergarten on Hong Kong Island named Dominic Savio Kindergarten.

Ireland.

In Ireland there is a school called Saint Dominics in Kenagh, Co. Longford

India.

In India, there are high schools named after the saint – St. Dominic Savio's High School (http://stdominicsavios.com), in Patna and St. Dominic Savio High School (http://www.stdominicsavio.com) in Mumbai. In Lucknow there in an Intermediate College named after the saint – St. Dominic Savio College. In Chennai TN, there is St. Dominic Savio Matriculation Higher Secondary School and in West Bengal, St. Dominic Savio School, a coeducational school in Howrah. In Kerala, there is Savio English School in Kozhencherry. In the district of Matunga, Mumbai, Savio Kindergarten is attached to Don Bosco High School.

Malta.

In Malta, the presence of the Salesians is felt strongly. In Dingli, Savio College (a secondary boys school for pupils aged 11–15) is dedicated to the saint. Furthermore, a Youth Centre or "Oratorju" (oratory) dedicated to the same saint is found in Birkirkara.

Belgium.

In Belgium, there is a ‘dienstencentrum Gid(t)s’, commonly known as "Dominiek Savio Instituut".

Thailand.

There is a school named after him – Saint Dominic School – in Bangkok.

Indonesia.

In Indonesia, there is a junior high school named Domenico Savio Junior High School, in Semarang.

Philippines.

In the Philippines, there is St. Dominic Savio School of Lapu Lapu City in Lapu Lapu City, Cebu, St. Dominic Savio School Of Kalookan City in Caloocan, St. Dominic School of Kalibo in Aklan, and St. Dominic Savio Learning Center in Parañaque City. There is also a St. Dominic Savio Parish in Mandaluyong City. There is a Dominic Savio St. In Barangay Don Bosco, Better Living Subd, Paranaque City. There is a brass tribute memorial statue together with St. John Bosco and Blessed Laura Vicuña were located in St. John Bosco Parish Church in Makati, and also a colored tribute memorial statue located in Barangay Don Bosco beside PNCC Skyway Bldg. and near SM Bicutan in Parañaque City, Metro Manila.

Australia.

Dominic College is situated in Glenorchy, Tasmania.  Dominic College is the result of the amalgamation of Savio College, Holy Name Secondary School for girls, Savio Primary and St. John's Primary Schools.  The school was formed in 1973 and was the first Co-educational Catholic College in the State of Tasmania. The school has classes from Kindergarten to Year Ten and the Senior Campus amalgamated with other Catholic Secondary Colleges in 1995 to form Guilford Young College.  St. Dominic's College, Penrith, near Sydney, New South Wales, was established as a Christian Brothers college in 1959. Still administered by Edmund Rice Education Australia it is still an independent Catholic all boys school years 7–12.  Savio is a house at Salesian College Chadstone, a year 7–12 boys' school.

Slovakia.

In Slovakia, there are a few elementary schools named after the saint: the Elementary school of Dominic Savio in Zvolen founded in 1992, the Elementary School of Dominic Savio in Dubnica nad Váhom founded in 1991 and the Church Elementary School and Nursery of Dominic Savio in Vranov nad Topľou founded in 1992.

Canada.

There are five St. Dominic Savio Catholic Elementary Schools. One is located in Sainte-Catherine-de-Hatley, Quebec, one is located in Edmonton, Alberta, the other in Regina, Saskatchewan, one in Scarborough, Ontario. and the other in the Waterloo Catholic District School Board in Kitchener, Ontario.

Dominic Savio (; 2 April 1842 – 9 March 1857) was an Italian adolescent student of Saint John Bosco. He was studying to be a priest when he became ill and died at the age of 14, possibly from pleurisy. He is the only person of his age group who was declared a saint not on the basis of his having been a martyr, but on the basis of having lived what was seen as a holy life. He was noted for his piety and devotion to the Catholic faith, and was eventually canonized.

Svatý Dominik Savio (, 2. dubna 1842, Riva presso Chieri, Piemont, Itálie – 9. března 1857, Mondonio, dnes Castelnuovo Don Bosco, Itálie) byl italský dospívající student Jana Bosca. V patnácti letech během svých kněžských studií vážně onemocněl a poté zemřel doma v Mondonii 9. března 1857, pravděpodobně na zánět pohrudnice.